:■!■■: ;".'■ :
FREDERICK CHAPMA!
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
The Foraminifera
An Introduction to the Study of
the Protozoa
by
FREDERICK CHAPMAN,
A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
This book has been written with a view of
meeting a demand which has arisen for a con-
cise account of the Foraminifera, suited to the
requirements of the student of Natural History
and Palaeontology.
With 14 plates and 42 illustrations in the Text.
DEMY 8vo. CLOTH, 10s. 6d.
P^T^
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The
Keystone Printing Co.,
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.III
SI
A FOSSIL CRINOID
(Helicocrinus plumosus), about 5/6 nat. size,
in Silurian Mudstone, Brunswick, Victoria.
{Spec, in Nat. Mus., Melbourne).
Australasian Fossils
A Students' Manual of Palaeontology
By FREDERICK CHAPMAN,
Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne.
Formerly Assistant in the Geological Department of the Royal
College of Science, London.
Assoc. Linnean Soc. [Lond.], F.R.M.S., etc.
Author of "The Foraminifera," "A Monograph of the
Silurian Bivalved Mollusca of Victoria," " New or Little-
known Victorian Fossils in the National Museum," etc.
With an Introduction by
PROFESSOR E. W. SKEATS, D.Sc, F.G.S.
JLijr JLC>
GEORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY
PROPY. LTD.,
Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane and London.
1914.
SOLE AGENTS FOR GT. BRITAIN.
DULAU&C^Lie
57. SOHO SQ. LONDON. W.
t-
To
PROFESSOR JOHN WESLEY JUDD
this work is dedicated as a
slight tribute of esteem, and
in grateful acknowledgement
of kindly help and encourage-
ment through many years.
CONTENTS.
Page
Preface 10
Introduction by Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc, F.G.S. . 13
PART I.— GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Chap I. — Nature and uses of Fossils 21
„ II. — Classification of Fossil Animals and Plants . 34
„ III. — The Geological Epochs and Time-range of
Fossils 41
„ IV. — How Fossils are Found, and the Rocks They
Form 51
PART II.— SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.
Chap. V.— Fossil Plants 82
VI. — Fossil Foraminifera and Radiolaria .... 95
VII. — Fossil Sponges, Corals and Graptolites . . . . 107
VIII. — Fossil Star-fishes, Sea-lilies and Sea-urchins 133
IX. — Fossil Worms, Sea-mats and Lamp-shells . . 152
X.— Fossil Shell-fish 174
XI. — Fossil Trilobites, Crustacea and Insects . . 220
XII. — Fossil Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds
and Mammals . . 257
Appendix. — Notes on Collecting and Preserving Fossils 315
Index 321
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
Fig.
1. Fossil Shells in clay 22
2. Tracks, probably of Crustaceans 22
3. Structure of Silicified Wood in tangential section:
Araucarioxylon Daintreei, Chapm 24
4. Portrait of William Smith 26
5. Raised Beach : Brighton, England 28
6. Raised Beach : Torquay, Victoria 28
7. Marine Fossils in Volcanic Tuff: Summit of Snow-
don 29
8. Kitchen Middens: Torquay, Victoria 30
9. Submerged Forest on the Cheshire Coast . . . . 30
10. Pecten murrayanus, Tate. A fossil shell allied to
a living species 32
11. Cliff section : -Torquay, Victoria 42
12. Diagram of superposition of Strata 42
13. Diagram of the Range-in-time of Australasian
Fossils 50
14. Diprotodon skeletons in situ: Lake Callabonna, S.
Australia 51
15. Bird remains on sand dunes: King Island, Bass
Strait 52
16. Impression of Bird's feather in Ironstone: Western
Victoria 52
17. A Fossil Turtle: Notochelone costata, Owen sp. .. 52
18. A Ganoid Fish: Pristisomus crassus, A. S. Wood-
ward 54
19. A fossil Insect in amber (Tipula sp.) 54
20. A fossil Crustacean : Thalassina emerii, Bell .... 55
21. An Ammonite: Desmoceras flindersi, McCoy sp. .. 55
22. Belemnites: Belemnites diptycha, McCoy 56
23. A Group of Lamp-shells: Magellania flavescens,
Lam. sp 56
24. Zoarium of a living Polyzoan: Retepora sp 58
25. A fossil Polyzoan: Macropora clarkei, T. Woods sp. 58
26. Fossil Worm-tubes : (?) Serpula 60
27. A living Sea-urchin: Strongylocentrotus erythro-
grammus, Val 60
28. A fossil Sea-urchin: Linthia antiaustralis, Tate 60
29. A fossil Brittle-Star: Ophioderma egertoni, Brod.
sp 60
30. A fossil Crinoid : Taxocrinus simplex, Phillips sp. 62
31. Graptolites on Slate: Tetragraptus fruticcsus, J.
Hall sp 62
6
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
32. A Stromatoporoid : Actinostroma 63
33. Corals in Devonian Marble: Favosites 64
34. Siliceous Skeleton of a living Sponge: (l)Chone-
lasma 64
35. Spicules of a fossil Sponge: Ecionema newberyi,
McCoy sp. . 65
36. Nummulites : N. gizehensis, Ehr. var. champol-
lioni, De la Harpe 65
37. Cainozoic Radiolaria 66
38. Radiolaria in Siliceous Limestone 67
39. Travertin Limestone, with leaves of Beech (Fa-
gus) 67
40. Freshwater Limestone with shells {Bulinus) . . 68
41. Hardened mudstone with Brachiopods (Orthis,
etc. ) 69
42. Diatomaceous Earth 72
43. Lepidocyclina Limestone 73
44. Coral in Limestone: Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. 74
45. Crinoidal Limestone 74
46. Turritella Limestone 75
47. Ostracodal Limestone 75
48. Halimeda Limestone 77
49. Tasmanite : a Spore Coal 77
50. Kerosene Shale 77
51. Bone Bed 77
52. Bone Breccia 79
53. Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (Banlcsia) .... 80
54. Girvanella confer t a, Chapm., in Silurian Limestone 83
55. Palaeozoic Plants ".'. 83
56. Restoration of Lepidodendron 84
57. Stem of Lepidodendron (Lepidophloios) , showing
leaf -scars 84
58. Upper Palaeozoic Plants 85
59. Map of Gondwanaland 87
60. Mesozoic Plants 88
61. Cainozoic Plants 90
62. Eucalyptus leaves from the Deep Leads 92
63. Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Foraminifera 97
64. Lepidocyclina marginata, Mich. sp. Sections of
shell showing structure 99
65. Cainozoic Foraminifera 100
66. Fossil Radiolaria 103
67. Palaeozoic Sponges and Archaeocyathinae . . . . 108
68. Cainozoic Sponges , . . Ill
69. Silurian Corals Ill
70. Upper Palaeozoic Corals 116
71. Cainozoic Corals 118
72. Stromatoporoidea and Cladophora 121
8 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. Page
73. Leaver Ordovician Graptolites 125
74. Lower Ordovician Graptolites . . 125
75. Upper Ordovician and Silurian Graptolites . . . . 127
76. Fossil Crinoids 135
77. Fossil Starfishes 140
78. Protaster brisingoides, Gregory, in Silurian Sand-
stone 142
79. Gregoriura spryi, Chapm., in Silurian Mudstone . . 143
80. Cainozoic Sea-urchins 145
81. Cainozoic Sea-urchins 147
82. Fossil Worms 153
83. Palaeozoic Polyzoa 156
84. Cainozoic Polyzoa . 157
85. Lower Palaeozoic Brachiopods 159
86. Silurian and Devonian Brachiopods 161
87. Carbopermian Brachiopods . 163
88. Mesozoic Brachiopods 165
89. Cainozoic Brachiopods 167
90. Lower Palaeozoic Bivalves 176
91. Palaeozoic Bivalves 179
92. Carbopermian Bivalves 180
93. Lower Mesozoic Bivalves .. 181
94. Cretaceous Bivalves 183
95. Cainozoic Bivalves 185
96. Cainozoic Bivalves 186
97. Fossil Scaphopods and Chitons 188
98. Lower Palaeozoic Gasteropoda 192
99. Silurian Gasteropoda 194
100. Upper Palaeozoic Gasteropoda 195
101. Mesozoic Gasteropoda 197
102. Cainozoic Gasteropoda 199
103. Cainozoic Gasteropoda 200
104. Late Cainozoic and Pleistocene Gasteropoda . . . . 201
105. Palaeozoic Cephalopoda 206
106. Mesozoic and Cainozoic Cephalopoda 208
107. Diagram restoration of an Australian Trilobite
(Dalmanites) 224
108. Cambrian Trilobites 226
109. Older Silurian Trilobites 228
110. Newer Silurian Trilobites . . 230
111. Carboniferous Trilobites and a Phvllopod . . . . 232
112. Silurian Ostracoda * 236
113. Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Ostracoda 238
114. Cainozoic Ostracoda . . . . 239
115. Fossil Cirripedes 242
116. Cirripedes. Lepas anatifera, Linn.: living goose
barnacle, and L. pritchardi, Hall : Cainozoic . . 242
117. Ceraiiocaris papilio, Salter 244
118. Ordovician Phyllocarids 245
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 9
Fig. Pago
119. Silurian Phyllocarids 245
120. Fossil Crabs and Insects 247
121. Silurian Eurypterids 249
122. Thyestes magnificus, Chapm 259
123. (Jyracanthides murrayi, A. S. Woodw. Restoration 260
124. Teeth and Scales of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
Fishes 260
125. Cleithrolepis granulatus, Fgerton . 263
126. Tooth of Ceratodus avus, A. S. W., and phalangeal
of a carnivorous Deinosaur 264
127. Scale of Ceratodus ? avus 265
128. The Queensland Lung-fish: Keoceratodus forsteri,
Krefft 266
129. Lcptolepis gregarius, A. S. W 266
130. Cretaceous and Cainozoic Fish-teeth 268
131. Cainozoic Fish remains 270
132. Bothriceps major, A. S.W 273
133. Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy 277
134. Fossil Reptiles 278
135. Impression of Bird's feather, magnified, Cainozoic:
Victoria 281
136. Gnemiornis calcitrans, Owen 284
137., Dinornis maocimus, Owen. Great Moa 284
138. Pachyornis elephant opus, Owen 285
139. Skeleton of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp 288
140. Skull of fossil specimen of Sarcophilus ursinus . . 288
141. Thylacinus major, Owen. Hind part of mandible 289
142. Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy. Mandible . . . . 290
143. Cainozoic Teeth and Otolith 291
144. Skeleton of Diprotodon australis, Owen 291
145. Right hind foot of Diprotodon australis 292
146. Restoration of Diprotodon australis 292
147. Skull and mandible of Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen . 293
148. Wynyardia oassiana, Spencer 294
149. Tooth of Scaldicetus macgeei, Chapm 297
150. Impressions of foot-prints in dune sand-rock,
Warrnambool 301
Map of Australia, showing chief fossiliferous
localities.
PREFACE.
THE more important discoveries of fossils m the
southern hemisphere have received, as a
rule, very meagre notice in many of the text-
books of Geology and Palaeontology published in
England, Germany and America, and used by Austra-
lasian students. It is thought, therefore, that the
time has arrived when an attempt should be made to
collect the main facts bearing upon this subject, in
order to present them from an Australasian stand-
point. With this in view, references to fossils occur-
ring in the northern hemisphere are subordinated,
peeing that these may be easily obtained on reference
to the accepted text-books in general use.
The present work does not presume to furnish a
complete record of Australasian palaeontology, since
that would mean the production of a much more
extensive and costly volume. Sufficient information
is here given, however, to form a groundwork for the
student of this section of natural science, and a guide
to the collector of these "medals of creation."
The systematic portion of this book has been
arranged primarily from the biological side, since
Palaeontology is the "study of ancient life." Tak-
ing each life-group, therefore, from the lowest to the
highest types, all the divisions represented by fossils
are dealt with in turn, beginning with their occur-
rence in the oldest rocks and ending with those in the
newest strata.
If a commendation of the study of fossils, apart
from its scientific utility, were needed, it could be
10
PREFACE. 11
pointed out that palaeontology as a branch of geo-
logy is, par excellence, an open-air study: and since
it requires as handmaids all the sister sciences, is a
subject of far-reaching interest. Microscopy and
photography are of immense value in certain
branches of fossil research, the former in the examina-
tion of the minute forms of mollusca, foraminifera
and ostracoda, the latter in the exact portraiture of
specimens too intricate to copy with the brush, or
too evanescent to long retain, when out of their
matrix, their clean fresh surfaces. With geology or
palaeontology as an objective, a country walk may be
a source of much enjoyment to its students, for "in
their hand is Nature like an open book"; and the
specimens collected on a summer excursion may be
closely and profitably studied in the spare time of
the winter recess.
The author sincerely trusts that students may
share the same pleasure which he has derived from
the study of these relics of past life; and that
the present attempt to show their relationship both
in geological time and biological organisation, may
be the means of inducing many to make further
advances in this fascinating subject.
In the production of this work several friends
and collaborators have materially assisted, their
aid considerably increasing its value. It is therefore
with grateful thanks that the author acknowledges
the help and encouragement given by Professor E.
W. Skeats, D.Sc, who has not only been good enough
to write the Introductory passages, but who has
carefully gone over the MS. and made many helpful
12 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
suggestions. Mr. W. S. Dun, F.G.S., Palaeontolo-
gist to the Geological Survey Branch of the Depart-
ment of Mines, Sydney, has also rendered generous
help in giving the benefit of his full acquaintance of
the palaeontology of his own State. To the
Trustees of the National Museum the author
is under special obligations for permission to
photograph many unique fossil specimens in
the Museum collection, comprising Figs. 3, 16-18,
20-22, 28-31, 35, 39, 40, 45, 46, 51-54, 57, 62,
78, 79, 127, 133, 136, 147 and 148. The author's
thanks are also due to Dr. E. C. Stirling, M.D., M.A.,
F.R.S., for permission to use Figs. 143, 144 and 145,
whilst similar privileges have been accorded by Prof.
A. C. Seward, F.R.S., Dr. F. A. Bather, F.R.S., and
Mr. C. L. Barrett. Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David,
F.R.S., has kindly cleared up some doubtful points
of stratigraphy and further increased the author's
indebtedness by the loan of a unique slide of
Radiolaria figured on p. 69. Mr. Eastwood Moore,
to whom special thanks are due, has greatly added
to the pictorial side of this work by his skilful help
in preparing many of the illustrations for the press,
as well as in the drawing of the several maps. The
grouped sets of fossils have been especially drawn
for this work by the author. They are either copied
from authentic specimens or from previously pub-
lished drawings; references to the authorities being
given in the accompanying legends. Dr. T. S. Hall
has kindly read the section on Graptolites and Mam-
malia. For many helpful suggestions and the care-
ful reading of proofs, thanks are especially owing
to Mr. W. E. G. Simons, Mr. R. A. Keble, and to
mv wife.
INTRODUCTION.
Geological Department,
The University, Melbourne.
WILLIAM SMITH, the Father of English Geo-
logy, used to apologize for the study of
palaeontology by claiming that "the search
for a fossil is at least as rational a proceeding as the
pursuit of a hare." Those of us who are accustomed
to take the field, armed with a hammer, in the search
for "medals of creation" and from time to time have
experienced the sporting enjoyment of bringing to
light a rare or perfect specimen are quite prepared to
support his claim. But the student of fossils needs
the help of a text book to guide him to the literature
on the subject, to help him with his identifications
or to indicate that some of his finds are new and
hitherto undescribed. European and American
workers have long been provided with excellent books
treating generally of fossils, but the illustrations
have been quite naturally taken mainly from forms
occurring in the Northern Hemisphere. Our own
fossil forms both plants and animals are numerous,
interesting and in many cases peculiar, but the litera-
ture concerning them is so widely scattered in various
14 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
scientific publications that a warm welcome should
be given to this book of Mr. Chapman's, in which
the Australian evidence is brought together and sum-
marised by one, whose training, long experience, and
personal research qualify him to undertake the task.
Especially will teachers and students of Geology and
Palaeontology value such an undertaking. Workers
in other countries who have only partial access to
the Australian literature on the subject should also
find this a valuable book of reference.
In the study of fossils we are concerned with the
nature, evolution and distribution of the former in-
habitants of the earth. The study of Palaeontology
may be justified as a means of scientific discipline,
for the contributions the subject makes to the in-
crease of natural knowledge and the unfolding of
panoramas of ancient life. It also provides perhaps
the most positive evidence in the story of evolution.
So, too, the student of the present day distribution
of animals and plants finds the key to many a prob-
lem in zoo-geography in the records of past migra-
tions yielded by the study of fossils in different lands.
The stratigraphical geologist is of course principally
concerned with two important aspects of the study of
fossils.
The masterly generalisation of William Smith that
strata can be identified by their fossil contents es-
tablished by close study of the rocks and fossils of
the British Oolites has been confirmed generally by
subsequent work. The comparative study of the fos-
sil contents of rocks in widely separated areas has
proved to be the most valuable means by which the
INTRODUCTION. 15
correlation of the rocks can be effected and their
identity of age established. In some eases the re-
cognition of a single fossil species in two areas separ-
ated, perhaps, by thousands of miles may suffice to
demonstrate that the rocks are of the same age. For
example, a graptolite such as Phyllograptus typus
is found in many parts of the world, but has only a
very restricted range in time. It has been found
only in rocks of Lower Ordovician age. Its occur-
rence in Wales and in the rocks of Bendigo practi-
cally suffices to establish the identity in age of the
rocks in these widely separated areas.
Generally, however, much closer study and a more
detailed examination of a large number of the fos-
sils of a rock series are required before the age of
the rocks can be surely established and a safe correla-
tion made with distant localities.
