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ATHLETICS
ATHLETICS
BY
D. G. A. LOW E
(PRESIDENT, C.U.A.C., 1924-25)
AND
A. E. POJLRITT
(PRESIDENT, O.U.A.C., 1925-26)
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS
LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
LONDON * NEW YORK I TORONTO
1929
LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. LTD.
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Made in Guat Britain
TO THE
UNIVERSITY ATHLETIC CLUBS
OF
OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE
THE AUTHORS
ARE PERMITTED TO DEDICATE THIS BOOK;
AND THEY DO SO
IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE
OF THE PRIVILEGE OF THEIR MEMBERSHIP
PREFACE
THE appearance of yet another contribution to
the literature of Athletics seems to call for some
explanation in a decade which has witnessed a
considerable output of works on that subject. Simply
to have written another text-book on some particular
branches of the sport would merit criticism ; but we
venture to think that a comprehensive study of the whole
subject is sufficiently original and desirable to justify
the present volume.
Among all the modern books on Athletics there exists
none, as far as we are aware, which treats of the sport
from every angle. It has been our aim to present, in a
way which has not been attempted since Sir Montague
Shearman's classic in the 'eighties, a complete tudy not
only of the technical side of Athletics, including its
application to women and boys, but also of its history
and records. With this object in view the scope of the
present work falls within two main categories. In the
first, we have thought fit to relate the historical develop-
ment of the sport throughout the world, treating such
important topics as the Olympic Games and International
Athletics as distinct phases. In the second, we have
dealt at length with the technique of the sport, and we
fiave rendered each section, whether on running,
jumping or throwing, as authoritative as possible,
It is quite evident, of course, that no two authors,
however experienced or versatile, could write with
personal knowledge of all the many and widely diverse
events which comprise an athletic sports programme.
To overcome this difficulty we sought and obtained
assistance. It has been our great good fortune to secure
the collaboration of two experts in some of the most
technical subjects of which we had to treat. Mr. C. T.
Van Geyzel, holder of the Cambridge, High Jump
viii PREFACE
Record and A.A.A. Champion in 1926, has contributed
the chapter on this event ; and the throwing events have
been dealt with as a whole by Mr. M. C. Nokes, four
times A.A.A. Champion (1923-6) in Throwing the
Hammer and third in the 1924 Olympic Games.
Furthermore, we have to acknowledge our great
indebtedness to Mr. H. M. Abrahams, who most kindly
read the original typescript and out of his wide experience
offered us much valuable criticism ; to many secretaries
of foreign athletic associations who corrected the relevant
lists of records ; and to the Sport and General for the
photographs from which are reproduced many of the
drawings in this book.
These drawings have been deliberately used instead
of photographs in order better to elucidate the text.
They are line drawings composed from actual photo-
graphs, and only the essentials of the particular
movement illustrated are reproduced. They are meant,
in fact, to be purely instructive. They combine strict
accuracy with the excision of all that unnecessary detail
which so often prevents concentration when studying
photographs in conjunction with the text ; and we hope
that their utility will compensate for the absence from
this volume of a more attractive form of illustration.
Finally, at the end of the book will be found the
inevitable list of records, and we have added a few
comparative tables which we hope will not be without
interest. At the same time we have endeavoured to
reduce this record list to the minimum size, believing
that no one save the specialist or record fiend desires
complete and complicated tables. For a similar reason
we have not printed any laws or regulations except
where they are quoted in the text as being relevant to
the subject there dealt with : anyone requiring these
can, of course, obtain them in extenso from the various
Amateur Athletic Associations,
D. G. A. L.
A. E. P.
LONDON, March 1929.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
AUTHORS' PREFACE ...... vii
I. THE HISTORY OF ATHLETICS :
Section i. Ancient ..... 2
2. Mediaeval ..... 7
3. Modern n
II. THE OLYMPIC GAMES :
Section I. Ancient ..... 23
2. Modern ..... 36
III. INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS:
Section I. Europe . . . . . . 53
2. Asia and South America . . . 57
3. The British Dominions ... 59
4. The United States of America . . 61
IV. GENERAL PRINCIPLES .... . . 70
V. TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT :
Section r. Training . . . . . 85
2. Tracks and Impedimenta m
3. Personal Equipment . . . 122
VI. SPRINTING :
Section I. Introduction . . . . .130
2. The Start . . . . .139
3. Striding 148
4. The Finish 154
5. Training 156
6; The 220 Yards . . . .158
VII. MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING :
Section r. General Principles . . . .162
2. The Quarter-mile .... 179
3. The Half-mile . . . .184
4. The 1500 Metres and the Mile . .189
x CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
VIII. DISTANCE RACES:
Section i. Long-distance Running . . .193
2. The Marathon .... 202
3. Cross-country .... 206
4. Steeplechase . . . .210
IX. HURDLING:
Section i; 120 Yards Hurdles . . . 215
2. 220 Yards Hurdles .... 230
3; 440 Yards Hurdles . . . .232
X. JUMPING :
Section i. Long Jump . . . . .234
la. Standing Long Jump . . . 246
2. Hop, Step and Jump . . . 2^7
3. The High Jump, by C. T. Van Geyzel 250
3<*. Standing High Jump . , .261
4. Pole Vault 262
XL THROWING, by M. C. Nokes :
Section I. General Considerations . . .271
2. Shot Putt . . , . . .278
3. Throwing the Hammer . . . 281
4. Throwing the Discus . . .285
5. Throwing the Javelin . . .289
XII. WALKING ....... 293
XIII. RELAY RACING ....... 296
XIV. TUC-OF-WAR 305
XV. ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN AND BOYS :
Section i. Athletics for Women . . 307
2. Athletics for Boys . . . .317
RECORDS AND STATISTICS . . . . 3^5
INDEX 363
PLATE
FOUR GREAT EMPIRE HURDLERS .... Frontispiece
From a photograph by " Sport and General "
CHAPTER 1
THE HISTORY OF ATHLETICS
ONE of the primary instincts of man is to play;
and historians and sociologists early seek out and
observe among the customs of peoples their
methods of recreation, from which in many cases may
be understood much of their psychology and culture.
Games, in fact, not only mould national character, which
is the raison <T$tre for their prominence in modern school
curricula ; they reflect it. Among primitive peoples
there exist scant records of the games in which they
indulged.; but one finds that the pursuit of athletics
in olden days was closely allied with either religion or
military exercises, and it seems probable that sports were
of a distinctly utilitarian nature.
It is not irrational to presume, however, that besides
exercises of a martial order, men cultivated from the
earliest times the natural sports of running, leaping and
throwing, wrestling and fighting, often with no ulterior
object, unless it were, perhaps, a desire for physical
fitness or for the favour of a maid. Indeed, the simple
delight of a man in his own strength and the popular
love of mankind for the sight of physical combat may be
considered sufficient reason for the practice of games,
even among the races of antiquity. And since it was
early found possible to divert the human passion for
recreation into the profitable channels of militarism, it
is not surprising that their practice was encouraged by
those responsible for good government.
ATHLETICS
Section I. Ancient
The earliest extant records relate to the Tailtean
Games, founded in Ireland about 3000 B.C. by Luguid
of the Strong Arm in memory of his beautiful foster-
mother, the Queen Tailte ; and one may observe in
passing that these games were successfully revived in
1924. In the absence of authoritative descriptions, one
can only conjecture that the contests were of a simple
character, designed to foster the warlike spirit of those
dark and distant days ; probably hunting, running,
wrestling and spear-throwing were the principal sports
practised by the ancient Hibernians.
Possessing less antiquity but possibly more authen-
ticity than these somewhat legendary games are the
sports of Egypt and of Asia, although according to
Herodotus only one portion of Egypt subscribed to
athletic exercises. This was at Chemnis, where there
was a temple of Perseus, who was said to have instituted
public games in his honour after the manner of the
Greeks. The popularity of games in the Near East is,
perhaps, evidenced by the frequent references thereto in
the Old Testament, both Isaiah and Jeremiah employing
athletic similes in their writings with great effect. To
the Lydians are attributed the majority of games, such
as dice and ball ; and coming to later times there are
records of athletic games about A.D. 600 forming part
of the annual fair of Okad, in Arabia. The interest
of these ancient games is not in any case particular ;
they are significant as being probably the prototype of
the athletic exercises of ancient Greece, which culminated
in the Olympic Games.
The public games of Greece consisted in athletic
contests and carnivals, which generally formed part of a
religious observance. Their influence upon the national
character and upon the development of art and literature
can scarcely be exaggerated. Not only was it deemed
fitting that the noblest youths should be trained to
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS ANCIENT
compete, but the brilliance of the sculptor and the poet
was also employed to commemorate in stone or verse
the physical and intellectual beauty of the contestants.
Moreover, as will be more fully explained in a later
chapter, these games became a focus in the national life,
providing a common meeting-place for every member of
the Greek race, and affording annual periods of peace
and security.
The earliest games in Greece of which there is any
trustworthy record are those held at the funeral of
Patroclus, described in the 23rd Book of the Iliad.
Probably dating back to noo B.C., they testify quite
definitely to the intimate connection of early games with
religion ; and they reveal the already definite nature of
the programme, which included foot and chariot-racing,
boxing, wrestling and weight-putting.
The subsequent history of the games is obscure until
about 884 B.C., when the games at Olympia, in the plain
of Elis, were reorganised. Thucydides (v. 59) attributes
their restoration to Iphitus, the chronicle running that
on inquiry of the oracle that monarch was advised to
restore the games in order to stamp out the dissensions
by which the country was then torn. In the fulfilment
of the oracle's command the Eleians were strongly sup-
ported by the Spartans, and there is some reason to
suppose that the institution of the sacred truce during
the period of the Olympic Games was inspired by the
great Spartan lawgiver, Lycurgus. Whether this be
so or not, Lycurgus included games in his political
system, and even provided athletic contests for the
young women of Sparta.
In 776 B.C. the Eleians named the games after
Corcebus, winner in the foot-race, which was 192 yards
long ; and thenceforward the victor in this event gave
his name to the Olympiad.
Participation in the games was confined to males of
Hellenic descent who were under the age of thirty-five ;
and women were forbidden even as spectators. It is
3
ATHLETICS
true that at Olympia women were permitted to own
teams of chariot horses ; but all other participation was
denied them, except in the case of the special games in
honour of Hera, in which the Eleian virgins contended.
On the other hand, the Spartans encouraged athletic
contests for maidens ; but unfortunately the result was
an increased laxity of manners and morals.
In the course of time the games considerably extended
their scope, and competitors ultimately came from all
the provinces of Greece, even from Cyrene and Mar-
seilles. The local festival thus became converted into a
bond of union for all the Hellenic race, and attained an
importance sufficient to sustain it until abolished by
Theodosius in the year A.D. 394.
A more complete description of the games is deferred
to a later chapter, and it is sufficient here to mention
the idealism which underlay the Greek conception of
athletics, and which so largely accounts for their signi-
ficance in the development of the character and culture
of that race, and to indicate the forms of sport which
they pursued, as leading up to more modern times.
Despite the caustic comments of men like Euripides
and Thucydides, who rightly perceived the folly of
exaggerating the importance of victory in the games a
habit to which the later Greeks of all classes were un-
fortunately prone, even as are modern athletic " fans "
there was a profound truth underlying the idea that
" the body of man has a glory as well as his intellect
and spirit ; that body and mind should alike be dis-
ciplined ; and that it is by the harmonious discipline of
both that men best honour Zeus." Not only do they
honour Zeus by self-discipline, they learn also the right
to be free and to rule. Upon this ideal of the perfect
man was raised another, that of the free self-governing
community ; and thus the Greeks employed games to
advance their culture and their polity.
For the early Olympiads the dromos y or one lap of
the stadium, a distance of 192 yards, was the only foot-
4
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS ANCIENT
race. It was supplemented in the Fourteenth Olympiad
by the diaulos, or two laps ; and in the Fifteenth by the
dolichoS) about 2f miles. Wrestling was introduced in
the Eighteenth Olympiad, and the pentathlon also,
which consisted of leaping, discus and javelin-throwing,
running and wrestling. In boxing, the use of the
castes, or leather thong bound round the fist, marked the
chief difference from modern practice ; and even this
form of attack was prohibited in the chief event of all,
the pankration> a combination of boxing and wrestling.
The chariot-race, which became so prominent a feature
of the later Roman displays, originated in the Twenty-
third Olympiad, and was held in the hippodrome. And
there were also athletic contests of the same variety for
boys.
Although the Olympic Games were the oldest and
most important athletic contests in ancient Greece,
they were not unrivalled in other parts of the peninsula.
The Pythian Games, held every fourth year at Delphi
in honour of Apollo, date at least from the year 527 B.C.
The Nemean Games, in honour of Zeus, originated in
516 B.C. and were biennial, as were also the Isthmian
Games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth, and dating
from 523 B.C. The importance of the last is evidenced
by the law of Solon, which awarded 100 drachmae to
every Athenian victor ; and their continued popularity in
Christian times is demonstrated by the frequent similes
of St. Paul, notably the famous description of training
and racing in i Cor. ix. 24-27, which was probably
written from Ephesus about A.D. 57. And as throwing
further light on the scrupulously fair conduct of the
games, one may cite the passage in 2 Tim. ii. 5, " If a
man also strive for masteries, yet is he not crowned, except
he strive lawfully. "
One must not omit to mention the oldest Athenian
festival, the Panathenaea. Originally a religious cele-
bration in honour of Athene, it was extended and
ennobled by the conception of Theseus, who, having
5
ATHLETICS
effected the civil union of Attica, judged that only by
a religious union of all the peoples who regarded them-
selves as under the protection of Athene could this
homogeneity be cemented. Subsequently, Peisistratus
made considerable alterations ; the festival was made
quadrennial in order to rival the Olympiads ; and
peculiar contests were arranged. The most interesting
to the athlete was the Lampadedromia, or torch-race at
night, the precursor of the modern relay race, whose
praise is justly sung in a well-known line in ^Eschylus,
" The first is the victor, even though he be last in the
running." It is understood- that it is intended to revive
this festival in 1930.
Curiously enough, the Ludi Publici of the Romans
bear little relation to athletic contests such as form the
subject of this book, and they compare most unfavourably
with those of the Greeks. The Roman populace was
fed upon two things, .bread and the circus ; and it was
the thrill of the chariot-race and its accompanying wagers,
the love of prodigal display, and later the sensuality
attached to the gladiatorial and other combats, which
pandered to the degraded taste of the crowd.
One has only to read the pages of Gibbon (Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire, ii. 333 ; iii. 44) to appreciate
their attitude. He points out (iii. 44) the difference in
the games of antiquity. " The most eminent of the
Greeks were actors, the Romans were merely spectators."
Professional charioteers, professional athletes, took the
place of the high-born competitors of Greece. True,
there had been professionals in Greece as early as the
fifth century B.C., recruited from the lower orders and
pursuing athletics as a means of livelihood ; and this
complete abandonment, with its deleterious effect upon
the mind, had been not unreasonably attacked by
Xenophanes and by Euripides in a fragment of the
AutolycuS) which approximates in meaning to Kipling's
" muddied oafs and flannelled fools," But what the
Greeks admitted to be regrettable the Romans un-
6
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MEDIAEVAL
fortunately admired as an ideal ; and the gladiator was
as a demi-god.
Among the Romans, athletic contests doubtless took
place from the earliest times. At one period the habit
of swimming, running, riding and javelin-throwing was
practised by the Roman youth on the Field of Mars ;
and both the Actian Games, founded 28 B.C., and held
at Rome every four years, and the Imperial Games at
Naples, founded to commemorate the visit of Augustus
in A.D. 14, were celebrated for a time in the same
fashion as the Olympic Games. The Secular Games,
contested every hundred years, followed similar lines ;
but apart from efforts such as those of Augustus
to keep women away from the brutal boxing matches
by ordinance, little was done to prevent the gradual
lowering of the public taste. Wrestling, so popular
among the Greeks, was rare ; the introduction of Greek
professional runners, which according to Livy occurred
about 1 86 B.C., was ultimately to provide the coup de grace
to pure athletics in Rome. Their popularity increased
after the institution of the Actian Games, and their
guilds ranked above those of the gladiators ; but the
profession was derogatory to a Roman, and ere long the
sport sank into the slough of general athletic degeneracy.
Section 2. Medieval
Turning to Western Europe, it is perhaps not sur-
prising to find, among the relatively uncivilised peoples
of Gaul and Britain, that early athletic contests, even as
had been the case in Greece, were directed mainly
towards practical ends. Feats of arms, jousts and
tournaments, archery and exercises with the sword and
rapier, formed the principal recreations, as distinct from
the chase, in mediaeval times.
No doubt the original Celtic inhabitants of Britain
were an athletic race, and reference has already been
made to the Tailtean Games, which were maintained in
7
ATHLETICS
Ireland for many centuries. Although these and other
similar games disappeared under the stress of perpetual
civil war, the Irish ever remained fond of field sports,
and since the revival of organised athletics in the nine-
teenth century their representatives have competed with
remarkable success, both in Britain and America. The
Gaelic people also delighted in feats of strength and
skill, and the Highland Games are of considerable
antiquity.
In Central Europe the Teutons also showed partiality
for games, and mediaeval literature is full of descriptions
of athletic prowess. The well-known story in the
Nibelungenlied (circa A.D. 1200, see Adventure 7, lines
1839 ff.) of how Siegfried, by means of his invisible
mantle, aided King Gunther to win Queen Brunhilde
for his bride, relates that the queen imposed three trials
of strength upon each suitor, death being the penalty for
defeat by her in any of the contests. The three tests,
to give them their modern nomenclature, were throwing
the javelin, putting the weight and long jumping ; and
only Siegfried's super-excellence defeated this Amazonian
maid, who showed her strength on her wedding night
by trussing her husband and suspending him from a
nail !
This saga has an additional interest, inasmuch as it
typifies the mediaeval tendency to record the athletic
achievements of princes and nobility and to omit refer-
ence to those of the people. This reverence for the skill
of kings and knights occasions difficulty to the modern
historian who seeks to trace the evolution of athletics ;
not only are the records rare, but they not infrequently
bear the mark of flattering hyperbole. Thus, for
example, the statement of Jusserand that Guillaume le
Marshal, a French knight of the thirteenth century,
held the world's record for putting the weight, and
that of Peacham that Achmet III, Sultan of Turkey
about A.D. 1700, held the record for throwing the
discus, are of interest as indicating the practice of the
8
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MEDIAEVAL
event rather than of utility as authentic records ; whilst
the description of Henry V of England, that he " was
so swift a runner that he and two of his lords, without
bow or other engine, would take a wild buck in a large
park," would appear to be a considerable exaggeration of
the prowess even of that warrior king !
Having uttered this warning against treating the
chronicles without due reserve, one turns to the recrea-
tions of Norman England and finds that the chase and
the tournament were the principal diversions of the
nobility, and that little is recorded of the sports of the
common folk, save archery. Wrestling was certainly
the national pastime in the time of John, and again
under Henry VII ; and at another period Edward III
had to prohibit weight-putting by statute, so seriously
did it interfere with the practice of archery. The
sister sport, hammer-throwing or, as it was then
called, " casting the barre " continued to be popular ;
and Henry VIII is said to have been a world's record-
holder at this event. Under so athletic a monarch he
was proficient in throwing the javelin, introduced tennis
into England, and did he not wrestle with and un-
diplomatically throw Francis I at the Field of the Cloth
of Gold ? quite an athletic revival occurred ; and a
school of thought arose which advocated athletics, in-
cluding running, as a valuable adjunct to education.
This was the case not only in England, but also on
the Continent. For example, Rabelais in his great
classic (Livre I, ch. 23), in describing the course of
instruction laid down for the youthful Gargantua, insists
upon the benefit to be derived from physical culture, and
makes his hero fence, tilt, hunt, ride, swim, climb, play
tennis and football, run, leap so as to clear a ditch or
hedge, as being useful in war, throw the hammer, weight,
javelin and spear, regardless of the difficulty of teaching
him proficiency in such a diversity of sports. And 250
years later, in 1762, another famous French educa-
tionalist, Jean Jacques Rousseau, devotes a chapter in
9
ATHLETICS
the second book of his Emile to the " Utilit de la
course," and encourages indolent children to race for
sweet cakes.
At an earlier time running had been a popular pleasure
with monarchs and nobles, and the exploits of Henry V
have been noted. Strutt records in his Sports and Pastimes
of the People of England that the young men of good
family were taught running, leaping and wrestling,
besides the less plebeian joust ; and Shakespeare has
various allusions to running and to the Olympic Games
(see, e.g., 3 Henry F7, 2, iii.).
In the sixteenth century a series of foot-races was
substituted for the great football match played annually
at Chester between the Shoemakers and the Drapers ;
and although during the Elizabethan age only the com-
mon people seemed keen on sports, the nobility showing
a preference for pageants, yet in the following era the
Stuart kings were warm patrons of athletic games of all
kinds. James I, indeed, as was not uncommon with him,
wrote a treatise (Basilikon Doron) on the subject for
his son, in which he recommended him to practise
" running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing and
playing at the catch or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and
such-like other fair and pleasant field games. " And as
an off-set to the contemporary statutes against gaming,
the same monarch caused the so-called Book of Sports
to be read in churches, whereby leaping and vaulting
on Sunday after service were permitted.
Both Pepys and Macaulay mention races for wagers
under Charles II, and during the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries professional matches and races for
wagers were prevalent in England. Amateur contests
then began to seize the imagination of all ranks of
society, in origin undoubtedly merely an imitation of
the professional matches. Nevertheless, it is probably
due to them that in the middle of the nineteenth
century there was a renaissance of amateur athletics
throughout the country, which, preceding as it did all
10
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
other European athletic movements, gave Great Britain
that pre-eminence in athletics which no country, with
the possible exception of America, was capable of
challenging until the institution of the modern Olympic
Games. Since the dawn of the twentieth century,
athletic sports, always pursued but never previously
so generally popular, have been adopted with ever-
increasing enthusiasm upon the continent of Europe ;
and the result to-day is the disappearance of British
supremacy, but not, as some Jeremiahs pretend, de-
cadence and loss of all prestige. British sportsmanship
is recognised as paramount ; and England is still re-
garded, even by the latest recruits to organised athletics
the German people as " Das Mutterland des Sports."
Section 3. Modern
About 1812 the R.M.C. at Sandhurst inaugurated
regular athletic sports, and some thirty years later the
R.M.A. Woolwich, Eton, Harrow, Rugby and Shrews-
bury followed the example. Not until 1850 did Exeter
College, Oxford, hold the first organised sports meeting
at the Universities, a successful venture subsequently
adoped by the other colleges. Cambridge founded
their University sports in 1857, and Oxford three years
later. Thus by 1860 athletic meetings had become a
regular feature of school and college life, and during
a single decade amateur athletics had received an impetus
from which they never looked back.
In 1864 the first Oxford v. Cambridge Sports took
place at Oxford, the programme consisting of eight
events, of which each side won four ; and in 1867 the
venue was transferred to London, where it has since
remained. In the same year (1864) the Civil Service
inaugurated their annual meeting; and in 1863 a
group of business men engaged in the neighbourhood
of Mincing Lane, London, founded a club which they
ii
named after that commercial centre, and which, three
years later, took the title of the London Athletic Club.
In 1866, when athletics had become generally
popular, the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in
London for " gentlemen amateurs," most of its members
being old University men. It promptly instituted a
championship meeting ; but in its subsequent rivalry
with the L.A.C., the senior club proved the favourite,
and apart from this annual championship meeting and
the staging of the 'Varsity sports at its headquarters at
Lillie Bridge (opened 1868), the A.A.C. did not feature
very prominently in the sport after its early years of
activity.
Indeed, so much did it decline, and so unpopular was
the date of the championship meeting among the
majority of athletes and particularly members of the
L.A.C., that in 1879 ^ e L.A.C. also promoted a
championship meeting, but in the summer. The A.A.C.
meeting was held in the spring on the Monday follow-
ing the Inter-'Varsity sports, and obviously conferred
advantages upon the University men ; the summer
meeting was of like benefit to other athletes whose
training commenced later. The existence of two cham-
pionship meetings, however, without any overriding
authority, constituted an impasse ; and in order to
determine this difficulty, and if possible create a govern-
ing body which should control the sport throughout
the country, a conference was held at Oxford on the
24th April 1880. At the instigation of several Oxford
men, among whom were B. R. Wise, C. N. Jackson and
M. Shearman (now Sir Montague Shearman), this
meeting was convened by the Presidents of the O.U.A.C.
and C.U.A.C. jointly, and representatives of the
Northern A.A.A., the Midland A.A.A. and all the
Southern clubs were invited to attend.
As a result of their deliberations, the Amateur Athletic
Association was founded and given jurisdiction over all
British athletic sports. The organisation of an annual
12
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
championship meeting was confided to it, and it was
decided that henceforth this meeting should be held in
the summer, in the North, Midlands and South in
rotation. Subsequently, the venue became fixed by
custom in London, the other districts receiving financial
compensation for their renunciation, every third year,
of the right to hold the championships ; and the date
was stabilised at the first Friday and Saturday in July.
The championships were declared open to all who had
never competed for money and who could subscribe to
the definition of an amateur laid down by the newly
incorporated Association.
The drafting of a constitution, the framing of laws
and rules for competition, were among the first duties
of the Association, which also formulated regulations
to govern prize values, handicaps, records . and club
membership, most of which have, of course, been
altered from time to time to accord with changed con-
ditions. Very extensive powers were entrusted to the
Association, which was definitely intended to occupy a
predominant position ; and not only individuals, but
also clubs, were made subject to its punitive as well as
its protective measures. It was determined that all
athletic meetings should be held under the laws of the
Association, and so advertised ; and for the protection
of the athlete it was decided that clubs ought to be
affiliated to the Association, and that open meetings,
if promoted by non-affiliated clubs, must be registered
with the Association by payment of a fee. Athletes
who competed at unregistered meetings were liable to
suspension, and clubs guilty of malpractices were to be
similarly penalised ; and drastic as these and other
measures may appear to be, it must be remembered that
the evil of veiled professionalism was very real in the
early history of amateur athletics, and that even to-day,
pettifogging though many of the regulations are, the
dangers which they seek to avert are by no means
eliminated.
13
ATHLETICS
Another problem was shortly to confront adherents
to the sport, and that was connected with the manage-
ment of cycling events. Cycling was and is governed
by the National Cyclists' Union ; and in the days when
its popularity was greater than at present it was customary
to include cycle races in the programme of athletic
sports meetings, when their management was handed
over to the promoting club. Differences arose about
the rules, and came to a head in 1885. Fortunately, a
round-table conference secured their settlement ; an
alliance was formed between the two bodies, and it was
decided that cycling races should be held under N.C.U.
rules and running races under those of the A.A.A.
With the development of the athletic movement the
burden of government became too heavy for one central
body to bear, and decentralisation was effected. The
governing body divided itself into three. The North
and Midlands were formed into separate associations,
controlling athletics in their districts ; whilst athletics
in the South were placed under the direction of the
Southern Committee of the A.A.A. The management
of the Association was vested in the General Committee,
which is composed of representatives of these three
bodies and meets at least twice a year to discuss general
matters of policy affecting the whole country. In
particular the General Committee, through its several
sub-committees, controls finance, hears appeals, sus-
pends clubs or individuals, makes and interprets laws,
passes records, controls the championships and inter-
national matches, and selects national teams. The
three branches sitting separately legislate and administer
for their respective districts.
The process of decentralisation has been carried a
step further since the Great War in the organisation
and growth of the county movement. The work of the
District Associations, especially in the South, had
become so vast that they were becoming moribund
under the strain. In order to relieve the central bodies
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
of choking matters of detail and leave them free to
elaborate a wide and constructive policy the creation of
County A.A. Associations was obviously necessary.
These Associations were intended to promote their
own county championships ; if possible to hold inter-
county contests ; to encourage local athletics ; and to
administrate generally within their boundaries. Un-
fortunately, up to the present the scheme has appealed
only to the South and Midlands, where it has worked
with much success ; and those districts only have
supported the Inter-County Relay and Team Cham-
pionships, held annually in London since 1925. On
account of the somewhat unwieldy programme, the
predominance of some three or four county teams, and
the problem of finance, this meeting cannot at present
be considered entirely satisfactory. In all probability
it will soon give place either to inter-county cham-
pionships on a league principle or to championships
within the three districts.
This, however, is to advance too rapidly, and it is
necessary to revert to the nineteenth century in order
properly to trace the general progress of athletics in
England. A great number of clubs sprang up during
the latter half of the century, among which the most
prominent were the L.A.C., whose meetings were
perhaps the most important outside the championships ;
the Polytechnic Harriers, who have done so. much for
Marathon running in England ; and the Birchfield
Harriers, whose great work in the Midlands has just
been crowned by the opening of their new cinder track
in Birmingham. It was in 1876 that the L.A.C. first
used the Stamford Bridge ground, which in those days
possessed a 250 yards straight, but was, as now, a
quarter-mile in circumference, in contradistinction to
the A.A.C. ground at Lillie Bridge, which was a third
of a mile long. The old Queen's Club and the two
'Varsity tracks were also of this length. The Poly-
technic Harriers, besides holding a Marathon annually
15
ATHLETICS
since 1909, have staged the principal inter-club match
of the year, the Kinnaird Trophy Competition, for which
some ten or twelve Metropolitan clubs enter ; and this
club plays a considerable r6le in cross-country matches.
Three other clubs of long standing which are perhaps
better known in that sphere than on the track are the
Thames Hare and Hounds, a pioneer in paper-chasing,
the Blackheath Harriers, and the South London Harriers ;
and there are hundreds of other clubs of varying renown
which cannot be mentioned through lack of space.
It is proper to indicate, however, the work of the
L.A.C. in another branch of athletics, namely among
schoolboys. The L.A.C. for long encouraged the sport
among boys, particularly from the public schools, and
even during the years of the Great War this club nobly
continued to hold its annual Public Schools Sports
Meeting. The meeting was inaugurated in 1890 with a
440 yards race ; in 1 897 it was properly established with
a programme of eight events 100, 440, 880, mile,
high and long jumps, 120 yards hurdles, three-quarter
mile steeplechase, to which were added later a mile
walk and a pole jump, and two junior events.
This good work has since been supplemented by the
Achilles Club, founded in 1920 and composed entirely
of past and present Oxford and Cambridge athletes.
This club, to which relay racing ever had a great appeal,
and which may be regarded as the pioneer of that form
of athletics on a large scale in England, introduced
public school relay races between mixed teams of past
and present public school boys. It also began a system
of demonstration matches, usually on the handicap
relay principle, at the schools themselves, a policy now
followed by the L.A.C. There can be little doubt that
such methods of instruction, inculcating both the team
spirit and good style, will ultimately prove beneficial
to British athletics ; and they are symptomatic of the
educative work that is now being almost universally
attempted.
16
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
America was for long in the van with its inter-
scholastic meetings, to which further reference will be
made in another chapter ; France established a post-
War Ministry of Sport; and in England in 1925 a
Schools Athletic Association was formed and held
Inter-County Schoolboy Championships in London, in
which over twenty counties competed. Moreover, the
counties themselves, and great bodies like the Middle-
sex Schools Association, arrange matches and com-
petitions for boys outside the great public schools,
which, of course, have their own annual sports and in
many cases an inter-school match as well ; and provided
overstrain and publicity are avoided these movements
deserve high praise. The spread of physical culture and
teaching of athletic sports among children has become
well-nigh universal, and the large number of Gymnasia
fttr Leibesubung in Germany, the Sokols in Czecho-
slovakia, the Swedish Schoolboys Athletic week, and,
among University students, the International Students
Games, held in conjunction with the C.I.E. Congress,
testify to the vigour of the movement.
Leaving discussion of the modern Olympic Games to
another chapter, merely noting their revival in 1896 and
indicating that they have exercised a most profound
influence upon the universal development of athletics,
particularly since the vintage year, 1908, attention may
be drawn to the further progress of athletics in England
in spheres other than educational. For many years the
A.A.A. had preserved a rather narrow championship
programme, and it was partly through the pressure of
the English Field Events Association (founded 1910)
that the governing body was ultimately persuaded in
1914 to include the javelin, discus, hop, step and jump,
and the 440 yards hurdles. This delay in encouraging
these particular field events, together with the fact that
none of them, nor the hammer since 1921, is practised
at the Universities, may be borne in mind when contrast-
ing British standards with those of the Americans and
B 17
ATHLETICS
other Europeans ; but it does not afford a conclusive
explanation of British inferiority, which is equally
evident in the pole and long jumps and in the weight,
all held since 1866.
During this period was introduced the system of
international matches with which Europe is now almost
overrun. Not only did Norway, Sweden and Denmark
commence a Landskamp, held annually since 1917 at
Oslo, Stockholm and Copenhagen in rotation, but
France engaged in matches with Belgium and Sweden,
and in Great Britain a Triangular International was
begun between England, Scotland and Ireland in
1914, and continued annually after the War, England
proving successful on the majority of occasions.
Except in the Services, athletics were in abeyance in
Europe during the period 1914-19, but in America
it was found possible to continue the Amateur Cham-
pionships without intermission, although the Inter-
collegiate Championships were abandoned in 1917.
In post- War England, where athletics were recom-
menced in the summer of 1919, one of the most signifi-
cant movements came from the Universities. The
foundation of the Achilles Club marked the re-entry of
Oxford and Cambridge athletes in large numbers in
open competition, both at home and abroad, and at the
two Universities many innovations occurred. The
inter-college system of sports meetings, run on the
league basis at Cambridge and on a combination of
league and knock-out bases at Oxford, was revitalised, and
inter-college relays were developed. The Oxford-
Cambridge relay races were founded and the Inter-
'Varsity programme revised. The ten events which
had stood since 1903, namely 100, 440, 880, mile, 3
miles, high hurdles, high and long jumps, weight and
hammer, were changed, the hammer going out and the
pole jump and 220 yards low hurdles coming in. And,
perhaps as a sequel to the transference of Anglo-American
matches from Queen's Club to Stamford Bridge, the
18
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
'Varsity Sports also moved there in 1929, the Queen's
track, which had been used since 1888, being converted
into tennis courts.
The other Universities were not far behind. In 1919
the Inter-'Varsity Athletic Board was constituted with
the object of advancing all games among its members,
and comprised all the English and Welsh Universities
except Oxford and Cambridge. Annual track and
field championships were inaugurated. Meetings are
now held with other bodies, and at least one Uni-
versity Leeds has laid out a superb ground. In
1925 the Scottish Universities followed the lead, and
the Atalanta Club was established on lines similar to
the Achilles.
The second important movement for the experiment
of holding English Championships in 1922 and its
abandonment after three years' trial can be passed over
was among the counties ; but as the origin and growth
of this movement has already been described, one can
pass rapidly on to the third feature of recent athletic
development, which is the increased interest in relay
and inter-club competition.
Relay racing was introduced to this country from
America ; but although a one mile medley was in-
cluded in the A. A. A. Championships from 1911 on-
wards, it was only after the Great War that relays
attained a popularity in England commensurate with
that pnjoyed in the United States. In 1 920, immediately
after the Olympic Games at Antwerp, those two great
Oxford and Cambridge athletes, Bevil Rudd and Pro-
fessor Philip Baker, inaugurated the Achilles Club
by staging at Queen's Club, London, the greatest
international relay match ever seen between the United
States Olympic Team and the combined teams of the
British Empire. At that first meeting the field events
were individual ; subsequently they were conducted on
the team principle as well, by Baking the aggregate
performance of the several men in each team. Before
ATHLETICS
an overflowing crowd, which has never "* since lost its
love for good relay racing, a thrilling encounter resulted
in a tie. So popular was the venture, and so important
and significant, that in 1924 it was adopted by the
A.A.A. and held at Stamford Bridge. On that occasion
the Americans obtained an overwhelming success by
ii events to 3 ; on the third occasion (1928), before
41,000 people, they won a very great match by 8 points
to 6.
With such a brilliant commencement and con-
tinuance, interest in relay racing has heightened ever
since the War, and no athletic meeting is complete
without one or two relay events. In 1920 were in-
augurated the Oxford-Cambridge relay races, held every
December at each University in turn; in 1925 the
Inter-County Relay Meeting was begun; in 1927 the
A.A.A. sensibly converted their Relay Championship
into one consisting of four quarter-miles, and added a
sprint relay, 4 by no yards; and many clubs, par-
ticularly the Achilles, conduct their matches largely on
the relay system. The efforts of the L.A.C., Poly-
technic Harriers and Achilles Club to mention perhaps
the three chief innovators to encourage and develop
inter-club matches, whether on Saturdays or on mid-
week evenings, have been attended with marked suc-
cess, especially in the South of England ; and provided
individual athletes are not surfeited, nothing but good
ought to accrue to the game through this wave of team
competition.
One result of the cult of inter-club matches has been
the payment of more attention to the needs of the less
prominent performer. More and more is the value of
the scratch race being appreciated ; and the open handi-
cap, with its large entry and rather sordid commercialism,
is gradually being condemned. The introduction of
" Graded Races," in which athletes are divided into
classes according to ability, all those belonging to one
class competing against each other in level events, has
20
HISTORY OF ATHLETICS MODERN
proved successful and attractive in this country; and
whilst one realises the utility of the short limit handicap,
one is convinced that in the extension of the graded race
will be found the real road towards creating a higher
standard of general athletics among the rank and file.
The evidence from Continental countries, where big
handicap races are almost unknown, substantiates this
opinion.
Yet another feature of post- War athletics has been the
closer relationship with foreign athletes. They have
attended the A.A.A. Championships in greater numbers
and with even more signal success, conspicuous among
them being the German contingents since 1926 ; whilst
English teams and individuals have competed with
much pleasure and gained some victories throughout
Europe. These contests are evidence of the great
advance upon the Continent in the practice of athletics.
Fuller consideration of this subject is, however, reserved
for another chapter.
In conclusion, something should be said about
women's athletics. The attitude of the Greeks has been
indicated, and the general disapproval of feminine
participation in athletic contests endured until women's
emancipation in the twentieth century. Before the War
women's colleges in America permitted and encouraged
track and field athletics, but it was only during the War
that European women began to take up athletics
seriously.
Since 1919 the movement has progressed with
startling rapidity, and has achieved vogue and popu-
larity. In England, particularly in and around London,
women's clubs have been founded and flourish. The
records made by English girls were soon assailed by
Czech, Swedish, French, Belgian and now German
women ; and even Japan has added to the number who
compete in international games. Championships and
Internationals take place annually ; in 1925 a triangular
match was held in London between teams representing
21
ATHLETICS
Canada, Czechoslovakia and Great Britain ; and to-
wards the end of the same year the Second Women's
(Olympiad was held at Stockholm, the first having been
at Monte Carlo in 1922. In 1928, to the regret of
many shrewd judges and lovers of athletics, the women's
events, reduced in number, were included in the pro-
gramme of the Olympic Games at Amsterdam, Great
Britain abstaining ; and despite much opposition, their
inclusion, subject to alteration in the events to be
contested, is confirmed for the games of 1932.
CHAPTER II
THE OLYMPIC GAMES
Section I. Ancient
THE contemplation of the manners and customs
of ancient and mediaeval peoples is among the
most fascinating as well as the most useful of
occupations. The historian is able to trace the evolu-
tion of man's life from the nomadic tribe to the highly
organised twentieth-century state, and to show that the
primitive existence was the germ, in thought and action,
of the modern complex nation. Any great movement,
whether in thought, art, politics or religion, can be
traced back to a similar but usually less highly developed
system in a previous age ; and it is, therefore, not sur-
prising to discover that games, which occupy so promi-
nent almost too prominent a position in modern life,
held a similar place in the existence of ancient com-
munities.
Games, indeed, as has been suggested in the first
chapter, date from the remotest antiquity ; and it is
almost indubitable that the Greeks, from whom so much
of modern culture springs, adopted their athletic
exercises from the more ancient civilisations of Asia.
That they subsequently advanced these games to a
high pitch of efficiency and excellence was only to be
expected from a people whose genius in so many spheres
has excited the admiration and emulation of all those
who have succeeded thejn ; and it is with the Olympic
Games of Greece that this practice of physical culture
culminated. The modern cult of athletics possesses
marked resemblance to the enthusiastic practice of the
ATHLETICS
Greeks, and the modern Olympic Games, which form
the pinnacle of athletics, have been deliberately modelled
upon the ancient. It is therefore both fitting and
interesting to inquire into the origin and development
of the ancient games before turning to consideration of
the modern.
From early times it had been customary among the
Greeks to hold meetings for purposes of festivity and
social amusement, and some trial of bodily strength,
such as a wrestling match or a foot-race, formed origi-
nally the principal entertainment. Military exercises,
to which the perpetual internecine feuds of the Greek
states gave particular value, were of ordinary occurrence
in these games ; and it was possibly their military
associations which occasioned their introduction at
funerals, a custom which was quite ancient even in the
time of Homer.
Homer shows in the Odyssey that games, which
included not only athletic exercises but music and
dancing as well demonstration of the imaginative
cultural faculty of the Greeks were the ordinary
amusement of princes ; and the description of the
games at the Court of Alcinous indicates their practice
a thousand years before the Christian era. They ^ere
even then conducted in a systematic manner, and the
office of public judge of the games was coveted as con-
veying the degree and honour of a magistrate. More-
over, at that time, and indeed for long afterwards, only
men of rank participated in the games, although they
were attended by multitudes of spectators ; and in this
respect they resembled nothing so much as the mediaeval
jousts of the age of chivalry.
The most solemn and brilliant meetings were, how-
ever, at the funerals of distinguished men. The funeral
of Patroclus, described in the Iliad (Book xxiii.), may
be regarded as a perfect example of the magnificence
with which such rites were celebrated. These games
must have been held about the year 1 100 B.C., and, as
' 24
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
usual at that period, only men of the highest rank com-
peted. In the foot-race, for example, the contestants
were Ajax, Ulysses, and Antilochus, the son of Nestor ;
in the wrestling match, Ajax and Ulysses.
The foot-race, which appears to have been about
half a mile, was obviously won by a most experienced
athlete, Ulysses, who carefully allowed Ajax to set the
pace until 200 yards from the tape. At this stage, un-
fortunately, a suspicion rests upon the conduct of
Pallas Athene, who apparently lent her aid to Ulysses
by causing the weary Ajax to stumble. At all events,
Ajax lodged a protest with the judges, swearing that
he had been defeated by a goddess, not Ulysses ; but
the judges overruled the objection, and the discom-
forted Ajax, derided by the crowd, who perhaps thought
his protest unsporting, had to be content with second
prize a well-fed bull. Ulysses was awarded a huge
silver urn, whilst the luckless Antilochus received a
talent of pure gold. Even such prizes were simple in
comparison with those awarded in the chariot-race,
where the victor received a large vase and a beautiful
bride endowed with all the domestic virtues, whilst the
fifth received a double bowl !
The games included also boxing with the c<estus y
wrestling, throwing the quoit (i.e. discus) and the
javelin, archery, and fencing with the spear, and these
details are of interest as showing at how early a date the
events in the games were standardised.
There are also traditions of games celebrated at Elis
in very early times ; and Hesiod, who was contem-
porary with Homer, refers to games at Chalcis, wherein
he gained a prize for song ; but it does not appear from
either of these poets that in their time any periodic
festival was established like that which subsequently
became so famous under the title of the Olympic Games.
Not only are these early festivals restricted to solemn
and usually .religious occasions, being held at funerals,
or in celebration of some victory, or at a solemn thanks-
25 -
ATHLETICS
giving to the gods, and always in the vicinity of some
temple or sacred spot, but the rewards of the victors
examples of which have been cited indicate a marked
distinction from the Olympian contests, in which the
public award of a crown of wild olive, possessing no
intrinsic value, was the sole tribute to the victor.
After Homer's age the memory of the games was
almost lost through the disputes which continually
troubled the Grecian peoples ; and it was not until the
year 884 B.C, that their re-institution occurred. At this
period Iphitus ascended to the throne of Elis and
sought a remedy for the distress pervading his country.
His messenger to the Delphic oracle returned with the
command, possibly suggested by his own fertile mind,
'* that the Olympic festival should be restored ; for
its neglect had brought upon the Greeks the wrath
of Jupiter, to whom it had been dedicated, and of
Hercules, by whom it had been instituted ; and that a
cessation of arms must therefore be proclaimed for all
cities desirous of partaking in it." It may be pointed out
that legend ascribes the origin of the games to Jupiter,
in celebration of his victory over the Titans, but the
general opinion is that they were first instituted by
Hercules, as the oracle said, after a victory over King
Augias, 1222 B.C. Be that as it may, Iphitus obeyed
the god's command, caused the armistice to be pro-
claimed, and, receiving general support, modelled the
institution, possibly in collaboration with the Spartan
lawgiver Lycurgus.
It was ordained that a festival should be held at the
temple of Jupiter at Olympia, near the town of Pisa,
in Elis, open to the whole Hellenic race ; and that it
should be renewed at the end of every fourth year. The
festival was to consist in sacrifices to Jupiter and to
Hercules, and in games in their honour ; and as wars
might prevent not only individuals but whole States
from enjoying the benefits the gods would bestow upon
the participants, it was further ordained that an armistice
26
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
should be proclaimed throughout Greece for some time
before the commencement of the festival, and continue
for some time after its conclusion. The significance of
this ordinance in modern times may be even better
appreciated if it be remembered that the boon of peace
which it secured was one of the ideals underlying the
foundation of the modern Olympic Games.
The Eleians themselves obtained great privileges,
arising out of their appointment as guardians and super-
visors of the games. They were permitted to enjoy
their possessions without molestation, as the games
were celebrated within their territories ;, and the Spar-
tans themselves concurred in this situation. So evident
were the advantages that in the sixth century B.C. games
were also instituted at Delphi, Nemea and Corinth ;
but as their conduct was similar to that of the Olympic
Games, further reference here is omitted, and the
reader is referred to the first chapter for an account of
their history and importance.
At the Olympic festival established by Iphitus, the
foot-race seems to have been the only game exhibited ;
but subsequently the contests were multiplied. They
appear to have been conducted somewhat irregularly
until 776 B.C., when the Eleians engraved the name of
their countryman Coroebus as winner of the foot-race ;
and thenceforward there is an almost unbroken list of
the winners in each succeeding Olympiad for a period
of 1000 years. From that date also it was the custom
to name each Olympiad after the victor in the foot-race ;
and the period of time between celebrations of the
games, namely four years, became a famous era among
the Greeks, who computed their time by it. The
games were exhibited at the time of the full moon next
after the summer solstice, and until the 77th Festival
(August, 472 B.C.) all the events were concluded in one
day ; but afterwards the ceremony was extended to five,
the first being the day of the sacrifice, the third the full
moon, and the fifth the feast.
27
ATHLETICS
In the course of time the original pageantry of the
religious processions and celebrations yielded in magnifi-
cence to the display provided by the gathering of huge
concourses to the games. A mart or fair was the natural
consequence of a periodical assembly of pleasure-
seekers and religious devotees ; and the congregation
of representatives of all the scattered Greek com-
munities rendered the occasion suitable for political
negotiation, the proclamation of treaties, and the
arbitrament of disputes. Indeed, the primitive village
feast developed into a common capital for all the branches
of the Hellenic race, and grew with time to be the Mecca
to which every Greek foregathered, from the remotest
colonies as from the neighbouring towns. The bond of
union became, in fact, so strong that it survived the
extinction of Greek independence, and the games were
only abolished in A.D. 394 by decree of the Emperor
Theodosius.
This communion of all the Greek people contributed in
no small degree to the advancement of the arts, par-
ticularly, as will be later seen, sculpture, literature and
music, of manners and of thought ; and so valuable were
these advantages, and so united the appreciation of that
value, that the truce of Iphitus became established as a
Divine ordinance, so that wars in progress were even
suspended in order that people from all parts of Greece
might attend the festival in safety. And it is proper to
observe that although a few monarchs deemed it ex-
pedient, for military and political reasons, to disregard
this law, yet it was honoured on all save the rarest of
occasions. So jealously was the truce upheld that the
Spartans risked the liberties of Greece when the Persians
were at the gates of Pylae, rather than march upon the
holy days ; and on another occasion, when their scruples
flew less high, the same nation was condemned in a
heavy fine, and on refusal to pay, excluded by decree
from the games.
In Ebers' Eine Egyptische Kdnigstochter will be found
28
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
an excellent description of the games in their palmiest
days. After portraying the numerous races of Greek
origin which were represented, the market beyond the
river Alphaeus where one could find merchants from all
parts of the world, the crowds, the ambassadors, the
distinguished visitors, the valuable chariots and horses,
the excitement of the games and the solemn presentation
of the olive wreath to the winners, the author gives an
exhilarating account of the wrestling match between the
champion Milo and the youthful Spartan Lysander, who
after two hours of matchless struggle sank lifeless to the
ground. The honour accorded to a great athlete, even
when vanquished, is well instanced by the following
paragraph, the utterance being by a spectator :
" Milo was obliged to resign the wreath, and the
fame of the youth will resound through all Greece.
Truly I would rather be dead like Lysander than live
like Callias, to know an inactive old age. All Greece,
represented by its best men, accompanied the body of
the beautiful youth to the funeral pyre, and his statue
is to be placed in the Altis.
" Finally, the heralds proclaimed the award of the
judges. * Sparta shall receive a victor's wreath for the
dead man, for it was not Milo but death who con-
quered noble Lysander, and he who goes forth un-
conquered after a two hours' struggle with the
strongest of the Greeks is well deserving of the olive
branch ! ' "
The games were presided over by ten judges the
Hellanodicae chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians.
They were obliged solemnly to swear that they would
act impartially and not take any bribes ; and they had to
attend the gymnasia beforehand to receive instruction
in their duties. There were also certain officers to keep
order, called alutai y similar to the Roman lictors.
One feature of the games which has undergone a
complete transformation in modern times is the position
of women. In Hellas they might own chariot-teams and
2Q
ATHLETICS
win prizes, but all except the priestesses of Demeter
were forbidden to attend the celebration. Those who
dared to infringe this law were immediately thrown
down from a rock. This, however, was sometimes
neglected, for in later years women certainly did attend
the games, and at Elis were instituted special games in
honour of Hera, which were confined to Eleian virgins
and presided over by a board of matrons. The Spartans,
too, under the inspiration of Lycurgus, encouraged
athletic contests for maidens. In his educational
system the great lawgiver ordered the young girls to
exercise themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing
the discus and javelin, that their bodies being strong and
vigorous their children might be the same. But the
result, if Aristotle's scathing stricture is reliable, was
disastrous to their morals.
It may be generally stated, therefore, that competition
in the Olympic Games was restricted to men and boys.
An athlete could commence his career as a boy in the
contests reserved for boys, which followed closely those
of the men ; and he could go on competing until the
age of thirty-five, when he was debarred, it being
assumed that he could no longer improve.
The training for the contests was very rigorous, and
took place in the gymnasia, which were special buildings
provided by the State and managed by public officials.
The regulation of the gymnasia at Athens is ascribed
by Pausanius (i. 39, 3) to Theseus. Solon made laws
on the subject ; but according to Galen it was subse-
quently reduced to a system. Every athlete in the
Olympic Games had to undergo ten months 1 training in
the gymnasium, and it is worth mentioning in passing
that these institutions ultimately extended their scope
as the Greeks realised the importance in education of
physical culture. The gymnasia became connected with
both medicine and education, and provision was made
for the moral training of the athlete and his instruction
in letters and music. Philosophers frequented the
3
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
porticoes, and Plato has immortalised the Academy of
Athens, which was the resort not merely of the athlete,
but also of students of philosophy and of science.
Before the games opened, the athletes presented
themselves to the judges and proved that they were
of Hellenic descent an indispensable condition of
admission and of blameless life. They swore that
they had trained properly and that they would " play the
game " ; and it may be noted that the latter oath is
taken by every athlete in the modern games.
Until the Fourteenth Olympiad the only race was the
dromes, which was 192 yards, or one length of the
stadium. There was then added the diaulos, or two-lap
race ; and in the next (Fifteenth) Olympiad the dolichos,
or long-distance race, probably about 2 miles in length.
And there was also, for a time, a race in heavy armour,
indicative of the early idea of games being a hand-
maiden to military service (cf. Plato's Republic, Book iii.).
There was no Marathon, that being a single run
accomplished by the most famous of Greek runners,
Phidippides, to bear the news of Athens' victory in
490 B.C.
Wrestling, one of the Homeric games, was introduced
in the Eighteenth Olympiad, the most famous exponent
being Milo of Crotona, who after seven victories met
with no opponent, and who is said to have supported the
falling roof over the school of Pythagoras ; and in the
same year the pentathlon was added. This was a com-
bination of the five events praised in Simonides* well-
known pentameter :
aA/za; 7ro8aj/cen?i> ; SiaKov ; 'a/covra ; TraA^v,
or leaping, wrestling, discus, javelin and running.
In boxing, the use of the ctfstus, or leather thongs
bound round the fist, marked the chief difference from
modern practice, and the weighting of the glove with lead
was a later and Roman development. The references
in contemporary literature to broken ears rather than
broken noses suggests a windmill style ; even the use
ATHLETICS
of the c<e$tu$ was prohibited in the chief event of all,
the pankration, or combination of boxing and wrestling.
Chariot-races, which may be regarded as the fore-
runners of those so popular among the Romans, were
held in the Hippodrome, and were described by Pau-
sanius and also by Pindar in many of his celebrated
odes ; and there were also contests in poetry, eloquence
and the fine arts.
The prizes originally possessed some intrinsic value,
and tripods were a common variety ; but after the
Sixth Olympiad, upon the advice of the Delphic oracle,
the crown of wild olive was substituted and became the
sole reward of the victor. These olive wreaths* were
cut from the kallistephanos, or sacred tree of Hercules,
which, according to legend and Pindar, had been
brought by him from Ister and planted in the sacred
grove at Altis. So small and trifling an award was sup-
posed to stimulate courage and virtue, and its reception
was regarded as the highest honour which could befall
a man or his city. It may not be without interest to
relate that when the Achilles Club competed in Athens
in 1927 the winners were presented with wreaths
culled from this same grove, a courtesy and a significant
gesture which did not pass unappreciated.
It would be erroneous, however, to conclude that the
conquering athlete received no further honour and
acclaim. His name, parentage and country were pro-
claimed by the heralds ; the judges placed the wreath
upon his brow ; his statue was carved by the most
famous sculptors and set up among the Olympionicae
(statues of the victors) at Olympia in the sacred grove of
Jupiter, where the fragments may be seen to-day. His
return home was that of a successful warrior, a com-
parison which Thucydides employs with delightful
irony in describing a reception of the famous Lacedae-
monian general Brasidas. An Athenian victor was re-
warded, in accordance with the law of Solon, with 500
drachmae and free rations for life in the Prytaneum
32
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
modern notions of amateurism differ somewhat from
the Greek ! whilst a Spartan obtained, not inappro-
priately perhaps, the post of honour in battle, a reward
not calculated^to enable him to boast for long of his
triumphs. The hero's entry into his native city was not
through the gates, but, to make it more grand and
solemn, through a breach made in the walls. Painters,
sculptors and poets were employed to celebrate his
name ; and ridiculous exaggeration of values though
this was, one cannot refrain from thankfulness for the
works of art which were thus created.
It may not be altogether out of place to refer
more particularly to this aspect of the ancient games.
Simonides, whose well-known pentameter has already
been cited ; Euripides, who was obliged to disguise his
feelings and compose paeans of praise about the victories
of Alcibiades in the chariot-race ; and the lyrist Pindar
to mention only three great poets were frequently
employed to laud the heroes of the games. These
contests provided the theme for some of the finest odes
of Pindar, the Epinicia or Odes of Victory, a collection
of forty-four odes, traditionally divided into, four books,
answering to the four great festivals at Olympia, Delphi,
Nemea and Corinth. The actual victory which occa-
sioned the ode is seldom treated at length or in detail ;
Pindar's method was to choose and dilate upon some
heroic myth connected with the victor's city or family,
and to return at the close to the subject of his merit or
good fortune. There is a strongly marked religious
feeling in Pindar's poems, and he has been described,
not without good reason, as the prophet of generous
emulation and reverent self-control two ideals which
the modern Olympians have ever had set before them ;
whilst in political thought he expressed another modern
ideal, that the rivalries of peace are worthier than the
triumphs of war.
The period to which most of Pindar's odes belong,
namely 500-460 B.C., also marked a stage in the
c 33
ATHLETICS
development of Greek plastic art, and it may be said that
Olympia forms the link between Pindar's poetry and
Greek sculpture. From about 560 B.C. sculpture had
been employed to commemorate athletes, chiefly at
Olympia ; and in a striking passage (Nem. v.) Pindar
recognises sculpture and poetry as kindred arts for this
purpose.
It is certainly right to attribute much of the excellence
of Greek sculpture to athletics. As Mr. Percy Gardner
points out in his profound and fascinating chapter in
The Legacy of Greece, naturalism, one of the chief
qualities of Greek art, found full scope in the oppor-
tunities afforded to the sculptor to observe the naked
human body in the gymnasia, where the finest of the
young athletes could be studied and copied in every
variety of pose and action. And employing his in-
herent sense of beauty to preserve the beautiful and
reject the ugly, the sculptor would create his gods after
the type of idealised man, giving to Heracles the form
of the wrestler, to Hermes that of the ideal runner, and
to Apollo, not the muscles of the trained athlete, but the
serenity and symmetry of a man perfected by self-
reverence and self-control.
Even in their work which represented human types,
the Greek sculptors' love of harmony was evidenced.
To cite only a few examples, the work of Myron, famous
for his Discobolus, of which copies anatomically in-
accurate are to be found in the Vatican and the British
Museum, was celebrated for rhythm in motion, and that
of Polyclitus for careful balance and a sense of ana-
tomical proportion. His greatest works, the Dory-
phorus, or spear-bearer, and the Diadumenus, or victor
bidding a wreath round his brow, are the most beautiful
fruit of a life-study in the gymnasia ; and there can be
no question that for the work of Pheidias on the Olympian
temple of Zeus and of Praxiteles, with, for example, his
superb Hermes, posterity is indebted to the cult of
athletics.
34
THE OLYMPIC GAMES ANCIENT
The learned author draws attention to another
feature of the art of the Greeks which also found
expression in their attitude towards athletics, namely
idealism. He says, in words which the modern seekers
after records might ponder : "In their practice of
athletics the Greeks did not, like the moderns, think
only of the number of feet an athlete could leap, or the
space of time he would take to run a distance. They
thought also of his form, of the rhythmic and harmonious
character of his action. If an athlete showed ugly form,
they would hiss him, as they would an incompetent
actor. In all the statues of athletes which have come
down to us, not one shows an inharmonious develop-
ment." He goes on to contrast the Greek types with
the forms of modern athletes, pointing out that northern
youth is less harmoniously built, more sinewy, harsh
and wiry in type than the rather fleshy Greek. He
instances the splendid work, exhibited at Paris and
Amsterdam, of Dr. Tait McKenzie, the Director of
Physical Education at the University of Pennsylvania,
who has created his beautiful figures from careful study
of the forms and measurements of hundreds of athletes
in Philadelphia, so that they are worthy to rank beside
such masterpieces of athletic idealism as the famous
JfpoxyomenoSy or athlete scraping sand and oil from
his body with a strigil.
Finally, Mr. Gardner, in sympathy with the probably
prejudiced views of the writers of this book, deplores
the influence upon women of the excessive cult of
athletics, "After suggesting that the practice of athletic
games by women tends to make them depart from the
essentially feminine, he expresses a desire to see the
physical ideal of efficient womanhood properly presented
in modern art, as a being who moderately pursues phy-
sical culture as an aid to health and yet preserves her
femininity in grace of body and of mind.
This rather lengthy digression may serve to illustrate
the idealism with which the Greeks endowed the games.
35
ATHLETICS
In yet another aspect of this spirit the games are worthy
of consideration ; they evoked in Greece the dawn of
public spirit. As a famous historian has pointed out,
the judges first applied the name of Hellenes to the
class. For although politically divided into provinces,
involved in feuds and local animosities, the members of
this class recognise one another, call a truce for the
festival, and find a common interest in preserving their
class supremacy. Gymnastics require self-control and
training ; military service requires obedience ; class
supremacy is unfavourable to the pre-dominance of the
individual man. Thus men trained themselves strictly
and austerely, and gained control over themselves, body
and soul. They set up an ideal of the perfect man, who
by training and obedience earns the right to be free and
to rule. And they held out to him the prospect of
becoming equal with the gods ; but on earth they kept
him within bounds by raising above him the other
Greek ideal, that of the free self-governing community,
the aggregate of equally worthy and therefore equally
privileged free men. It was this idealism in the Greek
love of athletics, not the exaggerated hero-worship
which Euripides so properly condemned in the Auto-
lycuS) which was so admirable ; and it may be said that
the same spirit of idealism animated the founders of the
modern Olympic Games, which in their fellowship and
in their pacific aims bear so marked a resemblance to the
games of ancient Greece.
Section 2. Modern
It was in 1894 that a great Frenchman, the Baron
Pierre de Coubertin, initiated the most important
athletic movement of modern times by gathering around
him in congress in Paris representatives of most of the
principal sporting bodies in Europe and America. His
organising genius, his noble idealism and his power of
36
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
inspiration enabled that congress, which constituted
itself the International Olympic Games Committee and
elected the Baron as its first president, to prepare the
way for a revival in 1 896 of the ancient Olympic Games.
The Baron was inspired by the racial union which, as
has already been described, in part resulted in ancient
Greece from the cult of athletics, and among his objects
were the internationalisation of sport and the pre-
vention of war.
That the former object has been in considerable
measure achieved is evidenced by the facts cited in
Chapter III ; it may be urged that so far the latter
has scarcely been fulfilled. It is to be borne in mind,
however, that games at the best can only be a contri-
butory factor to the cause of peace and international
harmony. The aspiration is that the influence which
they wield may be so pervasive as to engender a
universal spirit of sportsmanship and fair play.
Appropriately enough, the first modern Olympiad
was held in Athens in 1896. Through the munificence
of a Greek merchant, M. Averoff, a superb new building
was erected on the site of the ancient stadium of
Lycurgus, which had only recently been excavated.
Unfortunately the great beauty of the building, whose
pure white marble terraces glisten in the sunshine as
if in emulation of the ancient temples of the city, was
not matched by its utility. With a seating capacity of
45,000, and a length of 200 yards, it promised well ;
but in breadth, unhappily, it boasted only 30 yards.
The difficulty of negotiating the consequent sharp
corners accounts for the poverty of the records of that
first meeting, and in part occasioned the transference of
the second festival to Paris in 1 900.
Since then the venue of the games has altered every
fourth year, typifying perhaps their international char-
acter ; and the Third Olympiad was held at St. Louis, the
Fourth at London, the Fifth at Stockholm, and the
Sixth should have been held at Berlin in 1916, But for
37
ATHLETICS
an obvious and terrible reason that Olympiad was never
held ; and when the games were resumed after the
Great War, Belgium was the host at Antwerp, and the
German people were excluded. The Eighth Olympiad
was in Paris in 1924 ; the Ninth in 1928 was held in
Amsterdam, and in part made memorable by the re-
inclusion of Germany among the nations taking part.
Los Angeles has been selected for the Tenth Olympiad ;
and various cities have been proposed for the cele-
bration of the games of 1936, among them Berlin and
Madrid. On one occasion the regular quadrennial
sequence has been broken, in 1906, when the Greeks
organised a large and successful Panhellenic meeting
in Athens, a meeting which does not, however, rank as
one of the Olympiads proper.
Before relating some of the outstanding occurrences
at the several games, it is proper to consider their
organisation. The games are controlled by an Inter-
national Olympic Committee, presided over by Count
Baillet-Latour, and consisting of three or less repre-
sentatives of every country which chooses to compete :
by 1928 there were some forty-eight nations represented.
These representatives are elected by the Committee
when vacancies occur, and they are men of such standing
in their respective countries that they are able to preach
and practise with effect the gospel of the Olympic
movement.
This Committee holds a plenary session or congress
every fourth year, usually the year subsequent to the
games, and an annual meeting, lasting about a week ;
and questions demanding rapid decision during the
interim are determined by the Executive Committee of
seven, about whose powers at the moment there is,
unhappily, some doubt.
Among the functions of the I.O.C., or its so-called
Executive Committee, are the determination of the
dates of the games ; their allocation to the country
which is considered to have the prior claim -to the
38
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
honour of acting as host ; the inclusion or rejection of
particular sports ; the assurance of the good and
sportsman-like conduct of the games ; the establishment
of general principles of amateurism ; and the spread of
the Olympic movement throughout the world.
The responsibility for special organisation, such as
the duty of providing stadia and of assisting in the
provision of accommodation, falls upon the National
Olympic Council of the organising country. As com-
pensation for the very heavy financial outlay which the
organising country is called upon to face, it is permitted
to take over all the gate receipts ; consequently all the
visiting nations are confronted with the serious problem
of meeting the expenses of transporting, housing and
feeding their teams.
Since 1920 the conduct of the various sports con-
tested which these shall be is determined by the
I.O.C. has been left entirely in the hands of the
International Federations which govern each particular
sport. Thus, for example, the control of track and
field athletics is entrusted to the International Amateur
Athletic Federation, whose codes of rules and amateur
definitions apply, who nominate their own officials,
determine the programme of events, control the entries,
decide questions of status, hear appeals, and who,
working in concert with the committee of the organising
country, prepare for and conduct their own programme.
These International Federations are composed of
delegates from the governing bodies of the particular
sport in every country where it is practised the A.A.A.,
A.A.U., F.F.A., D.S.L.,* etc., being represented on the
I.A.A.F. ; and they may be said to be independent of
one another and of the I.O.C. except and in so far
as the I.O.C. lays down any regulations for general
*A.A;A. : Amateur Athletic Association (Great Britain).
A.A.IL : Amateur Athletic Union (U.S.A.).
F.F.A. : Fdration Francaise d'Athtetisme (France).
D.S;L: Deutsche Sportbehdrde far Leichtathletik (Germany).
39
ATHLETICS
observance at the games. Thus, for example, the I.O.C.
has laid down a general definition of amateurism, within
which all competitors must declare themselves to be,
and which in some cases goes further than the Inter-
national Federations' definition governing competition
in particular sports. One instance of this is, of course,
Association football. The Olympic definition of an
amateur excludes anyone who receives payment for
broken time ; the F.I.F.A.f definition permits such
payment; and a vexed discussion arose in 1927 over
this divergence of view which still remains to be settled.
Each nation, moreover, has its own Olympic Associa-
tion or Committee, e.g. in Great Britain the B.O.A.
(British Olym'pic Association). The principal function
of these Associations, which are composed of influential
men acting in co-operation with representatives of all
the governing bodies of sport interested in the games,
together with a few co-opted experts, is to provide for
the proper and worthy representation of their country at
the games. The duty of selecting the competitors and
of nominating the officials in each sport is left in the
hands of the governing body of that sport ; but the
Olympic Association charges itself with all the arrange-
ments for transport, housing, food and equipment.
The primary task of the National Olympic Associa-
tions is, therefore, to raise funds. In some countries,
particularly on the Continent, where sport has an un-
fortunate and one trusts not permanent tendency to be
regarded as a matter of political importance, Govern-
ment grants have been sought and obtained. This
system, one is happy to say, does not obtain in Great
Britain, her Dominions, or the United States, in all of
which the Olympic Association is entirely dependent
upon voluntary contributions for the furtherance of its
work. When this fact is borne in mind and it is realised
that in some countries, especially perhaps Great Britain,
there still exists a strong prejudice among many sports-
f F.I.F.A. : International Football Federation.
40
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
men against the games, one is better able to appreciate
the magnificent work of the various National Associations
in raising, through their Appeals Committees and with
the active support of the Press, the large sums (some
25,000 in Great Britain) necessary to ensure the proper
representation of their countries.
Not only are the National Associations responsible for
the financial burden of participation in the games ; they
have also the duty of fostering public opinion in support
of the movement. That this is no light matter has been
hinted at already ; that it has been in considerable
measure fulfilled is evidenced by the interest now taken
by the Press throughout the world.
Further, in the case of the B.O.A., which may
probably be regarded as typical of all associations, sub-
committees have charge of the housing and entertain-
ments arrangements, the latter being a sphere of activity
in which, at Antwerp, Paris and Amsterdam, Great
Britain has been particularly prominent. Hospitality
was extended to the Dominion teams and to the repre-
sentatives of other countries, and was reciprocated.
The programme of the games has undergone many
changes since their inception, and in a volume on
Athletics it is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon the
other sports, few of which have been practised on every
occasion. There can be no doubt that in the opinion of
the general public track and field athletics are regarded
as the principal sport in the games, chiefly, one imagines,
because they are the portion which is most intimately
connected with the ancient festival ; and perhaps,
secondarily, because athletics, in their regulations and
their practice, are the most internationalised of all
sports.
Association football vies with them in universality
and, judging by gate receipts, outstrips them in popu-
larity ; but this sport was only introduced in 1908, has
been the subject of bitter controversy in connection
with the question of amateur status, and, whilst retained
ATHLETICS
in 1928 because of the revenue it brought in, has
been eliminated, probably wisely, from the programme
for 1932.
The sport which ranks nearly equal with athletics is
swimming, which for both men and women (with
reservations as to the strain which excessive competition
may involve in the case of the fair sex) is admirably
suitable as an Olympic sport, providing, as it has done
since 1908, clean competition under well-defined laws
among athletes from all over the world.
Unfortunately one cannot write so enthusiastically
about another sport, practised by the Greeks under
different rules, namely boxing. To this event, and
some others which have proved unsatisfactory (e.g.
fencing), further reference will be made when an
attempt is made to estimate the value and achievement
of the Olympic movement. It is sufficient here to note
its inclusion since 1908, the year which saw introduced
some of the sports which lapsed after 1896, namely
cycling, wrestling, rowing and gymnastics. Weight-
lifting, polo, lawn-tennis and the modern pentathlon
were held in 1908 for the first time. Of these sports,
cycling has proved on the whole successful, but by no
means as popular as pure athletics ; rowing has attracted
many splendid crews and individuals, but has suffered
somewhat from the difficulty of providing courses
suitable either for the competitors or spectators, and
also from questions concerning amateurism. Lawn-
tennis, already well catered for internationally by
Wimbledon and the Davis Cup Competition, was
sensibly dropped after 1924 ; and the other sports have
their votaries and vicissitudes, but only slight general
appeal.
In desultory fashion also have been held Rugby
football, yachting, riding and hockey, Rugby football
was never supported by Great Britain, and was wisely
abandoned in 1928 as not being of universal interest,
especially in July. Hockey was included with success
42
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
in that year, taking place in May, when a large entry
testified to the expansion of the game on the Continent
and a keen competition was won by the All-India team.
Winter sports, i.e. ski-ing, skating, tobogganing,
have also proved an attractive addition to the last two
programmes ; but their value is limited, owing to the
exceptional opportunities given to mountain peoples to
practise the sports, in which few other races can take
part, and the influence even upon them of the different
climatic conditions under which the sports are held, and
which render ski-ing, for example, a different art in
Switzerland from what it is in Norway.
One must also mention an historic revival the art,
literary and musical competitions. Few people pay
much attention to the results of these competitions now-
adays, but they are of significance as perpetuating the
Greek spirit ; and one may perhaps venture to hope for
their greater development and better support as it is
more generally appreciated that art and literature,
music and religion contribute in the most signal manner
to the welfare of mankind.
Any attempt at a comprehensive account of the
results of the respective modern Olympiads would be
out of place in this volume, and those who desire full
information are directed to the Official Reports which
appeared after the several celebrations. One may,
however, allude briefly to some of the outstanding
performances at the various festivals as being indicative
of the development of the movement or of historical
interest ; and such allusions must in the main be con-
fined to track and field athletics, which are generally
conceded to be the most interesting, as they are the
most ancient sport included in the modern games.
Although the first modern games were held in 1896,
their real athletic significance only became pronounced
when they were celebrated in London in 1908. ^At
Athens in 1896 the shape of the track militated against
good performances if the watch be taken as the criterion
43
ATHLETICS
of excellence ; and the representation of the nations
was small. The United States had a preponderance of
successes ; Great Britain won the 800 and i^oo-metre
races, testifying thus early to the national genius for
middle-distance events ; and very appropriately a Greek,
Loues, won the Marathon.
The Paris Olympiad in 1900 likewise emphasised
American superiority, which was largely contributed to
by the achievements of Alvin Kranzlein, an under-
graduate from the University of Pennsylvania, who won,
on grass, the 6ometres flat, the no and 200 metres
hurdles, and the long jump. Great Britain again won
the middle-distance events and two others, but the
number of competing nations remained relatively small.
This was even more marked in 1 904, when few countries,
indeed, and Great Britain not among them, could find
the time or money to send teams across to St. Louis,
where Americans swept the board. At the Panhellenic
meeting in Athens in 1906 Europe succeeded in
lending proper support, and Sweden became prominent
for the first time ; but it was left for the 1908 Olympiad
to give that universal importance to the movement from
which it has never declined.
As has been seen, at this celebration many of the
sports which compose the present programme and have
not proved an unmixed blessing therein were introduced.
To render the programme unwieldy by including sports
for which there was no universal desire or standard code
was scarcely compensated for by the increased number of
competitors and their opportunities to fulfil the ideal
objects of the founder. It is to these less universally
popular sports that much of the blame for the incidents
which have from time to time marred the Olympiads
must be attributed ; and one cannot help regretting that
the modern games were not preserved more in con-
formity with the ancient, and that sports of limited
interest, such as polo or yachting, and those already
possessing international tournaments, such as lawn-
44
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
tennis and football, were ever introduced, only, in
several cases, to be rejected after unsatisfactory trial.
However, the 1908 programme was packed, and
some magnificent performances were recorded. Great
Britain did poorly in track and field athletics, despite
the success of Lieut. Halswelle in the 400 metres, of
the South African, R. Walker, in the 100 metres, and
of the Canadian, R. Kerr, in the 200 metres, and blush-
ingly admitted the overwhelming superiority of the
Americans. On the Marathon day over 100,000 people
saw the dramatic and tragic collapse of the Italian
Dorando, who, easily first at the Stadium gate, almost
fainted in the last few yards, was assisted, and, of course,
met with disqualification.
The next Olympiad, at Stockholm, saw pre-War
athletic talent at its zenith. In only one event besides
the 4 by 100 metres relay was Great Britain successful,
and that was a startling surprise, namely the 1500
metres, which the famous Oxonian, A. N. S. Jackson,
won in record time, after an amazing final spurt against
four of the finest milers America has produced. The
Americans again completely dominated the sprints and
hurdles, and the subsequent world's record-holder for
both the quarter and half-mile races, J. E. Meredith,
prevented Melvin Sheppard, by only a yard, from re-
peating his 1908 victory in the 800 metres. Finland
also leaped into prominence through the remarkable
success of H. Kolehmainen over the French crack,
J. Bouin, in the 5000 metres race ; two South Africans,
M'Arthur and Gitsham, finished first and second
respectively in the Marathon ; and Sweden did extremely
well in the field events and cross-country.