The stratigraphical generalisations to be made
from the study of fossils however must be qualified
by certain considerations. Among these are the fact
that our knowledge of the life forms of a given geo-
logical period is necessarily incomplete, that the dif-
ferences in the fossil contents of rocks may depend
not only on differences of age but also in the condi-
tions under which the organisms lived and the rocks
were accumulated, and that forms of life originating
in one area do not spread themselves immediately
over the earth but migrate at velocities depending on
their mode of life and the presence or absence of
Carriers to their progress.
Our incomplete knowledge of the forms living in
remote geological periods arises partly from the fact
16 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
that some forms had no permanent skeleton and were
therefore incapable of preservation, partly to the
obliteration of the skeletons of organisms through
subsequent earth movements in the rocks or through
the solvent action of water. Many land forms, too,
probably disintegrated on the surface before deposits
were formed over the area. Apart from these causes
which determine that a full knowledge of the fossils
from ancient rocks in particular, will never be
acquired, our knowledge is incomplete by reason
either of difficulty of access to certain areas or incom-
plete search. As a result of later discoveries earlier
conclusions based on incomplete evidence as to the
age of a rock series, have not infrequently been
modified.
The study of the present distribution of animals
and plants over the earth is a help in the attempt to
decide how far the fossil differences in the sets of
rocks are due to differences in the ages of the rocks
or to differences in the conditions under which the
organisms lived. The present, in this, as in many
other geological problems, is the key to the past.
We know, for instance, that differences of climate
largely control the geographical distribution of land
animals and especially of land plants, and for that
reason among others, fossil plants are generally less
trustworthy guides to geological age than fossil ani-
mals.
In the distribution of marine animals at the pre-
sent day we find that organisms of simple structure
are generally more widespread and less susceptible
to changes in their environment than are the more
complex organisms with specialised structures.
Hence we find, for instance, a fossil species of the
INTRODUCTION. 17
Foraminifera may persist unchanged through several
geological periods, while a species of fossil fish has
in general not only a short range in time but often
a restricted geographical extent. If we consider the
marine organisms found at the present day we find a
number of free-swimming forms very widely distri-
buted, while a large number are restricted either by
reason of climate or of depth. Certain organisms are
only to be found between high and low tide levels,
others between low tide level and a depth of thirty
fathoms, while many quite different forms live in
deeper waters. If we confine our attention
to shallow-water marine forms we note that
certain forms are at the present day res-
tricted to waters of a certain temperature.
We find, therefore, a contrast between arctic
and tropical faunas, while other types characterize
temperate latitudes. Climatic and bathymetrical dif-
ferences at the present day therefore lead to distinct
differences in the distribution of certain organisms,
while other forms, less sensitive to these factors,
range widely and may be almost universally distri-
buted. Similar conditions obtained in past geo-
logical times, and therefore in attempting to cor-
relate the rocks of one area with those of another
those fossils which are most wide-spread are often
found to be the most valuable.
Attention should also be paid to the conditions
under which the deposits accumulated, since it is
clear that rocks may be formed at the same time in
different areas and yet contain many distinct fossils
by reason of climatic or bathymetrical differences.
Among living marine organisms we find certain forms
restricted to sandy or muddy sea-bottoms and others
18 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to clear water, and these changes in the conditions of
deposition of sediment have played their part in past
geological periods in determining differences in the
fossil faunas of rocks which were laid down simul-
taneously. We not infrequently find mudstones pass-
ing laterally into limestones, and this lithological
change is always accompanied by a more or less not-
able change in the fossil contents of the two rock
types. Such facts emphasize the close connection
between stratigraphy and palaeontology, and indi-
cate that the successful tracing out of the geological
history of any area is only possible when the evi-
dence of the stratigrapher is reinforced by that pro-
vided by the palaeontologist. The fact that species
of animals and plants which have been developed in
a particular area do not spread all over the world
at once but migrate very slowly led Huxley many
years ago to put forward his hypothesis of " homo-
taxis.' ' He agreed that when the order of succession
of rocks and fossils has been made out in one area,
this order and succession will be found to be gener-
ally similar in other areas. The deposits in two
such contrasted areas are homotaxial, that is, show a
similarity of order, but, he claimed, are not neces-
sarily synchronous in their formation. In whatever
parts of the world Carboniferous, Devonian and Si-
lurian fossils may be found, the rocks with Carboni-
ferous fossils will be found to overlie those with
Devonian, and these in their turn rest upon those
containing Silurian fossils. And yet Huxley main-
tained that if, say, Africa was the area in which
faunas and floras originated, the migration of a
Silurian fauna and flora might take place so slowly
INTRODUCTION. ^
that by the time it reached Britain the succeeding
Devonian forms had developed in Africa, and when
it reached North America, Devonian forms had
reached Britain and Carboniferous forms had de-
veloped in Africa. If this were so a Devonian fauna
and flora in Britain may have been contemporaneous
with Silurian life in North America and with a Car-
boniferous fauna and flora in Africa.
This could only be true if the time taken for the
migration of faunas and floras was so great as to
transcend the boundaries between great geological
periods. This does not appear to be the case, and
Huxley's idea in its extreme form has been gener-
ally abandoned. At the same time certain anomalies
in the range in time of individual genera have been
noted, and may possiby be explained on such lines.
For instance, among the group of the graptolites, in
Britain the genus Bryograptus occurs only in the
Upper Cambrian and the genus Leptograptus only
in the Upper Ordovician rocks. In Victoria these
two genera, together with typical Lower Ordovician
forms, may be found near Lancefield preserved on
a single slab of shale. In the same way, in a single
quarry in Triassic rocks in New South Wales, a
number of fossil fish have been found and described,
some of which have been compared to Jurassic, others
to Permian, and others to Carboniferous forms in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Another point which the palaeontologist may occa-
sionally find evidence for is the existence of "bio-
logical asylums/' areas which by means of land or
other barriers may be for a long period separated
from the main stream of evolution. We know that
20 INTRODUCTION.
the present fauna and flora of Australia is largely
of archaic aspect, as it includes a number of types
which elsewhere have long ago become extinct or
were never developed. This appears to be due to the
long isolation of Australia and, as Professor Gregory
happily puts it — its "development in a biological
backwater. " We have some evidence that simi-
lar asylums have existed in past geological periods,
with the result that in certain areas where uniform
conditions prevailed for a long time or where isola-
tion from competition prevented rapid evolution,
some organisms which became extinct in other areas,
persisted unchanged in the " asylum' ' into a younger
geological period.
The broad generalizations that rocks may be iden-
tified by their fossil contents and that the testimony
of the rocks demonstrates the general order of evolu-
tion from simple to complex forms, have only been
placed on a surer footing by long continued investi-
gations. The modifications produced by conditions
of deposit, of climate and of natural barriers to mi-
gration, while introducing complexities into the prob-
lems of Palaeontology, are every year becoming bet-
ter known; and when considered in connection with
the variations in the characters of the rocks, provide
valuable and interesting evidence towards the solu-
tion of the ultimate problems of geology and palaeon-
tology, which include the tracing out of the evolution
of the history of the earth from the most remote
geological period to that point at which the geologist
hands over his story to the archaeologist, the
historian, and the geographer.
EENEST W. SKEATS.
PART I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
CHAPTER I.
NATURE AND USES OP FOSSILS.
Scope of Geology. —
THE science of GEOLOGY, of which PALAEON-
TOLOGY or the study of fossils, forms a
part, is concerned with the nature and struc-
ture of the earth, the physical forces that have shaped
it, and the organic agencies that have helped to
build it.
Nature of Fossils. —
The remains of animals and plants that formerly
existed in the different periods of the his-
tory of the earth are spoken of as fossils. They
are found, more or less plentifully, in such common
rocks as clays, shales, sandstones, and limestones, all
of which are comprised in the great series of Sedi-
mentary Rocks (Fig. 1).
According to the surroundings of the organisms,
whether they existed on land, in rivers, lakes, estu-
aries, or the sea, they are spoken of as belonging to
terrestrial, fluviatile, lacustrine, estuarine, or marine
deposits.
21
Fig. 1 .—Fossil Shells Embedded in Sandy Clay.
About % nat. size. Of Cainozoic or Tertiary Age (Kalimnan Series).
Grange Burn, near Hamilton, Victoria. {F.C. Coll.)
(G = Glycimeris. I, = Iyimopsis. N = Natica).
Fig. 2— Tracks probably of Crustaceans (Phyllocarids).
About Va nat. size. Impression of a Slab of Upper Ordovician
Shale. Diggers' Rest, Victoria. {F.C. Coll.)
22
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 23
The name fossil, from the Latin 'fodere' to dig, —
'fossilis,' dug out, — is applied to the remains of any
animals or plants which have been buried either in
sediments laid down in water, in materials gathered
together by the wind on land as sand-dunes, in beds of
volcanic ash, or in cave earths. But not only remains
of organisms are thus called fossils, for the name is
also applied to structures only indirectly connected
with once living objects, such as rain-prints, ripple-
marks, sun-cracks, and tracks or impressions of
worms and insects (Fig. 2).
Preservation of Fossils. —
In ordinary terms, fossils are the durable parts of
animals and plants which have resisted complete de-
cay by being covered over with the deposits above-
named. It is due, then, to the fact that they have
been kept from the action of the air, with its destruc-
tive bacteria, that we are able to still find these relics
of life in the past.
Petrifaction of Fossils. —
When organisms are covered by a tenacious mud,
they sometimes undergo no further change. Very
often, however, moisture containing mineral matter
such as carbonate of lime or silica, percolates through
the stratum which contains the fossils, and then they
not only have their pores filled with the mineral, but
their actual substance may also undergo a molecular
change, whereby the original composition of the shell
or the hard part is entirely altered. This tends
almost invariably to harden the fossils still further,
which change of condition is called petrifaction, or
the making into stone.
24
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Pig. 3.
Thin Slice of Petrified or Silicified Wood in Tangential Section.
Araucarioxylon Daintreei, Chapm. — Dadoxylon australe, Arber ;
X 28. Carbopermian : Newcastle, New South Wales.
{Nat. Mus. Coll.)
Structure Preserved. —
Petrifaction does not necessarily destroy the struc-
ture of a fossil. For example, a piece of wood, which
originally consisted of carbon, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen, may be entirely replaced by flint or silica : and
yet the original structure of the wood may be so
perfectly preserved that when a thin slice of the
petrifaction is examined under a high power of the
microscope, the tissues with their component cells
are seen and easily recognised (Fig. 3).
Early Observers. —
Remains of animals buried in the rocks were known
from the earliest times, and frequent references to
these were made by the ancient Greek and Roman
philosophers.
Xenophanes. — •
Xenophanes, who lived B.C. 535, wrote of shells,
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 25
fishes and seals which had become dried in mud, and
were found inland and on the tops of the highest
mountains. The presence of these buried shells and
bones was ascribed by the ancients to a plastic force
latent in the earth itself, while in some cases they
were regarded as freaks of nature.
Leonardo da Vinci. —
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italian
observers came to the fore in clearly demonstrating
the true nature of fossils. This was no doubt due
in part to the fact that the Italian coast affords a
rich field of observation in this particular branch of
science. The celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci
(early part of the sixteenth century), who carried out
some engineering works in connection with canals
in the north of Italy, showed that the mud brought
down by rivers had penetrated into the interior of
shells at a time when they were still at the bottom
of the sea near the coast.
Steno. — ■
In 1669, Steno, a Danish physician residing in
Italy, wrote a work on organic petrifactions which are
found enclosed in solid rocks, and showed by his dis-
section of a shark which had been recently captured
and by a comparison of its teeth with those found
fossil in the cliffs, that they were identical. The
same author also pointed out the resemblance be-
tween the shells discovered in the Italian strata and
those living on the adjacent shores. It was not until
the close of the eighteenth century, however, that
the study of fossil remains received a decided impe-
tus. It is curious to note that many of these later
26
AUSTBALASIAN FOSSILS.
authors maintained the occurrence of a universal
flood to account for the presence of fossil shells and
bones on the dry land.
Fossils an Index to Age. —
A large part of the credit of showing how fossils
are restricted to certain strata, and help to fix the
succession and age of the beds, is due to the English
Fig. 4.— William Smith (1769-1839.)
''The Father of English Geology," at the agelof^ 69.
{From Brit. Mus. Cat.)
geologist and surveyor, William Smith (Fig. 4).
"The Father of English Geology/ ' as he has been
called, published two works1 in the early part of last
century, in which he expressed his view of the value
of fossils to the geologist and surveyor, and showed
that there was a regular law of superposition of one
bed upon another, and that strata could be identified
at distant localities by their included fossils. Upon
1. — "Strata identified by Organised Fossils," 1816-1819;
and "Stratigraphical System of Organised Fossils," 1817.
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 27
this foundation the work of later geologists has been
firmly established; and students of strata and of
fossils work hand in hand.
Stratigraphy. —
That branch of geology which discusses the nature
and relations of the various sediments of the earth's
crust, and the form in which they were laid down,
is called Stratigraphy. From it we learn that in
bygone times many of those places that are now
occupied by dry land have been, often more than
once, covered by the sea; and thus Tennyson's lines
are forcibly brought to mind —
" There where the long street roars hath been
The stillness of the central sea."
Elevated Sea-beds. —
A striking illustration in proof of this emergence
of the land from the sea is the occurrence of marine
shells similar to those now found living in the sea,
in sea-cliffs sometimes many hundreds of feet above
sea-level. When these upraised beds consist of
shingle or sand with shore-loving shells, as limpets
and mussels, they are spoken of as Raised Beaches.
Elevated beaches are often found maintaining
the same level along coast-lines for many miles, like
those recorded by Darwin at Chili and Peru, or in
the south of England (Fig. 5). They also occur
intermittently along the Victorian coast, especially
around the indents, where they have survived the
wear and tear of tides along the coast line (Fig. 6).
They are also a common feature, as a capping, on
many coral islands which have undergone elevation.
Fig. 5.— A Raised Beach at Black Rock, Brighton, England.
( Original)
I : — ; — ^. : I — i — i-i.
Fig. 6. — Raised Beach (a) and Native Middens (b)
Torquay, Victoria. {Original),
28
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 29
Fig. 7. — Marine Fossils (Orthis flabellulum, Sowerby.)
About nat. size. In Volcanic Tuff of Ordovician Age. From the
Summit of Snowdon, North Wales, at an elevation of 3571 feet
above sea level. (F.C. Coll.)
Sea-beds far from the Present Coast. —
Marine beds of deeper water origin may be found
not only close to the coast-line, but frequently
on the tops of inland hills some miles from the sea-
coast. Their included sea-shells and other organic
remains are often found covered by fine sediment
forming extensive beds; and they may frequently occur
in the position in which they lived and died (Fig. 7).
Although it is well known that sea-birds carry shell-
fish for some distance inland, yet this would not
account for more than a few isolated examples.
Raised Beaches as Distinct from Middens. —
Again, it may be argued that the primitive inhabi-
tants of countries bordering the coast were in the
habit of piling up the empty shells of the edible mol-
luscs used by them for food: but these "kitchen
middens" are easily distinguished from fossil deposits
like shelly beaches, by the absence of stratified layers ;
and, further, by the shells being confined to edible
species, as the Cockle (Cardium), the Blood-cockle
(Area),* the Mussel (Mytilus), and the Oyster
(Ostrea) (Fig. 8).
30
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 8.— Remains of Edible Shell Fish (Kitchen-midden— native,
mirrn-yong)
in Sand Dunes near Spring Creek, Torquay, Victoria. {Orig
Submerged Forests. —
Evidence of change in the coast-line is shown by
the occurrence of submerged forest-land, known as
"fossil forests," which consist of the stumps of trees
still embedded in the black, loamy soil. Such forests,
Fig. 9.— Part of a Submerged Forest
seen at low water on the Cheshire coast at I^easowe, England.
{From Seward's "Fossil Plants")
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 31
when of comparatively recent age, are found near
the existing coast-line, and may sometimes extend for
a considerable distance out to sea (Fig. 9).
From the foregoing we learn that : —
1. — Fossils afford data of the various Changes that
have taken place in past times in the Relative Posi-
tions of Land and Water.
Changes of Climate in the Past. —
At the present day we find special groups of ani-
mals (fauna), and plants (flora), restricted to tropi-
cal climates; and others, conversely, to the arctic
regions. Cycads and tree-ferns, for example, seem
to flourish best in warm or sub-tropical countries:
yet in past times they were abundant in northern
Europe in what are now temperate and arctic regions,
as in Yorkshire, Spitzbergen, and Northern Siberia,
where indeed at one time they formed the principal
flora.
The rein-deer and musk-sheep, now to be found
only in the arctic regions, once lived in the South of
England, France and Germany. The dwarf willow
(Salix polaris) and an arctic moss (Hypnum tur-
gescens), now restricted to the same cold region,
occur fossil in the South of England.
In Southern Australia and in New Zealand, the
marine shells which lived during the earlier and
middle Tertiary times belong to genera and species
which are indicative of a warmer climate than that
now prevailing; this ancient fauna being like that
met with in dredging around the northern coasts of
Australia (Fig. 10.)
32 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 10.— A Fossil Shell (Pecten murrayanus, Tate)
Of Oligocene to I^ower Pliocene Age in Southern Australia ; closely
allied to, if not identical with, a species living off the coast of
Queensland. About nat. size. (F.C. Coll.)
From the above evidence we may say that : —
2. — Fossils teach us that in Former Times the Cli-
mate of certain parts of the earth's surface was Dif-
ferent from that now existing.
Fossils as Guides to Age of Strata. —
In passing from fossil deposits of fairly recent
origin to those of older date, we find the proportion
of living species gradually diminish, being replaced
by forms now extinct. After this the genera them-
selves are replaced by more ancient types, and if we
penetrate still deeper into the series of geological
strata, even families and orders of animals and plants
give place to others entirely unknown at the present
day.
NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS. 33
From this we conclude that: —
3. — Fossil Types, or Guide Fossils, are of great
value in indicating the Relative Age of Geological
Formations.
Gradual Evolution of Life-forms from Lower
to Higher Types.—
As a general rule the various types of animals
and plants become simpler in organisation as we de-
scend the geological scale. For example, in the old-
est rocks the animals are confined to the groups of
Foraminifera, Sponges, Corals, Graptolites, Shell-
fish and Trilobites, all back-boneless animals: whilst
it was not until the Devonian period that the primi-
tive fishes appeared as a well-defined group ; and in
the next formation, the Carboniferous Series, the first
traces of the Batrachians (Frog-like animals) and
Reptiles are found. Birds do not appear, so far as
their remains are known, until near the close of the
Jurassic; whilst Mammals are sparsely represented
by Monotremes and Marsupials in the Triassic and
Jurassic, becoming more abundant in Cainozoic
times, and by the Eutheria (Higher Mammals) from
the commencement of the Eocene period.
It is clear from the above and other facts in the
geological distribution of animal types that: —
4. — The Geological Record supports in the main
the Doctrine of Evolution from Simpler to more Com-
plex types-, and fossils throw much light upon the
Ancestry of Animals and Plants now found TAving.
CHAPTER II.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF FOSSIL ANIMALS
AND PLANTS.
AN elementary knowledge of the principles un-
derlying the classification of animals and
plants is essential to the beginner in the study
of fossils.
The Naming of Animals. —
In order to make a clearly understood reference
to an animal, or the remains of one, it is as necessary
to give it a name as it is in the case of a person or
a place. Before the time of Linnaeus (1707-1778),
it was the custom to refer, for example, to a
shell, in Latin1 as "the little spiral shell, with cross
markings and tubercles, like a ram's horn;" or to
a worm as "the rounded worm with an elevated
back." Improvements in this cumbersome method of
naming were made by several of the earlier authors
by shortening the description ; but no strict rule was
established until the tenth edition of Linnaeus'
"Systema Naturae" (1758), when that author insti-
tuted his binomial nomenclature by giving each
1. — The Latin description was used more commonly than
it is at present, as a universal scientific language.
34
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
35
form enumerated both a generic and specific name.
In plain words, this method takes certain life-forms
closely related, but differing in minute particulars,
and places them together in a genus or kindred group.
Thus the true dogs belong to the genus Canis, but
since this group also includes wolves, jackals, and
foxes, the various canine animals are respectively
designated by a specific name; thus the dog {Canis
familiaris), the dingo (C. dingo), the wolf (C.
lupus), the jackal (C. aureus), and the fox (C.
vulpes). The generic name is placed first. Allied
genera are grouped in families, (for example, Cani-
dae), these into orders (ex. Carnivora), the orders
into classes (ex. Mammalia), and the classes into
phyla or subkingdoms (ex. Vertebrata).
Plants are classified in much the same way, with
the exception that families and orders are, by some
authors, regarded as of equal value, or even reversed
in value; and instead of the term phylum the name
series is used.
Classification of the Animal Kingdom.
NAME OF PHYLUM. FORMS FOUND FOSSIL
I.— PROTOZOA
IT.— COELENTERATA
III.— ECHINODERMATA
IV._ VERMES
V .— MOLLUSCOIDE A
VI.— MOLLUSC A
Foraminifera, Radiolaria.
Sponges, Corals, Stromatopo-
roids, Graptolites.
Crinoids, Starfishes, Brittle-
stars, Sea-urchins.
Worms (tube-making and bur-
rowing kinds) .
Polyzoa or Sea-mats, Braehio-
pods or Lamp-shells.
Shell-fish: as Bivalves, Tusk-
shells, Chitons or Mail-
she 1 1 s, Gasteropods or
Snails, Pteropods or Sea-
butterflies; Cuttle-fishes.
36 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
VII.— ARTHROPODA
VIII.— VERTEBRATA
Joint-footed animals: as Trilo-
bites, Cyprids, Crabs and
Lobsters, Centipedes, Spiders
and Insects.
Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles,,
Birds and Mammals.
Classification of Animal Kingdom.
The first seven groups of the above classification
are back-boneless animals or Invertebrata ; the eighth
division alone comprising the animals with a vertebra
or backbone.
Characters of the Several Phyla. —
In the first group are placed those animals which,
when living, consist of only one cell, or a series of
similar cells, but where the cells were never combined
to form tissues having special functions, as in the
higher groups.
PROTOZOA.—
The Amoeba of freshwater ponds is an example
of such, but owing to its skin or cortex
being soft, and its consequent inability to
be preserved, it does not concern us here.
There are, however, certain marine animals of
this simple type of the Protozoa which se-
crete carbonate of lime to form a chambered shell
(Foraminifera) ; or silica to form a netted and con-
centrically coated shell held together with radial rods
(Radiolaria) ; and both of these types are found
abundantly as fossils. They are mainly microscopic,
except in the case of the nummulites and a few other
kinds of foraminifera, which are occasionally as large
as a crown piece.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 37
COELENTERATA.—
The second group, the Coelenterata, shows a decided
advance in organisation, for the body is multi-
cellular, and provided with a body-cavity which
serves for circulation and digestion. The important
divisions of this group, in which the organisms have
hard parts capable of being fossilised, are the limy
and flinty Sponges, the Corals, and allied groups,
as well as the delicate Graptolites which often cover
the surface of the older slates with their serrated,
linear forms, resembling pieces of fret-saws.
ECHINODERMATA.—
The third group, Echinodermata, comprises the
Sea-lilies (Crinoids), Starfishes and Sea-urchins, be-
sides a few other less important types ; and all these
mentioned are found living at the present day. Their
* bodies are arranged in a radial manner, the skin be-
ing strengthened by spicules and hardened by limy
deposits ultimately forming plates. They have a
•digestive canal and a circulatory system, and are thus
one remove higher than the preceding group.
VERMES.—
The fourth group, Vermes (Worms), are animals
with a bilateral or two-sided body, which is some-
times divided into segments, but without jointed
appendages. Those which concern the student of
fossils are the tube-making worms, the errant or wan-
dering worms which form casts like the lob-worm,
and the burrowing kinds whose crypts or dwellings
become filled with solid material derived from the
surrounding mud.
38 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
MOLLUSCOIDEA.—
Group five, the Molluscoidea, contains two types p
the Flustras or Sea-mats (Polyzoa) and the Lamp-
shells (Brachiopoda). They are at first sight totally
unlike ; for the first-named are colonies of compound
animals, and the second are simple, and enclosed
between two valves. They show in common, how-
ever, a bilateral symmetry. The mouth is furnished
with fine tentacles, or with spirally rolled hair-like
or ciliated processes.
MOLLUSCA.—
The sixth group, the Mollusca, includes all shell-
fish. They are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical
animals, without definite segments. The shells, on
account of being formed of carbonate of lime on an
organic basis, are often found preserved in f ossifer-
ous strata.
ARTHROPODA.—
The seventh group, the Arthropoda, or joint-footed
animals, are distinguished by their segmented, lat-
eral limbs, and by having a body composed of a series
of segments or somites. The body and appendages
are usually protected by a horny covering, the 'exo-
skeleton. ' The group of the Trilobites played an im-
portant part in the first era of the formation of the
earth ?s crust; whilst the other groups were more
sparsely represented in earlier geological times, but
became more and more predominant until the present
day.
VERTEBRATA.—
The great group of the Vertebrata comes last, with
its chief characteristic of the backbone structure^
which advances in complexity from the Fishes to the-
Higher Mammals.
CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS.
39
A Simplified Classification of the Vegetable
Kingdom.
SERIES.
I.— THALLOPHYTA
II.— BRYOPHYTA
IIL— PTERIDOPH\TA
IV.— PTERIDOSPER-
MEAE
V.— GYMNOSPERMEAE
VI.— ANGIOSPERMEAE
FORMS FOUND FOSSIL.
Sea-weeds: as Corallines and
Calcareous Algae.
Mosses, Liverworts.
Fern-like plants, as Horse-tails,
Club-mosses and true Ferns.
Oldest Seed-bearing plants.
with fern-like foliage.
Plants with naked seeds, as Cy-
cads (Fern-palms), Ginkgo
(Maiden-hair Tree), and
Conifers (Pine trees).
Flowering plants, as Grasses,
Lilies and all ordinary trees
and plants.
Characters of the Plant Series.
THALLOPHYTA.—
The first series, the Thalloph}7tes, are simple "uni-
cellular plants, and occupy the same position in the
vegetable kingdom as the Protozoa do in the animal
kingdom. Fossil remains of these organisms seem to
be fairly well distributed throughout the entire geo-
logical series, but, owing to the soft structure of the
fronds in most of the types, it is often a matter of
doubt Avhether we are dealing with a true thallophyte
or not. Many of the so-called sea-weeds (fucoids)
may be only trails or markings left by other organ-
isms, as shell-fish and crustaceans.
BRYOPHYTA.—
The second series, the Bryophytes or moss plants,
are represented in the fossil state by a fewr unimpor-
tant examples.
40 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
PTERIDOPHYTA.—
The third series, the Pteridophytes, includes the
Ferns found from the Devonian up to the present
day, Horse-tails and allied forms, like Equisetites,
and the Club-mosses and Lepidodendron of the Car-
boniferous period in various parts of the world.
PTERIDOSPERMEAE.—
The fourth series, the Pteridospermeae, comprises
some of the earliest seed-bearing plants, as Alethop-
teris and Neuropteris. They occur in rocks of Upper
Palaeozoic age as far as known.
GYMNOSPERMEAE.
The fifth series, the Gymnospermeae, contains the
most important types of plants found fossil, especially
those of the primary and secondary rocks: they were
more abundant, with the exception of the Coniferae,
in the earlier than in the more recent geological
periods.
ANGIOSPERMEAE.—
The sixth series, the Angiospermeae, comprises all
the Flowering Trees and Plants forming the bulk of
the flora now living, and is divided into the kinds
having single or double seed-leaves (Monocotyledones
the Dicotyledones respectively). This important
group came into existence towards the close of the
Cretaceous period simultaneously with the higher
mammals, and increased in abundance until modern
times.
CHAPTER III.
THE GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS: AND THE
TIME RANGE OF FOSSILS.
Superposition of Strata. —
FOSSILS are chiefly found in rocks which have
been formed of sediments laid down in water,
such as sandstone, shale and most limestones.
These rocks, broadly speaking, have been deposited
in a horizontal position, though really slightly in-
clined from shore to deep-water. One layer has
l)een formed above another, so that the oldest layer
is at the bottom, and the newest at the top, of the
series (Fig. 11). Let us, for instance, examine a
cliff showing three layers : the lower, a sandstone,
we wTill call A ; the intermediate, a shale or clay bed,
B ; and the uppermost, a limestone or marl, C (Fig.
12). In forming a conclusion about the relative ages
of the beds, we shall find that A is always older than
B, and B than C, provided no disturbance of the
strata has taken place. For instance, the beds once
horizontally deposited may have been curved and
folded over, or even broken and thrust out of place,
within limited areas; but occurrences like these are
extremely rare. Moreover, an examination of the
surrounding country, or of deep cuttings in the neigh-
bourhood, will tell us if there is any probability of
this inversion of strata having taken place.
41
^v":;iv-:::i^4u: ,«s»«sl«t ■■■.■■.
-am
Fig . 1 1 .—Horizontal Layers of Fossiliferous Clays and Sands.
In Sea Cliff, Torquay Coast, Victoria, looking towards Bird Rock.
(Original).
k
II
5
J "
k
» u
.1
<> t
1*
1
\
" ... A
ft
ft
111
— :
-
■ B""=
=~
=^
■=r — =
m" '
. . • =
3* *
•
^~~ •
.^ '
- .•
* , X?
j> *
•
. "• A
Fig. 1 2.— Cliff-Section to Show Superposition of Strata.
A = Sandstone. B = Shale. C = Limestone.
42
GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS. 43
This law of superposition holds good throughout
the mass of sedimentary rocks forming the crust of
the earth.
(1). Thus, the position of the strata shows the
relative ages of the beds.
Differences in Fossil Faunas. —
Turning once again to our ideal cliff section, if we
examine the fossils obtained from bed A, we shall
find them differing in the number of kinds or species
common to the other beds above and below. Thus,
there will be more species alike in beds A and B or
in B and C. In other words the faunas of A and B
are more nearly related than those of A and C. This
is explained by the fact that there is a gradual change
in specific forms as we pass through the time series
of strata from below upwards ; so that the nearer one
collecting platform is to another, as a rule, the
stronger is the community of species.
Guide Fossils. —
Certain kinds of fossils are typical of particular
formations. They are known as guide fossils, and
by their occurrence help us to gain some idea of the
approximate age of rocks widely separated by ocean
and continent. Thus we find fossils typical of the
Middle Devonian rocks in Europe, which also occur
in parts of Australia, and we therefore conclude that
the Australian rocks containing those particular fos-
sils belong to the same formation, and are nearly of
the same age.
(2). The included fossils, therefore, give evidence
of the age of the beds.
44 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Value of Lithological Evidence. —
The test of age by rock-structure has a more
restricted use, but is of value when taken in con-
junction with the sequence of the strata and the
character of their included fossils.
To explain both the valuable and the uncertain
elements of this last method as a determinant of age,
we may cite, for instance, the Upper Ordovician
slates of Victoria and New South Wales as an ex-
ample of uniform rock formation; whilst the yellow
mudstones and the grey limestones of the Upper
Silurian (Yeringian series) of the same states, are
instances of diverse lithological structures in strata
of similar age. A reference in the latter case to the
assemblages of fossils found therein, speedily settles
the question.
(3). Hence, the structure and composition of the
rocks (lithology), gives only partial evidence in re-
gard to age.
Strata Vertically Arranged. —
The Stratigraphical Series of fossiliferous sedi-
ments comprises bedded rocks from all parts of the
world, which geologists arrange in a vertical column
according to age.
A general computation of such a column for the
fossiliferous rocks of Europe gives a thickness of
about 14 miles. This is equivalent to a mass of strata
lying edgewise from Melbourne to Ringwood. The
Australian sediments form a much thicker pile of
rocks, for they can hardly fall short of 37 miles, or
nearly the distance from Melbourne to Healesville.
GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS.
45
This vertical column of strata was formed during
three great eras of time. The oldest is called the
Primary or Palaeozoic ("ancient life"), in which
the animals and plants are of primitive types. This
is followed by the Secondary or Mesozoic ("middle
life"), in which the animals and plants are inter-
mediate in character between the Palaeozoic and the
later, Cainozoic. The third era is the Tertiary or
Cainozoic ("recent life"), in which the animals and
plants are most nearly allied to living foruH. These
great periods are further subdivided into epochs, as
the Silurian epoch ; and these again into stages, as the
Yeringian stage.
Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, Australia.
ERA.
CAINOZOIC
or
TERTIARY
(Note 1).
EPOCHS IN
EUROPE.
HOLOCENE
PLEISTOCENE
PLIOCENE
EQUIVALENT STRATA
IN AUSTRALIA.
Dunes, Beaches, and Shell-
beds now forming.
Raised Beaches, River Ter-
races, Swamp Deposits
with Diprotodon, Cave
Breccias, Helix Sand-
stone.
Upper. — Estuarine beds of
bores in the Murray ba-
sin, Marine beds of
Limestone Creek, Glenelg
River, Vic. ( Werrikooian) .
Lower. — ■ Kalimnan red
sands (terrestrial) and
shell marls (marine) of
Victoria, Deep Leads
(fluviatile) in part, Up-
per Aldingan of South
Australia.
46
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
CAINOZOIC
or
TERTIARY
( Continued )
MIOCENE
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
Deep Leads in part: Leaf-
beds of Bacchus Marsh,
Dalton and Gunning.
Janjukian Series of C.
Otway, Spring Creek, and
Table Cape. Batesford
Limestone. Polyzoal
Rock of Mt. Gambier and
the Nullarbor Plains.
Older Cainozoic of Mur-
ray basin, Lower Aldin-
gan Series of S. Austra-
lia, Corio Bay and
Bairnsdale Series.
Shelly clays and leaf-beds
of the Balcombian Series
at Mornington ; also
Shell-marls and clays
with Brown Coal, Altona
Bay, and lower beds at
Muddy Creek, W. Vict.
Probably no representatives.
MESOZOIC
or
SECONDARY
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
Upper. — Leaf-beds of Croy-
don, Q. Desert Sandstone,
Q. Radiolarian Rock, N.
Territory. Gin-gin Chalk,
W.A.
Lower. — Rolling Downs
Formn., Q. Lake Eyre
beds, S.A.
Marine. — Geraldton, W.A.
Freshwater. — Carbonace-
ous sandstone of S.
Gippsland, the Wannon,
C. Otway and Barrabool
Hills. Ipswich Series, Q.
Mesozoic of Tasmania,
Talbragar beds, N.S.W.
Upper leaf-beds at Bald
Hill, Bacchus Marsh, Vict.
Hawkesbury Series (Par-
ramatta Shales, Hawkes-
bury Sandstone, Narra-
been beds), N.S.W. Bur-
rum Beds, Q.
ERRATUM^?5i£-lZ--
In 1st column-for " Mesoz01c or Secondary
(continued)."
Read " Paleozoic or Primary
and omit divisional line.