The Sixth Olympiad, planned for Berlin, was never
held ; and then, preserving the sequence of dates, but
prejudicing the still war-worn countries, the Seventh
was celebrated at Antwerp in 1920. This time
American ascendancy was sternly challenged by tfie
Finns and Swedes, whilst A. G. Hill's magnificent
4?
ATHLETICS
double in the 800 and 1500 metres, P. Hodge's
steeplechase, and the 1600 metres relay race were
prizes which assisted to restore Britain's self-confid-
ence and prestige. Among the Finns, H. Koleh-
mainen, winner of the Marathon, and the youthful
Paavo Nurmi, who won the 10,000 metres and cross-
country and was second in the 5000 metres (wherein
the Frenchman Guillemot obtained his revanche for the
10,000), as the first of his wonderful exploits in the games,
are to be commemorated for their achievements on the
track, whilst five others won various field events ; and
although the Swedes only won one event, they were
placed in almost all. The walking of the Italian Ugo
Frigerio and the high hurdling of Earl Thomson, a
Canadian who still holds the world's record of 14!
seconds for the 120 yards hurdles, were also outstand-
ing performances.
The Eighth Olympiad, it is generally conceded, was
dominated by the spell of Nurmi. His remarkable
victories in individual and team contests he won the
1500 and 5000 metres races, the cross-country and the
3000 metres team races caused him to be regarded as
almost superhuman ; and his prowess both at the
Olympic Games and on subsequent occasions has been
commemorated in his native land by the erection of a
statue in his honour. And yet, but for him, another
Finnish athlete, W. Ritola, would have been acclaimed
as the greatest runner the world had ever seen. Second
to Nurmi in the 5000 metres, the team race and the cross-
country, he won the 10,000 metres and the steeplechase
as he liked ; and his performances, together with those
of Nurmi and the victory of Stenroos in the Marathon,
gave Finland the right to claim supremacy on the track.
The United States and Great Britain divided such
events as remained, the former winning both hurdles,
both relays and the 200 metres, and the latter the
100, 400 and 800 metres. These British successes by
H. M. Abrahams, E. H. Liddell and D. G. A. Lowe
46
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
ranked high among the performances at these games.
To Abrahams fell the honour of being the first English-
man to win the Olympic sprint, and in so doing he
thrice equalled the Olympic record ; whilst Liddell of
Edinburgh, to the skirling of the bagpipes, broke the
Olympic record for the 400 metres.
It is also interesting to note that Great Britain had
one or more men in the final six in each track event, and
that this achievement was not quite equalled even by
the United States, which figured in every final but in
two events failed to obtain one of the first six places.
By way of contrast, however, the Americans won six
field events and the pentathlon, and secured innumerable
places, whilst Great Britain gained one third and one
sixth. The United States, in fact, proved well-nigh
irresistible in the field, Sweden being much less prominent
than formerly and the distance races marking Finland's
effort. As for the other nations, including the Domin-
ions, according to the statistics appended to the B.O.A.
Official Report on the 1924 Olympiad, the percentage
of points which they gained was 2 1 per cent., divided
among thirty-seven nations.
The Ninth Olympiad at Amsterdam witnessed a
better balance of national strength. It was memorable
for the re-admission of Germany, whose fine team would
have secured fourth place under the old system of
classification of nations by points, which had, however,
very wisely been abolished by the I.O.C. in 1925.
Perhaps the greatest surprise was the amazing success
of the British Empire teams, particularly the Canadian.
Not only did a 1 9-year-old schoolboy, P. Williams, win
both the 100 and the 200 metres for Canada, but his
team-mates were second in the 400 metres, fourth in
the 800 metres and fifth in the 200 metres. Of the
South Africans, S. J. M. Atkinson won the high hurdles
after his compatriot, G. C. Weightman-Smith, had set up
a world's record in a heat a remarkable performance
considering Atkinson's age as a hurdler, for he had been
47
ATHLETICS
beaten by inches only in 1924 and another was fifth
in the 100 metres. Moreover, Dr. O'Callaghan of the
Irish Free State won the hammer. The Mother Country,
although enjoying advantages in the matter of proximity
to Amsterdam and in training methods, did not attain
quite the same general standard as in 1924, partly
because of the higher standard of competition ; but she
did have the satisfaction of winning two events and of
being second in both sprints. Lord Burghley broke the
series of American successes in the 400 metres hurdles,
and the 800 metres was won by D. G. A. Lowe.
Allusion has been made to the German effort, which,
despite its excellence, occasioned some disappointment
to that nation. It had been generally anticipated that
the sprint events would be fought out between the
Americans and the Germans ; but in the finals the
Germans took two third places and a sixth and the
Americans two fourths and a sixth. The Germans
finished third in the 400 and 800 and fourth in the 1500
metres races and also secured second place to the
Americans in both relays ; and they were placed in
several field events f Surely a fine record for a young and
relatively inexperienced team 1
The field events were again dominated by the United
States. They won five ; in all save one they had three
men in the first six ; and these facts, coupled with their
victories in the relays and that of Barbuti in the 400
metres, and their many placings in every track event
except the 1500 and 10,000 metres, should dispel once
and for all the charge of failure so ignorantly and un-
worthily levelled against them.
Scandinavian successes have become the rule at he
Olympic Games, and the Finns showed their usual con-
sistency in their specialities, long-distance running and
the throwing events. For the third tim Nurmi dazzled
all beholders with his greatness, for although he won
the 10,000 metres only, he was second in both the 5000
ahd the steeplechase an astounding mixture of events.
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
Ritola also proved to be almost as wonderful as in Paris,
winning the 5000 and being second in the 10,000 ; and
new blood to supplement the efforts of these two athletic
giants, now, alas, belonging to the old guard, was found
to win the 1500 metres and the steeplechase for Finland.
The apparent decline of Sweden in 1924 proved to
be illusory and with a first, two seconds, a third and two
fourths she had cause to be content ; and even France,
who met with rude disappointment, gained some solace
from the victory of her Arab, El Ouafi, in the Marathon
and a second in the 1500 metres.
For the first time also the East played a prominent
part in the games and forcibly brought home their
complete universality. The Far-Eastern Olympics, to
which much of the credit for the advancement of the
Olympic idea in the East must be attributed, are treated
of elsewhere, and one is content here to mention the
successes of Eastern competitors in the games at
Amsterdam, Gallant Japan achieved glorious renown,
M. Oda won the hop, step and jump ; two Japanese
were fourth and sixth, respectively, in the Marathon ;
another was sixth in the pole jump ; and yet another
fourth in the hop, step and jump. And a Philippine
Islander was placed fourth in the high jump.
Finally, the Ninth Olympiad was the first occasion
of the inclusion of women's events in the track and
field section of the games. One is compelled to regard
this as a mistake, although the I.A.A.F. subsequently
approved by a small majority their inclusion in the pro-
gramme for 1932. The performances of the women at
Amsterdam were undoubtedly excellent in their class,
and the contestants most courageous ; but it was all a
terrible anticlimax to the brilliance of the men. On
aesthetic as well as athletic grounds one would prefer to
see women's events reserved for a Women's Olympiad,
as at Stockholm in 1925, if held at all ; and for reasons
set out elsewhere in these pages one is inclined to
deprecate their competition anywhere.
D 49
ATHLETICS
Before leaving the subject of the Olympic Games it
is pertinent to attempt to estimate their achievement,
to determine their significance, and to contemplate their
future. The present enthusiasm for athletics is de-
monstrated nowhere more forcibly than in the post- War
impetus given to the Olympic Movement which now
embraces the world. Not only has the representation
at the Olympic Games increased from twenty nations
and 2000 athletes in 1908 to forty-five nations and over
6000 athletes in 1928, but also in the Far East, in
Africa, and in South America subsidiary regional
Olympiads have been inaugurated. The objects of the
games have already been sufficiently explained, and it is
evident that the internationalisation of sport is a fait
accompli. It is submitted that the influence of games,
and particularly of the Olympic Games, is potent
in the cause of peace, engendering as they do a
universal spirit of sportsmanship.
Experience of international competition and of the
Olympic Games has convinced many people of the
reality of the friendships which may be and indeed have
been formed between rival national teams and their
members. The difficulties hindering exchange of
thoughts and ideas are less evident in games than might
be imagined. Language, for instance, is by no means
the insuperable barrier that one might expect. Admit-
tedly such contacts do not carry one fai intellectually ;
but it is fair to suggest that recognition of the fact that
nations other than one's own have similar ideals of fair
play and sportsmanship kindles respect for people
hitherto considered alien, and tends to bind nations
closer together. If one has learnt to trust a man when
playing a game, progress has been made towards trusting
him in more serious walks of life ; and surely no one
will deny that trust is the corner-stone of peace.
Critics can, of course, adduce instances of discord
arising out of the Olympic Games, and one must not
shirk the fact that some forms of sport do suffer at
THE OLYMPIC GAMES MODERN
present when internationalised. Apart from the obvious
fact that it would be demanding perfection to expect
6000 men never to disagree during a fortnight, their
nationalities and temperaments being so diverse, it is
significant to note that almost every recent instance of
bad sportsmanship or ill-feeling has arisen in a sport
which depends for its decision almost entirely upon the
verdict of a referee, as, for example, in the so-called
defensive sports (i.e. boxing, fencing), which might be
better omitted from the Olympic programme, or upon
the interpretation of rules not yet properly standardised,
e.g. the definition of walking in that anomaly, the walking
race. Certainly no incident marred either the track
athletics or the swimming (except water polo) in 1928.
Failure to play the game in the right spirit may
depend upon two things. It may be due to a reversion
to unfair tactics, in which case ostracism will inevitably
ensue. Or it may originate in the novelty of games-
playing, in the fact that people unused to the traditions
of games require educating therein. In this case it is
the duty and the privilege of those to whom games and
their codes are second nature to play with and teach
the newcomers. And not only players, but spectators
also may learn to play the game and respect the decision
of the referee, for it is safe to say that quite two distur-
bances out of three are caused by the spectators. The
remedy lies in proper education of the public to respect
the referee's verdict, and in the endeavour to provide
facilities for more people to play games and so understand
their spirit. And another powerful influence for good
should spring from a recognition by women of the part
they can play, not only in their own games, but among
their men friends, by insistence upon true sportsmanship
and nobility.
A criticism sometimes levelled against international
games is that they tend to provoke embittered national
rivalry ; but if this be so and theye is scant evidence
of it it is due to the failure to retain a proper perspective.
5 1
ATHLETICS
If, unfortunately, it be forgotten that games are to
be played as games, joyously, and too great stress is
laid upon the importance of winning instead of upon
the way in which the game is played, then admittedly
there is a danger in international athletics. Excessive
specialisation in order to achieve superlative results, for
example, cannot be commended, although scientific study
in order to play better is consistent with the primary
object of games, namely to create mens sana in corpore
sano and to provide recreation and pleasure. The safe-
guards against these dangers, however, lie largely in the
hands of the competitors themselves, for if they are
animated by a proper spirit of athletic idealism which
one ventures to think has been the case since 1918, and
should be the heritage of future generations they will
meet in friendly opposition, imbued with a sense of
true sportsmanship and mutual self-esteem.
They will be patriots ; but patriots of the kind held
up to praise by Dean Inge in his sermon to the delegates
at the Assembly of the League of Nations in September
1928, "loving their country, and proud to make it
honoured, respected and even beloved by other nations."
Men can go out in sport even as in politics to fulfil the
Dean's exhortation : " To try to understand the point
of view of other nations, and to help their countrymen
to understand it. To avoid expecting too much, and
yet to remember that as ice melts at a certain temperature
so does the human heart. Without quixotically sur-
rendering important interests, to look out for opportun-
ities of generous conduct towards foreigners and foreign
nations." Those who have witnessed international
matches, and particularly those who have attended the
Olympic Games, realise that such opportunities exist
and are seized.
CHAPTER III
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
Section i . Europe
A PROMINENT feature of post-War athletics has
been the vast development of international
competition. The merits and dangers of this
advance, swept forward upon a -veritable wave of enthu-
siasm among peoples determined henceforth to think
internationally, were discussed in the last chapter, and
one is only concerned here with its historical aspect.
On the continent of Europe athletics was not
generally popular until the twentieth century ; and it
was just prior to the Great War that regular international
athletic matches were instituted. The movement lapsed,
of course, during the years 1914-19 ; but the Seventh
Olympiad at Antwerp gave it a fresh impetus, and
Europe is now almost honeycombed with international
matches of all varieties, whether between countries,
cities, clubs or individuals, whilst no country is without
its annual national championships.
In control of all these contests is the International
Amateur Athletic Federation, upon which all the
national governing bodies of athletics, such as the A. A. A.,
are represented. At its congress in Geneva in 1921 the
Federation, besides settling the Olympic programme,
adopted a standard code of rules to govern international
competitions. At a later date the Federation established
strict regulations to control tours abroad by clubs and
individual athletes, stipulating that all invitations and
financial arrangements must be made through the govern-
ing bodies of the countries concerned, and with their
S3
ATHLETICS
sanction, and limiting the period of residence abroad
for which expenses might be paid to twenty-one days
per annum, days spent in travelling or accompanying a
national team being excluded. In Great Britain com-
petition with foreign teams is controlled by the Athletes
To and From Abroad Committee. Permission to com-
pete abroad must be obtained from this Committee,
which requires that the invitation, through the A.A.A.,
to a club or individual shall be sanctioned by the govern-
ing body in the foreign country and that all payments
be made through the A.A.A. Similarly, no foreigner
may compete in Great Britain without a guarantee of his
status by his governing body, and expenses may only
be paid to such individual or to a team by permission
of the A.A.A.
Besides the Scandinavian countries, France may be
considered as the pioneer in the sphere of international
athletics. The first athletic meetings in that country
were organised about 1886 by the Racing Club de
France and the Stade Fran^ais, two clubs whose fame
to-day is uneclipsed ; but it was a quarter of a century
later before matches with Sweden and Belgium were
begun, and only in 1921 was the fixture with England
instituted. This match of three a-side in each of twelve
events, points being scored on a 5, 3, i basis, with 3
for the relay, has only once (in 1925) resulted in favour
of France ; but on no occasion has the margin been
large. In Olympic years the contest is not held ; but
between the games it is the most important match in
which England competes, and the competition for the
" Coupe de Fraternit " always arouses the keenest
enthusiasm in France.
Switzerland and Germany engaged in a triangular
international with France in 1926 ; and since that time
France and Germany have held an annual match, in
which the Germans have proved victorious. Despite
these reverses, the French nation boasts many fine
athletes and le sport is undeniably popular : one ventures
54
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
to suggest that with a slight modification of training
methods and more inter-club competitions to encourage
the rank and file her representatives will achieve even
greater honour than their already not inconsiderable
portion.
Conspicuous amongst the revivalists has been the
German nation. Debarred until 1926 from participating
in open international competition, their representatives
at the A.A.A, Championships and in the match with
France and Switzerland in that year met with remarkable
success, indicative of the new impulse animating the
German people. No one who has travelled in post- War
Germany can have failed to be impressed by the passion
for physical culture and sport of all kinds ; and the
splendid stadia, often erected as a singularly valuable
type of War memorial, bear witness to the keen pursuit
of athletics.
Further evidence, if it be needed, is afforded by
the new prominence given to physical culture in
schools and colleges. The German Students Union
has before it the ideal that every student shall be
compelled to take physical exercise, that every school
shall have a physical education department, and that
representatives of these departments shall form a
central body to organise and control inter -school
matches and championships. A fine ideal if carried
through sympathetically ; and one hopes that the zeal
of those directing the movement, and of those responsible
not only in schools but also in clubs and Universities,
will not blind them to the fact that games cannot be
mechanised and still retain their value, and that in-
dividuality is vital in sport, which must remain a
recreation, not become a semi-political activity.
Before the War, track and field athletics had not been
extensively practised in Germany, although one of the
world's greatest middle-distance runners, the late Hans
Braun, came from Munich. Since 1918 its devotees can
be numbered by tens of thousands. The seven years
55
ATHLETICS
of preparation before admission to the I.A.A.F. and
international competition proved fruitful indeed, as the
many brilliant successes and world's records of such
champions as Dr. Otto Peltzer testify. It was in 1927
that British athletes from the Polytechnic Harriers and
the Achilles Club paid the first post- War visit to Ger-
many ; and the meetings in which they appeared afforded
much pleasure and an invaluable bond for the subsequent
reunion at Amsterdam. From the British point of view
and, one believes, the German also only one thing
further is to be desired : that is, an annual international
between the countries, or, if it be preferred, a triangular
match, with France as the third contestant.
Switzerland and Italy are also keen supporters of
international athletics ; and the latter country, where
walking is so popular, has a match each year with
Hungary, and was host, in 1927, for the International
University Games, which form a branch of the work
of the International Confederation of Students (C.I.E.).
This celebration, among students and ex-students up to a
certain age, was renewed in Paris in 1928, Germany and
Great Britain entering for the first time. Given a
definite organisation, a strict age limit, and biennial
meetings, this movement may become a useful adjunct
to the work of the C.I.E. and an important feature of
international athletics. For that the possibilities at-
tached to such reunions of youth are real is evidenced by
the meeting organised in Copenhagen in July 1927 by
the Y.M.C.A., in which no fewer than 400 selected
athletes from the Y.M.C.A. organisations in seventeen
countries took part.
The younger athletic nations, notably Hungary,
Czecho-Slovakia and Poland, are enthusiastic and have
achieved a high standard. The Hungarians are excellent
all-round athletes who staged regular international and
inter-club meetings even before 1914; and since the
War teams from Oxford and Cambridge have twice
visited Budapest. The educational activities of the
56
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
Czechs have been mentioned elsewhere, their system
of Sokols corresponding in some degree with the
institutions for Leibesiibung in Germany. Only the
Sokols have a wider scope ; they are recruited from all
classes of the population, and they organise athletics
for women as well as men. In Poland, athletics is not
only popular; it is a Government concern. In 1927
a National Department for Physical Education was
established. It was charged with the provision of stadia
and instructors, and with the re-organisation of physical
culture ; and its work has been supported by all, from
the president down to the youngest novice in athletics.
The Scandinavians hold their Landskamp ; and big
club meetings, to which individual athletes from all over
Europe are invited, are held annually in Oslo and
Stockholm. This type of international meeting is,
indeed, exceedingly prevalent on the Continent ; and
another interesting type of international of recent
innovation is the inter-city match, e.g. Berlin-Vienna,
Budapest-Paris.
The most astonishing progress has come, however,
from Finland. Celebrated before the War on account
of the magnificent performances of H. Kolehmainen, and
the second place at Stockholm in the Fifth Olympiad,
this country swept into prominence in 1924 when in
the Paris games her representatives, headed by the
remarkable Nurmi and Ritola, cleared the board in every
track event above 800 metres, the cross-country and the
Marathon. Cross-country running, it may be observed,
was formerly almost the preserve of Englishmen ; but
the Finns always used to beat them in the games, and in
the annual international match between England, Scot-
land, Ireland, Wales, France and Belgium, the French
team has frequently inflicted defeat upon them too.
Section 2. Asia and South America
Before tracing athletic development in the Domin-
ions and the United States, one may venture upon
57
ATHLETICS
a prophecy based upon the visit to England in 1928 of a
team from Waseda University, Tokio, which competed
with the Achilles Club prior to the games, at which
several of its members greatly distinguished themselves.
The natural genius of the Japanese for field events is
evident ; the inspiration afforded by these contests in
Europe may lead to the creation of a new athletic
" power."
And not the Japanese alone of Eastern races have
an interest in athletics, for since 1913 China and the
Philippines have joined with Japan to hold Far-East
Olympics, which deserve more than a passing reference.
They are now a great force in the life of the East ; they
have helped to bring together the people of three nations
without rousing their racial antagonisms, and their scope
may become yet wider ; they have encouraged the practice
of physical culture among people who until recently
knew little of open-air team games and certainly did not
appreciate their value ; and they have strengthened
the ties binding Asia to the Western world.
After the formation of a Philippine Islands Amateur
Athletic Federation, a Far-Eastern Championship Meet-
ing was initiated in 1912 between Japan, China and the
Philippines, and restricted to natives of those three coun-
tries. The first set of games was held at Manila in 1913
and won by the Philippine Islands ; the second at Shanghai
two years later was won by the Chinese ; the third in
Tokio, when the number of competitors had increased
to 350 as compared with 175 at Manila, and when, as
on the previous two occasions, the home team proved
successful.
Meetings were subsequently held biennially in each
country in rotation, the last being at Shanghai in 1927,
when Japan was the winner ; and the games have now
been stabilised for every fourth year, beginning at Tokio
in 1 930 and passing to Manila in 1 934, and it is proposed
to invite the participation of British India, Java and
Siam. The Far-Eastern A.A. is closely associated with
58
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
the I.O.C., which recognises the work done in the East
and appoints one of its members as a special delegate
to each celebration of the Far-Eastern games.
The South American peoples have also taken seriously
to sport, and now hold an Olympiad of their own. The
fifth biennial South American Championships, as they
are called, took place at Santiago, Chile, in April 1927.
Chile (whose representative was second in the 1928
Olympic Marathon), Argentina and Uruguay competed,
and the Chileans proved successful by a narrow margin.
Moreover, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Mexico have been
represented at the Olympic Games.
Section 3. The British Dominions
Reverting to Britain and the Dominions, it has been
already indicated that Irish athletics have led a chequered
existence ; but the love of the game and particularly
the field events has always remained strong in Erin, and
for many years most of the records in the jumping
and throwing events were held by Irishmen or Americans
of Irish descent. The Celtic race has always possessed a
natural aptitude for the high jump, hammer throw and
shot putt, which may be partly attributable to the superior
elasticity of Celtic muscle as compared with the Saxon.
Certainly the throwing events have been more ardently
practised by the Scots and Irish than by the Sassenach,
and it is to the Scots that is due the modern method
of throwing the hammer. But perhaps the most popular,
certainly the most spectacular, feat of strength and skill
in Scotland, at all events at the various Highland Games,
such as those held at Braemar, Aboyne, Oban for many
years past, is tossing the caber.
Since 1921 the Irish Free State has had separate
representation on both council and field in international
affairs, and the sport is controlled by the National
Athletic and Cycling Association of Ireland. Aided by
two successful matches against the Achilles Club in
59
ATHLETICS
1926 and 1927, when close contests roused Irishmen to
heights of athletic enthusiasm never known before,
Ireland competed with distinction both in the Triangular
International of 1927 and in the Olympic Games of
1928 ; and there can be no doubt that athletics is
increasing in favour. Another innovation was the re-in-
stitution in 1924 of the ancient Tailtean Games, organised
on the lines of the Olympics, and for which the eligibility
rule seemed to be the possession of one drop of Irish
blood, so that a host of good citizens of other countries
contrived to bring the first meeting, and also the second
in 1928, to a decidedly happy issue. The third cele-
bration is fixed for Dublin in 1931.
Although the Scottish A.A.A. hold their own cham-
pionships, they combine with England in international
competition. The Highland Games are largely pro-
fessional, and amateur athletics has only a limited
following. The foundation of the Atalanta Club in 1925
has done much, however, to stimulate interest. This
club is open to past and present members of the four
Scottish Universities, its primary object being to foster
Inter-'Varsity athletics. In pursuit of this aim it has
held matches with the Achilles Club and the I.V.A.B.,
and it has already achieved a leading position in Scottish
athletics.
The development of athletics in the United States
and in the British Dominions beyond the seas has
certainly kept step with and in the former outstripped
that in Great Britain. In the Dominions, with their
small and scattered populations, the extension of athletics
is no easy matter. In the larger areas, such as Canada
and Australia, only a few meetings can be organised
each year, except among the citizens of each large town ;
and this hinders the acquisition of the experience which
only competition can provide. On the other hand, it
prevents excessively frequent racing and its attendant
dangers, staleness and exhaustion. Despite the handi-
caps of distance, Canada, New Zealand, the several
60
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
provinces and States of South Africa and Australia, all
hold annual championships, and there are Australasian
championships for which New Zealand and Australia
combine. Each of these Dominions and also India has
separate representation in the Olympic Games, and has
a good record therein, particularly Canada ; but they
all unite with Great Britain to compete for the Empire
against the United States of America in the relay match
held immediately after the games.
A proposal is now on foot to institute Empire Games,
restricted to Great Britain, the Dominions, India and the
Colonies. Hamilton in Canada has been suggested as
the first venue in 1930, after which the games would be
held every four years in different parts of the Empire.
The scheme is certainly attractive, but it possesses
several drawbacks which will probably prove insuperable.
Such games cannot be regional ; they involve great
expense and devotion of time in gathering the teams
together. They cannot afford as much experience as
the Olympic Games, which, incidentally, do much to
foster the Empire spirit which these Empire Games are
expected to promote ; and it would be lamentable if
they were allowed to supplant the Olympic Games in the
esteem of Empire athletes. Ardour for Empire Games
among the members of the British Commonwealth ought
not to blind those members to their responsibilities
towards other nations.
Section 4. The United States of America
In America the year 1870 is regarded as marking
the commencement of athletic interest, for although
the New York Athletic Club was founded two years
earlier, it did not hold its first athletic meeting which,
incidentally, was the first in the country until 1871.
Under the auspices of the N.Y.A.C. the first amateur
championship of America was held in 1876 ; four years
later the National Association of Amateur Athletes of
61
ATHLETICS
America was formed, and became, in 1888, the Amateur
Athletic Union of America.
The A.A.U. controls athletics throughout the United
States ; it is supreme on all questions of amateur status,
records and licensing of meetings ; and it also controls
a great number of other sports, including basket-ball,
boxing, fencing, gymnastics, fives, walking, lacrosse,
swimming and wrestling. It is divided into eight
sectional groups, all of which organise annual district
championships, among the most important being those
held by the Western Conference A.A. since 1900, It
is allied with the Inter-Collegiate Association of Amateur
Athletes of America, and also with the Canadian and
British A.A.A.
After the formation of the N.A. A.A.A. the organisa-
tion of the amateur championships was assumed by
that body, and subsequently by the A.A.U. Besides
holding senior championships the A.A.U. successfully
introduced junior championships in 1900 for those who
had not won a first place in certain open championship
meetings ; it has instituted senior and junior cross-
country championships, and also an open relay cham-
pionship meeting. Further, owing to the severity of
the winter in most parts of the country, athletics cannot
be practised out of doors at that season ; and the Ameri-
cans possess an almost unique institution, namely
indoor athletics, for which the A.A.U. hold other
senior and junior championship meetings at the end of
February and middle of March respectively. Partly on
account of the tracks, which are of wood and usually
six or more laps to the mile, the events contested are
somewhat unusual. The standard programme includes
60, 300, 600 and 1000 yards races, 2 miles and steeple-
chase, I mile walk, 70 yards hurdles, running high
jump, standing high and long jumps, pole vault and
shot. The A.A.U. is also guardian of the destinies of
women's athletics, to which it applies strict rules as to
medical examination, whilst no woman is allowed to
62
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
compete in more than three events in one day, or one
if that is a race of over 1 10 yards ; and the Union pro-
motes both indoor and outdoor championships for women.
It is, perhaps, proper to point out at this stage a
fundamental difference between athletics in America
and in England. In England, athletes are drawn from
all ranks of society, and the 'Varsity athletes, excellent
though be their quality, are numerically in a minority.
In America, the majority of athletes are University men,
and their numbers are far in excess of those in England.
It is this distinction which largely accounts for two
features of American athletics which shall be presently
discussed the prominence of University athletics and
of the Inter-Collegiate Association, and the craze for
specialisation.
. Inter-College athletics in America had small begin-
nings. Only three Universities competed at the first
meeting at Saratoga in 1873; e ight in the following year ;
thirteen in the third. Then in 1876 the I.C.A.A.A.A.
was founded ; gradually acquired the support of all the
leading Universities and Colleges of America ; and
attained a position rivalling that of the much younger
A.A.U.
The Association, in fact, is an independent organisa-
tion, governed entirely by its own constitution, bye-laws
and rules of competition. Its objects are the protection
and encouragement of its members, of whom there are
over forty to-day. Membership of the I.C.A.A.A.A. is
open to all Universities and Colleges of good and
regular standing, the only stipulation being that every
member must hold at least one track and field meeting
each year, either between the students of the University
or College holding the meeting or between those students
and others. (Those Colleges which have not obtained
admission to membership are now able to join the
National Collegiate A.A., founded in 1922, which pro-
motes annual outdoor and indoor championships.) The
management of the I.C.A.A.A.A, is entrusted to an
63
ATHLETICS
executive committee consisting of six members and the
president, who must be undergraduates at the time of
election ; they act for one year, and no University or
College may have more than one representative on the
executive committee. Their deliberations are assisted
by an advisory committee of five, who must be alumni
from as many Universities.
The I.C.A.A.A.A, holds annually an outdoor track
and field championship on the last Friday in May and
the Saturday following ; an indoor championship on the
first Saturday in March ; also a 'Varsity and Freshmen's
cross-country run in October.
The oldest and most important of these meetings is,
of course, the outdoor championship, and it is to it that
the majority of the members of the Association are
attracted. They are entitled to start as many as five men
in every event contested, the regulations providing that
no man may compete unless he has completed a full
year's residence, nor more than four times. The fifteen
events are all standard, a 2-mile race taking the place
of the English 3 miles, and the 220 yards low
hurdles being the same as in the Oxford and Cambridge
Sports. Points are. scored on a 5, 4, 3, 2, i basis :
this marks a distinction from the Oxford-Cambridge
practice of scoring on first places only.
In the indoor meeting, instituted in 1922, the events
are 70 yards dash and 70 yards hurdles (five flights),
i and 2 miles, high, long and pole jumps, weight, 4 by
880 and 4 by 440 yards relays, and a Freshmen's
medley (880, 440, 220, mile); and the rules govern-
ing eligibility and scoring are the same as for the
outdoor meeting.
These two great Inter-Collegiate Meetings are the
climax of what in many cases are two distinctly strenuous
seasons for the American undergraduate. The bigger
Universities, such as Yale, Harvard, Princeton, Cor-
nell, Pennsylvania and Columbia, hold a regular sequence
of dual meets against each other, which resemble in
64
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
their intensity the annual Oxford-Cambridge Sports.
Even the smaller Colleges may have two or three annual
meets, both outdoor and indoor, and for Freshmen ;
and the effect of this competition upon the standard of
athletics is considerable. It inevitably develops the
University athlete in a way that can only be attained in
England by entry in open competition ; for the intra-
mural meetings, which the College system permits at
Oxford and Cambridge, possess nothing like the im-
portance, and involve not a tithe of the competition,
that do the American dual meets. In American Uni-
versities, built up almost entirely upon the fraternity
system (i.e. groups of about thirty men living together),
intra-mural sport is impracticable ; were it not for the
bias towards specialisation, excess and, sometimes,
ultra-seriousness, one would recognise the Inter-Uni-
versity matches as being not only necessary, but also
beneficial.
Not only in this respect is the American system at
variance with the British. In the organisation of
athletics there are differences from Oxford and Cam-
bridge, where there is no official control on the part of
the 'Varsity authorities. In most American Universities
all athletic sports are either under the control of faculty
committees or, indirectly, of the alumni who finance the
games, and the undergraduate committees have little
say. Unfortunately, at the beginning of the century
the system became corrupt. Games were taken too
seriously, alumni and undergraduates, and, of course,
coaches dependent upon success for their appointments,
desired victory at all hazards, and unscrupulous poaching
of promising schoolboys and doubtful tactics in the
games were evils which had to be checked. In 1906
many of the Colleges, including Harvard, Yale, Prince-
ton and Pennsylvania, agreed upon many reformatory
changes and eligibility rules, which need not be further
specified here, beyond mentioning that Freshmen were
debarred from competition for a year, save against each
E 65
ATHLETICS
other ; and the high standard and purity of competition
ever since have been the object of much admiration.
Nevertheless, there still exist problems to confront
'Varsity athletics in America ; and the charge of special-
isation continues to be made, not without some ground.
It must be recalled, however, that the American
undergraduate is differently situated from his English
cousin. His time is more strictly apportioned ; he
encounters more competition ; he is usually governed
by a stern coach who details him to practise a particular
event until he attains perfection. It is still natural for
an American to put winning first : it is in the tempera-
ment of a young nation. Consequently, he accepts this
dictation, which no English undergraduate would
dream of stomaching ; and one remembers the astonish-
ment, quickly followed by appreciation, with which an
Oxford-Cambridge team visiting Harvard and Yale was
received when it was stated that they had no coach with
them but were guided by their captain and trained them-
selves. Of course, more acute competition, especially in
field events, obliges Americans to specialise more in
order to obtain places in their teams ; but even they are
realising as the result of fraternising with English
undergraduates that one may enjoy and excel in sport
and still call one's soul one's own.
It has been pointed out already that the majority of
American athletes are University men, in distinct con-
trast with the position in England. Many of these upon
leaving the University are compelled to retire from
competition owing to the exigencies of professional or
business life ; and in consequence the number of clubs
outside the Universities is relatively small. Those few,
it must be observed, rank high ; and such clubs as the
New York A.C., perhaps the most famous, as it is the
oldest, have wielded a powerful and beneficent influence
over the game,
It was in fact through the match between the London
A,C. and the New York A.C. in America in 1895, * n
66
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
which the home team swept the board, and the matches
between Oxford and Yale in London (1894) and Cam-
bridge and Yale in America (1895), ^ at ^e links be-
tween the athletes of the two nations, which had already
been forged by the sporadic visits of individual per-
formers, including W. G. George and L. E. Myers,
were cemented. In their subsequent history these Inter-
'Varsity matches assumed a remarkable importance,
particularly after the Great War when they played no
mean part in drawing the two nations together, and a
brief account of their progress is given here.
In 1899 a joint Harvard and Yale team visited London
and was defeated by Oxford and Cambridge by 5 events
to 4 ; two years later in New York the Americans had
their revenge, 6-3 ; and they won by the same margin
in England in 1904, when their superiority in the
sprints and field events outweighed the English strength
in the longer distances. After rather a lengthy lapse,
Oxford and Cambridge again entertained the Americans
in 1911, and won 5-4, taking the sprints for the first
time ; and since the re-institution of the meetings in
1921 the match has become biennial in each country in
turn. At the Harvard Stadium in 1921 the Americans
overwhelmed Oxford and Cambridge by 8-2, and seven
new records, including a world's record in the long jump,
were established. Two years later, at Wembley,
Oxford-Cambridge won by 6J 5^, the programme
having been enlarged ; in 1925, at Harvard, there being
a tie on first places. Harvard and Yale obtained the
verdict on seconds ; and in 1927, at Stamford Bridge,
Oxford and Cambridge again proved successful, this
time by 7 events to 5.
Meanwhile, a similar series of matches with Oxford
and Cambridge had been inaugurated by Princeton
and Cornell, Princeton had beaten Oxford at Queen's
Club in 1920 by 6 events to 4 ; and when the joint
Oxford-Cambridge team was in America in the following
year they met and tied with a united team from Princeton
67
ATHLETICS
and Cornell. Four years later, at Atlantic City, the
English Universities won somewhat easily by 9^ events
to 2f ; but in 1926, in London, they were successful
by the narrower margin of 75.
Before leaving this account of Inter-' Varsity athletics
allusion should be made to the Penn relays, at which
both Oxford and Cambridge have several times com-
peted with success. The University of Pennsylvania
was really responsible for the application of the relay
idea to amateur athletics ; and their famous inter-
collegiate and inter-scholastic relays were first held
as long ago as 1895. ^ n I 9 I 4 ^ e most sensational
race of its kind ever run was the 4 miles relay which
the Oxonian, A. N. S. Jackson, won on the post
from Louis Madeira of Pennsylvania, a victory even
narrower than that so closely gained by Cyril Ellis
over Lloyd Hahn in the 4 miles in the British Empire
v. U.S.A. match in 1928. After the War Oxford and
Cambridge sent across a joint team which won and set
up a world's record for the 2 miles relay ; since 1922 an
almost annual interchange of visits has occurred, in
which the English Universities have had perhaps more
than their meed of success.
Finally, one may offer a few observations on the extra-
ordinary prowess of American athletes, demonstrated
time after time in Inter-'Varsity or Olympic contests.
This prowess may be partly attributable to ability, to
numbers, to coaching, to competition. It is enhanced
by specialisation, to which the English genius is opposed,
but which the American accepts under the strain of
greater competition. Keenness must also be considered
as partly responsible : few Englishmen have the patience
or the enthusiasm necessary to spend their days in falling
1 2 or 1 3 feet on to the back of their heads, or in being
thrown by the hammer ! But probably more important
than these reasons is the extent to which the sport is
developed among schoolboys. The existence of school
leagues, of high school games, of inter-scholastic cham-
68
INTERNATIONAL ATHLETICS
pionships, flat, field and relay, and the coaching and
eager spirit devoted to the encouragement of juvenile
athletics explain much of the skill of the men. The only
drawback is the danger of excess, especially for young-
sters, and the possibility of their " burning out " before
their time. If this be guarded against the system must
be considered sound and not unworthy of adoption in
this country.
CHAPTER IV
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
FOR two authors who have had the temerity to
adopt the simple title of " Athletics " for their
book it is certainly fortunate that present-day
usage has limited the scope of that term to a considerable
extent. If, indeed, instead of applying merely to what
is now known as " Track and Field Athletics," it stood
as an abbreviation of " Athletic Sports," any generalised
discussion on the subject would devolve into a treatise on
most of the physical activities of the human race !
It is of interest to note the derivation of the word
" athletic," in that it throws a light on what must, there-
fore, be the inherent underlying principle of all sport.
The word is derived from the Greek aOXta), meaning " to
contend for a prize>" (a0Ao/z). In other words, com-
petition appears to be the corner-stone of the temple of
sport. But though the many and composite parts of
this temple to-day embody a multitudinous variety of
sports, the foundations still remain unchanged, and they
are " athletics " in the more or less limited sense as
stated above.
For track and field athletics or, more simply, running,
jumping and throwing must ever hold pride of
place among all sports, not only on account of their
seniority, but owing to the fact that they or their
adjuncts form an essential part of all their subsequent
off-shoots. We are told that one of the primary instincts
of man is self-preservation, and undoubtedly one of the
chief means by which this instinct of escape from danger
is operated is by movement rapid movement combined
70
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
with ability to overcome all possible obstacles in other
words, running, jumping and throwing.
And if, on this basis, our prehistoric ancestors were
athletes, it is reasonable to suppose that by now one can
recognise some underlying general principles of the
sport.
Let us take the key to these as " competition," the
desire to prove oneself superior in some respect to one's
fellow-beings.
As a true ideal this, stated as a bald fact, does not,
perhaps, appear to carry with it the right spirit. But on
a slightly deeper consideration of the subject it must
surely appear that to accomplish this desire in any degree
the individual must be possessed of, and must develop,
qualities not only physical but also intellectual and,
even more important, moral the acquirement of which
is a process that must in all fairness be held very largely
responsible for the progress of civilisation.
Perhaps a brief consideration of each of these various
groups of* qualities " may serve to show wherein lies the
intrinsic value of athletics. At the outset it must be
fully realised that it is not any one of the component parts
in particular but the composite sum of the ideals, the
attributes and the characteristics of sport that make it
of general interest and, it may almost be said, vital
importance to the world to-day,
Naturally, one's mind springs first to the consideration
of the physical aspect, the aspect which, since athletics
is basically a sport involving the exercise of bodily
functions in various respects and various degrees, un-
doubtedly is of primary concern. In view of a theory
recently promulgated in the medical world the physical
may be considered as having an even greater claim to
initial recognition. A group of medical scientists have
now evolved the hypothesis that the mind and even the
spirit as entities separate from the body simply do not
exist. We have in our bodies certain glands, known as
the endocrine glands, or glands of internal secretion,
ATHLETICS
which, since their precise function is almost unknown as
yet, are considerably exercising the minds of the medical
world to-day. And it is now put forward that the mind
by which term we attempt to express the outcome of the
physiological processes of the brain's activity is devel-
oped and controlled in response to the degree of func-
tioning of these glands. And further, as our moral or
spiritual side is the result of our powers of appreciation
by the brain, that these glands are indirectly responsible
for this part of our make-up also ! However this may
be and there is much of proven fact in the theory
athletics demand a physical basis. It is little use possess-
ing all the desire and determination in the world to be
an athlete if one is without the necessary physical
attributes. But here the question may arise as to what
one means by " necessary " ; this of course must always
be a relative matter. We read of the " born athlete "
the man who comes into the world with sufficient
natural ability, sufficient physical perfection to make
him always, from the start, superior to his fellows.
But it is not to this minority that athletics brings its
greatest gifts. It is to the average human being who
is possessed of all his physical powers to no abnormal
extent- and can, by participation in the sport, enhance
these powers to the extent that he becomes gradually a
better man. In other words, from the general point of
view, it is as the means of raising the physical standard
in toto that athletics has importance : it should be a
" health-giver " the means whereby can come the
fulfilment of that very old and hackneyed but very true
and valued adage Mens sana in corpore sano.
That this is indeed a very general expression of
principle will be evident from a consideration of an
interesting fact about which one has often been ques-
tioned, namely the rarity of finding what are admitted
as the world's greatest scholars, either of history or of
to-day, displaying any particular physical prowess. And,
again, how seldom has the noted athlete been a man to
72
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
make his mark in the scholastic world. We think that,
with a few exceptions, one is bound to admit the truth
of these assertions, which superficially seem to point to
an equilibrium being maintained between the mental
and the physical. And surely it is this equilibrium, this
balance that one hopes the sport of athletics will perfect.
We would not be without our " super-athletes, " we
could not be without our " super-brains, " but it is the
average of the two and the betterment of that average
that should be aimed at, as conducive to the general
improvement of man.
One wants the " healthy body " and the " healthy
mind " to progress hand in hand, for the two are essenti-
ally interdependent. The higher the universal standard
of physical fitness can be raised, the greater is the
possibility of finding suitable lodging-place for a gener-
ally improved mental level. And thus one comes back
to the foundation-stone of athletics.
Any degree of proficiency in the sport demands a
healthy, clean-living existence, a constant and careful
attention to the bodily wants, and a progressive under-
standing of the rudiments of hygiene and physiological
processes.
Naturally one is not supposing that the runner goes
on to the track with any of these ideas circulating in his
mind, but nevertheless his training and his active
participation in the sport all tend to make him an^uncon-
scious advocate of these essential principles of healthy
community life. And it is by no means always an
unconscious supporter. The majority of athletes have,
at any rate at the back of their minds, the thought that
beyond the amusement, the pleasure and excitement of
the sport they are taking good, healthy exercise, and
taking it because they realise that the results of physical
exertion produce an added efficiency in their work,
and an added happiness in their homes and their life
generally.
Athletics teaches a man how to make best use of his
73
ATHLETICS
energy, how to apply the physical gifts which God has
given him to the best of his ability, and this economic
knowledge gained on the track becomes automatically
applied to his business and his existence as a whole, thus
tending in the aggregate to a higher standard of effici-
ency. Similarly, the lessons of physical control and of
physical co-ordination come to have a general application,
whilst in themselves playing their part in the perfecting
of that very beautiful machine of nature the human
body.
In their essentials the advantages of athletics accrue
from the formation of habits and from the development
of method. The more good habits one can form, the
more bad habits one can break, the more efficient is one
going to be. For what is a habit ? It is essentially
something one has a possession incorporated in one-
self, a definitely settled and fixed attribute, which, if good,
is by way of being a permanent asset. So much is it part
of oneself that it does not have to be worried about, and
good habits are a gilt-edged security, a capital on which
one can develop the business of life without care. The
more good habits one can form, the further is it possible
to accomplish this development, for they are the things
we do or say or know automatically, leaving us free to
explore further into whatever sphere of activity may be
the particular one of the moment. And from the very
beginning athletics engenders the formation of habits.
Improvement only comes when one has mastered
sufficient minor detail to allow an action to be performed
almost subconsciously, whilst the rest of the body is free
to concentrate on further means of expansion of effort.
And method, too ! How much one learns from track
training. Looking back it is possible to see how many
hundred and one little things seemed to upset one, until
one evolved one's own plans of action, until one learnt
to conserve one's energy till the vital moment when
every ounce of it was needed. Method and habit side
by side they go, the one dependent on the other, both
74
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
equally valuable possessions, both equally essential pro-
ducts of the training and the exercise or athletics.
Two more attributes that one may call physical should
perhaps be considered before one's discussion merges
imperceptibly into the mental side of the question.
These are, firstly, stamina, and secondly, speed.
Widely apart though they may be, these qualities are
really closely related, for surely the maintenance of speed
in movement calls for the existence of reserves in energy.
And this opens up the whole question of fitness a
subject more fully dealt with later, but here one wants
just to appreciate the good athletics does in inculcating
the principles of rapidity of action, which in everyday
life become translated into rapidity of thought, and of
the power of continuity of action, which applies just as
much to all other aspects of life as it does to the physical.
Though so far we have stressed the physical side of
athletics, perhaps it is the mental side which holds the
real appeal. Even the condition of perfect physical
fitness finds its expression in that glorious feeling of
well-being which only the trained athlete can truly
appreciate. It is the knowledge of confidence in one's
physical self rather than its actual existence that one
appreciates. And, of course, despite all medical theories,,
we are still bound to acknowledge to-day the mind as
the master of the body. However perfect the anatomical
and physiological functions of our body, they are useless
without a mind to govern them ; however great the
physical ability with which one is endowed, it will never
reach its maximum possibilities without the assistance
and control of the mind. By mind, of course, in this
respect one means brain, and in particular, one's con-
scious effort. For that movement is possible without
conscious effort is shown by our breathing whilst asleep,
or, better still, by our hearts, which never cease to move
for the average threescore years and ten ! But it is in
the development of our " conscious brains " that
athletics plays such a big r6le,
75
ATHLETICS
The physical habits and the physical method referred
to above glean their importance chiefly from their auto-
matic production of mental habits and mental method,
for it is by these that the benefits of athletics become
applied to our general lives. It is the mind which
receives and appreciates the feelings and sensations pro-
duced by the physical effort involved in athletic com-
petition, and which translates them into such form that
they are recognisable either as immediate perceptions of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction, joy or disappointment, or
as assets of knowledge applicable both locally to athletics
or generally to one's whole life.
Athletics demands from beginning to end patience
and perseverance ; it, calls for the development of will
power and of determination ; it teaches judgment and
control ; and what six finer mental attributes could one
ask for in any man than these ? Essentially the sport
is one of self-discipline, and the boy who takes it up
seriously is assured of a mental equipment which will
stand him in invaluable stead in later years.
Like most other things in life, athletics can only be
made a success if one " gives one's mind to it," but the
gift is mutual, for what one gives to atliletics with one
hand is put back into the other, and often with interest
added. The successful athlete is the man who knows
not only what he is doing, but why he is doing it ; there
must always be complete co-operation between mind and
body if the optimum is to be achieved, and athletics
forms an ideal meeting-ground where both can be
suitably exercised in conjunction the one with the other.
Patience and perseverance in acquiring technique,
in continued honest training, and in dealing with one's
instructors and fellow-athletes ; will power and deter-
mination to overcome all difficulties, to put up with all
transient set-backs, and to cultivate the knowledge of
ability to succeed ; judgment and control in training,
in learning to make the most of oneself, in appreciating
one's individual advantages whilst at the same time
76
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
knowing one's limitations, and in conquering either one's
unnecessary nervousness or one's unwarranted self-
assurance. All these qualities and many more are the
material outcome of the existence of the all-important
mental side of athletics.
Very closely connected with this, perhaps really part
of it, is what we Ijave called the moral or spiritual side
of the sport. That it has such a side as a separate entity
may be # a very controversial question, but we prefer to
separate certain attributes as being really neither physical
nor mental, though admittedly produced by the one and
controlled by the other. What can athletics do with
regard to the development of character ? Surely the
points mentioned in the preceding paragraph must in
themselves form a very sound basis, and yet there seems
something even beyond this, something rather apart
from the purely technical side of the question, something
which is just the spirit of the Game.
It is a side of which ordinarily we consciously think
but little and talk less, and yet at heart it is probably the
side of athletics we prize most deeply the playing of
the game as a game for the game's sake ! In this respect
we revert again to the underlying idea expressed in the
word " athletic " namely competition.
Cpnsure has been levelled at athletics as a sport in
that it is essentially so selfish, so much a matter of the
individual ; but whilst admitting that, until the relatively
recent introduction of relay and team races, the team
spirit was unavoidably lacking, it must in all fairness
be reckoned that this very want was responsible for the
production of very much that was admirable in the solo
runner. Literally, he certainly has only himself to con-
sider, but surely the development of the right attitude
towards one's competitors is almost more difficult to
achieve in perfection than the acquisition of the " team
spirit." One does not wish in the slightest degree to
belittle this spirit, for it has been the one thing wanting
to make athletics as fine a sport as any yet invented, but
77
ATHLETICS
it behoves us to appreciate the intrinsic good that can
come to the individual from participation in the sport.
It teaches him to be a " sportsman/' using that word in
its finest and truest sense as the man who enters com-
petition with a smile ; who accepts either victory or
defeat, whichever may come his way, with the same
smile ; who competes because he enjoys competing,
enjoys the good, clean fun of it ; who possesses an
abundance of self-confidence flavoured always with a.
suitable modicum of modesty ; who knows that a race
is never lost until it is won, and is always a hundred per
cent, trier ; the man who appreciates the value of the
sport in which he is participating outside its merit as a
medium of training of mind and body, and who recog-
nises the deeper values of associations formed, of assess-
ing at their true worth the good points and the bad points
of his fellow-sportsmen, and learning from both him-
self ; who is ever ready to lend a helping hand to his
weaker brethren, either in training or in competition ;
the man who has pluck, and who never knows when he
is beaten.
Of such material are the true sportsmen made
simply innate gentlemen of the track and it is a
pleasant thought to realise that there are many to-day
who embody almost every one of these characteristics.
We have said " innate " because this side of an athlete
is essentially a part of him as an individual these
attributes are not really those that can be taught to a
man ; but, on the other hand, they can be brought out if
they are there by the associations of the sport, and there
are many, also, that can be learnt from athletics, provided
always the intrinsic moral basis is there on which to
build. It is the case par excellence where example is
better than precept, and it greatly behoves everyone who
has the cause of true sport at heart to inculcate into the
rising generation of athletes the ideals of the game to
ensure in as far as is possible that every athlete is not
only a man, but also a sportsman.
78
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
And now, having to some small extent dissected into
its component parts the sport of athletics, may one be
allowed to assemble them all again and consider briefly
the relation of the whole to some aspects of this world
of ours to-day ?
We have seen that athletics has what may be termed
its physiological, its psychological and its sociological
sides, and this statement alone is sufficient to prove what
an all-encompassing sport it is.
The physiological helps us to attain a higher standard
of physical fitness, enabling us to take a fuller and more
active part in the lives we have to lead, ensuring a brisk
and vigorous youth, and a comfortable passage to a riper
and richer old age than would otherwise be the case.
The psychological gives us a mental training pro-
ductive of sounder judgment, of greater receptive powers,
of quicker intuitions and decisions, of a generally in-
creased aptitude for the meeting of those tasks and
difficulties which life presents to each and all of us.
Whilst the sociological enables us the better to under-
stand our fellow-men, to derive a greater satisfaction
from ordinary things, to appreciate to a deeper and fuller
extent the relative values of those intangible qualities
of life which make one live rather than simply exist
in other words, to form our characters and to realise the
worth of the process of formation of character in others.
To endow athletics with the production of all these
characteristics may be considered by some to be some-
what of an exaggeration, but one does feel that it,
perhaps more than any other sport, offers great potential-
ities, and this because of the individual element which,
perforce, bulks so largely. It is the personal character-
istics of the athlete which classify him, no matter how
much the scientific aspect is grafted on to him. And it
is in this respect that the sport becomes so important.
For by influencing the individual for his general better-
ment, so are we tending to improve the whole national
standard, and, for that matter, the human standard.
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ATHLETICS
Thus athletics has come to be an integral part of a
boy's education. It is realised that no amount of school
work pure and simple will turn out the right type of man,
if the qualities to be developed on the playing field are
not catered for also. It is not by sitting at a desk adding
up figures that a boy learns to become a man worthy of
taking an adequate place in the hurly-burly of modern
life. It is in the utilisation and development of his
natural talent and individuality in the elementary sports
of running, jumping and throwing that he learns to be
a man that he learns control of himself that he learns
his dependence on his fellows and yet the power of
standing alone and, above all, that he learns to be a
sportsman.
The method by which this knowledge is acquired or
instilled has become a matter of vital importance to
educational authorities a matter that has of late in the
reconstructional years since the War been very much in
the minds of scientists and psychologists alike. For it
is now being realised more fully than ever before how
much the future of the youth of the world depends upon
the complete fulfilment of the old quotation mentioned
at the beginning " A healthy mind in a healthy body."
One without the other tends towards the production of
an inferior type of man. And hence one finds a world-
wide movement to include in any educational curri-
culum a standardised physical training programme run-
ning parallel to the previously existing scholastic one.
This to us in England, perhaps, seems no novelty,
for we have now for so many years built up the tradition
of sport that it automatically takes its place in the range
of our life's activities. And for this reason perhaps it
seems perfectly fair to reiterate what one so often hears,
that Britain really is the " home of sport." And the
sense in which this is said namely that it is rather the
" spirit of sport " than achievement or superiority in
sport is the very thing that gives it such immense
value to us as a nation.
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Now that the idea has become so prevalent all over
the world, it behoves us all the more to be broad-minded
enough to endeavour to improve our standard by learning
from those who have been so willing to accept the basis
of that idea from us, to honour the spirit of the game
which underlies every British sport.
We have been discussing this in such general terms
that its application to this particular book may not be
immediately evident, but we feel sure that even the most
rabid partisan of other sports will admit the greater
applicability of pure athletics to the people as a whole.
This national aspect of athletics is one of considerable
importance and interest to-day. Every day one hears
of the birth of athletics as a sport in one country, the
revival of it in another, the growth of it in yet a third
and slowly but surely the time is coming when the
nations of the world will find a common meeting-ground
in the athletic field, a meeting-ground where it is possible,
if not probable, that relatively as much will be done to-
wards the fostering of both national individuality and
spirit, and at the same time international amity and under-
standing, as is now done by diplomatic conferences and
international congresses.
This is admittedly an ideal, but an ideal that is possible
of more and more fulfilment as time goes on, for with
all their present disadvantages and difficulties one feels
that the international athletic meetings of to-day are
steadily producing the right international atmosphere;
and what is more, this realisation is gradually dawning
upon those in whose hands lies the national welfare of
individual countries.
Bearing in mind this widest of all possible applications
of the underlying principles of athletics, it is pertinent
to consider briefly the closely related subjects of amateur-
ism and specialisation, and in this consideration it is
essential to take the very broadest outlook with regard
to these questions in view of the controversies which
now so widely rage over them.
F 81
ATHLETICS
From a purely athletic standpoint one appreciates
equally and impartially the actual ability of a runner
irrespective of whether he be amateur or professional.
Nature's gifts are bestowed upon one individual human
being more than another, regardless of what use he
ultimately makes of them, and should he decide to use
them as his means of livelihood that surely is his own
particular concern. The trouble over this question has
come in the drawing of the " amateur line/' though one
would think it was really a very simple matter. If a man
earns his living by athletics he is a professional, and
probably perfectly content to be so ; if he earns his living
in some other walk of life he is not a professional, pro-
vided always he accepts the results of his achievements
in competitions in the form of a tea-tray or a silver cup
and never their equivalent cash value. If, however, he
should receive financial remuneration indirectly from the
sporty as, for example, in the cases of the coach and the
athletic journalist, then for reasons very hard to com-
prehend by any average man who is not possessed of a
tortuous mentality, the former must according to
present-day rulings forfeit his amateur status, whilst
the latter is perfectly entitled to retain his surely a
most anomalous position.
The dissatisfactions of to-day come from these almost
farcical limitations which bind down the definition of
an amateur limitations the inevitable circumvention of
which almost necessitates hypocritical subterfuges if the
present-day world-wide interest in athletics is to be at
all satisfied.
This is by no means a plea for the spread of profession-
alism. Actually the opposite is the point one wishes to
make, but until such time as a much more liberal and
broad-minded interpretation is allowed of the amateur
status, it seems impossible that athletics will be able to
attain to its greatest ideal.
What one would advocate is the widening of the
definition to the utmost limit, to allow the greatest
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES
possible participation in athletics reckoning it not as
a sport to turn out the few super-men, but as a healthy
recreation and exercise to produce the maximum number
of fit human beings.
The rather amusing aspect of the case to-day is that
amateurism is tending all the while to a professional
bias. Such actually is specialisation ! We have come
to think of athletics far too much in terms of its great
exponents, we feed on broken records, we look upon
the Olympic Games, for instance, as the apex of all
athletic achievement and in so doing we neglect and
disregard the far more important, the far deeper aspect
of the sport as a field for the development of the many
to the betterment of mankind generally.
Athletic achievement has become a god, a god whose
clutching hands draw on the few for the eyes or the world
to feast on, while forgetting if not actually repressing
the many upon whom, after all, our general progress
depends. The super-amateurs are tending to make the
sport a business, and this is a bias that must at all costs
be avoided if the game is to retain its ideals.
It can fairly be said that this monopoly of the advan-
tages offered by athletics is less evident in England than
almost anywhere else in the world. This is due to our
long acquaintance with the idea of taking sport as a
game, the outcome of our peculiar national character-
istics, exactly in the same way as these are elsewhere
responsible for excessive specialisation in and com-
mercialisation of athletics.
The European countries, to whom athletics is, on any
scale, a comparatively new proposition, have gone whole-
heartedly into the question, have realised that definite
good can accrue to the community from an organised
and standardised participation in athletics, and have
acted accordingly. The United States, having appreci-
ated their various advantages, particularly geographical
and financial, have set out to produce champions and,
incidentally, have succeeded on a wholesale scale but
ATHLETICS
surely athletics in America has tended to become too
much of a business, too much the end-all and be-all
of many young men's lives instead of simply an
advantageous side-line to those lives. The British
Dominions, starting from the invaluable basis of the
Mother Country's ideals, have suffered less ; the
Eastern world is still relatively young as regards
modern organised athletics ; and England, she follows
somewhat lethargically (for luckily the old spirit of the
game for the game's sake dies hard) in the path of
the present-day business-like record-breaking cult of
athletics.
None are without their faults ; all are deserving of
due praise ; but let us not, in the hurry and scurry of the
struggle to produce ever greater and greater individual
perfection, sacrifice or at any rate lose sight of the under-
lying basic principles of athletics.
We want our athletic " giants " just as we want our
great " brains," but we want them as incentives and as
examples, not simply as perfected mechanisms through
which to advertise. We feel sure that those who have
the cause of athletics most deeply a^ heart will endorse
the opinion that if athletics are to retain their very
definite ideals they must be thrown open more and more
to the average man to all men ! And surely enough,
in the process, the great athletes will still be found,
without the selfish hot-house production by to-day's
specialisation methods.
The sport must be part of youth's education, it must
be used to develop the right kind of body governed by
the right kind of mind, and embodying the right kind
of ideals.
Athletics is a sport essentially for the millions, and
only through working in the direction of rendering it
available to the millions can it be enabled to fulfil the
part for which it is so eminently suited, the part of a
power for good in the general improvement of mankind.
CHAPTER V
TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT
Section i . Training
IT is natural to suppose that any authors embarking
upon the discussion of an already controversial topic
do so with a certarin amount of trepidation. With
regard to " Training," however, over which has raged,
perhaps, more heated, persistent and unnecessary con-
troversy than over any other aspect of athletics, we state
frankly that we are daunted by no such anxiety ; and
this because in the subsequent pages devoted to this
question we have endeavoured to express all our
opinions upon the simple basis of sound common sense !
We contend that for the athlete who trains himself,
for the trainer of athletes and also for the writer upon
training, common sense is the fundamental basis upon
which success depends. Approached from the broad-
minded point of view, training in all its multitudinous
aspects resolves itself into a relatively simple problem.
Common sense has led to the realisation that with regard
to training the working unit is the individual, and that
every man must evolve and pursue his own system;
common sense has brought about the abolition of those
hard-and-fast rules of right and wrong and those ancient
shibboleths which rendered training in bygone days a
period of trial and tribulation. Common sense has shown
that the mind requires training as well as the body ;
common sense has demonstrated the value of applying
scientific methods and research to training in theory
and in practice, and common sense has taught us that
to every still existing rule there are exceptions.
ATHLETICS
Training is most satisfactorily divided into general and
special. With the latter department we do not intend
to deal here, as under each separate event described in
subsequent chapters will be found comments and sug-
gestions relative to particular training methods for that
event. It is of the subject of general training that we
wish to treat by a consideration of the underlying general
principles, by a short survey of the more important
details of the question, by a few words in regard to those
important people in this connection trainers and by
a brief glimpse at some more pertinent medical and
scientific aspects.
i. General Considerations. What does one mean by
training in its general sense ? Let us begin with the
truism that for each living human being there is a set
definite level of physical and mental fitness wh'ch he
maintains almost automatically, apart from such un-
accountable contingencies as severe illness or accident,
according to his or her own particular environment,
heredity and conditions of living. This may be called
the threshold level and of course is subject to wide varia-
tion according to the individual. Stepping one way from
this threshold comes loss of health and ultimate illness ;
stepping the other comes the elementary stage of train-
ing training in its most general sense, by which is
implied a definite ordering of one's ordinary everyday
life. This means that from a health point of view the
conditions of one's life are consciously altered and
ameliorated within that particular range permissible to
each individual. In other words, instead of living an
ordinary and possibly slipshod life, one makes conscious
efforts deliberately to live a healthy life to as great an
extent as means and circumstances permit. These
conscious efforts form the rudiments of training. By
them one attempts to avoid excesses of any sort, to
develop habits of cleanliness and care, to devote a certain
amount of time and attention to the improvement of one's
physical and mental condition, to give some study to the
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TRAINING
theoretical aspects of the psychological and physiological
processes of one's mind and body, to practise a certain
amount of self-denial whilst at the same time engendering
a spirit of genuine cheerfulness, to be regular, systematic
and thorough in a word, to lead the " simple life.'*
For the athlete this level of physical fitness should be
his minimum that is, he should never be out of training
in this sense, for between seasons of actual competitive
effort he should never drop to his threshold value, which
amounts definitely to " going soft," but must lead the
regular healthy existence discussed above. Then at any
time he is prepared, within a short but definite interval,
to get fit for actual track competition. And this process
of " getting fit " from the already generally sound
physical condition consequent upon his leading an
average healthy existence constitutes training in the
more particular sense as applied to the athlete. It is a
process by which the already fit body and mind, capable
of fulfilling all their functions truly and well under
ordinary normal conditions of life, are prepared to meet
the excessive demands made on them by the sudden or
rapid production of the maximum output of energy as
required by participation in athletics, and, furthermore,
to render this production as economic an expenditure as
possible by the development of that perfected co-
operation of mind and body which is " co-ordination."
The athlete's training, then, aims at the highest
possible degree of combined physical and mental
efficiency. It is the means by which the healthy indi-
vidual is polished up into the racing athlete. This aim
is to be achieved essentially by exertion physical and
mental that is, by following out the old maxim that
" practice makes perfect." But practice to produce
perfection must be persistent and persevering ; it must
involve close and meticulous attention to all the varied
details of training technique ; it must be given thought,
i.e. a man must learn not only what he is doing but also
the why and wherefore of it ; it demands much patience
87
ATHLETICS
and not a little self-denial ; and of exertion both quantity
and quality. Admittedly the golden rule of training is
" Never overwork/' leave every real exhaustive effort to
actual competition ; but, on the other hand, it is almost
as bad a sin to do too little. It is necessary to begin
slowly and steadily and work up until the optimum
amount of exertion for any particular individual as
nearly as possible coincides with his possible maximum.
And having reached that stage do what has to be done
well, do it thoroughly, do enough of it and then be done
with it. No training course should ever be attempted
in haphazard fashion, but always made to follow a
definite schedule. By such systematic and progressive
methods unnecessary expenditure of energy is avoided
and quantity with quality becomes more and more a
feasible achievement.
Let it not be imagined from the above description
that training is a strictly rigorous process, not particu-
larly conducive to happiness in fact, rather a time of
trial altogether. In the olden days this was undoubtedly
so, as the ancient history of training tells us. The Greeks
used to segregate their chosen athletes and put them
through a most arduous course of self-denial and self-
discipline for months before some particularly big
competition. Figs, cheese, bread and meat formed the
staple articles of their diet, whilst their exercises in-
cluded such astounding performances as bending iron
rods, carrying and lifting heavy weights, and even tam-
ing bulls ! though, oddly enough, they were permitted
unlimited supplies of alcohol. Coming to more recent
times, when athletics about the middle of last century
became an organised sport, training systems were even
more rigid, in fact were often definitely injurious and
cruel, and even consumption of fluids was reduced to an
almost impossible degree, whilst the various deadly ills to
which the prospective athlete's body was evidently then so
prone were scotched by most drastic methods, of which
emetics and severe purges were amongst the kindest.
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TRAINING
To-day, however, training methods seem definitely
to have reached an epoch of enlightenment. Though
some of the old myths and superstitions are dying hard,
the general tendency is to accept no set rules for training,
but to treat each individual on his merits, working always
on that ever-essential basis of common sense. Every
athlete presents a separate and distinct problem, the
solution of which as regards training methods he himself
or his trainer will only find after careful study and
investigation. It is obvious that there can be no panacea
for all the ills of lack of good condition and for all types
of men. The little man and the big man, the strong
man and the weak man, the dull man and the intelligent
man, the nervous man and the stolid man each and all
have their own particular requirements. They can all
ultimately attain to the same end the highest possible
degree of physical and mental efficiency but they must
travel there by various routes, each route suitable to the
type concerned, and hence the foolhardiness of expressing
any dogmatic opinion upon some particular point in
training or, for that matter, the whole of it.
The mental side of training is one which has become
appreciated a great deal more of recent times, and a
highly important side it undoubtedly is. The body is
really the servant of the mind, and hence, however
strenuously one attempts to improve the condition of
the former, unless the latter is suitably attuned to the
effort but little will result. It is vital that the athlete in
training should cultivate, if he does not already possess,
the happy, contented disposition. Worry is a factor
which must as far as possible be completely eliminated,
and the successful athlete should be a cheerful soul, who
gets great pleasure out of living for sixty seconds every
minute. Anxiety is, of course, another thing, and
though usually anxiety does not amount to actual fear, it
should be conquered to as great an extent as* possible : first,
because it is very often the outcome of over-indulged
introspective faculties and excessive imagination and
ATHLETICS
anticipation ; and secondly, because it necessarily involves
a loss of nervous energy, all of which is doubtless
urgently required elsewhere. Closely related to the
subject of anxiety is that peculiar phenomenon known
by the picturesque terms of " the needle " and " getting
the wind up." It is a feeling appreciated by the athlete
before some important or, with some, before any
contest. The length of time before varies greatly with
the individual temperament, as do also the relative
amounts of the two essential factors of the sensation,
excitement and nervousness. The former is an asset in
that it provides that most necessary eagerness, that
feeling of being " on the toes," that means so much at
the start of any race. The latter is distinctly a drawback,
and is usually an indication either of insufficient or un-
satisfactory training, or of too much training, i.e. stale-
ness (of which more will be said anon), with its conse-
quent lack of self-confidence. And self-confidence of
the right sort is an asset which the athlete cannot afford
to be without. It is primarily the outcome of persever-
ing conscientious practice, as will be stressed in sub-
sequent chapters dealing with the particular events.
Nervousness, on the other hand, leads to a wasteful
dissipation of energy, accompanied very often by an
equally disadvantageous sensation of chilliness, the
effects of which will be obvious almost before the gun is
fired. To counteract in some degree the ill-effects of
" wind up " and also, incidentally, to enhance all the
good done by training, one cannot do better than
recommend the practice of having an understanding
friend at hand.
The mental side of training involves also the cultiva-
tion of self-discipline and will power, which find their
expression in what we recognise as pluck. This, of
course, does not imply that the life of the athlete in
training must in any way correspond to the rigorous
existence of the ascetic, but simply that he must learn
to know himself, to become the master of his own
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TRAINING
destiny. Furthermore, there must be developed powers
of rational judgment and of relative appreciation of the
things one sees and hears. For instance, when listening
to a trainer, or when watching an expert exponent of
some particular event, one must develop the faculty of
weeding out that which is useful to oneself and that
which is simply the peculiar eccentricity of the person
concerned. In other words, mind and body must be
trained side by side, for just as important as the physi-
cally fit body is the clear-thinking, capable brain.
2. Detailed Considerations (a) Diet. The ques-
tion of food in training is probably one of the most
worked-to-death subjects of controversy in all the many
and various considerations of training. Hence we deal
with it first, and before entering into detailed discussion
on the matter we should like to submit our opinion that
the answer to all questions relative to training diet falls
simply under three heads common sense, regularity and
individual preference. On this basis the subject becomes
simplicity itself. Food fulfils certain vital functions.
We therefore need food. What food is a matter
entirely for the individual to decide for himself; but
when and how he takes this food are matters governed
by general principles of common sense.
Let us briefly consider the component parts of an
ordinary diet. It consists of proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, salts, vitamins and water. The proteins or meaty
foods (e.g. eggs, fish and meat itself) subserve two highly
important functions. They provide energy, and as
athletics demands a goodly supply of this they are
necessary foods, and almost more important, they re-
place the waste in the actual tissues. It is doubtless
because of these two valuable usages that meat became
the staple factor of an athlete's diet. In past days this
idea was carried to excess, and the predominance of
proteins in the modern athlete's diet is still very pre-
valent. It must always be remembered, however, that
an excess of this class of foodstuffs places a heavy and
9'
ATHLETICS
even dangerous strain on the liver and the kidneys,
which are chiefly responsible for its satisfactory
disposal.
**The carbohydrates or starchy foods (e.g. bread,
potatoes, cereals, bananas, oatmeal, biscuits, etc.) are,
since the athlete wants most of all to derive energy from
his diet, really the best foods, for by virtue of their com-
paratively more simple absorption and assimilation by
the body they are capable of the production of the
maximum energy in the minimum time. This accounts
for the popularity of sugar, which comes in this class,
taken a short time prior to competition.
The fats, as exemplified by butter, milk, cream, cheese,
etc., are also valuable foodstuffs, in that they also produce
energy. But since they are assimilated and incorporated
in the body's tissues more slowly and with more difficulty
they do not form such a ready source of supply as the
two previous groups. They act rather as providing a
reserve store of energy which may be called upon in case
of need, when the more available supplies provided by
carbohydrates and proteins have been exhausted.
Salts and vitamins (in fruit, which also contains sugar,
and in vegetables particularly) are also necessities,
though required in relatively smaller proportions.
Water, on the other hand, is required in plenty. The
fact that it is possible for the human body to subsist on
water alone for practically a month shows how vitally
important this item of diet is. In contradistinction to
the ideas prevailing towards the end of last century, it
is now realised that the supply of water to the athlete
should be unlimited. It is an excellent plan to start the
day on rising with a glass of water, and to end it similarly
on going to bed, and in the meantime, but not at meals,
when it simply serves to dilute the gastric juice to an
unnecessary extent, to drink all one wants. It is prefer-
able that water should be taken rather in many short
drinks than in a few large ones, for the latter tend to
dilate and distend the stomach, which, besides the bad
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TRAINING
local effect, may, by pressure on the thoracic organs,
cause trouble with the respiratory and circulatory
functions. Water is a necessity not only for its bene-
ficial effect in generally flushing out the system, but
also because it serves to replenish the supplies of the
body fluids, through which, around and between the
individual cells of our bodies, take place all our vital
physiological processes.
The old idea of an athlete's diet has been briefly
mentioned above an excessive amount of meat un-
accompanied by vegetables and usually partnered by
stale bread the whole combined with a minimum of
fluids. Luckily a more scientific and broad-minded out-
look to-day has done away with such a slur on man's
intelligence. We now realise that the best diet for ah
athlete is a mixed diet, embodying all the above constitu-
ents in such proportions that they appeal to the indi-
vidual : for the best guide to a suitable food is appetite.
If a man likes his food, it will do him good. Similarly,
the best guide to optimum quantity is hunger. As long
as a man is hungry he has not had too much, and average
common sense will naturally advocate a policy of modera-
tion. The athlete must avoid indigestion at all costs,
for this means not only waste of energy which might
well be applied elsewhere, but also the risk of similar
detrimental effects to these mentioned in considering
the drinking of large quantities of water, namely
gastric distention and dilatation. As further aids to
satisfactory digestion one should attempt always to
follow out those two very sound old dicta " eat slowly "
and " chew well " and to this may be added the
advice of, when possible, resting after a meal and thus
giving the stomach a chance to do its job without
interruption.
Having thus shown the advantages of a diet so
balanced as to make good the daily tissue losses and
to provide suitable supplies of energy and with the
changes so rung as to appeal to the individual taste there
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ATHLETICS
only remains the consideration of the third primary
principle regularity. What a meal consists of is really
not nearly so important as when it is taken. We believe
that three reasonable and regular meals a day are ample
for any man in training. On the day of competition the
same policy should be adhered to with discretion. It
is equally foolish to run on an empty stomach as on an
overloaded one. Previous to a race, a moderated meal,
consisting of food known to agree with one (e.g. eggs,
steak, fish, stewed fruit), with perhaps a little less liquid
than usual, and sufficient time allowed for satisfactory
digestion at least two hours is what is required, while
if anything is needed between races, such mild stimulants
as tea, coffee or some meat essence are the best to fall
back upon.
Finally, in training never worry about the details of
diet. Follow the dictates of appetite, use common sense,
and stick to regular hours.
() Smoking. If all the pros and cons of the smoking
habit from the athlete's point of view be reckoned up,
even the confirmed admirer of My Lady Nicotine will
probably admit that the latter outnumber the former by
a rather large majority. Undoubtedly there have been,
and still are, men who can continue to indulge their
smoking propensities and yet produce remarkable and
first-class athletic performances. But as ever comes the
question, Would not these men have been even more
wonderful had they denied themselves this luxury ?