S^^^aSP^A'^ • rill
' fc ■ '
Ma
mm
GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS.
47
MESOZOIC
or
SECONDARY.
( Continued ) .
PERMIAN and
CARBONIFER-
OUS, UPPER
CARBONIFER-
OUS, LOWER
Carbopermian (Note 2),
Coal Measures of New
South Wales, W. Austra-
lia, Queensland ( Gympie
Series) and Tasmania.
Gangamopteris beds of
Bacchus Marsh, Vic.
Upper Carboniferous of
Clarence Town, N.S.W.
Fish and Plant beds,
Mansfield, Vict. Gram-
pian sandstone ; Avon
River sandstone, Vict.
( ? ) Star beds, Queens-
1 a n d. Lepidodendron
beds of Kimberley, W.A.
(Note 3).
PALAEOZOIC
or
PRIMARY
DEVONIAN
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN,
UPPER and
LOWER
CAMBRIAN
Upper. — Sandstones of Igu-
ana Creek, with plant re-
mains. Lepidodendron
beds with Lingula, Ny-
rang Creek, N.S.VV ales.
Middle. — Fossiliferous mar-
bles and mudstones of
Buchan, Bindi and Tab-
berabbera, Vict. Rocks
of the Murrumbidgee,
N.S. Wales, and of Bur-
dekin, Queensland.
Upper. — ( Yeringian stage ) .
— Lilydale, Loyola, Thom-
son River, and Waratah
Bay, Vict.; Bowning and
Yass (in part), N.S.
Wales ; Queensland .
Lower (Melbournian
stage). — Melbourne,
Heathcote, Vict. : Bown-
ing and Yass (in part),
N.S. Wales. Gordon R.
Limestone.
Slates (graptolitic) . — Vic-
toria and New South
Wales. ( ? ) Gordon River
Limestone, Tas., in part
( Note 4 ) . Larapintine
series of Central Austra-
lia.
Mudstones and lime-
stones of Tasmania,
South Australia, Vic-
toria and W. Australia.
48
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
PALAEOZOIC
or
PRIMARY.
( Continued ) .
PRE-
CAMBRIAN
Fossiliferous rocks doubt-
ful; chiefly represented
by schistose and other
metamorphic rocks.
1. — The classification of the Cainozoics as employed here is
virtually the same as given by McCoy in connection with
his work for the Victorian Geological Survey. The writer
has obtained further evidence to support these conclusions
from special studies in the groups of the cetacea, mollusca and
the protozoa. The alternative classification of the caino-
zoics as given by one or two later authors, introducing the
useful local terminology of Hall and Pritchard for the
various stages or assises is as follows: —
TATE AND DENNANT.
Stages.
HALL AND PRITCHARD
Stages.
Werrikooian
Kalimnan
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Werrikooian
Kalimnan
Pliocene
Miocene
Janjukian
( ?) Oligocene
Balcombian
Eocene.
Balcombian
Eocene
Janjukian
Aldingan
(lower beds
at that loc.)
Eocene
and
Aldingan
in part
Eocene.
2. — Or Permo-carboniferous. As the series is held by
some authorities to partake of the faunas of both epochs, it
is preferable to use the shorter word, which moreover gives
the natural sequence. There is, however, strong evidence in
favour of using the term Permian for this important series.
3. — Mr. W. S. Dun regards the Lepidodendron beds of W.
Australia, New South Wales and Queensland as of Upper
Devonian age. There is no doubt, from a broad view of the
whole question as to the respective age of these beds in Aus-
tralia, that the one series is continuous, and probably repre-
sents the Upper Devonian and the Lower Carboniferous of the
northern hemisphere.
4. — These limestones contain a fauna of brachiopods and
corals which, at present, seems to point to the series as inter-
mediate between the older Silurian and the Upper Ordovician.
GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS.
49
Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, New
Zealand.
ERA.
CAINOZOIC
or
TERTIARY
EPOCHS IN
EUROPE.
MESOZOIC
or
SECONDARY
PALAEOZOIC
or
PRIMARY
HOLOCENE
PLEISTOCENE
PLIOCENE
MIOCENE
OLIGOCENE
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
(?)CARBONIFER
OUS
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
EQUIVALENT STRATA
IN NEW ZEALAND.
River Alluvium. Beach
Sands and Gravel.
Raised Beaches. Older Gra-
vel Drifts.
Moraines. Boulder Clays.
Upper. — Petane series. \ *g
Lower. — ■ Waitotara I g g
and Awatere series. J &p^
Oamaru series. kJ ^
Waimangaroa series.
Waipara series (of Hut-
ton).
Mataura and Putataka
series.
Wairoa,' Otapiri and Kai-
hiku series.
Aorangi (unfossiliferous)
series.
Maitai series (with Spiri-
fer and Productus. )
( ? ) Te Anau series ( unf os-
siliferous) .
Wangapeka series.
Kakanui series (with Low-
er Ordovician graptolite
facies).
Unfossiliferous. Metamor-
phic schists of the Mani-
ototo series.
L — Based for the most part, but with some slight modifi-
cations, on Prof. J. Park's classification in "Geology of New
Zealand/' 1910.
fig. 13.
^ANCE-SN-TlME of FOSSILS in AUSTRALASIAN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Life £
Group 2
Plants
Protozoa —
Sponges- -
Arch/^ocyathina:
Corals —
Hydrozoa
echinodermata
Worms
POLYZOA
Brachiopods-
m ollusca-
Arthropoda-
FiS H ES
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
EM., del.}
50
Fig. 14.— Skeleton of Diprotodon australis owcn.
Uncovered in Morass at I^ake Callabonna, South Australia.
(By permission of Dr. E. C. Stirling) .
CHAPTER IV.
HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND : AND THE ROCKS
THEY FORM.
AS already noticed, it is the hard parts of buried
animals and plants that are generally pre-
served. We will now consider the groups of
organisms, one by one, and note the particular parts
of each which we may reasonably expect to find in
the fossil state.
MAMMALS.— The bones and teeth: as the Di-
protodon remains of Lake Callabonna in South Aus-
lia (Fig. 14), of West Melbourne Swamp, Victoria,
51
Fig. 1 5.— Bird Bones
Exposed on Sand-blow at SealjBay^
King Island.
{Photo by C. L. Barrett).
Fig. 16. — Impression of a Bird's
Feather in Ironstone.
About 2A nat. size. Of Cainozoic
(? Janjukian) Age. Redruth,
Victoria.
(Nat. Mus. Coll.)
Fig. 1 7.— Notochelone costata,
Owen sp. (Anterior portion of
carapace.)
About % nat. size. A Marine Tur-
tle from the Lower Cretaceous
of Flinders River, Queensland.
(Nat. Mus. Coll.)'
52
HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND. 53
;and the Darling Downs, Queensland. Rarely the skin,
.as in the carcases of the frozen Mammoth of the tun-
dras of Northern Siberia ; or the dried remains of
the Grypotherium of South American caves.
BIRDS : — Bones : as the Moa hones of New Zea-
land and the Emu bones of the King Island sand-
dunes (Fig. 15). Very rarely the impressions of the
feathers of birds are found, as in the ironstone occur-
xing in the Wannon district of Victoria (Fig. 16),
and others in fine clays and marls on the continent
of Europe and in England. Fossil eggs of sea-birds
are occasionally found in coastal sand-dunes of Holo-
'Cene age.
REPTILES.— Skeletons of fossil turtles (Notoche-
Zone) are found in Queensland (Fig. 17). Whole
skeletons and the dermal armour (spines and bony
plates) of the gigantic, specialised reptiles are found
in Europe, North America, and in other parts of the
"world.
FISHES. — Whole skeletons are sometimes found
in sand and clay rocks, as in the Trias of Gosford,
New South Wales (Fig. 18), and in the Jurassic of
South Gippsland. The ganoid or enamel-scaled fishes
are common fossils in the Devonian and Jurassic, not-
ably in Germany, Scotland and Canada : and they
also occur in the sandy mudstone of the Lower
Carboniferous of Mansfield, Victoria.
INSECTS.— Notwithstanding their fragility, in-
sects are often well preserved as fossils, for the reason
that their skin and wings consist of the horny sub-
stance called chitin. The Tertiary marls of Europe
are very prolific in insect remains (Fig. 19). From
54
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 18. f
A Fossil Fish with Ganoid Scales (Pristisomus crassus, A.S. Woodw .
About XA nat. size. Trias (Hawkesbury Series), of Gosford, New
South Wales. {NaL MuSt ColL)
the Miocene beds of Florissant, Colorada, U.S.A.,
several hundred species of insects have been des-
cribed.
CRUSTACEA. — The outer crust, or exoskeleton,
of these animals is often hard, being formed of a com-
pound of carbonate and phosphate of lime on an
organic, chitinous base. The earliest forms of this
1 — , —
Fig 1 9. — A Fossil Insect
(Tipula sp.) in Amber.
Nat. size. Oligocene beds ;
Baltic Prussia.
(F.C. Coll.)
Tig. 20.— A Fossil Lobster (Thalassina emerii, Bell).
Slightly reduced. From the Pleistocene of Port Darwin, Northern
Territory. {NaL Mus Coll)
' -
w •
t
? 1§§
irfjS*£-*-" 7- •' ' r^ £jw
Bp^fi^O? f'-' J"
"''-, •
WW-"'
rgK."\mtXri y*:~
i'
«^4lL>* . ;>" 'iT^^PIB
\ 'J7
m^*- / -
.,
||||HEj(.
-
Pig. 21 .—An Ammonite (Desmoceras f lindersi, McCoy sp.)
Half nat. size. Showing complex sutures. Iy. Cretaceous : Marathon,
Flinders River, Queensland. {NaL Mus Coll)
55
56
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
group were the trilobites, commencing in Cambrian
times, and of which there is a good representative
series in Australian rocks. Remains of crabs and
lobsters are found in the various Cainozoic deposits
in Australia (Fig. 20), and also in the Jurassic in
other parts of the world.
MOLLUSCA.— The Cuttle-fish group (Cephalo-
poda, "head-footedJ')? is well represented by the
Nautilus-like, but straight Orthoceras shells com-
mencing in Ordovician times, and, in later periods, by
the beautiful, coiled Ammonites (Fig. 21). The
true cuttle-fishes possess an internal bone, the sepio-
staire, which one may see at the present day drifted
on to the sand at high-water mark on the sea-shore.
The rod-like Belemnites are of this nature, and
occur abundantly in the Australian Cretaceous rocks
of South Australia and Queensland (Fig. 22).
Hg. 22.
Belemnites (Belemnites
diptycha, McCoy).
% nat. size. I,ower Cretaceous.
Central South Australia.
(Nat. Mus. Coll)
Fig. 23. — A Group of Lamp Shells
(Magellania flavescens, Lam. sp.)
Attached to a Polyzoan.
About % nat. size'. Dredged from
Westernport, Victoria.
{C.J. Gabrirl Coll.)
HOW FOSSILS ARE POUND. 57
Elephant-tusk shells (Scaphopoda) are frequent in
our Tertiary beds: they are also sparingly found in
the Cretaceous, and some doubtful remains occur in
the Palaeozoic strata of Australia.
The shells of the ordinary mollusca, such as the
snails, whelks, mussels, and scallops, are abundant in
almost all geological strata from the earliest periods.
Their calcareous shells form a covering which, after
the decay of the animal within, are from their nature
among the most easily preserved of fossil remains.
There is hardly an estuary bed, lake-deposit, or sea-
bottom, but contains a more or less abundant assem-
blage of these shell-fish remains, or testa cea as they
were formerly called (" testa.7' a shell or potsherd).
We see, therefore, the importance of this group of
fossils for purposes of comparison of one fauna with
another (antea, Pig. 1).
The chitons or mail-shells, by their jointed nature,
consisting of a series of pent-roof-shaped valves
united by ligamental tissue, are nearly always repre-
sented in the fossil state by separate valves. Fossil
examples of this group occur in Australia both in
Palaeozoic rocks and, more numerously, in the
Cainozoic series.
MOLLUSCOIDEA.— The Brachiopods or Lamp-
shells consist generally of two calcareous valves as in
the true mollusca (Fig. 23), but are sometimes of
horny texture. Like the previous class, they are
also easily preserved as fossils. They possess bent,
loop-like or spiral arms, called brachia, and by the
movement of fine ciliated (hair-like) processes on
their outer edges conduct small food particles to the
58
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
month. The brachia are supported by shelly pro-
cesses, to which are attached, in the Spirifers, delicate
spirally coiled ribbons. These internal structures
are often beautifully preserved, even though they are
so delicate, from the fact that on the death of the
animal the commissure or opening round the valves
is so tightly closed as to prevent the coarse mud from
penetrating while permitting the finer silt, and more
rarely mineral matter in solution, to pass, and sub-
sequently to be deposited within the cavity. At the
Murray River cliffs in South Australia, a bed of
Cainozoic limestone contains many of these brachio-
pod shells in a unique condition, for the hollow valves
have been filled in with a clear crystal of selenite or
Fig. 24.— Zoarium of a Living
Polyzoan. (Retepora)
% nat. size.
Flinders, Victoria.
{RC. Coll.)
Fig. 25.— A Fossil Polyzoan (Macropora
clarkei, T. Woods, sp.)
About XA nat. size. Cainozoic (Balcombian).
Muddy Creek, Victoria.
(F.C. Coll.)
HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND. 59
gypsum, through which may be seen the loop or
brachial support preserved in its entirety. .
The Sea-mats or Polyzoa, represented by Retepora
(the Lace-coral) (Fig. 24) and Flustra (the Sea-mat)
of the present sea-shore, have a calcareous skeleton,
or zoarium, which is easily preserved as a fossil.
Polyzoa are very abundant in the Cainozoic beds of
Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere (Fig. 25).
In the Mesozoic series, on the other hand, they are
not so well represented; but in Europe and North
America they play an important part in forming the
Cretaceous and some Jurassic strata by the abund-
ance of their remains.
WORMS (VERMES).— The hard, calcareous tubes
of Sea-worms, the Polychaeta ("many bristles ") are
often found in fossiliferous deposits, and sometimes
form large masses, due to their gregarious habits of
life; they also occur attached to shells such as
oysters (Fig. 26). The burrows of the wandering
worms are found in Silurian strata in Australia ;
and the sedentary forms likewise occur from the
Devonian upwards.
ECHINODERMATA.— Sea-urchins (Echinoidea)
possess a hard, calcareous, many-plated test or cover-
ing and, when living are covered with spines (Fig.
27). Both the tests and spines are found fossil, the
former sometimes whole when the sediment has been
quietly thrown down upon them; but more fre-
quently, as in the Shepherd's crown type (Cidaris),
are found in disjointed plates, owing to the fact that
current action, going on during entombment has
caused the plates to separate. The spines are very
rarely found attached to the test, more frequently
■60
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 26.— Fossil Worm Tubes
(? Serpula.)
Attached to a Pecten.
Slightly Enlarged. Cainozoic
(Balcombian). Muddy Creek,
Hamilton, Victoria.
(F.C. Coll)
Fig. 27.
A Regular Sea - Urchin (Strongylo-
centrotus erythrogrammus, Val.)
About ^ nat. size. Showing Spines
attached. Iyiving. Victoria.
{F.C. Coll.)
being scattered through the marl or sandy clay in
which the sea-urchins are buried. The best condi-
tions for the preservation of this group is a marly
limestone deposit, in which case the process of fossil-
isation would be tranquil (Fig. 28).
: '%,:..
- .
1>4m
• ■ 5 'i';l'
— ■
Fig. 28.— A Fossil Sea-Urchin
Linthia antiaustralis, Tate).
Test denuded of Spines.
About % nat. size.
(Janjukian) :
Victoria.
Cainozoic
Curlewis,
{Nat. Mus. Coll.)
Fig. 29. — Ophioderma egertoni,
Broderip, sp.
About K nat. size. A Brittle Star
from the I^ias of Seaton, Devon.
Kngland.
{Nat. Mus. Coll.)
HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND. 61
The true Starfishes (Asteroidea), are either
covered with calcareous plates, or the skin is hardened
by rough tubercles; and these more lasting portions
are preserved in rocks of all ages. The shape of the
animal is also often preserved in an exquisite manner
in beds of fine mud or clay.
The Brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea) have their body
covered with hard, calcareous plates. Their
remains are found in rocks as old as the Ordovician
in Bohemia but their history in Australia begins with
the Silurian period (Fig. 29). From thence onward
they are occasionally found in successive strata in
various parts of the world.
The bag-like echinoderms (Cystidea) form a rare
group, restricted to Palaeozoic strata. The plates of
the sack, or theca, and those of the slender arms are
calcareous, and are capable of being preserved in the
fossil state. A few doubtful remains of this group
occur in Australia.
The bud-shaped echinoderms (Blastoidea) also
occur chiefly in Devonian and Carboniferous strata.
This is also a rare group, and is represented by
several forms found only in New South Wales and
Queensland.
The well known and beautiful fossil forms, the
Stone-lilies (Crinoidea) have a very extended geolo-
gical history, beginning in the Cambrian; whilst a
few species are living in the ocean at the present day.
The many-jointed skeleton lends itself well to fossil-
isation, and remains of the crinoids are common
in Australia mainly in Palaeozoic strata (Fig. 30)..
rig. 30.
A fossil Crinoid (Taxocrinus
simplex, Phillips sp.)
About V2 nat size.
Wenlock Limestone (Silurian),
Dudley, England.
{Nat. Mus. Coll.)
Fig. 31.— Graptolites on Slate (Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall, sp.)
Nat. Size. Lower Ordovician. Bendigo, Victoria.
{Nat. Mus. Colt.)
62
HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND. 63
Tig. 32.
Polished Vertical Section of a Stroma toporoid. (Actinostroma).
Nat. size. Middle Devonian. South Devon, England.
(F.C. Coll.)
In Europe they are found abundantly also in Juras-
sic strata, especially in the Lias.
HYDROZOA.— The Graptolites ("stone-writing")
have a chitinous skin (periderm) to the body or hydro-
some, which is capable of preservation to a remark-
able degree; for their most delicate structures are
preserved on the surfaces of the fine black mud
deposits which subsequently became hardened into
slates. In Australia graptolites occur from the base
of the Ordovician to the top of the Silurian (Fig.
31).
Another section of the Hydrozoa is the Stromato-
poroidea. These are essentially calcareous, and
tfheir structure reminds one of a dense coral. The
64
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
fig. 33.— Fossil Corals (Favosites).
Photograph of a Polished Slab, % nat.
size. In Devonian limestone,
Buchan, Victoria.
Fig. 34.— Siliceous Skeleton of a Living
Hexactinellid Sponge.
Probably Chonelasma.
X4. Mauritius. (Viewed in Two
Directions.
(F.C. Co//.)
Fig. 34.
polyps build their tiers of cells (coenosteum) in a
regular manner, and seem to have played the
same part in the building of ancient reefs in Silurian,
Devonian and Carboniferous times as the Millepora
at the present day (Fig. 32).
ANTHOZOA. — The true Corals have a stony skele-
ton, and this is capable of easy preservation as a
fossil. There is hardly any fossiliferous stratum of
importance which has not its representative corals.
In Australia their remains are especially abundant in
the Silurian, Devonian (Fig. 33), and Carboniferous;
formations, and again in the Oligocene and Miocene.
SPONGES. — The framework of the sponge may
consist either of flinty, calcareous, or horny material
(Fig. 34). The two former kinds are well repre-
sented in our Australian rocks, the first appearing in
the Lower Ordovician associated with graptolites, and
PROTOZOA.
65
again in the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks (Fig. 35) ;
whilst the calcareous sponges are found in Silurian
strata, near Yass, and again in the Cainozoic beds of
Flinders, Curlewis and Mornington in Victoria.
PROTOZOA.— The important and widely-distri-
buted group of the Foraminifera ("hole-bearers")
belonging to the lowest phylum, the Protozoa, gener-
ally possess a calcareous shell. The tests range in
size from tiny specks of the fiftieth of an inch in
diameter, to the giant Nummulite, equalling a five
shilling piece in size (Fig. 36). Their varied and
beautiful forms are very attractive, but their great
interest lies in their multifarious distribution in all
kinds of sediments: they are also of importance be-
cause certain of the more complex forms indicate
Fig. 35.
Spicules of a Siliceous Sponge
(Ecionema newberyi, McCoy sp.)
Highly magnified. Cainozoic
Shell-Marl.
Altona Bay Coal-Shaft.
Fig. 36.
Nummulites (N. gizehensis Ehr. var.
champollioni, de la Harpe).
About nat. size. Middle Eocene limestone.
Cyrene, Northern Africa.
{Coll. by Dr. J. IV. Gregory).
66
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig, 37.— Siliceous Skeletons of Radiolaria.
X 58. Iyate Cainozoic Age. Bissex Hill, Barbados, West Indies.
(F.C. Coll.)
distinct life zones, being restricted to particular strata
occurring in widely-separated areas.
Members of the allied order of the Radiolaria have
a flinty shell (Fig. 37) ; and these organisms are often
found building up siliceous rocks such as cherts (Fig.
38).
PLANTS. — The harder portions of plants which
are found in the fossil state are, — the wood, the
coarser vascular (vessel-bearing) tissue of the leaves,
and the harder parts of fruits and seeds.
Fossil wood is of frequent occurrence in Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cainozoic strata in Australia, as, for
Fig. 38.-Radiolaria in
X 40. Middle Devonian : Taniworth, New South Wales.
{From Prof. David's Collection).
Pig. 39.— Travertin Limestone with Leaves of Beech (Fagus).
Nat. size. Pleistocene: near Hobart, Tasmania. {Nat. Mus. Coll,)
67
68
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
instance, the wood of the trees called Araucarioxylon
and Dadoxylon in the Coal measures of New South
Wales (see antea, Fig. 3).
Fossil leaves frequently occur in pipeclay beds,
as at Berwick, Victoria, and in travertine from near
Hobart, Tasmania (Fig. 39). Fossil fruits are
found in abundance in the ancient river gravels at
several hundreds of feet below the surface, in the
6 ' deep leads" of Haddon, Victoria, and other locali-
ties in New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania.
Fig. 40— Freshwater Limestone with Shells (Bulinus).
About 4/5 nat. size. Mount Arapiles, Western Victoria.
Wat. Mus. Coll.)
F0SSIL1FER0US ROCKS.
69
Fag. 41 ,— Fossiliferous Mudstone of Silurian (Yeringian) Age.
With Brachiopods. About 2/z nat. size. Near L,ilydale, Victoria.
(F.C. Coll.)
FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS.
Section I.— ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS.
Under this head are placed the muds, clays, mud-
stones, shales and slates. MUDS are usually of a
silty nature, that is, containing a variable propor-
tion of sand (quartz) grains. Such are the estuarine
muds of Pleistocene and Recent age, containing brack-
ish water foraminifera and ostracoda, and those shells
of the mollusca usually found associated with brackish
conditions. Lacustrine mud can be distinguished by
the included freshwater shells, as Limnaea, Coxiella
(brackish), Cyclas and Bulinus, as well as the fresh-
water ostracoda or cyprids (Fig. 40).
CLAYS are tenacious mud deposits, having the
general composition of a hydrous silicate of alumina
with some iron. When a clay deposit tends to split
into leaves or laminae, either through moderate pres-
sure or by the included fossil remains occupying dis-
tinct planes in the rock, they are called SHALES.
69
70 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Clays and Shales of marine origin are often
crowded wth the remains of mollusca. The shells
are sometimes associated with leaves and other vege-
table remains, if forming part of an alternating
series of freshwater and marine conditions. An
example of this type of sediments is seen in the
Mornington beds of the Balcombian series in Victoria.
MLTDSTONB is a term applied to a hardened clay
deposit derived from the alteration of an impure
limestone, and is more often found in the older series
of rocks. Mudstones are frequently crowded with
fossils, but owing to chemical changes within the
rock, the calcareous organisms are as a rule repre-
sented by casts and moulds. At times these so faith-
fully represent the surface and cavities of the organ-
ism that they are almost equivalent to a well
preserved fossil (Fig. 41).
SLATE. — When shale is subjected to great pres-
sure, a plane of regular splitting called cleavage is
induced, which is rarely parallel to the bedding plane
or surface spread out on the original sea-floor : the
cleavage more often taking place at an appreciable
angle to the bedding plane. The graptolitic rocks
of Victoria are either shales or slates, according to
the absence or development of this cleavage structure
in the rock.
FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS. 71
Section II,— SILICEOUS ROCKS.
In this group are comprised all granular quartzose
sediments, and organic rocks of flinty composition.
SANDSTONES.— Although the base of this type
of rock is formed of quartz sand, it often contains fos-
sils. Owing to its porous nature, percolation of
water containing dissolved C02 tends to bring about
the solution of the calcareous shells, with the result
that only casts of the shells remain.
FLINTS and CHERTS.— These are found in the
form of nodules and bands in other strata, prin-
cipally in limestone. In Europe, flint is usually
found in the Chalk formation, whilst chert is found
in the Lower Greensands, the Jurassics, the Carboni-
ferous Limestone and in Cambrian rocks. In Aus-
tralia, flint occurs in the Miocene or Polyzoal-rock
formation of Mount Gambier, Cape Liptrap and the
Mallee borings. Flint is distinguished from chert
by its being black in the mass, often with a white
crust, and translucent in thin flakes; chert being
more or less granular in texture and sub-opaque in
the mass. Both kinds appear to be formed as a
pseudomorph or replacement of a portion of the
limestone stratum by silica, probably introduced in
solution as a soluble alkaline silicate. Both flint
and chert often contain fossil shells and other
organic remains, such as radiolaria and sponge-
spicules, which can be easily seen with a lens in thin
flakes struck off by the hammer.
72
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
DIATOMITE is essentially composed of the tiny
frustules or flinty cases of diatoms (unicellular
algae), usually admixed with some spicules of the
freshwater sponge, Spongilla. It generally forms a
layer at the bottom of a lake bed (Fig. 42).
'•"V
Pig. 42— Diatomaceous Earth. (Post-Tertiary).
Containing fresh-water forms, as Pinnularia, Cocconeis and
Synedra. X 150. Talbot, Victoria.
Section III.— CALCAREOUS ROCKS.
LIMESTONES FORMED BY ORGANISMS.—
Organic limestones constitute by far the most impor-
tant group of fossiliferous rocks. Rocks of this class
are composed either wholly of carbonate of lime, or
contain other mineral matter also, in varying propor-
tion. Many kinds of limestones owe their origin
directly to the agency of animals or plants, which
extracted the calcareous matter from the water in
FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS.
73
which they lived in order to build their hard external
cases, as for example the sea-urchins ; or their
internal skeletons, as the stony corals. The accu-
mulated remains of these organisms are generally
•compacted by a crystalline cement to form a coherent
rock.
The chief groups of animals and plants forming
such limestone rocks are: —
(a) FORAMINIFERA. — Example. Foramini-
feral limestone as the Nummulitic limestone of the
Pyramids of Egypt, or the Lepidocyclina limestone
of Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria (Fig. 43).
Fig. 43.
limestone composed of Polyzoa and Foraminifera (Lepidocyclina).
X 6. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.
(F.C. Coll.)
(b) CORALS.— Ex. "Madrepore limestone," or
Devonian marble, with Pachypora. Also the Lily-
dale limestone, with Favosites, of Silurian age, Vic-
toria (Fig. 44).
74
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 44.— A Fossil Coral (Favosites
grandipora).
% nat. size. From the Silurian of
I^ilydale, Victoria. (F.C. Coll.)
Fig. 45.- Polished Slab of Marble
formed of Joints of Crinoids.
About % nat. size. Silurian.
Toongabbie, Gippsland, Victoria.
(Nat Mm. Coll.)
(c) STONE-LILIES.— Ex. Crinoidal or Entro-
ehial limestone, Silurian, Toongabbie, Victoria (Fig.
45). Also the Carboniferous or Mountain lime-
stone, Derbyshire, England.
(d) WORM-TUBES.— Ex. Serpulite limestone of
Hanover, Germany. Ditrupa limestone of Torquay
and Wormbete Creek, Victoria.
(e) POLYZOA. — Ex. Polyzoal limestone, as the so-
called Coralline Crag of Suffolk, England; and the
Polyzoal Kock of Mount Gambier, S. Australia.
(f) BRACHIOPODA.—Ex. Brachiopod limestone
of Silurian age, Dudley, England. Orthis lime-
stone of Cambrian age, Dolodrook Eiver, N. E.
Gippsland.
(g) MOLLUSC A.— Ex. Shell limestone, as the
Turritella bed of Table Cape, Tasmania, and of Cam-
perdown, Victoria (Pig. 46), or the Purbeck Marble-
of Swanage, Dorset, England.
POSSILIFEROUS EOCKS.
75
Fig. 46.— Turritella Limestone.
(T. acricula, Tate) ; Vx nat. size.
Cainozoic.
L,ake Bullen Merri, near Camper-
down, Victoria.
Fig. 47.— Limestone composed of the
Valves of an Ostracod (Cypridea).
Upper Jurassic. X 9.
Swanage. Dorset. England.
(h) OSTRACODA.— Ex. Cypridiferous limestone,
formed of the minute valves of the bivalved ostra-
coda, as that of Durlston, Dorset, England (Fig. 47).
(i) CADDIS FLY LARVAE.— Ex. Indusial lime-
stone, formed of tubular eases constructed by the
larvae of the Caddis fly (Phryganea). Occurs at
Durckheim, Ehine District, Germany.
(j) RED SEAWEEDS.— Ex. Nullipore lime-
stone, formed by the stony thallus (frond) of the cal-
careous seaweed Lithothamnion, as in the Leithakalk,
a common building stone of Vienna.
(k) GREEN SEAWEEDS.— Ex. Halimeda lime-
stone, forming large masses of rock in the late Caino-
zoic reefs of the New Hebrides (Fig. 48).
76 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
(1) (?) BLUE-GREEN SEAWEEDS.— Ex. Gir-
vanella limestone, forming the Peagrit of Jurassic
age, of Gloucester, England.
Section IV.— CARBONACEOUS and MISCEL-
LANEOUS ROCKS.
COALS and KEROSENE SHALES (Cannel
Coal). — These carbonaceous rocks are formed in much
the same way as the deposits in estuaries and lagoon
swamps. They result from the sometimes vast
aggregation of vegetable material (leaves, wood and
fruits), brought down by flooded rivers from the
surrounding country, which form a deposit in a
swampy or brackish area near the coast, or in an
estuary. Layer upon layer is thus formed, alternat-
ing with fine mud. The latter effectually seals up
the organic layers and renders their change into a
carbonaceous deposit more certain.
When shale occurs between the coal-layers it is
spoken of as the under-clay, which in most cases is the
ancient sub-soil related to the coal-layer immediately
above. It is in the shales that the best examples of
fossil ferns and other plant-remains are often found.
The coal itself is composed of a partially decomposed
mass of vegetation which has become hardened and
bedded by pressure and gradual drying.
Spore coals are found in thick deposits in some
English mines, as at Burnley in Yorkshire. They
result from the accumulation of the spores of giant
club-mosses which flourished in the coal-period. They
FOSSILIPEROUS ROCKS.
77
rig. 48.
Rock composed of the calcareous joints
of Halimeda (a green seaweed).
About 2A nat. size. L,ate Cainozoic.
Reef-Reck. Malekula, New Hebrides.
{Coll. by Dr. D. Mawson).
fig. 49.— Thin Slices of "White
Coal" or "Tasmanite," showing
crushed Megaspores.
X 28. Carbopermian. I,atrobe,
Tasmania.
{F.C. Cell.)
are generally referred to under the head of Cannel
Coals. The " white coal" or Tasmanite of the Mer-
sey Basin in Tasmania is an example of an impure
spore coal with a sandy matrix (Fig. 49).
The Kerosene Shale of New South Wales is related
to the Torhanite of Scotland and Central France. It
Fig. 50— Thin Slice of
" Kerosene Shale."
X 28. Carbopermian.
Hartley, New South Wales.
{F.C. Coll.)
Pig. 51.— Bone Bed, with Fish and
Reptilian Remains.
About Y2 nat. size. (Rhsetic).
Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, Kngland.
Wat. Mus. Coll).
78 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
occurs in lenticular beds between the bituminous
coal. It is a very important deposit, commercially
speaking, for it yields kerosene oil, and is also used
for the manufacture of gas. The rock is composed
of myriads of little cell-bodies, referred to as Reins-
chia, and first supposed to be allied to the freshwater
alga, Volvox; but this has lately been questioned, and
an alternative view is that they may be the mega-
spores of club-mosses (Fig. 50).
The coals of Jurassic age in Australia are derived
from the remains of coniferous trees and ferns; and
some beautiful examples of these plants may often
be found in the hardened clay or shale associated
with the coal seams.
The Brown Coals of Cainozoic or Tertiary age in
Australia are still but little advanced from the early
stage, lignite. The leaves found in them are more or
less like the present types of the flora. The wood is
found to be of the Cypress type (Cupressinoxylon).
In New Zealand, however, important deposits of coal
of a more bituminous nature occur in the Oligocene
of Westport and the Grey River Valley, in the Nelson
District.
BONE BEDS.— The bones and excreta of fish and
reptiles form considerable deposits in some of the
sedimentary formations; especially those partly
under the influence of land or swamp conditions.
They constitute a kind of conglomerate in which are
found bone-fragments and teeth (Fig. 51). These
bone-beds are usually rich in phosphates, and are
consequently valuable as a source of manure. The
Miocene bone-bed with fish teeth at Florida, U.S.A.,
FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS. 79
is a notable example. The nodule bed of the Vic-
torian Cainozoics contains an assemblage of bones of
cetaceans (whales, etc.).
BONE BRECCIAS.— These are usually formed of
the remains of the larger mammals, and consist of a
consolidated mass of fragments of bones and teeth
embedded in a calcareous matrix. Bone-breccias are
of frequent occurrence on the floors of caves which
Fig. 52— Bone Breccia, with remains of Marsupials.
About Yx nat. size. Pleistocene.
Iyimeburners Point, Geelong-, Victoria. {Nat. Mus. Coll.)
had formerly been the resort of carnivorous animals,
and into which they dragged their prey. The sur-
face water percolating through the overlying cal-
careous strata dissolved a certain amount of lime,
and this was re-deposited on the animal remains lying
scattered over the cave floor. A deposit so formed
constitutes a stalagmite or floor encrustation. As
examples of bone-breccias we may refer to the lime-
stone at Limeburners Point, Oeelong (Fig. 52) ; and
the stalagmitic deposits of the Buchan Caves.
80
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
IRONSTONE.— Rocks formed almost entirely of
limonite (hydrated peroxide of iron) are often due to
the agency of unicellular plants known as diatoms,
which separate the iron from water, and deposit it
as hydrous peroxide of iron within their siliceous
skeletons. In Norway and Sweden there are large
and important deposits of bog iron-ore, which have
presumably been formed in the beds of lakes.
Clay ironstone nodules (sphaerosiderite) have
generally been formed as accretions around some
1IP1*
ill
■■.f4Mr;m.