If in a certain few cases the answer to this may be
definitely " No ! " these, nevertheless, must form a
very small minority indeed. Generally speaking, one
cannot see anything good coming to the runner from
smoking. The loss of efficiency due to this habit has
been estimated at various figures ranging from T V per
cent, to % per cent. ; and even accepting the minimum,
the loss over 100 yards is going to be more than 3 inches,
which same small distance has accounted for the win-
ning and the losing of many a good sprint race,
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TRAINING
whilst relatively over half a mile the loss will, even
at the lowest estimate, be the best part of a valuable
yard.
Some, of course, may maintain that such figures,
derived from a more or less purely empirical basis, are
misleading, but when one adds to them the known
pharmaceutical actions of nicotine, then the balance
must definitely sway against smoking. For nicotine
acting on the heart produces both a quicker and less
effective beat, and also a loss of recuperative power in
heart muscle, following severe strain. It acts on the
nervous system by blunting one's powers of appreciation,
an effect particularly marked in the case of the eyesight
if smoking is at all excessive. Again, the carbon monox-
ide gas produced in smoke has a greater affinity for the
haemoglobin of our red blood corpuscles than has oxygen,
and hence in the smoker who inhales there is a relatively
smaller oxygen-carrying capacity for his blood, and, as
will be shown later, less oxygen means less efficient and
less prolonged muscular work. Whilst, finally, nicotine
tends to produce a jaded palate and lack of appetite, with
the ultimately inevitable sequelae of gastritis and in-
digestion.
This, surely, seems a heavy enough indictment to
prefer against any habit, especially when, on the other
side of the balance-sheet, one can put only a by no means
universally accepted sedative effect in times of stress and
nervousness.
However, the habit not only exists but flourishes, and
in this respect one must put in a word of warning which
applies equally well to all bad habits. The process of
breaking them must always be gradual, for in the case
of the inveterate smoker a sudden cessation of his
customary practices may bring evil effects of which
irritability and insomnia are but two of the more
outstanding.
Into a discussion on the relative merits and demerits
of cigarettes and the pipe we do not intend to enter,
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ATHLETICS
except to state that any alternative is preferable to the
pernicious habit of" chain-smoking " of cigarettes.
In general, then, do not smoke ; if you must smoke,
smoke a pipe ; if you cannot, do not inhale your cigar-
ettes, and let these be as few as possible.
(c) Alcohol. Any excessive indulgence in alcohol
is, for the athlete, always and definitely bad. The idea,
which still finds favour in some quarters, of an occasional
thoroughly good break in this direction from the strict
routine of training is a fallacy as, indeed, is any measure
which has not as its groundwork moderation. With
regard to any indulgence in alcohol at all, as usual, one
.cannot afford to be dogmatic, but this, like smoking, is
usually simply a habit, and for the man in training, if not
a bad, at least not a good habit.
We have already mentioned two extremes of more
ancient times in connection with this question the
Greeks, who allowed the alcoholic cravings of their
athletes the fullest satisfaction, and the stalwarts of the
middle of last century, who not only refused to allow
any alcohol at all, but as far as possible prohibited any
fluids whatsoever. One hopes that to-day the common-
sense principles of studying the requirements of the
individual are indications of a happy mean having been
reached. There do definitely seem to exist those people
who, in training, are all the better for their daily pint of
beer or glass of wine, which seems to act as a tonic, whilst
in the case of beer, some actually put forward as an
excuse the small food value which it possesses. But one
feels sure that, apart from exceptional cases and con-
ditions, similar remarks apply as were made concerning
smoking.
Do without alcohol altogether if possible, and if it
must be taken, let it be a minimum quantity. In cases
of illness and, as will be mentioned later, stateness,
alcohol in moderation probably has its place, but it
should always be remembered that, like anaesthetics,
which, incidentally, belong to the same group of drugs,
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TRAINING
alcohol, though temporarily an excitant, is always
essentially a depressant to bodily functions.
(cT) Sleep. Of all the essentials of a good course of
training, sleep ranks with the highest. One quite often
comes across the man who says that whatever liberties
he takes with himself in other respects, the one thing
that tells on him immediately is lack of sleep. And this
is easy to understand when one considers that during
sleep the activity of all the vital physiological processes
is depressed to a minimum, and quietly and gradually
the body is able to compensate for the strain of the pre-
ceding day, whilst at the same time laying up a store of
energy for the morrow.
It is the rest and relaxation, not only of the body as a
whole, as we consider it, but of all its individual systems
and mechanisms, which are the important factors in
sleep. In this respect the value of a daily hour taken off
for relaxation, though not necessarily for sleep, and this
particularly on a day of important competition, cannot
be overstressed.
Much discussion has occurred over the actual length
of time one should sleep. This really is of small import-^-
again it is a matter for the individual but a very useful
average is eight hours, with as much of it as possible
before midnight, providing one qualifies this dictum
with the observation that when one wakes naturally one
should get up. Waking is Nature's tip to us that the
body is ready to function normally again, and it should
be borne in mind that oversleeping, especially if it
becomes a habit, has almost as detrimental an effect on
the athlete as lack of sleep.
But one more word is necessary with regard to sleep,
and this is to point out that sleep without fresh air is
almost as pernicious to the athlete as no sleep at all.
(e) Exercises. Though exercises pertaining to each
particular event are discussed more or less in detail under
corresponding chapters, we have felt that exercises in
general are of such great importance in any training
G 97
ATHLETICS
syllabus as to demand inclusion in these general con-
siderations.
By exercise one implies muscular exertion outside the
sphere of the particular sport for which one is training.
How necessary this was to the athlete was fully appre-
ciated by the ancient Greeks, as has been pointed out
above, who insisted on those in training performing most
arduous tasks.
As regards the time in the athlete's daily routine
during which exercises should be indulged in, one
strongly advocates the ten minutes or so before breakfast,
whether devoted to actual exercises or to a short brisk
walk, and especially if after a cold bath, which just serves
to put one's circulation into fine working order. Nothing
in any way strenuous should, however, be attempted on
an empty stomach. Again, the few minutes before bed
at night are good, whilst if no actual athletic training is
being done on any particular day, some part of the
afternoon of that day should be given up either to a walk,
the playing of certain other games such as fives, squash
or tennis, or a visit to a gymnasium.
Of all exercises, walking probably finds the most
general application. It is, after all, Nature's primary
co-ordinated muscular effort, apart perhaps from crawling,
and walking in some form or other is of advantage to
every type of athlete. It involves the use, without strain,
of almost every muscular group in the body, including
the very important respiratory muscles. We are inclined
to think that the natural breathing exercises coincident
upon walking are all that is required in this particular
line, and that the so-called set " breathing exercises "
tend rather to the production of a chest of fixed capacity,
which, of course, is not what is wanted in the athlete who
is preparing himself to meet some sudden strain.
Walking also automatically necessitates the consump-
tion of a valuable quantity of fresh air, and at the same
time is a very sane and reasonable means of reducing any
excess of weight.
TRAINING
Apart from walking, one may "mention among many
others such forms of exercise as skipping, running up
stairs, dumb-bells, the " hundred up," and physical jerks
generally as being of universal application to the athlete
in training, whilst the practice of some definite running
action either inside or outside (" limbering up " pre-
vious to a race) is of particular value.
Under this heading a word may be said of dancing,
which, though in itself by no means a bad form of
occasional if somewhat tiring exercise, is unfortunately
so generally associated with both close, heavy, smoke-
laden atmosphere and also lack of sleep that it can hardly
be recommended in training.
(/) Warmth. It will be found throughout succeed-
ing chapters that time and time again we stress the very
great value of maintenance of bodily warmth. This is
simply because all physiological processes and from the
athlete's point of view particularly those of the muscular
system are stimulated to greater degrees of activity by
this maintenance of an optimum body heat. In training
and in competition it is equally necessary to ensure that
one keeps warm. And even in one's daily life the taking
of reasonable precautions against inclement weather and
the wearing of suitable clothing, which in general should
be light and airy to permit of the skin carrying out its
normal functions. All these are points worthy of con-
sideration by the man in training. During his actual track
training every opportunity should be taken to absorb all
the sunshine available, and a really warm sun should be
the only excuse for loitering about during practice. In
competition it must be remembered that one has to
combat, as well as any actual existent cold, that sub-
conscious sensation of chilliness which may often be so
worrying. Rubbing, towelling and limbering up all have
their uses in the production of a quicker circulation and
a consequent increased heat production, whilst common
sense will warn the athlete against standing about with
the minimum of clothing on either in the dressing-rooms
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ATHLETICS
or on the track, and against being bare-footed on cold
concrete floors.
(g) Baths. A well-known trainer of recent years has
called baths " God's own remedy for all the after-effects
of a race " and we are inclined to agree with him.
Baths and cold baths unless there is some very good
reason against them apart from ensuring an ever-
important cleanliness, serve as a means of increasing
muscular tone and of improving circulation. A morning
cold bath and a warm bath followed by a cold shower
after actual exercise or competition are very good per-
manencies in the athlete's daily routine. Actual swim-
ming is not advocated, but a dip in the sea is most highly
invigorating and advantageous, providing, of course, it
is not taken on the day of a race.
(K) Massage. Again we come to a subject over
which rages a seemingly never-ending controversy.
Massage, ruling out its use in cases of minor injuries,
presumably finds its applicability in improving circula-
tion and producing a so-called " looseness " of -the
muscles. That these ends can be attained by other
methods, as, for instance, walking and exercise gener-
ally, by suitable baths, etc., has already been pointed out.
And we feel inclined to think that massage is rather an
over-rated process, except in certain definitely limited
fields. At the very beginning of training it is probably
of value, on a very cold day previous to competition it
may be the most suitable way to achieve the desired end
of maintaining body heat, but as a routine measure day
after day, before and after exercise, it is to be deprecated,
for whatever results it may produce can be obtained with
so much more general advantage by the more natural
means of actual running, baths and good towelling,
whilst any psychological effect it may have becomes
blunted by continued repetition. And if massage is
resorted to, it should always be put into the hands of a
skilled masseur, for bad methods may be definitely harm-
ful and produce a slack, toneless condition of the body
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TRAINING
musculature, which is the very last thing the athlete
wants. Massage must never be rough, but rather a very
gentle, steady rubbing always in the direction of the
heart, and with the muscles being massaged completely
relaxed. The fallacy still seems to hold credence that
the various embrocations and liniments used by masseurs
are able to penetrate the skin and produce some definite
medicinal effect, but the only real utility of these sub-
stances, as also of the powder frequently used, is to
obviate any distressing results from the friction of
massage, and, providing the rubbing is scientifically
carried out, they are really of doubtful value except in
rare cases of very tender skins, etc.
3. Trainers. Since at some time in his athletic
career practically every athlete comes to a greater or less
extent under the influence of some trainer, whether
amateur or professional, it is of interest to consider those
qualities in a man which best fit him to fill this re-
sponsible post adequately. And when one thinks of* it,
the trainer's responsibility is no light one. He has not
only to teach and develop athletic style and technique
which in itself necessitates both experience and a clear,
quick-thinking brain but he must study the welfare
both of body and mind of his charges. The ideal
trainer has many rdles to fill. He must be "guide,
philosopher and friend," something of a doctor, much
of a student of nature and a judge of character, and,
above all, a man. He must inspire confidence in his
teaching, and to do this it is necessary for his teaching
to be backed by good, sound experience and knowledge
and by the ability to impart this to those under his care.
So many coaches tend to adhere too closely to what
they personally consider to be correct style, to have their
own particular little fads and fancies, to consider them-
selves infallible. These tendencies must always be
strongly opposed. The trainer with the greatest success
is the man who is broad-minded and possessed of a
goodly supply of common sense* He must learn to
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ATHLETICS
develop the power of appreciation of the individual, both
his ability and his character, and of developing these
along the peculiar lines most suitable to that individual.
It is certainly something to be able to take in hand a born
athlete and make of him a champion, but it is a far
greater gift to be capable of appreciating the latent
possibilities of absolutely raw material, or of making a
first-class man from someone who was previously just
average.
The trainer must have system and method, and he
must show initiative, but he should at all costs avoid
being needlessly dogmatic. This does not mean that he
should show weakness. Trust and confidence will never
ensue if a trainer lacks sufficient self-assurance. But
the wise man can advise, teach and correct without ever
actually ordering, and this is the ideal attitude for the
trainer to adopt. His charges should be able to come
to him freely and openly with all their difficulties, and
he must equip himself to be able to solve them satisfac-
torily. In other words, he must be able to teach theory
as well as practice. It is a great thing to have knowledge,
but it is a far greater thing to be able to impart that
knowledge lucidly and confidently.
Kindness, without any forfeiture of discipline, and
appreciation of the human element in one's charges, the
ability to put oneself in their places, are essential attri-
butes in the good trainer. He must always remember
that more is often done by leading than by driving, that
to be too exacting, too dogmatic, and too strict will, in
the long run, simply defeat his own ends.
Cheeriness, optimism and enthusiasm, and the ability
to develop this atmosphere around him, he must also
possess, and this without any forced bravado or noise.
Cool, quiet confidence, as much personal attention to
the individual as he can possibly give, tact and under-
standing, these combined with knowledge and experi-
ence will produce a trainer worthy of his high respon-
sibility. Age is not a necessity by any means, but very
1 02
TRAINING
often the rather older man makes the better trainer, for
the simple reason that he has been " through the mill "
himself and is the better able to appreciate what is
required of the ideal trainer.
4. Medical Considerations Athletics and athletic
training from a medical point of view, involving as they
do all the physiological processes of the human body
and the degree of reaction of these to increased effort,
form a subject sufficiently extensive for a separate book.
Hence it is intended here to take only a very cursory
survey of some of the more interesting and applicable
aspects of the subject.
The athlete and his doings have attracted a consider-
able amount of attention of late years from doctors and
physiologists, and for those who are interested in the
more intricate problems involved, the instructive and
fascinating researches of Professor A. V. Hill should
be consulted.
In the first place, one cannot stress too strongly the
advisability of a thorough medical examination previous to
taking up seriously the sport of athletics. And, subse-
quently, occasional visits to one's doctor are often well
worth while if only to get a clean bill or to be told how
much good the exercise is doing one. Medical examina-
tion is of particular importance in the case of the school-
boy, and should never be postponed until the eve of
sports day, for by then it is possible that irreparable harm
may have been done.
Whilst on the subject of boys a subject more fully
dealt with in a later chapter one may just say that
training in any strict or limited sense of the word is
really quite unnecessary. The boy is naturally fit, and
the life of the average boy tends to keep him fit auto-
matically. The essence of his training should be em-
bodied in the word " moderation." Excessive effort in
youth militates against sound physical development, and
what the boy at school should aim at in his training is
the acquisition of style and technique rather than the
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ATHLETICS
cultivation of powers of endurance and stamina. This
combined with sound teaching in the rudiments of the
health and care of the body are all that a boy's training
demands.
Whilst on the question of age, one may consider the
often asked questions as to when active participation in
athletics is advisable and when an athlete must consider
himself too old for the game. Naturally, no hard-and-
fast rules apply here. With reference to what has been
said above, one can hardly advocate strenuous athletics
before the age of nineteen or twenty, but the other end
of the scale is much more difficult to place. As the
natural elasticity of the muscular tissues, which is an
integral part of youth's heritage, tends to decrease
as the 'thirties are approached, there is consequently a
falling-off in the amount of speed the muscles can pro-
duce, but nevertheless at the same time there is occurring
a gradual increase of strength and powers of endurance.
Hence the explanation, assuming always that the indi-
vidual maintains good general condition, of the tendency
to run gradually longer and longer distances as age
increases. There is really no physical reason why a man
should not be able to run a good mile at the age of 35,
and some do, but for the majority of athletes extraneous
conditions make it impossible for them to carry on as
long as this. The apex of an athlete's life is probably
reached somewhere between the ages of 22 and 28.
The action of muscle, which is, after all, the physio-
logical basis of the act of running, is essentially a process
of contraction in response to a nervous stimulus, the
energy required for this process being derived from the
oxygen carried by the blood stream. Hence, in one
sentence we meet the four great systems chiefly con-
cerned with running the muscular, the nervous, the
vascular or circulatory, and the respiratory.
Others in fact all the others, e.g. digestive, endo-
crine, excretory are more or less indirectly concerned,
but it is on the above four that the brunt of the work falls.
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TRAINING
And in this act, as in a greater or less degree in every act
performed by the human body, the crux of the situation
lies in the efficiency of the co-ordination between these
various systems. For the more perfect the co-ordination,
the more simplified and rhythmical become the actions
involved in any particular process, and correspondingly
the greater the economy of energy in proportion to the
degree of elimination of unnecessary effort.
This is simply the old theory of mind and body work-
ing in perfect concert put in another way. The nervous
system is, of course, the primary mover. Some stimulus
appreciated by our special senses, e.g. the hearing of a
starting gun, is conveyed to the brain and there trans-
lated into the idea of the necessity of movement. This
impulse is relayed along suitable nervous paths and
ultimately reaches a group of muscle fibres, where, as it
were, it fires the train, leading finally to the contraction
of that muscle. One of the essentials of training is by
constant practice so to adapt the nervous system that it
replies more readily and rapidly to these stimuli, and at
the same time from constant use finds a definite optimum
route for the impulse to travel with the maximum speed
to the muscle.
With muscles themselves athletes are naturally
endowed to a varying degree. The sprinter, on the
whole, tends to have bigger muscle fibres than his long-
distance brother, and to this fact, together with a rather
moie highly strung nervous system, has been attributed
the radical difference between sprinter and stayer. But
whatever the initial amount of muscle owned by any
one individual, training relatively increases this, for the
simple reason that during a normal non-active existence
we possess many muscle fibres which we do not need to
use. When, however, as in running, an increased and
exceptional effort is demanded, then these fibres, which
habitually are a reserve, come into action and develop
part passu with their more commonly used fellows.
This is one of the results of training. Furthermore, these
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ATHLETICS
muscles in activity require a correspondingly greater
amount of blood supplied to them both to increase the
oxygen available and to remove the excessive waste
products. The chief of these latter is lactic acid, and
it is this substance which is responsible for the feeling
known as fatigue. Again Nature comes to the assistance
of the athlete in training and those centres in the brain
which direct the supply of blood more to one part of the
body than another the vaso-motor centres learn to
concentrate on the muscular system, whilst at the same
time the heart develops a relatively more rapid and
forceful action. Further than this, locally at the site of
muscular contraction, Nature has made provision for
any extra demands upon her resources, for exactly as
there are muscular fibres which are not ordinarily in use,
so are there also minute blood channels capillaries
which are usually closed and functionless, but which in
the stress and strain of active effort are opened up to cope
with the greater supply of blood pumped to the muscles
by the heart. Training thus increases the available
supply of blood, and consequently oxygen, to the muscles
to a maximum. To what a considerable degree this is
necessary will be recognised from the fact that sprinting
100 yards requires almost thirty times as much oxygen
as would be used in an equivalent time under normal
conditions, and this, as is often the case, must be done
without a breath being taken during the race !
But training does even more than this, for however
fit one is, it is impossible not to get fatigued sooner or
later in a race of any length, and hence the muscles must
be accustomed to carry on in a medium of lactic acid
as it were, and it has been suggested that those in really
good training have actually developed the power of
producing some specific antibody in the muscle to
neutralise temporarily the bad effects of the lactic acid.
Professor A. V. Hill has stated that the most econom-
ical results are obtained when a race is run at practically
the same pace throughout, and this is probably substanti-
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TRAINING
ated in practice in running the longer distances, and
perhaps one can imagine' how a stable equilibrium is
being set up between the waste products of the process
of muscular contraction and their specific antibody.
Two further facts in regard to our blood are worthy
of note. One is an interesting observation of Dr. A.
Abrahams that since it is estimated that all our red blood
corpuscles are renewed every two months, this period of
time is the minimum for a successful course of training.
The other brings in another aspect of training, namely
diet, for there are certain foods, e.g. fruit and vegetables,
whose salt content tends to raise the alkalinity of the
blood to an extent when it is capable of carrying relatively
more oxygen. And the more oxygen we can carry per
cubic millimetre of blood, the better will our " wind "
be. For " wind " is only indirectly an affair of the res-
piratory system. Loss of wind really means that the
heart has temporarily found itself incapable of keeping
pace with the demands of the muscles. But the heart
:an be trained to keep up, for in normal health the
heart never tires, and unless there has been some
previous defect no amount of exertion, however great,
:an really " strain " it. But, on the other hand, if sudden
excessive strain is put on the heart of an untrained person,
it is quite possible to dilate it, and hence, perhaps, lay
the foundations for future degeneration of the heart
muscle.
Of the respiratory system, we have already treated to
some extent in an earlier part of this chapter. Since it
is responsible for the supply of oxygen being brought
into contact with the blood stream in the lungs, its
importance need not be stressed except to point out that
those who are supposed to have " weak lungs " often
derive an immense benefit from a graduated course of
training. Fresh air, and plenty of it, has never yet done
anyone any harm.
One must perforce pass rapidly over the other systems
of the body. Digestion has been dealt with under the
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ATHLETICS
heading of diet, and here one need but add the caution
against allowing nervousness and excitement to upset that
important process, as, unfortunately, it can most certainly
do. Care of the bowels regularity being an essential
of the teeth, particularly, and the tonsils, those ever-open
portals of potential sepsis, of the skin, which with the
kidneys are responsible for the excretion of so much of
the waste products of the body's metabolic processes,
are all of vital importance to the athlete in training.
One cannot overstress the value of periodical and regular
visits to the dentist.
One other system, however, demands especial
mention the endocrine system, comprised of those
highly intriguing glands of internal secretion the
functions of which, all very closely inter-related, are
still very largely unknown ground. But we do know
enough of them to realise that they play a very big part
in the body's vital processes, and one presumes that in
training their functions become suitably attuned to the
greater requirements of the human body. Perhaps two
brief examples may serve to demonstrate this. The
thyroid gland, by its secretion, is responsible for a general
speeding up of the bodily functions in particular,
perhaps, that of the heart and circulation, and from
considerations mentioned above it will be easily recog-
nised how important this increased activity of the vascular
system is to the athlete in competition. Again, the
suprarenal gland secretes a substance which, amongst
other actions, serves to stimulate the so-called " sympa-
thetic" nervous system and produce a raised blood
pressure. As nervousness, fear and allied sensations are
said to be amongst the most potent stimuli to this gland,
it can be seen that at the beginning of a race, for instance,
it must be very much in the picture.
A word is, perhaps, necessary in regard to drugs.
Drugging, as implying the use of strychnine, cocaine,
etc., is most definitely and absolutely to be deprecated.
Apart altogether from the considerations of possible
1 08
TRAINING
disqualification and not playing the game, the idea is
medically unsound. For the healthy body requires no
stimuli outside its natural ones to produce the maximum
possible effort. And to a very large extent much the
same can be said of medicines. Apart, of course, from
such things as aperients, and liniments for the rubbing
of sprains, etc., they should be quite unnecessary. The
many tonics one sees on the market have no applicability
to the athlete in training except under exceptional
conditions.
Amongst these latter the most important from the
training viewpoint is the phenomenon of " staleness."
Exactly what staleness is, it is difficult to say, but that it
exists as a separate entity there is no doubt whatever.
It has been thought to be a species of auto-intoxication ;
it has been credited to continued, arduous competition ;
it has been pointed out as the result of faulty training
methods, in particular lack of sufficient fluids, but one
is inclined to the view that it is essentially a condition
which is primarily mental, due to lack of variety in
training and to a habit of excessive introspection, and
only secondarily physical. It is, however, in this form
that it chiefly shows itself. The athlete loses weight
(always a bad sign once the normal healthy level is
reached), he ceases to perspire to any extent after
exercise (showing a derangement of his vaso-motor
system), his eyes are dull and his complexion poor, he
is listless, depressed and irritable, he cannot sleep well,
and his appetite goes. Surely a very sad picture indeed
for a man who is supposed to be in first-class physical
and mental condition, though, of course, a man would
have to be very stale indeed to exhibit all these symptoms
at one and the same time,
To overcome this evil it is vital that he should cease
all athletic work temporarily and, if possible, go right
away and have a good holiday. He should drink as
much as he can, including a little alcohol, and a tonic
will probably be found useful. Above all, he should have
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ATHLETICS
with him a congenial companion who has been told or
knows that his mend needs ample diversion and just as
little mention of athletics as is humanly possible !
In conclusion, just a few words in regard to the
commoner injuries and ailments of the track athlete.
Any sport lays its follower open to potential injury, and
though this is less the case with athletics than many other
games, the athlete may, nevertheless, occasionally find
himself in trouble.
His feet need particularly careful attention, and
cleanliness always is essential ! Corns, if painful, are
best treated with either 10 per cent, salicylic acid or
with resorcin ointment. Ingrowing toe-nails can be
treated in the early stages with iodine and by being
carefully cut, but if they continue to give trouble
should be taken to a doctor without delay. Blisters
should be pricked away from the bleb after a
preliminary painting with iodine, and can be suitably
protected by a corn-plaster.
Sprains or " pulled tendons " which actually are
really always muscles involve primarily a ruptured
blood-vessel and secondarily a ruptured bundle of
muscle fibres. The underlying cause is thought to be
a condition of mild toxaemia, resulting in an imperfectly
nurtured muscle. A strained muscle must always be
immobilised and rested, and as soon as possible massaged.
In other words, the treatment is exactly that of a
fractured bone.
Abrasions (especially "spiking") must always be very
carefully treated and sepsis avoided at all costs. Iodine
immediately and covering with aseptic dressings is the
best line of treatment, combined if possible with an
injection of anti-tetanic serum.
Stiffness may be due in the earlier stages of training
to accumulation of lactic acid in the tissues, when all
that is needed is more training, or later to a slight rupture
of muscular fibres, when treatment involves hot baths,
massage, and gradually increasing light exercise,
1 10
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
Stitch has been attributed to many causes, amongst
which are indigestion from a meal too close to a race,
jarring, giving a form of diaphragmatic cramp, and an
engorgement of the spleen and liver. Apart from
ceasing to run there is no cure once it has arrived.
Bruises are best treated with cold applications (e.g.
lead lotion) and a firm bandage, or, if very painful, by
fomentation in the early stages.
Shin soreness is usually due to running too fast too
soon, i.e. before sufficient training has been done. Rest
is the best cure, and if the affliction recurs, a blister as a
counter-irritant over the tender spot will often work
miracles.
Cramp is only a temporary affliction cured by forcibly
straightening the afflicted muscle, if necessary, after a
preliminary kneading.
Constipation and colds must always be carefully
guarded against, and in this, as in all cases, a doctor
consulted if any ailment or injury gives any signs of
being really serious.
Section 2. Tracks and Impedimenta
i. Tracks The word " Track " may be said to
cover everything from the bumpy country school field
marked out with a roughly circular white line to the
gigantic super-stadia of various European cities, especi-
ally where Olympiads have been staged, and of the
United States of America. It is not intended, however,
to discourse on the history of tracks, nor on their many
varieties, but with simply a mention of the old grass tracks,
many of which still exist and are still used in this country,
to pass to a brief consideration of the average cinder
track of to-day.
Before such a track is laid out the first essential is to
have a careful plan, including all details of arrangement
of the available space and of stands, dressing-room
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ATHLETICS
accommodation, offices, etc., drawn up by a competent
draughtsman.
The best shape of track is probably the flattened oval,
i.e. two " straights " on either side of the ground as long
as it is possible to make them without producing too
marked a curvature in the two semi-circular bentts which
join them together at each end of the ground. The
optimum length of this oval is probably a quarter of a
mile, as this distance forms such a simple denominator
of longer distance races, besides allowing of the finish of
any race up to 440 yards and the start and finish of all
standard races of a quarter-mile and upwards taking
place in the middle of one straight, thus serving the dual
purpose of giving those in the best stand seats opposite
this point the best view of these happenings, and, more
important from the athletes' point of view, ensuring a
certain amount of straight running after a start before
the first curve is reached, and thereby lessening the
possibility of unavoidable jostling and bumping which
can so easily occur on the corners.
The track itself, which, as will be described shortly,
consists essentially of cinders, should be anything from
2025 feet wide, and some experts consider that the
corners should, if possible, be banked to the extent of
about 1 6 inches as a maximum for the outside of a track
24 feet wide. If at all possible it is a great asset to any
ground to have one side of the oval extended lengthwise
to give a long straight of about 250 yards, thus allowing
all races of up to 220 yards to be run without a bend.
Failing this, i.e. assuming the 220 yards to be run round
half the circumference of the oval, an entirely separate
straight cinder track should be placed inside the grass
margin of the track and as nearly 1 50 yards long as is
feasible, thus permitting the 100 and 120 yards races
to be run straight. In these races each competitor has
his separate lane, marked out by white chalk lines and
not less than 4 feet in width. Similar lanes are, of
course, necessary for any distance run on the track proper
112
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
up to and including a quarter of a mile. These should
be the same width, i.e. not less than 4 feet, and must
be marked out en echelon.
With regard to the arrangement of the turfed area
included inside the track, this will of necessity vary
with the conformation of the ground itself, and with the
particular ideas of those who originally plan the ground,
A good basis on which to work (vide Fig. i) is to place
the high jump and pole vault pits at either end of the
START
OF 220 YDS.
IONC |$^^x^ JUMP PIT.
1100 \D&~
JUDGES
STAND.
ft
ALL FINISHES
__ FOR -fc MILE &
& STARTS
UPWARDS.
GRAND STAND
FIG. i.
ground (i.e. in the curve of the bends) ; the long jump
and hop, step and jump pits and run-ups parallel to that
straight which is opposite the main stand, thus leaving
the centre of the ground free for the throwing events,
hammer, javelin, etc. The take-off for the high jump
should be from a levelled semicircle of cinders at least
12 feet in diameter, and the pit, consisting of sand or
sawdust mixed with earth and dug loose to a depth of
about 4 feet, another semicircle not less than 1 2 feet in
diameter, with its centre under the middle of the crossbar.
H 113
ATHLETICS
The long jump run-up should be a level cinder path
about 4 feet broad and roughly 50 yards long, the take-
off board is discussed elsewhere, and the pit should
extend from about 15 to at least 25 feet from the board,
the first 15 feet being level, but not dug out at all. A
very useful scheme permitting due allowance being made
for varying winds is to have either a pit with a 5o-yard
run-up approaching it from both ends or to have one
run-up track with a pit at both ends. The pit should
also have suitable marking boards affixed on either side
of it, and consist of well-dug earth and sawdust, and, if
possible, in competition, top-dressed with a fine mixture
of sand and clay to assist exact judging. For the pole
vault the run-up is again a level cinder path relatively
a shade broader and somewhat shorter than for the long
jump, the take-off box is described in the section on
vaulting, and the landing pit should be of similar con-
sistency to that of the high jump but bigger quite 1 5 feet
in diameter. The hop, step and jump simply requires a
longer distance some 35 feet of levelled cinders
between take-off board and pit, the arrangements being
otherwise as for long jumping. The shot is put from
a circle 7 feet in diameter, the front circumference of
which consists of a whitewashed board 4 feet in length
and 4 inches deep. The hammer is also thrown from
a circle 7 feet in diameter, and must land within a 90
degrees sector from the centre of this circle. To ensure
this, all of the circle apart from this open sector in front
is usually ringed off by high (8 feet) netting, placed at
a suitable distance from the circumference of the actual
circle. For the discus throw the circle is 8 feet 2^
inches in diameter, whilst a similar sector arrangement
is used. The javelin throwing competition simply
requires a white marked straight line at least 1 2 feet
long at right angles to the direction of the throw,
One other small, but nevertheless important, detail
with regard to the interior arrangement of the ground
should be mentioned, and th|& is the great value of
114-
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
providing at the finishing post a small marked-off
enclosure for the exclusive use of referee, judges and
timekeepers.
The scope of this book does not allow anything to be
said of the details of stands and dressing-rooms, etc.,
except, perhaps, simply to stress the importance of the
provision of these with the greatest degree of comfort
and efficiency possible.
One point probably worthy of mention is the system
adopted on many of the most up-to-date tracks to-day
of providing a means of communication between track
and dressing-room by underground tunnels leading
beneath the track to the centre of the ground, thus
preventing both the congestion too often noticeable
around the over-ground approach to the track and also
the incessant crossing of that track by competitors
previous to and after competition.
Finally, a few words with regard to the track itself,
its preparation, composition and care.
In the first place, the ground should be carefully
measured out according to the pre-arranged plan, and,
if necessary, levelled. It is as well where possible to
have a ground just a shade higher in the middle than
at the sides so as to ensure good drainage. Should this
not be possible, ample provision for any excess of rain
by the laying of drainage pipes should be made before
any work is commenced on the track itself, and this
again should be completed before any serious attention
is turned to the turf in the centre of the ground.
In passing it should be noted that in measuring any
track for any purpose the measurement is taken one
foot from the inner edge or " pole."
The track as measured out should then be dug to an
average depth of 2 feet provided, of course, it is possible
to afford and to get an unlimited supply of cinders and
the earth removed completely except for the little that
may be used to effect necessary banking at the corners.
The foundation of the tyaek is'then laid at this depth and
ATHLETICS
consists of large coke clinkers, loosely applied and not
rolled. An average depth of about 9 inches is required
of these. On top are placed layers of gradually less and
less coarse cinders, mixed with less and less clay.
Approximately 6 inches of the coarser and 6 inches of
finer cinders form an excellent track, particularly if
topped off with brick dust, as was the case, for instance,
in the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium. Once laid down,
the track should be carefully rolled with a gradually
heavier and heavier roller, being at the same time
copiously watered and occasionally scraped and relevelled
on the surface.
During the athletic season a track should be most
carefully tended. Daily sweeping, rolling and watering
(in hot weather) are essential. If the surface seems to
be getting loose and does not bind well with this treat-
ment, rock salt added to the water is most useful, but
as this solution is ruinous to running shoes it should
not be used more than absolutely necessary.
In the off-season the track should be left fallow for
two to three months at least, and then subjected to a
course of deep raking and rolling in order to get some
of the deeper cinders to the surface again and rebind the
whole thing.
[The indoor tracks of the U.S.A. consist of carefully
laid and levelled wooden boards these usually being
the floors of suitably converted armouries or gymnasia.
In view of the necessarily limited space these tracks are
usually 6 laps to the mile.]
2. Impedimenta The paraphernalia requisite to the
complete equipment of a good training and sports
ground may be divided into those fixtures which form
an essential part of the track itself and those which are
rather the personal necessities of the competitors and
officials in various events. Whichever group is concerned
it is obviously highly important for the club or organising
body responsible for the fittings on their ground to
ensure that these are of standard pattern and conform
116
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
to national and, if possible, international rules and
regulations.
We feel that it is a matter of considerable regret that
there still exist in this country at any rate certain small
differences between these two standards of competition.
It is somewhat farcical to think that meetings can be
held under international rules and yet with material that
conforms only to national regulations. The Inter-
national Amateur Athletic Federation, which is the
recognised governing body for the sport throughout the
world, has laid down a very definite set of rules and
regulations for all events which it is possible to include
in an athletic programme, and one hopes, in view of the
rapidly increasing number of both open and what may
be called private or limited international meetings, that
every national organisation will ere long have standard-
ised its own code of rules and regulations on the above
I.A.A.F. basis.
In the following cursory survey of the impedimenta
of the track, however, A.A.A. Regulations are quoted.
Among the first-mentioned group of track fittings
perquisites of the ground itself one places :
Hurdles. The general pattern of these is a
rectangular frame supported by two wooden uprights,
the bases of which must not be fixed to the ground in
any way. This frame should be as light as is compatible
with stability, for a hurdle that is the prey of every
breeze is almost as bad as one that damages the runners.
Hurdles must be at least 4 feet in width, while their
height varies according to the distance being run. For
the 1 20 yards race the height stipulated is 3 feet 6 inches ;
for the 220 yards, 2 feet 6 inches ; and for the 300 and
440 yards, 3 feet. Many varieties of hurdles are in use,
of which mention may be made of the " swing-top "
pattern and of that type in which the top bar simply
rests on the supports without having any attachment to
them. But a light, well-balanced one-piece frame is
117
ATHLETICS
probably the best hurdle of all. It has become the
custom to run hurdle races with six men competing at
the same time, and as each of these requires his own
flight of ten hurdles (every hurdle race has these ten
jumps simply spaced at various intervals) a good ground
should possess at least seventy, allowing for damages
and mishaps, of each class of hurdle.
Steeplechase hurdles, with one exception, are similar
in type to the ordinary hurdle, and usually 3 feet high,
this being the maximum height permitted by regulations.
The exception is the " Water Jump/* which alone really
marks the differentiation between a hurdle race and a
steeplechase. This jump consists of a fence of four
hurdles abreast, dressed with brushwood, in front of
which is a space filled with water, about 2 feet deep just
under the hurdles, and gradually getting shallower until
the track is again reached some 10 feet from the jump.
High Jump Standards. There is no one particular
style of upright laid down as being correct, the usual
type being a wooden post some 8 or 9 feet in height,
mounted on either a circular or cross-board base, and
perforated from about 4 to 7 feet with holes % inch
apart into which fit the pegs on which the cross-bar
rests. According to old regulations these pegs used to
project in the direction of the landing pit, so that it was
only possible to knock the bar off in this direction.
Now, to counteract the prevalence of the " rolling "
style of high jumping, the pegs are square, flat pieces
of wood, i inches wide and projecting 2^ inches
towards the opposite upright. The cross-bar resting on
these can, therefore, be knocked off in either direction.
This cross-bar, which is made entirely of wood, must be
of the same dimensions throughout its length, but may be
either rectangular or circular, with squared ends to rest
upon the pegs, and in both cases about i inch in diameter.
Pole Vault Standards. These are similar in type
to the above, except that, of course, the greater heights
achieved by pole vaulters must be catered for by an
118
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
extra height of upright, namely to about 14 feet. This
may be done either by having one very long continuous
upright, or, as is rather more common, having a telescopic
arrangement of one upright inside another, thus making
for ease of adjustment. Long forked sticks to replace
the cross-bar are an essential for this event, in which
even more than in the high jump, where it is also of
importance, a reasonable stability combined with relative
lightness and with ease of manipulation is what is to be
aimed at.
Judging Stand. This is a small portable stand,
consisting of three seats, arranged in tiers one above the
other and each about 4 feet wide. This apparatus
greatly facilitates good judging and should never be
omitted from the equipment of a track of any size.
Finishing Posts. These are narrow wooden rods
placed exactly opposite each other on either side of the
track, and about 4 feet in height, between which the
worsted, which usually constitutes the so-called finishing
" tape," is stretched.
Score Boards. In these days of " loud speakers "
the score board has become less of a necessity, but it is
still required on most grounds and should be fitted up
with a series of numbers and facilities for hanging and
displaying these. The revolving board, which can be
turned to face every side of the ground in rotation, is a
simple and very useful arrangement.
Amongst the second group of track impedimenta
the personal requisites of athletes and officials one may
mention (a) for the officials :
Megaphones. Again not so commonly used since the
advent of the loud speaker. The best megaphone is that
which combines lightness with sufficient volume to give
good tone and resonance.
Measures. As required for the various jumping and
throwing events, and also, of course, for tne measuring
of any track on which a potential record has been set up,
119
ATHLETICS
The steel tape measure which can be rolled up in a
leather case is probably the most serviceable variety.
Watches. These perquisites of timekeepers are instru-
ments beyond the scope of this book to discuss in any
detail, but it may be or interest to note that the I.A.A.F.
has now passed a rule that all races up to and including
300 yards shall be timed in tenths of a second, but
distances beyond this still in fifths.
Starting Gun. Usually, of course, this is provided by
the individual starter to suit his own particular
requirements.
Judging Cards. If a previously printed card with
suitable blank spaces to be filled in by the judges for the
particular event concerned be provided at the beginning
of a meeting, the ultimate checking of results, etc.,
is greatly facilitated.
(H) Personal requisites of athletes :
Batons. These consist of bamboo or light wood and
are to be not less than i foot in length and of an average
diameter of 2 inches.
Shots. These are, of course, often provided by the
competitor himself, but the club must be prepared to
cater for the man who does not possess his own. The
shot is an iron or brass shell, spherical in shape, and
filled with lead so that its total weight is 1 6 Ibs.
Discus. To quote A.A.A. Rules : " The discus
shall be composed of a smooth metal rim, permanently
attached to a wooden body, brass plates set flush into
the sides of the wooden body, and in the exact centre
of the discus a means for securing the correct weight.
The brass plates shall be circular in form, having a
diameter of not less than 2 inches nor more than
2 \ inches. Each part of the discus shall be a counterpart
of the other side, and shall have no indentations, project-
ing points or sharp edges. The sides shall taper in a
straight line from the beginning of the curve of the rim
to a line a distance of i inch from the centre of the
1 20
TRACKS AND IMPEDIMENTA
discus. The largest dimensions shall be a circle not less
than 8f inches in diameter. The thickness through the
exact centre on a line perpendicular to the diameter shall
be not less than if inches. The thickness at an inch
from the centre shall be exactly the same as at the centre.
The thickness of the rim at a distance of inch from
the edge shall be not less than a inch. The edge shall
be rounded in a true circle. The weight of the discus
shall be not less than 4 Ibs. 6-4 ounces, complete as
thrown. A metal discus, complying with the official
measurements, conditions and weight, may be used."
Surely a most awe-inspiring weapon !
Javelin. This consists of wood, is at least 1 2 feet
in length, weighs at least 1-6 Ibs., and has a sharp point
of either iron or steel. The centre of gravity of the
javelin is approximately 3 feet from this point, and at
the centre of gravity there is allowed a binding of
whipcord 6J inches long and less than i inch thick.
Poles. Poles are either made of wood or of bamboo
now practically always the latter for reasons pointed out
in a later section. They may be of any length or
diameter, but these dimensions average about 1 5 feet and
3 inches respectively. The pole ends either in a metal
spike or a wooden peg, and regulations allow it to be
bound with a uniform thickness of adhesive tape which
assists both to preserve the pole and to aid the grip of
the jumper.
Hammers. The " hammer " consists of a lead or
brass spherical shell filled with lead in a similar manner
to the shot, and, like it, 16 Ibs. in weight. This is
connected by means of a swivel to the " handle," which
with the grip must be not more than 4 feet in length.
This handle consists of a single unbroken, straight length
of spring steel wire not less than \ inch in diameter.
The grip, which must be rigid, may be of either single
or double construction, but must be attached direct to
the handle by a loop of the wire only, i.e. without the
intervention of any swivel or other joint.
121
ATHLETICS
Section 3. Personal Equipment
The athlete's own personal equipment is relatively
both inexpensive and simple in comparison with that
required by many other sports. It is, perhaps, this very
simplicity which leads to the unfortunately far too
frequent lack of attention to both composition and
condition of the few real requisites. A satisfactory
outfit should provide essentially three things comfort,
warmth and service.
The value of the first is obvious, for it is frankly
impossible for an athlete to produce of his very best if
there is any factor in his equipment which makes him
conscious of its existence. It is astonishing what a
mountain competition and the nervous strain connected
therewith can make out of such a molehill as a tight
vest, a knotted shoe-lace, or a loose spike. To ensure
warmth, too, is almost a more vital necessity than to
have really comfortable running kit though the warmth
factor is more closely related to the equipment of the
training track and the preliminaries of competition than
to actual competition itself.
As the finer chances of success are, however, so closely
related to the previous preservation of a sufficient body
temperature, one can really consider this condition with
regard to equipment as a whole. It cannot be too
forcibly stressed and will doubtless be reiterated again
and again in succeeding sections of this book that
warmth during training, warmth immediately prior to
competition, and the maintenance of warmth after, or
in the field events during competition, are of primary
concern to every athlete. Practically every essential
physiological activity connected with the practice of
athletics is retarded by cold, whilst, even in hot weather,
the nervousness inevitably associated with competition
to some degree produces a feeling of chilliness even
though one may be actually perspiring at the time
which has to be guarded against just as carefully as
122
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
actual low temperature. So the athlete's " over-clothes "
must be warm 1 And this means that they must not only
be reasonably thick, but also reasonably loose. So often
one comes across the mistaken idea that the tight-fitting
sweater is the warmer sweater. This is definitely not so,
for a close-fitting garment simply acts as a medium
through which body heat can be easily and quickly
dispersed into the surrounding atmosphere, whilst if
loose it acts as a form of protective barrier, preventing the
escape of the layer of warm air next to the skin which the
body has produced.
And our third essential for good equipment is service.
By this is implied that it pays in the long run to buy a
good thing at first, for the length of available wear and
the avoidance of repeated inferior purchases, apart from
the fact that cheap goods never fit properly, will more
than adequately repay any initial outlay. As a corollary
to this, if one does invest in good material, that material
is worth looking after well, and attention to and care and
cleanliness of one's gear are points that no good athlete
will neglect. Apart from thereby prolonging the useful
life of any particular article, they subconsciously tend
to stimulate one's self-respect and self-confidence and
to negative any tendency to slackness either in one's
physical training or mental outlook towards the sport.
The simplicity of the total requisite equipment is
probably quite an important factor in accounting for the
general appeal athletics has to the average man. It is
quite possible to fit oneself out with all the essentials of
athletic competition for a sum of not much over two
pounds, whilst the initial expenditure of five pounds
would ensure a very comprehensive equipment of
excellent quality.
Proceeding to a brief consideration of the various
articles which should constitute this equipment, one
may first deal with the most important of all, namely
shoes.
Shoes. For all races nowadays, apart from cross-
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ATHLETICS
country, Marathon and road races, the spiked shoe is
worn. This should be made of leather which combines
the maximum of softness with the minimum of stretching,
and should fit the foot so tightly and exactly, having
especially a good grip at the heel, that the assistance of
a shoe-horn is required to get it on. To ensure the
highest degree of satisfaction in the fit of a shoe, it
should, if possible, be made to measure. This should
at any rate apply to the shoes actually used for racing,
and in this connection it may be mentioned that it well
repays the athlete to set one pair of shoes aside for
competition only, whilst using one or more older and
inferior pairs for training purposes. A spare pair of
shoes'should, however, always be carried on competition
days.
With regard to the " spikes " or steel points which
are firmly fixed into the sole of the shoe, the number,
length and arrangement of these may vary considerably
according to the weight of the athlete and his particular
style, especially in respect of length of stride, whilst
the event in which he is competing, of course, plays a
large part in deciding the choice, and also the nature
and condition of the track on which he is running. The
number varies from four to seven (exclusive of the two
heel spikes which are required in the shoes of all hurdles
and field-event men). The four-spike shoe, arranged
two and two on a short sole, is essentially that of the
sprinter with a springy action, who is right up on the
ball of his foot all the time. The five-spike with a
single front spike is simply a variety of this, whilst the six
and seven-spike, set in a necessarily longer and rather
stouter sole, is for those who tend to run more on the
flat of the foot the long-striding sprinter, the middle
and the long-distance man. The length of spike varies
from about $ inch in shoes for a hard, fast, dry track to
J inch for use on wet, soft or loose tracks, or on grass.
Generally speaking, on an average track, the short-
distance man needs a spike about f inch long, and the
124
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
long-distance man one rather nearer \ inch. In passing,
it is of interest to note that spiked shoes were first
introduced into America in 1868, whilst English
athletes were apparently somewhat earlier in adopting
this style of shoe.
For the jumpers in particular, it has been found that
a small rubber pad in the heel of the shoe is a very great
boon in preventing to some extent the jarring and
consequent soreness unavoidable in these events. It is
noteworthy that the great Paavo Nurmi, who runs with
a peculiarly flat-footed action, has complete rubber heels
to all his shoes.
A device of considerable value, especially for sprinters,
is a broad (3 inch) elastic band sewn into the shoe,
fitting closely over the instep. It gives a feeling of
support and security which is most comforting in fast
work. Hurdlers, again, frequently use a shoe which
has an additional light leather ankle strap, for similar
purposes. Shoes being such an important part of one's
outfit, it is very necessary to pay particular attention to
them ; to avoid leaving them in a wet condition ; to oil
them carefully after competition on a bad day ; to keep
them scrupulously clean, especially the spikes ; and to
avoid walking on them on any hard surface, especially
cement, which very quickly both bends and blunts them.
Among other forms of shoe which need brief mention
is that for cross-country work, which is a more loosely
fitting shoe with a sole either of rubber, especially crtye
rubber, or of thin leather. The drawback to the former
is that in wet weather it becomes very slippery. This
can to some extent be counteracted by having a solid
rubber sole raised into several small ridges running
across the sole, and in any case all cross-country shoes
should be black-leaded in wet weather to prevent for as
long as possible their being soaked with water.
Indoor athletics demands a shoe which is the same as
the ordinary type, except that the spikes are cut off very
short (J inch) and blunt.
125
ATHLETICS
One other type of shoe should be included in the
athlete's outfit, but this pair will not increase his outlay,
for it is simply an ordinary pair of shoes (or slippers)
which he can wear in getting from the dressing-room to
the track and back, and before, between and after
competitions, thus serving the double purpose of both
saving his racing shoes and allowing his feet the maxi-
mum of comfort
Clothes. Under this heading the two essentials for
actual competition are the vest and the shorts. For them
it may be said the material is immaterial. What really
matters is that they should fit comfortably and not too
tightly, be they of silk, which, though admittedly most
pleasant, is rather in the nature of a luxury, or of cotton,
which is quite sufficient for any ordinary purpose.
Again, it seems to us of little consequence whether the
vest is of the " pull-over " type or whether it buttons up
the front. It is a case of chacun a son gout. With the
shorts, of course, the " button " type is the better for
obvious reasons. In England, unlike anywhere else in
the world, the A.A.A.Laws insist upon a half-sleeve for
the vest, and though this seems an unnecessary restric-
tion, it is rather a moot point as to whether freedom
under the arms makes any difference at all in competition,
except, perhaps, in the case of the throwing events.
The " shorts " should not be too abbreviated, but they
should most certainly live up to their name, and should
also be comfortably free and wide, and, if being used for
a steeplechase, dark in colour. The elastic waistband
seems, at the present day, to have been rather superseded
as a means of support by the adjustable buckles over
either hip. If possible, in case of accident, and as an
antidote to the effects of rain, two vests and two pairs
of shorts should be included in the day's equipment.
Just as essential, though not for actual competition,
are the sweater and the track pants. The former should
be of good wool and loosely fitting. The ideal type of
" track pants " is the thick woollen variety reaching
126
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
right down on to the foot and fitted with the very useful
" slip fasteners/' but any substitute for these, e.g. an old
pair of flannel trousers, is better than running the risk
of going about in anything but the warmest weather
with bare legs.
Toe socks of wash-leather, and socks proper, the latter
especially for cross-country runners, are not absolutely
essential, providing the athlete possesses comfortable,
well-fitting shoes, but are recommended, and in particular
cases they may be of distinct advantage, providing
always that due precautions e.g. smearing the inside
of the sock with soap or tallow are taken against the
rubbing to which the long-distance wearer of socks is
so prone.
As an alternative to the sweater some athletes prefer
the blazer and scarf combination, which, though perhaps
not quite so useful from the warmth point of view, is
certainly more picturesque, whilst, of course, it must be
remembered that even amongst great athletes super-
stition still exists, and a blazer is often an old friend
which it would be inviting disaster to discard !
The long woollen overcoats used by the British
Olympic team in Paris in 1924 are luxuries rather
beyond the reach and probably also the requirements of
the athlete ; but if one must compete in rain, or if rain
seems imminent during competition, a light overcoat
is a necessity and not to be discarded until the last
possible moment, whilst on any occasion it forms a good
rug, either to sit upon previous to a race or in which to
keep warm. The possibility of any form of covering for
the head being necessary in this country is remote, but
in warmer climates a hat may be a very necessary
adjunct.
Various : Shoe-laces. It is highly important that
these should be carefully examined at short, regular
intervals, and always before going to the sports ground
on the day of an important event ; and that a spare pair
should be carried at every competition.
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ATHLETICS
" Slips." A.A.A. Rules stipulate that these must be
worn by every athlete, and though by far the majority
do, for reasons of comfort and convenience, and also
largely because it has become a habit, one does not
imagine that should a breach of this ruling suit the
peculiarities of any particular athlete it would be likely to
meet with any dire penalty.
" Corks" The use of running-corks thick, spindle-
shaped pieces of cork about 4 inches long and i inch
thick, hollowed out to allow the passage of a rubber band
which, when slipped over the back of the hand, holds
them firmly in the palms is very much a matter for the
individual, but we certainly have found them of great
use in races of up to a quarter of a mile, especially when
these have involved a fighting finish. In field events,
however, they are illegal.
Tape Measure. The long-jumper and the sprinter,
though in the latter case a suitable knotted piece of
string will do equally well, will save themselves much
time and trouble by carrying their own tape measure.
Trowel. A trowel, especially the flat, mason's trowel,
should be an essential part of the outfit of every man who
uses the " crouch start, " and, of course, in particular
every sprinter, in whose case well-made " holes " are
all-important to the success of his race.
Toothbrush, etc. (i.e. soap, towel, brush and comb,
scissors, safety pins, and small medicine chest, with
iodine, zinc ointment, a small bandage, some wool,
gauze or lint, and adhesive plaster as a minimum).
Cleaning the teeth and rinsing out the mouth with cold
water are very valuable preliminaries to any important
contest, whilst the other details mentioned tend to the
production of that comfort and consequent efficiency
so vital to an athlete on the day of competition.
Of further possible articles required in an athlete's
equipment there only remain now the particular imple-
ments of the field event in which he desires to compete,
such as shot, hammer, discus, javelin and pole. Though,
128
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
of course, any properly equipped ground provides these
as required, many field-event experts prefer to have
their own, and in most competitions are allowed to use
them providing they fulfil the necessary requirements
of A.A.A. Rules.
129
CHAPTER VI
SPRINTING
Section i. Introduction
TO move as rapidly as one could, were it in the
chase or in the flight, was probably the earliest
recognised conception of running. And this, the
longest possible output of maximum energy, is really the
essence of what we now know as sprinting. As a term
" sprinting " is somewhat of an anomaly, since one is
naturally inclined to define it as running at top speed.
The researches of various investigators have, however,
proved conclusively that full speed can only be main-
tained by the human body for a maximum of about 20
yards, and that it cannot be attained i.e. the inertia of
the body at rest cannot be overcome until some 60
yards have been covered, and that after running approxi-
mately 80 yards in all, momentum is gradually but
inevitably lost. This being the case, " full-speed "
running will hardly adequately fill the bill as a definition
of sprinting, a term under which we propose to consider
the running of all distances up to and including 300
yards. Hence one must perforce revert to the earlier
and wider definition of running as fast as is possible for
as far as is possible.
* The universal appeal and popularity of sprinting
applies alike to athlete and spectator. There is no small
thrill in running a sprint race and there is almost a
greater one in watching it. Even before the present-day
craze for speed became so general, it is hard to imagine
one's blood not being stirred by running or by watching
a 100 yards race, when one realises that this distance
traversed in 10 seconds means the propulsion of the
130
SPRINTING
human body at an average of more than 20 miles per
hour. Actually in the middle, of an "even-time"
hundred, when the sprinter is covering some 35 feet per
second, he is travelling at a speed of almost 24 miles an
hour ! So great is the appreciation of fast running to-day
that one may safely say that to have an even-time
reputation is to be a marked man for life. And there is
certainly no race in present-day athletics, with the single
exception, perhaps, of a good short hurdle race, which
raises the enthusiasm of a crowd of spectators to such
a pitch as does the 100 yards sprint. It is 10 seconds
of the most concentrated excitement.
Again, to the average man who takes up athletics as a
sport the appeal is very great, for, though later he will
find out what a fallacy this is, it appears especially in
the hands of the expert a comparatively easy business ;
and it is evident that even should he be unsuccessful his
deficiencies will be relatively less obvious than would be
the case over a longer distance. One has but to consult
the entry list for the sprint handicap in any big open
meeting to realise that by far the majority of athletes
are short-distance men of some sort. So great, therefore,
is this universal appeal that we feel the sprints fully merit
primary consideration amongst the various individual
events of the athletic programme which it is proposed to
discuss in succeeding chapters. Far from being simple,
sprinting is in point of fact easily the most difficult of the
running events, and amazing as it may seem the actual
strain involved is relatively greater than in any other race.
The facts mentioned above in connection with the limit of
full-speed running show that even in a 100 yards the
athlete's effort is actually failing to some extent by the
time the last 10 or 15 yards are reached. It is therefore
unnecessary to stress further the enormous importance
of the sprinter being just as physically and mentally fit
as is possible if he hopes to achieve great things. An
exceedingly high degree of muscular and nervous co-
ordination is demanded, and this can only be 'obtained
ATHLETICS
by a lo&g, conscientious period of steady training on a
basis of sound natural ability and scientific principles.
The successful sprinter is really something of a
paradox in that he must be both natural and artificial.
He must be possessed of a certain amount of innate
ability in the first place, but to achieve anything more
than mediocrity he must graft on to this basis a me-
chanical stereotyped style productive of such perfect,
apparently effortless, rhythm in running that he becomes
to all intents and purposes an automaton. The first-class
sprinter has made sprinting a habit.
It will be readily understood that this process is not
such as can be carried out in a few days. It needs months
and even years of continued, painstaking practice, with
meticulous attention to every minute detail and much
concentration and perseverance to accomplish the
desired end. But in sprinting the game is always well
worth the candle, for each little detail brought by practice
from the condition of being a definite conscious effort
to that in which it becomes part of the sprinting habit
shows itself in increased speed, improved style, greater
confidence and more success. So automatic should
sprinting become that it has by some been classed as a
pseudo-field event. In other words, the sprinter should
aim not so much at beating his opponents as recording
a better time than they do. It is inevitable, of course,
that the element of competition should in some degree,
however small, enter into the consideration of any
race, but in sprinting the race should be run as much
an individual mechanical action as possible with the
minimum of recognition of the presence of opponents.
The ideal, as H. M. Abrahams says, would be for
sprinters to run in blinkers !
There is really no such thing as the sprinting type.
All men can be sprinters given a certain amount or ability
and the chance to acquire a suitable technique. Big
men and small men, tall men and short men, light men
and heavy men all have had their representatives
132
SPRINTING
amongst the world's crack sprinters. Nevertheless,
there do seem to be certain attributes which pertain to
them all, both physical and, more particularly, mental.
The sprinter, whatever may be his bodily proportions,
always seems to possess a goodly store of nervous energy.
He is the alert, brisk type of man, quick in his response
to external stimuli either mental or physical. In fact
he is probably at rock bottom of an excitable nature ;
whether this becomes evident or not depends on the
particular individual concerned and his powers of self-
control and restraint. The sprinter is essentially
temperamental, and the effect this side of him has upon
his running is enormous and very often one of the
greatest responsibilities either he or his trainer or both
have to shoulder. His whole attitude when trained and
fit should be indicative of compressed energy he should
appear to be, as it were, straining at the leash. It is the
buoyant, exuberant, self-confident feeling which arises
from this sort of nature that spells the last word of
success for a sprinter. However great his ability,
however perfect his style, he must back these up with
that keen, eager, " on-the-toes " sensation which implies
a firm belief in his own power to succeed before he will
actually reach the front rank. Physically, irrespective
of actual size, the points which seem to mark out the
sprinter are the possession of big, strong leg muscles,
relatively long thighs (i.e. from hip to knee), well-
developed chest and shoulder muscles, a high instep
and a neat ankle and foot. One does not intend to
convey that every first-class sprinter possesses all these
attributes, but anyone who has achieved much success
at short-distance running will be found to conform in
most respects to the above picture. Many authorities
state that taken all round the sprinter tends to be on
the small side and that the success of such a one is
dependent upon his relatively greater rapidity of action.
We venture to disagree with both these statements, and,
whilst holding no particular brief for the big sprinter,
133
ATHLETICS
it must be remembered that there is such a thing as
being too rapid in action, where energy is simply wasted
without the production of proportionate speed. And,
again, in quite recent times one can think of a considerable
number of sprinters who have obtained world's cham-
pionship honours and been comparatively big men.
However, the question is of small interest, and one in
which comparisons are invidious and generalisations
really useless.
We have included in our definition of sprinting all
those distances which can be run in approximately even
time, i.e. the 100 yards (10 seconds), the 200 yards
(20 seconds) and the 300 yards (30 seconds). The
number of races run whose distances lie between, say,
40 and 300 yards is, however, very numerous, and no
purpose would be served by a detailed consideration
of each. It is therefore proposed to concentrate on a
discussion of the 100 yards and to add a few words
in regard to the 220 yards race. The same basic
principles will apply to any sprinting distance, and
these can be best studied in a consideration of the 100
yards race, which is, after all, the sprint.
The 100 yards has been a championship event in this
country since the inception of the annual Amateur
Athletic Association Meeting in 1866, in which year
it was won in loj seconds. In the following year it was
won by a schoolboy from Eton College in lof seconds,
this being the maximum time ever taken for the distance
in the A.A.A. Championship Meeting. Ten seconds was
first reached in 1886, until which time the 'Varsities
(Oxford and Cambridge) and the London Athletic Club
appear to have held a monopoly of champion sprinters.
After this amongst A.A.A. sprint champions one finds
such great names as E. H. Felling, C. A. Bradley,
A. F. Duffey (U.S.A.), J. W. Morton, R. Kerr (Canada),
R, E. Walker (South Africa), G. H. Patching (South
Africa), who, incidentally, was the first man to record
inside " evens " in this meeting he did 9^ seconds in
134
SPRINTING
1 9 1 2 and W. R. Applegarth. Since the War the list is
even more bestudded with athletic " stars," including W.
A. Hill, H. F. V. Edward, E. H. Liddell (who still holds
the Championship and British Record of 9 T V seconds),
H. M. Abrahams, L. Murchison (U.S.A.), those two
splendid German sprinters R. Corts and H. K6rnig, and,
in 1928, W. B. Legg (South Africa). Since the War
in fact since 1923 10 seconds has been beaten four
times, showing that even in this event, where owing to
the relatively short space of time involved improvement
must necessarily be correspondingly difficult to demon-
strate, a generally higher standard has been attained.
It is of interest also to note that though four of every
five championships held to date have been won by
Englishmen, the last four years have seen an American,
two Germans and a South African annex the event.
The sister event, the 100 metres, as run on the
Continent, has naturally featured on every Olympic
programme, and though in the first games at Athens
in 1896 it was won in 12 seconds, in the next games at
Paris in 1900 io seconds was recorded, and this
standard has been maintained ever since. In the eight
Olympiads held to date the United States of America
have scored five successes, Great Britain, Canada and
South Africa one each. The British Empire, however,
has the honour of sharing in the largest part of the
Olympic record of io seconds, in the persons of
H. M. Abrahams (1924), P. Williams (Canada)
(1928) and J. E. London (1928). The only other
Olympic runners to record this time were D. F.
Lippincott (U.S.A.) at Stockholm in 1912 and R.
McAllister (U.S.A.) at Amsterdam in 1928.
The world's record of io|- seconds stands to the
credit of that sprinting phenomenon of the United
States of America, C. W. Paddock, who, incidentally,
on the same day that he established this record time
also set the world's figures for the 300 metres (33!
seconds!). Paddock also shares the honour of being
135
ATHLETICS
world-record holder for the 100 yards, which he has
on several occasions covered in 9! seconds a time also
achieved by three compatriots, Kelly, Drew and
Bowman, and by Coaffee, of Canada whilst yet
another American, R. A. Locke, holds the record of
2 of seconds for the 220 yards and 200 metres.
A comparative table of the British and World Records
at the more common sprint distances may be of interest :
WORLD'S RECORD
BRITISH RECORD
Event
(in
yds.)
Time
(in
sees.
Holder
(year and
nationality)
Time
(in
sees.)
Holder
(year and
nationality)
f
D. Kelly, 1906 \
(U.S.A.).
H. P. Drew, 1914
(U.S.A.).
r\3.<
C. W. Paddock, 1921
E. H. Liddell, 1923
IOO
9f '
(U.S.A.).
9ro
(Gt. Britain).
C. H. Coaffee, 1922
(Canada).
C. Bowman, 1927
(U.S.A.). J
no
10*
C. W. Paddock, 1921
(U.S.A.).
1 20
11}
R. E. Walker, 1908
uj
R. E. Walker, 1909
(S. Africa).
(S. Africa).
150
14*
C. W. Paddock, 1921
MI
W. R. Applegarth, 1913
(U.S.A.).
(Gt. Britain).
200
19
C. W. Paddock, 1921
I9f
W. R. Applegarth, 1912
(U.S.A.).
(Gt. Britain).
22O
20|
R. A. Locke, 1926
2I i
W. R. Applegarth, 1914
(U.S.A.).
(Gt. Britain).
250
24}
W. T. Macpherson, 1891
2 4t
E. H. Felling, 1888
(N. Zealand).
(Gt. Britain).
300
30*
C. W. Paddock, 1921
3t
G. M. Butler, 1926
(U.S.A.). (Unofficial.)
(Gt. Britain).
B. J. Wefers, 1896
(U.S.A.).
G, M. Butler, 1926
(Gt. Britain).
It may be mentioned in passing that no less than three
Americans have been credited as yet unofficially
with having covered 100 yards in 9^ seconds, which
represents the amazing performance of travelling the
whole distance at an average consistent pace of nearly
136
SPRINTING
22 miles pet hour. In view of what has been said above
in regard to man's maximum capacity for the mainten-
ance of full speed it will be realised why this time is
almost incredible.
Now, however, let us pass to a consideration of the
means by which one aims at attaining to these heights
of achievement in human speed, namely the principles
of sprinting style and technique.
As has been mentioned above, the following remarks
will apply primarily to the 100 yards, though with slight
modifications, which will be noted later, they will serve
equally well as a basis for the consideration of any sprint
distance.
Style must always be a matter of personal opinion,
something which is in its essence the possession of each
particular individual. For all of us have minds and
bodies which differ to some greater or lesser degree,
and however machine-like the sprinter may become
and it must be remembered this is his ultimate aim, the
repetition of various movements with never-varying
automatic precision still he must always originally
have been possessed of a natural self on to which training
and experience have grafted some particular technique.
And though the consideration of this natural basis does
not really come within the scope of this chapter, one
must emphasise the fact that it is really this part of the
sprinter's make-up which is of primary importance.
First and foremost, be natural 1 Any adopted style,
which necessitates a constant struggle between that
which one would do automatically, and that which one
feels or has been taught one ought to do, must inevitably
produce bad form. It is a noteworthy fact that many of
the world's most famous sprinters have had styles which
have been far from beautiful and, one believes, far from
correct. But such has been their natural talent that this
has been capable of overcoming obvious faults. Of
course it is always possible to say that had they eradicated
those faults they would have been even more phenomenal,
137
ATHLETICS
but nevertheless we incline to the belief that success in
sprinting lies rather in the careful cultivation of a pre-
existing natural style than in the manufacture of some
text-book or trainer-made style. This does not mean that
one should continue to run with obvious faults. There
are certain points with regard to sprinting about which
one can brook no argument. These the would-be
sprinter must acquire. But there is a far greater
number of points on which it is ridiculous to lay
down any hard-and-fast dogmatic ruling. Of these the
sprinter must judge for himself, for they will constitute
his style.
One has often heard it said when a runner puts up a
first-class performance with seemingly comparative ease,
" What a beautiful style that man has ! " And true
though this undoubtedly is, how many of these
" beautiful styles " are the same ? Very few, for each
is essentially the natural expression of that particular
runner's ability.
Assuming, therefore, that above all the sprinter must
cultivate his innate running qualities, let us turn to
those more tangible considerations which allow him to
utilise these qualities to the utmost extent.
To run a 100 yards as fast as possible means first and
foremost running straight, for the shortest distance
between two points is a straight line. To run straight
necessitates correct balance and perfect body control,
and this in turn demands a very high degree of co-
ordination of muscular and nervous systems. Again,
as the race is run from a position of rest, it is necessary
to learn that method by which the inertia of the body at
rest may be overcome with the greatest economy of
energy and yet the greatest efficiency, i.e. to start well.
And, having started, one must discover the best way to
utilise all that is possible of one's energy for the produc-
tion and maintenance of speed in other words, to run and
to finish. These are admittedly basic factors of sprinting,
and now may be considered in more detail.
SPRINTING
Section 2. The Start
One deals with this first not only because it is
obviously the beginning of the race, but also because it
is by far the most vital part of it. It is no exaggera-
tion to say that the majority of sprint races amongst
men of approximately equal calibre are won or lost in
the first second. And since the effbit of overcoming
one's original inertia is so great that the first second
represents a distance of something less than 5 yards,
the fundamental importance of successful starting
will be obvious. It is a very true observation with regard
to sprinting that a good start means a good finish. Thus
the initial impetus of starting which aims at the develop-
ment of maximum momentum in minimum time (i.e.
" getting quickly into one's running ") requires a
considerable knowledge of the technical and mechanical
detail concerned, and much steady, persevering practice
thereof. The vital factor in the success of a start is the
acquisition of that correct balance which it is essential
to maintain throughout the race if it is to be run in the
straightest line and therefore in the shortest time.
Perfect body equilibrium at the end of the first stride
goes a long way to ensuring a rapid and satisfactory
development of the particular runner's own actual racing
style and without it fractions of a second and corre-
spondingly inches and even feet, which are invaluable in
a sprint race, are squandered and lost.
It was this lack of body control in the earliest stages
of a race which was very largely responsible for the
discarding of the old upright style of starting. It ^as
thought, and presumably still is, as the method is neter
seen in use in the present day, that starting from the
standing position was productive of marked unsteadiness
in the first few yards running. Be this as it may, there
is a lot to be said for this old style, which has, since the
beginning of the century, slowly and gradually dropped
out of use entirely. It must be remembered that it was
ATHLETICS
used by sprinters whose times, at any rate relatively,
considering the vastly improved conditions of track and
equipment to-day, were practically the equal of those of
the super-sprinters of the present day.
In this form of start the runner places his front foot,
whichever that may be, and, as in all cases, it is quite
immaterial, fairly and squarely flat on the ground with
the toe touching the starting line and the foot at some-
thing of an angle to this line. The whole weight of the
body should be on this foot, the corresponding knee
being slightly bent to allow of a certain amount of
elasticity in the foot movement and also to permit the
body and head to be thrown well forward over this leg.
The rear foot is placed in a hole (the only one required)
specially dug crosswise to the direction of running, some
2 feet behind the front foot and just an inch or two to
one side of it, to ensure comfortable balance. The arms
meanwhile are held in such a position that when the
runner starts to move they swing almost automatically
into that particular action which the runner favours.
It will be evident that if this position is carefully
assumed there is no obvious reason why balance should
not be perfect in fact more perfect than in the modern
crouch or " all-fours " style, which, after all, is certainly
not nearly as natural a stance. There is nothing forced
about the stand-up starter; his arms are more free to
drop quickly into their usual action ; and since he has
but to drive his body-weight forward, whereas the crouch
starter has also to give it upward momentum, it would
seem more than probable that he is more quickly into
his normal striding.
There is really so little adverse criticism possible of
the stand-up start that one would not be at all surprised
to see a recrudescence of its popularity in the not too
distant future, once some sprinter of note has again
proved its efficacy.
^ In the meantime, however, the crouch start is in vogue
and universally adopted in sprint races. With regard
140
SPRINTING
to the reason for this, a parallel has been drawn to the
animal world, in which, when a beast is preparing to put
forth some particularly great effort, it automatically
gathers itself together or crouches, ready for the initial
spring of its attack. This parallel, however, must not be
carried too far, for the sprinter neither wants to be so
tensed up that he is uncomfortable nor does he want to
leap out into his first stride. The one means loss of the
all-essential poise ; the other, loss of time before normal
striding action can be picked up after the momentary
pause caused by landing from the initial jump foward.
Again, the sprinter who adopts the crouch start must
attempt to be just as natural as possible, to assume his
starting position in the most comfortable and easiest
possible way, and to start running steadily, without jerk
or junjp and yet withal rapidly in other words, to glide
out into full speed as it were. Apart from the actual
material gain in distance of an efficient start the
psychological effect of " being out " an inch or two
ahead of one's competitors a fact which can be sensed
rather than seen is worth probably a foot or two later
in the race, and is yet another reason for concentration
on the development of a sound starting technique.
Before discussing the various positions required by
this method of starting it is necessary to describe the
" holes " which form an essential feature of this style.
That the start may be successful it is of vital importance
that these starting holes should be both correctly placed
and correctly fashioned. First of all one must reiterate
that one of the sprinter's primary objects is to run straight.
Furthermore, Nature has normally placed our legs a
certain distance apart, and it should be the aim of every
sprinter to maintain this distance as he runs, i.e. to allow
each leg its own definite straight line to follow. Either
placing one foot behind the other or running with the
feet wide of their respective natural lines is an equally
bad fault. Hence, to ensure at least a correct beginning
in this respect, let the sprinter stand with toes touching
141
ATHLETICS
the starting line, looking down the track to the finish,
and then with feet together mark the position of both
middle toes. Lines drawn back from these two points
at right angles to the starting line will give the normal
distance apart that the legs should be both in starting
and in running. And it is on these two lines, therefore,
that the required holes will lie. The front hole (as has
been said, it is immaterial which foot is in front, provided
it is always the same one) should be placed approximately
a foot's length or a little less, some 7 to 9 inches, behind
the starting line. The exact position is found by kneeling
down, placing the fingers on the starting line, the feet
on their respective lines at right angles to this as already
drawn, and simply finding the most comfortable position.
This will, incidentally, also give the position, by the mark
made on the track by the back toe, for the rear hole.
Once the sprinter has made sure of the best positions of
these two holes for himself, a very good plan is to have
a piece of string with knots indicating the distances
required. Incidentally, it should be mentioned that in
placing the back hole, the sprinter being now in the
kneeling position, the knee or the rear leg should come
approximately opposite the instep of the front foot, but,
as ever, small deviations from any set rulings, providing
they afford ease and comfort, must be accepted as correct.
The holes themselves should be dug with a trowel,
which the sprinter should always have with him as part
of his equipment, and preferably a flat or mason's trowel.
The great essential with regard to holes is to see that
their back wall when dug is square to the direction of
running. Otherwise they will tend to throw the sprinter
out of his desired straight line, with consequent inevitable
loss of balance from the very start. The holes should be
just deep enough and wide enough to receive comfort-
ably the ball of the foot, i.e. all that pait of the shoe
which bears the spikes. Roughly, this depth is about 2|
to 3 inches, though the front hole can often with
advantage be rather more shallow than this.
142
SPRINTING
The back wall of the hole should be absolutely
straight and inclined at an angle of about 75 degrees,
though if the track be at all soft it is well worth while
making this back wall practically perpendicular, for it
is very necessary to have this quite firm to permit the
rear foot to have all the purchase it requires when the
start is actually made. The front of the hole should be
scooped out to avoid any chance of the toe catching it
as the foot comes out.
The remaining considerations re the start are best
discussed under the three sub-headings of the starter's
commands : " On your
marks ! " ; " Get set ! " ;
"Go!" (pistol). (French:
" A vos marques " ; " Prgt ";
German : " Auf die Platze " ;
FIG. 2.