4W
^'iliMI
Fig. 53.
Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (Banksia ? marginata, Cavanilles).
Slightly enlarged. Below Wannon Falls, Redruth, Victoria.
FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS. 81
decaying organic body. Many clay ironstone nodules,
when broken open, reveal a fossil within, such as a
coprolitic body, fern frond, fir-cone, shell or fish.
Oolitic ironstones are composed of minute granules
which may have originally been calcareous grains,
formed by a primitive plant or alga, but since re-
placed by iron oxide or carbonate.
The Tertiary ironstone of western Victoria is found
to contain leaves, which were washed into lakes and
swamps (Fig. 53) ; and the ferruginous groundmass
may have been originally due to the presence of
diatoms, though this yet remains to be proved.
PART II.— SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.
CHAPTER V. -j
FOSSIL PLANTS.
Cambrian Plants. —
The oldest Australian plant-remains belong to the
genus Girvanella. This curious little tubular unicel-
lular organism, once thought to be a foraminifer,
shows most affinity with the blue-green algae (Cyano-
phyceae), an important type of plant even now form-
ing calcareous deposits such as the calcareous grains
on the shores of the Salt Lake, Utah, and the pea-grit
of the Carlsbad hot springs. Girvanella problema-
tica occurs in the Lower Cambrian limestones of
South Australia, at Ardrossan and elsewhere.
Silurian Plants. —
Amongst Silurian plants may be mentioned the
doubtful sea-weeds known as Bythotrephis. Their
branch-like impressions are fairly common in the
mudstones of Silurian age found in and around Mel-
bourne. They generally occur in association with
shallow-water marine shells and Crustacea of that
period.
The genus Girvanella before mentioned is also
found in the Silurian (Yeringian) of Lily dale and
the Tyers River limestone, Victoria (Fig. 54).
82
PLANTS.
83
Fig. 54.— Section through pellet of Girvanella conferta, Chapm
X 35. From the Silurian (Yeringian) limestone of Tyers
River, Gippsland, Victoria. {Nat. Mus. Coll.)
Haliserites is a primitive plant of the type of the
«3lub-mosses so common in the rocks of the Carboni-
ferous period. This genus is found in some abund-
ance in the Yeringian stage of the Silurian in Gipps-
land (Fig. 55).
Fig. 55.- PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.
(Approximate dimensions in fractions).
A— Bythotrephis tenuis, J. Hall. Silurian. Victoria.
B— Haliserites Dechenianus, Goppert. Silurian. Victoria.
C — Cordaites australis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.
D— Sphenopteris iguanensis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.
K— Glossopteris Browniana, Brongniart. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
^5
be o
ai .2 w « S b
Is | 5 | 3
U- tt ''
84
PLANTS.
85
Devonian and Carboniferous Plants. —
Plant-life was not abundant, however, until Upper
Devonian and Carboniferous times. In the rocks
of these periods we meet with the large strap-shaped
leaves of Cordaites and a fern, Sphenopteris, in the
first-named series ; and the widely distributed Lepido-
dendron with its handsome lozenge-scarred stems in
the later series (Fig. 56). Cordaites has been found
in Victoria in the Iguana Creek beds (Upper
Devonian), and it also probably occurs at the same
horizon at Nungatta, New South Wales. Lepidoden-
dron occurs in the Lower Carboniferous sandstone of
Victoria and Queensland (Fig. 57) : in New South
Wales it is found at Mt. Lambie, Goonoo, Tamworth
and Copeland in beds generally regarded as Upper
fig. 58.-UPPER PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.
A — Rhacopteris inaequilatera, Goppert sp. Up. Carboniferous.
Stroud, New South Wales. {After Feistmantet) .
B — Gangamopteris spatulata, McCoy. Carbopermian. Bacchus
Marsh, Victoria.
86 AUSTBALASIAN FOSSILS.
Devonian. Both of these plants are typical of Car-
boniferous (Coal Measure) beds in Europe and
North America. The fern Rhacopteris is characteris-
tic of Upper Carboniferous shales and sandstones near
Stroud, and other localities in New South "Wales as
well as in Queensland (Fig. 58). These beds yield
a few inferior seams of coal. Girvanella is again
seen in the oolitic limestones of Carboniferous age in
Queensland and New South Wales.
Carbopermian Plants. —
The higher division of the Australian Carboni-
ferous usually spoken of as the Permocarboniferous,
and here designated the Carbopermian (see Foot-
note 2, page 48), is typified by a sudden accession of
plant forms, chiefly belonging to ferns of the Glossop-
teris type. The Ungulate or tongue-shaped fronds of
this genus, with their characteristic reticulate vena-
tion, are often found entirely covering the slabs of
shale intercalated with the coal seams of New South
Wales; and it is also a common fossil in Tasmania
and Western Australia. The allied form, Gang-
amopteris, which is distinguished from Glossopteris
by having no definite midrib, is found in beds of the
same age in Victoria, New South Wales, and Tas-
mania. These plant remains are also found in
India, South Africa, South America and the Falk-
land Islands. This wide distribution of such
ancient ferns indicates that those now isolated land-
surfaces were once connected, forming an extensive
continent named by Prof. Suess " Grondwana-Land, "
from the Gondwana district in India (Fig. 59).
87
88
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Triassic Plants. —
The widely distributed pinnate fern known as
Thinnfeldia is first found in the Trias; in the Narra-
been shales near Manly, and the Hawksbury sand-
stone at Mount Victoria, New South Wales. It is
also a common fossil of the Jurassic of South Gripps-
land, and other parts of Victoria. The grass-like
leaves of Phoenicopsis are frequently met with in
Triassic strata, as in the upper series at Bald Hill,
Bacchus Marsh, and also in Tasmania. The large
Banana-palm-like leaves of Taeniopteris (Macro-
taeniopteris) are common to the Triassic and Lower
Jurassic beds of India: they are also met with in
New Zealand, and in the upper beds at Bald Hill,
Bacchus Marsh.
fig. 60^-MESOZOIC PLANTS.
A — Thinnfeldia odontopteroides. Morris sp. Trias. N.S.Wales.
B— Cladophlebis denticulata, Brongn. sp. var, australis, Morr.
Jurassic, Victoria.
C— Taeniopteris spatulata, McClell. var. Daintreei, McCoy. Jurassic,
Victoria.
D— Brachyphyllum gippslandicum, McCoy. Jurassic. Victoria
K— Ginkgo robusta, McCoy. Jurassic, Victoria.
PLANTS. 89
Jurassic Plants. —
The Jurassic flora of Australasia is very prolific
in plant forms. These range from liverworts and
horse-tails to ferns and conifers. The commonest
ferns were Cladophlebis, Sphenopteris, Thinnfeldia
and Taeniopteris. The conifers are represented by
Araucarites (cone-scales, leaves and fruits), Palissya
and Brachyphylhtm (Fig. 60). The Ginkgo or
Maiden-hair tree, which is still living in China and
Japan, and also as a cultivated plant, was extremely
abundant in Jurassic times, accompanied by the
related genus, Baiera, having more deeply incised
leaves; both genera occur in the Jurassic of S.
Oippsland, Victoria, and in Queensland* The
Jurassic flora of Australasia is in many res-
pects like that of the Yorkshire coast near Scar-
borough. In New Zealand this flora is represented
in the Mataura series, in which there are many forms
identical with those of the Australian Jurassic, and
even of India.
Cretaceous Plants. —
An upper Cretaceous fern, ( ? ) Didymosorus
gleichenioides , is found in the sandstones of the Croy-
don Gold-field, North Queensland.
Plants of the Cainozoic. — Balcombian Stage. —
The older part of the Cainozoic series in Austra-
lasia may be referred to the Oligocene. These are
marine beds with occasional, thick seams of lignite,
and sometimes of pipe-clay with leaves, the evidence
of river influence in the immediate neighbourhood.
The fossil wood in the lignite beds appears to be a
Cupressinoxylon or Cypress wood. Leaves referable
90
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to plants living at the present day are also found
in certain clays, as at Mornington, containing
Eucalyptus precoriacea and a species of Podocarpus.
Miocene Leaf-beds. — Janjukian Stage. —
Later Cainozoic deposits, evidently accumulated in
lakes, and sometimes ferruginous, may be referred to
the Miocene. They are comparable in age with the
Pig. 61.— CAINOZOIC PLANTS.
A— Cinnamomum polymorphoides McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.
B— I^aurus werribeensis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.
C— Banksia Campbelli. Ettingsh. Cainozoic. Vegetable Creek, N.S.W.
D— Fagus Risdoniana, Kttingsh. Cainozoic. Tasmania.
E— Spondylostrobus Smythi, Mueller. Cainozoic. (Deep I^eads),
Victoria.
Janjukian marine beds of Spring Creek and Waurn
Ponds in Victoria. These occur far inland and
occupy distinct basins, as at the Wannon, Bacchus
Marsh (Maddingly), and Pitfield Plains. Leaf -beds
of this age occur also on the Otway coast, Victoria,
containing the genera Coprosrnaephyllurn, Persoonia
and Phyllocladus. In all probability the Dalton and
PLANTS. 91
Gunning leaf -beds of New South Wales belong here.
Examples of the genera found in beds of this age
are Eucalyptus (a species near E. amygdalina) ?
Banksia or Native Honeysuckle, Cinnamomum or
Cinnamon, Laurus or Laurel, and Fagus (Notofagus)
or Beech (Fig. 61). In the leaf -beds covered by the
older basalt on the Dargo High Plains, Gippsland,
leaves of the Ginkgo Murrayana occur.
In South Australia several occurrences of leaf beds
have been recorded, containing similar species to
those found in the Cainozoic of Dalton and Vegetable
Creek, New South Wales. For example, Magnolia
Brownii occurs at Lake Frome, Bombax Sturtii and
Eucalyptus Mitchelli at Elizabeth Eiver, and Apocy-
nophyllum Mackinlayi at Arcoona.
Fruits of the "Deep Leads/ '—
The Deep Leads of Victoria, New South Wales
and Tasmania probably begin to date from the period
just named, for they seem to be contemporaneous
with the "Older Gold Drift" of Victoria; a deposit
sometimes containing a marine fauna of Janjukian
age. This upland river system persisted into Lower
Pliocene times, and their buried silts yield many
fruits, of types not now found in Australia, such as
Platycoila, Penteune and Pleioclinis, along with
Capr essus ( Spondylostrobus) and Eucalyptus of the
existing flora (Fig. 62).
Pleistocene Plants. —
The Pleistocene volcanic tuffs of Mount Gambier
have been shown to contain fronds of the living Pteris
(Pteridium) aquilina or Bracken fern, and a Bank-
sia in every way comparable with B. marginata, a
92
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
species of the Native Honeysuckle still living in the
same district.
The siliceous valves of freshwater diatoms consti-
tute the infusorial earths of Victoria, Queensland,
. "
£? " ; -
/ ■ ■ • y
^fffflf^ ' fl|fll»- ^1
IT ;/■: .-■; #
•
*•*
^
Fig. 62.— Leaves of a Fossil Eucalyptus. (E. pluti, McCoy).
About Ya, nat. size. From the Cainozoic Deep I,eads, Daylesford,
Victoria. {Nat. Mus. Coll.)
New South Wales and New Zealand. The common-
est genera met with are Melosira, Navicula, Cy rubella
{or Cocconema), Synedra, Tabellaria, Stauroneis and
PLANTS. 93
Oomph one ma. They are, generally speaking, of
Pleistocene age, as they are often found filling hol-
lows in the newer basalt flows. In Victoria diatoma-
ceous earths are found at Talbot (See Fig. 42), Sebas-
topol and Lancefield ; in Queensland, at Pine Creek ;
in New South "Wales, at Cooma, Barraba, and the
Richmond River ; and in NewT Zealand at Pakaraka,
Bay of Islands. In the latter country there is also
a marine diatomaceous rock in the Oamaru Series, of
Miocene age.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
Girvdnella problematica, Nicholson and Etheridge. Cam-
brian: S. Australia.
Bythotrephis tenuis, J. Hall. Silurian: Victoria.
Haliserites Dechenianus, Goppert sp. Silurian and Devonian:
Victoria.
Gordaites australis, McCoy. Upper Devonian: Victoria.
Lepidodendron australe, McCoy. Lower Carboniferous: Vic-
toria and Queensland. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.
Rhacopteris inaeguilatera, Goppert sp. Carboniferous: New
South Wales.
Glossopteris Browniana, Brongniart. Carbopermian : New
South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania and W. Australia.
Gangamopteris spatulata, McCoy. Carbopermian: Victoria,
New South Wales and Tasmania.
Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, Morris sp. Triassic: New South
Wales. Jurassic: Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania.
Gladophlebis denticulata. Brongn. sp., var. australis, Morris.
Jurassic: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tas-
mania and New Zealand.
Taeniopteris spatulata, McClelland. Jurassic: Queensland,.
New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania.
(?) Didymosorus gleichenioides, Etheridge fil. Upper Creta-
ceous : Queensland.
Eucalyptus precoriacea, Deane. Oligocene: Victoria.
Eucalyptus, Banksia, Ginnamomum, Laurus and Fagus. Mio-
cene: Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania.
Spondylostrobus Smythi, von Mueller. (Fruits and wood)-
Lower Pliocene: Victoria and Tasmania.
94 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
J*teris (Pteridiwm ) aquilina, Linne, and Banksia cf. mar-
ginata, Oavanilles. Pleistocene: Victoria and South Aus-
tralia.
LITERATURE.
Oirvanella. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Australia,
vol. XIII. 1890, pp. 19, 20. Etheridge, R. and Card, G.
Geol. Surv. Queensland, Bull. No. 12, 1900, pp. 26, 27,
32. Chapman, F. Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Ade-
laide Meeting (1907), 1908, p. 337.
Devonian Ferns and Cordaites. — McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict.
Dec. V., 1876, p. 21. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, vol. V. pt. 3, 1897, p. 117.
Lepidodendron.— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874,
p. 37. Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv, New South
Wales, vol. II., pt. 3, 1891, p. 119. Idem, Geol. and
Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 196.
Carboniferous Fungi. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A.,
Bull, No. 10, 1903, pp. 25-31.
Carboniferous Ferns. — Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 2, 1905, pp. 157-161, pis.
XXII. and XXIII.
•Glossopteris. — Feistmantel, O. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 3, 1890. Arber, N. Cat. Foss. Plants,
Glossopteris Flora, Brit. Mus., 1905.
Oangamopteris. — McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875,
p. 11.
Jurassic Plants.— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic, Dec. II. 1875,
p. 15. Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Whales,
vol. VIII. pt. I. 1883, p. 37. Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol.
Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 314. Dun, W. S. (Taeniop-
teris), Rep. Austr. Asso. Adv. Sci., Sydnev, 1898, pp.
384-400. Seward, A. C. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic, vol. I.
Vt. 3, 1904; Chapman, F. Ibid., vol II. pt. 4, 1908; vol.
III., pt. 1, 1909. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, p. 311.
'Older Cainozoic Plants. — McCov, F. Prod. Pal. Vic, Dec.
IV. 1876, p. 31. Ettingshausen, C. von. Mem. Geol.
Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 2, 1888. Idem, Trans.
New Zealand Inst., vol. XXIII. (1890), 1891, p. 237.
Deane, H. Rec. Ceol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 1, 1902, pp.
15, 20.
Lower Pliocene Deep Leads. — McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict.,
Dec. IV. 1876, p. 29. Mueller, F. von. Geol. Surv. Vic,
New Veg. Foss., 1874 and 1883.
Pleistocene and other Diatom Earths. — Card, G. W. and Dun,
W. 8., Rec Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. V. pt. 3,
1897, p. 128.
CHAPTER VI.
FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA AND RADIOLARIA
Protozoans, Their Structure. —
The animals forming the sub-kingdom PROTOZOA
("lowliest animals"), are unicellular (one-celled), as
distinguished from all the succeeding higher groups,
which are known as the METAZOA ("animals be-
yond"). The former group, Protozoa, have all
their functions performed by means of a simple cell,
any additions to the cell-unit merely forming a repe-
titional or aggregated cell-structure. A familiar
example of such occurs in pond-life, in the Amoeba,
a form which is not found fossil on account of the
absence of any hard parts or covering capable of
preservation. Foraminifera and Radiolaria, how-
ever, have such hard parts, and are frequently found
fossilised.
Foraminifera: Their Habitats. —
The FORAMINIFERA are a group which, al-
though essentially one-celled, have the protoplasmic
body often numerously segmented. The shell or
test formed upon, and enclosing the jelly-like sar-
code, may consist either of carbonate of lime,
cemented sand-grains, or a sub-calcareous or chitin-
ous (horny) covering. The Foraminifera, with very
few exceptions, as Mikrogroniia, Lieberkuehnia, and
some forms of Gromia, are all marine in habit. Some
95
96 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
genera, however, as Miliolina, Rotalia and Nonionina,.
affect brackish water conditions.
Since Foraminifera are of so lowly a grade in the
animal kingdom, we may naturally expect to find
their remains in the oldest known rocks that show
any evidence of life. They are, indeed, first seen in
rocks of Cambria]i age, although they have not yet
been detected there in Australian strata.
Cambrian Foraminifera. —
In parts of Siberia and in the Baltic Provinces,
both Cambrian and Ordovician rocks contain numer-
ous glauconite casts of Foraminifera, generally of
the Globigerina type of shell. In England some
Middle Cambrian rocks of Shropshire are filled with
tiny exquisitely preserved spiral shells belonging to
the genus Spirillinq, in which all the characters of
the test are seen as clearly as in the specimens picked
out of shore-sand at the present day.
Silurian Foraminifera. —
The Silurian rocks in all countries are very poor in
foramini feral shells, only occasional examples being
found. In rocks of this age at Lily dale, Victoria,
the genus Ammodiscns, with fine sandy, coiled tests,
is found in the Cave Hill Limestone.
So far as known, hardly any forms of this group
occur in Devonian strata, although some ill-defined
shells have been found in the Eifel, Germany.
Carboniferous Foraminifera. —
The Carboniferous rocks in many parts of the
world yield an abundant foraminiferal fauna. Such,,
for instance, are the Saccammina and Endothyra
Limestones of the North of England and the North
FOBAMINIFERA.
97
of Ireland. The Australian rocks of this age have
not afforded any examples of the group, since they
are mainly of estuarine or freshwater origin.
Carbopermian Foraminifera.—
In Australia, as at Pokolbin, New South Wales, in
the Mersey River district, Tasmania, and in the Irwin
River district, "Western Australia, the Permian rocks,
or " Permocarbonif erous ? ' as they are generally
called, often contain beds of impure limestone
crowded with the chalky white tests of Nubecularia:
other interesting genera occur at the first named
locality as Pelosina, Hyperammina, Haplophrag-
mium, Placopsilina, Lituola, Thurammina, Ammodis-
cus, Stacheia, Monogenerina, Valvulina, Bulimina,
Fig. 63.- PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.
A— JNubecularia sttphensi llowchin. Carbopermian. N S.W.
B— Frondicularia woodwardi. Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
C— Geinitzina triangularis, Chapman and Howchin. Carbopermian.
N.S.W.
D— Valvulina plicata, Brady. Carbopermian. West Australia.
E — Vaginulina intumescens, Reuss. Jurassic. West Austra;ia.
F— Flabellina dilatata, Wisniowski. Jurassic. West Australia.
G— Marginulina solida, Terquem. Jurassic. West Australia.
H— Frondiculaiia gaultina, Reuss. Cretaceous. West Australia.
98 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
(l)Plenrostomella, Lagena, Nodosaria, Frondicularia,
Geinitzina, Lunucammina, Marginulina, Vaginulina,
Anomalina and Truncatulina. The sandy matrix of
certain Glossopteris leaf-beds in the Collie Coal mea-
sures in W. Australia have yielded some dwarfed
examples belonging to the genera Bulimina, Endo-
thyra, Valvulina, Truncatulina and Pulvinulina;
whilst in the Irwin River district similar beds contain
Nodosaria and Frondicularia (Fig. 63).
Triassic Foraminifera. —
The Triassic and Rhaetic clays of Europe occasion-
ally show traces of foraminifera! shells, probably of
estuarine habitat, as do the Wianamatta beds of New
South Wales, which also belong to the Triassic
epoch. The Australian representatives are placed
in the genera Nubecularia, Haplophragmium, Endo-
thyra, Discorbina, Truncatulina, and Pulvinulina.
These shells are diminutive even for foraminifera,
and their starved condition indicates uncongenial
environment.
Jurassic Foraminifera. —
The Jurassic limestones of Western Australia, at
Geraldton, contain many species of Foraminifera,
principally belonging to the spirally coiled and slip-
per-shaped Crist ellariae. Other genera present are
Haplophragmium, Textularia, Bulimina, Flabellina,
Marginulina, Vaginulina, Polymorphina, Discorbina,
and Truncatulina.
Cretaceous Foraminifera. —
In the Lower Cretaceous rocks known as the Rolling
Downs Formation in Queensland, shells of the Fora-
minifera are found in some abundance at Wollum-
billa. They are represented chiefly by Crist ellaria
and Polymorphina.
FOKAMINIFERA.
99
Fig. 64 — Structure in Lepidocyclina.
A — Vertical section through test of :L,epidocycliiia marginata,
Michelotti sp. : showing the equatorial chambers (eq. c ) and
the lateral chambers (I.e.)
B — Section through the median disc, showing the hexagonal and
ogive chambers. X 18.
Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.
(F.C Coll.)
Cainozoic Foraminifera. —
The Cainozoic strata in all parts of the world are
very rich in Foraminifera, and the genera, and even
many species are similar to those now found living.
Certain types, howrever, had a restricted range, and
are therefore useful as indicators of age. Such are
the Nummulites and the Orbitoides of the Eocene and
the Oligocene of Europe, India and the West Indies;
and the Lepidocyclinae of the Miocene of Europe,
Indis, Japan and Australia (Fig. 64).
100
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The genus Lcpidocyclina is typically represented in
the Batesford beds near Geelong, Victoria by L. tour-
noucri, a fossil of the Burdigalian stage (Middle
Miocene) in Europe, as well as by L. marginata. A
limestone with large, well-preserved tests of the same
genus, and belonging to a slightly lower horizon in
the Miocene has lately been discovered in Papua.
Some of the commoner Foraminifera found in the
Cainozoic beds of Southern Australia are — Miliolina
vulgaris, Textularia gibbosa, Nodosaria affinis,, Poly-
morphina elegantissima, Truncatulina iingeriana and
Amphistegina lessonii (Fig. 65). The first-named
has a chalky or porcellanous shell ; the second a sandy
test ; the third and fourth glassy or hyaline shells
with excessively fine tubules; the fifth a glassy shell
Fig. 65.-CA1INOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.
A— Miliolina vulgaris, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict, and S. A.
B— Textularia gibbosa, d'Orb. Oligocene and Miocene Vict. & S.A.
C — Nodosaria affinis, d'Orb. Oligocene. Victoria.
D— Polymorphina elegantissima. P. and J. Oligocene-Recent. Vict.
and vS.A.
E — Truncatulina ungeriana, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. &S.A.
F— Amphistegina vulgaris, d'Orb. Oligocene-Iy. Pliocene. Vict. & S.A.
RADIOLARIA. 101
with numerous surface punctations due to coarser
tubules than usual in the shell-walls; whilst the last-
named has a smooth, lenticular shell, also hyaline,
and occurring in such abundance as often to consti-
tute a foraminiferal rock in itself.
Pleistocene Foraminifera. —
The estuarine deposits of Pleistocene age in
southern Australia often contain innumerable shells
of Miliolina, Rotalia and Polystomella. One thin
seam of sandy clay struck by the bores in the Vic-
torian Mallee consists almost entirely of the shells
of the shallow-water and estuarine species, Rotalia
beccarii.
Radiolaria: Their Structure. —
The organisms belonging to the order RADIO-
LARIA are microscopic, and they are all of marine
habitat. The body of a radiolarian consists of a
central mass of protoplasm enclosed in a membranous
capsule, and contains the nuclei, vacuoles, granules
and fat globules; whilst outside is a jelly-like por-
tion which throws off pseudopodia or thin radiating
threads. The skeleton of Radiolaria is either chit-
inous or composed of clear, glassy silica, and is often
of exquisitely ornamental and regular form.
Habitat. —
These tiny organism generally live in the open
ocean at various depths, and sinking to the bottom,
sometimes as deep as 2,000 to 4,000 fathoms, they
form an ooze or mud.
102 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Subdivisions. —
Radiolaria are divided into the four legions or
orders, — Acantharia, Spumellaria, Nasselaria and
Phaeodaria : only the second and third groups
are found fossil. The Spumellarians are spherical,
ellipsoidal, or disc-shaped, and the Nasselarians coni-
cal or helmet-shaped.
Cambrian Radiolaria. —
Certain cherts or hard, siliceous rocks of the palaeo-
zoic era are often crowded with the remains of
Radiolaria, giving the rock a spotted appearance,
(See antea, Fig. 38). Some of the genera thus found
are identical with those living at the present day,
whilst others are peculiar to those old sediments.
In Australia, remains of their siliceous shells have
been found in cherts of Lower Cambrian age near
Adelaide. These have been provisionally referred
to the genera Carposphaera and Cenellipsis (Fig. 66).
Ordovician Radiolaria. —
Radiolaria have been detected in the Lower Ordo-
vician rocks of Victoria, in beds associated with the
Graptolite slates of this series. In New South
Wales Radiolarian remains are found in the cherts
and slates of Upper Ordovician age at Cooma and
Mandurama.
Silurian Radiolaria. —
The Silurian black cherts of the Jenolan Caves in
New South Wales contain casts of Radiolaria.
Devonian Radiolaria. —
The Lower Devonian red jaspers of Bingera and
Barraba in New South Wales have afforded some
casts of Radiolaria, resembling Carposphaera and
Cenosphaera.
EADIOLAEIA.
Fig. 66. -FOSSIL RADIOLARIA.
103
A— Aff. Carposphaera (after David and Howchin). Cambrian.
Brighton, SA.
B— Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Mid. Devonian. Tamworth, N.S.W.
C— Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
D— Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
The large number of fifty-three species have been
found in the radiolarian rocks of Middle Devonian
age at Tamworth in New South Wales (Fig. 66).
These have been referred to twenty-nine genera
comprising amongst others, Cenosphaera, Xipho-
sphaera, Staurolonche, Heliospliaera, Acanthosphaera
and Spongodiscus.
Cretaceous Radiolaria. —
Although certain silicified rocks in the Jurassic in
Europe have furnished a large series of Radiolaria,
the Australian marine limestones of this age have not
yielded any of their remains up to the present. They
have been found, however, in the Lower Cretaceous
of Queensland, and in the (?) Upper Cretaceous of
Port Darwin, N. Australia. The Radiolaria from
the latter locality belong to the suborders Prunoidea,
104 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Discoidea and Cyrtoidea (Fig. 66). The rock which
contains these minute fossils is stated to be eaten
by the natives for medicinal purposes. As its composi-
tion is almost pure silica, its efficacy in such cases
must be more imaginary than real.
Cainozoic Radiolaria. —
Cainozoic rocks of Pliocene age, composed entirely
of Radiolaria, occur at Barbados in the West Indies.
No Cainozoic Radiolaria, however, have been found
either in Australia or New Zealand up to the present
time.
COMMON OK CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
FORAMINIFERA.
JSfubecularia stephensi, Howchin. Carbopermian : Tasmania
and New South Wales.
Frondicularia woodwardi, Howchin. Carbopermian: W. Aus-
tralia and New South Wales.
Oeinitzina triangularis, Chapm. & Howchin. Carbopermian:
New South Wales.
Pulvinulina insignis, Chapman. Trias (Wianamatta Series) :
New South Wales.
Marginulina solida, Terquem. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Flabellina dilatata, Wisniowski. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Vaginulina striata, d'Orbigny. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Truncatulina lobatula, W. and J. sp. Lower Cretaceous:
Queensland.
Miliolina vulgaris, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S.
Australia.
Textularia gibbosa, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Aus-
tralia.
ISfodosaria affinis, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
Polymorphina elegantissima, Parker and Jones. Cainozoic:
Victoria, Tasmania, and S. Australia.
Truncatulina unreriana, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria,
King Island, and S. Australia.
LITERATURE. 106
Amphisiegina lessonii, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and 8.
Australia.
Lepidocyclina martini, Sclilumberger. Cainozoic (Balcom-
bian and Janjukian) : Victoria.
L. tournoueri, Lemoine and Douville. Cainozoic (Junjukian) :
Victoria.
Cycloclypeus pustulosus, Chapman. Cainozoic (Janjukian) :
Victoria.
Fabularia howchini, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) :
Victoria.
Hauerina intermedia, Howcliin. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) : Vic-
toria.
Rotalia beccarii, Linne sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and S. Aus-
tralia.
Polystomella striatopunctata, Fichtel and Moll sp. Pleisto-
cene: Victoria and S. Australia.
RADIOLARIA.
(?) Carposphaera sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
(?) Cenellipsis sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
Staurolcnche davidi, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
Amphihrachium truncatum, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: JNorth-
ern Territory.
Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: North-
ern Territory.
LITERATURE.
FORAMINIFERA.
Carbopermian. — Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
XIX. 1895; pp. 194-198. Chapman, F. and Howchin,
W. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wrales, Pal. No. 14, 1905.
Chapman, F. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 27, 1907,
pp. 15-18.
Trias. — Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 336-339.
Jurassic. — Chapman, F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI.
(N.S.), pt. II., 1904, pp. 186-199.
Cretaceous. — Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XXVI.
1870, pp. 239 and 242. Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., vol. VIII. 1886, pp. 79-93. Idem, ibid., vol.
XIX., 1895, pp. 198-200. Idem, Bull. Geol. Surv. W.
Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 38-43.
106 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Cainozoic. — Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
XII. 1889, pp. 1-20. Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. 1891, pp.
350-356. Jensen, H. I. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales, vol. XXIX. pt. 4, 1905, pp. 829-831. Goddard,
E. J. and Jensen, H. I. ibid., vol. XXXII. pt. 2, 1907,
pp. 308-318. Chapman, F. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.
Zool., vol. XXX. 1907, pp. 10-35.
General. — Howchin, W. Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Ade-
laide Meeting, 1893, pp. 348-373.
RADIOLARIA.
Lower Cambrian. — David, T. W. E. and Howchin, W. Proc.
Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXI. 1897, p. 571.
Devonian. — David, T. W. E. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales, vol. XXI 1897, pp. 553-570. Hinde, G. J.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. LV. 1890, pp. 38-64.
Upper Cretaceous. — Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.,
vol. XLIX. 1893, pp. 221-226.
CHAPTER VII.
FOSSIL SPONGES, CORALS AND
GRAPTOLITES.
SPONGES.
Characteristics of Sponges. —
The Sponges are sometimes placed by themselves
as a separate phylum, the Porifera. With the excep-
tion of a few freshwater genera, they are
of marine habit and to be found at all
depths between low tide (littoral) and deep
water (abyssal). Sponges are either fixed or
lie loosely on the sea-floor. They possess no
organs of locomotion, and have no distinct axis or
lateral appendages. They exist by setting up cur-
rents in the water whereby the latter is circulated
through the system, carrying with it numerous food
particles, their tissues being at the same time oxygen-
ated. Their framework, in the siliceous and cal-
careous sponges, is strengthened by a mineral skele-
ton, wholly or partially capable of preservation as
a fossil.
Cambrian and Ordovician Sponges. —
The oldest rocks in Australia containing the
remains of Sponges are the Cambrian limestones of
South Australia, at Ardrossan and elsewhere. Some
of these sponge-remains are referred to the genus
Protospongia, a member of the Hexactinellid group
having 6-rayed skeletal elements. When complete,
107
108 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
fig. 67. -PALAEOZOIC SPONGES, &c.
A — Protospongia reticulata, T. S. Hall. IyOw. Ordovician. Bendigo.
B— Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapm. Silurian. Wombat Creek, Vict.
C— R. australis, Salter. (Section of wall, etched, after Eth. & Dun)
Mid. Devonian. Co. Murray, N.S.W.
D— Protopharetra scoulari, B)th. fil. Cambrian. S.A.
the Protospongia has a cup- or funnel-shaped body,
composed of large and small modified spicules, which
form quadrate areas, often seen in isolated or aggre-
gated patches on the weathered surface of the rock.
Protospongia also occurs in the Lower Ordovician
slates and shales of Lancefield (P. oilonga), and
Bendigo (P. reticulata and P. cruciformis), in Vic-
toria (Fig. 67 A). At St. David's, in South Wales,
the genus is found in rocks of Middle Cambrian age.
The South Australian limestones in which Proto-
spongia occurs are usually placed in the Lower Cam-
brian.
Another genus of Sponges, Hyalostelia, whose
affinities are not very clear, occurs in the South Aus-
tralian Cambrian at Curramulka. This type is
represented by the long, slightly bent, rod-like
SPONGES. 109
spicules of the root-tuft, and the skeletal spicules with
six rays, one of which is much elongated.
Stephanella maccoyi is a Monactinellid sponge,
found in the Lower Ordovician (Bendigo Series) of
Bendigo, Victoria.
Silurian Sponges. —
Numerous Sponges of Silurian age are found in the
neighbourhood of Yass, New South Wales, which
belong to the Lithistid group, having irregular,
knotty and branching spicules. These sponges
resemble certain fossil fruits, generally like diminu-
tive melons; their peculiar spicular structure, how-
ever, is usually visible on the outside of the
fossil, especially in weathered specimens. The com-
monest genus is Carpospongia.
Receptaculites : Silurian to Carboniferous. —
In Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous
times the curious saucer- or funnel-shaped bodies
known as Receptaculites must have been fairly abun-
dant in Australia, judging by their frequent occur-
rence as fossils. They are found as impressions or
moulds and casts in some of the mudstones and
limestones of Silurian age in Victoria, as at Loyola
and Wombat Creek, in west and north-east Gripps-
land respectively. In the Devonian limestones of
New South Wales they occur at Fernbrook, near
Mudgee, at the Goodradigbee River, and at Cavan,
near Yass; also in beds of the same age in Victoria,
at Bindi, and Buchan (Fig. 67, B.C.). Receptacu-
lites also occur in the Star Beds of Upper Devonian
or Lower Carboniferous age in Queensland, at Mount
Wyatt. It will thus be seen that this genus has an
extensive geological range.
110 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Carbopermian Sponges. —
A Monactinellid Sponge, provisionally referred to
Lasiocladia, has been described from the Gympie beds
of the Rockhampton District, Queensland. Lasio-
cladia, as well as the Hexactinellid Sponge Hyalo-
stelia, occurs in the Carbopermian of New South
Wales.
Cretaceous Sponges. —
No sponge-remains seem to occur above the Carbo-
permian in Australia until we reach the Cretaceous
rocks. In the Lower Cretaceous series in Queens-
land a doubtful member of the Hexactinellid group is
found, namely, Purisiphonia clarkei. In the Upper
Cretaceous of the Darling Downs District pyritized
Sponges occur which have been referred to the genus
Siphonia, a member of the Lithistid group, well
known in the Cretaceous of Europe.