On your Marks ! "The
position to be taken up in
response to this command is
shown in Fig. 2, which should
be consulted in connection with
the subsequent description.
The sprinter, keeping warmly
clad until the last possible moment, walks quietly forward
the two or three yards from where he has been standing
behind his previously dug holes. He then places one
foot firmly and squarely in the back hole, the other in
the front hole, and kneels down comfortably with his
hands on the starting line. This position must be
essentially one of ease and relaxation a sort of " lull
before the storm ! " The knee of the leg correspond-
ing to the rear foot should, as has been said, be on the
ground approximately opposite the instep of the front
foot and about an inch or two to one side of it. The
relative position of this knee will, of course, depend
ultimately upon the stature of the particular athlete, and
especially upon his length of leg. The legs must be so
ATHLETICS
adjusted that there is no feeling of cramp or tension.
The back is held straight and the head and neck should
bear the same relation to the trunk as they do in the
normal upright position, i.e. the neck should not be
bent back, and the habit of looking towards the finishing
tape, apart from one preliminary glance just to make
sure that one is facing squarely in the direction it is
required to run, is definitely to be deprecated. The eyes
actually should be focussed on that spot, preferably
previously marked on the track as will be described
later, where it is intended that the first foot shall strike
approximately some 3 feet away down the track.
This is quite possible without any strain when the head
is held at its natural angle.
The arms in this position are most comfortable if
just slightly bent at the elbow. As regards the position
of the hands on the starting line, there is a definite
optimum for each individual. This is most simply
discovered by raising the shoulders a little whilst still
kneeling, and swinging the arms gently straight back
and forward. If the shoulders are now again gradually
lowered, the arms still swinging, a stage will be reached
when the fingers just brush, and mark, the surface of
the track. These two marks will give the correct
positions for the hands on the line. The distance
between the two hands varies from about 1 8 to 24 inches
according to the width of the shoulder and of the hip of
the athlete concerned. But whatever these may be, this
simple swinging method will give the necessary clearance
for the legs when these come forward in the actual start,
and at the same time obviate the almost equally bad
fault -of having the hands too far apart, which, when the
" set " position is assumed, leads to the shoulders being
lower than the back, and a subsequent " dive " start, the
disadvantages of which will be pointed out later.
There are several ways of holding the hands. That
in the diagram is one of the commonest, the thumb and
index finger being on the line and the remaining fingers
144
SPRINTING
ranged back from the index. Another favourite method
is to have the tips of both index and middle fingers
together on the line, the thumb as before, and the other
two fingers forming the third " leg " of a tripod. Others,
again, seem to prefer to the elasticity of these two methods
the firmness and steadiness obtained by placing the
middle joint of the index and middle fingers together
with the thumb as before on the starting line. The
choice is really a matter of individual preference and
experience.
" Get Set I " It is this position which is the counter-
part of the animal's crouch before it springs. The whole
poise of the body is now
altered. Every muscle is
now tensed, every faculty
on the qui vive. And it
is now that a satisfactory
taking up of the prelim-
inary "On your marks ! "
position bears good fruit,
for to remain " set "
for anything up to two
seconds, which time is
perfectly legitimate and
may be demanded by
any stringent starter, re-
quires a high degree of perfected body balance. And
steadiness at this stage is essential if both a good and
a fair start is to be made. One does not propose to deal
with the practice of attempting to " beat the gun "
it is not only unsportsman-like, but unprofitable if the
starter knows anything about his business.
The rear knee is now raised some 12 to 15 inches
off the ground (see Fig. 3) until the back is parallel
to the ground. The head and neck still maintain the
same relative position, i.e. in line with the back, and the
eyes remain fixed on the spot where the first stride will
land the leading foot. The arms should now be fully
K 145
FIG. 3.
ATHLETICS
extended, so that the body's centre oflgravity is thrown
forward till it comes to lie in the centre of a tripod formed
by the two arms and the front leg. Equilibrium should
now be such that if the hands are raised the runner
will tend to fall forward on his face. No weight should
be borne by the back leg, whose particular function is
the provision of propulsive force when the pistol is fired,
A fault to be avoided is the raising of the hindquarters
above the shoulders, which, like having the hands too
far apart, tends to throw the runner downwards as well
as forwards when he starts, whereas his aim and object
should be to come straight out of his holes with body
parallel to the ground and gradually rising, until, as it
were, this human bullet reaches the optimum height
of its trajectory some 30 yards down the track a
height which it must strive to maintain until the
finish.
Another common fault is that of bending the neck
backwards. This automatically produces a strained and
uncomfortable position and militates against steadiness.
Though the " set " position is one of tension, it must not
become one of strain, or else true body balance will be
lost. At the command " Set ! " a good deep breath
should be taken and held, and this will in all probability
last the sprinter throughout the entire race. The
importance of this breath is that it expands the chest,
and by so fixing the thorax gives a steady superstructure
from which the arms can work.
" Go! " (Pistol). It is in the actual start that the perfect
co-ordination of body and mind which can only be the
outcome of much painstaking practice and considerable
experience shows to most advantage. This co-
ordination between the sense of hearing and the muscular
system will reduce the latent period, which to some
mijiute extent always exists between the firing of the gun
and the first movement of the runner, to a minimum.
This first movement is essentially a drive from the rear
leg and a forward lift from the front. This is admirably
146
SPRINTING
shown in Fig. 4, especially by the sprinter on the
right (H. M. Abrahams),
We have already stressed the importance of coming
out of the holes straight, and this, together with an
additional impetus, is ensured by a correct arm action.
There are various styles and lack of style in arm action,
but whatever is the runner's normal action he should
adopt it from the moment the gun goes off. In the
illustration all three runners are showing this well.
The man on the right favours a cross-arm swing, and
FIG. 4.
the other two (the man on the left being slightly ahead
of his opponents at this early stage) are using back and
forward piston arm action; but all three have adopted
the correct position for their respective arms even before
the first stride is completed.
As regards this first stride, we are of the opinion that
it should form part of a regular series of gradually length-
ening strides which ultimately take the runner into his
full speed without any perceptible change of action.
The " chopped " or abbreviated first stride, followed
by some five or six short, very rapid strides, and then by a
definite lengthening out into normal striding a plan
H7
ATHLETICS
very commonly adopted by American sprinters -seems
most conducive to lack of steadiness and consequent early
loss of form. The start should be essentially a smooth,
even gliding out from the holes, with a uniform accelera*
tion of speed to the maximum. The first stride, therefore,
will vary in length according to the individual, and he
should ascertain by repeated practice SMfhere his first foot
out tends to land normally without any conscious effort
towards either lengthening or shortening this stride.
The average length of the first stride is about three foot
lengths of the particular sprinter. Once a runner has
discovered his own particular length, he should take-
particular note of it and in practice as well as races mark
this spot on the track in fiont of him and make sure he
hits it every time he starts. The knotted string already
mentioned can be made of sufficient length to include
this marking also, as well as that of tjie two starting holes*
It is obvious that all energy at the start should be
concentrated on the production of momentum, and hence
any early exaggeration of knee-lift (the feet in the first
few strides should never be raised more than 6 inche$
above the ground) and any early tendency to raise the
trunk to a more upright position are to be deprecated.
Too long a first stride is one of the commonest causes
of this last-mentioned fault. In reaching out for a long
first stride the centre of gravity is thrown back, the body
becomes more upright, and energy is unnecessarily dissi-
pated with resultant loss of development of speed. Too
short a first stride, on the other hand, is the equivalent
of the jabbed or chopped stride, the disadvantages of
which have already been pointed out.
Section 3. Striding
(Under this heading it is intended to discuss the race
as apart from the actual start and the finish. It is
chiefly in this connection that the question of style and
form crops up. As has been said, for the sprinter all
148
SPRINTING
possible available energy must be put into the produc-
tion of speed and hence certain fundamental truths will
simply need a mention.
Again one must stress the importance of running
straight. Any deviation from the line which marks the
shortest distance between start and finish means loss of
time. Then, whatever the style adopted by the sprinter,
it must be such as to be capable of maintaining true
body balance. Any energy required to correct a wobble
or some uneven or uncontrolled leg or arm movement
is wasted energy.
It will be obvious, too, that since the forward direction
at the greatest velocity is the sprinter's real objective,
any energy devoted to upward spring or bounding is lost
as far as the actual result of the race is concerned. In
other words, one must run as close to the ground as
possible.
( There are two factors in running a sprint race which
have to be balanced to a nicety to achieve the best
results. These are the length of the strides used to cover
a certain distance and the rapidity with which those
strides are taken. And the latter is really the more
important factor, for it has been amply proved that the
man with the quicker action and the relatively slightly
shorter stride can produce a better time than the man
whose length of stride prevents his getting in quite so
many strides in covering any given distance. The
tendency is always rather to overstride, and the sprinter
must aim at that length which will allow him the
quickest action. Though, of course, this length will
vary considerably according to the type of sprinter an
average stride when travelling at full speed should lie
between 7 feet and 7 feet 9 inches. ^
In the following considerations of striding styles,
Fig. 5 should be consulted.
For simplicity one may consider the body of the
splinter during his race under the three headings of*(a)
Head and Trunk, () Arms and (c) Legs.
149
ATHLETICS
(a) Head and Trunk. One of the most important
factors in good sprinting is the cultivation of a correct
" body lean " or " running angle." We have shown
how, on leaving the holes, the body is almost parallel
to the ground.jf It should at all costs never be allowed
to become quite upright, for the maintenance of a
certain amount of forward body lean keeps the centre
of gravity thrown forward, thus both materially assisting
good balance and, by taking the body weight very largely
off the legs, leaving them
free to act more or less
purely as propulsive
agents. By its forward
lean the body should
be, as it were, con-
tinually falling forward,
and hence drawing the
legs after it, and there-
fore reducing to a
minimum the time of
contact with the ground,
thereby conserving en-
ergy for th^ production
of speed.) Furthermore,
this drawing forward of
the legs accomplishes
an additional saving of
energy in ^making it im-
possible for [the runner
to indulge in any upward drive or bound to any
extent. One of the chief arguments in favour of a
shorter stride is that it is conducive to a better running
angle. This angle when the runner is in full stride,
which will not occur until almost one-third of a 100
yards race is run, should be such that when the back
leg is fully extended, this leg, the back and the head
and neck should form a straight line (see Fig. 5), at
about 60 degrees to the horizontal.
150
FIG. 5.
SPRINTING
Erect running also involves considerable jarring-
complaint often to be noted in flat-footed runners. On
the other hand, it must be noted that an over-exaggerated
body lean is almost as bad a fault as being too erect.
It leads to a staggering gait, a continual state of over-
balance, which idea, of course, is inimical to any
possibility of fast running.
The upper part of the body, as has been stated
previously, was more or less fixed by the initial breath
taken on the starter's command " Get set ! " and from
this compact centre the arms can work to greatest
advantage.
The head and neck must throughout the race be kept
in relatively the same position to the trunk that they have
when standing in the erect posture. (Any tendency to
let the head go back the so-called " chin-lift " which
is always hard to control, particularly at the end of a
race, must be as far as possible checked completely. |
() Arms.$\n sprinting the arms are the more import-
ant members, for on their correct action depends the
efficiency of the legs' work. , The arms are the balancing
factors of the sprinting machine, and the importance of
balance has already been well emphasised. Whatever
style of arm action may be adopted, provided it works
harmoniously with the legs, it will serve to control the
latter and hence to produce straighter and more powerful
running. ^
Again, whatever style the sprinter may decide suits
him best, there are certain fundamental facts with regard
to arm action which may well be considered before one
enters into a brief discussion of the most common
varieties of style.
The essential fact to bear in mind is that the arms are
body controls. It is therefore obvious that an arm
which is swung outside what may be termed the sphere
of body balance is a retrograde force. By this one means
that the arm which swings so wide of the body that the
bands are^clear of it either behind, or to the side, or, for
ATHLETICS
that matter, equally as much, above the shoulder level,
is not only useless as an adjunct to the propulsive forces,
but definitely a drawback. The lack of arm control is
evident in all bad sprinters throughout the race, but the
fault is found particularly at the start and the finish,
even in first-class runners. Always aim at maintaining
the arm action one adopts from gun to tape. Any arm
action must have as its basis a low carriage of the hands,
and, furthermore, must be such that it is possible to
obtain by it perfect synchrony with the leg action. One
particular arm must always be in action at the same
moment as the opposite leg if true poise and equilibrium
are to be satisfactorily maintained.
Again, the shoulders in any style must be brought
into play, for a well-used shoulder is a powerful adjuvant
to the assistance rendered by the arms. The shoulders,
however, should never be twisted nor shrugged, but, like
the rest of the upper part of the body, held relatively
steady, level, and facing as far as possible to the front,
i.e. in that position in which they can most suitably serve
as a fulcrum, from which the arms may work.
The two most prevalent styles are the forward and
backward " drive " or " piston " method (in which,
with the arm locked at the elbow, the arms are forced
from front to rear in a line parallel to that in which one
is running, with the forearm all the time being kept
roughly parallel to the ground) and the " cross-swing "
(in which the arms are worked from side to side with a
sort of rotary movement, the hands being about the level
of the pit of the stomach and the elbows turned well out).
A variation of the first of these, " the chop," one cannot
advocate, as its very nature an upward and downward
swing from hip to shoulder with the hands directed
forward must inevitably lead to a forcing back of the
centre of gravity and much too erect a carriage. Both
the first two styles mentioned have many advocates, and
it would be unwise to say one is right and the other
wrong. : Though admittedly both give good control, it
. SPRINTING
is hard to see how a swing backward and forward can
possibly add anything to one's impetus, for one part of
the movement is exactly counteracted by the other.
In the cross-swing, on the other hand, there is at no
time any backward force applied, thus allowing the legs
to make a relatively greater propulsive effort in the
forward direction. The simile of the shot from the gun
may again be used here, for the rotary cross-swing action
corresponds to the rifling of a gun barrel, which, as
everyone knows, serves to keep the missile in this case
represented by the human body travelling in a dead
straight line.
The choice of an arm action, however, is essentially
a matter for the individual, but whatever his choice he
must be careful to see that it fulfils the fundamentals
noted above. To these may be added, perhaps, the
advantage of running with a closed fist always, whether
this be gripping a running cork or not.
(c) Legs. As we have said, the legs are really only
secondary to the arms, though, of course, being the
actual propulsive agents they are of vital importance.
jBut a good arm action will automatically ensure efficient
leg work. The movement is essentially a powerful stride,
the front leg being lifted well up (" knee-lift ") and
thrown out straight to the front, each in its particular
line. This should ensure the foot landing with toes and
ankle in line, and the foot pointing straight ahead. The
sprinter must be " up on his toes " all the time. As we
have said, the flat-footed runner is the erect runner, and
consequently relatively slow. Though the action, always
assisted by a good body lean, is really a reaching out for
distance, the importance of avoiding over-striding has
already been stressed, jj Again, though one must be on
the toes, any bounding element in the stride is the
equivalent of wasted energy, as the feet should always
be as near the ground as possible and on it for as
short a time as possible.
The common fault of kicking the foot up behind is
153
ATHLETICS
automatically conquered by a good knee-lift, though,
of course, it must be remembered that this, too, can be
overdone to the extent of driving the body up into^ an
erect posture. One must never run with the knees bent ;
the drive from the leg comes from the locking of the knee
(see Fig. 5) as the body comes forward over the foot
then on the ground. Such faults as running with one
foot striking the ground directly in front of its fellow, or,
on the other hand, with a wide base and the feet too far
apart, are almost too obvious to need comment.
Leg action is not difficult it is mainly natural and if
one keeps aware of the possibility of developing certain
minor faults, it is enough to say, " Look after the arms
and, the legs will look after themselves ! " )
Section 4. The Finish
Even as many a good race is won in the first few
yards, so it is lost in the last few. In sprinting one
is so apt to become intrigued with all the interesting
details of proper starting technique that thought and
practice of that most important item, the finish, are
inclined to be neglected. As will be shown later, it is
not difficult to train for a finish, and the results well
repay the effort.
We are of the opinion that for the average sprinter the
best finish to aim at is none at all ! By this apparent
paradox one means that the sprinter should simply " run
through " the tape, aim at a point some 10 yards or so
beyond it, and concentrate purely on maintaining his
style at its maximum efficiency right up to the very last
moment. There are, however, various definite forms of
finish which in the hands of an experienced and carefully
trained sprinter may be of advantage. Chief of these,
perhaps, is the " drop " finish, in which practically in
the last stride the chest is thrust forwards and down-
wards, the arms being dropped and thrown back a little.
A modified form of this, and, incidentally, a very
'54
SPRINTING
perfect finish, is shown in Fig. 6 (J. E. London).
Another form is tfrat known as the " throw " finish, in
which in the last stride one side of the body one
shoulder in particular is thrown strongly forward
lifted off the ground as it were against the tape. In that
this inevitably means some loss of the rhythm of striding
and of body balance one is inclined to think it of doubtful
value. And the
same remark, but
to a much greater
degree, applies to
the " jump " finish,
despite the fact that
it is consistently
used by such a
master of sprinting
as C. W. Paddock.
In this style a de-
finite long jump is
made from a point
some 2 yards or so
from the tape, but
it seems obvious,
surely, that not only
must the complete
change of action
from striding to
leaping cause some F IG . 6 .
shade of hesitation,
however slight, but also that the energy put into the
upward movement of the " jump " would be much better
expended in a purely forward direction at this stage of
the race.
Whatever method is adopted, a universal rule to be
followed out is always to slow up gradually after finishing.
More muscular trouble comes to the genus sprinter after
the tape has been broken than from any other part of his
sphere of activity.
'55
ATHLETICS
Section 5. Training
We intend in this section to deal with 'a few points
of particular applicability to the sprinter. He, of .course,
like all other athletes, must first have undergone a course
of general training, the fundamentals of which are fully
dealt with in a previous chapter.
The sprinter has two primary objects in his training :
the one, perfect muscular condition ; and the other, even
more important, perfect control, which means the
training of his nervous system to co-ordinate with his
muscles. He has not to worry about tactics and judg-
ment, he has but to develop his capacity for producing
speed.
It is well, however, for the would-be sprinter to realise
that this process is a lengthy one, and though always an
interesting, nevertheless an arduous one. A sprinter
cannot be made in a week nor yet in a month. Hence the
great importance of training to schedule. Be content
to go slow, to absorb one by one the various minutiae of
sprinting technique until each is so inculcated into your
very being that the result is almost automatic perfection
the maximum of speed with what is apparently the
minimum of effort. As someone has said, it is a process
of " facilitation by repetition."
In the early stages of training, indoor exercises and
walking, with a certain limited amount of good massage,
are the chief indications. The walking should, for the
sprinter, be more in the nature of a stroll just suffi-
ciently fast to keep him warm and by stimulating a good
circulation help to loosen up his muscles. The exercises
used are many and varied, and should form not only the
basis of the early part of his training, but really to some
greater or less degree according to the season, etc., a
part of the daily routine of his life. The best of all
exercises is the closest possible imitation of one's running
action that can be performed in a limited space. This
allows of a constant repetition and practice of the
156
SPRINTING
movements that will ultimately be required on the track,
and hence tends to the production of that machine-like
automaticity that the sprinter so greatly needs. The
mere fact of having to perform this exercise within a
space of about a square yard which in itself will at
first prove to be a difficult task is conducive to gradual
improvement of powers of balance, whilst simply by
constant practice one finds that there occurs a general
speeding up of all the movements which comprise a
sprinting action, together with a very satisfying increase
in one's ability to co-ordinate body and mind. Running
up stairs, skipping, dumb-bell exercises and physical
jerks generally are all good for the sprinter. He must
in his training be particularly careful not to neglect his
shoulder and arm development; and the use of lead
weights in practising an arm action or arm exercises is of
great assistance in strengthening the muscles concerned.
When the stage of getting out on the track is reached,
the important thing is to have a plan of action and to
stick to it. Train when you train it both stimulates
the brain to a higher pitch of keenness and quickness
and avoids the obvious physical disadvantages of
catching cold. A really hot sun is the only excusable
cause for neglecting this dictum ! Track training
should always begin with the process of " limbering
up " just jogging about; stretching the muscles,
gradually working up till one is moving a little faster,
always on the toes and with the knees well up. This
serves to loosen up all the muscles and get the sprinter
into suitable condition for the more strenuous work of
the day. This should always include a certain number
of starts, and in this, as in all sprinting training, it is of
the greatest assistance to train in company and if possible
with a friend, especially one who knows something about
the business in hand. Six starts are ample for one day,
and at first most of them should be made without a gun
and as slowly as though one were imitating a slow motion
cinematograph picture at the same time concentrating
'57
ATHLETICS
upon all the many details of starting technique discussed
previously. Later, starting from the gun is most
valuable. With regard to actual running, this should
be carefully moderated. In the earlier stages an
occasional 120 or 150 yards is excellent for producing
sufficient stamina. After one is relatively fit, however,
apart from a " hundred " run full out every week or so
preferably not " against the watch " one's running
should consist of much " pattering/ 1 or practice of
rapidity of action, allowing this three or four times to
break out into full striding for 50 yards or so and then
on to some 30 yards of racing, followed by a steady
slowing up. Various alternatives to such a scheme to
suit particular conditions or requirements will be obvious.
And never forget that a day's training work is incomplete
without practising a finish. This is most simply done
by striding for some 40 yards or so to a marked line, then
accelerating to full speed up to another marked line
some 40 yards farther on, and at this second line making
a definite finishing effort.
Once fitness has been attained, and especially if one
is racing every week-end, two other outings on the track
during the week are ample to maintain condition, and
roughly half an hour should be plenty of time on these
outings to get all the practice required.
In conclusion, in training or in racing the sprinter
must pay particular attention to his running shoes, and
the way they are worn. A good shoe is worth anything
up to 2 yards in a " hundred 1 "
Section 6. The 220 Yards
Though to-day it seems natural to class the 220
yards race automatically with the regular standard
events of a programme, it had practically no history
before the opening of this century. The 1 900 Olympic
Games of Paris were the first to see it (200 metres)
featuring, and it was not until 1902 that it became
158
SPRINTING
an A.A.A. Championship event, whilst it is a note-
worthy fact that even to this day it is not in the
Oxford v. Cambridge programme, though in their
combined meetings with the great American Univer-
sities it now occurs regularly.
The Olympic Games 200 metres has so far been an
" all- American " affair, having been won five times by
the United States and twice by Canada. The former
country shares the Olympic record of 2i seconds (in
the joint persons of A. Hahn, 1 904 and J. V. Scholz,
1924) with Germany (KOrnig, Amsterdam, 1928), and
holds the world's record of 2of seconds, which stands
to the credit of R. A. Locke. This amazing time
represents an average speed of 22 m.p.h. over the whole
distance !
Though instituted in 1902, the A.A.A. " furlong "
was not run in under 22 seconds until eleven years later,
when W, Applegarth won this distinction. To his
credit also stands the British record for this distance of
2i seconds, only seconds outside the world's record.
It is indicative of the advance in sprinting ability since
the War that of the ten championships run to date seven
of the times recorded have been inside 22 seconds,
though it needs must be recorded that in the whole
series of 220 yards championships some 40 per
cent, of victories have been claimed by non-English
sprinters.
In this country the 220 yards is practically always
run round a bend, the several runners, therefore,
starting en Echelon ; but in other countries, and America
in particular, tracks with a " straightaway " furlong are
rather the rule than the exception. Though, according
to the original definition of sprinting agreed upon at the
beginning of this chapter, the 220 yards undoubtedly
comes under the heading of sprint races, still it is only
fair to say that in this as in every race of 1 50 yards (taking
this as a purely arbitrary figure) and over there is either
consciously or unconsciously a period of the race when
'59
ATHLETICS
the runner rests on his momentum as it were, in an
attempt to conserve his remaining supply of energy for
a final burst, the length of which will, of course, depend
upon individual ability.
The " 220 man " as a type tends to be of rather bigger
build than the shorter distance sprinter, taller, with big
legs very strongly muscled, and it is possible for such a
man of exceptional strength to run his 220 yards at his
maximum speed all the way. But probably for the
majority of runners the furlong is divided into a sprint
start of some 75 yards, a middle stage, when momentum
is maintained but not definitely increased, of about 75
to 100 yards (the distance depending upon the capacity
for finishing), and a third stage of from 50 to 70
yards.
The added element that comes into this race when
comparing it with the " hundred " is stamina, and it is
almost incredible how completely even a fit runner can
exhaust his energy supply in running so relatively short
a distance. For this reason, to the remarks already
made on sprinting training one must add the necessity
for " working out " over longer distances up to and
including 300 yards. The acquisition of this stamina is
of very vital importance, for it is the gruelling fight up the
straight, when it has been estimated that even the trained
athlete is travelling at at least two yards per second
slower than his possible full speed, that so often means
the difference between victory and defeat. And it is in
this final stage also that the continued practice of a
definite sprinting style stands one in good stead, for the
ability to retain form right through to the end of a " 220"
is an almost invaluable asset. As regards the various
points already discussed in connection with starting,
striding and finishing, these apply equally well over the
longer distance and must be practised just as assiduously.
One point, perhaps, may be mentioned regarding the
circumnavigation of a bend when the race is run round
a curve, and this is that an arm action in which the inside
1 60
SPRINTING
arm is dropped lower while the other arm's movement
is increased in force tends to keep the body's centre of
gravity from being thrown out, and hence to the main-
tenance of a more stable equilibrium than would other-
wise be the case when not running down a straight.
161
CHAPTER VII
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
Section i. General Principles
MlDDLE-distance races include anything from
a quarter-mile to a mile. This statement may
not pass unchallenged by those who wish to
preserve the nomenclature of the nineteenth or even
early twentieth century ; but it seems justified if one
considers for a moment the quality of the various races.
It is true, of course, that the programmes at American
sports meetings to-day describe the quarter-mile as the
440 yards dash, presumably indicating thereby the
intention to classify this event as a sprint ; but very few
people can run a quarter from pillar to post as did Eric
Liddell in the final of the 400 metres (437*45 yards) at
the Olympic Games of 1924.
It is, strictly speaking, a mistake to describe the average
method of running a quarter, no matter how rapidly and
brilliantly, as sprinting^ which implies top-gear the whole
way and even time (or faster), unless one is prepared to
call half-miling sprinting also, on the ground that one
attempts to go his fastest all the way, capping a 53-54
first quarter with whatever burst of energy one may !
Therefore, it is probably more logical to confine the
term sprinting to races up to and including 300 yards,
grouping the quarter with middle-distance events, and
in particular because most quarter-milers, unless they
are pure sprinters attempting an unusually lengthy
event, adopt methods of running and tactics similar to
those employed in the half-mile.
For slightly different, but, it is submitted, equally
162
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
sound reasons, the mile ought to be regarded as a middle-
distance event. In these days of fast miles, when 4-20
is considered almost commonplace and 2-4 or 2-6 is
regular time for the first half of a championship race, the
inclusion of the mile among long-distance events seems
erroneous, no matter what may be the private feelings
of the competitor during the progress of the race. And
to clinch the argument, scarcely a miler of note in recent
years, with the exception of the remarkable Nurmi, has
been a successful performer over longer distances
indeed the modern miler is usually the half-mile type of
runner.
It is by reason of this classification of the quarter and
one mile and their affinities to the half-mile that it is
possible to apply most of the suggestions about to be
made to all three events. Moreover, they may be
applied, mutatis mutandis^ to those races less frequently
run in this country which fall into this class, namely the
600 yards, 1000 yards and 1500 metres. The first is
really an elongated quarter of a particularly exhausting
kind, usually run by the half-miler ; the second is run
as an extension of the half ; the third is the Olympic and
international event which takes the place of the English
and American mile, and which is about 120 yards
short of that distance. It is proposed, therefore, to
consider the general principles which may be said to
govern middle-distance running, and to pay further and
individual attention to the particular events later in this
chapter. Before discussing these principles, however,
perhaps an analysis of the types of athlete which comprise
middle-distance runners may not be out of place.
Except in the quarter-mile, the middle-distance runner
is almost invariably spare and slim, of medium height,
long in the leg, with a springy carriage, quite deep-
chested, and possessed of great powers of endurance and
a rich store of nervous energy. The muscular develop-
ment is less pronounced than in the case of the sprinter,
length taking the place of thickness ; and although the
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ATHLETICS
quarter-miler may be a middle or even a heavyweight,
the true middle-distance runner is light in weight, with
length of stride as a compensation.
Let it not be imagined, however, that in order to be a
successful middle-distance runner one needs to possess
all these physical attributes. The case is far otherwise.
Generalisations are proverbially dangerous and perhaps
unusually so in athletics, wherein no two competitors are
alike,. Therefore, whilst it will be found that most
middle-distance runners are endowed with the majority
of the qualities outlined above, there is no reason what-
ever why athletes who are physical exceptions thereto
should not succeed. They will succeed indeed, either in
spite of their lack of what may appear to be essential
qualities (e.g. a long stride) or in consequence of their
persistent cultivation of such qualities as they do possess.
Indeed, as probably the perfectly endowed individual
runner has not yet been nor ever will be born, one may
safely say that each athlete depends upon such develop-
ment of natural talent for most of his success, and,
further, that according to the lack or development of
various qualities will his best distance and method of
running be determined.
Roughly speaking, five categories of middle-distance
runner exist. In the two chief are to be found those who
combine (a) the quarter and the half, () the half and the
mile. In the third, and rarest category, are those who
excel over all three distances. The fourth and fifth
embrace those who combine quarter-miling with pure
sprinting or who do not descend (with great success)
below a mile.
Among the most brilliant exponents of quarter and
half-miling who belong to the first category may be
mentioned P. Edwards of Canada, capable of 1-52
and inside 49 ; Ted. Meredith, former world's record
holder at both distances, and present holder at 440
yards with 471 ; the German, Hans Braun, who fell in
the late War, and who won the A.A.A. Half-mile
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
Championship in 1909-1 1-12 ; and E. C. Bredin, who,
some thirty odd years ago, under less favourable con-
ditions than those pertaining to-day, won championships
in 49 and I'SSk- I n a slightly different category,
although belonging to this type of runner, are the late
Captain Halswelle, winner of the 400 metres in the 1908
Olympic Games, who still holds the British quarter-mile
record (481), and who excelled also at 600 yards ; and
in the late 'eighties H. C. L. Tindall, who still holds the
championship record of 48^, and formerly held the
record for 600 yards. Of these men, Edwards is fairly
tall and relies on a colossal stride rather than any
definite sprint finish ; Meredith was tremendously
powerful, rather stocky and very fast ; Braun, a beautiful
stylist, slim and long-striding ; and Tindall, tall and
spare.
In the second group (those who combine the mile and
half-mile), Albert Hill, winner of the Olympic 1500 and
800 metres in 1920 and holder of the British mile record
(4-13^), C. Ellis, Lloyd Hahn (i-$iS- and 4*12!, both
indoors) and the young Frenchman, S6ra Martin, who
holds the world's record for the 800 metres (i-^Of),
are perhaps the best modern examples ; and prominent
pre-War experts were P. J. Baker, W. E. Lutyens,
F . J. K. Cross, and J. P. Jones of Cornell, who achieved
i m S3\ and 4- 141. With the exception of Ellis and Hahn,
who are stocky, these men are slim, fairly tall and long-
striding, and they are all gifted with a great degree of
stamina.
The third important group contains the rar* aves who
can excel at the 440, 880 and mile. Many of those who
belong to the second group above mentioned are capable
of doing good time in the quarter indeed, it is inevitable
thatt he first-class half-miler and even miler should do
so but to excel in all three is granted to exceeding few.
The greatest of them at the present day is undoubtedly
Dr. Otto Peltzer, who holds the world's record at no fewer
than four distances 500, 1000 and 1500 metres, and
ATHLETICS
880 yards. About 6 feet 2 inches in height, very spare,
amazingly long in the leg with devastatingly long
strides, and gifted with tremendous nervous force, he is
one of the most remarkable athletes the world has ever
seen. England has given the world another master
runner, H. B. Stallard, the only man to win the British
mile, half-mile and quarter-mile championships, also very
slim, long-striding and richly endowed with nervous
energy ; and the American M. W. Sheppard is the third
man whose brilliance entitles him to a niche in this
highest hall of middle-distance fame, for he has won not
only the 1500 and 800 metres in the Olympics, but also
held until quite recently the world's record at 600 yards.
To the fourth and fifth categories belong those
athletes poles apart, and many of them most magnificent,
who either combine the quarter-mile with pure sprinting
or run the mile alone of the middle-distance events.
Among the former, Eric Liddell, British record holder
for the 100 yards (9iV) and Olympic record holder for
the 400 metres (47f), and Guy Butler, joint record
holder for the 300 yards (30^) and second and third in
the Olympic 400 metres in 1920 and 1924, are brilliant
performers. Liddell is not tall, but very sturdy, and
capable of sustaining a quick and by no means short
stride for the full quarter ; Butler is a true quarter-miler
of tremendous build and strength, 6 feet 3 inches, long-
striding, and of great heart and lung capacity, character-
istic indeed of the quarter-miler who cannot excel at a
longer distance. Among the fifth group one might cite
the Oxonian, A. N. S. Jackson, winner at Stockholm of
the 1 500 metres in then record time ; W. G. George,
erstwhile mile record holder; the young Frenchman,
Ladoumdgue; and the great Nurmi, comparable only
with Shrubb in this respect, that both could run a
splendid mile or 1 500 metres but found it the minimum
distance which he could cover at record-breaking speed.
Finally, a unique exception to all this grouping is the
South African, Bevil Rudd, winner of the Olympic 400
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
metres in 1920, British champion over 440 and 880
yards, and capable of a 10 dead 100 yards.
It will thus be evident that all types of men are
included among middle-distance runners, and that
whilst excellence at one distance is usually accompanied
by excellence over another, such is not invariably the
case. But if an athlete finds middle-distance running
his chief pleasure on the track, he may be well advised,
if he has not already done so, to attempt distances other
than his favourite, thereby either discovering one more
suitable, adding to his repertoire, or improving his skill.
This somewhat lengthy digression serves to prove, if
proof be needed, the statement made earlier in these
pages that generalisations are dangerous in athletics, and
that particularly perhaps in middle-distance running men
of widely different physique and style may dispute the
same events. Yet inasmuch as the events themselves
are common ground, the principles of technique attached
to them affect each athlete in a similar manner, and it is
therefore profitable to discuss middle-distance races as
a whole before dealing with the events individually.
Probably the first idea which mention of the word
athletics evokes in the lay mind is the vast amount of
severe training involved. That the popular idea is
rather exaggerated has been suggested in the earlier
chapters of this book, where the true meaning of training,
as generally approved in these days, has been explained.
It would be superfluous to reiterate here at any length
the preliminary steps in training, and the additional
suggestions which follow assume that the athlete has
already made himself fit. By this is meant, of course,
that his wind is sound and his stamina built up, his
muscles supple and freed from all trace of stiffness* It
is also assumed that he is indulging in the most useful
training asset sufficient sleep, especially "beauty" sleep
and that he is regulating his diet. This does not imply
ascetic abstinence from all good things and tasty dishes,
but moderation and a preference for plain rather than
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ATHLETICS
rich food, fixed meal hours, and strict moderation in the
absorption of alcohol. Smoking has been discussed
elsewhere : it offers no advantage I What, then, are the
further forms of training to be pursued ?
Essentially, the only additional requirement of a fit
man who is in a condition to race is " tuning-up."
But the compendious nature of this phrase varies a good
deal according to the proficiency of the performer. The
veteran will indeed need little more than speeding-up
to be in thorough shape ; the novice will have to study
style and technique as well. Fortunately this study is by
no means uninteresting.
The corner-stone to success in middle-distance running
is style. A good style, whether natural or cultivated,
results in economy of effort, which is vital in races where
every ounce of energy is demanded, and for the
spectator such grace and beauty that the phrase " the
poetry of motion " can be justly applied. The primary
object of games is admittedly recreation ; but it is
proper to recall that beauty in the display of physical
effort has a tonic influence upon the mind, as the
ancient Greeks realised.
Technique, unlike style, is rarely natural. Starting,
speed at the start and finish of races, knowledge of pace
and tactics are acquired by practice and experience.
The part they play in successful middle-distance running
is of an importance second only to that of good style ;
and, indeed, it does happen that faulty stylists succeed
in spite of themselves, but pioor tacticians never.
Good style has been said to induce economy of effort.
Why is this so necessary in middle-distance races ?
It is evident that once the sprint races are left behind,
in which the whole effort is sustained at practically a
maximum throughout, there enters into running an
element of judgment whereby the amount of energy the
athlete possesses shall be so employed that none is wasted
and that complete exhaustion does not occur before the
finish. Obviously the race will, in most cases, be most
168
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
fatiguing near the close, during the final sprint in fact,
therefore everything possible should be done to conserve
energy for the ultimate struggle. What measures can be
adopted to ensure this ?
In the first place, the novice usually has faults of
carriage and action. The head and body should be
slightly inclined forward, and it is perhaps curious to
note that when the head is properly set the body
angle follows almost automatically. It is not diffi-
cult to acquire the proper carriage of the head and
trunk if the following general rule be observed. The
eyes should be fixed on a spot on the track some
10 to 12 yards ahead (often enough, of course, the small
of an opponent's back meets the gaze in a race) and the
consequent inclination of the head to dip forward,
followed in turn by the body, does the rest. It is certainly
true that the carriage of the body in a mile is more upright
than in a quarter ; but the rule given should be applied
to either distance, for the body lean adjusts itself almost
automatically in accordance with one's speed.
The reason for this forward lean is, apart from
gracefulness, twofold. In the first place it avoids strain
a head flung back tends to tighten the neck and impede
the breathing ; secondly, it permits a maximum stride.
The more upright the body, the more prancing the
stride ; and as running is not to be confused with
trotting, a high-stepping action is to be condemned.
Within limits to be discussed in a moment the runner
should be anxious to keep his stride as long as possible,
and whenever the head and trunk are upright or flung
back several inches are clipped off each stride, as can
be observed at any sports meeting. Particularly does
this tendency creep in towards the end of a race, when
through fatigue the natural impulse is to set the teeth,
fling up the head, and struggle. Only stern discipline
can overcome this habit ; but the advantage gained by
a man who can finish in good form is remarkable. It is
erroneous to suppose that clenched fists beating the air
169
ATHLETICS
and head held proudly high, every ounce of energy being
expended, are the proper method of sprinting for the
tape. Not only is the stride shortened and the breathing
impeded, but in a very tight finish the man who is leaning
forward will get the verdict, for his trunk crosses the line
first 1
Faulty arm or leg action spoils many a style otherwise
promising. No one should use his arms as if he were
climbing a rope, nor swing them as if holding a racket.
The ideal arm action aims at elimination of effort during
those parts of the race where one is coasting or striding,
and at assistance when sprinting. During the middle
portion of a race and every middle-distance race except
the pillar-to-post quarter is in three sections, fast start,
striding, sprint finish the arms should swing perfectly
easily at the side, only slightly more than in walking.
The swing should be straight forward and back, not
across the body. This cross-swing is pernicious when
striding, however advantageous it may be to the pure
sprinter, for it throws the body too far forward (almost
as bad as too far back), and being less natural tends to
exaggerate the arm movement. The arms should be
slightly bent, elbows in to the side, and hands not
clenched. Corks seem superfluous. It is quite astonish-
ing to find how much energy is saved by not working
the arms violently until the absolutely essential moment
the sprint home when the strength conserved in the
shoulders can be liberated to assist the quickened leg
movement.
Of course during the initial sprint from the holes, and
at the finish, the arm action becomes that of a sprinter.
As has been indicated in the chapter devoted to that
topic, there exist two schools of thought on sprinting
arm-action the Mussabini, across the body, and the
American, straight through. To suggest which is the
better would come ungraciously from a middle-distance
runner ; but in recommending an action for adoption
by middle-distance runners the writers are forced to
170
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
differentiate. And it is pretty evident that opinion
favours the American piston action for middlerdistance
running, provided the head and body are kept properly
controlled. The writers have no hesitation in advocating
this straight-through drive, which is a quickening of the
quiet action employed when striding ; but they must
admit that the other action may prove more suitable
to some athletes, particularly sprint quarter-milers and
those who can in no other way keep their body leaning
forward at the finish. There is a word of caution to be
added : the piston action should not be so exaggerated
that the hand rises too high in front or that the elbow
swings too high behind.
It is believed that for the 1500 metres and the mile
the body carriage and arm action here described are the
best ; but it is proper to point out that Nurmi and Larva,
winners of the Olympic 1 500 metre races at Paris and
Amsterdam respectively, employ an action widely
different, particularly as regards the arms. The features
of their style and its utility are fully discussed in the
chapter on long-distance running ; and beyond suggest-
ing that the development of a similar style might prove
beneficial, especially to the short-striding and stocky
type of miler, it is not thought advisable to recommend it
for general cultivation by middle-distance runners.
One secret of success in middle-distance running is
perfection of stride. Good leg action is always beautiful
and has the merit of being effective. It does not neces-
sarily imply a long stride. The length of stride is
dictated by comfort another test of economy in
effort but it may be possible to increase the stride with
practice. It has been explained already how a stride
may be spoilt by bad body carriage and that high-
stepping is wastage ; but a good knee-lift, followed by a
thrust forward, is quite a different matter. It is to this
that the expression a " good drive " is applied. Many
people lift the leg well but fail to thrust it out. Concen-
tration in practice and a determination with every step
171
ATHLETICS
to put the 'foot down an extra couple of inches ahead,
and an attempt to use ankle flick as the foot comes to the
ground, will help. So will gymnastic exercises, e.g.
high-kicking in true corps-de-ballet style, and knee-lifting
followed by shooting out the foot. If, however, after
proper trial, the lengthened stride produce discomfort,
the athlete should revert to his old stride, for discomfort
wastes energy and nothing is gained.
Some athletes, and notably the late Hans Braun, are
gifted with a remarkable spring off the ground. Possibly
this may be cultivated by gymnastics and exercises, and
if so it is an invaluable thing to acquire. But care must
be taken not to bound too much, as time spent in the air
is wasted. Similarly, it is a grave and by no means
uncommon fault to drag the back leg. It looks pretty
in photographs but is most ineffective in running. More
foolish still is a high kick up behind. Often a sign that
the athlete is not quite fit, it should be eradicated if it
persists throughout his racing. Nurmi's style involves
a minimum of back lift and continual creeping forward
of the leg : this may not be an ideal because it implies
little spring, but the theory is sound.
^ The other great department of study in middle-
distance races is technique. Speed at the start and finish,
knowledge of pace and tactics, are very important
articles of equipment, and they require somewhat
detailed consideration.
It is a truism which is frequently overlooked that the
man with superior speed at the finish wins the race.
And still more often is it forgotten that anyone aspiring
to first-class standard has got to practise sprint starts
(/.<?. from the crouch position) as assiduously as the true
sprinter, especially in quarters and halves. If, as is
usual, save in very up-to-date stadia, the first corner is
close to the start, the sole hope of keeping or gaining the
inside berth lies in speed off the mark. Therefore the
middle-distance runner is well advised to practise starting
and sprinting with the 100 yards men. Many people
172
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
are fearful of this initial rapid start ; but in fact it is not
exhausting if not sustained too long, i.e. for only 50
yards or so, according to the situation, for it is the proper
outlet for that excitement which is bubbling over at the
start of a race. Moreover, a quick start allows one to
drop down easily into that long, swinging gait which is
wanted in the middle of the race.
As for the finish, this is a matter of improving one's
sprinting power. No matter how lethargic one may be
by nature, it is quite possible to become a passable
sprinter by practice. Not only the length but also the
rate of a finish can be increased by practising with a
sprinting friend, especially an average 2 20 man. Quite
often one will find, when fit, that towards the end of a
run through over 200 yards or so one will be going up
on him. It is also a useful exercise to put another fellow
a few yards up and try to catch him, provided, of course,
that he is just a shade slower than oneself. And always,
when practising, attention ought to be paid to style
keeping the head down at the finish, even when fatigued,
and controlling the arms.
There is one other sprinting trick to accomplish.
When about to pass a man, never ask his permission
first. Pass him with a rush, without warning, and try
to establish a 4 or 5 yards lead before he can counter-
challenge. Technically known as "jumping" an
opponent, this is an invaluable asset if properly
employed ; and no one who saw Bevil Rudd use it can
forget the sudden eagle's swoop on to and in this case
past his quarry and the almost inevitable failure of his
opponent to recover morally or physically the ground
thus lost.
It is in middle-distance races that knowledge of pace
and tactics is of almost paramount importance. Solon's
counsel " Know thyself " can be taken to heart by every
athlete ; and such knowledge comes with practice and
experience. To know the pace at which the race is
being run is invaluable ; ability to apply knowledge of
173
ATHLETICS
oneself renders it possible to lay plans beforehand, even
if they " gang agley " and need adjustment.
How is knowledge of pace acquired ? In practice
by running against a watch, and in races by noting rates
of speed as announced by lap times. It is possible to
achieve quite uncanny accuracy in judging the time for
each lap in the half or one mile, or in guessing the speed
qf a quarter. With experience indeed such knowledge
becomes sec nd nature ; but it may be cultivated thus
in practice. In training, a friend may hold a watch and
time the laps. For the 880, for example, one may first
of all attempt to run the first lap in a certain time, say
57 seconds, and see how near to 57 one gets. These
times should, of course, be varied for wider experience.
Then one can run a first 440 of a half, and a bit over
for luck, and guess the time taken, comparing the guess
with the time actually recorded. Similar exercises may
be carried out in the other distances, e.g. the first 300
of a quarter (an excellent training spin, by the way) in
about 33 seconds ; a 600 in i- 13 ; or the first half or
two-thirds of a mile in, say, 2- 10 or 2- 55. The advantage
of all this practice is heightened if it be remembered
that it forms a sound part of one's other training as well.
Not only does one thus gain knowledge of pace ; one
discovers also the rate which suits one best. Armed
with this information, and knowing his sprinting
capacity, the athlete can plan his race beforehand and
run to some extent independently of his rivals. If he
knows much about his opponents, he will appreciate
what time he must do in order to win, and should lay
a plan of campaign a very fascinating and useful
occupation. Or he will know, during the course of the
race, whether the speed is suitable or not, and, if not,
whether it is too fast or too slow. If too fast he will
realise that he can safely let those setting the pace go
away, because they will eventually crack and come back
to him, provided, of course, that he maintains his own
steady gait ; and if too slow, and he doubts the superi-
174
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
ority of his sprint, he will perceive the need to go out
and set the pace himself. And, obviously, knowledge of
pace is essential in relay racing, where often enough
one is running quite by oneself.
As has appeared from the last remarks, tactics are
closely bound up with knowledge of pace, in so far as
the planning of races is concerned, and the methods of
one's opponents affect those plans. The extent to which
one can plan a race naturally depends upon how much
is known about the other runners. They should always
be studied, and in the absence of observation in heats
or of first-hand information their record considered.
E.g. if a runner hitherto a sprinter suddenly takes up
quarter-miling, one can expect speed at the start, and
if the race be slow, at the finish also. In the absence of
any information the only safe plan is to make the race as
fast as possible ; but this is rarely necessary on this
ground alone. To suggest all the alternative situations
for which plans might be prepared cannot be attempted
here ; but such occasions as the opposition of a sprinter
and half-miler in a quarter, or two milers, one of whom
is the better finisher, afford obvious instances of the need
for strategy. In the first instance, the sprinter would
like the race to be run slowly in order to reserve his
sprint, and the half-miler will naturally make the pace
fast to kill off this spurt. In the second case, the slower
finisher ought probably to make the third lap a hot one
with a similar purpose.
Moreover, when laying plans it is a good thing to
have alternatives ready. The other fellow may be as
cunning as oneself, and if he tries a move one must be
prepared with an answer. Finally, it is worth remem-
bering that once plans are laid, which should be a few
days in advance if sufficient information is available,
there should be no more worry or thought about them,
and certainly no chopping and changing about. If
training has been sound worry is needless, and it is always
useless,
'75
ATHLETICS
Before leaving the topic of tactics, it is proper to
repeat four golden rules which always apply and are
often broken. They are : (i) Run on the inside ; (ii) don't
pass on a bend ; (iii) keep up with the leaders ; (iv) don't
relax the effort when going for home.
The reason for the first two rules is mathematical,
simply that the outer of two concentric circles has the
greater circumference. Yet how often do even seasoned
performers run yards wide or pass on bends ! Is it not
realised that in running only i yard wide round the
bends of Stamford Bridge track one has to travel 6 J yards
farther every lap ? Of course, in a 440 run in lanes
these two rules do not apply, and most other rules of
tactics are redundant. But as it is only on the Continent
and in the Olympic Games that lanes are used, the import-
ance of tactics in most of the 440*3 which will be run by
readers of this book is evident, and particularly these
two rules. As a slight exception to the first, there is
this fact : that when the track near the pole is badly
cut up it pays, particularly in halves and miles, to run
2 or 3 feet wide on the firmer surface down the
straights, and even, under exceptionally bad conditions,
round the bends as well, provided no one is thus afforded
an opportunity to cut through on the inside.
Keeping up with the leaders is a very sound rule
which should be relaxed on two occasions only. If it
so happens that the pace is impossibly fast, one can
afford to let the other fellow go, knowing that he will
ome back. As already said, it is here that a knowledge
of pace is valuable. Even in such a case it is essential to
keep a shrewd eye on the leader ; he may prove to be
a dark horse who will refuse to be caught and just
stagger home, or even someone good enough to do the
seemingly impossible, and after, say, a 52 first quarter,
finish a half in 1-52. If in any doubt, it is wiser to run
no risk but attempt to follow ; the odds are that one
will be in no worse state than the others when the time
comes to sprint home. The other occasion is when one
176
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
has to act as leader oneself, and is, of course, no real
exception at all. It requires courage and self-confidence
and very sound judgment ; but if properly done it wins
more races, especially quarters, than might be expected,
considering the extra fatigue which usually accompanies
pace-making.
It may seem obvious to insist on maintaining the final
effort until and beyond the tape ; but it is not super-
fluous to reiterate the warning, for only a few years ago
a British mile championship was lost through a leader's
failure to observe the rule. It is extremely tempting
when one has a lead in the straight and is feeling done to
take a breather, but once the final effort is slackened
nothing on earth will enable a fatigued man to get up
on his toes and sprint again. It is of almost equal import-
ance to run right through the tape. In a close finish
the man coming up from behind may just shoot in ahead
if the leader eases as he senses the tape. To run to a
point several yards beyond the post means safety ; and,
of course, to pull up with any jerk is very bad running
aftd harmful to the muscles.
There remain a few things to add before discussing
each event in detail. In training of all kinds it is never
wise to do too much. This point has been insisted upon
earlier in this book, but it deserves repetition. The
object of training is not to break records or to exhaust
oneself, but to improve style and technique and to store
up energy for the race. For this reason it is an excellent
thing, once stamina is assured, to practise over distances
shorter than the race. There is no question about being
able to stay the course in races excitement and fitness
will always carry one home. Therefore a quarter-miler
will benefit if he goes 300 yards ; a half-miler, 440 or
600 ; a miler, half or two-thirds of a mile. And one
should avoid running oneself out in practice that is not
the aim of training. If possible one should seek final
polish and have " all-out " runs in actual races ; and if
things can be so arranged, it is a sound plan to scheme
M 177
ATHLETICS
a series of graded races which will gradually bring one
on week by week to faster times. That this is feasible,
at any rate for the ambitious athlete, is demonstrated by
the season's programme. About the beginning of June
occur the county championships, which, in the half-mile,
for example, call for about 2-2 from the winner. A
fortnight later the district championships demand about
1*58 ; and then the open championships normally about
1-55. This can be supplemented, of course, with handi-
caps, open scratch races and relay races, which should be
selected to fit in with the plan of ever-increasing speed
over the distance chosen.
The length of time required for special training, once
the runner is fit, is, as a minimum, about two or three
weeks, provided the system of graded races advocated
above be practicable. Naturally, longer time is required
to study technique. The frequency of training depends
largely on the individual how much he does at a time,
how much technique he has to acquire, and whether he
plays other games which can supplement his training
and, incidentally, help to keep him from staleness. But
three times a week at the most should suffice ; and when
racing begins and one is fit, only one run a week besides
the Saturday race is necessary or, indeed, wise, else there
is a risk of staleness. Slight undertraining is better than
too much, which nauseates.
Should it happen that the athlete is anxious to attempt
two or more middle-distance events, the first advice is
that of Punch " Don't." Undoubtedly the ideal is
one man, one event ; and this is quite sufficient exercise
if there are heats on the same day. The man who
tackles frequent doubles is apt to " burn out " before
his time. If, however, one is really keen to attempt two
events, the only safe method is to make the first the main
objective and let the second take care of itself. Other-
wise one will probably fall between two stools. As for
training, once fit one ought to train for the shorter
distance, concentrating on speed every time. After all,
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
stamina will carry one home in the longer event, but
no amount of cultivated staying power will knock fifths
off one's sprinting time. Incidentally, the 100 yards
man who tries quarters will usually take the edge off
his sprinting ; but the 220 man may more happily
combine the quarter. Similarly, the 440 and 880, or
the half and the one mile may go together ; but in every
case the events must be kindred, and safety and comfort
lie in one event at a time.
Section 2. The Quarter-mile
It has been suggested in the previous section that
quarter-milers are of two types sprinters or middle-
distance runners. Quite evidently the training required
by each type will be different. The pure sprinter, when
he tries running the 440, will probably regard it as a
mighty long way ; and unless he is a phenomenal runner
like Liddell, he will be obliged to employ methods
hitherto alien to him. It will be suicidal to attempt to
go at top speed the whole way, and he will have to learn
to stride in the middle section of the race. Probably,
too, he will find his stamina requires strengthening, even
though he be an excellent 220 runner. His special
training, therefore, should be directed towards increasing
stamina so that the distance no longer seems frightfully
far, and to running at three-quarter speed for the first
300 yards or so and then being able to call up his sprint.
For this type of runner nothing is more valuable than
running an occasional 600 yards early in the season.
It will inevitably take the edge off his sprinting, but, as
was pointed out in the last section, every 100 yards
runner must expect this if he tackles the 440 ; and most
of its keenness will be restored by the later training over
short distances. Fatiguing at first, the result of these
runs will be to strengthen the muscles of the thigh and
improve the wind for the breathing processes in
middle-distance races are not quite the same as in
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sprinting, being much deeper and less jerky and gasp-
ing and, consequently, make the quarter-mile distance
seem relatively short and easy to negotiate.
To get the proper stride during the middle portion of
the race the best distance to run is 300 yards, usually
against the watch to ensure that no loitering occurs.
It is always helpful to have a companion ; but this
distance in particular can be run alone with benefit, just
because one is often obliged when racing to set one's
owh pace, either because tactics demand it or because
one is running in lanes. The way to run such a 300 is
exactly as if the intention were to go the full 440 ; there-
fore the start must be as fast and the action from the
crouch position the same as in a. 100 yards. In a 49-
second quarter the first 100 yards should be covered in
IO|, followed by a long stride through, with a minimum
of arm action (naturally more, however, than in a half-
mile) ; the second 100 yards should take n, and the
third, i if; total 33^. These times to be increased
proportionately, of course, according to the standard
aimed at.
The other type of quarter-miler the half-mile type
will lack not stamina but speed. His special training
must be directed towards remedying this. Runs over
300 yards such as outlined above will be of exceeding
utility to him, although at first they will seem impossibly
fast. He will probably have to begin lower in the scale
with, say, 35 seconds for the 300, and try to work up
to the 33!, Another point for him to study will be
starting (of value also in his half-miles) and sprinting.
As already suggested, he should train partly with
sprinter friends, and when possible run in handicaps or
even scratch events at any sprint distance. He may also
find finishing a weakness he will not suffer from
fatigue as may the pure sprinter, but will just lack the
extra bit of speed.
Neither type of runner need run through the full
distance very often in training if he is able to obtain
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
plenty of racing experience, which, as already suggested,
is a considerably more valuable method of training. If
this should be lacking, the sprinter will have the greater
need to practise over the full course ; but once a week
should suffice. Either runner will find it helpful to have
a friend to take him along over the last 150 yards,
especially if that friend knows better than to race ahead.
The tactics governing middle-distance races have
already been discussed, but a few particular points
which arise in 440*5 may still be mentioned. When the
race is run in lanes (e.g. the Olympic Games and inter-
national matches abroad) each competitor runs exactly
the same distance and has to run his own race without,
as a rule, having much idea of the position of his rivals
until entering the straight, for the start is in echelon.
An acute sense of pace and a careful study of the ability
of his opponents are called for, but of strategy very little.
In heats, for example, if no adversary can beat, say, 51,
one can run fast enough to finish just within that time
and not bother about the eccentricities of anyone who
goes off unduly fast. In the final, of course, one is out
just to do his best, and unless competing in another
event there is no necessity to save energy.
The growing tendency is to run all quarter-mile
races in lanes ; and in view of the abuses possible when
all start from the same mark over the same course, and
of the extraordinary advantages which the luck of the
draw for station may confer in a field of no more than
four runners, the result is certainly more equitable
although the interest is reduced. When the race is not
run in lanes, as is usually the case in England owing to
the difficulty of preparing lanes on the majority of tracks,
and in America, where there is generally an initial 220
straightaway and only one bend, the importance of
tactics is supreme, probably even more than in the half-
mile, where there does exist some opportunity to recover
from an error of judgment. It is for this reason that one
is tempted to regret the necessity, at all events when the
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first corner lies within 50 yards of the start, of using
lanes in order to ensure a fairer race. The event tends
to become mechanical and the human interest is greatly
reduced ; indeed the fundamental element of racing,
whereby men run together from a mark, is eliminated.
It seems a pity that the race cannot always be run as in
America, with the long initial straight, which affords
ample occasion for each man to get the pole before the
corner, without the serious likelihood of illegal tactics
being employed ; but the quarter-miler of the future will
apparently need to practise more and more running his
race in lanes.
However, the race without lanes being de rigueur in
England it is necessary as well as interesting to consider
the tactics demanded in its performance.
For the simple reason that running on the outside
round a bend adds yards to the total distance covered
it is wise to run on the inside if possible. If one has the
luck to draw inside station nothing should be allowed
to deprive one of it before the first corner ; and if one
has practised starting and sprinting, no one save an
exceptional sprinter ought to succeed in covering 2
yards more than oneself in the first forty or fifty. These
2 yards approximately represent the clear lead which
one runner must have before crossing in front of another.
Naturally enough, those who draw less favourable
stations will make efforts, if they think themselves fast
enough, to obtain the inside berth at the bend, and they
must be careful to avoid jostling or obstructing others.
Successful efforts will often be impossible, however, if
one is drawn outside, e.g. No. 4 ; and the alternatives
are either to run wide round the first bend and thereby
go perhaps 3 or 4 yards farther, or to go slow at
the start and drop in behind, which also probably costs
four yards. Which is the lesser evil depends on the
opposition. If one is certain that everyone will go
hammer and tongs round the first corner and down the
back straight, it is wiser to drop behind and reserve one's
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
fire for the finish. If, on the contrary, there is likely
to be a slowing up round the corner, there is every chance
that running wide but slightly faster will put one level
with the leaders at the entry to the back straight, when
a sudden " jump " should land one in front.
* Assuming, however, that the inside and leading berth
at the bend has been secured, what is to be done ?
Leadership in quarter-miles pays nine times out of ten,
for it imports control of the race, especially if the curves
are long ; therefore it is worth retaining. As leader,
if one is a half-mile type of quarter-miler running
against sprinters, he should get on with it, and try, by
keeping the pace warm, to kill off his opponents'
finishing spurt. On the contrary, a sprinter, if leading,
wants to keep the tempo slow : let him play his men
round the corners, even to inducing them to try to pass,
then in the back straight just keep them from passing,
which his superior speed should render simple, and
round the last bend play them again. The finish should
be easy, especially if the final sprint be begun about 5
yards before the end of the curve, so that the man behind
does not have a chance to draw level before the
commencement of the straight.
How may the half-miling type circumvent such
tactics ? The only way, if he cannot get by down the
back straight, is to push the sprinter along as hard as
possible all the way, and hope that thereby he may be
made to crack. A pure sprinter, especially if not
perfectly trained, often will.
It is always sound tactics to have the lead at the last
bend, unless the finishing straight is exceptionally long.
No one can pass before the straight without running
wide, when he can be played ; and it is possible, if one
is careful, to take a slight breather before the final spurt,
which should begin with a "jump," as previously
described, about 5 or 7 yards before the straight is
entered. The temptation to swing wide when entering
the straight must be guarded against. Hug the pole,
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ATHLETICS
for it is the shortest route to the tape, as another man
may prove to one's cost by coming up on the inside if
one runs at a tangent. And never relax the final effort
until beyond the judges' stand.
The remarks just written about the 440 apply in large
measure to the 600. Many people indeed would attempt
to run the 600 as an abbreviated half-mile, probably
because most races at the distance are tackled by half-
milers, and also because, although it is occasionally
possible to run the quarter as a sprint, no human being
could so run this distance. Nevertheless, the sounder
theory is to run it as an elongated quarter, with the fast
start in order to get the inside berth, and then the raking
quarter-mile stride until the last 150 yards or so, when
the final effort should be made. Just as in quarter-
miling, the faster runner can try to play his man on the
corners and the slower can try to hurry along a man
who is slowing up the pace. The most subtle danger
against which to guard is that of running the first 440
yards too fast, if one is a quarter-miler, or too slowly,
if a half-miler. To do i-io the first 440 should take,
approximately, 50^ seconds ; I- 12, 52 ; i- 15, 54 ; for
the last 1 60 yards will invariably take about 20
seconds.
Section 3. The Half-mile
The half-mile shares with the quarter-mile the
distinction of being the most exhausting race to run,
not because longer races are not exhausting, but on
account of its affording no real relief from top-speed
running at any stage, at all events in first-class races.
There is no lull in the race similar to that which occurs
in the third lap of almost every mile. Moreover, it is
probably true to say that the half-mile is the most taxing
of all, because it consists in two consecutive fast quarters.
Whether this be quite true or not, certain it is that the
training needs to be carefully planned and carried out,
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
and style and technique finely developed, in order to
ensure success.
A good style, as already described, is of the greatest
value. Perfect technique is almost a sine qua non. With-
out a thoroughly sound knowledge of pace success is
unlikely ; and to the possession of such knowledge must
be added a flair for tactics based on common sense,
experience, and appreciation of one's opponents' worth.
For the methods of acquiring and applying pace
knowledge the reader is referred back to the previous
section in this chapter dealing with general principles.
It is essential in order to plan a race to know one's
maximum speed, and to know what speed will be most
advantageous in the particular event. Further, it is
necessary to be able to judge quickly during the progress
of the race whether the pace set is satisfactory or
whether it is too fast or too slow.
Pace in half-miling is measured by the time taken for
each lap, which is usually a quarter-mile, and it is
interesting to analyse the variations in times in different
races. The first curious fact which emerges is that among
good performers the time taken over the second 440
yards is almost constant, whatever the time over the
first 440 may have been. Thus the average time for the
second 440 in a i 5 7 half or a 2 minutes half is 60 seconds,
and only in the case of exceptional runners capable of
remarkable times is it likely that whether the first 440
take 57 or 62 seconds the second will differ appreciably
from a constant 60 seconds. It is therefore evident
that most people gain nothing whatever from a slowly
run first quarter.
The superlative runner can, however, play havoc with
these figures. Given a very slow first quarter (say 65)
he may reel off 57 or even 55 for the second, if pressed
(e.g. A.A.A. Championships, 1928, when a 60$. first
quarter meant that the winner did about 55 - for the
second). And if the first 440 take 56 or 57 he may still
reel off 57, but probably not 55. Indeed, 57, instead
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ATHLETICS
of the lesser luminary's 60, is approximately his constant
for the second quarter, for even after a 55 first quarter
he can produce this time. (In Dr. Peltzer's record half-
mile the first 440 took 54^, he lying second, and the
second 440, 57.) So in this class also, no advantage
accrues if the pace is too slow.
On the other hand, there does arrive a stage at which
the pace may be too hot. It becomes economically un-
sound. The good athlete instanced above would exceed
his 60 seconds pretty considerably if he were asked to
turn out 55 for the first quarter ; and the exceptional
athlete's 57 constant would increase perhaps to 59 or
60 seconds if the first 440 were reduced to 52 (cf. e.g.
Meredith's old Olympic record of 1*51^ made after
a 52^ first 400 metres).
From these figures it can, therefore, be deduced that
the time for the first quarter is all-important, for the
second is a constant varying only with the class of the
performer. Further, the faster the time for the first
quarter the better, until the economic limit is reached,
after which the time for the second quarter begins to
soar. And the time for the first quarter should be any-
thing up to three seconds faster than that for the second.
Finally, despite the economic weakness of a race in
which the first quarter is run too quickly, it may (a) not
result in a total time slower than in a race wherein it
was too slow (e.g. 53+60 = 1-53; 55+56-3 = 1-51^ ;
61 + 55^=1-565), or () prove very sound tactics if it
be more injurious to one's opponents than to oneself.
It is extremely doubtful whether the attempt to run
two consecutive quarters in the same time can ever be
more successful than the hitherto satisfactory method of
making the first some two or three seconds faster than
the second. In the writers' opinion, the pace must come
in the first half of the race while the runner is fresh :
it is expecting the impossible to ask him to recapture the
lost seconds in lap two, when he is fatigued. In other
words, 54+56 is more certain than 55+55, which
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
would probably turn out to be, at the best, 55+56, and
never 56+55.
Knowing, therefore, that his time depends upon his
speed over the first quarter, and knowing the fastest rate
at which he can go and still achieve his constant time for
the second quarter, the half-miler has to decide what
speed will best suit him in the actual race. (Of course,
in a relay he would go all-out at his best rate for the first
440, or a shade faster if consolidating a lead.) Obviously,
if his chief rival can outsprint him, as, for example, the
quarter-mile type would against the half-cum-mile type,
the slower finisher cannot afford to dally. He must
secure the fastest possible pace in the hope of quenching
that sprint, and if no one else will do it, he must set the
pace himself. And this in spite of the danger of leading
in a half-mile. He may even find it advisable to run the
first quarter a trifle too fast, if he can induce his rival to
hang on, and if he feels confident that it will injure that
rival more than himself. The fast finisher can, of course,
afford to laugh at a slow first lap ; indeed he usually
prefers it. But even he must look out lest the very slow-
ness of it tire him, as it will do if he is obliged to clip
his stride.
The danger of leading has been mentioned. The
danger actually is this, that to lead is for some reason,
largely mental, more fatiguing than to follow, quite apart,
of course, from such an obvious disadvantage as facing the
wind. Undoubtedly the second, or, if unattainable, the
third position, is the best in half and one miling, unless
perchance the pace set is too hot to last and one can
safely stay behind. In this position one can virtually
control the race, which is eminently proper as one is pre-
sumably running to win it. If the pace is too slow
and it is curious to observe how it tends to flag after
about 350 yards one can often whip it up again by
moving up to the leader's shoulder. One has his finger
on the movements of three if not four runners, for often
there is someone at one's elbow. When the time comes
ATHLETICS
to go for home one can strike unhampered by having to
pass several others, only one man being ahead, and he
usually tired and not fit to resist a good challenge. The
only thing for which to look out carefully is lest one
should get boxed in a fate far less likely when running
second than third or later. Should this fate be imminent,
get out of the danger zone at once, even by taking the lead,
If it occurs early in the race one can always slow down
again until one, and only one, other man has got jumpy
and taken the lead again. And observe that if one trails
in the last position, one may be 8 or 10 yards behind
the leader, a tremendous lot of ground to regain in the
last 200.
The tendency to slacken the pace towards the end of
the first quarter has been described. It is here that the
class man can stand out. If he cannot make the leader
maintain the gait it will usually repay him if he goes
out himself. Otherwise he will have his stride clipped,
which is tiring and wasteful. Most men are feeling the
effects of the long stride at this stage, and knowing that
the relief which a change of action will bring when they
sprint is still a couple of hundred yards ahead, they
almost unconsciously slacken. The good man can run
them to something approaching a standstill here and
save seconds of time. Indeed, if he can stride from the
550 yards mark at pure quarter-mile speed and save his
final effort for the last 100 yards, he will tax the ability
of any opponent to the limit and have a well-nigh
irresistible finish. This method is certainly to be
recommended after a fast-run first quarter.
Probably the most perplexing decision called for in
half-miling is at what moment to sprint. Practice will
have informed the runner how far he can sprint and,
incidentally, good training will enable him to increase
the distance but three considerations may be borne in
mind. First, one can always manage an extra 40 or
50 yards sprint in a race on stamina and excitement
alone. Secondly, the change of action from the tiring
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
stride to the more choppy sprint style is a great mental
and physical relief. Thirdly, it may pay to make the
effort perhaps 20 yards earlier if it prove unexpected.
That invaluable 4 or 5 yards lead is then more likely
to be gained ; and it is possible that either one's rivals will
argue that as the effort is being made unusually soon
they can wait, because the inspiration surely cannot last,
or else they will be too fearful of their own ability to
sprint from such a point and will not endeavour to
follow.
Needless to say, perhaps, the last two arguments are
wrong ; and with regard to the lead, any wise runner
will counter-challenge immediately and try to prevent
the gain of those precious yards. It is a pretty safe rule
not to allow anyone to pass in the back straight (where
most people try, by the way) and to fight for the lead
round the last bend (vide remarks on quarter-miling),
which is worth about 2 yards in the finishing straight ;
and it is a tremendous risk to allow someone to go by,
say, 300 yards from home and depend upon a pious but
by no means justifiable hope that fate will check his
headlong career long before the post. Let him be
accompanied if his taking the lead cannot be- prevented,
for although the distance be greater than one ever dared
hope to be strong enough to sprint, depend upon it, the
other fellow will grow just as tired, and possibly more
tired, before the finish.
Section 4. The 1500 Metres and the Mile
These two events can be considered together, for their
length differs by only 120 yards, a distance appreciable
to the tired athlete but not calling for any real differ-
entiation in training or tactics. The only distinction
is that the 1 500 metres slightly favours the half-miler ;
the mile, the pure stayer who may combine this race with
longer distances.
Treated as a distinct event, trained for apart from the
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ATHLETICS
half-mile, with which it is often combined, the chief
requisites for success in the mile are stamina, speed and
knowledge of pace. Until recently, even in first-class
company, speed was by no means essential ; but with
the development of half-miling has come a quickening
of the mile, and it is no longer so possible for the plug-
ging type of miler to meet with success against good per-
formers who possess strong finishes. It is, of course, true
that a strong finish may be mitigated by a cracking pace
in the third lap, so that everyone enters on the last in a
state of fatigue ; and such are the obvious tactics to be
adopted by a miler not gifted with speed over the last
quarter. Provided, however, that the half-mile type of
miler (who is the predominantly successful type in
modern first-class competition) has a reasonable amount
of stamina, he will be able to cope with such a situation,
and, furthermore, by running the first half-mile fast
(i.e. about 2-6 or 2-8) he will probably turn the tables
on his slower rival and either leave or crack him.
The mile cannot be regarded as a stereotyped race
with a regular pace throughout. That method may sound
admirable in theory, but it fails in practice. Modern
conditions in, say, a 4* 20 mile usually call for a 60 first
quarter, 2-7 half and 3-17 three-quarters ; and even in
those cases where attempts have been made to run four
more or less equally rapid quarters, the result has been
to establish that the first is always the fastest, and the
last the next rapid, the second and third being several
seconds slower.
It is quite possible that the somewhat remarkably fast
first quarter just quoted is not quite sound economically ;
nevertheless it does serve to get the runner well into his
stride, gets him clear of the field if, as often happens
in this event, the entry is large, and, of course, properly
uses up his pent-up nervous excitement, besides being
excellent tactics against timid or inexperienced rivals.
The disadvantage is that the third lap has usually to be
taken rather slowly ; and a very confident runner who
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MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
knew his pace to a second might, if the field were not so
large as to hamper him, be able to run 63, 66, 67, and
be up with the leaders before the last quarter. But he
would, of course, run the risk attendant upon not keeping
up with the leaders, namely that they might prove to
be dark horses who refused to be pegged back.
In the early stages of training for the mile, it is upon
stamina that one should concentrate. This can be
gained by running at medium pace over distances
exceeding a mile, and by sharp walks of 6 or 8 miles
on the days when the track is not visited. The stiffness
or shin soreness which may accompany fast walking can
be avoided if the walk be interspersed with a short trot
on the toes every couple of miles. Walking then
becomes a very valuable training exercise.
Once stamina is assured, the miler wants to acquire
speed. Initial speed from the mark is not so important
as in the other middle-distance events, although a good
position on the inside early in the race should always be
obtained. A half-miler will usually possess sufficient
speed already, or will be training for the half and so
acquire it ; but the slower type of runner, especially if
he be a cross-country or long-distance man, will need
to practise both sprinting and sustained last efforts.
Sprinting practice and entry in a few sprint handicaps
will assist the one ; running occasional quarters and
halves, the other. The later stages of training should be
devoted to speed work, and to half and three-quarter
miles at top speed. Alternately, these halves and three-
quarters should be run with the object of improving pace
knowledge then the plan should be to cover the 880
in, say, 2-8 (as in a proper mile race) and the three-
quarter mile in 3* 1 6, capping either with a brief spurt.
Most mile races reveal a slowness in the third lap,
caused partly by fatigue, partly by preparation for a
spurt, and partly by the fact that everyone is watching
his rivals. The third lap is, in fact, the critical stage of
the race, and the opportunity for the strategist to score.
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ATHLETICS
The fast finisher can afford and usually desires a
rallentando here ; the plugger, or inferior sprinter, if
confident that he can stay the course, must make an
attempt either to draw away from the others and so
establish a winning lead, or make the pace so hot that
in following him the others are exhausted and
consequently lose the power to outsprint him.
If there is no information available about one's
opponents, the safe plan is to study them as much as
possible during the race, particularly the third lap, when
signs of fatigue and anxiety become evident. Careful
observation, which becomes acute with experience, will
tell one the right moment to strike. If instead of trying
to draw away in the third lap it seems wiser to postpone
spurting until the last, the best place is about 250 yards
from the tape, when tactics similar to those prescribed
for the half-mile should be employed. " Jump " the
opposition ; get or keep the lead at the last corner ;
never relax. And always try to maintain form.
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CHAPTER VIII
DISTANCE RACES
Section I. Long-distance Running
THE events classified under the heading Long-
distance Running may be said to embrace any
distance over i mile. It has already been
suggested that the mile race should fall properly within
the middle-distance category ; and although many great
runners in the past have succeeded in combining it with
the 4 and even the lo-mile races, it is unquestionable
that the true long-distance runner, unless he possess the
superlative capacity of a Nurmi, is not a first-class miler.
Giants such as W. G. George and W. Snook in the
'eighties, and A. Shrubb in the early years of this
century, succeeded in annexing the A.A.A. One Mile
Championship in addition to the 4 and 10 miles, and
George even added the half-mile to his amazing list of
triumphs. But it is submitted that these men are, like
Nurmi, exceptions, and a careful consideration of the
records and of individuals indicates that the modern
tendency is for the great miler to be of the half-mile
type, whereas the long-distance runner is of that other
type which emphasises style and stamina rather than
style and speed.
The point may be further stressed by observation of
the temperament and physique of the long-distance
runner. It is generally agreed that athletes of volatile
disposition are more prone to choose the sprint events ;
that the sprinter and the middle-distance runner rely
to a great extent upon nervous energy ; and that the
quick-thinking man finds the greatest scope for his talent
N 193
ATHLETICS
in middle-distance events. The more equable, less
vivacious and imaginative, but possibly more dogged
athlete finds the slower pace and relative monotony of
long-distance races better suited to his taste. This is
casting no reflection upon any type of runner : chacun
a son gout et a son humeur. Physiologically also one finds
ground for concluding that this classification is sound.
If one possessed accurate skeletal measurements of the
several types of runners it would almost certainly be
demonstrable that the average physical dimensions of the
4 and lo-miler are considerably less than those of the
average miler, which approximate closely to those of the
half-miler. With rare exceptions the crack performers of
yesterday and to-day over the longer distances have been
men of small stature, short-striding, wiry and very
determined. It is obvious that such physical attributes
would militate in all save the rarest of cases against
first-class performances in the mile, wherein the advan-
tage of a long stride and the necessity for speed have
been explained. On the other hand, it is almost inevit-
able that the tall, long-striding miler would find himself
early exhausted in a longer race through excessive
weight and the strain of a great and probably bounding
stride. One may group as standard long-distance events
races from 2 miles up to 10, pointing out that the best
performers can compete with success in any of them ;
and one may add that the further category, which
includes the Marathon and even greater distances, is
within the compass, subject to proper training, of almost
any good ic-miler.
The 2 -mile race is a regular event in the American
Inter-Collegiate and the indoor championships ; but in
Great Britain the 3-mile race is more popular, being the
standard distance at the Universities and featuring in
many club programmes. This event corresponds closely
with the 5000 metres (3 miles 1 8 8 yards), which is the
customary event upon the Continent and in the Olympic
Games ; and it is largely sentiment which retains the
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LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
4-mile event in the A.A.A. championship programme,
where it has featured for sixty years. In 1925 the
Americans, seeking to bring their championships into
closer relation with those of the Olympic Games,
substituted for their long-standing 5-mile event a 6-mile
race, or 376 yards less than the 10,000 metres, which
is the Olympic and Continental standard distance-
In both Britain and America there is a lo-mile cham-
pionship, and since 1925 the A.A.U. have held a
15-mile event as well. In both countries there are
several annual Marathon races.
Contests over exceptional distances, such as 50 or
100 miles, time races of one or more hours' duration,
and the old " go-as-you-please " for several days, have
largely died out. In 1928 the remarkable South African
runner, Arthur Newton, attempted to break a record in
running from Bath to London, a distance of over 100
miles ; and the novelty of such an event aroused much
enthusiasm. With all respect, however, to a great
nat-ural runner, it must be said that the attempt was
chiefly of interest as demonstrating the importance of
running long-distance races to schedule a matter to be
discussed later and, as in the case of cross-Channel
swimming, it is permissible to doubt the utility of such
endurance tests and certainly to deprecate their regular
practice.
With long-distance running one leaves the sphere
where speed and stride are vital and arrives at a point
where style and judgment are of paramount importance.
It has been laid down that good style is of primary
significance in middle-distance running ; and for an
exactly s ; milar reason, namely economy of effort or
conservation of energy, is it essential to success over
longer distances. There exists this distinction, however,
that whereas a middle-distance runner may achieve
considerable success in spite of his style, no long-
distance performer can hope to do so. The long-
distance runner is confronted with an event involving a
1 95
ATHLETICS
long sustained effort ; any squandering of energy must
prove fatal. What perfection of style must he seek in
order to maintain his necessarily unflagging pace ?
It may be broadly stated that two different styles are
in favour at the present time. Each aims at the
elimination of wasteful movements ; each affords a good
body carriage, a reasonably long stride, an easy arm
action and an appearance of simplicity. The one is
practised by Anglo-Saxons, the other by Finns.
The Anglo-Saxon method follows closely the lines
laid down in the chapter devoted to middle-distance
running, where the style and action during the central
section of a race are described. The distance runner
should not be anxious to achieve a long or bounding
stride because of the fatigue involved, although W. G.
George, by training himself to withstand such fatigue,
was able to employ a raking stride with devastating
effect. An easy arm action and body carriage similar to
those of the miler may certainly be cultivated. The
body will naturally be more upright on account of the
slower pace and shorter stride, until in the case of the
lo-miler the runner is almost vertical ; and the angle
of the head will correspond with that of the body. The
arms should be carried low, swinging if anything slightly
across the body, almost in the style of the normal walking
action ; but many runners carry their arms higher than
this in approximation, in fact, to the Finnish style.
It is probably a matter of taste the point to observe
being not to use the arms for purposes of propulsion
until sprinting. The whole movement should be smooth
and comfortable; anything jerky should at once be
eliminated, whether in the stride, arm action, or even
head wobble. Truly rhythmic movement will carry a
runner along even after physical exhaustion has set in ;
it has the dual merit of being graceful and efficient.
Nurmi has given it as his opinion that the English
middle -distance style is ideal for its purpose. Quite
evidently he does not approve of it for long distances ;
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LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
and his own successes and those of so many of his
countrymen who have obviously modelled their style
on his 'lead one to inquire whether the secret of those
successes does not lie in his peculiar style.
With Nurmi, and, indeed, all the Finns except
Ritola, the body is carried almost vertical in every race
from a mile upwards. The leg action is remarkable for
the absence of back-lift always a wasteful though
elegant movement a considerable forward thrust, and
a good but not extravagant knee-lift. The arms appear
even more curious. Held almost horizontal, with the
hands close up against the chest, elbows pointing out-
wards and shoulders braced back, they move no more
than is required to balance the body until the moment
arrives for an accelerated effort. It is at this stage that
the English style seems to possess superiority. No man
holding his arms as do the Finns can sprint : the best
he can do is to quicken his ordinary stride. This is, in
fact, what Nurmi does. Instead of chopping down his
stride and employing something akin to a sprinter's
action as exponents of the English style given above
are recommended to do he simply accelerates with the
same action. Quite obviously this would not be
effective against anyone possessing a really good finish :
it explains Dr. Peltzer's victory in 1926, when he beat
Nurmi in the last 100 yards and set up the present
world's record for 1500 metres. It also accounts for
the inability of Nurmi or any other Finn at the moment
to run a first-class half-mile ; but it does seem to enable
him to run any exponent of the English style, excluding
Ritola, off his legs during the course of a long-distance
race, and render any particularly fast finish unnecessary.
The explanation may lie in the extreme freedom of
movement ; in the " floating " sensation imparted to
the runner ; above all, in the expansion of the chest and
lungs and consequent opportunity for deep breathing.
In this connection the extraordinary costal development
of the Finns is to be observed.
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ATHLETICS
Were it not for the style adopted by two other very
fine distance runners one would be tempted to recom-
mend the Finnish method to aspirants to success in long-
distance races. One must point out, however, that
Willie Ritola, a Finn who has practised most of his
running in America, employs the longer stride and low
swinging arm action characterised as Anglo-Saxon ;
and had it not been for Nurmi, who usually just beats
him, Ritola would have been hailed as the greatest
distance runner of all time. Edwin Wide, of Sweden,
beat Nurmi over 1500 metres when Peltzer set up the
record, and also holds the world's record for 2 miles,
again beating Nurmi, and he employs the same style as
Ritola. Indeed, one may say that his style appears to
be flawless.
It is apparent, therefore, that the Finns' style is not
the sole explanation of their present superiority ; its
efficiency is, however, so great that its cultivation might
prove a very profitable experiment on the part of the
young distance runner.
In claiming fundamental importance for good style
it has been assumed that the athlete possesses stamina.
Obviously this is essential to success. Its development
calls for very definite systems of training, worked out
according to the vocation, physique and temperament
of the individual ; and it is proper to write a few words
on this point.
A great proportion of distance runners perform, often
with brilliant results, across country during the winter ;
and there can be no doubt that this is the finest prepara-
tion obtainable. It is, perhaps, debatable whether the
crack track runner should indulge in a severe cross-
country season, partly because it involves almost continu-
ous running throughout the year, at least for the 4-miler
(the A. A. A. Ten Miles Championship is usually held early
in the summer), and partly because of the strenuous
nature of cross-country championships ; and the casting
vote must be given by the athlete himself (or his trainer)
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LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
after careful study of his physique. Certainly for the
2, 3 and 4-mile races a cross-country season of three
months should be adequate to lay a good foundation for
the track work, particularly if the runs are varied with
long walks.
The value of walking at this and subsequent stages of
training cannot be over-estimated. It is a great aid to
the development of stamina, and provided the rate be
not excessive 4 to 5 miles per hour is a healthy
speed no shin or foot soreness or other ailment should
ensue. A warm bath will remove any tendency to
stiffness ; but an even more efficacious remedy is the
interspersion of short runs every couple of miles. They
keep the muscles supple and afford variety to the work.
Turf is preferable to the road ; and golf is a good game
if played quickly, for it helps to relieve the monotony
which induces staleness.
The work on the track should occupy about a couple
of months ; but here again the individual must be the
arbiter. The athlete who has lain fallow during the
winter will obviously require longer ; the cross-country
runner will probably be ready to race within a month.
The track work should not be overdone : its relative
monotony should be broken by walks or runs on the
road. Other games, such as fives, tennis or squash, may
also be indulged in with advantage. Once the muscles
and wind are in good condition concentration should be
bent on speed. There is an old adage, " It's not the
distance but the pace that kills/' and the 3 or 4-miler
should train over i J, 2 or i\ miles, mixing his work by
doing fast miles or even half-miles on other days.
These shorter runs should be concluded with a burst
of 50 yards or more, the distance being increased each
time. As for the ib-miler, he will require an occasional
longer run of 6 or 7 miles, with perhaps one full course
trial ; but in every case exhaustion should be avoided.
It is folly to go frequently over the full course except
in competition, and the aim should be to participate in
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ATHLETICS
races of gradually increasing severity, in one of which
will be experienced that gruelling and exhaustion which
is admittedly the inevitable preliminary to absolute
fitness.
In developing the stride, over-striding must be
avoided at all costs. It is fatal on account of the fatigue
it induces. The runner should endeavour to cultivate
his normal stride, eliminating back-lift or drag as much
as possible and trying to obtain a good thrust forward.
As the result of some extremely interesting scientific
researches into the consumption of oxygen during
violent exercise, tests being performed upon first-class
athletes during training, Professor A. V. Hill has come
to the definite conclusion that in running any distance
an approximately even pace throughout induces the
most economical result. Although this scientific con-
clusion is sound theoretically, the generality of experience
is opposed to its practicality in middle-distance races,
in which tactics and temperament play so prominent a
part. It is only when one comes to the long distances
that the theory fits in with the practice ; and it is there
that one is glad to have the experience of the athlete
confirmed by the experiment of the physiologist.
It is, indeed, of the utmost importance to run long
distance races to schedule, with the minimum of variation
in pace. The longer the race the more important does
steady running become ; but even in a 3 -mile race
running to schedule should be practised until it becomes
second nature.
Not only is schedule running important, but the
athlete also wants to know the pace at which he is running
and whether it is over or under the schedule rate. The
method of learning to judge pace is similar to that
advocated for the half-miler : to practise running lap
after lap at a consistent rate and become acquainted with
one's own maximum pace. To give an example, suppose
A wants to run 3 miles in 14*30 very good time, but
some 19 seconds outside Nurmi's world's record. On
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LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
a track with four laps to the mile the average speed for
each lap must be i 1 2^ ; and A should learn this pace
and know when he is doing it. He will thus appreciate
his own maximum pace, and be able to run his own race,
trailing or leading his rivals according to the exigencies
of the competition ; and he will also acquire that
valuable asset, self-confidence.
In practice, of course, a few variations will inevitably
occur ; but their extent will not be so great as to
jeopardise the theory of consistent pace. For example,
the first lap or even half-mile will usually be faster than
the others, this being a natural tendency which should
not be checked, as it gets a man into his^running,
secures him a good berth, and is only employing the
surplus nervous energy or excitement with which he
probably stepped on to the track. Plainly also the last
two laps, whether the race be 3 miles or 10, are going
to be influenced by the other competitors and by the
final struggle for the tape. In that final struggle the
runner should know his sprinting powers, which he has
been at pains to develop ; and he must sustain his effort
right through the tape.
One of the dangers in long-distance running is that
of going too fast at the start. It is equally prejudicial to
success if one errs in the opposite direction. Yet how
often are both mistakes made by young runners,
particularly at the Oxford-Cambridge Sports, when,
however, it is only fair to say that the majority of the
runners are not sufficiently mature to stand the pace of
first-class 3 -mile running. To expect a young fellow of
20 or 21 to go his first mile in 4-45 and then carry on
to beat 1 5 minutes is demanding extraordinary physique ;
and in the main long-distance runners reach their best
at an age nearer 30 than 20. Once mature, however,
the long-distance runner must be prepared for a rapid
first mile how rapid he can afford to make it only
experience can dictate and then settle down to a
regular gait. How regular this may and indeed should
20 1
ATHLETICS
be is evidenced by the consistent lap times of Nurmi
and Ritola in their races: e.g. Ritola, in the 10,000
metres at Amsterdam, reeled off lap after lap just ahead
of Nurmi in almost identical time for each lap, and drew
rapidly away from the field, whereas one runner who
ran spasmodically, now in the lead, now near the tail,
was finished before half the race was run. Spasmodic
running,, over whatever distance, is suicidal ; the pace
changes of the great Finns half-way through a race are
definite accelerations which they are able to sustain, and
are employed to kill off an already tired opponent, but
they never take the form of erratic bursts.
Section 2. The Marathon
The original Marathon, as every schoolboy knows
to paraphrase Macaulay was the run of Phidippides
from the battlefield of Marathon to tell the citizens of
Athens of their victory over the Persians. Although
this remarkable run of 26 miles 385 yards was well
within the compass of a man who had run from Athens to
Sparta in two days a distance of 152 miles it proved
fatal to the gallant Greek, who, gasping out, " Rejoice 1
We conquer," collapsed at the city gates and died.
Now the fate of this young man may well serve as a
warning to would-be adventurers on the road from
Windsor to Stamford Bridge, which forms the A.A.A.
championship course, or any other Marathon route.
It is a grave question whether such attempts are good or
not. The physical strain imposed, particularly upon
people living under modern conditions of life, is undoubt-
edly severe. Even assuming that a man is sufficiently
strong to train for and compete in such an event, the
demand upon his time is almost unjustifiably great if
it be remembered that athletics is supposed to be a
recreation. Only if a man be a natural runner endowed
with great powers of endurance, if he be over 21 or
mature, and if he have the temperament and the time
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THE MARATHON
necessary for a long and strenuous course of training,
should he contemplate competing. And before training
at all he ought to undergo a thorough medical overhaul ;
not leave it until entering for the race, when, of course,
he is obliged, under A.A.A. Laws, to send in a medical
certificate of fitness.
With the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896 the
Marathon race was instituted; and, appropriately enough,
as the games were held in Athens, it was won by a Greek,
Loues. It was not, however, until after the sensational
race of 1908 from Windsor to Shepherd's Bush that
Marathon running became popular in England. On
that occasion, the Italian Dorando reached the stadium
first but collapsed and was unable to finish without
aid, the victory being awarded to an American, Hayes,
whose time was 2 hours 54 minutes 33 seconds. Judged
by present standards that time was nothing remarkable ;
but the enthusiasm of that day was unbounded and has
rarely been rivalled in England.
Since* that date the Polytechnic Harriers have held
an annual Marathon race in connection with the
" Kinnaird " Cup Competition, held on the last Saturday
in May ; and in 1926 this race carried with it the A.A.A,
championship. In 1928 the A.A.A. promoted their
own Marathon championship in July ; another annual
Marathon is that held in the North of England ; and,
of course, many Continental countries and America
stage a championship race.
Of what type is the Marathon runner ? He may be
a convert from i o-miling ; and both Kolehmainen, who
won the Olympic Marathon in 1920, and Stenroos, who
won it in 1924, had finished first and third respectively
in the Olympic 10,000 metres in 1912. Probably he
will be a light little man with powerful legs and fine
heart and lung development. Style is less important than
determination. A stylist enjoys advantages of course ;
but as no Marathon runner can hope to keep on his
toes, his principal object should be to cover the ground
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ATHLETICS
as tirelessly as possible, and when fatigued to keep
plugging along. A relatively slow arm action seems to
suit the Anglo-Saxon ; the Finns have a loftier action,
the merits of which have already been discussed. Long-
striding is obviously out of the question ; rhythm is,
however, essential.
One explanation of the severity of Marathon running
is the road work, for only the start and finish of the race
may be in an enclosed ground. There is no elasticity
in a road such as one finds in a cinder track ; every step
is a jar to the body. To withstand this shaking a runner
ought to be carefully shod, and attention to the feet is
vital.
Shoes should not be new, but they must be strong.
Rubber soles, or leather soles with rubber inlaid, are
best. Should the surface of the road be wet or greasy,
leather must obviously be substituted for rubber. The
shoes should fit perfectly ; and to help keep out dust
and grit to get rid of which en route there is no time
soft woollen socks should be worn, with elastic tops.
During training the feet may be hardened by using
a little methylated spirits ; and on the day of the race
either talc powder or vaseline may be used. Once the
feet have hardened blisters are unlikely ; if one should
be contracted let it out at once and cover with liquid
court plaster.
The key to success in Marathon running, and the only
means to ensure no ill-effects, is a systematic course of
training. It should extend over a period of at least
three and preferably four months. The training should
begin easily with short walks at a pace of 4 miles per hour
and light runs, unless the athlete is already fairly fit.
Thenceforward the distance and pace should gradually
be increased. It is a mistake to run too often ; and a
better system advocates walking rather than running,
which should be done at the most three times a week.
On Saturday it is a good plan to have a time trial, and
on a day in the middle of the week to have a run for
204.
THE MARATHON
speed only. Stamina ought to be developed by means
of long easy runs working up to 1 6 miles in the eighth
week, or by long hard walks, which by the same date
should have reached a distance of 35 or 40 miles. At
the end of the ninth week a test run over 20 or 22 miles
may be made. The last week's work before the race
should be quite light.
A difficulty which the fit man has to contend with is
a tendency to over-increase his pace. This must be
carefully guarded against and the time schedule closely
followed. A desire to do too much is also liable to
attack a man who is near the top of his form ; overwork
in training is always ill-advised, and a man ought to
finish a practice run or walk feeling comparatively fresh
and with considerable reserve left in him.
With regard to diet, it is impossible to lay down hard-
and-fast rules. During training work or the race it is
not advisable to take solid food, although some people
favour taking ripe bananas after 15 miles. Thirst
should be relieved by rinsing out the mouth : certainly
nothing acid should be taken. The taking of drugs not
only renders one liable to disqualification it is medically
unsound.
In the race itself, although the speed will be decided
to some extent by circumstances, the Marathon runner
needs to guard against too rapid an initial pace. It does
not pay unless one is an exceptional runner, like the
Englishman Mills to attempt to force the pace for the
first 10 miles. The only sound rule is to adhere to a
time schedule. The R.A.F. runner S. Ferris, who has
thrice won the A.A.A. Championship and finished fifth
in the 1924 Olympic Marathon and eighth in that of
1928, is insistent on this point. In his case the variations
in time for each 5-mile section over the first 20 miles are
about a minute only.
The last 5 miles are admitted to be the most punishing
of all ; it is here that courage as well as training counts.
But the man who has the energy and enthusiasm to
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ATHLETICS
carry out the strenuous training programme, and the
pluck to go on to the finish when there is nothing in
him, will reap a satisfaction in his soul above the laurels
with which, after all, he may not be fortunate enough
to be crowned.
Section 3. Cross-country
England is generally regarded as the home of cross-
country running, and it is probably true to say that it is the
country in which the sport enjoys the greatest popularity.
Throughout the winter, from September until the end
of March, cross-country running, or its off-shoot, paper-
chasing, is practised by thousands of devotees all over
the British Isles ; and although most clubs hold matches
and competitions, and despite the existence of district
and national championships, the majority of their
supporters run simply for pleasure and exercise, treating
the sport purely as a recreation.
And undoubtedly cross-country running possesses a
fascination sufficient to warrant such an attitude. The
monotony which inevitably accompanies long-distance
track running is absent from work over the plough ;
indeed, variety is of its essence, and no two courses are
alike. The health-giving virtues of the sport scarcely
require commendation ; but one may touch upon the
opportunities it affords for team work and training
together in packs of graded strength. Its variant,
paper-chasing, affords the further thrill, for hares (of
whom there are usually two) and hounds alike, of a hunt ;
and the fun of laying false trails or of scenting them out
is not inconsiderable.
The utility of cross-country running as a foundation
for track work has been discussed in section i of this
chapter. It was pointed out that although a few excep-
tional performers on the track were also successful over
the plough, the majority of track runners are well
advised to treat cross-country running as gentle exercise
206
CROSS-COUNTRY
to preserve condition during the winter months, and not
to indulge in a severe competitive season.
Another argument in support of the theory that only
in exceptional cases do successful performers in the
one sphere repeat their achievements in the other is
to be found in the different style employed in the two
cases. Primarily the principle of conservation of energy
applies to both cross-country and distance running ;
and this principle involves the cultivation of an effortless
style. But whereas the track runner can develop a
rhythmic stride and balanced body carriage, with a
smooth swing of the arms, his friend across the plough
must often forfeit rhythm in order to preserve greater
control over his balance under the unfavourable con-
ditions with which he often has to contend. Quite
evidently the crossing of ploughed fields, the surmount-
ing of hedges or other obstacles, or the fording of a
stream^ not to mention the negotiation of hills, involve
emergencies which will throw a delicately balanced,
purely fhythmic runner right out of his stride. Only
upon hard ground or road will the style advocated for
long-distance runners be of practical utility : under
such conditions it may be adopted in its entirety by the
cross-country runner.
Conservation of energy being the fundamental prin-
ciple, any question as to the best method of surmounting
the different obstacles which confront the runner is
answerable by its application. In dealing with plough
and very rough ground, for example, the stride should
be shortened and the body inclined forward ; normally,
the former should be as even and natural as possible,
avoiding, as the track runner was advised to do, over-
striding. This method of crossing broken ground helps
to preserve the body balance and eliminates the chance
of floundering. The stride should also be shortened in
taking hills ; but here the body should be kept more
upright. Similarly in going down hills, particularly if
they be steep, because by the shortened stride the
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ATHLETICS
balance is retained. Whether ascending or descending
hills racing is definitely to be avoided. It consumes too
much energy, and in descending is provocative of stitch,
A diverting and sometimes painful item in cross-
country running is the negotiation of obstacles. Gates
and fences are usually best surmounted by climbing :
it employs less energy than a vault and the loss in time
is negligible. Likewise, it is preferable to run through
streams and ditches, cold and unpleasant though they
be, rather than to jump them, unless their breadth is
well within the runner's compass. The method which
involves least fatigue and maintains the greatest rhythm
of arms and legs is always the best ; and towards the end
of a race anything which tends to throw the tired runner
out of his stride, e.g. jumping a ditch, may prove fatal.
For this reason also the runner should never hesitate
before taking an obstacle : experience will teach him
the best method of attack and enable him to apply his
knowledge almost automatically.
The severity of the climate and the strain of a 5 or
7-mile run demand the cultivation of considerable
stamina. Training should be gradual and racing avoided
for the first six or even eight weeks. Walking is as
invaluable an aid to the creation of stamina for cross-
country work as in the other branches of distance running
already discussed ; and long swinging walks form the
variation to the slow jog-trots with which it is recom-
mended that the season be begun. These slow runs
should be taken two or three times a week over
distances varying from 5 to 7 miles ; and during their
course every opportunity should be seized to practise
taking obstacles. Subsequently, i.e. in the second month,
faster work should be done, still over 5 to 7 miles, and
the system tuned up to racing fitness, when the com-
petitive cross-country runner should endeavour as far as
possible to seek out races of gradually increasing
severity. The ability to start fast should be cultivated,
for, whilst guarding against squandering one's reserve
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CROSS-COUNTRY
too early, one must be prepared in modern races to keep
up with the leaders, who almost invariably (particularly
if there is an early obstacle) go off as if about to run a
mile.
One of the joys of cross-country is community running.
The regular Saturday afternoon jaunt in a pack selected
because its standard coincides with that of oneself is a
most enjoyable experience, despite the cold winds and
rain so often encountered. It is a happy custom among
some hare and hounds clubs to arrange that even in the
non-competitive packs the men shall keep together until
the last mile and then have a race home.
In matches and competitions the team element is
conspicuous. There are two methods of scoring in
cross-country races : the one individual, and the other
by teams. In the team classification, points are scored
by the first six (or any number agreed upon) men home
of each team, the sum total representing the points
obtained. The team with the lowest score wins. It
may further be arranged that, say, a dozen men run per
team, and perhaps only six score, but the second six, by
finishing high up the list before some of the scoring six
of another club, may yet assist their team by pegging
back their opponents. Good packing, whereby the
members of a team endeavour to stick together and by
their presence encourage one another, at any rate until
the final stages of the race, is an art which, well per-
formed under the eye of a good captain, can win valuable
points for a team, besides providing the team-spirit
which competitive athletics so often lacks.
In England the management of cross-country running
generally during the season is delegated to the National
Cross-country Union. The Union has power to draw
up regulations for the conduct of the sport, subject to the
approval of the general committee of the A.A.A., which
body can also hear and finally determine appeals from
decisions of the Union.
Of late years cross-country running has grown
o 209
ATHLETICS
considerably in popularity abroad. In 1912 a cross-
country race was included in the Olympic Games and
won by H. Kolehmainen ; in 1920 and 1924 it was
again held and won by Nurmi. On the last occasion,
under a scorching July sun, it was demonstrated by the
number of serious casualities that the event was un-
suitable for the time of the year, and it was eliminated
from the 1928 programme. As an international sport,
however, its general popularity is undiminished ; and
in the annual contest between France, Belgium, England,
Scotland, Ireland and Wales, which began amongst
some of those countries as far back as 1903, the French
have given the British runners a sound beating on at
least four occasions since the War. The sport is also
prevalent in the United States ; but the severity of the
climate considerably abbreviates the season.
It may be added that this sport seems scarcely suitable
for women on either physical or aesthetic grounds,
although indulged in by certain English ladies' clubs.
Section 4. Steeplechase
This is another event indigenous to Great Britain,
and one which during the summer is a popular feature
at sports meetings of all kinds. Spectators invariably
derive much amusement from the antics and misfortunes
of the competitors in the water-jump ; and the distance
runner finds the event a pleasant diversion from his more
serious labour.
Unfortunately, as an international event steeple-
chasing cannot be regarded as standardised. True, it
features in the programme at the Olympic Games under
standardised conditions ; but those conditions are, with
every respect to the I.A.A.F., a travesty of those govern-
ing the sport as practised in England. The event in the
games is little more than a track event, with a few light
hurdles and a water-jump thrown in. At Amsterdam
it was actually run upon the track, a small section of
210
STEEPLECHASE
grass, with the water-jump protected only by a bar and
a few plants, being included. Consequently, the race
became almost a gift for the pure track runner, the
distance being 3000 metres.
In Britain the event is run entirely on grass ; the
hurdles, which should not be more than 3 feet in height,
are set up about every 75 yards ; and the water-jump
is guarded by a quickset hedge, surmounting the
hurdles. The championship course since 1913 has been
standardised at 2 miles ; but many variants of this
distance are introduced by sports promoters, and in the
British Empire v. United States match the pure 440
yards hurdler is given his opportunity, for the four relay
runners have to cover only two laps, or less than half a
mile, apiece.
The race, even in England, is primarily the perquisite
of the 4-miler ; but skill in taking the obstacles is of
greater service here than in the event as held abroad.
Good hurdling is not essential, merely an advantage,
inasmuch as it reduces the amount of energy employed ;
for to jump each hurdle, as many runners do, is most
wasteful. More important is the method of negotiating
the water-jump. The better opinion inclines to the view
that a clear leap is too exhausting, A jump over the
hedge, and a quick step forward to carry one clear of the
water before one either stumbles or is trodden upon, is
generally recommended. It may be added that the
A.A.A. Rules provide that every competitor must go over
or through the water, and that jumping to the right or
left of the water-jump entails disqualification. And,
incidentally, black or dark blue shorts must be worn.
CHAPTER IX
HURDLING
THERE can be little doubt that hurdling bears
the palm with the athletic public as the most
spectacular and exciting of all the events. It is
the rule rather than the exception to find a crowd of
spectators brought to their feet by the thrill of a hurdles
final an indication of popularity which even the
breathless tension of a sprint race would find it hard to
equal. The hurdle race is more spectacular than the
sprint, and whilst embodying a relatively equivalent
amount of speed, it both demonstrates the precision of
a highly perfected technique and also admits of the
entry of that element of chance which in itself has such
definite appeal to the sporting public. From their point
of view it is always a fine sight ; from the athlete's it is
a fine exercise and a fine race. Hurdling still occupies
a somewhat anomalous position between the field events
proper and the track events, though it still frequently
finds its place among the former even on present-day
programmes. One presumes this is rather because the
short hurdle race (120 yards) is still occasionally run on
the grass or " field " encircled by the track e.g. in the
A.A.A. championships at Stamford Bridge, where,
unfortunately, the grass has by no means the billiard-
table surface one would wish for and not so much
because in the early days of the event the jumping
element ranked higher in the hurdler's consideration
than did the running pure and simple. In other words,
the event was by way of being a " running field event."
The manner in which this conception has gone com-
212
HURDLING
pletely out of date and has given precedence to an almost
diametrically opposite opinion (in which hurdling is
looked upon rather as an " obstacle sprint race," with
the jumping factor reduced to something to which the
hurdler himself would probably prefer not to apply the
term "jumping" at all) will be dealt with in later
paragraphs.
Hurdle races now take place over quite a number of
distances, the commonest being the 120 yards (or no
metres), the 220 yards (or 200 metres) and the 440
yards (or 400 metres). Besides these distances, however,
there are run races of 50, 60 and 70 yards, 80 metres,
300 yards and steeplechases. In fact in America almost
any distance from 40 to 300 .yards is run as a hurdle race.
The 50 and 60 yards hurdle races are distances commonly
used in women's sports, being races over three and four
flights of hurdles respectively, 2 feet 6 inches high in
both cases. It should be noted that in this country 100
yards is the championship distance for women's hurdle
races.* The 70 yards race belongs essentially to the
indoor meetings in America and consists of five flights
of 3 feet 6 inches high hurdles, 10 yards apart, with a
start and finish of 15 yards each. The 80 metres is the
new Olympic race for women to be introduced in 1932,
The 300 yards is really a freak event and does not occur
on any standard programme. Steeplechasing, which
takes place over a series of 3-feet hurdles and -one
water-jump, is discussed elsewhere.
Before passing to a more detailed consideration of the
three usual hurdle races, perhaps one may with advantage
mention here some facts more or less generally applicable
to hurdling as a whole.
The type of athlete that on the average makes the best
hurdler is the rather tall man around 6 feet in height
with long legs and loose flexible hips and shoulders ; one
to whom the adjective " lithe " can be applied admirably,
whose limbs are well and cleanly built, and the upper part
of whose body is rather on the light side. As ever, of
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ATHLETICS
course, this rule has its exceptions, and though such
great hurdlers as A. C. Kraenzlein (U.S.A.), Earl
Thomson (Canada), who, being 6 feet 4 inches in
height, was rather on the tall side, R. Simpson (U.S.A.),
G. C. Weightman-Smith and S. J. M. Atkinson (South
Africa) and F. R. Gaby (Great Britain) conform remark-
ably well to the description stated above, we still have
in England to-day a hurdler who is practically the equal
of most of them and yet is decidedly short in stature
Lord Burghley.
Speaking generally, again, the good short distance
hurdler tends to be a good average sprinter. It is doubtful,
however, whether more than one of the above-mentioned
six ^orld-famous hurdlers could record a time of inside
10^ seconds for the 100 yards, though Kraenzlein won the
Olympic 60 metres flat in 7 seconds in 1896; and many
crack quarter-mile hurdlers can return 49 seconds for
the 440 yards flat. This is really a point of considerable
interest, for it goes to show that despite the fact that the
whole trend of modern hurdling has been to reduce the
element of jumping in actually crossing a hurdle to the
minimum, it is still apparently the modification of this
jumping talent when suitably controlled, rather than
sprinting ability, which makes the first-class hurdler.
The hurdler's shoes should be very similar to those
used by the sprinter that is, light and closely fitting,
but if anything a little stouter and stronger, as the strain
imposed upon them in taking off at a hurdle and in
landing from it is far greater than anything a sprint race
pure and simple will produce. In this respect it is of
importance to note in passing that attention to the
condition of both shoes and laces is a more vital matter
in this race than, perhaps, in any other, for a fault in
this part of one's equipment in a hurdle race may entail
not only the disappointment of a lost race, but also the
possibility of at least a nasty fall, if not any more serious
mishap. The hurdler's shoe, like the jumper's, must
have the extra pair of heel spikes, both to give a better
214
HURDLING
grip and ensure greater stability and also to lessen the
jar of landing rapidly from the successive hurdles,
an added means to these ends often being a light leather
ankle strap.
Section i. 120 Yards Hurdles
As far as records show, this is not quite the oldest
of the hurdle races, for prior to 1864 a 140 yards
race was the usual distance; but from that date the
1 20 yards became the accepted distance, and still to-day
holds premier place amongst them, being a standard
event on practically every athletic programme. It has
featured on the A.A.A. championship programme
since the inception of that meeting in 1866, when the
event was won in what to-day we would consider the
astonishing time of iyf seconds. This " record " was,
however, eclipsed three years later, when i8| seconds
was recorded as the winning time, and it was not until
twenty years after the first championship in 1886
that the 16 second level was reached, and at that time
1 6 seconds was a world's record ! It was yet another
ten years almost 1 895 before 16 seconds was broken ;
md though this feat was repeated seven times previous
to 1914, two of them being victories for that early
naster of hurdling, A, C. Kraenzlein, to whom is
iscribed the introduction of the new " straight leg "
>tyle into this country and who held the A.A.A, pre-War
ecord of 151 seconds, it is in the last eight years that
lurdling has made such phenomenal strides. And now if
ve see a first-class race won in anything over 1 5 seconds
ve almost automatically pre-suppose some adverse
rendition of track or climate to account for it. The
British record, held jointly until 1928 by four Britishers
Earl Thomson, Lord Burghley, G. C. Weightman-
5mith and F. R. Gaby with 14^ seconds, now stands
o the credit of another S. J. M. Atkinson (South
\frica), who recorded I4 T V on a grass track. Two of
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ATHLETICS
this celebrated quintet are responsible for the existing
world's records for the 120 yards hurdles (Earl
Thomson, 141 seconds) and the no metres hurdles
(G. C. Weightman-Smith, 14! seconds).
Despite the fact that of the sixty odd A.A.A.
championships held to date four out of every five have
been won by Englishmen, there is little doubt that
from the beginning of the century until a few years ago
America held an unchallenged supremacy in the hurdling
world. But to-day it is of interest to note that English,
and even more so Empire, hurdlers are at least the equal
of America's best.
As an Olympic event the no metres hurdles has
featured since the first re-institution of the games in
Athens in 1896, when it was won by an American in
17$ seconds. America has scored six of the eight
possible Olympic victories to date, the remaining two
being those of Earl Thomson (Canada) in Antwerp in
1920 and of S. J. M. Atkinson (South Africa) in
Amsterdam in 1928.
One has gone into the history of this event at some
length not only because of its intrinsic interest, but also
because it is so clearly indicative of as remarkable a
transformation as has occurred in the history of all
athletics. One cannot imagine that the actual physical
prowess of man has altered to any material extent in sixty
years, and yet he is now able to run over ten obstacles
and 1 20 yards practically four seconds faster than he could
in 1866. Whence, then, comes this astonishingly rapid
development. Undoubtedly it has been principally due
to the complete revolution in hurdling style which
occurred early in this century, and with which, as has
been mentioned, the name of Kraenzlein is associated.
It appears that the new style the " straight leg "
method had had exponents in England previous to
Kraenzlein's visit in 1900, but it was his phenomenal
exhibition in that year he established the then miracu-
lous time of 15! seconds which decided once and for
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HURDLING
all that there were no longer two ways of hurdling.
The subsequent revolution in style was, however, a
gradual one, and the old methods died hard ; so much
so, that it is really only now that we are seeing for the
first time the straight leg style practised in all its intricate
perfection by a generation of hurdlers born to it and
brought up on it.
Before, however, going into the details of styles both
ancient and modern, let us for a moment consider the
track arrangements and paraphernalia pertaining to the
so-called " short " hurdle race, inasmuch as they have
a very definite bearing upon these details.
The race is run over 120 yards, during which ten
hurdles are negotiated. These hurdles are light,
rectangular frames, standing on wooden feet and in no
way attached to the ground (see Illustrations). The
hurdles must be not less than 4 feet in width and are
3 feet 6 inches high, and they are so spaced as to leave
10 yards between each flight, whilst the distance from
the starting line to the first hurdle and from the last
hurdle to the finishing tape is in both cases 1 5 yards.
It is proposed to divide the consideration of the details
of the actual race into the following paragraphs :
(i) The Start ; (2) The First 1 5 Yards ; (3) Hurdling
(#) Old and (b} New Styles ; (4) The 10 Yards Between
Hurdles ; (5) The Last 1 5 Yards and Finish ; and to
conclude this section with some suggestions with regard
to training for hurdle races and with some pertinent
rules on the subject.
(i) The Start. Though admittedly it is actual hurd-
ling style that is, the method by which the hurdle is
crossed which differentiates between an average and a
first-class hurdler, the latter will never rise to the front
rank unless he be endowed with or has developed a
suitable optimum of speed. We have mentioned above
how few of the world's great hurdlers have been really
good sprinters, but this does not imply that they are
slow runners. The hurdler, however, who attempts any
217
ATHLETICS
flat distance over a quarter-mile and makes a reasonable
success of hurdling as well, is indeed a rara avis. Of
course, on the other hand, it should be pointed out that
the really fast sprinter can give quite a reasonable
account of himself " over the sticks," however little
style he may possess ; but when it comes to a race between
the good hurdler with average speed and the good
sprinter with average style, it will be found that victory
will go to the former nine times out of ten at least.
However, speed is a requisite of good hurdling, and as
will be pointed out later, its acquisition by suitable
training must be assiduously cultivated.
This brings one to the point that in hurdle races the
sprint start or " crouch " start is as essential as it is
in pure sprint races and must be made if anything more
accurately, for success in reaching and taking the first
hurdle depends very much upon it. The details of this
starting position will be found fully discussed in the
chapter on sprinting, to which the reader is referred for
further information. Here it need only be stressed that,
since the whole hurdle race has to be worked out to a
matter of inches, meticulous attention must be paid to
these details, and in particular, perhaps, to the efficient
digging of starting " holes," be the track grass or
cinders. For if these holes are carelessly made, or
perhaps even neglected altogether, the first stride will
be in the wrong direction or of the wrong length, and
consequently the first hurdle will not be taken from the
proper spot, and anything from the loss of a valuable
fraction of a second to the complete chaos of a smashed
hurdle or a fall may result.
In starting, the hurdler must avoid the temptation to
look up at the first obstacle and must rigidly adhere to
the strict rules of sprint starting, keeping his eyes fixed
on approximately that point which his first foot will
strike as he comes out of his holes. Practice will produce
that all-essential confidence in the knowledge that if this
first stride is correctly made the first hurdle will be
218
HURDLING
correctly taken. The question regarding which foot is
to the fore at the start of a hurdle race is one which
depends upon various factors and differs with different
hurdlers. This detail should be carefully worked out
from the knowledge of which foot is naturally and
automatically thrown forward in taking a hurdle. With
this data and a consideration of the number of strides
taken in reaching the first hurdle, it is a simple matter
to determine the front leg in starting accordingly.
(2) The First 15 Yards, Even as the start has been
shown to embody those principles of extreme accuracy
which underlie all good hurdling, so must the approach
to the first hurdle be exact in every respect. Constant
practice will be necessary to ensure these 1 5 yards being
covered in exactly the same way on every occasion, and
this is what must be aimed at a complete mechanisation
of action so that the approach becomes sufficiently an
unconscious act to allow full concentration on the
production of the most perfect style in crossing the actual
hurdle. These first few yards are important from two
points of view. First, they must provide opportunity
for the production of maximum acceleration in the
limited distance allowed, for once actual hurdling is
commenced the regularity of the repeated sequence of
events allows of relatively small increase in the velocity
gained by the time the first hurdle is reached. And
secondly, they must ensure that the first take-off is from
that exactly correct spot which allows the hurdler to
drop automatically into the rhythmical sequence of
taking his successive obstacles mentioned above. To
bring about these two desired results, and the consequent,
and almost as important, psychological advantage of
reaching the first hurdle with a slight lead or, at any rate,
of being able to take it with ease and accuracy, the
distance must be covered in a constant number of
suitably regulated strides. This number varies with the
individual hurdler, and though a few very long-legged
men have 'found their optimum in seven strides, by far
219
ATHLETICS
the majority use eight or nine, according to their own
peculiar characteristics.
(3#) OU Style Hurdling. As this style has now been
definitely rejected and is not taught to-day, it needs tmt
brief mention. But from a historical point of view and
as showing whence has come the relatively recent rapid
advance in hurdling proficiency, it is of considerable
interest.
As was pointed out above, it was this style which was
a factor in inducing the then existing powers that be to
include hurdling amongst the field events, for it was the
jumping element an element which embodied parts of
both the running long and high jumps which was of
primary importance. The race was essentially a series
of small jumps with a run between, a preliminary and a
final run. The hurdler almost stopped before each
obstacle, gathered himself together with arms thrown up
and forward and legs tucked up beneath him, leapt his
hurdle, landing on the other side with practically
complete loss of momentum, and then started off again
to repeat the performance another nine times ! The
terrific loss of time involved in this so-called " hanging "
on the hurdle can only be fully appreciated when an old
and a new style hurdler compete in the same race a
rare sight nowadays. Before leaving the matter, how-
ever, it must in all fairness to the departed be said that
if this style has failed from a utilitarian aspect its
successor must give it points from the point of view of
grace and beauty of movement.
(3^) New Style Hurdling. Herein, of course, lies the
secret of the whole matter to-day, and it is probable that
in a few more years only the veterans of the track will
be able to recall anything but the " straight leg " style.
Where it came from and who introduced it to this
country are matters which have been to some extent
dealt with above, and are really of little concern. The
straight leg style has come to stay. TV-day it is
hurdling 1
220
HURDLING
The essence of the style lies in the eradication of
anything approaching a jumping movement in crossing
the hurdles. In place of this there is what may be called
an " elevated stride." The obstacles literally are taken
in one's stride, the legs being, as it were, split over the
hurdle, whereby both the time the hurdler is off the
ground and the height he is above it are reduced to a
minimum. At the same time, of course, the inevitable
pause (" hang ") associated with the old style is removed,
there being just as little interruption as possible when
taking the hurdle in the regular striding action which
dominates the whole race, and hence the minimum loss
of impetus and momentum. The moment the body
leaves the ground motive force is removed, and therefore
the hurdler's object is to return to terra firma again just
as quickly as possible, having in the meantime expended
the minimum of energy in surmounting his difficulties.
The stride in mid-air, which is the outcome of straight
leg hurdling, ensures all these objects being attained
with the maximum efficiency and speed.
In detail, this style consists in rapidly raising the
leading leg, by flexing it at the knee, but just as little as
possible, and then elevating it to a horizontal position
and straightening it out over the hurdle.
Which leg shall lead is a matter for the individual, and
is usually decided by natural inclination. But having
decided which leg is naturally the leading leg, it is, of
course, of vital importance to maintain it always as such,
and it has already been shown how the starting position
is dependent upon the result of this decision.
At the same time as the front leg is going up and
straightening out, the rear foot is raised strongly on to
the toes, and this leg automatically becomes straightened
out also. The lean forward of the body and head is
meanwhile slightly exaggerated, so that the weight is
thrown forward, this being further assisted by the arm
of the opposite side to the leading leg starting to come
forward. The correct position in this early stage of the
221
ATHLETICS
movement is shown well in Fig. 7. To reduce the
suggestion of any jumping action hence unnecessary
loss of energy in driving the body in an upward
direction to a minimum, the ideal to be aimed at is
that the back toe should be just losing its contact with
the ground as the front one crosses the hurdle, thus
illustrating very well the
action of the
" split
style.
That the time spent
in the air may be as
short as possible, the
object is first to get just
as near to the top of
the hurdle as one can
without touching it ; and
secondly, to get the front
leg down again as near
the far side of the hurdle
as is feasible.
The stages by which
this is brought about are
well shown in Figs. 8
to 12, which should be
consulted in reading the
following observations.
As the throwing for-
ward of body weight and
reaching out of the lead-
ing arm tend to depress the leading leg again on the
far side of the hurdle, the back leg is meanwhile drawn
up rapidly, flexed at both hip and knee, and bent out
horizontally, so that as it crosses the hurdle, thigh and
leg lie parallel to the top bar, and as close to it as
possible. They ought, in fact, almost to graze it,
and because this so often happens both in training and
competition, hurdlers commonly wear a light leather pad
on knee and ankle to protect them. As the body rides
222
FIG. 7.
HURDLING
over the hurdles, it and the head are thrown well forward,
whilst the leading arm (usually the left, as the right
leg is more commonly the leading leg) reaches out almost
to touch the leading foot. The other arm is also raised
and often thrown somewhat back, but as to some small
extent this must act as a retarding force, it should, if
FIG. 8.
possible, be kept well bunched up to the side, so that it
can be driven forcibly forward from the shoulder when
the landing takes place. One of the criteria of good-
hurdling is that when actually crossing the hurdles the
head should rise to only an imperceptible degree above
the line it occupies during the time the runner is on the
ground. The landing is effected by snapping the leading
223
ATHLETICS
leg down smartly, this being assisted by the forward and
downward transmission of the body weight, whilst at
the same time the back leg is swung vigorously round,
down and through from the top of the hurdle, so that
it passes its fellow almost at the moment the latter
reaches the ground, and is driven well forward in
company with its opposite arm, which, as has been said,
should have been previously bunched up at the side to
execute the next stride.
It will thus be seen that the process of crossing a
hurdle is an intricate one, and before that essential
FIG. 9.
accuracy can be obtained which permits of perfect
equilibrium and control being maintained during the
flight and at the same time an efficient conservation of
energy, much consistent, intelligent and painstaking
practice will be required. Hurdling does, in some
respects, conform to a type of field event in that the
optimum is reached only by a complete mechanisation
of the action. But, assuredly, the confidence gained by
an Increasing proficiency in style is a sufficiently valuable
asset to the hurdler to be worth much seeking.
One further point only needs mention with regard to
this complicated process of crossing the bar, and that
224
HURDLING
is the respective distances from the take-off point to the
hurdle, and from the hurdle to the landing point, which
constitute this huge " elevated stride." The researches
of various enthusiasts have put these at an average of
7 feet 6 inches up and 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 6 inches
down, thus making a total stride of from 1 2 to 1 3 feet.
FIG. 10.
(4) The 10 Yards Between Hurdles. This as a
separate title is, of course, not quite accurate, for some
part of that 10 yards we have already discussed in the
rise to and landing from the hurdle. The rest consists
simply of three regular strides between every two
hurdles. These strides should be taken with a rhythmical
p 225
ATHLETICS
precision which varies practically not one iota from hurdle
to hurdle, so that the whole action comes to suggest the
almost monotonous ticking of a metronome, with every
fourth beat exaggerated and prolonged. Taking the
distance represented by this fourth " beat," i.e. the
distance traversed in actually crossing the hurdle as an
average 12 feet 6
inches, the three
inter-hurdle strides
will approximate to
6 feet each, the first
one after landing
being probably a
shade less than this
and the other two,
therefore, propor-
tionately, a shade
longer. The im-
portant thing to
remember with re-
gard to these three
strides is that they
must be made in
a perfectly straight
direction, with no
zigzagging from
side to side, which
would upset the
FlG XI all-essential equili-
brium and poise
necessary for taking each successive obstacle.
(5) The Last 15 Yards and Finish. Little need be
said of this stage of the race. It is here, again, that the
sprinting capabilities of % the hurdler come to the fore.
Landing from the last hurdle, he must endeavour to
make the drive forward with the rear foot and opposite
hand even more forcible than usual, for the object now
is to pick up again as much acceleration as the small
226
HURDLING
distance remaining will allow. Many a hurdle race has
been won in these last few yards by the man who has
developed the power of rapidly getting up speed. It is
essential that good sprinting form, in which the factor
of keeping one's gaze firmly fixed in one's own lane is
not the least important, be maintained to the end, and
that the ideal sprinting finish of running not at but
FIG. 12,
through the tape be aimed at always. To counteract the
common tendency to stumble and stagger during the
run in, which is so often seen and is due, presumably,
to the sudden transition from the set regular three-stride
action between the hurdles to the free, open, swinging
stride of sprinting, or, again, perhaps to the tendency to
" press " when the end of the race is in sight, the first
stride or two after landing from the last hurdle should
be short and rapid, gradually lengthening out to the
individual competitor's average sprinting stride. In
other words, rapid but progressive acceleration pays
better in the long run than attempting to assume
227
ATHLETICS
highest speed immediately by a full-length stride after
the last hurdle. The steadiness and balance which ex-
perience brings to the actual hurdling bears its richest
fruit in these last 10 yards when it is of paramount
importance to have such perfect co-ordination and control
that every ounce can be put into this last supreme effort
without producing any detrimental loss of form.
Training. Training for hurdle races may be divided
into three sections, viz. : General Training, Sprinting
Training and Actual Hurdling.
Under general training one is referring not so much
to the general principles of getting physically fit, which
are set out at length as applying to all aspects of athletics
in an earlier chapter, but rather to exercises specially
directed to produce proficiency in hurdling.
In the early days of training, good brisk walks can be
of great value to the hurdler, provided always they are
not carried to the extent of muscular stiffness. For
supple muscles, loose joints and a general flexibility of
the body are the essential requisites of the successful
hurdler. Hence the many and varied exercises suggested
and used to accomplish these ends, exercises which at
first should form practically the whole of the hurdler's
training, and later should always be used as a preliminary
to training proper or to competition. One may mention
a few of those more usually practised.
As a beginning, simply touching the toes with knees
straight and " high-kicking " are both of considerable
value as muscle looseners, as also is the Russian leg
dance, in which, sitting upright on the heels, alternate
legs are kicked out to the front. Perhaps the commonest
exercise of all is the so-called " splits/' in which one
simply assumes on the ground (or floor) a position
corresponding relatively to that which is taken up when
one is actually crossing a hurdle, i.e. one leg straight out
in front and the other drawn up at right angles to the
body with hip and knee flexed. The body is then swung
forward and attempts made to touch the front toes with
228
HURDLING
the fingers. Again the difficult action by which the back
leg is swung up, over and forwards can be practised
simply standing upright on what would be the leading
leg, or, better still, over either an actual hurdle or some
object of corresponding height.
Concerning sprinting training little need be said here,
as all necessary detail will be found in another chapter,
except to stress the importance of this part of a hurdler's
work. Sprinting should always form at least 50 per cent,
or more of his training and special attention should
be paid, first, to the minutiae of starting technique;
secondly, to the rapid development of speed, so essential
in those initial and terminal stages of his race ; and lastly,
to the practice of correct finishing form. To develop
stamina he should also at occasional intervals, once or
twice a week when fit, run through distances from 150
to 220 yards.
Hurdling training itself maybe said never to necessitate
running over a complete flight of ten hurdles. To
begin with, while style is being cultivated and polished
up, the use of 3 feet hurdles is to be advocated, and at
first these can with advantage have swinging or balanced
tops. Later, one may tackle the full-sized hurdle, but
it is never necessary to use more than three or four of
these at the outside, whilst in the early stages of training
it is as well to concentrate on the actual crossing of the
obstacle, and cover the intervening spaces with five small
strides instead of the normal three longer ones. The
three-stride rhythm in itself needs very little practice,
and will come almost automatically in competition if the
hurdling style is good. Apart from this latter, the two
great things that demand constant and careful practice
are the first 1 5 yards and the last 1 5 yards, and there are
many who, while remembering the former, shamefully
neglect the most important latter.
Finally, in hurdling training remember that patience
and perseverance are essential, that it is much better to
build up a good style slowly from a lot of little points,
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ATHLETICS
each learnt carefully and studied closely, than to acquire
a bad style rapidly from a few points half-learnt and
carelessly agglomerated into an unstable whole.
With regard to hurdling rules, there are only relatively
few of intrinsic interest, such as the disqualification
which results from knocking down three or more
hurdles (two in the 70 yards indoor race), whilst,
strictly speaking, " swinging " or " rocking " hurdles
count as broken, and no international record can be
allowed be there only one hurdle broken. Again, in any
hurdle race the hurdle must be crossed by the whole
of the body, and any trailing of a leg alongside a hurdle
entails the penalty of disqualification.
Section 2. 220 Yards Hurdles
This event, though not yet honoured with a place
on the A.A.A. programme, and having occurred only
twice (as 200 metres) in the Olympic Games, of 1900
and 1904, is a standard one in America, where it has
featured for over forty years. It is somewhat natural,
therefore, to find that the world's record lies to the
credit of an American, C. R. Brookins, who put up
the amazing time of 23 seconds for the distance.
Incidentally, this leads one to a genuine appreciation of
the great Kraenzlein, who, thirty years ago, recorded
23$ seconds for the distance. In this country, since the
inclusion of the event in the Oxford and Cambridge
Sports programme in 1922, and with its spasmodic
appearances in those great meetings between these two
'Varsities and the American Universities, it may fairly
be said that it has gained considerably in popularity
both with spectator and athlete, and there are many to-day
who would like to see it find a place in the regular
athletic programme. Hurdle races are undoubtedly
sufficiently attractive from all points of view to merit the
inclusion of more than one distance in the average
competition,
230
HURDLING
The British record, incidentally, is 24^ seconds and
is held by Lord Burghley.
The race is run over ten hurdles ; but these are, in this
case, 20 yards apart and only 2 feet 6 inches in height.
The distance from start to first hurdle and from last
hurdle to finish is, in either case, 20 yards.
The extra distance brings in the additional requisite of
stamina, and it is indeed astonishing to discover how
extremely fatiguing the running of a mere furlong over
obstacles can be ! Many a well-trained man, good
sprinter and good hurdler, too, though he may be, has
at least staggered the last few yards of this race if not
run himself out completely. To develop this necessary
stamina, therefore, quite a fair amount of training should
be done in the earlier stages of work at distances around
300 yards.
Sprinting ability is relatively even more important
in this event than in the shorter hurdle races, and over
this distance a good sprinter who possesses but little
hurdling style or technique is much more likely to make
a successful match of it with the rather slower but more
expert hurdler than he was over the 120 yards. Hurdling
technique, however, still remains a most potent factor,
and the straight leg style should again be used. With
the lower hurdles, of course, the " hurdle-in-one's-
stride " idea (the " step-over " action) comes more into
evidence, and again the aim should be to reduce the race
to a series of regular mechanical strides. It has been
estimated that the optimum is seven strides of approxi-
mately 7 feet each between hurdles, with an initial run
up of about eleven strides. Until a considerable degree
of fitness and proficiency has been reached it is unlikely
that the 220 yards hurdler will be able to maintain this
precise regularity right through to the end of his race,
but it is this he must aim at, for here, as in all hurdle
races, it is consistency which tells in the long run.
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ATHLETICS
Section 3. 440 Yards Hurdles
This race, though dignified by being both an
Olympic and an A.A.A. championship event, is run
scarcely more frequently in this country than even the
220 yards hurdles, which occur only in the Oxford v.
Cambridge Meeting. This is not because it is not a
good event and a popular event, but the gruelling
nature of the race is not exactly likely to attract large
numbers of competitors. It is probably of all the events
on an average athletic programme relatively the most
strenuous and exhausting.
As an Olympic event it has featured on all the
programmes except two (the" first in Athens in 1896 and
that of the 1912 Stockholm Games, when it was
temporarily dropped), and until the 1928 Olympiad of
Amsterdam, when it was won for Great Britain by Lord
Burghley, has provided a continuous succession of
American victories. The same great hurdler (Burghley)
holds the British record for the event of 54 seconds, a
time which is, however, well behind the world's record
of 52 g- seconds established by F. A. Gibson (U.S.A.).
Incidentally, Taylor of U.S.A. ran 400 metres hurdles
in 52 seconds this year (1928).
The event became an A.A.A. championship in 1914,
in which year it was won in 59^ seconds ! and of the
dozen odd competitions held to date only three have
been won by other than an Englishman a record
indicative of Great Britain's high standing in this as,
in fact, in all hurdle events.
The race is run over ten hurdles, the height of these
in this case being 3 feet. Between the hurdles a distance
of 38^ yards is left ; the run up to the first hurdle is
49i yards and the finishing distance from the last hurdle
46^ yards.
The race is run with the hurdles en tchelon round the
track, and hence, besides possessing running ability and
232
HURDLING
hurdling technique, the quarter-mile hurdler must be a
good judge of pace, both his own and his opponents',
for it may be that drawing an outside " string " he has
to wait until the home straight before coming on terms
of relative equality with his opponents. The distance
necessitates very arduous training in order to attain to a
satisfactory degree of physical fitness, and this training
should be on the lines of that laid down elsewhere for
the quarter-mile (q.v.\ though, generally speaking, it is
found that the quarter-mile hurdler conforms rather to
the half-miler than to the sprinter type of athlete.
Hurdling technique is much the same as for the
shorter distances, and an attempt should be made
towards set regularity of stride throughout the race,
though sheer fatigue will usually render this difficult if
not impossible. For the early part of the race it should
be possible to maintain a steady fifteen strides between
hurdles, but in the last 120 yards or so it is probably
often a safer policy to increase this to seventeen rather
than risk having to take off from the wrong foot, a
contingency which often arises about this stage in the
race from an involuntary shortening of the stride
secondary to fatigue.
CHAPTER X
JUMPING
Section I. Long Jump
THE long jump or, as it is often less appropri-
ately called nowadays, the broad jump is one
of the " old stagers " amongst the field events.
It has featured on athletic programmes since the in-
ception of organised athletics in the middle of last
century, has been an A.A.A. championship event since
18665 an d an Olympic event since the re-institution of
the games at Athens in 1896. It is interesting to note
that though the English native long jump record
(24 feet 2\ inches) is now almost 2 feet behind the
existing world's record, in all the sixty odd A.A.A,
championships held to date only ten times has the event
been won by other than an Englishman. In the eight
Olympiads since 1896, however, only once has victory
been wrested from the United States, and then by a
Swede.
Long jumping, strictly speaking, should include both
running and standing jumps, but as the latter are to-day
barely recognised as standard events, discussion of them
has been relegated to a brief paragraph at the end of this
section. The long jump being the first of the field
events proper which we have considered, one may
perhaps to advantage attempt to explain the essential
difference between competition in field events and track
events. Both groups demand always a certain amount
of initial ability and talent ; both require continued and
whole-hearted practice and perseverance for the produc-
tion of that perfect co-ordination of mind and body which
234
LONG JUMP
alone spells success for the athlete, though this latter
factor is perhaps of even greater importance to the field
event man than to his brother of the track. For in field
event competition a man's co-ordination must be so
perfected that his resultant actions are practically auto-
matic, and herein lies the radical difference between these
two great branches of the sport. The field event man
has no need (with reference to his opponents) for the use
of tactics or of judgment. He is a separate entity, and
his aim and object is to produce the best effort of which
that entity is capable, irrespective of those with whom he
is competing. For the track event man, his rivals, their
performances, their tactics, their methods, are a very
vital concern. They constitute an element in any race
which he must fully discount when assessing his prospects
in that race. In other words, as an old Cambridge athlete
has very aptly put it : " The field event man attempts to
perform better than his rival, the track event man to
defeat him ! " Superficially, this may seem a very fine
differentiation, but it does most satisfactorily express
the underlying objects of the competitors in either
branch of athletics, explaining how, with the identical
ultimate end in view superiority over one's opponents
they approach this end from two essentially different
angles.
Returning to the more limited field of the long jump,
it should, in the first place, even at the risk of stating the
obvious, be pointed out that this event is an essential
combination of both running and jumping; but the
latter is wholly dependent on the former. This does
not imply that the super-sprinter is pan passu the super-
long jumper, for more is required than mere speed, but
it does mean that the man who is essentially a slow
runner can never hope to achieve great proficiency in
long jumping.
Speed, therefore, is one of the primary requisites in
successful long jumping in order that sufficient velocity
may be obtained to throw the body forward from a fixed
ATHLETICS
point with the maximum momentum to the maximum
distance. In this respect it may be observed that
an " even time " sprinter can probably record a jump
of 2 1 feet at any time, without any particular effort or
concentration on the fact that he is jumping. Besides
speed, the long jumper must possess as one of his basic
assets natural spring, by which he can apply the momen-
tum, gained by the former in the optimum direction.
The run and the jump are not two separate entities,
they must be merged indissolubly into one smooth,
homogeneous whole.
Thus it is ability in these two respects especially that
is demanded by this particular field event, but something
further is required. This ability must be systematically
developed and its component parts so harmonised that
perfect co-ordination results, and this means steady
perseverance and practice with minute and meticulous
attention to all detail over a very long period. The more
of an automaton the long jumper can make himself, the
more successful will he be.
And here a few words regarding training for long
jumping may be in place.
The training will always be long and considerable
patience and optimism are necessary. That " Rome
was not built in a day " is a maxim which should be
carried in the heart of every prospective long jumper.
Disappointments are likely to be numerous, and " off-
days " uncomfortably frequent, for in many ways long
jumping is comparable to golf its charm lies in its
elusiveness. But steady, thorough, persevering practice
will undoubtedly bring its own reward in the formation,
simply perhaps by a process of time, of the " long jump
habit 1 " Training may be divided into three sections
exercises, sprinting and jumping. Exercises are most
essential for the development and strengthening of those
muscles, especially of the thighs and calves, which have
to stand so big a strain in long jumping, and no actual
jumping should even be attempted until a satisfactorily
236
LONG JUMP
loose and supple muscular condition is reached, both
by exercises and massage. In this respect it is most
highly important that both in training and in competi-
tion the greatest care should be taken to guard against
cold.
Exercises alone should form the basis of the first week
or two of training, and should be continued in modified
form throughout the whole season.
Sprinting, in the shape of short bursts of up to 50
yards, and of medium-pace work, well up on the toes,
should be the long jumper's only activity for the next
three weeks or so, and should always form a preliminary
to his jumping practice. The importance of this initial
period of running pure and simple is the development of a
perfectly regular stride, which later becomes such a vital
matter in ensuring a successful run-up. Actual jumping
practice itself should, therefore, not be commenced until
about a month after the beginning of training, and should
be limited to five or six jumps a day at the most. The
details of the jumping training will be considered under
the discussion of those various parts of the long jump
into which it can be divided.
These are the Run-up, the Take-off, the Flight and
the Landing.
The Run-up H. M. Abrahams is responsible for a
very true saying in regard to long jumping : " Take care
of the run-up and the jump will take care of itself! "
This serves to show the vital importance of the first part
of the jump. We have already pointed out that one of
the primary requisites in the long jumper is speed and
the ability to develop this relatively rapidly, and that a
good sprinter can produce a jump of over 20 feet on
speed alone. But it is not simply speed in the unqualified
sense of the word that is required, it is a speed productive
of such a uniformly regular acceleration that when the
critical moment of the take-off arrives the body, besides
having been given its greatest possible velocity, still
maintains perfect co-ordination, allowing of complete
237
ATHLETICS
steadiness and balance. It is this combination of speed
and steadiness which lies at the bottom of all successful
long jumping* In other words, there is an optimum
rather than a maximum velocity to be obtained in each
particular case, and the man who reaches the take-off
board in the shortest time, but so fast that he tends to
wobble, to strain, to lose his balance or to " jump off"
away from the straight, is not going to cover as much
ground as the man who is a shade slower in his run
but maintains perfect body control. This explains why,
though the good sprinter can almost automatically clear
a fair distance, he is not necessarily the good jumper,
for without considerable practice he will lack the
knowledge of how to adapt his speed in such a way as
to ensure steadiness. In fact the ultimate object of
training is to make the optimum and the maximum
speeds for the run-up approximate, to as great a degree
as is consistent with good balance. Since, therefore, one
is really aiming at developing one's greatest useful speed,
it is necessary that the run-up which, incidentally, on
all good tracks to-day is a narrow cinder path some 4 feet
in width should be about 50 yards in length, as the
minimum distance in which it is possible to attain this
maximum speed is for by far the largest majority of men
from 35 to 45 yards.
Between these limits each individual jumper must find
his own particular distance. And this brings one to the
kernel in the nut of the run-up namely the production
of a perfectly regular, standard, uniform effort. The
run-up should become absolutely mechanical, an auto-
matic effort, to such an extent that the jumper has
perfect confidence in his ability to strike the take-off
board fair and square ten jumps out of ten. How is this
highly desirable result to be produced ? Only by much
painstaking effort, careful attention to minute detail, and
persevering practice.
The first essential in training for the run-up is the
three to four weeks of short sprinting practice mentioned
238
LONG JUMP
above. This ensures a perfectly regular length of stride
being developed, and when this stride has become to all
intente and purposes a habit, then a consistent and smooth
approach to the take-off board is guaranteed. When this
stage has been reached, the problem then arises for each
individual jumper of discovering the particular point for
him at which he must start his run-up. This point
should always be the same distance from the take-off
board, allowing for average normal conditions. It is
only after considerable experience that due allowance can
be made without several preliminary trials for abnormal
conditions such as the state of the track, especially in
wet weather, or the presence of a following or head wind,
or the degree of physical fitness of the individual
competitor himself.
As to methods of finding this point, the following two,
really but variations of the same idea, are those most
frequently used. Starting with that foot on the take-off
board from which one naturally jumps (it matters not
whether 'it be right or left, provided it is always the
same foot), the back being turned to the long jump
pit and the heel of this take-off foot level with that
edge of the board nearest the pit, one starts to run,
using as far as possible the regular stride developed
in the period or sprinting practice, until some forty
odd yards have been covered. About this distance a
point is marked where one particular foot comes down.
Then, starting from this point and off this foot, the
distance is run in the reverse direction, taking the
greatest care neither to " reach " for the board by
lengthening the last stride or strides nor to shorten
them in order to hit it fairly. If, running right through
with even, regular strides, one does not hit the board
properly, then it is a matter of advancing or putting
back the marked point according to whether the take-off
foot is short of or over the board. The alternative to
this method is simply to choose a point at random,
some 40 yards from the board, and, noticing the result
239
ATHLETICS
of the first run through from this point, adjust accord-
ingly as before.
When, however, by one or the other method the
correct point has been found, it is well worth while measur-
ing this distance accurately, using the tape measure with
which every jumper should be provided, as it will then*
always be a basis from which to start one's practice, or
thq " trial run through," one at least of which should
always be taken before actual competition.
The other point to bear carefully in mind is the foot
from which one started on this mark and to make sure
there is no mistake about this, some long jumpers begin
their run-up from the customary crouch start of the
sprinter, which always ensures one particular foot being
to the fore.
In competition, if this method is not used, the usual
procedure is to place some distinctive mark at the side
of the track opposite the set point, and starting a few
yards behind this, make sure that one begins one's full
striding from this point and off the correct foot. Some
jumpers use another similar mark about half-way
through their run-up, which is opposite a point they
know a certain foot should strike. If they are wrong by
the time they reach this spot, they know they will in all
probability be wrong when they finish the run, and hence
it gives them time to pull up before reaching the take-off
board and so avoid a possible " no jump." This is
adjudged by whether any part of the foot passes over
either the edge of the take-off board nearer the pit or
a line extended from this edge on either side of the board.
There are those, however, who deprecate the use of
this second mark on the grounds that to watch it tends
to upset the normal run through. This is a matter which
the individual must decide for himself.
There is one slight modification permissible to the
well-trained jumper in the dictum that the run-up must
consist of perfectly regular, even strides, and this is that
the last stride or two of all should be a shade shorter than
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LONG JUMP
their predecessors, to allow of an effectual " gathering "
of the body for the coming spring of the jump itself.
Any other departure from the normal striding the
series of rapid " chop " strides at the end of the run, the
almost pathetic reaching out strides which form the so-
called " feeling for the board, " the run-off to the side
of the board all these are distinct faults, and evidence
of insufficient practice practice which has not been
enough to make the run-up the absolutely mechanical
factor it should be in long jumping.
The Take-off. The take-off is the half-way house
between the run-up and the jump proper, and it should
constitute the merging imperceptibly of the one into the
other the apparently effortless translation of the cause
of velocity and momentum into the result thereof. If
any hesitation occurs at the moment the run becomes a
jump, then there are still faults to be eradicated.
The take-off board (according to A.A.A. Rules) is a
piece of hard wood, usually deal, 4 feet long, 4 inches
deep * and 8 inches wide, buried so that its upper
surface is flush with the ground, and painted white.
Thus it is from this 8 -inch surface that the actual jump
takes place ; and it is vital that the take-off should occur
from this surface, not only because anything beyond it
constitutes a " no jump " and anything behind it an
obvious loss of possible distance, but also because the
resistance offered by the wood permits of the development
of the optimum amount of spring. The real object of
careful training in the run-up is to ensure that the whole
ball of the foot strikes this board fair and square every
time. It is here that there occurs the transference of
weight from heel to toe, and it is here that there is added
to the momentum produced by the run-up the element of
" spring " which provides for the upward and hence
directs the subsequent forward movement of the body.
For there is an optimum angle at which the body should
be despatched namely about 45 degrees from the
horizontal. (This will be further discussed in the next
Q 241
ATHLETICS
section.) At the same time as the spring takes place
from the take-off foot and leg, the body is generally
gathered up into compact form, and the arms thrown
up and forward, thus bringing into action every propul-
sive force possible.
At the moment of change from run to jump, a consider-
able strain is thrown upon the muscles of the take-off
leg, and considerable force upon the take-off heel. It
is to lessen these that the jumper's shoes are provided
with a pair of heel spikes and it is often of advantage
to supplement these with a rubber pad inside the heel of
the shoe to prevent the excessive jarring which is apt to
occur, and obviate the chronic inflammation of the bone
of the heel which is such a common sequel.
In training for this particular part of the jump, the
practice of spending a considerable time early in the
season simply at first with standing jumps, and later with
the shortest of runs-up, e.g. about i o yards, has much to
be said for it, in that besides developing the all-essential
" spring " it helps to give one that very necessary " feel "
of the board which means, later, confidence, and that, in
turn, success.
Flight, The period occupied by the actual jump is so
brief, on an average about one second, that the amount
of conscious effort possible in the limited time
especially in competition is almost negligible, and in
the truly trained and experienced long jumper should be
practically non-existent. But the fact that one aims at
making the flight a purely automatic effort in competition
does not mean that it can be performed anyhow. There
is a very definite optimum course along which the body
should travel, and also a very definite optimum position
it should take up while travelling. Much of the success of
this part of the jump depends upon those that have gone
before, as has to some extent been pointed out previously.
The run-up has provided speed, and, at any rate as
important, it has also developed balance and steadiness
and it is this latter element, if successfully transferred
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LONG JUMP
through the take-off, that goes to make or mar the jump
as a whole.
If, whilst in the air, the arms or the legs or the body
as a whole have to be moved in various odd directions
in an attempt to maintain balance, the inevitable result
is loss of distance. It needs much practice, too, before
the " gathering up " of the body from the take-off board
can be successfully accomplished without disturbance of
equilibrium. And one other further factor which is all-
important in the flight is gained from the take-off board,
namely that spring which leads to the height so requisite
to the production of good distance. It has been estimated
that the man who clears 23 feet reaches a height of some
5 feet at the top of his flight, whilst those who jump in
the world's record class of 25 feet and over must be
achieving the no mean feat of being as much as 5 feet
9 inches above the pit at the apex of their flight !
This question of sufficient elevation is of vital import-
ance, for exactly as in throwing a cricket ball in to the
wicket from the boundary one throws it in an upward
direction to procure maximum distance, so must the long
jumper who, as will be pointed out shortly, conforms
to the shape of a human ball go up whilst he goes
forward if he is to produce his best. And in actual
jumping training it is this acquisition of sufficient height
that must be assiduously practised. Some prefer
to practise simply by concentration on " getting high "
after taking-off, but perhaps the majority are best
advised in this part of their training to resort to some
additional aid. This usually takes the form of two light
poles planted one on either side of the track, some
definite distance from the take-off and between which is
stretched a piece of worsted at a definite height above the
ground. With regard to this distance and this height,
an average for an adult long jumper is some 14 to 15
feet from the take-off, and about 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet
for the height of the worsted. In the early stages of
training, of course, both may conveniently be less and
H3
ATHLETICS
then gradually increased until the maximum distance
consistent with steadiness is arrived at. The practice of
substituting a low hurdle, however light, for the worsted
is not one we recommend, in view of the obvious attendant
dangers.
The body during the flight, as we have said, should
be as much the " human ball " as possible. The course
taken by this " ball " is a parabola, with a long gradual
rise, and then, as momentum is lost, from air resistance
and the pull of gravity, a relatively quicker fall. To
reduce this loss of
momentum to a mini-
mum the body during
its flight should, to
lessen the resistance
of the air to it, be
rendered as compact
as possible.
The accompanying
Fig. 1 3 depicts a jum-
per just at the apex
of his flight (approxi-
mately some 5 feet
above the pit), and the form shown is well-nigh perfect.
The legs are gathered up against the body, so that the
knees almost touch the chin ; the arms have been thrown
up and well forward ; the head is forward, and the eyes
are focussed on that spot in the pit on which it is hoped to
land ; the feet are well together ; and the whole picture
exemplifies that retention of momentum for the greatest
possible time which should be the aim and object of every
long jumper.
There is one other outstanding " style " in the flight,
which finds much vogue in America and has not a few
adherents in this country, and that is the so-called
" hitch-kick " style, in which the legs are made to
perform several rapid kicks during the time the jumper
is in the air (see Fig. 14). The supporters of this
244
FIG. 13.
LONG JUMP
method claim that by this means it is possible to give
the body in its passage through the air an added
impetus, and a higher position relative to the parabola
of flight for its centre of gravity, while others explain
it as simply a maintenance of the run-up action con-
tinued through uninterruptedly into the air. In this
method the hands tend to be flung up above the
FIG. 14.
head (see Fig. 14), a fault which, incidentally, may
be present in any jumper, whatever his style, but is
nevertheless obviously a fault at all times since as soon
as the arms pass the horizontal they must automatically
become a retarding force. If it is intended to maintain
also the steadiness and balance engendered by a good
run-up, it can only be said that the results hardly seem
to justify the belief, whilst the idea of a fresh stimulus to
momentum is hardly one which will find the support of
245
ATHLETICS
any student of mechanics. The point with regard to
the raising of the body's centre of gravity is the only
part of the theory which holds water. Altogether, despite
the fact that this style has been employed by some of the
best long jumpers the world has known, one cannot find
apart from this one suggestion adequate basis in the
theory of it to warrant its adoption by the average long
jumper.
Landing With regard to the final stage of the jump,
where the jumper once more comes to earth, there is
but little to be said. The principal point to stress here
is the shooting forward of the legs immediately previous
to landing. By this means it is possible to add another
good 6 inches or so on to the length of the jump, but it
must always be done bearing in mind the one basic
principle of long jumping good balance, which it is
just as essential to maintain right up to the end as it was
to produce it in the initial run-up. For over-reaching
and consequent loss of equilibrium will produce that
most disappointing of all results, a falling back into the
pit behind a good distance as achieved by the feet. On
the other hand, if, on landing, the jumper tends to fall
forward with any force, he may be sure that he has come
down too soon, that he has not jumped high enough to
permit his store of momentum having had sufficient
time to expend itself. The landing should be made
with the feet well together and at a point which has been
fixed by the eyes from the top of the flight. To assist
in this " reaching out " for a good result, both in training
and in competition, many jumpers adopt the practice of
placing a piece of white paper in the pit at the point on
which they hope to land a practice which has much to
recommend it, providing the point is one which does not
demand an impossibility from the individual concerned.
Section IA. Standing Long Jump
As has been mentioned above, this event does not
figure in many present-day programmes, but it still finds
246
HOP, STEP AND JUMP
a certain amount of favour in America (particularly in
indoor athletics) and perhaps more in Ireland and
certain Continental countries. It was included in the
second Olympic programme (Paris, 1900) and retained
until the 1912 Olympiad at Stockholm, since when it
has been dropped. Three of these four Olympic contests
were won by America the fourth by Greece and all
the American victories were, incidentally, by the same
man, R, Ewry, who in one of them established the
world's record for the event of 1 1 feet 44- inches.
It has never been an A.A.A, championship, and as
far as is known is not practised at all in this country.
The event may be looked upon as simply the running
long jump bereft of its run. In other words, the velocity
factor is completely removed, that of spring being of
paramount importance. The feet may be placed in any
position at will on the take-off board, but they must
only leave the ground once, when the actual jump is made.
" Rocking, " or swinging alternately from heel to toe, is,
however, permissible ; and it is by this means, together
with an exaggerated arm swing and an ultimate crouch,
with bent knees and tensed body immediately before
the jump is made, that the requisite momentum is
produced.
The jump, once the take-off has been made, i.e. the
flight and the landing, corresponds exactly with what
has been said above with reference to the running long
jump, except that the hitch-kick style has never yet been
used during the flight,
Section 2. Hop, Step and Jump
The hop, step and jump is a somewhat anomalous
event which cannot honestly be said to find a great deal
of favour in either the athlete's or the public's eye. It
was only in 1914 that it was raised to the honour of being
an A.A.A. championship, and as far as we know this and
the District Championships are practically the only
meetings in this country in which it features on the
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ATHLETICS
programme ; and as of the nine championships held
up to date five have been foreign victories, everything
seems to point to the fact that, in England at any
rate, its following is very small. In some form or
other, however, it has been an Olympic event since the
first games at Athens in 1896, and has once been won
by an Englishman. The honours in the remaining
seven contests have been shared by no less than five
other nations, which may, perhaps, indicate a more
general interest in the event than is evidenced in this
country. It is of interest also to note that the present
world's record is held by a Britisher in the person of
A. W. Winter of Australia, who established the distance
of 50 feet 1 1 J inches in the 1924 Olympic Games in
Paris. The best English performances are some 4 to
5 feet short of this mark.
There appear to be two almost completely dissimilar
types of athlete who favour this event the long, loose-
limbed type with good shoulders and strong back, as
exemplified by Winter, and the short, stocky " rubber-
ball " type with well-muscled legs and a superabundance
of spring, well typified by the Japanese, Oda, last year's
(1928) Olympic winner.
The event itself partakes of many of the characteristics
of the running long jump, and the majority of the
observations that have been made previously about the
latter will apply equally to the hop, step and jump.
The training should be on exactly similar lines
exercises, sprinting and actual jumping and the prin-
ciples of the run-up and the take-off will be identical in
both cases. After the take-off, the name of the event
indicates fairly clearly its component parts. The hop is
a leap from the take-off foot on to the same foot ; the
step from that foot to the opposite one ; and the ump
from this second foot on to both |feet this final stage
being in the nature really of a pseudo-standing long jump ;
" pseudo " because there still remains, despite the inter-
ruptions in movement at the take-off, at the end of the
248
HOP, STEP AND JUMP
hop and the end of the step, a certain amount of the
original momentum generated by the run-up.
As in the long jump the imperceptible merging of run
into jump was stipulated as the essential for perfection,
so in the hop, step and jump, but three times over !
If the attainment of change of movement without
appreciable loss of velocity was the difficult problem in
the long jump, how much more difficult are the three
changes of the hop, step and jump. And yet herein lies
the secret of success in this event the production of the
maximum continuity of action throughout its three
component parts.
This demands primarily good speed in the run-up,
and then the element of " spring " which may be said
to be required in two forms the passive and the active
in the subsequent movements. By this is meant that
for the hop and the step, spring to produce height is not
so necessary as in the long jump proper, but spring to
make the contact with the ground at the end of these
two stages as light as possible, to compensate to as great
an extent as possible for the resistance of this contact,
this is important, and this one has termed " passive "
spring. It is the sort of elastic touch which enables the
performer to bound smoothly from one stage to the next
with the minimum loss of momentum. Coming to the
final stage of the jump, here, of course, just as in the long
jump, active spring is required to send the body forward
at the optimum angle and to the optimum height for the
production of the maximum distance, and in view of the
fact that the jump starts from an actually much slower take-
off having been automatically retarded by the previous hop
and step, relatively much more spring is needed.
With regard to the proportion of energy that must be
put into the three different parts, the consensus of
opinion seems to be that they should be gradually
increasing efforts. To reach 50 feet, the hop, step and
jump should, respectively, be about 13 feet, 16 feet and
2 1 feet. This reckoning is rather on the " bouncing
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ATHLETICS
ball " basis, and is actually the result usually produced
by the smaller type of jumper in this "event. Another
school maintains that the hop should be a greater effort
than the step (e.g. the reverse of the above, the former
being 1 6 feet and the latter 1 3 feet), the idea here being
that by so lengthening the hop as to be able to shorten
the step, without actual loss of distance, it is possible to
allow of a better gathering up of the body preliminary to
what, in either method, is the great effort, namely the jump.
It will easily be realised that the muscular strain in
this event is very considerable, and heel-spikes an
essential, whilst the rubber pad in the heel of the shoes
of both feet is to be even more strongly advocated than
for long jumping. Exercises to strengthen leg and foot
muscles are exceedingly important in this event, as are
those which aim at procuring that steadiness, balance
and co-ordination which relatively are of even more
vital concern here than in the long jump,
Section 3. The High Jump
By C. T, VAN GEYZEL
Nearly every great jumper uses an acquired form or
style of jumping which appears more or less unnatural.
Natural ability spring, suppleness and strength may
carry a jumper over a considerable height, but really
great heights have only been cleared by men who, in
addition to possessing natural gifts, have paid very careful
attention to acquiring a scientific and economical style.
It must be definitely stated here, however, that there
is no set and definite number of movements which must
be performed if success is to be attained. Great per-
formers have all of them mannerisms, individual and
peculiar to themselves. What they do have in common
is this, that they observe certain fundamental principles
on which the clearance of great heights depends.
There are three main forms of jumping, of which that
known as the " scissors " form is the oldest.
250
HIGH JUMP
The athlete using this method approaches from the
right side. (It is assumed that the jump is made from
the left foot.) His take-off leg, the left, is the leg farther
away from the bar. The right leg is swung up and is
followed by the left. The body is held upright and the
jumper is in a sitting position over the bar at the time
of clearing it. The height reached is determined by
spring and the swing of the legs, but it is apparent that
the rigid, seated position over the bar does not allow of
free leg swings. There is no body turn or " lay-out "
that is, the body is not flattened out into a horizontal
position at the moment of clearance nor are the hips
twisted clear of and swung away from the bar. The
style has obvious limitations. A form which does not
employ a " lay-out " cannot be economical, for an
upright carriage necessitates lifting the body through
too great a height, and must be wasteful of strength and
energy.
The style which grew out of the old " scissors " form
improved very considerably on it, eliminating its
disadvantages, employing a more or less complete lay-out
and incorporating a body turn and leg action which
swing the hips away from and clear of the bar. This style
is known as the " straight-over " or " Eastern " form.
The third main form of jumping is the " Western "
form, or roll as it is sometimes called.
The jumper using this form takes off from the foot
nearer to the bar a left-footed jumper approaches from
the left side at an angle of about 45 degrees. At the
moment of clearance the body lies right along the bar,
complete " lay-out " being employed. It is the most
economical of all the styles and has been used by those
jumpers who have cleared the greatest heights.
The Western form of jumping is hardly practised in
Europe, where it has been and still to some extent is
regarded as a style of rather doubtful fairness. The
Western " roller " it is believed " dives," and there is
a widespread belief that he depresses the bar to below
251
ATHLETICS
the nominal height and holds it on with the arm that
goes over the bar first. This arm is undoubtedly flung
downwards to help the lifting action of the hip and may
come in contact with the bar ; but it is unlikely that it
is deliberately used for the purpose of keeping the bar
on the pegs. That would seem to call for an improbably
high degree of skill, taking into consideration the very
short time in which the whole action of the jump has to
be completed. In any event the style is recognised and
has been used with great advantage by notable performers
from the United States, and there seems little doubt that
it will very shortly be practised more widely by jumpers
in Europe.
In this chapter a detailed description first of the
straight-over jump and then of the Western form will
be attempted.
The Straight-over or Eastern Form . It will be assumed
throughout that the jumper springs off his left foot.
The left leg will be referred to as the " take-off " leg,
and the right leg, the leg which is kicked up first, as the
"leading leg," A jump may be split up into three
parts : the run-up and take-off, the swing up to and
action over the bar, and the landing.
The run-up and take-off are of extreme importance.
The correct take-off position is determined by standing
in front of the bar and swinging the right leg up straight,
and past the bar. If the take-off foot is on the right
mark the right foot should just miss kicking the bar in
the upward swing of the right leg. Maximum results
cannot possibly be obtained unless the jumper takes off
from absolutely the right spot. If the spring is made
from too far away he will reach his greatest height in
front of the bar and will be dropping at the moment of
clearance. If, on the other hand, he takes off from too
close in, he will not have enough room in which to
perform the action of the jump truly, and will displace
the bar on this upward journey. It cannot be too
strongly stressed that the only correct take-off mark
252
HIGH JUMP
should be just that distance away from the bar which
will enable the jumper to reach his greatest height in
the air at the precise moment when he clears the bar.
When the take-off position has been ascertained the
jumper has to fix on the length of his run. This will
vary with the individual. The run should not be too
long, but just long enough to enable the jumper to work
up the speed that suits him best and to gather him-
self comfortably for the spring; 10 to 15 yards is
generally considered sufficient.
An easy paced, confident, springy run is to be recom-
mended. Too slow a run will not provide enough
forward momentum to carry the jumper over and across
the bar, whereas if the run is made at too great a speed,
the jumper will not be able to convert forward momentum
into height and will jump into the bar. In any event too
great a distance would be covered and height lost.
Experiment will show each man the speed that suits
him best. The jumper who has great strength of leg
and *can check his forward momentum by a vigorous
stamp of his take-off foot will be able to approach the
bar at a more rapid rate than one who has not the
necessary leg strength.
The body should be leaned forward slightly during
the run up, so that it will be directly over the take-off
foot when the spring is made. Some jumpers, how-
ever, especially those deficient in natural spring, hold
their bodies more upright when taking off, because
they rely on the power of the upward kick of the legs,
especially that of the leading one, to gain height, as
an upright carriage enables them to kick the leading
leg up more freely,
The jumper who is not sure of taking off correctly
has a tendency to draw back from the bar when
approaching it, with the result that the body leans
backwards and is not directly over the take-off foot
when the spring is made. This robs the stamp of
the take-off foot of its effectiveness. Experiment will
ATHLETICS
FIG. 1 6. Leading Leg Over.
FIG. 1 8. Turning.
F IG . I5 . Take Off.
FIG. 19. Landing,
254
HIGH JUMP
convince that a stronger spring can be made when the
body is directly over the foot off which the spring is made.
In making a jump the heel of the take-off foot is
thrust down hard and the spring is made off the whole
foot from heel to toes, the knee being slightly bent.
As the spring is made the right or leading leg is swung
up straight and hard and slightly towards the left. The
arms support the rise of the body, being flung upwards,
the right arm coming slightly across the body towards
the left, starting a body turn. When the right leg is
clearing the bar the left is swung up powerfully, fitting
smoothly into the lifting action. After clearing the bar
the right leg is swung and pivoted towards the left and
downward while the left continues its swing. When the
left leg reaches maximum height the body is leaned
backward and in towards the left while the arms aid the
turn and lay-out. The turn and lay-out will swing the
hips clear of the bar, and the action of the left leg, which
is cut back and downwards, further helps to swing the
hips free and completes the turn. The landing is made
on the left foot and the jumper should face the bar at
the moment of landing.
In the style just described it is important to swing the
leading leg up as high and straight as possible, for the
height attained depends largely upon this. The swing
of the take-off leg supplements the lifting action of the
leading leg. The upward swing of this leg and its
subsequent backward and downward kick, together with
the arm action and body twist, make the lay-out possible.
The Western Jump. The Western form differs from
all others in that the spring is made from off the foot
which is nearer to the bar. The jumper approaches
from the left side at an angle of 45 degrees. He takes
off from his left foot and swings his right up hard and
parallel to the bar. The left follows the right rapidly
and powerfully. The left arm is extended over the bar
and the body held more or less upright. When the
right leg is above the left and about level with the bar
ATHLETICS
the body is snapped into a full " lay-out " that is, is
parallel to the bar. The right leg is stretched out
fully and the left bent at the knee and tucked under
the right thigh (see Figure 20. Position of H. M.
Osborne, world's record holder, at the top of his jump.)
At the moment of straightening out, the body is turned
or rolled over towards the left and lies on its left side.
This turning motion is aided and accompanied by the
FIG. 20.
movement of the left arm, which from its extended
position is swung down and in towards the body. The
head, which is carried low, is turned towards the left at
the same time. The action of head and left arm. help
to lift the left hip up and clear of the bar. When the
turn is completed the jumper drops into the pit, landing
face downwards on hands and foot.
In this form the right leg and side clear easily and are
never likely to hit the bar, while the left side is pushed
up by quick-lifting action of the left leg.
Some jumpers, instead of making the turn when they
straighten out into the " lay-out, " start it soon after the
moment of taking-off. The style is not easy to acquire.
The movements must be well timed and must fit in
perfectly with each other. It requires much practice
and careful attention to detail.
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HIGH JUMP
Taking-off from the inner foot does not come by any
means naturally to a jumper. There is always the fear
of hitting the bar with the nearer side, especially as the
Western jumper needs to take-off from close in. Then
there is the undoubted tendency to lean back while
taking-off, in the attempt to start a " lay-out " early,
thus lessening the effectiveness of the spring. The
novice would be well advised to keep his eyes on the
take-off mark. In addition to the advantage mentioned,
namely that there is no danger of hitting the bar with
the right leg or side, there is this further advantage, that
the Western jumper " lays out " completely, whereas in
the straight-over jump more than a three-quarter " lay-
out " is rarely obtained.
Men have used the Western roll to clear heights of
over 6 feet 6 inches, and Harold Osborne, the United
States Olympic jumper and world's record holder, has
used it to reach 6 feet 8J inches. It is not probable,
however, that such a height will ever be reached again,
because the Western jumper has a tendency to hit the
bar with his left arm and to come down on it with his
left thigh. The old bar, which could only come off the
pegs one way, i.e. into the landing pit, was not easily
displaced by a jumper pressing it down and against the
uprights. The new method of balancing the bar on the
pegs has removed this advantage, because it can t>e
pushed off into the run-up as well.
It is not possible to state that one style is superior to
the other, though the Western roll is perhaps the more
economical. Men are not built alike and have prefer-
ences. The novice will soon find out for himself the
style which he could develop with the greater success.
Those choosing to perfect the straight-over form can
certainly draw encouragement from the fact that many
men have used this style in clearing heights of over
6 feet 3 inches. R. W, Landon, an Olympic champion
from the U.S.A., used it to clear 6 feet 4 inches. It has
been employed with great effect by Pierre Lewden of
R 257
ATHLETICS
France, one of the greatest jumpers the world has seen.
A man of small stature, he has been over very nearly 6J
feet. The case of Lewden and other great performers
who have not possessed the undoubted advantage
of height leads naturally to the conclusion that height
is not an essential qualification. Spring, suppleness
and nervous strength and energy are more important
qualities than height pure and simple.
Training. The high jump is a strenuous event and
one in which all the muscles of the body are called on to
play their part. The entire body should, therefore, be
strengthened and brought to a high state of fitness.
Body exercises are of the greatest value, particularly
those which strengthen the muscles of the waist and
back. Nor should arms and shoulders be neglected.
They should be strengthened by light, quick exer-
cises. Heavy work which tends to stiffen should be
avoided.
The jumper requires toughness of muscle and at the
same time has to be supple, and needs to preserve elasti-
city. Walking as preliminary training cannot be
bettered. Walks should be fairly long, taken at a
comfortable speed, and broken up by short runs. Slow
jogging on the track too will be found beneficial, but on
the approach of the actual competitive season all work
which would tend to slow one up should be avoided.
Exercises, such as heel raising, and foot twisting
exercises which strengthen feet, ankles and the arches
of the feet, should be practised. High-kicking and
stretching exercises, such as standing upright and
then bending forward to touch the ground with the
fingers, keeping the knees unbent the while, are of
great use.
Practice. The novice should spend time and care in
perfecting his run-up and making certain of hitting his
take-off mark. He should then pay attention to perfect-
ing his form. He should concentrate on individual
jumps, making each one as carefully and perfectly as
258
HIGH JUMP
possible. Bad habits come through carelessness, and
once acquired they are not easily got rid of.
A common fault is not taking-off from the right
place over low heights, and using more strength than
is necessary in clearing them. The importance of the
approach and take-off cannot be exaggerated. Lack of
care in perfecting them has destroyed the chances of
many men who might have reached championship
heights.
If a coach is not available it is advisable to have a
friend by one during practice, to point out faults. The
observer should give each detail in the action of a jump
individual attention. He should watch the line of the
run-up, the exact spot from which the spring is made,
the swing of the legs, the position of the body and tne
carriage of the arms. Attention should be paid to the
way in which the take-off leg is thrust down. The heel
should be stamped down hard and the whole foot from
heel to toes used. Through hurrying themselves
jumpers often fail to thrust the taking-off foot down
fully and fairly, and instead take-off from just the outside
of the foot. *
It is advisable to jump at low heights till form is
acquired, and then to try for height in order to gain
confidence. One should not try for height more often
than once a week, however, as a big effort breaks down
spring. When a jumper becomes fairly sure of himself
he could with advantage reserve big efforts for competi-
tions, provided they are not too infrequent, and content
himself with a few jumps over a height which he can
clear fairly easily. After a certain point in proficiency
is reached actual jumping ceases to be an important part
of a jumper's training. He should aim instead at
maintaining strength and suppleness of muscle and at
being full of spring and the desire to jump on the day
of competition. To this end it is absolutely necessary
that all work during the competitive season should be
light and quick, and that the jumper should rest
259
ATHLETICS
completely for two or three days before each important
competition.
Competition. The jumper should arrive on the
ground early enough to give him time to " limber-up "
carefully. He should make himself warm and loose by
running and going through loosening and stretching
exercises. Experiment will show each man how much
limbering-up he needs and what period of rest between
the limbering-up and the competition suits him best.
The jumper should measure or pace out his run-up
just before the competition, and then rest comfortably
and warmly wrapped up till the bar is up at the height at
which he intends to start in. It is a mistake to start in
too early. Many jumpers do this through lack of
confidence, but a little experiment at practice should
accustom a jumper to start in at what is for him the
right height. A man who warms to his work and jumps
best at his sixth jump should so arrange it that that
sixth jump shall be as near the deciding jump as
possible.
Muscles should be kept warm in between jumps.
Cold muscles mean a loss of elasticity.
The jumper should avoid a cramped or uncomfortable
position while resting between jumps, and should unlace
his shoes after each jump. A tight shoe interferes with
circulation.
It is advisable to perform one or two lazy stretching
exercises before jumping, and if the day is at all cold
to have a light limber-up between jumps. Each jump
should be made as well as possible, and the jumper
should concentrate on his own jumping and not mind
the form of other competitors. If he should fail at any
height he should take time in order to rest and collect
himself before making his second attempt.
The excitement of a long-drawn-out competition often
makes the mouth and throat uncomfortably dry. It is
therefore wise to take a bottle of water out to the field
with one.
260
STANDING HIGH JUMP
Section JA, Standing High Jump
This event is really no longer recognised amongst
standard athletic competitions. In pre-War days it had
a considerable vogue both in America and on the
Continent, and is still to some extent practised in the
former country (in indoor sports particularly) and in
Ireland. From previous records and statistics one
gathers that in Great Britain the standing high jump has
never at any time found much favour, and it has never
been granted A.A.A. championship rank. In the
Olympic Games, however, it found a place from 1900
to 1912, but has not featured in Olympic programmes
since the War. In the four Olympiads in which it was
held, it was won on each occasion by America, the first
three victories (1900, 1904, 1908) standing to the credit
of one man R. Ewry who, as has been mentioned
previously, established a similar record in the sister-event,
the standing long jump. His best effort in this series
was 5 feet 5 inches in Paris in 1900, and this height
stood as the world's record for the event until 1913,
when it was eclipsed by a compatriot, W. Goehring, who
then cleared an extra three-quarters of an inch.
Obviously, success in the event depends upon the
amount of spring possessed by the jumper, and it is
interesting to note that the added factor of run-up
i.e. momentum as occurring in the running high jump,
accounts for no less than 14^ inches in the difference
between the world's records for these two events.
Apart from spring, technique is, of course, as import-
ant as ever, the " scissors " style and the several
variations of the horizontal or " rolling " method being
all employed. The rules for the event simply stipulate that
the jumper's feet must leave the ground once only, though
" rocking " alternate lifting of the body weight from
heels to toes is permissible. This rocking movement,
combined with a good arm swing and an initial semi-
crouch or gathering-up of the body immediately previous
261
ATHLETICS
to the actual jump, are the only points of particular
interest, apart from the actual methods of clearing the
bar, which correspond exactly with those described
above for the high jump proper.
The man who excels at this event is usually tall, with
powerful cleanly-cut muscles, and possessed of an
exceptional degree of natural elasticity and spring.
Such a type is well exemplified in J. E. London (the
Polytechnic Harrier sprinter and jumper), who though
as far as we know he has never competed in an actual
standing high jump competition put up a remarkable
performance in 1927 in the match A, A, A. v. Cambridge
University, when he comfortably cleared 6 feet 2 inches
with a run-up that literally consisted of only three very
slow paces !
Amongst training exercises hopping on the toes,
either off both feet together or off each foot separately,
is one of the most valuable exercises.
Section 4. Pole Vault
There seems to be a very prevalent idea amongst
followers of athletics in Great Britain that the pole vault
is a comparatively new field event almost that it is
a post- War innovation. This is, of course, quite a
misconception, and is probably due to the unfortunate
lack of interest in this particular event in this country,
which was so noticeable until a few years ago, since when
one has been glad to observe a most encouraging
recrudescence in the appeal of the pole vault both to
competitor and spectator alike. Historically, it is of
interest to note that the Fell men have practised this sport
for very many years, whilst in the Fen country it has also
been known for ages, having been put to the utilitarian
purpose of crossing ditches, i.e. a pole broad jump !
Actually the event is of long standing in the A.A.A.
championship programme, having been established in
1866, when this meeting first became an organised
262
POLE VAULT
concern. The pole vault championship has therefore
been competed for some sixty times, and though nearly
forty of these have been English victories, only two or
three of these forty have occurred since 1 900 ! It has
been a standard event in every one of the eight Olym-
piads held to date, and in every one of those eight pole
vault competitions Olympic honours have fallen to the
prowess of American athletes. There is little doubt that
to-day the United States is the home of the pole vault
experts. And the world's record also is held by an
American, Lee Barnes, who cleared 14 feet if inches ; but
the general English standard after originally leading the
way to the 1 1 -foot level, where it remained for many years,
is now again steadily advancing towards the 12 -foot
mark. It is also a healthy sign to note the embodiment
of the pole vault in the Oxford and Cambridge Sports
programme since 1923, and its adoption by the public
schools sports organisers since 1925.
The latter fact is of particular importance, as it is
from those schoolboys of to-day who have received
satisfactory tuition in the somewhat difficult technique
of this event, and have, prior to leaving school, developed
at any rate the rudiments of style, that one may hope for
the first-class exponents of the future. The event
is essentially of such a complex nature that it demands
anything up to four or five seasons of what is really
little more than steady, careful training before results
of any real merit can be produced. And hence, if
these years can be spent at school instead of, as has
too often been the case until quite recently, during the
full maturity of a man's athletic career, one can with
reasonable hope look forward to England producing
vaulters of really first-class standard before many more
years have elapsed. And this should most certainly be
striven for, because the pole vault is a good event in
every sense of the word. It has been accused of being
rather more acrobatic than purely athletic, but even
though admittedly the former element may come into
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ATHLETICS
it, yet it still demands all those essential attributes,
except, perhaps, speed, which go towards making up a
successful field event. It is most certainly also a highly
spectacular event, and though the public generally may
not yet be capable of appreciating the finer points of the
technique concerned, there is no doubt they thoroughly
enjoy it as a sight.
Though heavy men and tall men in fact all sorts of
men have met with considerable success in pole jumping,
the type which appears to predominate is the rather
shorter, well-knit, often almost " stocky " type, with a
good breadth of shoulder and strongly developed arms.
And in this respect the event is, in its way, unique, for
apart from the throwing events it is the only one in
which arms and shoulders rather than legs and hips are
called upon to make the essential effort. For this reason
the best training for pole jumping, apart from actual
jumping, is to be found amongst those many weird and
wonderful devices which constitute the equipment of any
well-fitted modern gymnasium. And much at least a
month of this sort of work must be done before any-
thing more strenuous than the lowest of practice vaults
is attempted. The rest of the pole vaulter's training
should consist of mild sprinting practice, of gaining
experience in running easily carrying the pole, whilst
exactly as with every other form of jump, actual practice
over the bar should be limited to a maximum of five
or six attempts.
A.A.A. Rules state that the pole, as used in this event,
may be of either wood or bamboo, but the latter is
almost exclusively the material chosen to-day. This is
chiefly because it has been found that the bamboo pole
stands relatively much more strain than the wooden one,
especially if, as is permitted, it is bound with adhesive
tape, which latter, incidentally, is also of great assistance
to the jumper in allowing a much firmer grip to be taken.
Furthermore, the bamboo pole has a longer life on the
average, arid (perhaps most important of all) bends rather
264
POLE VAULT
than breaks when its life is eventually ended, so offer-
ing much less risk of any serious accident resulting
from this mishap. Poles may be of any length and any
diameter, the average measurements for these dimensions
being about 14 to 15 feet and 2^ to 3 inches respectively.
In the choice of a pole, however, more important factors
than these are its weight and its balance, the true values
of which can only be properly assessed by men with
considerable experience in the event.
The uprights, which are at least 1 2 feet apart, and cross-
bar are similar to those used in high jumping, except that
the former are fitted with various devices by which they
may be extended to the greater heights attained by the
pole vaulter. Unlike the conditions in high jumping,
however, it is permissible for a competitor to have the
uprights moved during competition, provided this move-
ment be not more than 2 feet in any direction. The
take-off in pole vaulting is made by running the pole
into the so-called " take-off box." This " box," placed
immediately below the centre of the cross-bar, consists
essentially of a block of wood some 6 inches thick and
buried 2 feet deep. From about 2 feet 6 inches in front
of this board a slope approximately 18 inches wide
extends down from the level of the run-up track to a
vertical distance of about 9 inches on the back board.
The point of the pole is thrust against this board when
the take-off is made.
The landing pit for the pole jump should be a semi-
circle, with its centre at the take-off box, and at least
14 to 15 feet in diameter, to allow for the various
awkward positions in which the jumper may fall.
Having now briefly discussed the paraphernalia
necessary to the event, one may pass to a consideration
of the details of the vault itself. To stress the essential
importance of the whole complicated series of movements
being run into a smooth, uninterrupted sequence, it is
proposed to describe the event as a whole, without any
attempt to divide it up into its various comjflment parts.
265
ATHLETICS
In the run-up, the relative amount of speed required
is not important, provided, that, whatever that speed, it
is gradually developed to such a degree that when the
take-off arrives the body is almost automatically swung
up on the pole without any perceptible stop or jerk.
Of course, generally speaking, the greater the speed the
greater the momentum produced, and hence the better
the. swing ; but it is an optimum rather than a maximum
which must be aimed at, since the latter will tend to
produce an interruption in the sequence of movements
quite sufficient to discount any advantage previously
gained by rapidity of approach to
the take-off. A run-up of 20 to
30 yards is usually ample, but to
accomplish this distance whilst
carrying the pole, and maintain
steadiness of both pole and body,
is a matter requiring persistent
practice. The pole (during the
run-up) is held by both hands
more or less parallel to the
ground, or perhaps with the point
which, incidentally, may be
either spiked or consist simply of
a wooden knob just slightly
raised. In right-handed jumpers
this hand is the uppermost on the
pole and is placed under it, the left hand being some
2 feet 6 inches further down the pole and placed over it
(see Figure 21). The correct point at which the grip
with the right (or upper) hand should be taken is
decided by holding the pole vertically against the cross-
bar and judging with the eye the point on the pole
opposite the bar. The right hand should then hold the
pole some few inches above the selected point.
Coming, thus, to the " take-off," the point of the pole
is plunged into the take-off box fairly and squarely
against the back board. This tilting down of the point
266
FIG. 21.
FIG. 22.
POLE VAULT
should raise the far end of the pole sufficiently to lift
the arms slightly above the head. The lower hand is
now run up to the
upper never above
it, as this constitutes
" climbing " and is not
permitted and the
body swung off the
ground (see Figure 22),
the legs assisting this
movement by almost
automatically swinging
forwards and upwards.
Now comes the stage
when strength of arms
and shoulders tells. As
the momentum from
the run-up peters out,
the body is pulled up
with *the arms, and the legs are drawn up towards the
chest, until the whole body is more or less bunched up
on the pole, roughly at the level of the cross-bar (see
Figures 23 and 24). As the upward
pull and swing continue, mostly the
former now, the body is turned
round to the left (see Figure 25), so
that when the feet and legs are shot
out as far and as high as possible, and
the arms raised to an angle above
the point where the hands grasp the
pole, the body comes to be face down
over the bar. The termination of this
turning movement, which, as ever,
must come as a smooth continuation
of the upward pull, is shown in
Figure 26. (The shoulders are well
above the level of the hands, and the legs are just in
the process of being straightened out. Note that the
267
\
FIG. 23.
FIG. 24.
ATHLETICS
right hand still maintains its position just immediately
above the left.) The completion of this stage is admir-
ably shown in Figure 27, both legs
and arms now being completely
straight and the body swung face
downwards well over the bar. There
only remains now to get the upper
part of the body safely over the cross-
bar and to release the pole in such a
way that it falls back from the jump,
for a pole following through the
cross-bar that a jumper has already
successfully cleared is a most dis-
tressing occurrence.
This final process is brought about
by a last thrust with the arms, which not only sends the
pole back, but also acts as a force to propel the head
and arms over the bar, below which level the feet have
already probably dropped
(see Figure 28). If this
final thrust can be achieved
while the legs are still
directed upward, there is
every possibility of adding
a good 6 inches or so to the
jump. Figure 29 shows
the completed release of
the pole, which is falling
back to the track, whilst
the jumper himself de-
monstrates perfect falling
technique, the body de-
scending in a straight
line and squarely facing
the bar, so that the landing
will take place in the middle of the pit and on the feet.
It can be seen from this brief description that the
series of movements which comprise this event form a
268
FIG. 25.
POLE VAULT
rather complicated mechanism which demands from the
jumper the complete confidence which can only* come
FIG. 26.
FIG. 27.
from long practice and experience, and from a very high
degree of physical fitness. In order that this may not
be put to any greater strain than is necessary, it is
FIG. 28.
essential that in competition the pole vaulter be very
careful to keep thoroughly warm, and a further saving
269
ATHLETICS
nowadays is allowed by the rule which permits a jumper
to come in at any height he chooses and by its most
recent extension, which gives him the option, after
having a preliminary jump at a lower height, of missing
certain heights and coming in again at a higher level,
providing that should he fail here he abides by the
original height of his earlier record. When once a man
is a sufficiently competent judge of his own ability, this
ruling comes as a great boon, for the effort and strain
FIG. 29.
demanded by the event are such that after the first five
or six jumps they militate against the probability of any
further improvement.
In conclusion, one can only say that, with the advent
of more competent teachers in the public schools,
combined with the visits to these schools of first-class
exponents of the event, and with its increasing popularity
amongst the rising generation of athletes, one hopes it
will not now be many years before England turns
out pole jumpers capable of holding their own with the
world's best.
270
CHAPTER XI
THROWING
By M. C. NOKES
Section i. General Considerations
THE physical activities which the young of the
human species indulge in unprovoked, and
acquire without instruction, may be classified as
running, jumping, climbing and throwing. The last of
these is biologically the last to be acquired, as the develop-
ment of the hand is a necessity for the performance of
the act, and the hand is only possessed in any but a very
crude form by the simia and the human race. It seems,
according to Kohler, that in the case of chimpanzees,
throwing is aggressive, directional and usually expresses
anger that is to say, it is either a utilitarian activity or is
an expression of passion and not one of the forms of play,
such as jumping and climbing, which are the frequent
delight of these animals. With us, however, throwing
is certainly one of the forms of play, and instead of
consisting of aiming at a mark, it has developed in the
athletics of modern times into throwing for distance.
It is perhaps worth noticing that the more primitive
throwing at a mark is retained in the game of cricket.
It seems, therefore, that throwing is first practised
because it satisfies some primitive play-instinct, and later,
in an organised community, it gives the individual a
chance of asserting his superiority over his fellows, which
is always considered a desirable end to attain. But
perhaps the highest incentive of all to efficient throwing
is the accompanying sensation of Tightness or adequacy
of bodily movement, an aesthetic experience which is
271
ATHLETICS
incommunicable in words but which provides the
devotee of throwing not only with a recompense for the
long period of preparation and training, but also with a
unique and lasting satisfaction.
There is a tendency nowadays to discuss athletics at
what Mr. C. D. Broad calls the level of enlightened
common sense that is to say, to accept and to apply the
findings of modern knowledge in so far as they bear on
the question at issue. In the case of the thrower the
subject-matter is a human organism, usually in youth,
and the mind animating it. Hence it is possible that
the physiologist and the psychologist can contribute to an
understanding of the act of throwing, and it is clear that
no analysis of the act can be made except with the
use of some of the simpler concepts of physics and
dynamics.
Since the motion of the limbs is brought about by the
contraction of striated muscle tissue, the question at
once arises as to whether the speed of contraction of
muscle substance cannot, in suitable conditions, be
increased, and thus, presumably, increase the thrower's
efficiency. The answer of the physiologist is apparently
this. The process of contraction of muscle tissue consists
partly in a flow of the viscous cell contents and it is
unlikely, in an organism such as man, which works at
a nearly constant temperature, that the viscosity of the
cell contents is appreciably susceptible of alteration.
But the process is not so simple as this. It is by no
means certain that great speed of muscular contraction
is desirable for maximum efficiency, and indeed Professor
A. V. Hill has shown that the realisable work performed
by a muscle increases with the duration of the contrac-
tion, ultimately reaching a steady level. In fact it has
repeatedly been observed that the efficient athlete or
games-player tends to exhibit smooth and apparently
effortless movements, whereas the inferior performer
can often be seen to display awkwardness and to give the
impression of strain. It is clear then that the muscular
272
THROWING GENERAL
contractions must not be unduly rapid for maximum
efficiency to be attained.
Now the human organism is a very complicated system
of levers which are moved by the contraction of different
groups of muscles. For the complete act of throwing
any missile a considerable period of time must elapse and
the different levers must move in the correct order and
to the correct degree for the best result to be obtained.
It is the maintaining of the correct order and extent of
these contractions which is called muscular co-ordination
and which is controlled by the nervous system. It is
important in the highest degree that this co-ordination
of muscle groups should attain such perfection as to be
capable of performance without conscious effort on the
part of the athlete, and this state of affairs can only be
realised by constant practice.
The reason for the necessity of attaining unconscious
physical precision can be stated in the terms made use
of by Dr. R. G. Gordon, from whose writings the
following argument is derived. The body is animated by
a mind which brings about an action by the following
steps. It receives notification of external or internal
stimuli, performs an act of volition called a conation, and
sends to the motor apparatus an impulse which it judges
is appropriate to the situation. In a complicated action
such as that of throwing it is the building up of a
suitable network .or pattern of neural paths in the brain
which constitutes the ability to perform the skilled act
in question, and it seems that the degree of skill attained
depends directly upon the " firm organisation, facility
and freedom from inhibitions possessed by the whole
efferent tract to the final motor path." But the better
organisation and facilitation of such neural patterns is
brought about by their repeated use that is to say, by
practice, and the importance of the process becoming
automatic and unconscious is, it is probable, simply this.
The attention is required during throwing for something
else. For unless co-ordination, which is a convenient
s 273
ATHLETICS
term for describing the above process, is well-nigh
perfect and automatic, it will be necessary consciously
to direct the attention to some part of the body, so to
speak, watching the weak spot or correcting some
known fault, whereas in making the supreme effort it
is necessary that the undivided attention should be
directed towards the act as a whole, not considered in
isolation but in relation to some strong primary
disposition or self-interest, such as aggression.
It has often been noticed that when a competitor
wishes to make a supreme effort his active attention,
which is directed towards outdistancing some rival or
exceeding a certain length of throw, inhibits the perfect
performance of the act, causing a breakdown of co-
ordination with its attendant poor result. Thus the
greatest performers from the competitive point of view
are those whose active attention can be centred entirely
on the effort as a whole without disturbing the passive
attention which is controlling the details of the physical
movement.
This vague and very incomplete account of the mental
events which occur during throwing must be taken not
as in any sense authoritative, but as an attempt to throw
some light on the obscure question of the part played by
the mind during the performance of a skilled act, the
solution of which problem might very well lead to an
increase in the efficiency of the thrower.
There can be little doubt that constant practice has
another effect besides that considered above, namely
that of building up the particular muscle-groups required
for the act of throwing. Unused muscle-tissue tends to
atrophy or at least to lose its elasticity, but healthy muscle
can be induced to grow by exercise. Whether the
actual quality of healthy muscle, with regard to its
capability of performing useful work, quite apart from
the question of its efficient control, varies in different
individuals is a point on which the physiologists do not
seem to give any information at present, but the man in
274
THROWING GENERAL
the street would probably give it as his opinion that such
differences of quality do exist. It is not clear what the
grounds for this belief are.
The questions which await an answer are these. What
kind of an organism is the successful athlete, how do
his body and mind differ from an unsuccessful one, and
what steps must be taken to ensure the development of
the immature in the required direction ? It is im-
probable that the state of knowledge at present will
admit of a complete answer being given, and perhaps
only the third part of the question has been attacked
even along empirical lines. Here a certain measure of
success has been attained in America and in the northern
European countries, but it seems that no secret has been
revealed and that the results which have been achieved
have been due to the possibility of the learner copying
the style of some more proficient and mature performer.
With regard to the question of diet, it must be
remembered that some theory of interaction of mind and
body is commonly held. It is undoubtedly true that the
young of the human species can adapt itself to any mixed
diet in reason, and of very varying quantity, without
sensible impairment of physical efficiency. At the same
time athletes frequently hold that certain articles of diet
are bad for training and that others are helpful. Proof
of these assertions may quite well be lacking and indeed
unobtainable, but there is little doubt that if eating a
forbidden article or abstaining from one that is desired
disturbs the peace of mind, it is much better to give in
to what an external observer may consider a mere whim
rather than to permit the presence of a disturbing mental
factor to continue. There are fashions in diet for athletes
from time to time and once a fashion has been established
its observance may prove to be a profound solace to the
athlete in training, while its infringement may affect his
peace of mind adversely and through that his physical
condition.
Some general considerations on the question of learning
275
ATHLETICS
the technique of throwing events are worth noting. All
acts of throwing consist, from the point of view of
mechanics, in imparting the maximum velocity to the
missile at the moment when it leaves the thrower's hand.
To do this a period of acceleration from rest occurs,
during which the thrower so disposes his weight and so
uses his muscles that this acceleration is always positive,
It must also be smooth. The importance of the disposi-
tion of the feet during throwing is generally recognised
and, as in the playing of other games, is the key to success.
Unless the performer has complete control of the placing
of his feet the best results cannot be obtained.
Another characteristic of the form of all good throwers
is that at the moment of delivery the back is straight and
the head erect. This shows that the powerful muscles
of the trunk have contributed to the successful throw.
But often a competitor can be seen who in his effort, as it
were, to continue giving an impulse to the missile until
the very last moment, allows his shoulders to come
forward and his head to drop. This is due to a failure
of co-ordination and indicates that the muscles of the
trunk are being improperly used.
At present there are not sufficient good performers
in this country in the various events under consideration
to provide examples of technique to all potential throwers,
and it is not easy to see how the present generation can
be given the opportunity of proficiency in throwing
without a supply of experts upon whom they can model
themselves. Hitherto each individual has been doomed
to the wasteful method of trial and error, and as a result
England has no first-class throwers. It is of vital
importance that the young and eager athlete should see
the event well done. He should be at close quarters
with the expert and should be able to watch him carefully
and to question him. This part is played in America by
a highly paid official called the " coach," and the need
of example is realised in Sweden also.
There is one danger inherent in the slavish copying
276
THROWINGGENERAL
of the form of any athlete, however good. He is certain
to have idiosyncrasies, tricks of movement, which happen
to suit him and sometimes in spite of which he performs
well, but which perse contribute nothing to the efficiency
of the thrower and may be totally unsuitable for the pupil.
These individual tricks of movement, which are readily
noticed by the onlooker, are very liable to be seized upon
by the pupil as the important feature of the thrower's
form which has given him his success. Such idiosyn-
crasies are the particular movements of the left leg
employed by a shot putter before he starts to move across
the circle, the method of carrying out the preliminary
swings with the hammer, or the details of the settling
down process of the discus-thrower. What is necessary
is to abstract what is common to all good performers in
any particular event and to copy that rather than to
concentrate on details of individual movement which
are noticed particularly because of their very variability.
In the succeeding pages an attempt will be made to stress
only the essentials of form which are common to all good
performers.
There is one other factor which contributes greatly to
success in throwing. It is ambition or the will to win.
Unless an athlete is convinced of the " worthwhileness "
of the performance of his event for some reason which
seems to him good, and is prepared to spend much time,
thought and often more money than he can well afford
in achieving his aim, it is unlikely that he will ever be
first-class. This fixity of purpose carries with it another
activity which will take up much of his time, and which
may be called athletic introspection. He will find him-
self constantly thinking about the performance of his
event, sometimes elated at his success and sometimes
depressed at his defeat, but always turning his attention
to acquiring that rhythm and deftness of movement
without which big distances can never be attained.
The performance of the act of throwing requires a
missile of some kind, and the introduction of organised
277
ATHLETICS
competitive throwing has resulted not only in the
standardisation of the missile, but has also imposed
restrictions on the thrower as to the method he may
employ and the space in which he may perform his
movements. The reason for this is clear. In competition
it is necessary to measure the distance thrown, and for
purposes of comparison the throw must take place
either from behind a scratch line, in which case the
length of the throw is taken as the perpendicular distance
from this line to the point where the missile fell, or from
a circle when the throw is measured radially.
It is also necessary to standardise the weight and
dimensions of the objects thrown and to prohibit the
athlete from crossing the scratch line or coming out of
the circle until it is certain that he has retained his
balance after delivery of the implement.
An attempt will now be made to describe the outward
appearance of the movements of the best exponents of
the different throwing events. Only essential movements
will be stressed, and it must be remembered that the
English language is very poorly equipped with words
which can be used to communicate the sensations which
accompany all movement. It seems to be true, however,
than when an act of throwing is successfully carried out,
when the thrower knows that he has done well without
observing the flight of the missile or applying the
measuring tape, there is accompanying that act a feeling
of harmony, of effortless accomplishment, of adequate
creation, which not only provides him then and there
with a thrill of pleasure, but whose memory may well be
one of his most valued possessions.
Section 2. Shot Putt
Exactly what constitutes a putt as distinct from a
throw is a little difficult to determine. At any rate,
throwing is forbidden. It is also impossible to throw a
1 6-lb. shot as far as the best performers can project it by
the permitted means. Either hand may be used, but
278
THROWING SHOT PUTT
not both. The putt is made from a circle 7 feet in
internal diameter, and at the front of the circle is a toe-
board 4 inches high, covering about 120 degrees of arc.
The athlete's foot may come against the inner surface of
this board but he may not step on it.
There are five main contributory motions which go
to make up the complete act of shot putting, and it is
essential that these should be welded together, each of
due intensity and at the right time, for perfect form to be
attained. They are these : the movement across the
circle, the straightening of the legs and back, the turning
of the trunk about a vertical axis, the shooting out of
the putting arm and the final flick of the wrist and fingers.
The athlete, who maybe considered to be right-handed,
picks up the shot, usually in his left hand to avoid tiring
the other one, and takes up a position on the inside of
the circle remote from the toe-board and facing a
direction at right angles to the intended line of flight
of the shot. He then takes the weight of the shot in the
region of the base of the first three fingers, and flexing
the arm, holds the shot in position below the right ear.
This contact with the neck helps to keep the shot quite
steady during the movement across the circle. There
are variations of this position whose merits are contro-
versial. The actual process of putting now begins. The
athlete settles the details of his position with regard to
comfort and then uses the left leg, which he lifts from
the ground, to initiate a sideways movement in the
direction of the toe-board. At the same time the right
leg is bent and the right shoulder is lowered (Fig. 3OA).
The swing of the left leg and an impulse from the right
foot carry the body across the circle, the thrower landing
on the right foot (Figs. 308 and 3 1), which is placed near
the centre of the circle and which is followed by the land-
ing of the left foot in the neighbourhood of the toe-board
(Figs. 3oc and 31). The right leg is still bent and right
shoulder still lowered, but the thrower is passing through
this position which is only momentary.
279
ATHLETICS
FIG. 30.
FIG. 31.
THROWING HAMMER
The next three movements occur in such rapid
succession that it is difficult for the observer to say
whether they are simultaneous or not. The slow-motion
camera reveals the fact that
the straightening of the
legs and the swinging to
the front of the shoulders,
the back being straight and
head erect, occur before
the arm is extended to the
front for the delivery of the
shot (Fig. 300). The final
impulse is given by a power-
ful straightening of the
hand in the line of pro-
longation of the forearm
(Fig. 3 OE).
At this point a device is
adopted for keeping the
athlete inside the circle. This is commonly known as
" the reverse," and consists in bringing up the right leg
from the centre of the circle so that the outside of the
foot strikes the vertical inside face of the toe-board while
the left leg is swung backwards and upwards (Figs. 30?
and 31). Throughout the whole movement the left
arm is used for balancing the body and is disposed as
individual requirements dictate.
The greatest shot-putter of all time from the point of
view of performance is J. Kuck of the United States, who
won the event at the ninth Olympiad at Amsterdam,
where he failed to produce his best form. He weighs
about 1 5 stone and is stated to have put the 1 6-lb. shot
56 feet in practice. His best performance in competition
is about 52 feet.
Section 3. Throwing the Hammer
The hammer consists of a spherical weight attached
by means of steel wire to a triangular handle, the total
281
ATHLETICS
weight is not less than 16 Ibs., and the over-all length
is not more than 4 feet. It is thrown from a circle of
7 feet internal diameter, and the thrower usually swings
the hammer three times round his head ; and then,
himself turning two, three or four times within the
circle and gradually increasing the speed at which the
hammer is moving, releases the instrument to the best
of his ability in a manner designed to give the maximum
range of throw.
The thrower takes up a position in the circle remote
from and with his back to the intended direction of the
throw, the feet being 1 2 to 1 8 inches apart. The hammer
handle rests in the fingers of the left hand, which fingers
are covered by those of the right hand. The hammer
head rests on the ground to the right of the performer.
In starting the throw the hammer head is raised from
the ground and, without moving the feet, is swung round
the head, slowly at first, but working up to an optimum
velocity by the time the third swing is completed. It is
very important that this preliminary swing should be
smooth and that the thrower should retain complete
control of his balance throughout. The only way to
ensure that the optimum velocity has been reached by
the end of the third swing is by trial and error, the
correct performance of this part of the throw being
accompanied by a muscular sensation which is subjec-
tively recognisable but which is incommunicable in
wor4s.
The difficult part of hammer-throwing is to control
body and hammer during the turns and to finish the
turns with the feet so placed and the weight so disposed
as to be able to impart a maximum impulse to the
hammer at the moment of delivery.
During the turns the hammer head can be considered
to move in a plane inclined to the horizontal at angles
varying between about 30 degrees and 60 degrees
according to the particular style of the thrower. The
actual path of the hammer head is, of course, three
282
THROWING HAMMER
dimensional, but it is a convenient fiction to consider it
to be moving on a plane surface inclined to the horizontal.
FIG. 32.
This is indicated in Figure 32. Thus, while the body
rotates, the arms, which must be straight, rise and
283
ATHLETICS
fall. The hammer head is within a few inches of the
ground when the thrower's back is towards the direction
of throwing and may be nearly 9 feet from the ground
when he has rotated through 180 degrees. Each
individual must discover for himself the correct inclina-
tion of this hypothetical plane to the horizontal which
suits his own particular style.
Although the acceleration given to the hammer must
be smooth it cannot be uniform, because during part of
the turn its motion is
assisted by the gravita-
tional pull of the earth and
during part of it there is
opposition. It is during
the fall of the hammer
head that the acceleration
is greatest, and during this
FIG. 33.
period the increase of
tension can be felt in the
fingers and must be
counteracted by the correct
disposition of body weight.
There is thus a rhythmic
and increasing feeling of
tension which satisfies the
thrower that acceleration is positive throughout the
effort.
It is now necessary to consider the footwork during
the turns. All turning is about some point on the ball
of the foot, and although during the process of throwing
the performer's heel may come to the ground, no good
performer actually rotates about his heel. The process
consists of a rotation on the left foot, the right foot coming
to the ground in a position slightly behind its former
position. The left foot is then drawn back and the
process repeated. In this way it is seen that during the
turn there is progression across the circle, and it is
possible that this small added velocity affects the distance
284
THROWING DISCUS
thrown to a slight extent. Some notable Swedish
throwers, however, have been observed -to dispense with
this progression across the circle.
The difficulty of controlling such an evolution is
considerable, but unless the turns are finished with the
body perfectly disposed for the act of delivery it is
impossible to throw successfully. The delivery consists
in planting the feet correctly and firmly on the ground,
the tension on the arms being very considerable, and
then by rising on the toes, straightening the legs and
back, and sweeping the arms upwards and to the left,
imparting added velocity to the hammer and at the same
time ensuring the optimum angle of delivery, which is
45 degrees. The whole action must be carried out
smoothly, without any break or jerk, and if done
correctly the thrower will remain stationary in the circle,
his head turned to watch the flight of the hammer.
The accompanying sensation at the moment of
successful delivery is indescribable but is amazingly
pleasant. There is no sense of strain or effort, although,
of course, the effort has been considerable, but rather
a sense of physical well-being and of the satisfaction of
some inner need.
The greatest hammer-throwers have all been Ameri-
cans of Irish birth or descent. Fifteen stone is the
minimum weight required. P. J. Ryan, who holds the
world's record of 189 feet 6\ inches, is one of these and
the other is F. D. Tootel, who won this event at the
eighth Olympiad with a distance far below his capa-
bilities. He is now a coach of athletics and is debarred
from competing, but it is stated that he has repeatedly
thrown over 200 feet.
Section 4. Throwing the Discus
The discus consists of a smooth metal rim attached to
a wood body with brass plates set in the centre. The
largest dimension is a circle not less than 81 inches in
285
ATHLETICS
diameter, and the thickness in the centre is if inches.
The sides taper to the rim, which is rounded on a true
circle of inch diameter, and each side is a counterpart
of the other. The weight of the discus is not less than
4 Ibs. 6-4 ounces, and it is thrown from a circle whose
interior diameter is 8 feet 2j inches.
The discus is thrown with one hand and must be made
to scale or fly flat through the air. This is effected by
imparting spin with the fingers of the right hand, at the
same time pressing down with the thumb to guide that
part of the discus to which the thrower's force is not
being immediately applied. This pressure of the thumb
is of great importance and is not always mastered by
comparatively experienced throwers. If it is neglected
the discus will turn over and over in the air and the throw
is wasted.
The thrower takes up a position inside the circle
remote from the direction of the throw and facing a line
at right angles to it. The feet are about 1 8 inches apart.
Some preliminary movements are made to ensure the
stability and balance of the thrower, the details of which
are personal and immaterial, but at the conclusion of
them the thrower is holding the discus in his finger-tips
with the throwing arm stretched as far back as is con-
venient (Fig. 34A). This is to ensure the longest possible
sweep of the arm in the actual throw, for it is only
possible to execute one turn in the circle and the
maximum velocity has to be attained in a very short
time.
All the movements should be exceedingly smooth apd
the acceleration of the discus throughout the throw must
be positive. During the turn the throwing arm rises
and falls, giving the impression of definite wave motion
in some throwers, but in others this is not so easily
perceived. Since good results are obtained by either
method it is probably unimportant which style is adopted,
provided considerable velocity is imparted to the discus
at the end of the turn and the thrower finds himself in
286
THROWING DISCUS
ATHLETICS
a position to deliver the discus correctly. The back of
the hand is uppermost.
The footwork is not difficult to learn. The first half
of the turn is carried out on the ball of the left foot,
which brings the right foot to the ground in front of it
in the direction of the throw. The weight is now shifted
to the right leg, and another
half-turn is made on the
ball of the right foot. This
leaves the thrower with feet
disposed as in the prelim-
inary position, but he has
moved across the circle in
the direction of the throw.
He has now to deliver
the discus. This consists
of two motions, and unless
they are carried out in the
correct order and welded
together harmoniously it is
impossible to throw with
success. The turn must be finished with the weight
of the .thrower so disposed that he can straighten
his legs and back, throwing his chest forward, and
maintain the tension on the discus which has been
acquired during the turn. When his legs have
straightened he feels that he is in a position to exert an
added pull on the discus, the right leg particularly
becoming a compression member. The final act of
delivery now takes place. The right arm is swept upward
and forward across the body, the discus leaving the hand
quite smoothly and at an angle of about 30 degrees with
the ground. Some throwers prefer a greater angle.
The sensation accompanying successful delivery cannot
well be expressed in words, but gives very great pleasure
to the thrower.
One of the greatest discus-throwers is C. Houser of
the United States, who won this event in the eighth and
288
FIG. 35.
THROWING JAVELIN
ninth Olympic Games. He weighs about 14 stone.
Like most American throwers he uses a somewhat flat
trajectory for the discus. He is the holder of the world's
record at about 158 feet.* In the Olympic Games of
1928 his first two attempts were disallowed, but with
his third throw, which was his last chance, he won the
competition.
Section 5. Throwing the Javelin
The javelin is made of wood, is 8 feet 6 inches long,
and must not weigh less than r6 Ibs. It must have a
sharp iron or steel point and must be bound for 6-3 inches
in the neighbourhood of the centre of gravity with
whipcord, but there must be no other aid to holding it.
It must be held at the binding, and the point of the
javelin must touch the ground before any part of the
shaft. It is thrown from behind a scratch line which
must be at least 1 2 feet in length.
If the hand is held palm upwards and a javelin is
placed in it, the binding resting in the palm and the
point of the javelin being on the same side of the hand
as the little finger, the hand will naturally close on the
binding in the correct manner for throwing. The thumb
is directed along the shaft and the first finger, which is
the chief throwing finger, rests against the edge of the
binding. It is both unnecessary and tiring to grip the
javelin tightly until the actual throw is made, when the
first finger and thumb close tightly on the shaft while
the remaining fingers relax their hold.
The run-up is about 20 yards, and the thrower must
attain a high degree of precision in it both as to speed
and as to the placing of his feet. The method of holding
the javelin during the run varies. Some first-class
performers hold it horizontal with the hand close to the
right ear, some hold it inclined downward with the
* Note. H. Hoffmeister (Germany) has thrown 160 feet f inch,
but this record has not yet been accepted by the I.A.A.F.
T 289
ATHLETICS
point a foot or so from the ground, and some have the
right arm fully extended backwards with the javelin
lying along the arm. S. A. Lay of New Zealand, who
has thrown 222 feet 9 inches, uses the last-named method.
If either of the first two
t methods is adopted the javelin
__. _ . must.be drawn smoothly back
to the full extent of the right
arm by the time the side-step,
which is preliminary to the
throw, is made.
The run-up should be
smooth and of gradually
increasing speed until -the
side-step which immediately
precedes the throw, when the
right foot is turned to the
right and the left is carried off
to the left of the line of the
run-up. At the same time the
right shoulder is dropped by
an inclination of the trunk.
The throw consists of three
movements. The arm is first
bent so that the hand is
1 brought to a position just
1 behind and to the right of
the right ear. The right
FlG - 36. shoulder is then swung for-
ward and the arm is straight-
ened upwards and slightly forwards. The amazing
speed with which these movements are carried out by
the best javelin -throwers makes it difficult for an
observer to analyse them, but two things are essential
for success. The first is that the shoulder should be
brought to the front before the arm is straightened, and
the second is that the javelin should be held close to the
head until the moment of straightening the arm. In
290
THROWING JAVELIN
FIG. 37.
291
ATHLETICS
order to keep the thrower behind the scratch line the
feet are reversed that is to say, as soon as the javelin
has left the hand the weight is shifted from the left leg
to the right, which is brought in front of the body to
check the forward movement.
The whole movement, in spite of the speed at which
it is carried out, can be performed with perfect smooth-
ness, and in the best throws it is noticeable that the
javelin itself shows no sign of whip or vibration. This
description of the throw is almost word for word applic-
able to throwing the cricket ball, the chief differences
being the grip and the elevation given to the missile. It is
certainly true that there are cases known of athletes who
could throw the cricket ball well and who very soon
showed considerable proficiency with the javelin.
The holder of the world's record is E. H, Lundquist
of Sweden, and the distance thrown was 232 feet nf
inches. He was also the winner at the ninth Olympic
Games with a throw of 2 1 8 feet 6 inches. This throw
was the first of the competition.
292
CHAPTER XII
WALKING
WALKING races are held either on the road or
on the track, the former being of greater
antiquity. Despite its somewhat anomalous
character for it is certainly curious to see a man racing
at a speed which he could easily eclipse by employing a
more natural mode of progression the sport has many
patrons in England, America, Canada and certain
continental countries, notably Italy and Denmark ; and
it is undoubtedly a healthful though rigorous form of
exercise. There has recently been a revival of interest
in Germany ; and although the event was eliminated
from the Olympic programme in 1928, owing to the
difficulty of standardising methods of judging, it has been
restored for 1932.
Walking races are possibly more exacting than any
other form of track athletics. Every muscle is subjected
to continual strain on account of the style employed, with
the locked knee and upright carriage. Fair walkers
progress by means of what really amounts to a series of
jerks, and the fatiguing nature of this scarcely requires
emphasis. Evidently, therefore, the walker needs a
severe course of training.
Having in view the vigorous play of almost all the
muscles in walking races there seems to be sound
reason in the recommendation of experts to commence
training with physical jerks, skipping, and exercises
with light dumb-bells. The dumb-bells are used to
develop and speed up the arm swing, which is so
pronounced a feature of walking.
2Q7
ATHLETICS
In the early stages of training, preferably on the road,
half-speed work should be done, and the pace worked
up gradually, no fast work being attempted for several
weeks. A good swinging style is to be emulated.
In good and fair walking the body carriage should
be upright, or nearly so, the shoulders well back and
the arms held well up in a bent position and swinging
at .each stride with the movement of the legs well across
the chest, which should be well out. The movement of
the hips should be as free as possible, and at each stride
they should suffer a slight twist round, so that the
advancing leg is swung inwards and the feet consequently
step almost in a direct line. This somewhat increases
the length of stride and, of course, gives greater pace.
The leg should be perfectly straight and the heel should
reach the ground first. The arms should be brought
right up and across the chest with a really powerful
drive. The motion of the hand commences slightly to
the rear of the hip and comes up across the body almost
to touch the opposite shoulder. During the stride there
is a very slight forward lean of the head and body, but
at its conclusion they should be upright.
The former definition of walking, " progression by
steps so taken that the heel of the foremost foot must
reach the ground before the toe of the other foot leaves
it," embodied the principal feature of the leg action.
Fair heel-and-toe striding demands that the leg which is
carrying the weight shall not be bent in other words,
that the moment the heel comes to the ground the knee
of the leading leg is locked and the leg remains stiff until,
after the completion of the stride, the toe is lifted again.
The shuffling style whereby the knees of both legs are
bent, and not merely that of the one which is in the air,
is both ungainly and unfair ; and it is such an abuse of
the sport which brings it into disrepute.
As in long-distance running, the walker will be well
advised to train for pace rather than distance. For one
thing, in walking pace is exceptionally fatiguing ; for
294
WALKING
another, it is less likely to induce staleness. Moreover,
it is necessary to guard against slow walking ; always
go at a sharp pace with a good arm swing. The two-
miler should be content with I J-mile spins, varied with
fast miles and half-miles ; the seven-miler with 4 or 5-
mile jaunts, likewise interspersed with short, snappy
walks. These distances are the championship events in
England ; in America only the y-mile event is held.
This does not, of course, mean that the full distance
should never be covered ; as in running, it must be
done once or twice as a test, unless one has a very
reliable system of graduated races upon which to base
his training.
Road walking possesses the same features as track
walking except that there is more jar and the methods
of negotiating the hills have to be acquired. The
general training resembles that of the Marathon runner,
particularly for the long walks, such as, for example, the
London to Brighton, promoted annually in September
by the Surrey Walking Club. Care must be taken of the
feet, which should be hardened so as to avoid soreness,
and a strong shoe with a low heel is required.
Just as in road running the training should be of
gradually increasing severity, following a time and
distance schedule. For really long walks a long swinging
stride should be sought, with a lower carriage of the arms.
Nothing but genuine walking pays in this type of
contest, which is a most searching test of endurance ;
consequently a good style, and no shambling, must be
acquired if success is to be attained. The sport is
controlled by the Road Walking Association.
295
CHAPTER XIII
RELAY RACING
RELAY racing is a subject of considerable
interest and importance in any consideration of
the future of athletics. Though the relay idea
was formulated some seventeen years ago in this
country (the first A.A.A. relay championship was held
in 1911), it is only in the last eight or ten years, since
the War, that it has to any marked degree come into its
own. To-day, however, relay racing has become such
a popular and such a universally practised branch of
athletics that one realises it has in all probability an
immense future before it, and it is by no means a wild
dream to imagine the day when it will no longer be a
" branch," but when athletics and relays will be two
parallel sports of equal magnitude and importance.
Taking this broadest view one includes, of course, under
the heading " relays " the team events which allow of
the system being extended to the field events and thus
to encompass the whole athletic programme. A " team
event " is one in which the rival teams are each
represented by a stated number of men, whose aggregate
effort shall decide the event. The relay system presum-
ably finds its appeal because it provides adequately for
the development of the " team spirit " in athletics, and
thereby automatically tends to eradicate that too
individualistic side of athletics which has been in the
past the one big peg upon which critics, often rather
unjustly, have hung their complaints. By allowing a
relatively larger number of men to compete it serves to
raise the general standard of athletics and caters more
296
RELAY RACING
satisfactorily for the competitive requirements of the
average and mediocre performer, whilst at the same time
allowing the " stars " to shine with as much if not more
brilliance than before.
The origin, history and some idea of the scope of the
relay movement is fully dealt with elsewhere (Chapters
I and III), showing how from its initial home in America
it has spread to be a world-wide concern, popular alike
with competitor and spectator.
It is an interesting fact, especially in view of the rather
high-handed criticisms often levelled at American
specialisation, that the relay events on any programme
in the United States are those in which victory is most
prized. America has many " all-relay " meetings
some of them now world famous, such as the gigantic
Pennsylvania Meeting, the Drake Relays, and the huge
indoor meeting of the Illinois A.C.
There are very few essential rules pertaining to relay
racing. The various distances can be combined at will,
though to-day the tendency is rather to run four similar
distances. In passing it may be noted also that there is
no necessity to limit the number of men per team to
four, and in America particularly eight-men relay teams
are comparatively common ; but the rules do make a
point of the stipulation that no one man shall run more
than one stage in any relay event.
The chief ruling for any relay event is that at the
completion of every stage of that particular event a line
shall be drawn at right angles to the edge of the track,
and two similar lines respectively 10 yards behind and
10 yards in front of this original line. Within the 20
yards thus marked out, the transference of the baton
from one runner to the next must take place. The baton
itself, which is a hollow cylinder of light wood, bamboo
or other material, must, according to A.A.A. standards,
weigh not less than if ounces, and be not more than
i if inches long.
The only rules beyond these are concerned with a
297
ATHLETICS
special type of relay known as the " shuttle relay," used
now almost exclusively for the hurdle events, though
originally for the short sprints also. In this, two flights
of hurdles (or two lanes, as the case may be) are required
for each team, and the distances are run back and
forward, the change-over being accomplished by a
touch on the shoulder, which must take place within a
marked yard behind the starting line at either end.
There are many obvious objections to this method,
but it has been found that in these events, where the men
running two successive stages run into one another as
it were, the changing by baton was highly impracticable.
The usually accepted distances for relay events in this
country are the 4 by i oo yards, 4 by 1 1 o yards, 4 by
220 yards, 4 by 440 yards, 4 by 880 yards, 4 by I mile,
4 by 120 yards hurdles and medley relay (440, 220,
220, 880 yards), but longer distance relays and odd
distance relays are quite a common feature on any
programme to-day.
The great charm of relay racing comes from the fact
that besides giving just as much opportunity for a
display of speed and athletic ability and for a demonstra-
tion of track tactics as the ordinary event, it adds the
difficult and consequently stimulating element of com-
bination. The questions relative to the running of the
various distances concerned in relay races have been
fully dealt with in previous sections of this chapter.
One or two small considerations, however, arise with
regard to tactics, especially in the long-distance events.
(In the sprints and hurdles, of course, it is simply a
matter of " full speed ahead " from start to finish.)
In these, the getting away fast perhaps even a little
faster than usual is, when possible, all important, as it
serves either to consolidate a lead previously gained or
to establish one, or, on the other hand, to cut down a
deficit, in any case acting as a stimulant to one's morale
and a depressant to one's opponents. Having made
this initial spurt, of perhaps up to 50 yards, the relay
298
RELAY RACING
runner must settle down to complete the rest of his race
at the maximum pace at which he is capable of fully
running out the distance concerned. To do this requires
a knowledge and judgment of pace both in himself
and his rival which only really comes after extensive
experience in this form of running.
The only part that really comes into the practical
politics of this section is that concerned with those
20 yards in which the baton must change from hand to
hand.
Perhaps this statement needs slight modification in
that a few words are due, first, to the original start of any
relay and, secondly, to the question of running relays in
lanes.
With regard to the start, since the " crouch " has now
become almost universal even to the extent of applying
to half-milers, one must consider how this is to be
accomplished with the baton. For a successful start, the
essence of which is coming straight out of the " holes, "
it is necessary that the starter should be perfectly
balanced on his mark. To effect this with a baton in one
hand requires practice, and the best method is probably
to tuck the baton in between the thumb and index finger,
and if to hold it there necessitates any difference from the
usual position of one's fingers, to be sure that the other
hand is made to correspond. For those who start with
their knuckles (middle joint of the fingers) on the mark,
the problem is somewhat easier, as the baton then comes
to lie automatically in the palm of the hand. Which
hand, depends upon the method of change-over used,
but it is usually the left, the baton then being correctly
placed from the start for the change to the following
man's right hand.
One point, already stressed above with regard to
the start, and that experience has shown to be of great
value, is that it always pays, even in the longer distances,
to establish a lead from the gun ! Particularly is this so
in relays not run in lanes and in the shorter distances.
299
ATHLETICS
With regard to the lane question, in distances of up
to a quarter of a mile at any rate, it is almost essential to
the production of a fair race to run it in lanes. Since
this necessitates the runner in the lane farthest from
the pole starting relatively ahead of his opponents, i.e.
en tchelon, it demands from a runner a considerable
capacity for judgment of pace, and from the spectator
judgment of distance. For distances beyond the quarter-
mile and after the first quarter of a 4 x 440 yards relay,
lanes are really both impracticable and unnecessary.
The stations once drawn for at the start of any relay must
be maintained throughout the race, except when the
distances between the runners are so great that there
is no possibility of interfering with one another, when
courtesy admits of the change being made on the
pole.
And now, with regard to that all-essential change,
proficiency is only possible with much practice and per-
severance. Nevertheless it is well worth all the effort put
into it, for a bad change-over may mean the loss of
anything up to 5 yards, whereas good changing by an
average team will make them easily victorious over a
vastly superior quartette whose changing is poor. The
essential aim in this matter is to effect the change of
baton from hand to hand with the least possible loss of
time. The methods will therefore automatically vary
according to the distance being run. For long distances,
where presumably the " giver " will be well-nigh
exhausted at the end of his stage, the responsibility for
the exchange lies with the " receiver," who should wait
for the- baton on the back line, i.e. i o yards behind the
real starting line. In other words, the receiver uses the
old standing start with the left foot in front and the body
weight on it, the right foot being to the rear and to the
right, to give the requisite balance. This, in principle,
applies also to the quarter-miles, but for really fit and
fast quarter-milers and for the shorter distances many
more problems enter into the question. The receiver
300
RELAY RACING
must now be on the move, in fact as much as possible
on the move when he takes the baton. In other words,
the change-over should actually occur as near the
farther lo-yard line as is possible, at which point the
receiver should have gained the maximum speed
possible in the 20 yards allowed. This will not, of
course, be his full speed, which takes some 30 to 40
yards to attain. (The leading pair in Fig, 38 will have
effected their change well up to the front line, that shown
FIG. 38.
being the centre line.) To accomplish this satisfactorily
needs considerable practice between the two men con-
cerned, until the receiver gets to know just that point
at which, when it is reached by the giver (usually some
6 to 10 yards behind the back line), he must start to run.
From that moment he must not look back (good and bad
form being shown respectively by the two pairs in
Fig. 38), the responsibility for the actual change in
short-distance relays lying with the giver. The latter
must run right through his distance even after the
exchange has taken place, to prevent his fouling other
competitors. He effects the exchange by exaggerating
301
ATHLETICS
his forward lean and by a thrust and reach movement,
and he must not relinquish his hold on the baton until
certain that the receiver has a grip of it. The change, as
has been stated, is usually from giver's left hand to
receiver's right (back pair in Fig. 38), but this is by
no means a universal rule (vide front pair in Fig. 38),
and there are coaches in U.S.A. who train their men
to alternate right to left and left to right changes,
to obviate the change of baton from one hand to the
other which the second and third men must make during
their running if the same method is practised throughout.
This latter is, however, the usual course, and it necessi-
tates the second and third receivers changing the baton
from the right hand into which they have received it to
the left. This change should be made immediately, as
it is much less likely to upset the running at this stage
than at the end of a race when form tends to go somewhat,
and also it is less likely to be knocked out of the left hand
inadvertently by anyone passing. There only remains
now for consideration the position of the receiver's hand.
Several methods are advocated (two are exemplified in
Fig. 38) the one in most general use being that of
the giver bringing the baton up into the turned-down
palm of the receiver (vide back couple in Fig. 38).
The latter holds his arm extended and as steady as
possible, with the palm down and the thumb pointing
towards the body. An alternative is to have the palm
turned up (Fig. 39), with the thumb still pointing
inwards, when the baton is brought down into it. The
third common method particularly employed by sprinters
is shown by the leading pair in the illustration he
" cup " method, in which the receiver's hand is held in
the form of a cup against his hip, and into this cup the
baton is placed. The disadvantage of this method is
that it is difficult for the receiver to get an immediate
firm grip on the baton and to get rapidly into his normal
arm action.
The giver in any method must attempt to hold the
302
RELAY RACING
baton short (vide Fig. 39), to leave as much of its
length as possible to place in the receiver's hand.
One further matter needs discussion with regard to
relays, namely the order in which a quartette of men
should be run. In passing, it may be noted that the
rules forbid any change in the actual composition of a
relay team between heats and final. This order is a
matter of no slight importance, and one which calls
for considerable knowledge and experience on the part
of the coach or captain of the team. It depends, of
course, essentially on the individuals comprising the
FIG. 39.
team, their respective merits and peculiarities, and the
amount of their previous competition on the day of the
race, besides, perhaps, varying with the composition of
the rival team. But, generally speaking, the plan adopted
is that the best of the four runs last, the second best,
especially if he be a good starter, first, and the weakest
of the quartette, second. Whatever the order decided
upon, it should be adhered to for as long as possible
previous to a race, to allow of satisfactory practice in
baton changing between the pairs concerned.
All sorts of alternatives to this order are, of course,
possible. For instance, it is a common practice with the
German sprint relay runners to put their best man third,
303
ATHLETICS
on the grounds that this stage is often the weak spot in
the adversaries' armour, and that here the crack sprinter
stands such a relatively greater chance of producing a
position with which his comparatively weaker brother
in the final stage can quite adequately cope. But, again,
there are those who maintain that the third stage should
be the property of the worst of a quartette, in that by
then his two better predecessors have had ample
opportunity to establish a lead if they are going to a
lead which it is easier for him to maintain than to manu-
facture. This is particularly the case in a race in
which the first stage is run in lanes (e.g. 4 x 440 yards),
and it is only when the second men run " free " that the
battle for premier positions becomes acute. We have
heard yet another famous runner express the opinion that
the best thing to do with one's weakest man is to run him
first and " get it over."
Finally, in view of the discussion that has arisen from
the fact that in the medley relay the Americans run the
half-mile last, and we in England place it first, it seems
only fair to give an opinion on the question. We feel
that the American system is immensely superior, in
fact is the only rational one, for as the race is so often
run in England with the half-mile first, by the time
that this stage is over nine times out of ten the race is
also, for it is humanly impossible for even the best
sprinters to wipe out the lead of 15 or 20 yards or more
which a good half-miler on the opposing side might
easily produce. And it must be remembered that such
a lead represents about i^ to 2 seconds at the end of a
half-mile. This, together with the first sprinter's flying
start, will mean a lead of 20-25 yards before the second
sprinter receives his baton, and this, of course, makes the
whole thing from then on a farce. On the other hand,
by running the half-mile stage last, interest is maintained
up to the end, and the chances for the mediocre half-
miler of making a good finish materially enhanced.
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CHAPTER XIV
TUG-OF-WAR
THE tug-of-war is a heavy-weight event which, at
the present time, has a very small following. It
occurs in comparatively few athletic programmes
to-day, though two tugs-of-war still remain amongst
the A.A.A. championships. It was an Olympic event
in the 1908, 1912 and 1920 Olympiads, but has been
dropped since from the Olympic programme. Though
there is a certain amount of technique in the event, it is
largely a matter of brute force, and that, perhaps, is why
in these scientific days it has lost much of its appeal.
It consists of two teams, usually of eight men aside,
pulling against one another on the same rope. The teams
may consist of men with a stipulated aggregate weight,
or the event may be " catch-weight/* i.e. " open." The
A.A.A. rulings insist on a minimum age limit of seven-
teen years ! The rope must be of not less than 4 inches
in circumference and 35 yards in length. It must have
no knots in it and must be held by the contestants by
a plain grip, except in the case of the " anchor," or man
farthest from the middle of the rope, who is allowed to
throw it once over his shoulder. In the middle of the
rope is tied a distinctive tape, and similar tapes are fixed
6 feet on either side of this, whilst corresponding lines
at similar distances to these three tapes are drawn on
the ground at right angles to the line of pull. The event
is decided by two pulls out of three, a winning pull being
that in which the victorious team has pulled the tape
mark farthest from it over the ground line nearest to it.
Each team in a tug-of-war is allowed one coach, who
v 305
ATHLETICS
is in many ways the most important man of the side,
for, apart from the actual training of his men in the
details of technique, he figures largely on the field of
battle, and it is he who must use his judgment and
experience to know just when to direct his men to give
a steady pull or to make the great effort at the critical
moment.
306
CHAPTER XV
ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN AND BOYS
Section I. Athletics for Women
THE subject of athletics for women is one which
it is advisable to approach with a completely
open mind, not so much because one has not
by now formulated more or less definite opinions
upon this, perhaps rather unfortunately, controversial
question, but rather because it is as yet experimental
ground.
So may what is written here be taken as it is meant,
as an honest attempt at a broad-minded outlook on a
subject whose particular claim to attention to-day is its
novelty. For as a sport, athletics for women is practi-
cally a post- War innovation just a ten-year-old child.
And as such it seems very unjust to level wholesale
criticisms at it before it has been given a really fair
opportunity to prove itself in the world of sport, an
opportunity which it appears to accept with renewed
vigour as each successive athletic season comes along.
When it has reached a riper maturity, when it is old
enough to afford sufficient data from which to draw
rational conclusions, then, and not till then, will it be
possible to judge whether the promise of the " child "
of to-day has become justified by the " adult " of to-
morrow. And this " to-morrow " will not yet be for a
considerable number of years.
Meanwhile, one can only study with interest the pros
and cons of the situation from the light of present-day
knowledge. This discussion is no longer one as to whether
women shall participate in athletics or not they do!
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ATHLETICS
And they give every evidence of continuing to do so
with ever-increasing success. Athletic meetings for
women and women's events in open meetings are
common occurrences to-day, not only in this country,
but, generally speaking, all over the world, whilst both
national and international organisations for the manage-
ment of this particular branch of the sport abound ; and
it -must be said that these organisations show an efficiency
and a keenness which presage well for the future
development and success of women's athletics,
It is a flourishing sport now, and bids fair to grow
to considerably larger proportions within the coming
few years. Hence its importance in any consideration
of the athletic world to-day.
First and foremost let us dispose of a myth which,
though unfortunately it appears to find credit in certain
quarters amongst the general public, we feel sure would
be scorned by any woman interested either actively or
passively in women's athletics, namely the suggestion
that the ultimate aim and object of the sport is equality
with men. This, of course, is perhaps just an exceedingly
remote possibility, but so remote as to be almost
ridiculous in any consideration of present-day athletics.
Women athletes are bound to emulate their male
counterparts, to learn from and copy style and methods
evolved long before any venturesome Eve appeared upon
the track, but it will always be with the idea of approach-
ing perfection at their own relative standard. For
instance, greatly as one gdmires the woman who, in
competition with her fellows, records under 1 2 seconds
for the 100 yards or jumps over 5 feet high, in competi-
tion with a male " even-time " sprinter or a man who
jumps 6 feet she would appear simply ludicrous. In
other words, though, judging by the interest and
enthusiasm displayed alike by competitors and spectators,
there is little doubt that women's athletics has established
a definite place for itself in the world of sport, it should
remain a separate entity, for it is certainly self-sufficient
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ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN
for many a good year yet, and may it long continue so
to be.
The question of the inclusion of women's events
in sports meetings, hitherto exclusively male, is really
of very minor importance. The Olympic Games
authorities, after a preliminary experiment in 1928,
have decided to retain women's events in the next
Olympic programme in fact have increased their total
participation by one extra event. And in many ways
this international decision seems to form a very wise
example to national and more local organisations. If
athletics for women is to progress and to do good, it must
be allowed reasonable room for expansion ; and until such
time as it is more established, it is only right that long-
established athletic organisations should give it a fair
chance to air its difficulties and advertise its successes
by placing reasonable facilities for competition at its
disposal. Naturally, on the basis stated above (that
women's athletics should be an individual branch of the
sport), the object to be aimed at is meetings composed
entirely of women's events quite a number of which,
incidentally, are already in existence in this country, as,
for example, the Women's Annual Championships. But
until such time as the British public, who, after all, are,
taken all round, very good judges of the merits of any
particular branch of sport, have learnt to appreciate
something further than the novelty of these events, it
is only fair that they should be catered for to some
extent at least by sports organising bodies.
Having, then, allotted to women's athletics a definite
but separate place in the category of recognised games,
one can proceed to a consideration of its relative merits
and demerits as a sport for women.
This, of course, almost automatically involves a
comparison with men, because their's is the existing
standard on which one bases one's deductions or
decisions. Provided, however, that one recognises
throughout the opinion stressed above, that women's
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ATHLETICS
athletics are essentially women's exclusive property, then
the comparison serves only as an instructive means to
an end.
Are there any valid reasons for objecting to athletics
for women ? And, again, are there any advantages
accruing to women from participation in the sport ?
It has been pointed out in a previous section of this
book that good in athletics as a sport can be derived in
three directions : as a body-builder, as a mind-
strengthener, and as a character-former. Is there any-
thing in a woman's make-up to prevent her taking full
advantage of these ?
Physically, perhaps, she is actually not so well
equipped as a man for the sudden strains or the continued
output of energy demanded by participation in athletics.
She has smaller bones ; her weight, though on the
average less, is relatively more adipose and less muscular
tissue, and that muscular tissue is not so well adapted,
particularly in the pelvis, to withstand the effects of
repeated forced effort. Her heart and lungs have a
relatively smaller capacity for work particularly if this
latter is prolonged ; her blood carries less red-blood
corpuscles and, therefore, supplies relatively less of the
vitalising oxygen which is essential for the production
of energy in the muscles. And those peculiar glands,
the endocrine glands or glands of internal secretion, and
in particular the thyroid and adrenal glands, function to
a proportionately greater extent in women, to the end
that they have a higher output of nervous energy and,
consequently, a relatively smaller production of physical
energy.
Such are a few of the more important points of differ-
ence, but does the fact that woman is apparently not so
well equipped as man for physical exertion, as typified
by athletics, mean that she is not sufficiently well
equipped ? Surely not, if all the time it is remembered
she is striving but to reach a definite female standard of
excellence. One has but to consider the multitude of
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ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN
other sports in which woman now takes her part to
appreciate the fact that athletics is far more likely to do
more good and less harm than quite a number of them.
Women row, they swim, they ski for miles, they play
very strenuous tennis, they even play football ! and it
must surely be admitted there are very few things in
athletics they can do, the sheer physical effort of which
is greater than any of these.
Actually it seems not at all unreasonable to suggest
that athletics in moderation will have a tendency towards
improving this relative deficit in woman's physical assets.
The healthy physical exercise contingent upon any
active participation in both training for and competing in
athletic events may surely do much towards the produc-
tion of a generally more efficient body. The human body,
be it male or female, requires exercise to stimulate its
various physiological functions and to assist it to get
rid of its inevitable waste products, and athletics appear
to be a very reasonable medium through which this
necessary exercise may be obtained. Running and
jumping, always provided they are not practised to
excess, must help to build up a firmer, stronger, more
efficient muscular system. They would tend to alter
the fat-muscle ratio in favour of the latter a point
which obviously is not without its cosmetic appeal to
the feminine mind ! By a gradual process of training,
the heart and lungs would develop a correspondingly
increased capacity for work, and it would be interesting
to know whether nature, with her almost infinite
capacity for adjustment to environment, would not also
compensate the various increased demands of the other
systems by increasing the oxygen-carrying power of the
blood with a greater number of corpuscles.
The question of the thyroid and adrenal glands is
rather another matter. In the first place these glands,
which on the average are relatively larger in women
than in men, are responsible by their activity for a
generalised speeding-up of all the essential functions of
3 11
ATHLETICS
the body, and as one of the chief stimuli to activity is
intimately related to any condition of nervousness, it is
easy to see how the nervous strain incidental to any
competitive effort may be responsible for an over-activity
of bodily functions, leading, if persisted in, to what is
virtually a neurasthenic state. The degree to which
this effect becomes noticeable, of course, varies con-
siderably with the individual, but it is undoubtedly a
point of considerable interest, and one well worth
further investigation.
From the physical point of view there remain only
those questions relative to women's own particular
functions, and it is especially with regard to the effect
of athletics on the future generations yet unborn that
many possibly somewhat pessimistic critics have levelled
disparaging remarks. Nature has seen fit to make
women subject to a series of periodic attacks of being
" off-colour " during those years which would normally
include all their athletic life, and one can be quite
definite in stating that at these times the practice of
athletics in any form is bad. And this raises a difficult
and interesting point, particularly well exemplified in the
last Olympic Games (1928), when women athletes who
had travelled some of them thousands of miles for one
particular day's competition found themselves inevitably
unfit to produce anything like their best performances.
It is a difficulty, of course, for which there is no solution,
but it is one that needs must be considered in any
genuine appreciation of a particular woman athlete's
ability.
With regard to the question of the effect of athletics
on the future mothers of the race, though this can only
be fairly and accurately answered in the fullness of
time, there seems to be but one point that needs em-
phasising, namely moderation. Athletics as a medium
through which good healthy exercise can be obtained
has everything to recommend it, provided always that
the effort involved in participation in any particular
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ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN
branch of the sport is never made to excess, to the degree
when the effort becomes a strain. For woman's muscular
system is so constructed that it is not adaptable to
excessive strain, particularly if the productive force be
applied suddenly. There are also those who contend
that the various jumps, and even hurdling, are bad for
women because of the jarring consequent on the necessary
movements involved. Personally one feels inclined to
the view that nature will automatically obviate any such
grievous result by limiting the maximum capable of
being produced by the female muscular system.
Thus, summing up from the purely physical point of
view, there honestly seems little valid reason why women
should not enjoy the benefits that can be derived from
athletics, if it is indulged in on a sound common-sense
basis. If, however, there is a reasonable limit of effort
beyond which, for a woman, the sport becomes a
potential danger, should women's athletics be relatively
restricted to a definite series of events ? At present there
are few events, except, perhaps, the longest distances,
which they are not essaying, and a woman has attempted
to run a non-stop Marathon distance of some 26 miles.
In this respect it is of interest to record the events
allotted to women at Amsterdam. These were : 100
metres, 800 metres, 4 by 100 metres relay, discus
throw, and high jump. After observing that initial
experiment, the powers-that-be on the International
Amateur Athletic Federation, while deciding to con-
tinue women's participation in the Olympic Games,
-altered their programme to the extent of substituting
for the 800 metres an 80 metres hurdle race, and
adding an extra event in the javelin throw. The
antipathy to the 800 metres race arose from what
one is inclined to think was the perfectly natural
exhaustion exhibited by many of the competitors. But,
nevertheless, one is inclined to agree with the policy
that restricts women's competitions to the shorter
distances, with, for example, a maximum of a quarter-
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ATHLETICS
mile, and to those field events where style and technique
rather than strength are the important factors i.e. the
jumps and the javelin rather than the discus and the shot
putt. And this view we put forward despite the facts that
the Women's International Federation permits races up
to 1000 metres, and that some hold the opinion that the
short spasm of rapid running is much more of an effort
than the running of a longer distance at a slower pace.
With regard to the mental effect of participation in
athletics on women, one must bear in mind their
generally more highly-strung nervous system and the
effect upon this of the excitement and strain of competi-
tion, a matter intimately related to the functions of the
various endocrine glands as mentioned above. The
really highly-strung girl probably derives little benefit
from any athletics, as the good she gets from any physical
improvement is dispersed by the nervous strain resulting
from her neurasthenic mental make-up.
On the other hand, there is nothing to prevent an
average healthy girl from acquiring all the mental assets
the sport can give her control, perseverance, patience,
interest and ambition. In some of these respects she is
particularly receptive, on the average much more so than
men. For instance, a woman is an innate stylist she
enjoys paying what might to many seem wearisome and
tedious attention to the minute details of form, and her
meticulous care in this direction is largely responsible
for the very rapid strides in the right direction which
women's athletics has made in recent years.
Another good thing accomplished is the recognition
of the genus " sportswoman/' Looking back, one can
recall during school years the playing of games in which
girls perhaps participated on sufferance, and in which
there frequently occurred, following some quite uncon-
scious but nevertheless equally heinous misdemeanour,
such remarks as " Oh ! it doesn't matter ; she's only
a girl ; she doesn't understand." That now is definitely
not the case, A girl is brought up in such an atmosphere
ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN
that she is as fully appreciative of the inherent value of
the title " a sport " as is any boy, and not a little of this
appreciation comes from the lessons of the athletic track,
gleaned either from the experience of personal participa-
tion or from that of her teachers lessons which have
taught her how to play the game as an individual
against the other individual who is her rival.
So far, it may be felt, we have rather held a brief for
women's athletics, so, if only to justify our initial claim
to a broad-minded view of the question, may we consider
a few points of possible objection, not so much with the
idea of these being anything of a deterrent to the
movement, but rather as food for thought.
At heart, men like women to be essentially womanly,
they like their feminine airs and graces, they like their
weakness. And it seems a very moot point as to
whether, generally speaking, this liking is enhanced by
the sight of their womenfolk indulging in somewhat
violent effort, garbed in peculiarly masculine garments.
Again, we do not pretend to pose as beauty specialists,
but whether athletics with their attendant increased
muscular development is going to improve the grace of
the female figure is a point which surely it behoves the
woman athlete to consider seriously. And yet again,
whilst completely dissociating ourselves from any
prudish principles, is not the aesthetic effect of the girl
athlete in the hands of the male trainer and the male
masseur a situation almost inevitable in the present
stage of development of the sport rather poor ?
This is really neither simply an expression of a
Victorian trend of thought, nor yet a merely selfishly
male outlook, for the matter is actually a very serious
one, and goes much deeper than the mere superficialities
of appearances. We, as men, are brought up to have a
very deep-rooted sense of appreciation of woman. And
it is really more than appreciative, it is respectful, not
so much of her beauty, her purity, or her idealism, but
rather for the composite sum of all those attributes
3*5
ATHLETICS
which are so exclusively women's property her femin-
inity. Simply by the possession of this intangible
quality she exercises a prerogative amongst us which
should be most jealously guarded. This is the basis of
the conception of chivalry, and however prone we are
to eulogise what, so often to cover faults, obvious and
otherwise, we lightly call the modern equality between
the sexes, it is hard to believe that any of us would
willingly see the passing of what little the conditions of
to-day have still left us of the noble age of chivalry. For
the ideal is admittedly already to some extent sullied, as,
for instance, is only too painfully evident in any tube
train during " rush hours, " and it should be a matter of
the highest importance for those in whose hands the
control of women's athletics lies to consider whether
participation will not tend, in the long run, though
perhaps at first almost imperceptibly, to lessen the respect
in which woman is held by man. One tends rather to
picture woman as a devotee of the finer arts and in all
ages she was the inspiration productive of the world's
greatest efforts in sculpture, in verse and in painting
as playing by nature a passive part in the sterner and
harder battles of life ; as indicative of the peace, the
gentleness, the love in this world of ours ; and, above all,
as embodying the ideals of the most perfect function of
the human body, motherhood,
We do not wish nor do we intend to stress this
aspect unduly, but one does feel that much of the
undeniable antipathy which exists towards the idea of
women's athletics is based, not so much upon any
material objection that can be raised, but upon a deeply
ingrained belief that the sport may threaten not only the
nature but the very existence of those illusive, ephemeral,
but ever beautiful ideals of time immemorial which are
probably along with those of honour and of truth
the finest conceptions of which the human mind is
capable.
However, one recognises that these are possibly not the
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ATHLETICS FOR BOYS
average thoughts of the average day in this enlightened
age, and if man's attitude towards woman, combined
with the forced, artificial and still somewhat abnormal
conditions .of the present post- War era, have allowed
woman to set her foot on a rather headlong path, we
must not be surprised that part of that path coincides
with the cinder track.
But, nevertheless, even should women athletes decide
to shoulder the responsibility for neglect of any such
considerations as the above, they must, because of these
considerations, be prepared to weather what we feel will
be a rather long period during which apart from the
element of curiosity their participation in athletics will
not meet with universal favour.
However, though one in all fairness admits that these
points are of definite importance, particularly from the
male point of view, if women's athletics progresses on
the lines and at the rate of to-day it will not be long
before it finds a very definite place in the world of sport,
a place in which it can be a very distinct power for good.
There is much yet to be learnt, there is much that
cannot yet be decided, but one feels that if the sport is
always kept as their own particular concern, and limited
to the extent that is compatible with their physical
and mental equipment, then women will find in it much
of advantage to themselves, whilst at the same time being
an undoubted credit to the finest principles of the
" game."
Section 2. Athletics for Boys
In this world of ours to-day, where life is relatively a
much more hectic business than it was a generation or
two ago, where men, to be successful, must be just as
well equipped in every respect as is possible on the basis
of their hereditary attributes, it is becoming more and
more essential that a boy's training should be as
comprehensive as the knowledge and experience of those
in whose hands it lies can make it.
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ATHLETICS
And it is becoming ever more widely recognised by
both parents and school authorities alike that athletics
offers a field for supplying a very vital part of this
training, unsurpassed by any other sport and, taking a
very broad view, one might almost venture to say, even
by the schoolroom itself !
Running has an unquestionable appeal to every boy.
The first thing he does after learning to walk is to learn
to run. And probably the first competitive effort he
ever makes in his life is in a running race. In this
respect running may be said to be almost born and bred
in a boy, and though of later years various other sports
have somewhat usurped the place of athletics in popu-
larity, it is of considerable interest to note that as a sport
in schools it has not only continued as a staple product,
as an integral part of any curriculum, but has recently
shown a most encouraging recrudescence indicative of
its appeal to the average boy. One school may specialise
in " rugger, " another in " soccer " ; one may turn out
oarsmen, another tennis players, or swimmers or golfers ;
but one and all, probably without exception, hold their
annual athletic sports function.
This fact alone must serve to show the universal
acceptance of the sport as a highly important factor in a
boy's training. It serves such an all-round purpose; it
produces that gradual physical development which, by
building up a sound constitution, gives the boy the right
physical basis for the rest of his life ; it teaches him to
use his brain and stimulates his budding mental faculties ;
and, perhaps most important of all, it helps to form his
character in the right way by showing him the essential
value of self-discipline and self-control, of patience and
of perseverance, and by teaching him the intrinsic
meaning of that all-encompassing word " sportsman."
At all costs for boys athletics must be taught and must
be looked upon as essentially a " game," played not for
any material reward, not even for the kudos resulting
from it, but just plainly and simply for the game's sake.
3*8
ATHLETICS FOR BOYS
One should attempt always to emphasise the fact that
to be considered a " real sport " by one's fellows is
actually the best prize of all. And most boys are at
heart natural sportsmen. It is only various unfortunate
conditions which have grown up in the majority of
schools that in any way jeopardise, if only to a superficial
extent, the mass production in our schools of boys
inculcated with all the truest and finest ideals of sport.
One refers in particular to the existence of extensive
prize-lists, and to the " Victor Ludorum " principle.
With regard to the former, the thing one wants most
to avoid with boys is any tendency to " pot-hunting."
The system of challenge cups, held for a definite period,
and if possible retained somewhere in the school, has
everything to recommend it. Beyond this the prize-list
should be reduced to a minimum. A boy should be
educated up to wanting to win a race for the sake of
winning it, not for the sake of the cup or medal attached
to tjie victory.
As for the " Victor Ludorum " question, one can but
hope that with the wider knowledge and experience now
prevalent amongst teachers, and, one hopes, amongst boys
too, the competition for this title will slowly but surely
disappear. Presumably it originated in a desire to re-
cognise the ability of the " all-round " athlete, and, whilst
holding no brief for that specialisation in athletics which
seems to lead so inevitably to the sport becoming more or
less of a business proposition, one must recognise as a
fundamental fact in regard to boys' athletics that any
excessive effort is to be most definitely deprecated. Not
only do overstrain and overexertion, which must be almost
a corollary to the efforts of any " Victor Ludorum/' mean
definite detrimental effects on a boy's physical constitu-
tion, but also they tend to make him highly strung and
nervous, and to give him false ideas about the basic
principles of the sport.
In a very excellent little book published recently,
purely on the subject of athletics for boys, the author has
ATHLETICS
stressed throughout the importance of aiming at correct
tuition in style, in form and technique, rather than
encouraging the establishment of record performances,
particularly on the wholesale scale and one cannot do
better here than to reiterate this as the soundest of bases
on which to tackle the subject.
It is a well-known fact that very, very few indeed of
those who at school have been acclaimed " Victor
Ludorum " have maintained their success in later life.
A boy's constitution will not stand excesses of forced
effort, and any premature success he may have in early
life is but too often paid for in future years with
disappointment at least, if not with anything more
serious. The boy who gives evidence of any particular
prowess at school is the one who demands especially
careful nursing, whose natural ability should be deliber-
ately retarded, that it may come to its full maturity at
that stage of his development when it is more capable
of doing itself full justice.
In this respect one would most emphatically advocate
the limitation in schools of the maximum number of
events in which any boy should be allowed to compete
in any* one day, and also the thorough medical examina-
tion of every boy participating in athletics, not so much
on the actual day of competition, but rather at the
beginning of a definite period of preparation for that
competition.
Equally emphatically does one deprecate the system
of compulsory athletics, particularly the ubiquitous, and
one might almost venture to say iniquitous, " house-run,"
by which all and sundry, willy-nilly, are forced to efforts
for which they may not only have a distinct dislike, but
also for whjch they may be definitely unfitted.
As compensation for the effect these suggested
restrictions would admittedly have upon Inter-House
competitions, may one put forward a plea for the
adoption of what may be termed, for lack of a better
name, " standard competitions," the basis of which idea
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ATHLETICS FOR BOYS
is that each House scores points according to the number
of boys it can produce, either in one particular meeting
or, even better, over a complete term or athletic season,
relative to the number competing who can attain to a set
standard performance in the particular event or events in
which they take part. This system, whilst still permit-
ting a basis for competitive effort between Houses,
obviates any necessity for excessive effort and the possible
detrimental results appertaining thereto.
The boy forms a most productive field for the further-
ance of athletic progress, for he is essentially so much
virgin soil in which it is possible to plant all that is best
in the sport. And when one considers the more far-
reaching possibilities, as touched on in a preceding
paragraph, offered by athletics in respect of its potential
effect upon the future manhood of the nation, apart
altogether from the natural desire to uphold and improve
the nation's athletic prestige, surely it is incumbent upon
school authorities to see that amongst their staff is at
least one who can impart lucidly and satisfactorily the
essential rudiments of the sport.
A boy is made of such malleable stuff that he is easily
taught anything which appeals to him at all. And if he
be taught well, he automatically forms habits which are
of inestimable value to him, not only in his future
athletic career, but in his life generally. He is very
receptive of detail, hence the importance of starting him
off on a sound foundation as regards style and technique.
If he learns the rudiments thoroughly and well at school,
he will grow up to his later athletic life, be it at 'Varsity
or elsewhere, with the greatest of all possible assets.
Faults are comparatively easy to eradicate in the boy,
almost impossible, very often, 'to get rid of in the adult.
And for the young athlete training need not present the
same arduous aspect that it often does to an older man.
A normal boy's life ensures his being relatively fit all the
time, and hence liberties in training, such as participation
in other sports and comparative freedom in regard to
x 3 21
ATHLETICS
diet, are, permissible to him then as they would not be
in later years. The two great requisites for a boy's
training are, first, his full and ample allowance of sleep,
and secondly, common sense, both on his part and his
teacher's.
There is really no reason why boys' athletics should
not cover the complete range of any ordinary programme
up to a mile in track events, and also suitably modified
field events, the latter including even the so-called
" heavy-weight " events, provided always that it is re-
membered that it is perfection of technique rather than
development of exceptional prowess that is being aimed
at. But every event must be taught from the first as
it will be practised ultimately, and any modifications
necessary to the age, stature or physique of the boys
concerned must be such that they do not interfere with
the essentials of any particular event. It is most
encouraging to see the field events being properly and
scientifically taught at many schools now, for there is no
doubt that our somewhat distressing inferiority, as
considered on an international basis in this branch of
athletics, has been due to a lack or absence of tuition in
schools. There is really no reason why the school
weight-putter should be the heaviest " rugger " forward,
or the " number six " of the school eight performing
inefficiently for one day in the year at the annual sports !
Weight-putting, if well taught, is quite an interesting
event, and a well-developed boy using a 12 or 14-lb.
shot is quite capable of producing a 37 or 38 feet effort,
provided he is willing to learn the right technique and
to practise it.
In this respect, with regard to field events especially,
but also to all events, we cannot stress too strongly the
invaluable influence of visits from notable athletes to a
School. The boy is a natural hero-worshipper, and he
wiH probably learn as much in an hour from watching
a man .who has an established reputation as an exponent
of some particular branch of athletics as he will in a term
322
ATHLETICS FOR BOYS
from teaching. The Achilles Club have done a great
deal in recent years towards making this lecture-
demonstration idea a feasible possibility, and it is an
example which is being, and one hopes will be further,
taken up by other clubs in the country. The same club
is also largely responsible for the introduction into the
schools of the relay system of athletics, a system which
for boys is most eminently suitable in that, by empha-
sising the essential value of the team spirit in athletics,
it removes what was, perhaps, the one great drawback
to the sport, namely the tendency towards the personal
and selfish outlook.
With the further spread of the already popular relay
system, and with the advent of masters whose personal
experience makes them adequately equipped to act as
athletic coaches, one can hope for much from the future of
boys' athletics, much that will serve not only to raise the
general athletic standard in the country, and correspond-
ingly her international prestige, but also to produce a
future manhood relatively better fitted to meet the
demands of a modern civilisation.
3*3
APPENDIX
Event.
Time or
Distance.
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
WORLD'S RECORDS
RUNNING
Holder and Nationality. Date. Place.
Yards.
M. S.
CD. J. Kelly (U.S.A.).
23.6.06
U.S.A.
H.P.Drew (U.S. A.).
28.3.14
U.S.A.
IOO
9f
J C. W. Paddock (U.S.A.).
26.3.21
U.S.A.
C. H. Coaffee (Canada).
12.8.22
Canada.
1 C. Bowman (U.S.A.).
2.7.27
U.S.A.
T T 2
/R. E. Walker (S. Africa).
26.12.08
S. Africa.
1 20
Ilf
\C. H. Coaffee (Canada).
4.9.22
Canada.
220
20 1
R. A. Locke (U.S.A.).
1.5.26
U.S.A.
300
30J
/B. J. Wefers (U.S.A.).
\G. M. Butler (Gt. Britain).
26.9.96
26.6.26
U.S.A.
England.
440
47*
M. W. Long (U.S.A.).
4-10.00
U.S.A.
47f
J. E. Meredith (U.S.A.).
27.IO.l6
U.S.A.
fM. W. Sheppard (U.S.A.).
I4.8.IO
U.S.A.
500
57f
J C. N. Seedhouse (Great
29.9.13
England.
1 Britain).
600
I lOf
D. G. A. Lowe (Gt. Britain).
26.6.26
England.
880
i 5i|
O. Peltzer (Germany).
3.7.26
England.
1000
2 I2j
L. Brown (U.S.A.).
II. 6. 21
U.S.A.
1320
3 2|
T. P. Conneff (U.S.A.).
21.8.95
U.S.A.
Miles.
i
4 iof
P. Nurmi (Finland).
23-8.23
Sweden.
2
9 if
E. Wide (Sweden).
12.9.26
Germany.
3
J 4 ni
P. Nurmi (Finland).
24-8.23
Sweden.
4
19 15*
P. Nurmi (Finland).
1.10.24
Finland.
5
24 6*
P. Nurmi (Finland).
1.10.24
Finland.
6
29 59$
A. Shrubb (Gt. Britain).
5.11-04
England.
7
35 4l
A. Shrubb (Gt. Britain).
5-11.04
England.
8
40 16
A. Shrubb (Gt. Britain).
5.11.04
England.
9
45 27}
A. Shrubb (Gt. Britain).
5.H.04
England.
10
50 i5t
P. Nurmi (Finland).
7.10.28
Germany.
i. m. s.
15
I 20 4 f
F. Appleby (Gt. Britain).
21.7.02
England.
20
i 5i 54
G. Crossland (Gt. Britain).
22.9.94
England.
25
2 29 29$
H. Green (Gt. Britain).
12.5.13
England.
Hours.
Miles yds.
i
ii 1648!
P. Nurmi (Finland).
7.10.28
Germany.
2
20 952
H. Green (Gt. Britain).
12.5-13
England.
* Straight track.
| Not yet^authenticated.
325
ATHLETICS
RUNNING
Metric Distances
A Comparative Table of Metres and Yards will be found on
page 360.
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder and Nationality. Date. Place.
Metres.
M. S.
100
loft
/C.W. Paddock (U.S. A.).
\H. Kflrnig (Germany).
23.4-21
8.8.26
U.S.A.
Germany.
200
20
R. A. Locke (U.S.A.).
1.5.26
U.S.A.
300
33;
C. W. Paddock (U.S.A.).
23.4.21
U.S.A.
400
47 J
J. E. Meredith (U.S.A.).
27.10.16
U.S.A.
500
I 3
O. Peltzer (Germany).
6.6.26
Germany.
800
S. Martin (France).
14.7.28
France.
1,000
2 25-
\
O. Peltzer (Germany).
18.9.27
France.
1,500
3 5i
O. Peltzer (Germany).
11.9.26
Germany.
2,000
5 23?
E. Borg (Finland).
9.8.27
Finland.
3,000
8 20f
P. Nurmi (Finland).
13.7-26
Finland.
5,000
14 28i
P. Nurmi (Finland).
19.6.24
Finland.
10,000
30 6i
P. Nurmi (Finland).
31.8.24
Finland.
Kilos.
15
46 491
It
P. Nurmi (Finland).
7.10.28
Germany.
h. m. s.
20
i 6 29
V. SipilS (Finland).
10.6.25
Sweden.
25
I 25 20
T. Kolehmainen (Finland) .
22.6.22
Finland.
30
I 46 II
I
A. Stenroos (Finland).
3L8.24
Finland.
Hours.
Metres.
i
9,957
P. Nurmi (Finland).
3L8.24
Finland.
i
I9,2iof
P. Nurmi (Finland).
7.IO.28
Germany.
2
33.056
H. Green (Great Britain).
I2.5.I3
England.
| Not yet authenticated.
Time or
Event. Distance.
WALKING
Holder and Nationality.
Date.
Place.
Miles.
M. S.
i
6 2 5 t
G. H. Goulding (Canada).
4.6.10
Canada.
2
13 nf
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
13.7-04
England.
3
20 25|
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
19.8.05
England.
4
27 14
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
19.8.05
England.
5
36 i
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
30.9-05
England.
6
43 26*
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
30.9-05
England.
7
50 40$
G. H. Goulding (Canada).
23.10.15
U.S.A.
8
58 I8f
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
30.9.05
England.
h. m. s.
9
i 7 37t
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
17.7.08
England.
10
15
i 15 57*
i 59 i2f
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
H. V. L. Ross (Gt. Britain).
17.7.08
20.5.11
England.
England.
20
2 47 52
T. Griffith (Gt. Britain).
30.12.07
England.
25
3 37 6f
S. C. A. Schofield (Gt. Brit.).
20.5.11
England.
(Jours.
Miles yds.
i
8 438
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
30.9.05
England.
2
15 128
H. V. L. Ross (Gt. Britain).
20.5.11
England.
326
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
Event.
Time or
Distance.
WALKING
Metric Distances
Holder and Nationality. Date. Place.
Metres.
M. S.
3,000
12 53t
G. Rasmussen (Denmark).
7.7.18
Denmark.
5,000
21 5*
H. Miiller (Germany).
5-8.21
Denmark.
10,000
45 26|
G. Rasmussen (Denmark).
18.8.18
Denmark.
h. m. s.
15,000
I 10 23
G. Rasmussen (Denmark).
9.5.18
Denmark.
20,000
i 37 42j
D. Pavesi (Italy).
10.4.27
Italy.
25,000
2 5 "f
P. Siewert (Germany).
14.4.27
Germany.
Hour.
Metres.
i
13.275
G. E. Larner (Gt. Britain).
.05
England.
Event.
Distance.
JUMPING
Holder and
Nationality.
Date.
Place.
Standing High
Jump
Ft.
5
ins. Metres.
5l
L. Goehring
(U.S.A.).
14.6.1
U.S.A.
High Jump
6
8J 2-04
H. M. Osborne
(U.S.A.).
27-5.24
U.S.A.
Standing Broad
Jump
11
4J
R. C. Ewry
(U.S.A.).
29.8.04
U.S.A.
Broad Jump .. .
25
nj* 7-90
E. B. Hamm
(U.S.A.).
7.7.28
U.S.A.
Running Hop,
Step and Jump
50
II A I5'525
A. W. Winter
(Australia).
12.7.24
France.
Pole Vault
H
if 4-29
S. Carr
(U.S.A.).
28.5.27
U.S.A.
* 26 ft. (7.93) by S. Cator (Haiti) 9.9.28 not yet authenticated,
f 14 ft. i j ins. (4.31) by L. Barnes (U.S.A.) 28.4.28 not yet authenticated.
WEIGHT EVENTS
Ft. ins.
Metres.
Putting the 1 6-lb.
Weight-
Best hand ....
52 i*
I5-87
J. Kuck (U.S.A.).
29.7.28
Holland.
Both hands ....
91 io|
R. Rose (U.S.A.).
2.6.12
U.S.A.
(Right hand
50 6
Left hand
4i 4i)
Throwing 56-lb.
Weight
40 6|
M. McGrath.
23.9.H
U.S.A.
(U.S.A.).
Throwing i6-lb.
Hammer
189 6J
57.78
P. Ryan (U.S. A.).
17^.13
U.SjA.
* 52-7! (16.045) by E. Hirschfeld (Germany) 26.8.28 not yet authenticated.
327
ATHLETICS
Event.
THROWING THE Discus
Holder and
Distance. Nationality.
Date.
Place.
Ft.
ins. Metres.
Best hand
158
i}* 48-20
C. Houser
3-4-26
U.S.A.
(U.S.A.).
Both hands
295
8}
E. Niklander
1913
Finland.
(Finland).
(Right hand ....
149
6^
Left hand
146
2|)
* i6o.| (48.775) by H. Hoffmeister (Germany) 22.7.28 not yet authenticated,
THROWING THE JAVELIN
Ft. ins. Metres.
Best hand
232 iijJ7i-oit
E. H. Lundkvist
15.8.28
Sweden.
(Sweden).
Both hands
374 "I
Y. Hackner
30.9.17
Sweden.
(Sweden).
Event.
Not yet authenticated.
HURDLES
Holder and
Time. Nationality.
Date. Place.
Yds.
I2O
220
(2'6* hurdles)
440
(3' hurdles)
Sees.
I4t
23
52f
E. J. Thomson
(Canada).
C. R. Brookins
(U.S.A.).
J. A. Gibson
(U.S.A.).
29.5.20
17-5-24
2.7.27
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
HURDLES
Metric Distances
Metres,
no
200
400
& h Secs -
' *4t
23
52
G. C.Weightman-
Smith (South
Africa) .
C. R. Brookins
(U.S.A.).
H. M. Taylor
(U.S.A.).
31.7-28
17-5.24
7.7.28
Holland.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Event. Time.
RELAY RACES
Holders.
Date. Place.
Yds.
Secs.
U.S.A. Team : C. W. Pad-
19.7.24
England.
4x100
37*
dock, J. V. Scholz, C.
Bowman, J. E. Leconey.
' U.S.A. Team : F. Wykoff, J.
11.8.28
England.
Quinn, L. Gumming, H.
A. Russell.
* Newark A.C., U.S. A. : Bow-
4.7.27
U.S.A.
4X110
4i
man, Currie, Pappas,
Cu minings.
328
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
Event. Time.
RELAY RACES continued.
Holders.
Date. Place.
Yds.
M. S.
' University of So. California,
14.5-27
U.S.A.
U.S.A. : C. E. Borah, E.
4 X22O
i 25f
House, H. Smith, W.
Lewis.
'U.S.A. Team: G. Baird,
11.8.28
England.
4X440
3 I3ft
H. M. Taylor, R. Barbuti,
E. Spencer.
'Boston A. A., U.S.A.: C.
6.7.26
U.S.A.
4X880
7 4i|
Sansone, L. Welch, S. H.
Martin, L. Hahn.
' University of Illinois, U.S.A. :
23.6.23
U.S.A.
4X1 Mile
17 2i
E. Krogh, R. Watson, R.
Buker, J. Ray.
Medley
British Empire Team : P.
11.8.28
England.
(440, 220,
3 22f
Edwards, W. Rangeley, J.
220, 880)
Fitzpatrick, D. G. A. Lowe.
Medley
s NewYorkA.C.,U.S.A. : W.
26.9.25
U.S.A.
(Mile, 220,
7 25t
Goodwin, J. V. Scholz, J.
440, 880)
Tierney, G. Marsters.
Medley
~' Penn. State College, U.S.A. :
13-5-22
U.S.A.
(440, 880,
TO T tj4-
D. B. Taylor, A. B. Hel-
1320, mile)
1U 1 J5
ffrich, J. Enck, L. M.
Shields.
Hurdles
U.S.A. Team : H. G. Guthrie,
19.7.24
England.
(4X120)
I If
J. Anderson, C. W. Moore,
(run to and f
ro)
D. Kinsey.
Event.
Time.
f Not yet authenticated.
RELAY RACES
Metric Distances
Holders.
Date. Place.
Metres.
M. S.
IU S. A. Olympic Team :
13-7-24
France.
L. Clark, F. Hussey,
L. Murchison, A. Leconey
4X100
41
U.S.A. Olympic Team :
F.Wykoff, J. Quinn, C. E.
5-8.28
Holland.
Borah, H. A. Russell.
Eintracht Frankfurt,
10.6.28
Germany.
Germany.
> University of So. California,
I4-5-27
y.s.A.
U.S.A. : C. E. Borah, E.
4X200
I 25*
House, H. Smith, W.
Lewis.
^.S.A. Olympic Team : G.
5.8.28
Holland.
4 X4OO
3 Mi
Baird, F. Alderman, E.
Spencer, R. Barbuti.
" Teutonia-Berlin, Germany :
3-9.27
Germany.
4X800
8 I
Schmidt, Isermann, Wai-
pert, Bocher.
* Finnish Team : Kouvunalho,
17.7.26
Finland.
4 X 1500
16 uf
E. Katz, Liewendahl,
P. Nurmi.
329
ATHLETICS
DECATHLON
Event. Holder and Nationality.
Place.
Date.
Points.
8053-29
P. Yrj61a
(Finland) .
Holland.
4 & 5.8.28
OLYMPIC RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder and Nationality. Place. Date.
Metres.
M. S.
CD. F. Lippincott (U.S.A.).
Stockholm.
1912
H. M. Abrahams (Great
J Britain).
Paris.
1924
IOO
IOf
IP. Williams (Canada).
Amsterdam.
1928
R. McAllister (U.S. A.).
Amsterdam.
1928
J.E
London (Gt. Britain).
Amsterdam.
1928
A. Hahn (U.S.A.).
St. Louis.
1904
200
2lf
. J. V. Scholz (U.S.A.).
Paris.
1924
4OO
47!
1 H. Kornig (Germany)
E. H. Liddell (Gt. Britain).
Amsterdam.
Paris.
1928
1924
800
D.G.
A. Lowe (Gt. Britain).
Amsterdam.
1928
1,500
3 53i
H. E.
Larva (Finland).
Amsterdam.
1928
5.OOO
14 3*i
P. Nurmi (Finland).
Paris.
1924
IO,OOO
30 i8|
P. Nurmi (Finland).
Amsterdam.
1928
f L.Clark ^i
TT c A J F. Hussey 1
U ' b ' A 'lL. Murchisonf
Paris.
1924
400 Relay
1 A. Leconey J
(4 X i oo)
4 1 '
(F. Wykoff ^
TT c A J J- Quinn I
U ' b ' A 'lC. E.Borah f
Amsterdam.
1928
IH. A. Russell J
(G. Baird ^
i, 600 Relay
(4x400)
3 Mi
TT c A |F. Alderman I
U ' b ' A - \E. Spencer f
Amsterdam.
1928
IR. Barbuti J
(T> Nnrmi i
3,000 Team
race
8 32
Finland. -Iw.Ritoia [
(E. Katz )
Paris.
1924
10,000 Walk
46 28f
G. H
. Goulding (Canada).
Stockholm.
1912
no Hurdles
I4f
G. C.
Weightman-Smith
Amsterdam.
1928
(S.
Africa) .
400 Hurdles
53f*
Lord Burghley (Gt. Britain)
Amsterdam.
1928
Ft. ins. Metres.
High Jump
6 6 1-98
H. M. Osborne
Paris.
1924
(U.S.A.).
Long Jump
25 4it 7*73
E. B. Hamm (U.S.A.)
Amsterdam.
1928
Hop, Step
50 11^15-525
A. W. Winter
Paris.
1924
and Jump
(Australia)
Pole Jump
13 9^ 4-203
S. Carr (U.S.A.).
Amsterdam.
1928
Throwing the
218 6J 66-605
E. H. Lundkvist
Amsterdam.
1928
Javelin
(Sweden).
* H. M. Taylor, (U.S.A.), won in 52$ at Paris in 1924, but knocked down
a hurdle.
f R. L. Legendre (U.S.A.) jumped 25 ft. 6 ins. in the Pentathlon com-
petition at Paris in 1924.
33
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
* OLYMPIC RECORDS continued.
Event.
Time or
Distance.
Holder and Nationality. Place. Date.
Ft. ins. Metres.
Throwing the
155 3 47'325
C. Houser (U.S.A.).
Amsterdam.
1928
Discus
Throwing the
179 7i 54'74
M. J. McGrath
Stockholm.
1912
Hammer
(U.S.A.).
Putting the
52 t 15-87
J. Kuck (U.S.A.).
Amsterdam.
1928
Weight
Points.
Pentathlon
14
E. R. Lehtonen (Fin-
Antwerp.
1920
land).
Decathlon
8053-29
P. Yrjola (Finland).
Amsterdam.
1928
OLYMPIC TRACK AND FIELD CHAMPIONS
1896 ATHENS.
1900 PARIS.
1904 ST. Louis.
1906 ATHENS.*
1908 LONDON.
1912 STOCKHOLM.
1920 ANTWERP.
1924 PARIS.
1928 AMSTERDAM.
60 METRES RUN Sees.
1900 A. C. Kraenzlein, U.S.A. 7
1904 A. Hahn, U.S.A 7
100 METRES RUN
1896 T. E. Burke, U.S.A 12
1900 F. W. Jarvis, U.S.A. . .. lot
1904 A. Hahn, U.S.A. .... n
1906 A. Hahn, U.S.A ni
1908 R. E. Walker, S. Africa lot
1912 R. C. Craig, U.S.A io|
1920 C. W. Paddock, U.S.A. 10$
1924 H. M. Abrahams, Gt.
Britain 10}
1928 P. Williams, Canada .... iojf
200 METRES RUN.
1900 J. W. B. Tewksbury,
U.S.A
1904 A. Hahn, U.S.A.
1908 R. Kerr, Canada . . 22}
1912 R. C. Craig, U.S. A 21-7
1920 A. Woodring, U.S.A 22
~ V. Scholz, U.S.A 2if
Williams, Canada .... 2i|
1924
400 METRES RUN Sees.
1896 T. E. Burke, U.S.A 54$
1900 M. W. Long, U.S.A. .. . 49$
1904 H. L. Hillman, U.S.A 49!
1906 P. Pilgrim, U.S.A 53$
1908 W. Halswelle, Gt.
Britain 50
1912 C. D. Reidpath, U.S.A.
1920 B. G. D. Rudd, S. Africa 49
1924 E. H. Liddell, Gt.
Britain 47!
1928 R. Barbuti, U.S.A 47$
1928
800 METRES RUN
1896 E. H. Flack, Gt. Britain
1900 A. E. Tysoe, Gt. Britain
1904 J.D. Lightbody, U.S.A.
1906 P. Pilgrim, U.S.A
1908 M. W. Sheppard, U.S.A.
1912 J. E. Meredith, U.S.A.
1920 A. G. Hill, Gt. Britain
1924 D. G. A. Lowe, Gt.
Britain
1928 D. G. A. Lowe, Gt.
Britain
* Not a regular Olympiad.
331
m. s.
2 II
2 If
I 56
I*
sn
51-9
531
5't
ATHLETICS
1,500 METRES RUN
m. s.
1896 E. H. Flack, Gt.
Britain
1900 C. Bennett, Gt. Britain
1904 J.D. Lightbody, U.S.A.
1906 J.D. Lightbody, U.S.A.
1908 M. W. Sheppard, U.S.A.
1912 A. N. S. Jackson, Gt.
Britain
1920 A. G. Hill, Gt. Britain
1924 P. Nurmi, Finland ....
1928 H. E. Larva, Finland
5,000 METRES RUN
1912 H. Kolehmainen, Fin-
land 14 36}
1920 J. Guillemot, France 14 55!
1924 P. Nurmi, Finland .... 14 31
1928 W. Ritola, Finland .... 14 38
5-MiLE RUN
1906 H. Hawtrey, Gt.
Britain 26 26J
1908 E. R. Voigt, Gt.
Britain 25 uj
io,ooo METRES RUN
1912 H. Kolehmainen, Fin-
land 31 20*
1920 P. Nurmi, Finland .... 31 45$
1924 W. Ritola, Finland .... 30 23^
1928 P. Nurmi, Finland .... 30 i8f
MARATHON
1896
1900
1904
1906
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
S. Loues, Greece ....
Teato, France
T. J. Hicks, U.S.A.
W. J. Sherring,
Canada
J.J.Hayes, U.S. A.
K. K. McArthur, S.
Africa
H. Kolehmainen,
Finland ....
A. O. Stenroos, Fin-
land
El Ouafi, France ....
h.
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
, m.
55
59
28
5i
55
36
32
41
32
*
s.
20
53
23?
18
54*
35*
22f
57
2' 6'
no METRES HURDLES
1896 Curtis, U.S.A .........
1900 A. C. Kraenzlein, U.S.A.
1904 F. W. Schule, U.S.A .....
1906 R. G. Leavitt, U.S.A .....
1908 F. Smithson, U.S.A .....
1912 F. W. Kelly, U.S.A .....
1920 E. J.Thomson, Canada
1924 D. C. Kinsey, U.S.A .....
1928 S. J. M. Atkinson, S.
Africa ........
200 METRES HURDLES
1900 A. C. Kraenzlein, U.S.A. 25$
1904 H. L. Hillman, U.S.A ..... 24!
Sees.
17$
15!
16
i6J
15
15-1
14*
15
14*
400 METRES HURDLES
1900 J. W. B. Tewksbury,
USA
1904 H. L. Hillman, U.S.A. '.'.'.'.
1908 C. J.Bacon, U.S.A
1920 F. F. Loomis, U.S.A
1924 F. M. Taylor, U.S. A
1928 Lord Burghley. Gt.
Britain
57f
53*
55
54
53t
2,500 METRES STEEPLECHASE
m. s.
1900 G. W. Orton, U.S.A. 7 34
1904 J. D. Lightbody,
U.S.A 7 39!
3,000 METRES STEEPLECHASE
1920 P. Hodge, Gt. Britain 10 2$
1924 W. Ritola, Finland .... 9 33$
1928 R. E. Loukola, Fin-
land 9 21 1
3,200 METRES STEEPLECHASE
1908 A. Russell, Gt. Britain 10 47*
4,000 METRES STEEPLECHASE
1900 C. Rimmer, Gt. Britain 12 58!
8,000 METRES CROSS-COUNTRY
1912 H. Kolehmainen, Fin-
land 45 nf
hurdles.
332
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
10,000 METRES CROSS-COUNTRY
RUNNING HIGH JUMP
m. s.
ft. ins.
1920 P. Nurmi, Finland .... 27 15
1896 E. H. Clark, U.S.A 5 nj
1924 P. Nurmi, Finland .... 32 54!
1900 I. K. Baxter, U.S.A. 6 2}
1904 S. S. Jones, U.S.A 5 n
1906 C. Leahy, Ireland .... 5 gj
1,500 METRES WALK
1908 H. F. Porter, U.S.A. 6 3
1912 A. W. Richards, U.S. A. 6 4
1906 G. V. Bonhag, U.S.A, 7 i2f
1920 R. W. Landon, U.S.A. 6 4!
1924 H. M. Osborne, U.S.A. 6 6
3,000 METRES WALK
1928 R. King, U.S.A 6 4$
1920 U. Frigerio, Italy .... 13 14^
STANDING BROAD JUMP
3,500 METRES WALK
1908 G. E. Larner, Gt.
Britain .... 14 55
1900 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 10 6f
1904 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A n 4!
1906 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 10 10
1908 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 10 nj
1912 C. Tsicilitiras, Greece n i
10,000 METRES WALK
1912 G. H. Goulding,
RUNNING BROAD JUMP
Canada 46 28f
1920 U. Frigerio, Italy .... 48 6J
1896 E. H. Clark, U.S. A 20 9}
1924 U. Frigerio, Italy .... 47 49
1900 A.C.Kraenzlein.U.S.A. 23 6J
1904 M. Prinstein, U.S.A. 24 i
IO-MILE WALK
1906 M. Prinstein, U.S.A. 23 7$
h. m. s.
1908 F. Irons, U.S.A 24 6J
1908 G. E. Lamer, Gt.
1912 A. L. Gutterson,
Britain i 15 57!
U.S.A 24 nj
1920 W. Petterssen,
400 METRES RELAY
Sees.
Sweden 23 5f
1924 D. H. Hubbard,
1912 Gt. Britain 42$
1920 U.S.A. 42^
U.S.A 24 6
1928 E. B. Hamm, U.S.A. 25 4!
1924 U.S.A. 41
1928 U.S.A 41
STANDING HOP, STEP AND JUMP
i, 600 METRES RELAY
1900 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 34 8J
1904 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 34 7j
m. s.
1908 U.S.A. 3 27^
1912 U.S.A. 3 i6J
RUNNING HOP, STEP AND JUMP
1920 Gt. Britain 3 22^
1924 U.S.A. 3 16
1896 J. B. Connolly, U.S.A. 45 o
1928 U.S.A. 3 I4i
1900 M. Prinstein, U.S.A. 47 4J
1904 M. Prinstein, U.S.A. 47 o
1906 P. O'Connor, Ireland 46 2
STANDING HIGH JUMP
1908 T. J. Ahearne,
ft. ins.
Gt. Britain .... 48 11}
1900 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 5 5
1912 G. Lindblom, Sweden 48 5$
1904 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 4 n
1920 V. Tuulos, Finland .... 47 7
1906 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 5 if
1924 A. W. Winter,
1908 R. C. Ewry, U.S.A 5 2
Australia 50 n^
1912 P. Adams, U.S.A 5 4J
1928 M.Oda, Japan .... 49 n
333
ATHLETICS
POLE JUMP
ft. in.
ft.
10
10
II
II
1896 W. W. Hoyt, U.S.A.
1900 I. K. Baxter, U.S.A.
1904 C. E. Dvorak, U.S.A.
1906 Gouder, France
moR / A - c - Gilbert,U,S.A. 12
1905 \E.T. Cook, Jr., U.S.A.
1912 H.J.Babcock, U.S.A. 12
1920 F. K. Foss, U.S.A 13
1924 L. Barnes, U.S.A 12
1928 S.Carr, U.S.A 13
ins. 1906 M.J.Sheridan, U.S.A. 136
9} 1908 M.J.Sheridan, U.S. A. 134
9 T V 1912 A. R. Taipale, Fin-
6 land 148
6 Right and left hand
2 A. R. Taipale, Fin-
land 271
ni 1920 E. Niklander, Fin-
5 land 146
nj 1924 C. Houser, U.S.A 151
9i 1928 C. Houser, U.S.A 155
PUTTING THE WEIGHT
1896 R. S. Garrett, U.S.A. 36 2
1900 R. Sheldon, U.S.A 46 3$
1904 R. Rose, U.S.A 48 7
1906 M. J.Sheridan, U.S.A. 40 4
1908 R. .Rose, U.S.A 46 7
1912 P. J. McDonald,
U.S.A 50 4
Right and left hand
R.Rose, U.S.A 90 5}
1920 V. Porhola, Finland .... 48 7$
1924 C. Houser, U.S.A 49 2.\
1928 J.Kuck, U.S.A 52 |
56-LB. WEIGHT
1904 E. Desmarteau,
Canada 34 4
1920 P. J. McDonald, U.S.A. 36 11$
Discus GREEK STYLE
1906 W. Jaervinen, Fin-
land 115 4
1908 M. J. Sheridan, U.S.A. 124 8
THROWING THE JAVELIN
1906 E. Lemming, Sweden 175 6
1908 E. Lemming, Sweden 178 7J
Held in middle E.
Lemming, Sweden 179 loj
1912 E. Lemming, Sweden 198 uj
Right and left hand
J. J. Saaristo, Fin-
land 359 i
1920 J . Myyra, Finland 215 9}
1924 J. Myyra, Finland .... 206 6j
1928 E. H. Lundkvist,
Sweden 218 6J
THROWING THE HAMMER
J.J.Flanagan, U.S.A. 167
1900
J 9<>4 J. J.Flanagan, U.S.A. 168
1908 J.J.Flanagan, U.S.A. 170
1912 M. J.McGrath,U.S.A. 179
1920 P. J.Ryan, U.S.A 173
1924 F. D. Tootell, U.S. A. 174
1928 P. O'Callaghan,
Ireland 168
4
i
4t
o
5*
PENTATHLON
1906 H. Mellander, Sweden ..
1912 F. R. Bie, Norway
1920 E. R. Lehtonen, Finland
1924 E. R. Lehtonen, Finland
DECATHLON
Pts.
24
, 16
14
16
THROWING THE Discus
1912 H. Wieslander,
Sweden .... 7,724-495
1920 H. Lovland, Nor-
1896 R. S. Garrett, U.S.A. 95 7 J 1924 H 7 M. Osborae,'"' 6>8 4 ' 35
1900 Bauer, Hungary .... 118 2 T <V U.S.A. .. 7710-775
1964 M.J.Sheridan, U.S. A. 128 io 1928 P. YrjOla, Finland 8^053-29
334
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
NATIONAL RECORDS
BRITISH AMATEUR RECORDS
Event. Time.
RUNNING
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
Yds.
H. M. S.
100
9T 7 *
E. H. Liddell.
Stamford Bridge.
7-7-23
I2O
III
R. E. Walker.
Glasgow.
9.8.09
150
14!
W. R. Applegarth.
Cardiff.
28.6.13
200
19$
W. R. Applegarth.
Kennington Oval.
14.9.12
220
*
W. R. Applegarth.
Stamford Bridge.
4-7-I4
250
24*
E. H. Felling.
Stamford Bridge.
22.9.88
300
30*
G. M. Butler.
Stamford Bridge
26.6.26
440
48|
W. Halswelle.
Glasgow.
1.7.08
500
57*
C. N. Seedhouse.
Stamford Bridge.
29.9-13
600
I lOj-
D. G. A. Lowe.
Stamford Bridge.
26.6.26
880
i 5il
O. Peltzer.
Stamford Bridge.
3-7.26
IOOO
2 I4t
W. E. Lutyens.
Stamford Bridge.
3.7.98
1320
3 5t
A. G. Hill.
Salford.
4.6.21
Miles.
i
4 I3t
A. G. Hill.
Stamford Bridge.
2,7.21
2
9 9l
A, Shrubb.
Glasgow.
11.6.04
3
H I7f
A. Shrubb.
Stamford Bridge.
21.5-03
4
19 23?
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
13-6.04
5
24 33*
A. Shrubb.
Stamford Bridge.
12.5.04
6
29 59l
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5-11.04
7
35 4*
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5-11.04
' 8
40 16
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5.11-04
9
45 27!
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5.11.04
10
50 4<>f
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5.11-04
ii
56 23f
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
5.11-04
12
i 2 43
S. Thomas.
Herne Hill.
22.10,92
13
i 9 27t
F. Appleby.
Stamford Bridge.
21.7.02
14
i 14 52
F. Appleby.
Stamford Bridge.
21.7.02
15
I 20 4}
F. Appleby.
Stamford Bridge.
21.7.02
20
i 51 54
G. Crossland.
Stamford Bridge.
22.9.94
25
2 29 2gf
H. Green.
Stamford Bridge.
12.5.13
30
3 17 36i
J. A. Squires.
Balham.
2.5-85
40
4 46 54
. E. Dixon.
Birmingham.
29.12.84
50
6 13 58
E. W. Lloyd.
Stamford Bridge.
12.5.98
Miles yds
ii 1137
I O O
A. Shrubb.
Glasgow.
20.11.04
20 952
2 O O
H. Green.
Stamford Bridge.
12.5-13
Event.
Time.
HURDLES
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
Yds.
*I20 (3'6*)
220 (2'6*)
440 (3')
Sees.
I4r 7 *
24/F
54
S. J. M. Atkinson.
Lord Burghley.
Lord Burghley.
Stamford Bridge.
Stamford Bridge,
Stamford Bridge.
7.7.28
9.7-27
7.7.28
* Made on grass. The record on cinders is 14$, held jointly by Lord
Burghley (11.6.27, at Cambridge) and G. C. Weightman-Smith (23.6.28,
at Oxford).
335
ATHLETICS
Event. Distance.
FIELD
Holder.
EVENTS
Where Made.
Date.
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 5
B. H. Baker.
Huddersfield.
25.6.21
Long Jump
25 i
E. B. Hamm.
Stamford Bridge.
11.8.28
Pole Jump
13 9
L. Barnes.
Stamford Bridge.
11.8.28
Hop, Step
and Jump
50 9
W. Peters.
Stamford Bridge.
4.7.27
Hammer
Throw
178 ii
F. D. Tootell.
Stamford Bridge.
19.7.24
Weight
Putting
49 ioj
R. G. Hills.
Stamford Bridge.
19.7.24
Javelin
Throw
222 9
S. A. Lay.
Stamford Bridge.
7.7.28
Discus
Throw
147
E. Paulus.
Stamford Bridge.
7.7.28
Event. Time.
RELAY RACES
Holders.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
fU.S.A. Team (C. W. Paddock, J. V.
19.7.24
4x100
37t
j Scholz, C. Bowman, J. E. Leconey).
1 U.S.A. Team (F. Wykoff, J. Quinn,
11.8.28
(_ L. Gumming, H. A. Russell).
4X110
4 2 i
C. F. C. Preussen Krefeld, Germany.
4.7.27
(Salz, Werusing, H. Houben, J. Schiiller).
4x220
I 29f
4x440
3 J 3?
U.S.A. Team (G. Baird, H. M. Taylor,
11.8.28
R. Barbuti, E. Spencer).
4X880
7 48*
British Empire Team (B. Little, N. J.
11.8.28
McEachern, P. Edwards, D. G. A. Lowe) .
4x1 mile
17 22f
British Empire Team (A. Docherty,
11.8.28
R. S. Starr, W. M. Whyte, C. Ellis).
Medley
(440, 220,
220, 880)
3 22}
British Empire Team (P. Edwards, W.
11.8.28
Rangeley, J. Fitzpatrick, D. G. A. Lowe).
4X120
6if
U.S.A. Team (H. G. Guthrie, J. An-
19.7.24
hurdles
derson, C. W. Moore, D. Kinsey).
(run to and
fro)
With the exception of the 4 x no yards and 4 X220 yards relays, all
these records were made in the matches between the United States and
British Empire Teams at Stamford Bridge after the Olympic Games in
1924 and 1928.
AMERICAN RECORDS
NOTE. Indoor athletics play so prominent a part in America that it
has been thought proper to give the records for both outdoor and indoor
meetings. It will be noticed that the records made indoors bear a curious
relationship to those made in the open, inasmuch as they are much in-
ferior in the short distances, improve to an equality in the middle dis-
tances, and become markedly superior in the long distances. The ex-
33 6
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
planation is probably twofold. First, that the small tracks, which often
measure only 300 yards in circumference, involve more cornering, which
militates against fast times ; and secondly, that the warmer atmosphere
and possibly the resilience of the board track render the longer distance
runner less fatigued.
Event.
Time or
Distance.
RUNNING
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
f"L. Murchison.
New York.
31.1.23
*6o
6J
<{ A. Francisco.
Chicago.
6.3.26
(^C. Bowman.
Chicago.
6.3.26
f D. J. Kelly.
Spokane, Wash.
23.6.06
J H. P. Drew.
Berkeley, Cal.
28.3.14
IOO
9f
] C. W. Paddock.
Berkeley, Cal.
26.3.21
|^C. Bowman.
Lincoln, Neb.
2.7.27
*IOO
9t
L. A. Clarke.
Baltimore, Md.
9.2.24
220
2of
R. A. Locke.
Lincoln, Neb.
1.5.26
*22O
22f
L. Murchison.
New York.
6.1.25
300
C. W. Paddock.
Redlands, Cal.
23-4-21
^
l
{A. Woodring.
Buffalo, N.Y.
II. 2. 22
3
3 t
L. Murchison.
Buffalo, N.Y
17.2.23
1*440
47
M. W. Long.
Guttenberg, N.J.
4-IO.OO
440
47?
J. E. Meredith.
Cambridge, Mass.
27.5.16
* 44 o
49?
JTT. J. Halpin.
\W. F. Koppisch.
Buffalo, N Y.
Buffalo, N.Y.
I7.3.23
4
*
/M. W. Sheppard.
New York.
I4.8.IO
ooo
\T. Campbell.
Chicago.
31.8.22
*6'oo
I Ilf
A. B. Helffrich.
New York.
I7-3.25
880
i 52i
J. E. Meredith.
Philadelphia,
*88o
I 51!
L. Hahn.
New York.
3-3*28
I OOO
2 I2j
L. Brown.
Philadelphia.
II. 6.21
*IOOO
2 I2f
L. Halm.
New York.
28.2.27
1320
3 2|
T. P. Conneff.
New York.
21.8.95
*I320
3 3f
L. Hahn.
New York.
9.3.25
Miles.
i
4 I2J
N. S. Tabor.
Cambridge, Mass.
16.7.15
*i
4 12
/P. Nurmi.
\J. Ray.
Buffalo, N.Y.
New York.
7.3.25
17-3-25
2
9 I7t
T. S. Berna.
Ithaca, N.Y.
45.12
*2
8 58i
P. Nurmi.
New York.
14-2.25
3
14 22f
H. Kolehmainen.
New York.
17.8.13
*3
J 3 5^1
W. Ritola.
New York.
24.2.25
4
20 2
H. Kolehmainen.
New York.
1.11.13
*4
19 27f
W. Ritola.
New York.
20.1.23
10
51 3f
H. Kolehmainen.
New York.
I. II. 13
*IO
51 6t
H. Kolehmainen.
Buffalo, N.Y.
1.2.13
m. yds.
i hour.
ii 153
A. Stenroos.
New York.
26.5.25
Miles.
h. m. s.
15
i 23 24^
C. Pores.
New York.
1.6.19
20
i 58 27*
J. Clark.
New York.
14.11.09
"25
2 44 50
M. Maloney.
New York.
8.1.09
* Indicates that the record was made indoors.
Y 337
f Straight track.
ATHLETICS
HURDLES
Event. Time. Holder. Where Made. Date.
Yds.
Sees.
* 7 o
(Si* 3 '6*
9i
/E. F. Smalley.
\W. Smith.
Buffalo, N.Y.
New York.
21. 2. 2O
13-2.30
hurdles)
*70
8!
C. H. Moore.
New York.
7-3-25
(Five 3'6*
hurdles)
120
14!
E. J. Thomson.
Philadelphia.
29.5.20
f220
23
C. R. Brookins.
Ames, Iowa.
17.5-24
(2' 6*
23t
C. R. Brookins.
Chicago.
7.6.24
hurdles)
440
52f
J. A. Gibson.
Lincoln, Neb.
2.7.27
(3' hurdles)
* Indoors.
t Straight track.
Event.
FIELD" EVENTS
Distance.
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 8J
H. M. Osborne.
Urbana, 111.
27-5-24
*High Jump
6 6J
H. M. Osborne.
New York.
27.1.25
Long Jump
25 Hi
E. B. Hamm.
Boston.
7.7.28
*Long Jump
24 7i
D. H. Hubbard.
New York.
20.3.26
Hop, Step and
Jump
50 H
D. F. Ahearn.
Long Island.
30.5-11
Pole Vault
14 if
L. Barnes.
California.
28.4.28
*Pole Vault
13 9i
S. W. Carr.
New York.
14.2.27
Putting the
Weight
5i o
R. Rose.
San Francisco.
21.8.09
'Putting the
Weight
50 7f
H. Schwarze.
6.3.26
Throwing the
Hammer
189 6i
P. J. Ryan.
Long Island.
17.8.13
Throwing the
Discus
158 ii
C. Houser.
Palo Alto, Cal.
3-4-26
Throwing the
Javelin
212 5
J. Myrrha.
Los Angeles.
25.4-25
* Indoors.
338
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
Event.
FINLAND
Time or Distance.
Holder.
Year.
tMetres.
M.
s.
IOO
.
/U. Railo.
1907
*
\L. Hard.
1922
200
Astrom.
1927
4OO
E. Vilen.
1921
800
I
57
E. Vilen.
1921
I,5OO
3
52f
Lagers trom.
1928
5,OOO
14
35f'o
P. Nurmi.
1922
IO,OOO
3 o
P. Nurmi.
1921
Hurdles
no
I 4iff
Sjorstedt.
1928
400
54t
E. Vilen.
1928
metres.
ft.
ins.
High Jump
1-90
6
3
Wahlstedt.
1927
Long Jump
7-29
23
V. Tuulos.
1928
Pole Jump
3-70
12
if
A. Ranhamaa.
1921
Hop, Step and Jump
Putting the Weight ....
Throwing the Hammer
15-58
47*57
51
50
156
i*
10
oi
V. Tuulos.
WahLtedt.
E. Nicklander.
1928
1928
1916
Throwing the Discus . ..
44*05
144
6i
A. R. Taipale.
1914
Throwing the Javelin ....
69-88
E. Penttila.
1927
ig uiic javcun uyoo zzy j-g- jc.. jrcituuiici.
f To compare metres with yards, see Table IV, page 360,
Event. Time or Distance.
FRANCE
Holder.
Where Made. Date.
Metres.
M.
s.
IOO
lof
A. Mourlon.
Colombes.
17.7.27
200
f
A. Mourlon.
Colombes.
22.6.24
400
R. Feger.
Colombes.
15-7.28
800
i
50}
S. Martin.
Colombes.
14.7.28
1,000
2
26
S. Martin.
Colombes.
18.9.27
1,500
3
5 2 i
J. Ladoumegue.
Colombes.
15-7-28
5,000
14
36*
J. Bouin.
Stockholm.
10.7.12
10,000
30
58f
J. Bouin.
Colombes.
16.11.11
Hurdles
no
15
G. Sempe\
Colombes.
9.8.25
400
54
R. Viel.
Colombes.
14.7.28
metres.
ft. ins.
High Jump
i'95
6 4}
P. Lewden.
Stockholm.
30.8.25
Long Jump
Pole Jump
7-125
3.90
23 4f
12 9}
L. Wilhelme.
R. Vintousky.
Colombes.
Osaka.
21.6.24
13.10.28
Hop, Step
13-57
44 <H
R. Rousset.
Pershing.
I5-7-23
and Jump
Weight
15-09
49 6}
E. Duhour.
Berlin.
2.9.28
Hammer
42-29
138 9i
P. Zaidin.
Paris.
4,7.26
Discus
45*18
148 2}
J. Noel.
Strasbourg.
26.8.28
Javelin
6i'34
201 2f
E. Degland.
Colombes.
10.6.28
339
ATHLETICS
GERMANY
Event. Time or
Distance. Holder. Where Made. Date.
Metres.
M.
s.
100
iof
H. Kornig.
Leipzig.
8.8.26
200
20 T
H. Kornig.
Berlin.
19.8.28
400
47*
J. Biichner.
Berlin.
2.9.28
800
i
5i?
O. Peltzer.
London.
3-7-26
1,000
2
25*
O. Peltzer.
Paris.
18.9.27
1,500
3
51
O. Peltzer.
Berlin.
11.9.26
5.900
15
3
O. Kohn.
Paris.
21.8.27
10,000
32
of
O. Petri.
Berlin.
17.7.27
Hurdles
no
I4A
H. Trossbach.
Berlin.
8.8.25
400
54*
O. Peltzer.
Berlin,
17.7.27
metres.
ft. ins.
High Jump
1-923
6 3*
R. Pasemann.
Braunschweig.
13.8.11
Long Jump
7'645
25 if
R. Dobermann.
Jena.
10.6.28
Pole Jump
3-82
12 6j
J. Miiller.
Dusseldorf.
15-7-28
Hop, Step
14-99
49 2l
A. Holz.
Berlin.
1.7 22
and Jump
Weight
16-045
52 7i
E. Hirschfeld.
Bochum.
26 8.28
Hammer
46-05
151 i
J. Mang.
Nurnberg.
17.6.28
Discus
48-775
160 o|
H. Hoffmeister.
Gelsenkirchen.
22.7.28
Javelin
64-60
211 Ilf
B. Schlokat.
Oslo.
18.9.27
SWEDEN
Event. Time or
Distance. Holder. Where Made. Date.
Metres.
M.
s.
100
loj
K. Lindberg.
Goteborg.
26.8.06
200
2I T 9 ff
N. Engdahl.
Stockholm.
11.7.20
400
48$
N. Engdahl.
Stockholm.
17.8.24
800
I
5 2 *
E. Bytehn
Amsterdam.
31-7-28
1,000
2
28^
S. Lundgren.
Stockholm.
27.9.22
1,500
3
5 1 *
E. Wide.
Berlin.
11.9.26
5,000
14
4?
E. Wide.
Stockholm.
18.6.25
10,000
30
55*
E. Wide.
Paris.
6.7.24
Hurdles
no
I 4A
S. Petterssen.
Stockholm.
18.9.27
400
52?
S. Petterssen.
K6ln.
7.8.28
metres.
ft. ins.
High Jump
Long Jump
Pole Jump
7'5o
4-00
24 8
13 I*
K. Osterberg.
0. Hallberg.
H. Lindblad
Stockholm.
Gorle.
Stockholm.
19.6.25
23.9.28
26.8.28
Hop, Step
and Jump
15.09
49 61
F. Jansson.
Paris.
28.8.20
Weight
15-08
49 5l
B. Jansson.
Stockholm.
10.9.27
Hammer
53*85
176 71
O. Skold.
Stockholm.
10.9.27
Discus
45*77
150 2
O. Zallhagen.
EukSping.
24.9.16
Javelin
71-01
232 iifj
E. H. Lundkvist
Stockholm.
15.8.28
340
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
BRITISH AND DOMINION RECORDS
ENGLISH NATIVE RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance.
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
100
9f
/W.R.Applegarth.
\H. H. Hodge.
Stamford Bridge.
Cambridge.
20.6.14
11.6.27
4
/ W. Page Phillips.
Stamford Bridge.
25.3.82
1 20
JI 6
\J. W.Morton.
Stamford Bridge.
24.9.04
150
Ml
W. R. Applegarth
Cardiff.
28.6.13
200
W. R. Applegarth.
Kennington Oval.
14.9.12
220
2lJ
W. R. Applegarth.
Stamford Bridge.
4.7.14
250
2 4i
E. H. Felling.
Stamford Bridge.
22.9.88
300
3i
G. M. Butler.
Stamford Bridge.
26.6.26
8i
/H. C. L. Tindall
Stamford Bridge.
29.6.89
44
4 z
\E. C. Bredin.
Stamford Bridge.
22.6.95
500
57t
C. N. Seedhouse.
Stamford Bridge.
29.9.13
600
D. G. A. Lowe.
Stamford Bridge.
26.6.26
880
i 53t
D. G. A. Lowe.
Fallowfield.
16.7.27
IOOO
2 I4t
W. E, Lutyens.
Stamford Bridge.
3.6.98
1320
3 5l
A. G. Hill.
Salford.
4.6.21
.Miles.
i
4 I3t
A. G. Hill.
Stamford Bridge.
2.7.21
2
9 J 7
A. Shrubb.
Kennington Oval.
12.9.03
3
J 4 I7l
A. Shrubb.
Stamford Bridge.
21.5.03
4
19 3i?
A. Shrubb.
Preston Park.
25.10.02
5
24 33t
A. Shrubb.
Stamford Bridge.
12.5.04
6
30 I7t
S. Thomas.
Herne Hill.
22.10.92
7
35 3<H
S. Thomas.
Herne Hill.
22.10.92
8
40 57t
W. G. George.
Stamford Bridge.
28.7.84
9
46 12
W. G. George.
Stamford Bridge.
7.4.84
10
51 20
W. G. George.
Stamford Bridge.
7.4.84
Yds.
120 (hrdls.)
14*
/Lord Burghley.
\F. R. Gaby.
Cambridge.
11.6.27
.28
220
24/a
Lord Burghley.
Stamford Bridge.
9.7.27
440 M
54
Lord Burghley.
Stamford Bridge.
7.7.28
ft. ins.
High Jump 6 5
B. H. Baker
Huddersfield
25.6.21
Long Jump 24 2 J
H. M. Abrahams.
Woolwich.
7.6.24
Pole Jump ii loj
L. T. Bond.
Oxford.
23.6.28
Hop, Step
and Jump 46 9
J. Higginson
Wathon-Dearn.
19.6.26
Hammer 172 oj
M. C. Nokes.
Gloucester.
16.6.23
Weight 44 n
R. S. Woods.
Stamford Bridge.
3.7.26
Javelin 175 3j
J. Dalrymple.
Stamford Bridge.
11.8.28
Discus 126 i
M. C. Nokes.
Stamford Bridge.
30.7.27
341
ATHLETICS
SCOTTISH RECORDS
Event.
Time or
Distance.
Holder.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
100
9t
W. R. Applegarth.
1913
220
21*
W. R. Applegarth.
1914
440
48*
W. Halswelle.
1908
880
i 55f
D. L. Mason.
1919
Miles.
i
4 16*
A. G. Hill.
1919
4
19 23$
A. Shrubb.
1904
TO
50 4f
A. Shrubb.
1904
120 Yds.
Hurdles.
14*
G. C. Weightman-
Smith.
1927
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 6}
H. M. Osborne.
1925
Long Jump
23 9i
P. O'Connor.
1901
Pole Jump
Weight
12 4}
47 i
V. H. Pickard.
D. Horgan.
1924
1899
Hammer
168 7 |
J. J. Flanagan
1911
IRISH RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder.
Yds.
M. S.
IOO
9*
D. J. Cussen.
220
44
22
49t
/N. J. Cartmell.
\R. Kerr.
D. G. A. Lowe.
880
i 56*
G. N. Coughlan.
Miles.
i
4 21
C. Ellis.
4
19 44f
T. P. Conneff.
10
56 9i
F. J. O'Neill.
120 Yds.
Hurdles
15
S. J.M.Atkinson.
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 5
T. J. Carroll.
Long Jump
24 lij
P. O'Connor.
Pole Jump
13 o
C. McGinnis.
Hop, Step
and Jump
Weight
50 iJ
49 3i
D. Shanahan.
R. Rose.
Hammer
170 7}
P. O'Callaghan
342
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
AUSTRALASIAN RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance.
Holder.
Where Made.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
(W. T. Macpherson.
Auckland
1891
100
9i
J J. H. Hempton.
Christchurch.
1892
(M. Leadbetter.
Auckland.
1927
220
21*
E. W. Carr.
1922
44
48|
N. C. Barker.
1908
880
I 55J
W. Hunt.
1928
Miles.
I
4 i3f
R. A. Rose.
Master ton.
1926
10
53 3i|
A. Gainsford.
1928
120 (hrdls.)
'5*
/H. E. Wilson.
\R. W. Lauder.
Wanganui.
Auckland.
1922
1927
440 (hrdls.)
54A
A. J. Watson.
1927
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 3*
E. M. Davidson.
....
1928
Long Jump
23 9
R. J. Honner.
1921
Pole Jump
ii 7*
M. Kroger.
....
1928
Hop, Step
and Jump
49 8J
A. W. Winter.
Weight
46 oj
P. Munro.
Christchurch
1921
Hammer
169 9f
J. W. Marchant.
1923
Discus
137
P. Munro.
Wellington.
1924
Javelin
209 7
S. A. Lay.
1928
CANADIAN RECORDS
Event.
Time or
Distance.
Holder.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
100
9f
\C. H. Coaffee.
/L. Miller.
1922
1928
22O
2lf
R. Kerr.
1908
440
48f
W. C. Robbins.
1909
880
I 52|
E. Lunghi.
1909
Miles.
i
4 15
J. W. Ray.
1921
10
120 (hrdls.)
i5j
E. Spence.
1927
440 (hrdls.)
5t
W. J. Montabone.
1927
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 3t
A. Munro.
1928
Long Jump
23 8*
C. D. Bricker.
1908
Pole Jump
12 8
V. Pickard
1926
Weight
49 7t
R. Rose.
1907
Hammer
182 4
M. J. McGrath.
1911
Discus
143 8f
G. Pope.
1922
Javelin
202 4{
D. W. Pilling.
1928
343
Event.
ATHLETICS
SOUTH AFRICAN RECORDS
Time or
Distance. Holder.
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
( R. E. Walker.
1909
G. H. Patching.
1912
J F. M. Solomon.
1915
IOO
9*
] G. G. Dustan.
1923
L. B. B. Betts.
1923
( W. B. Legg.
1927
22O
2lf
W. B. Legg.
1928
440
48!
L. B. B. Betts.
1923
880
1 56!
/W. F. Flynn.
\C. W. Oldfield.
1914
1923
Miles.
i
4 244
E. B. Palm.
1925
10
52 46*
K. K. MacArthur.
1911
120 (hrdls.)
15
S. J. M. Atkinson.
1923
440 (hrdls.)
56f
A. B. Burton-Durham.
1926
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 if
G. Scott.
1924
Long Jump
24 ii
S. J. M. Atkinson.
1925
Pole Jump
10 IOJ
D. C. Morkel.
1922
Weight
43 4
/H. D. Gradwell.
\ H. B. Hart.
1894
1928
Hammer
I3i 8f
N. Mackenzie.
1921
Discus
119 2
E. G. Sutherland.
1925
Javelin
IQI
G. C. Weightman-Smith.
1928
UNIVERSITY RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance.
OXFORD v. CAMBRIDGE
Holder and University
Date.
Yds.
M. S.
IOO
9A
A. E. Porritt (Magdalen, Oxford).
1925
440
49f
D. Macmillan (Trinity, Cambridge).
1912
880
i 54*
K. Cornwallis (Trinity, Oxford)
1904
Miles.
i
4 17*
C. C. Henderson-Hamilton (Trinity,
Oxford).
1905
3
14 34t
G. M. Sproule (Balliol, Oxford).
1914
120 (hrdls.)
i5l
G. C. Weightman-Smith (Selwyn, Cam-
bridge) .
1928
120 (hrdls.)
i5*
K. H. Powell (King's, Cambridge).
1907
{Lord Burghley (Magdalene, Cambridge).
1925
220 (hrdls.)
24*
G. C. Weightman-Smith (Selwyn, Cam-
bridge).
1928
ft. ins.
Long Jump
23 7i
H. M. Abrahams (Caius, Cambridge).
1923
High Jump
Pole Jump
6 2j
12
M. J. Brooks (B.N.C., Oxford).
G. P. Faust (St. Catherine's, Oxford).
1876
1928
Weight
43 10
W. W. Coe (Hertford, Oxford).
1902
Hammer
153 3t
G. E. Putnam (Christchurch, Oxford).
1911
* On grass. f This event was last held in 1921.
344
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
AMERICAN INTER- COLLEGIATE RECORDS
(I.C.A.A.A.A.)
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder and University. Where Made. Date,
Yds,
M. S.
IOO
220
97,
20ft
/J. A. Leconey (Lafayette).
\H. A. Russell (Cornell).
C. E. Borah (So. California).
Cambridge, Mass.
Cambridge, Mass.
Philadelphia.
1922
1926
1927
44
47f
J. E. Meredith (Pennsyl-
vania) .
Cambridge, Mass.
1916
880
i 53
J. E. Meredith (Pennsyl-
vania) .
Cambridge, Mass.
1916
Miles.
i
4 Ml
J. P. Jones (Cornell).
Cambridge, Mass.
1913
2
9 22f
J. C. Dresser (Cornell).
Cambridge, Mass.
1919
120 (hrdls.)
I4f
E. J. Thomson (Dart-
mouth).
Philadelphia.
1920
{A. C. Kraenzlein (Penn-
220 (hrdls.)
231
sylvania) .
J. I. Wendell (Wesleyan).
New York.
Cambridge, Mass.
1898
1913
K. D. Grumbles.
Cambridge, Mass.
1926
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 5*
R. W. King (Stanford).
Cambridge, Mass.
1926
Long Jump
24 loj
A. H. Bates (Penn. State).
Cambridge, Mass.
1928
Pole Jump
14 o
S. W. Carr (Yale).
Philadelphia.
1927
Weight
50 i
E. W. Kreuz (Stanford)
Cambridge, Mass.
1928
Ifammer
181 6|
F. D. Tootell (Bowdoin).
Philadelphia.
1923
Discus
154 ii
E. W. Kreuz (Stanford)
Cambridge, Mass.
1928
Javelin
205 7f
C. B. Hines (Georgetown).
Philadelphia.
1927
OXFORD-CAMBRIDGE v. YALE-HARVARD.
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder and University. Year.
Yds.
M. S.
IOO
9t
/ W. A. Schick (Harvard).
1904
\*A. H. Miller (Harvard).
1925
220
2lf
J H. M. Abrahams (Cambridge).
1923
\*A. E. Porritt (Oxford).
1925
44
49
*B. G. D. Rudd (Oxford).
1921
880
i 53?
*D. G. A. Lowe (Cambridge).
1925
Miles.
I
4 20f
*H. B. Stallard (Cambridge).
1921
2
9 29^
E. G. Taylor (Oxford).
1911
Hurdles
1 20
15*
G. C. Weightman-Smith (Cambridge).
1927
220
24ft
Lord Burghley (Cambridge).
1927
ft. ins.
High Jump
6 3
*R. W. Landon (Yale).
1921
Long Jump
25 3
*E. O. Gourdin (Harvard).
1921
Pole Jump
13 o
*S. W. Carr (Yale).
1925
Weight
44 5
C. A. Pratt (Harvard).
1927
f Hammer
159 3f
*J. F. Brown (Harvard).
1921
* Indicates made in America.
f Omitted since 1921.
ATHLETICS
Event,
INTER- VARSITY ATHLETIC BOARD
(I.V.A.B.)
Holder and University.
Time or
Distance.
Year.
Yds.
M, S.
100
10*
J. E. London (London).
1928
220
22|
J. W. Thwaite (Liverpool).
1923
440
51
J. V. S. Milne (Leeds).
1924
880
2 3i
E. A. Johnstone (Manchester).
1925
Miles
I
4 32
D. J. P. Richards ( Aberystwy th) .
1926
3
15 i6i
B. C. V. Oddie (London).
1926
Hurdles
120
16}
D. C. Prowse (Bristol).
1922
440
59f
D. McC. Bone (Liverpool).
1924
ft. ins.
High Jump
5 loi
J. E. London (London).
1926
Long Jump
Pole Jump
Weight
22 4!
10 10
41 o
C. A. Gee (Nottingham).
J. W. Jessen (London).
K. H. Pridie (Bristol).
1923
1927
1927
Hammer
105 4
K. H. Pridie (Bristol).
1928
Discus
120 7$
K. H. Pridie (Bristol).
1928
Javelin
163 3
W. P. Abell (Nottingham).
1926
Event.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS SPORTS RECORDS
Holder and School.
Time or
Distance.
Year.
Yds.
M. S.
100
*
f C. F. N. Harrison (Eton).
\R. S. Rowlands (City of London).
1923
/IQ25
\i926
*ioj
G. B. Bookless (Lancing).
1928
440
52
D. Barrington Hudson (Imp. Service
College, Windsor).
1927
880
2 If
H. S. Townend (St. Edmund's, Canter-
bury).
1927
I Mile.
4 3 2 t
/B. T. Ward (Rossall).
\H. W. Gregson (Oundie).
1898
1900
Hurdles.
120
i6J
P. R. O'R. Phillips (Highgate).
1910
* IO Yir
G. Dyas (Lancing).
1928
ft. ins.
High Jump
5 ioj
H. A. Simmons (Taunton's, Southamp-
ton).
1928
Long Jump
22 3J
J. Simpson (Oundie).
1928
Pole Jump
9 2 i
M. S. Tweedie (Charterhouse).
1927
iMile
Steeple-
M. S.
chase
4 3l
V. E. Morgan (Charterhouse).
1923
Mile Walk
7 3 2 t
J. B. Came (Polytechnic).
1923
* With strong wind.
346
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
WOMEN'S WORLD RECORDS
Time or
Event. Distance. Holder and Nationality. Where Made.
Year.
M. S.
100 yards
II
Miss Rosenfeld (Canada).
Toronto.
1925
100 meters
i
Miss Robinson (U.S.A.).
Amsterdam.
1928
800 meters
2 i6|
Frau Radke (Germany).
Amsterdam.
1928
400 Relay
4H
Canadian Olympic Team.
Amsterdam.
1928
(4 x 100 m.)
ft. ins.
High Jump
5 3
Miss Catherwood (Can-
ada).
Amsterdam.
1928
Long Jump
19 7i
Miss Hitomi (Japan).
London.
1928
Weight
39 2
Frl. Heublein (Germany) .
Berlin
1928
Discus
130 ij
Mile. Konopacka (Po-
land).
Amsterdam.
1928
Javelin
125 11}
Frl. Hargus (Germany).
Berlin
1928
347
TABLE 1
SHOWING PROGRESS OF WORLD'S RECORDS SINGE 1880,
AND THE COUNTRY IN WHICH THE RECORD WAS MADE
100 YARDS.
220 YARDS.
Prior
to
1880
10
J. P. Tennent ('68),
J. G. Wilson ('70),
G. H. Urmston ('73).
E. J. Davies ('74).
W. C. Warner ('78).
England.
England.
England.
England.
U.S.A.
Prior
to
1880
221
W. C. Wilmer ('78).
U.S.A.
1880
10
L. E. Myers.
U.S.A.
1880
..k.
1881
1881
1882
1882
|
H. S. Brooks.
U.S.A.
1883
1883
1884
J. M. Cowie.
Scotland.
1884
1885
1885
22
W. Baker!"
U.S.A.
1886
A. Wharton.
England.
1886
2lf
C. G. Wood.
England.
1887
1887
1888
F. Westing.
U.S.A.
1888
1889
1889
1890
9t
J. Owen.
U.S.A.
1890
1891
W. Macpherson.
N. Z.
1891
L. H. Gary'.
England.
1892
J. H. Hempton.
N. Z.
1892
1893
C. W. Stage.
U.S.A.
1893
1894
1894
1895
J. V. Crum.
U.S.A.
1895
B. J. Wefers.
U.S.A.
C. A. Bradley.
England.
J. V. Crum.
U.S.A.
1896
189?
B. J. Wefers.
B. J. Wefers.
J. H. Maybury.
B. J. Wefers.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A
U.S.A.
1896
1897
1898
21*
J. H. Maybury.
B. J. Wefers.
U.S.A
U.S.A.
1898
....
J. H. Rush.
U.S.A.
1899
1899
,.
1900
1900
1901
1901
A. F. Duffey.
U.S.A.
1902
E. M. Sears.
U.S.A.
1903
A. F. Duffey.
England.
1904
1902
9f
A. F. Duffey.
U.S.A.
1905
1903
1906
D. J. Keiiy.
U.S.A.
1904
1907
1905
1908
1906
D. J. Kelly.
U.S.A.
1909
1907
1910
R. C. Craig.
U.S.A.
1908
1911
R. C. Craig.
U.S.A.
1909
1912
1910
1913
D. F. Lippincott.
U.S.A.
1911
1914
H. P. Drew.
U.S.A.
1912
W. R. Applegarth.
England.
1913
G. Parker.
U.S.A.
1914
H. P. Drew.
U.S.A.
1915
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
1919
1920
1920
1921
20f
C. W. Paddock
U.S.A.
1921
C. W. Paddock (5
U.S.A.
(twice).
times).
1922
1922
C. Coaffee.
Canada.
1923
H. A. Russell.
U.S.A.
1923
U.S.A.
1924
C. W. Paddock.
U.S.A.
1924
C. W. Paddock.
1925
1925
1926
20$
R. A. Locke.
U.S.A.
1926
1927
1927
C. Bowman.
U.S.A.
1928
1928
348
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE I. continued.
'
440 YARDS.
880 YARDS.
Prior
to
1880
51
E, Ridley ('68).
E. J. Colbeck ('68),
J. Shearman ('77).
England.
England.
England.
Prior
to
1880
2 O
i 59
i 57i
A. C. Pelham ('72).
W. Slade ('76),
W. Slade (>).
F. T.Elborough('76).
England.
Ireland.
Ireland.
England.
i48o
880
1881
49t
L. E. Myers.
U.S.A.
881
i 56
L. E. Myers.
England.
L. E. Myers.
England.
882
1882
883
1883
884
i*55f
L. E. Myers.
England.
1884
885
L. E. Myers (twice).
U.S.A.
1885
886
1886
1887
471
W. Baker!"
U.S.A.
887
888
i'54l
F. J. K. Cross.
England.
1888
889
1889
48*
H. C. L. Tindall.
England.
890
....
1890
47!
W. C. Downs.
U.S.A.
891
1891
1892
1892
1893
#3
1894
1894
1895
1*531
C. H. Kilpatrick.
U.S.A.
1895
48*
E. C. Bredin.
England.
1896
1896
1897
1897
1898
1898
....
1899
1899
1900
1900
47*
M. W. Long ....
U.S.A.
1901
*47
M. W. Long.
U.S.A.
1902
1901
1903
1902
1904
1903
1905
1904
....
1906
1905
1906
1407
1907
1908
1909
i s4
M. W, Sheppard.
E. Lunghi.
England.
Canada.
1908
1910
1909
1910
1911
1912
i 52}
J. E. Meredith.
J. E. Meredith.
Sweden.
Sweden.
1911
1912
1913
*""
igiq
1914
1914
1915
1915
1916
r^
J. E. Meredith.
U.SA.
1916
47f
J. E. Meredith.
U.S.A.
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
1919
1920
1920
1921
1921
1922
1022
1923
1923
1924
1924
192:
1925
1926
i 5 J t
0. Peltzer."
England.
1926
1927
1928
!....
L. Hahn.""
U.S.L
1927
1928
S. Martin.
France.
* Straight track.
i
f Made indoors.
{ Times for 800 metres,
349
ATHLETICS
TABLfe 1. continued.
ONE MILE.
TWO MILES.
Prior
to
1880
4 29
426
4 24*
W,M. Chinnery ('68),
W. Slade ('74).
W. Slade ('75).
England.
England.
England.
'nor
to
1880
1880
4 23i
W. G. George.
England.
1880
1881
....
1881
1882
4 I9|
W. G. George.
England.
1882
1885
....
1883
1884
1885
4i8f
W. G. George.
England.
1884
1885
9 I7f
W. G. George.
England.
1886
1886
1887
1887
1888
1888
1889
1889
1890
1890
1891
1891
1892
1892
1893
1893
1894
4"i8J
F. E. Bacon.
Scotland.
1894
1895
4 17
F. E. Bacon.
England.
1895
4 >5l
T. P. Conneff.
U.S.A.
1896
1896
1897
1897
1898
1898
1899
1899
1900
1900
1901
1901
1902
1902
1903
1903
9 17
A. Shrubb,
England.
1004
1904
9 9i
A. Shrubb.
England.
1905
1905
1906
1906
1907
1907
1908
1908
1909
1909
1910
1910
1911
V'i'st
J. P. Jones.
U.S.A.
1911
1912
1912
1913
4"i4i
J. P. Jones.
U.S.A.
1913
1914
..*.
1914
1915
412f
N. S. Tabor.
U.S.A.
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
1919
1920
1920
1921
1921
1922
1922
1923
4 i!
P. Nurmi.
Sweden.
1923
1924
1924
1925
1925
....
....
1926
1926
9""ii
E. Wide.
Germany.
1927
....
1927
....
....
1928
....
1928
....
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE I. continued.
FOUR MILES.
TEN MILES.
Prior
to
1880
Prior
to
1880
1880
1880
1881
1881
1882
1882
1883
1883
1884
1884
51 20
W. G. George.
England.
1885
1885
1886
1886
1887
1887
1888
1888
1889
1889
1890
1890
1891
1891
1892
1892
1893
1893
....
1894
1894
1895
i895
1896
1896
1897
1897
1898
1898
1899
1899
1900
1900
1901
1901
1902
1902
1903
1903
1904
19 23?
A. Shrubb,
Scotland.
1904
50 40?
A. Shrubb.
Scotland.
1905
1905
1906
1906
1907
1907
....
1908
1908
1909
1909
J9io
1910
1911
1911
1912
1912
1913
1913
1914
1914
1915
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
1919
1920
1920
1921
1921
1922
1922
1923
1923
1924
19 I5i
P. Nurmi.
Finland.
1924
J925
1925
1926
1926
1927
1927
....
1928
1928
50 15
P. Nurmi.
Germany.
3*1
ATHLETICS
TABLE I. continued.
120 YARDS HURDLES.
220 YARDS HURDLES.
Prior
to
1880
16*
S. Palmer ('78),
England.
Prior
to
1880
1880
1880
1881
W
G. P. Lawrence,
England.
1881
1882
1882
1883
S. Palmer,
England.
1883
1884
1884
1885
1885
1886
16
C, F. Daft.
England.
1886
1887
1887
27
A. F. Copland.
U.S.A.
1888
S. Joyce.
England.
1888
26f
A. F. Copland.
U.S.A.
1889
1889
....
1890
1890
....
1891
I5t
H. L. Wiiiiams.
U.S.A.
1891
1892
I5i
W. H. Henry.
U.S.A.
1892
1893
1893
1894
i5l
S. Chase.
U.S.A.
1894
U.S.A.
1895
1895
24!
J. L. Bremen
U.S.A.
1896
G. B. Shaw.
England.
1896
1897
1897
1898
I5i
A. C. Kraenzlein.
U.S.A.
1898
ia'i
A. C. Kraenzlein.
U.S.A.
1899
1899
1900
1900
1901
1901
1902
1902
1903
1903
1904
1904
1905
1905
1906
....
1906
1907
1907
1908
A, B. Shaw.
U.S'.A,
1908
*'i5
F. C. Smithson.
Sweden.
1909
1909
I5i
F. C. Smithson.
U.S.A.
1910
1910
1911
....
1911
1912
1912
J. P. Nicholson.
1913
J. I. Wendell.
U.S'.A.
1913
15
F. W. Kelly.
U.S.A.
1914
1914
F, W. Kelly.
U.S.A.
1915
1915
1916
R. Simpson.
U.S.A.
1916
i'it
R. Simpson.
U.S.A.
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
1919
1920
1920
i'i
E. Thomson.
U.S.A.
1921
1921
1922
1922
....
1923
1923
1924
23
C. R. Brookins.
U.S.A.
1924
1925
1925
....
1926
U.S.A.
1926
1927
1927
....
1928
1928
* no meters, i.e. 120 yds. io/ ins.
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE I. continued.
440 YARDS HURDLES.
HIGH JUMP.
Prior
to
1880
Prior
to
1880
6 o
M. J. Brooks ('76)
England.
1880
1880
/S8i
1881
6 oj
P. Davin.
England.
1882
1882
1883
1883
1884
1884
1885
1885
1886
1886
1887
1887
6" 4
W. B. Page.
U.S.A.
1888
1888
1889
1889
1890
1890
1891
57i
G. B, Shaw.
England.
1891
1892
1892
1893
1893
1894
1894
J895
i895
6"sl
M. F. Sweeney.
U.S.A.
?8 9 6
1896
....
1897
1897
1898
1898
1899
1899
1900
1900
1901
1901
1902
1902
1903
1903
1904
1904
1905
1905
1906
1906
1907
1907
1908
1908
1909
1909
1^0
&
G. R. L. Anderson.
England.
1910
1911
1911
....
1912
912
6 '7
T. L. Horine.
1913
1913
1914
1914
6*7A
E. Beeson.
U.S.A.
1915
54*
W. H. Meanix,
U.S.A.
915
1916
916
1917
917
1918
918
1919
919
....
1920
54i
J. K. Norton.
U.S.A.
920
1921
921
1922
....
922
....
1923
1924
923
924
6 8i
H. M. Osborne.
U.S.A.
IJ25
925
....
1926
926
1927
Lord Burghley.
England.
927
f
J, A, Gibson.
U.S.A.
928
1928
353
ATHLETICS
TABLE I. continued.
LONG JUMP.
POLE JUMP.
Prior
to
1880
22 8
E. Baddeley ('78).
England,
Mor
to
880
to 9 ]
K, E, Kayll ('77).
England.
1880
880
1881
2 II
?. Davin.
England.
881
i 3
T. Ray.
England..
1882
882
1883
foj
. W. Parsons.
U.S.A.
883
1884
884
1885
885
1886
23 3
M. W. Ford.
U.S.A.
886
1887
887
H 5
H. H. Baxter.
U.S.A.
1888
1888
1889
1889
1890
23""3i
A. F. Copland.
U.S.A.
1890
1891
23 6}
C. S. Reber.
U.S.A.
1891
1892
1892
""'sl
W. S. Rodenbaugh.
U.S.A.
1893
....
1893
1894
1894
i895
1895
1896
1896
1897
1897
1898
23""8J
M. Prinstein.
U.S.A.
1898
II IOJ
R. G. Clapp.
U.S.A.
1899
1900
24 4|
24 7i
A. C. Kraenzlein.
M. Prinstein.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
1899
1900
1901
24 n|
P. O'Connor.
Ireland.
1901
1902
1902
1903
1903
1904
1904
I2""lJ
N. Dole.
1905
1905
1906
1906
12 4J
^. R. Samse.
U.S.A.
1907
1907
12 5\
W. R. Dray.
1908
1908
12 9i
W. R. Dray.
1909
1909
....
1910
1910
12 10^
L. S. Scott.
k
1911
1911
1912
1912
I3""2i
M. S. Wright.
1913
1913
1914
1914
1915
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1918
1918
1919
.,
1919
13!*
F. K. Foss.
1920
1920
13 5iV
F. K. Foss.
Belgium.
1921
25 3
E. 0. Gourdin.
U.S.A.
1921
1922
1922
....
1923
1923
13 9i
C. Hoff.""
U.S.A.
1924
25 5
R. L. Legendre.
France.
1924
13 10
R. Spearow.
U.S.A.
1925
25 I0 1
D. H. Hubbard.
U.S.A.
1925
13 ";
C. Hoff.
France.
1926
....
1926
*
1927
....
1927
14 o
S. W, Carr.
U.S.A.
1928
25 II
E. B. Hamn.
U.S.A.
14 I
S. W. Carr.
U.S.A.
....
26 o
S. Cator.
France.
1928
14 i|
L. Barnes.
U.S.A.
354
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE I, continued.
HOP, STEP AND JUMP.
PUTTING THE WEIGHT.
Prior
to
1880
Prior
to
1880
42 5
E. J. Bor.
England.
1880
1880
....
l 83i
1881
1882
1882
1883
1883
43 o
F. L. Lambrecht.
U.S.A.
1884
44 ""if
M. W. Ford.
U.S.A.
1884
1885
....
1885
43 oj
D. J, Mackinnon.
England.
1886
1886
1887
1887
43 n
G. R. Gray.
U.S.A.
1888
1888
....
1889
1889
1890
1890
1891
1891
1892
1892
1893
48""6
E. B. Bloss.
U.S.A.
i893
47 o
G. R. Gray.
U.S.A.
1894
1894
895
1895
1896
1896
1897
1897
1898
1898
1899
1899
47 i
D. Horgan.
Ireland.
1900
1900
48 2
D. Horgan.
Ireland.
1901
1901
....
1902
1902
R. Rose.
U.S.A.
1903
1903
....
1904
1904
4 8"" 7
R. Rose.
U.S.A.
1905
1905
49 6
W. W. Coe.
U.S.A.
1906
1906
1907
1907
49 7l
R. Rose.
U.S.A.
1908
48"iii
D. F. Ahearn.
U.S.A.
1908
49 10
R. Rose.
U.S.A.
1909
1909
5i o
R. Rose.
U.S.A.
;>9io
49 7t
D. F. Ahearn.
U.S.A.
1910
1911
50 II
D. F. Ahearn.
U.S.A.
1911
1912
1912
1913
1913
1914
1914
1915
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1918
1918
....
1919
1919
1920
1920
1921
1921
1922
1922
1923
1923
1924
50 ni
A. Winter.
France.
1924
....
J925
....
1925
1926
1926
1927
1927
1928
....
1928
51 9i
E. Hirschfeld.
Germany.
52 0}
J. Kuck.
U.S.A.
52 7J
E. Hirschfeld.
Germany.
355
ATHLETICS
TABLE I. continued.
THROWING THE HAMMER.
THROWING THE DISCUS.
Prior
to
1880
120
S. S. Brown ('74)
England.
Prior
to
1880
1880
7-foot Circle
iSSi
1880
1882
1881
1883
1882
1884
1883
1885
1884
1886
1885
1887
1886
1888
1887
1889
130 o
W. J.Mi'Barry.
England.
1888
1890
130 8
J. S. Mitchel.
U.SA.
1889
....
1891
1890
1892
140 II
J. S. Mitchel,
U.S.A.
1891
1893
....
1892
1894
1893
1895
....
U.S.A.
1894
1896
147 o
J. J. Flanagan.
U.S.A.
i895
1897
1898
1899
150 8
151 ioi
164 6
J. J. Flanagan.
J. J. Flanagan.
J. J, Flanagan.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
1896
1897
1898
118 9
C. H. Henneman.
U.S.A.
1900
167 4i
J. J. Flanagan.
France.
1899
1901
171 9
J. J. Flanagan.
U.S.A.
1900
1902
....
1901
120 7^
ML J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1903
1902
127 8f
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1904
172 II
J, J. Flanagan,
U.S.A.
1903
U.S.A.
1905
1904
I33""6i
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1906
i9<>5
U.S.A.
1907
173 7
M. J. McGrath.
U.S.A.
1906
135 5
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1908
1907
136 10
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1909
184 4
J. J. Flanagan.
U.S.A.
1908
1910
...,
1909
139 ioj
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1911
187 "4
M. J. McGrath.
U.S.A.
1910
U.S.A. "
1912
1911
141 4l
M. J. Sheridan.
U.S.A.
1913
i8 9 "6i
P. J. Ryan.
U.S.A.
1912 145 9i
J. Duncan.
1914
8 feet 2$ in.
1915
Circle
1916
1917
1912
1913
156 if
156 iif
J. Duncan.
A. Taipale.
U.S.A.
Germany.
1918
1914
....
1919
1915
1920
1916
1921
1917
1922
1918
1923
1919
1924
1920
1925
1921
1926
1922
1927
1923
1928
1924
1925
1926
157 ii
158 it
G. H. Hartranft.
C. Houser.
U.S.A.
1927
1928
1 60 0}
H. Hoffmeister.
Germany.
356
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE I. continued.
THROWING THE JAVELIN
Prior
to
1880
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
'1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
179 10}
E. Lemming.
Sweden.
1909
1910
I8 5 " 2}
E. Lemming.
Sweden.
1911
191 2j
E. Lemming.
Sweden.
1912
200 I \ I
J. J. Saaristo.
Finland.
204 5l
E. Lemming.
Sweden.
1913
1914
1915
212 7 J
J. Myrrha.
Finland.
1916
1917
1918
1919
216 lOf
J. Myrrha.
Finland.
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
218 6}
G. Lindstrom.
Sweden.
....
229 34
E. Penttila.
Finland.
1928
232 IIH
E. H. Lundkvist.
Sweden.
357
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ATHLETICS
TABLE IV
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF METRES AND YARDS,
AND RELATIVE TIMES AND SPEEDS
A. Common distances :
Metres. Yards.
100 = 109-36
no 120-30
200 = 218-72
400 = 437*45
800 = 874-89
1500 = 1640-42 (i.e. 1 19-58 yds. short of I mile)
1600 == 1749-72 (i.e. 10-22 yds. short of i mile; common
relay event, 4 X 400 metres)
5000 = 5468-07 (i.e. 3 miles 188 yards)
10000 = 6 miles 276 yards
B. Relative times :
As will be observed, the no metres hurdles corresponds almost exactly
with the 120 yards hurdles as run in England and America. It is also
possible to contrast times for the 220 yards flat with the 200 metres as run
on the Continent and in the Olympic Games. But over longer distances
greater adjustments have to be made when effecting comparisons
between, say, British and French times. Thus :
The corresponding time for 440 yards is obtained by adding about
fV of a second to that taken for 400 metres, and, of course, vice versa.
by subtraction.
For 880 yards by adding about ^ of a second to the time for 800
metres.
For i mile by adding about 3/4ists of the time for 1500 meters : e.g.
4 minutes for 1500 metres represents 4 minutes 17$ seconds for i mile ;
3'53i (Olympic record) represents 4 minutes loj seconds (world's record
being 4 minutes lof seconds) ; 4.30 represents 4 minutes 50 seconds, etc.
etc.
For 3 miles by subtracting about 2/55ths of the time taken for 5000
metres (188 yards more than 3 miles) : e.g. 15 minutes i second for 5000
metres represents 14 minutes 30 seconds for 3 miles.
C. Pace :
It may be of interest to notice the actual speed in yards per second
of various performances. It is surely rather wonderful, and indeed
somewhat curious, that a man can run at a speed in excess of the legal
speed limit in England ; and it is apparent that before long some one
will run 12 miles within the hour, and we believe that Nurmi is capable
of this feat.
360
RECORDS AND STATISTICS
TABLE IV. continued.
Distance.
Time.
Average Speed.
World's Records.
Yds. per
second.
Miles
per hour.
Yds.
M. S.
IOO
10
10
20j
9t
K>T*
2lf
9} sees, is world's record, held by
C. W. Paddock and four others.
44
48A
9
i8J
o
47t
9t
19
47} sees, is J. E. Meredith's world's
record.
880
2
7*
15
I 52
7* .
16
Dr. O. Peltzer's world's record is
i min. 51 f sees.
i mile
4 30
6
131
4 10
7
I4l
Nurmi's world's record is 4 min.
i of sees.
ii miles
1 648 yds.
>i hour
Nurmi's record, made 7th October
1928.
D. Comparative tables :
i centimetre =-393 7 inches (ff in.) ; i metre = 3- 28 feet (3 ft. 3f ins.)
or 1-09 yds.
i inch =2-54 cm. or -0254 metres ; i foot =-3048 metres ; i yard = -9144
metres.
HIGH JUMP.
LONG JUMP.
POLE JUMP.
Ft.
Metres.
Ft.
Metres.
Ft.
Metres.
5'3
i -60
20
6-095
10
3-05
5'5
1-65
21
6-401
ii
3'35
5*6
1-676
21-6
6-553
12
3-66
5'7
1-702
22
6705
12-6
3-8i
5'8
1-727
22-6
6-857
12-9
3-89
5'9
1-753
22'9
6-934
13
396
5-io
1-778
23
701
I3'3
4-04
5-n
1-803
23-3
7-086
I3'6
4-12
6-0
1829
23-6
7-163
13-9
4-19
6-1
1-854
23-9
7-239
14
4-27
6-2
1-88
24
7-3I5
I4'3
4-34
6-3
1-905
24-3
7-392
14-6
4-42
6-4
1-93
24-6
7-468
6-5
1-956
24-9
7-544
6-6
1-98
25
7-62
6-7
2-006
25-3
7*697
6-8
2-032
25*6
7'773
6-9
2-057
25-9
7-849
26-
7-926
26-3
8.002
361
ATHLETICS
TABLE IV. continued.
HOP, STEP AND JUMP ; PUTTING
THROWING THE
HAMMER, Discus
THE
WEIGHT.
AND
JAVELIN.
Metres.
Ft. Ins.
Metres.
Ft. Ins.
14
= 45 "i
45
= 147 7l
14*50
= 47 7
50
= 164 oj
15
= 49 2j
55
= i 80 5f
15-20
= 49 ioj
60
= 196 loj
15-40
= 50 6J
65
= 213 6|
15-60
= 51 2j
70
== 229 8
15-80
= 51 9j
75
== 246 of
16
= 52 6
80
= 262 5|
362
INDEX
A. A. A., formation, 12 ; champion-
ships, 13, and vide Championships ;
laws, 13 ; powers, 13 ; affiliation
of clubs, 13 ; registration of
meetings, 13 ; and N.C.U., 14 ;
decentralisation, 14-5 ; and
I.A.A.F., 39, 53 ; and foreign
tours, 54 ; rules for competition,
vide each event
A.A.C., ii
A.A.U., 62, 63, 65, 66, and vide
Championships
Abrahams, Dr. A., 107
Abrahams, H. M., viii, 46-7, 135, 237
Abrasions, no
Achilles Club, 16, 18, 19, 20, 32, 56,
58, 59, 60, 323
Actian Games, 7
^Eschylus, 6
Africa, Olympic Games in, 50 ;
South, vide South Africa
Age for athletics, 30, 104, 202, 305
Ajax, 25
Alcohol, 96-7, 109, 1 68
Amateurism, 39-42, 81-3
America, athletics in, 17, 19, 60,
61-9, 83-4, 159, and vide Cham-
pionships, A.A.U., I.C.A.A.A.A., Barbuti, R., 48
etc. ; in Olympic Games, 30., 44-8, Barnes, L., 263
62, 63, 216 ; schoolboys in, 17, ~~
68-9 ; coaches in, 276
American athletes, prowess of,
68-9 ; comparison with English
athletes, 35, 63, 65-6, 68-9
American records, 336-8, 359 ; com-
parison of indoor and outdoor,
336-7 ; I.C.A.A.A.A., 345
Amsterdam, 22, 135, 202, 210-11,
216, 281, 313 ; Olympic Games
at, 47-9, 313
Anglo-Saxon style in distance
races, 196
Antwerp, Olympic Games at, 45-6,
53
Appendix, 325-62
Applegarth, W. R., 135, 159
Arabia, games in, 2
Archery, 7, 9, 10, 25
Argentina, 59
Aristotle, 30
Arm action, vide each event
Art, athletics and, 28, 33-5, 43
Asia, games in, 2, 23, 84 ; Inter-
national athletics in, 57-9
Association football, vide Football
Atalanta Club, 60
Athens, 5-6, 30-2, 202 ; Olympic
Games at, 37, 38, 43-4, 135, 216,
232, 248
" Athletic," derivation of, 70
Athletics, history of, vide Ch. I ;
international, vide Ch. Ill ; for
boys, vide Ch. XV ; for women,
vide Ch. XV; as recreation, 53, 55,
57, 83-4
Atkinson, S. J. M., 47-8, 214-6
Australia, 60- 1
Australasian records, 343
Automatic performance, 132, 235,
273-4
Averoff, M., 37
BAILLET-LATOUR, Count, 38
Baker, P. J., 19, 165
" Barre, casting the," 9
Baths, 100, 199
Baton, 120, 297, 300-3
Belgium, 18, 54, 57, 209, 210
Berlin, 38, 45
Birchfield Harriers, 15
Blackheath Harriers, 16
Blisters, no, 204
" Born athlete," the, 72
Bouin, J., 45
Bowman, C., 136
Boxing, 5, 25, 31, 42, 51, 62
Boys, athletics for, 5, 30, 69, 80,
and vide Ch. XV ; and medical
examination, 103, 320 ; training
for, 103-4 1 events, 320, 322 ;
pole vault for, 263, 270 ; and vide
Schools
363
INDEX
Bradley, C. A., 134
Braun, H., 55, 164-5
Brazil, 59
Bredin, E. C., 165
British Empire v. U.S.A., Relay
Match, 19-20, 61, 68, 211, 336
British India, vide India
British Olympic Association, 40-1
British records, 136, 335-6, 341-2,
359 .
Broad jump, vide Long jump
Broken time, 40
Bropkins, C. R., 230
Bruises, in
Brunhiide, 8
Budapest, 56
Burghley, Lord, 48, 214-5, 231
Butler, G. M., 166
C&stus, 5, 25, 31-2
Cambridge, Sports, n, 18 ; v. Ox-
ford, vide Oxford; v. American
Universities, vide Oxford and
Cambridge ; and Achilles Club, 18
Canada, athletics in, 60, 293 ; and
Empire Games, 61 ; and Olympic
Games, 45-7, 6 1, 135, 159 ; records,
343
Carriage of head and body, vide each
event
Celts and field events, 59
Championships, A. A. A., n, 13, 17,
20 ; County, 15 ; Inter-County,
15 ; American, 18, 61-2 ; I.C.A.-
A.A.A., 63-4 ; relays in A. A. A.,
20 ; foreign entry in A. A. A., 21 ;
and vide each event
Change over in relays, vide Baton
Chariot-racing, 5, 6, 25, 29, 32-3
Chase, the, 2, 7, 9
Chile, 59
China, 58
C.I.E. (Confederation Internationale
d'Etudiants), 17, 56
Civil Service, u
Clothes, 126-7
Clubs, inter-club matches, 19-20
Coaches, 66, 276 ; in tug-of-war,
3<>5-6
Coaffee, C. H., 136
Coasting, in 220 yards, 159-60
Columbia, 64
Combining events, 178-9
Competition as the key to athletics,
70-1, 77
Contents, ix-x
Continent, games on, vide Europe
Co-ordination, 87 ; vide each event
Copenhagen, 18, 56
Corks, 128
Corinth, games at, 5, 27, 33
Cornell, 64 ; v. Oxford and Cam-
bridge, 67-8
Cornering, 160-1
Corcebus, 3, 27
Corts, R., 135
Coubertin, Baron P. de, 36
County movement in England, 14-5,
18, 20
Cramp, in
Cricket ball, throwing the, 292
Cross-country, 16, 57 ; shoes for,
125 ; international, 57, 209 ; in
U.S.A., 62, 64, 209 ; Ch. VIII,
utility for track- work, 198-9,
206-7 1 style, 207 ; obstacles,
207-8 ; stamina, 208 ; training,
208 ; packs, 209 ; scoring and
team-work, 209 ; for women, 209
Cross. F. J. K., 165
Crouch start, vide Sprinting, etc.
Cycling, 14, 42; and A. A. A., 14
Czecho-Slovakia, 17, 56-7
DANCING, 10, 24, 99
Decathlon record, 330
Delphi, 5, 26-7, 32-3
Denmark, 18, 293
Diet, 91-4, 167-8, 205, 275, 321-2 ;
on day of competition, 94
Discus, in ancient Olympic Games,
5. I7 2 5. 3> 3 1 ; modern, 8, 114 ;
Ch. XI, pp. 285-9 ; the missile,
285-6 ; footwork, 288 and Fig.35 ;
the throw, 286-8 and Fig. 34
Distance races, Ch. VIII, pp. 193-
21 1 ; long-distance running, 193-
202 ; Marathon, 202-6 ; cross-
country, 206-10 ; steeplechase,
210-11
Distance running, long-, tempera-
ment and physique of long-distance
runner, 193-4 I distances, 194-5 >
to schedule, 195 ; style in, 195,
196-8 ; stamina, 198-9 ; training,
199-200 ; stride, 200 ; pace, 200-
201
Ditch, vide Cross-country
Dominions, 41, 47-8, 59-61, 84 ;
records, 343-4 ; and vide respective
countries
Dorando, 45, 203
Drake relays, 297
Dressing-rooms, 115
364
INDEX
Drew, H. P., 136
Drop finish, 154-5
Drugs, 108-9
Dublin, 59
Duffey, A. F., 134
Dumb-bells, 99, 157, 293
EASING-UP, 155, 177
East, the, vide Asia and Far-Eastern
Olympic Games
Eastern form, vide High jump
Economy of effort, 168-9
Ecuador, 59
Education, athletics and, 9-10, 16-7,
30, 80, 84 ; Ch. XV ; and vide also
Gymnasia
Edward, H. F. V., 135
Edwards, P., 164-5
Egypt, games in, 2
Ells, the Eleians, 3, 4, 25-7, 29
Elizabethan age, games in, 10.
Ellis, C., 68, 165
Embrocation, 101, 109
Empire Games, 61
Endocrine glands, 71-2, 108, 311,
3H
England, athletics in, n, 63, 80,
83-4, 209, 293 ; v. France, 54;
v. Germany, 56 ; v. Scotland, v.
Ireland, 18, 59
English Field Events Association, 17
English native records, 341
Equipment, Ch. V, pp. 122-9, and
vide Impedimenta
Eton, 134
Euripides, 4, 6, 33
Europe, games in Central, 8 ; con-
tinent of, n, 21, 53-7, 83
Ewry, R., 247, 261
Exercises, training, 97-9; and vide
each event
FAR-EASTERN Olympics, 49, 50, 58-9
F.F.A. (F<$de"ration Fran9aise
d'Athtetisme), 39
Feet, care of, no, 204
Fence, vide Cross-country
Fencing, 9, 10, 25, 42, 51, 62
Ferris, S., 205
Field events, in A.A.A. Champion-
ships, 17-8 ; on team principle,
19 ; Japanese and, 58 ; Irish and
Scots, 59 ; competition in, com-
pared with track events, 234-5 ;
and vide each event
F.I.F.A., 40
1500 metres, vide Mile
Finish, vide Sprinting, Middle-
distance running, Hurdling, etc.
Finishing posts, 119
Finland, and Olympic Games, 45-9 ;
and international athletics, 57 ;
records, 339, 359
Finnish style in distance races,
197-8
Fitness, physical, 75, 86-9 ; mental,
89-91
Fives, 98, 199
Flight, vide Long jump
Football, 10, 45 ; Association, 40,
41 ; Rugby, 42 ; F.I.F.A., 40
Footwork, vide Ch. XI
France, 17, 18, 54, 209 ; F.F.A., 39 ;
the Olympic Games and, 44, 45,
49 ; records, 339, 359 ; inter-
national athletics, 54-5, 57 ; v.
Belgium, 54 ; v. England, 54 ;
v. Germany, 54 ; v. Sweden, 54 ; v.
Switzerland, 54
Frigerio, U., 56
GABY, F. R., 214-5
Games, vide Olympic Games ;
mechanised, 55
Gardner, P., 34-5
Gargantua, 9
General Committee, vide A.A.A.
General principles, Ch. IV
George, W. G., 67, 166, 193, 196
German and British teams, 56
German Students Union, 55
Germany, in A.A.A. Championships,
2I 55 *35 I * n Olympic Games,
38, 47-8 ; international competi-
tion, 54-6 ; gymnasia, 17, 57 ;
v. France, 54-5 ; v. Great Britain,
56 ; v. Switzerland, 54-5 ; walk-
ing in, 293 ; records, 340, 359
Gibbon, 6
Gitsham, 45
Goehring, W., 261
Golf, 199
" Go-as-you-please " races, 195
" Graded races/' 20-1
Great Britain, athletics in, 1 1 ; and
international competition, 54, 56,
6 1 ; and Olympic Games, 40, 41,
44-8, 135; records, 136, 335-6,
34I- 2 ' 359
Greece, games in, vide Olympic
Games, Chs. I and II
Greek art, 34-35
Guillemot, 46
Gun, 1 20 ; beating the, 145
365
INDEX
Gymnasia, in Greece, 29, 30-1, 34 ;
in Germany, 17, 57
Gymnastics, 42, 62, 264
HABITS, 74, 76, 95-6
Hahn, A., 159
Hahn, L., 68, 165
Half-mile, the, vide Ch. VII, pp. 162-
179,184-9; pace knowledge, 185,
187 ; theory of pace, 185-7 ;
tactics, 187-9 ; training, 184 ;
women, 313
Halswelle, Capt., 45, 165
Hammer, throwing the, vide Ch. XI,
pp. 281-5 ; the missile, 281-2 ;
the throw, 282-5 and Fig. 32 ;
footwork, 284-5 and Fig. 33 ; and
PP- 9. *7, 59, H4
Handicaps, 20-1
Hares and hounds, viefe Cross-country
Harvard, 64-6 ; and Yale v. Oxford
and Cambridge, 67
Hayes, 203
" Healthy bodies and healthy
minds," 73, 80
Heart, 106, 107, 310, 311
Heel spikes, 124-5, 214-5, 242, 250
Hellanodicae, 29
Henry V, 9, 10
Henry VIII, 9
Hera, games to, 4, 30
Hercules, 26, 34
Herodotus, 2
Hesiod, 25
High jump, vide Ch. X, pp. 250-
260 ; the " scissors," 250-1 ; the
"Eastern," 251, 252-5, 257-8, Figs.
15-19 ; " Western roll," 251-2,
255-8, Fig. 20 ; " lay-out," 251,
2 55-7 training for, 258 ; prac-
tice, 258-60 ; competition, 260 ;
and pp. 59, 62, 64, 113, 118
High jump, standing, 62, 261-2
Highland Games, 8, 59, 60
Hill, A. G., 45, 165
Hill, Prof. A. V., 103, 106-7, 200,
272
Hill, W. A., 135
"Hills, 'vide Cross-country and Road
walking
History of athletics, vide Ch. I ;
ancient, 2-7 ; mediaeval, 7-11 ;
modern, 11-22
Hitch-kick style, vide Long jump
Hockey, 42-3
Hodges, P., 46
Hoffmeister, H., 289 (n)
Hold, of missile, vide Throwing
(Ch. XI) ; of baton, vide Baton
Holes, starting, 141-3, 218
Homer, 24-6
Hop, step and jump, 17, 113-4;
vide Ch. X, pp. 247-50 ; training
for, 248-9 ; divisions, 248, 249-50 ;
speed and spring, 249
Houser, C., 288-9
House runs, 320
" Hundred-up," 156-7
Hundred yards, vide Sprinting
Hungary, 56
Hunting, vide Chase
Hurdles, 17, 62, 64, 117-8, and
Ch. IX on grass, 212 ; jumping
and sprinting, 212-4, 218 ; shoes,
214-5 ; straight-leg style, 215-7,
220-5, and Figs. 7-12 ; start,
217-9 ; first 15 yards ; number of
strides, 219-20 ; detail of hurd-
ling, 220-5 ; 10 yards between
hurdles, 225-6 ; last 15 yards and
finish, 226-8 ; training, 228-30 ;
rules, 230 ; 220 yards hurdles,
230-1 ; 440 yards hurdles, 232-3 ;
indoors, 213 ; women's event, 2 13,
313 ; in steeplechase, 211 ; track
and impedimenta, 217, 231, 232
I.A.A.F., 39, 53-4. "7. 120, 313
Illinois A.C., 297
Impedimenta, vide Ch. V, pp. 116-
121 ; fixtures, 117-8; officials,
119-20 ; athletes, 120-1
India, 58, 61
Individual nature of athletics, 77-9
Indoor athletics, 62, 64, 116, 125,
194, 297, 336-7 ; tracks, 116 ;
shoes, 125 ; records, 33 6 ~7 '
hurdles, 213 ; steeplechase, 213 ;
standing long jump, 247
Inge, Dean, 52
Inter-city matches, 57
Inter-club competition, 19, 20
Inter-College meetings, 65
Inter-Collegiate athletics (U.S.A.),
63-9
I.C. A. A. A. A. championships, 18, 62,
64, 194 ; records, 345
Inter-county championships, 15, 20
International athletics, Ch. Ill;
Federations, 39, 40 ; matches, 18,
53, 8 1 ; Confederation of Stu-
dents, 56 ; student games, 17,
56 ; regulations, 53-4 ; records,
vide Countries
366
INDEX
I.O.C. (International Olympic Com-
mittee), 37-40, 47, 59
I.V.A.B. (Inter-'Varsity Athletic
Board), 19, 60 ; records, 346
Intra-mural athletics in English and
American Universities, 65
Iphitus, 3, 26-8
Ireland, games in, 2, 7-8, 18, 59, 246
Irish Free State and Olympic Games,
48, 60 ; and international com-
petition, 57, 59-60, 209 ; records,
342
Isaiah, 2
Isthmian Games, 5, 27
Italy, 46, 56, 293
ACKSON, A. N. S,, 45, 68, 166
'ames I, treatises of, 10
apan and Olympic Games, 21, 49
ava, 58
avelin, throwing the, 5, 7, 8, 9, 17,
25. 30. 3i. H4> Ch. XI, pp. 289-
292 ; the missile, 121, 289 ; the run-
up, 289-90, Fig. 36 ; the throw,
290-2, and Fig. 37
Jeremiah, 2
Jones, J. P., 165
Judges' enclosure, 115 ; stand, 119 ;
cards, 120
Judges in Olympic Games, 29, 31,
32 '
Jumping, Ch. X, vide each event
" Jumping " an opponent, 173
Jumping shoes, 125
KELLY, D., 136
Kerr, R., 45, 134
Kinnaird Cup, 16
Kipling, R., 6
Knee-lift, 153, 171, 197
Kolehmainen, H., 45, 46, 57, 203, 209
Kornig, H., 135, 159
Kraenzlein, A. C., 44, 214-6, 230
Kuck, J., 281
L.A.C. (London Athletic Club), u,
15, 134 ; championship meeting,
12; schoolboys, 16 ; matches,
20; v. N.Y.A.C., 66-7
Ladoume'gue, 166
Lampadedromia, 6
Landon, R. W., 257
Landskamp, Scandinavian, 18, 57
Lanes, 112-3, 181-2, 300, 304
Lawn tennis, vide Tennis
Lay, S. A., 290
" Lay-out/' vide High jump, 255-7
Leading in races, vide Middle-
distance races, 183, 187, and
Relays, 298-9
League of Nations, 52
Lecture demonstrations, 322-3
Leg action, vide each event
Legg, W. B. f 135
Lewden, P., 257-8
Liddell, E. H., 46-7, 135, 162, 166
Lillie Bridge, n, 15
Limbering-up, 99, and vide each
event
Lippincott, D. F., 135
Literature and athletics, 3, 28,
33-4. 43
Livy, 7
Locke, R. A., 136, 159
London, Olympic Games at, 44-5
London, J. E., 135, 155, 262
Long-distance running, vide Distance
running
Long jump, 8, 9, 10, 18, 31, 64, 113,
114, Ch. X, pp. 234-46; history,
234 ; automatic nature, 235 ;
sprinting for, 235-7 ' s P rin g. 236 ;
training, 236-7, 238-9 ; the run-
up, 237-41 ; the take-off, 241-2 ;
the board, 241 ; the flight,
242-6 ; hitch-kick style, 244-6,
and Fig. 14 ; landing, 246 ;
tape measure, 128 ; standing
long jump, 246-7
Loud speakers, 119
Loues, 203
Lowe, D. G. A., 46, 48
Ludi Publici, 6-7.
Lundquist, E. H., 292
Lutyens, W. E., 165
Lycurgus, stadium of, 3, 26, 30
Lydia, games in, 2
Lysander, 29
M* ARTHUR, 45
Madeira, L., 68
Manila, 58
Marathon, the, 15, 31, 44, 45 ;
running, Ch. VIII, pp. 202-6 ;
history, 202-3 ' medical examina-
tion for, 203 ; style, 203-4 ' shoes
and socks, 204 ; training, 204-5 ;
stamina, 205 ; diet, 205 ; com-
petition, 205-6
Martin, S., 165
Massage, 100-1
M.C. A.A.A., 14
McAllister, R., 135
McKenzie, Dr. Tait, 35
367
INDEX
Measures, 119-20, 128, 240
Measuring track, 115 ; throws, 279
Medical considerations, Ch. V, pp.
103-11 ; boys, 103-4 ; systems
of the body, 104-8 ; drugs, 108-9 ;
medicine, 109 ; stateness, 109-
110; injuries, etc., no-i; ex-
amination, 103, 203
Medicine, 30, 109
Medley relay, vide Relays
Megaphones, 119
Mental aspect of athletic training,
75-7> 89-91
Meredith, J. E., 45, 164, 165, 186
Method, 74, 76
Metres and yards, comparative
table, 360-2
Mexico, 59
Middle-distance running, Ch. VII;
general principles, 162-79 ; events
included, 162-3 ; types of runner,
163-7; training, 167-8, 177-8;
style, 168-72 ; head and body
carriage, 169-70 ; arm action,
170-1 ; leg action and stride,
171-2 ; technique, 172-7 ; start,
172-3 ; finish, 173, 177 ; " jump-
ing," 173 I knowledge of pace,
*73-5 planning races, 174-5 ;
tactics, 175-7 ; combining events,
178-9 ; and vide Quarter, Half,
and One mile
Mile, the, and 1500 metres, 163,
189-92 ; need for speed, 190-1 ;
pace changes, 190 ; stamina, 191 ;
the third lap, 191-2 ; finishing, 192
Mills, 205
Milo, 29, 31
Mind, the, 71, 72, 75, 76
Missiles, vide Shot, Hammer, Javelin,
Discus
Moderation, by women, 311 ; by
boys, 319-20
Moral aspect of athletics, 77-8
Morton, J. W., 134
Muscles, 105-6, no, 133, 199, 236,
250, 258, 260, 272-3, 274-5, 310
Music, 24, 25, 43
Mussabini action, 170
Myers, L. E., 67
Myron, 34
NAPLES, Imperial Games at, 7
N.A.A.A.A., 61-2
National aspect of athletics, 81
National Athletic and Cycling Asso-
ciation of Ireland, 59
N.C.A.A.A., 14
N.C.C.U., 209
National Collegiate A. A., 63
National Olympic Councils, 39-41
National records, 335-40
Nemean Games, 5, 27
Nervous energy, 133, 311, 312, 314;
system, 105
Nervousness, 90, 108
Newton, A., 195
NewiYorkA.C.,6i,66; v.L.A.C.,66-7
New Zealand, 60, 61 ; records, 343
Nicotine, vide Smoking
Nokes, M. C, viii, Ch. XI
Norman England, athletics in, 9
Norway, 18
Nurmi, 46, 48, 57, 125, 166, 171,
196-8, 202, 209
OBSTACLES, vide Cross - country,
207-8
O'Callaghan, Dr., 48
Oda, M., 49, 248
Olive wreaths, 32
Olympia, 3, 26, 32-4
Olympic Games : Ancient, 2-5, 23-36 ;
institution, 3, 24, 26 ; sacred
truce, 3, 26-8 ; participation, 3,
31 ; judges, 29, 31, 32 ; women
in, 3-4, 29-30 ; abolition, 4, 28 ;
idealism, 4, 33, 35-6 ; events,
4-5, 27, 30-2 ; dates, 27 ; boys
in, 5, 30 ; training, 30 ; oath,
31. Modern, 36-52, 83 ; ideal-
ism, 33, 36, 52 ; venues, 37-8 ;
organisation, 38-43 ; I.O.C., 38-
40 ; programme, 41-3 ; per-
formances at, 43-91 and vide
each event ; women in, 22, 49 ;
treatment of victors, 32; ap-
preciation of, 50-2 ; and vide
Chs. I and II; Shakespeare on,
10 ; and Empire Games com-
pared, 6 1 ; in Far East, 49
Olympic records, 330-1, 359 ; and
vide events
Olympic results, comparative table,
358
Olympic winners (1896-1928), 331-4
Osborne, H. M,, 256, 257
Oslo, 18, 57
Oxford, Sports, u, 18 ; and Achilles
Club, 1 8 ; v. American Univer-
sities, vide Oxford and Cambridge
Oxford v. Cambridge Sports, n, 12,
19, 65 ; records, 344 ; relays, 18,
20
INDEX
Oxford and Cambridge tours, 56,
66-9
Oxford and Cambridge v. Harvard
and Yale, 67 ; records, 345 ;
v. Princeton and Cornell, 67 ; at
Penn. relays, 68
Oxygen, 106, 200, 310-1
PACE, knowledge of, 173-5, 185-8,
200-1, 205, 233 ; theory of, in
half-mile, 185-7 , uniformity of,
106-7, 185-6, 195, 200-1 ; varia-
tions in, 190, 201-2 ; Table IV,
pp. 360-2
Packs in Cross-country, 209
Paddock, C. W.. 135-6, 155
Panathenaea, 5-6
Panhellenic meeting, 38, 44
Pankration, 5, 32
Paper-chasing, 206, and vide Cross-
country
Paris, Olympic Games at, 42, 44, 46,
57 *35 ; student games at, 56
Patching, G. H., 134
Patriotism, 52
Patroclus, funeral games of, 3, 24-5
Paul, St, 5
Pausanias, 30, 32
Felling, E. H., 134
Peltzer, Dr. O., 56, 165-6, 186, 197
Pennsylvania, University of, 35,
64-5, 68 ; relays, 68, 297
Pentathlon, 5, 31 ; modern, 42
Pepys, 10
Peru, 59
Pheidias, 34
Phidippides, 31, 202
Philippine Islands, 49, 58
Philosophers and the gymnasia,
30-1
Physical aspect of athletics, 74-5
Physical culture, 55
Physique of sprinters, 133-4; f
long-distance runners, 193-4 f
hurdlers, 213-4; of women and
men, 310
Pindar, 32-4
Pistol, vide Gun
Planning races, 174-5
Plato, 31
Plough, vide Cross-country
Poetry, 3, 33-4
Points, standard, 320-1 ; vide
Scoring
Poland, 56-8
Pole jump or vault, 18, 62, 64, 113,
114, 1 18-9, and Ch. X, pp. 262-70 ;
2 A 369
history of, 262-3 ; among boys,
263, 270 ; training, 263-4 ; para-
phernalia for, 264-5 ; the vault,
266-8, and Figs. 21-9 ; competi-
tion, 269-70
Poles, 121, 264-5
Polo, 42, 44
Polyclitus, 34
Polytechnic Harriers, 15, 20, 56, 203
Praxiteles, 34
Preface, vii-viii
Princeton, 64-6 ; and Cornell v. Ox-
ford and Cambridge, 67-8
Prizes, 25, 26, 29, 32
Professionalism, 6, 10, 60, 82-3
Public Schools Sports, 16 ; records,
34?
Putting the weight, vide Weight
Pythian Games, 5, 27
QUALITIES essential to success in
athletics, 75 ff.
Quarter-mile, the, Ch. VII, pp. 162-
184 ; as a middle-distance race,
162 ; general principles, 163, and
vide Middle - distance running ;
training, 167-8, 179-80; tactics,
175-7, 181-4 ; in lanes, 181-2 ; in
America, 181-2 ; leading in, 183
Quarter, second in half - mile, a
constant, 185-6
Queen's Club, 15, 18, 19, 67
RABELAIS, 9
Racing Club de France, 54
Record breaking, 83-4, 320-1
Records, vide Appendix ; world's,
325-30 ; Olympic, 330-1 ; national,
335-40 ; British and Dominion,
341-4 ; University, 344-6 ; public
schools, 346 ; women's, 347 ; pro-
gress of world's, Table I, pp. 348-
357 ; comparative table of world's
and national, 359
Relay races, 6, 16 ; British Empire
v. U.S.A., 19-20 ; Oxford v.
Cambridge, 18, 20 ; inter-county,
15, 20 ; in A. A. A. Champion-
ships, 20 ; in U.S.A Champion-
ships, 62 ; in I.C.A.A.A.A. Cham-
pionships, 64 ; Penn. relays, 68,
297
Relay racing, Ch. XIII, 296-304 ;
future of, 296 ; field events, 19,
296 ; in U.S.A., 297, 302, 30
baton, vide Baton ; shuttle, 29
tactics in, 298-9 ; lanes, 300, 304 ;
INDEX
, change over, 300-3, and Figs. 38,
39 ; distances, 296, 304 ; order of
running, 303 ; matches, 323
Religion in athletics, 1-6, 23-8
Respiratory system, 98, 107, 311
Reverse, the, vide Weight
Riding, 9, 42
Ritola, W., 46, 57, 197-8, 202
R.M.A., Woolwich, n
R.M.C., Sandhurst, n
Road Balking, vide Walking
R.W,A. (Road Walking Associa-
tion), 295
" Rocking," 247, 261-2
Roll, Western, vide High jump
Rome, games in ancient, 6-7, 31-2
Rope, vide Tug-of-war
Rousseau, 9-10
Rowing, 42
Rudd, B. G. D., 19, 166-7
Rugby football, vide Football
Running outside, 176
Run-up, vide Jumping
Ryan, P. J., 285
SANTIAGO, 59
Saratoga, 63
Scandinavia, vide Norway, Sweden
and Denmark
Schedule, running to, 195, 200-1 ;
training to, 156, 204-5
Scholarship and athletics, 72-3
Scholz, J. V., 159
Schools, 16-7, 68-9, and vide Ch. XV
" Scissors " style, vide High jump
Scoring, in Oxford v. Cambridge
Sports, 64; in LC.A.A.A.A.
Championships, 64 ; in Cross-
country, 209
Scotland, 18, 57, 59, 60, 209
Scots and field events, 59
Scottish A.A.A., 60
Scottish records, 342
Scott&h Universities, 19, 60
Seutotttfje, 3, 28, 32, 34-5
Secular Games, 7
Self -confidence, 90
Shakespeare, 10
Shanghai, 58
Shearman, Sir M., vii, 12
Sheppard, M. W., 45, 166
Shin soreness, in
Shoes, 123*6, 158, 204, 214-5, 2*2,
250, 395? spikes, 124-5; for
hurdling, 124-5, 214-5 ; indoors,
295 ; laces, 127 ; Marathon, 204 ;
high jump, 260 ; walking, 295
Shot, vide Weight
Shuffling, vide Walking
Shuttle relay, 298
Siam, 58
Siegfried, 8
Simonides, 31, 33
Simpson, R., 214
600 yards, 184
Skipping, 99, 157, 293
Sleep, 97, 167, 322
Slips, 128
Smoking, 94-6
Snook, W., 193
Sokols, 17, 57
Solon, 5, 30, 32
South Africa, 45, 47-8, 61, 135 ;
records, 344
South America, 50, 59 ; champion-
ships, 59
Southern Committee A.A.A., 14
S.L.H. (South London Harriers), 16
Sparta, 3, 27-9, 33 ; women of, 4
Specialisation, 52, 65-6, 68, 81, 83-4
Speed, 75, 130-1, and vide each
event
Speeds, comparison of, Table IV,
360-2
Spikes, 124-5, and vide Shoes and
Heel spikes
Spirit of the game, the, 77
Spiritual aspect of athletics, 77-8
" Splits/' the, 228-9
Sportsman and sportswoman, 78,
o 3I *~ 5
Sprains, no
Spring, vide Jumping
Sprint, when to, in half and one
mile, 188-9, 192
Sprinting, Ch. VI; introduction,
130-8 ; appeal of, 130-1 ; auto-
matic nature, 132 ; types and
attributes of sprinters, 132-4 ;
records, 135-6; style, 137-8 ; the
start, I39-4 8 ; upright, 1 39*4 I
crouch, 140-8 ; holes, 141-3 ;
movements, 143-8 ; practice, 157 ;
striding, 148-54 ; length of striae,
147-8, 149; carriage, 150-3;
arm action, 151-3 ; leg action,
153-4 ' *b* fiafcfc* 154-5 ; train-
ing, 156-8 ; the 220, 158-161 ;
coasting, 159*60; stamina, 160;
cornering, 160-1
Squash, 98, 199
St. Louis, Olympic Games at, 44
Stade Francois, 54
Stateness, 90, 96, 109-10, 199
'370
INDEX
Stallard, H. B,, 166
Stamford Bridge, 15, 18, 67, 202
Stamina, 75, and vide each event
Standing high jump, vide High
jump
Standing long jump, vide Long jump
Starting, vide Sprinting, Hurdling
and Middle-distance running
Steeplechase, 62, 118, and Ch. VIII,
210-11 ; in Great Britain, 210-11 ;
international, 210-11; hurdling
in, 211; water jump, 211 ; A.A.A.
Rules, 211 ; indoors, 213
Stenroos, 46, 203
Stiffness, no
Stitch, in, 208
Stockholm, 18, 57, 135 ; Olympic
Games at, 45 ; Women's Olym-
piad at, 49, 221
Straight leg, vide Hurdling
Striding, length of stride, etc. ; vide
each event
Strutt, 10
Style, vide each event
Sugar, 92
Surrey Walking Club, 295
Sweden, 17, 18, 54 ; and Olympic
Games, 44-7, 49 ; coaches in,
276 ; records, 340, 359
Swimming, 7, 9, 42, 51, 62, 100
Switzerland and international ath-
letics, 56 ; v. France and Ger-
many, 54
TABLES, vide Appendix, pp. 348-62 ;
I, progress of worlds records
since 1880, 348-57 ; II, compara-
tive results in Olympic Games,
358 ; III, comparative world and
national records, 359 ; IV, com-
parison of metres and yards,
times and speeds, 360-2
Tactics, vide each event
Tailtean Games, 2, 7-8, 39
Take-off, vide Jumping
Tape measure, 240
Tape, running through, 154, 177
Team spirit, 77, 209, 296, 3*3 ,
Technique, vide each event
Teeth, 108, 128
Temperament, 133, 193-4* 278,
314-5,318 ,
Ten miles, vide Long-distance run-
ning
Tendons, pulled, no
Tennis, 9, 10 ; lawn, 42, 44, 98, 199
Thames Hares and Hounds, 16
Theory of pace, 185-7
Theseus, 5, 30
Thomson, E., 46, 214-6
Three miles, vide Long-distance
running
Throwing, Ch, XI, pp. 271-92 ;
general considerations, 271-8 ;
evolution, 271 ; aesthetics of,
271-2, 279, 285; analysis of,
272-4 ; diet, 275 ; technique,
275-0; mechanics of , 276 ; study,
276-7; the will to win; 278;
shotputt, g.v. sub-weight, 278-
281 ; hammer, ,i/., 281-5; discus,
q.v., 285-9; javelin, ,p., 289-92;
cricket ball, q.v., 292
Thucydides, 3, 4, 32
Times, table of comparative, 360-2
Timing, 120
Tindall, H. C. L., 165
Tokio, 58
Tootell, F. D., 285
Tracks, zn-6 ; shape and dimen-
sions, 112-3 ; plan* .Fig- X \ field
events, 113*4 ; making and care
of, 115-6; measuring, 115; in-
door tracks, 62, 116
Trainers, 101-3
Training, Ch. V, 85-111 ; common
sense in, 85 ; general considera-
tions, 86-91 ; aim, 87; quantity, 88
177-8 ; individual treatment, 89;
mental aspect, 89-91 ; worry, 89 ;
" wind up," 90 ; self-confidence,
90 ; judgment, 91 ; detailed con-
siderations, 91-101 ; diet, 91-4 ;
smoking, 94-6 ; alcohol, 96-7 ;
exercises, 97-9 ; warmth, 99-100 ;
baths, zoo ; massage, 100-1 ;
trainers, q.v., 101-3 medical
considerations, g.v., 103-11 ; and
vide each event
Training for ancient Olympic Games,
30, 88
Trowel, 128, 142
Tug-of-war, Ch. XIV, conditions,
305-6 ; the rope, 305 ; the coach,
220 yards, vide Sprinting.
ULYSSES, 25
Undergraduates, English and Ameri-
can, 66
United States (U.S.A.), vide America
U.S. A. v. British Empire, vide British
Empire and Relay races
University athletics, n. 18, IQ: field
371
INDEX
events at, 17 ; c/. England and
America, 3, 65-6; in America,
63-9 alumni, 64-5 ; vide also
Cambridge, Oxford, I.V.A.B.,
Scottish Universities, International
Student Games, Yale, Harvard,
Princeton, Cornell, Pennsylvania,*
Waseda, etc.
University records, 344-6
Uprights, 118, 265*
Uruguay, 59
VAJ* GEYZEL, C. T., vii, chapter on
High jumping
Vascular system, 106-8
Victor Ludorum, 319-20
Vitamins, 92
WALES, 57, 209
Walker, R. E., 45, 134
Walking, 51, 62, 98, 156, 191, 199,
and Ch. XII ; popularity as an
event, 293 ; exercises for, 293
fair style, 294 ; shuffling, 294
training, 294-5 ; road walking
295 ; shoes, 295 ; R.W.A., 295
as training exercise, vide each
event
Warmth, 99-100, 122-3, 237, 260,
269
Waseda University, 58
Watches, 120
Water, 92-3
Water jump, n8, and vide Steeple-
chase
Weight, putting the, 8, 9; 18, 59,
62, 64, 114, and Ch. XI, pp. 278-
281 ; essence of, 278-9 ; descrip-
tion of the five movements, 279-
281, and Fig. 30 ; the reverse, 281 ;
footwork, Fig. 31 ; for boys, 322
Weight-lifting, 42
iVeightman-Smith, G. C., 47, 214-6
Wembley, 67
Western Conference A. A., 62
Western roll, vide High jump
Wide, E., 198
Williams, P., 47, 135
Will power, 90, 203-4, 2 6, 278
Wind, 107
" Wind up," 90
Winter, A. W., 248
Winter sports, 43
Women, in ancient Olympic Games,
3'4 29-30, 35 ; in modern
Olympic Games, 22, 49, 51 ;
Roman, 7 ; and cross - country,
21 o ; athletics for, in America and
Europe, 21, 213 ; Sokols, 57 ; in
U.S.A., 62 ; and Ch. XV, pp. 307-
317; standard distinct from men's,
308 ; merits of women's athletics,
309-15 ; demerits, 315-7 ; physical
aspect, 310-4 ; .nerves, 312, 314 ;
motherhood, 312-3 ; restriction of
events, 313-4 ; mental aspect,
314-5 ; sportswomen, 3 J 4~5 ',
womanliness, 315-6 ; future, 317 ;
records, 347
Women's championships, 309
Women's International Federation,
314
World's records, 136, 325-30, 359;
women's, 347
Wrestling, in Olympic Games, 5, 24,
25, 29-31, 42 ; in Rome, 7 ; in
England, 9, 10 ; in U.S.A., 62
XENOPHANES, 6
YACHTING, 42, 44
Yale, 64, 65 ; and Harvard v. Ox-
ford and Cambridge, 67
Yards, comparative table of, and
metres, 360-2
Y.M.C.A. international meeting, 56
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