Cainozoic Sponges. —
A white siliceous clay, supposed to be from a "Deep
Lead/' in the Norseman district in Western Austra-
lia, has proved to consist almost entirely of siliceous
sponge-spicules, belonging to the Monactinellid, the
Tetractinellid, the Lithistid, and the Hexactinellid
groups (Fig. 69 A, B). The reference of the de-
posit to a "deep lead" or alluvial deposit presents a
difficulty, since these sponge-spicules represent
moderately deep water marine forms. This deposit
resembles in some respects the spicule-bearing rock of
Oamaru, New Zealand, which is of Miocene age.
In the Cainozoic beds of southern Australia
Sponges, with calcareous skeletons are not at all un-
common. The majority of these belong to the
rig. 68.— CAINOZOIC SPONGES.
A — I^atrunculia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep L,ead,
Norseman, W.A.
B— Geodiasp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep I^ead, Norseman, W. A
C — Ecionema newberyi. McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Boggy Creek,
Gippsland. Vict.
D—Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Moorabool, Vict.
E — Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic. Flinders, Vict.
rig. 69.— SILURIAN CORALS.
k^y <::
A— Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapm. Silurian (Yer).
Gippsland, Vict.
B — Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.). I^ilydale, Vict.
C— Favosites grandipora, vertical section. Ditto.
D — F. grandipora, transverse section. Ditto.
E — Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Iyilydale, Vict.
F — Halysites peristephesicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. N.S.Wales.
G— Heliolites interstincta, Wahl sp. (transv. sect ), Silurian. Vict.
Ill
112 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Lithonine section of the Calcispongiae, in which the
spicules are regular, and not fixed together. Living
examples of these sponges, closely related to the
fossils, have been dredged from the Japanese Sea.
The fossils are found mainly in the Janjukian, at Cur-
lewis, in the Moorabool River limestones, and in the
polyzoal rock of Flinders, all in Victoria. They
belong to the genera Bactronella, Plectroninia and
Tretocalia (Fig. 68, D and E). Some diminutive
forms also occur in the older series, .the Balcombian,
at Mornington, namely, Bactronella parvula. At
Boggy Creek, near Sale, in Victoria, a Tetractinellid
Sponge, Ecionema neivberyi, is found in the Jan-
jukian marls; spicules of this form have also been
noted from the clays of the Altona Bay coal-shaft
(Fig. 68 C).
The ARCHAEOCYATHINAE: an ancient class
of organisms related both to the Sponges and the
Corals.
Archaeocyathinae in Cambrian Strata. —
These curious remains have been lately made the
subject of detailed research, and it is now con-
cluded that they form a group probably ancestral
both to the sponges and the corals. They are cal-
careous, and generally cup-shaped or conical, often
furnished at the pointed base with roots or strands
for attachment to the surrounding reef. They have
two walls, both the inner and the outer being per-
forated like sponges. As in the corals, they
are divided by transverse septa and these are
also perforated. Certain of the genera as
CORALS. 113
Protopharetra (Fig. 67 D), Coscinocyathus, and
Archaeocyathina, are common to the Cambrian
of Sardinia and South Australia, whilst other
genera of the class are also found in
Siberia, China, Canada and the United States. A
species of Protopharetra was recently detected in a
pebble derived from the Cambrian limestone in the
Antarctic, as far south as 85 deg. An Archaeocyath-
ina limestone has also been found in situ from
Shackleton's farthest south.
CORALS (Class Anthozoa).
Rugose Corals. —
Many of the older types of Corals from the Palaeo-
zoic rocks belong to the Tetracoralla (septa in mul-
tiples of four), or Rugosa (i.e., with wrinkled
exterior) .
Ordovician Corals. —
In Great Britain and North America Rugose
Corals are found as early as Ordovician times, repre-
sented by Streptelasma, Petraia, etc. In Australia
they seem to first make their appearance in the
Silurian period.
Silurian Corals. —
In rocks of Silurian age in Australia we find genera
like Cyathophyllum (with single cups or compound
coralla), Diphyphyllum, Try plasma and Rhizophyl-
lum, the first-named often being very abundant. The
compound corallum of Cyathophyllum approximans
presents a very handsome appearance when cut
transversely and polished. This coral is found in
the Newer Silurian limestone in Victoria; it
shows an alliance with C. mitchelli of the Middle
114 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Devonian of the Murrumbidgee River, New South
Wales (Fig. 69 A).
Silurian Hexacoralla. —
It is, however, to the next group, the Hexacor-
alla, with septa in multiples of six, twelve, and
twenty-four, that we turn for the most varied and
abundant types of Corals in Silurian times. The
genus Favosites (Honey-comb Coral) is extremely
abundant in Australian limestones (Fig. 69 B, C),
such as those of Lilydale, Walhalla, and Waratah
Bay in Victoria, and of Hatton's Corner and other
localities near Yass, in New South Wales. Pleuro-
dictyum is also a familiar type in the Australian
Silurian, being one of the commonest corals in the
Yeringian stage; although, strange to say, in Ger-
many and N. America, it is typical of Devonian strata
(Fig. 69 E). Pleurodictyum had a curious habit
of growing, barnacle fashion, on the side of the
column of the crinoids or sea-lilies which flourished
in those times. Syringopora, with its funnel-shaped
tabulae or floor partitions, is typical of many Aus-
tralian limestones, as those from Lilydale, Victoria,
and the Delegate River, New South Wales. Halysites
(Chain Coral), with its neat strings of tubular and
tabulated corallites joined together by their edges, is
another striking Coral of the Silurian period (Fig.
69 F). This and the earlier mentioned Syringo-
pora, is by some authors regarded as belonging to
the Alcyonarian Corals (typically with eight ten-
tacles). Halysites is known from the limestones of
the Mitta Mitta River, N.B. G-ippsland, Victoria;
from the Molong and Canobolas districts in New
COEALS. 115
South Wales; from the Gordon River limestone in
Tasmania; and from Chillagoe in Queensland.
Abroad it is a well known type of Coral in the Wen-
lockian of Gotland in Scandinavia, and Shropshire in
England, as well as in the Niagara Limestone of the
United States.
Silurian Octocoralla. —
Perhaps the most important of the Octocoralla is
Heliolites ("Sunstone"), which is closely allied to
the Blue Coral, Heliopora, a frequent constituent of
our modern coral reefs. The genus Heliolites has a
massive, calcareous corallum, bearing two kinds of
pores or tubes, large (autopores) containing complete
polyps, and small (siphonopores) containing the
coenosarc or flesh of the colony. Both kinds of tubes
are closely divided by tabulae, whilst the former are
septate. Heliolites is of frequent occurrence in the
Silurian limestones of New South Wales and Vic-
toria (Fig. 69 G).
Devonian Corals. —
The Middle Devonian beds of Australia are chiefly
limestones, such as the Buchan limestone, Victoria;
the Burdekin Series, Queensland; and the Tam-
worth limestone of New South Wales. These rocks,
as a rule, are very fossiliferous, and the chief consti-
tuent fossils are the Eugose and Perforate Corals.
Campophyllum gregorii is a common form in the
Buchan limestone (Fig. 70 A), as well as some large
mushroom-shaped Favosites, as F. gothlandica and F.
maltitabulata. Other genera which may be men-
tioned as common to the Australian Middle Devonian
rocks are, Cyathophylluni, Sanidophyllum and
116 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
hg. 70. -UPPER PALAEOZIC CORALS.
^sek
-'' -• y~. " 7 I
V* ' • • 7/.' 7 7* -•■ • ij
■:■ ■ , , ■ 2.
;
A— Oampophyllum gregorii, Kth. fil. Mid. Devonian. Buchan, Vict.
B— Pachypora meridional is, Nich. & Kth. fil. Mid Devonian. Queens.
C— Aulopora repens, Kn. & W. (after Hinde). Devonian. Kimberleyj I
district, W.A.
D— Zaphrentis culleni, Kth. fil. Carboniferous. New South Wales
K — Trachypora wilkinsoni, Kth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Marine Ser.)
New South Wales.
F— Stenopora crinita, I/msdale. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.) N.S.W.
Spongophyllum, Heliolites is also found in lime-
stones of this age in New South Wales and Queens-
land.
In the Burdekin Series (Middle Devonian) in
Queensland we also find Cystiphyllum, Favosites
gothlandica, and Pachypora meridionalis (Fig. 70 B),
whilst in beds of the same age at Rough Range in
Western Australia are found Aulopora repens (Fig.
70 C), and another species of Pachypora, namely, P.
tumida.
Carbopermian Corals. —
The only true Carboniferous marine fauna occur-
ring in Australia, appears to be that of the Star Beds
in Queensland, but so far no corals have been found.
CORALS. 117
The so-called Carboniferous of Western Australia
may be regarded as Carbopermian or even of Per-
mian age. The marine Carbopermian beds of New
South Wales contain several genera of Corals belong-
ing to the group Rugosa, as Zaphrentis (Fig. 70 D),
Lophophyllam, and Campophyllum. Of the Tabu-
late corals may be mentioned Trachypora wilkinsoni,
very typical of the Upper Marine Series (Fig. 70 E)
and Cladochonus.
In the Gympie beds of the same system in Queens-
land occur the following rugose corals, Zaphrentis
profunda and a species of Cyathophyllum.
In the Carbopermian of Western Australia the
rugose corals are represented by Ample xus, Cyatho-
phylhim, and Plerophyllum, which occur in rocks on
the Gascoyne River.
The imperfectly understood group of the
Monticuliporoids, by some authors placed with
the Polyzoa (Order Trepostomata), are well repre-
sented in Australia: by the genus Stenopora (Fig.
70 F). The corallum is a massive colony of long
tubes set side by side and turned outwards, the polyp
moving upwards in growth and cutting off the lower
part of the tube by platforms like those in the
tabulate corals. Some of the species of Stenopora,
like S. tasmaniensis, of New South Wales and Tas-
mania, are found alike in the Lower and Upper
Marine Series. S. australis is confined to the Bowen
River Coalfield of Queensland. Stenopora often
attains a large size, the corallum reaching over a foot
in length.
Neither Jurassic or Cretaceous Corals have been
found in Australasia, although elsewhere as in
118
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Europe and India, the representatives of modern
corals are found in some abundance.
Cainozoic Corals. —
In Tertiary times the marine areas of southern
Australia were the home of many typical solitary
Corals of the group of the Hexacoralla. In the Bal-
combian beds of Mornington, Victoria, for instance,
we have genera such as Flabellam, Placotrochus,
Fig. 71.— CAINOZOIC CORALS.
~ A — Klabellum victoriae, Duncan. Balcombian. Morning-ton, Vict.
B— Placotrochus deltoideus, Dune. Balcombian. Muddy Creek,
Hamilton. Vic.
C— Balanophyllia seminuda, Dune. Balcombian. Muddy Creek,
Hamilton, Vic.
D — Stephanotrochus tatei, Dennant. Janjukian. Torquay, near
Geelong, Vict.
K — Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Janjukian. Table Cape, Tas.
F— Graph ularia senescens. Tate sp. Janjukian. Waurn Ponds, near
Geelong-, Vic.
G — Trematotrochus clarkii, Dennant. Kalimnan. Gippsland
I,akes. Vic.
Sphenotrochus, Ceratotrochus, Conosmiliay Tremato-
trochus, Notophyllia and Balanophyllia (Fig. 71).
Corals especially characteristic of the Janjukian
Series are Paracyathus tasmanicus, Stephanotrochus
tatei, Montlivaltia variformis, Thamnastraea sera and
HYDEOZOA. 119
Dendrophyllia epithecata. The stony axis of the
Sea-pen, Graphularia senescens, a member of the
Oetocoralla, is also typical of this stage, and are
called "square-bones" by the quarrymen at Waurn
Ponds, near Geelong, where these fossils occur.
The Kalimnan Corals are not so abundantly repre-
sented as in the foregoing stages, but certain species
of Flabellum and Trematotrochus, as F. curium and
T. clarkii, are peculiar to those beds. Several of the
Janjukian Corals persist into Kalimnan times, some
dating as far back as the Balcombian, as Spheno-
trochus emarciatus. The Sea-pen, Graphularia
senescens is again found at this higher horizon, at
Beaumaris; it probably represents a varietal form,
the axis being smaller and more slender.
Other examples of the Octocoralla are seen in
Mopsea, two species of which are found in the Jan-
jukian at Cape Otway ; the deeper beds of the Mallee ;
and the Mount Gambier Series.
A species of the Astraeidae (Star-corals) of the
reef-forming section, Plesiastraea st.vincenti, is found
in the Kalimnan of Hallett's Cove, South Australia
HYDROZOA.
The few animals of this group met with in fossil
faunas are represented by the living Millepora
(abundant as a coral reef organism), Hydr actinia
(parasitic on shells, etc.), and Sertularia (Sea-firs).
Milleporids and Stylasterids. —
Although so abundant at the present time, the
genus Millepora does not date back beyond the
Pleistocene. The Eocene genus Axopora is supposed
120 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to belong here, but is not Australian. Of the Stylas-
terids one example is seen in Deontopora, represented
by the branchlets of D. inooraboolensis, from the
Janjukian limestone of the Moorabool Valley, near
Geelong.
Hydractinia. —
Hydractinia dates from the Upper Cretaceous rocks
in England, and in Australia its encrusting poly-
pidom is found attached to shells in the polyzoal lime-
stone of Mount Gambier (Miocene).
Stromatoporoids.
An important group of reef -builders in Palaeozoic
times was the organism known as Strornatopora,
and its allies. The structures of these hydroid
polyps resemble successional and repetitional stages
of a form like Hydractinia. As in that genus it always
commenced to grow upon a base of attachment such
as a shell, increasing by successive layers, until the
organic colony often reached an enormous size, and
formed great mounds and reefs (see antea, Fig. 32).
The stromatoporoid structure was formed by a layer
of polyp cells separated by vertical partitions, upon
which layer after layer was added until a great ver-
tical thickness was attained. This limestone-making
group first appeared in the Silurian, and probably
reached its maximum development in Middle
Devonian times, when it almost disappeared, except
to be represented in Carbopermian strata by a few
diminutive forms.
STROMATOPOROIDS.
121
Silurian Stromatoporoids. —
In the Silurian limestones of Victoria (Lily dale,
Waratah Bay, "Walhalla and Loyola), and New South
Wales (near Yass), Stromatoporoids belonging to the
genera Clathrodictyon (probably C. regnlare),
Stromatopora and Idiostroma occur. Stromatopor-
ella has been recorded from the Silurian rocks of the
Jenolan Caves, New South Wales.
Devonian Stromatoporids. —
The Middle Devonian strata of Bindi, Victoria,
yield large, massive examples of Actinostroma. This
genus is distinguished from the closely allied Clathro-
dictyon by its vertical pillars passing through
several laminae in succession. Rocks of the same
Pig. 72.— STROMATOPOROIDEA and CLADOPHORA.
A — Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A.
B — Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian Rough Ran^e, W.A.
Vertical section. {After G.J. Hinde .
C— Callograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Rtmo, Vict.
{After T. S. Hall).
D— Ptilograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo. Vict.
{After T. S. Hall).
E— Dictyonema pulchellum, T. S. Hall. I, Ordov I,ancefield Vict.
T— Dictyonema macgillivraj i, T. S. Hall. 1^. Ordov. L,aneefield Vict.
122 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
age in Queensland contain Stromatopora, whilst in
Western Australia the Rough Range Limestone has
been shown to contain Actinostroma clathratiim (Fig.
72 A, B) and Stromatoporella eifeliensis.
Cladophora.
Palaeozoic Cladophora. —
Some branching and dendroid forms of Hydrozoa
probably related to the modern Calyptoblastea
("covered buds"), such as Serhilaria and Campanu-
laria, are included in the Cladophora ("Branch
bearers"). They existed from Cambrian to
Devonian times, and consist of slender, forking
branches sometimes connected by transverse processes
or dissepiments, the branches bearing on one or both
sides little cups or hydrothecae which evidently con-
tained the polyps, and others of modified form, per-
haps for the purpose of reproduction. The outer
layer, called the periderm was of chitinous material.
They were probably attached to the sea-floor like the
Sertularians ( Sea-firs ) .
Dictyonema and Allies. —
Remains of the above group are represented in the
Australian rocks by several species of Dictyonema
(Fig. 72 E, F) occurring in the Lower Ordovician of
Lancefield, and in similar or older shales near Mans-
field. Some of these species are of large size, Z>.
grande measuring nearly a foot in width. The genera
Callograptus, Ptilograptus (Fig. 72 C, D) and Den-
drograptus are also sparsely represented in the
Upper Ordovician of Victoria, the two former from
San Remo, the latter from Bulla.
GRAPTOLITES. 123
Graptolites ( Graptolitoidea ) . —
Value of Graptolites to Stratigraphist. —
The Graptolites were so named by Linnaeus from
their resemblances to writing on the slates in which
their compressed remains are found. They form a
very important group of Palaeozoic fossils in all parts
of the world where these rocks occur, and are well
represented in Australasia. The species of the
various Graptolite genera are often restricted to par-
ticular beds, and hence they are of great value as
indicators of certain horizons or layers in the black,
grey or variously coloured slates and shales of
Lower Ordovician to Silurian times. By their aid
a stratum or set of strata can be traced across country
for long distances, and the typical species can be cor-
related even with those in the older slates and shales
of Great Britain and North America.
Nature of Graptolites. —
The Graptolites were compound animals, consisting
of a number of polyps inserted in cups or thecae
which budded out in a line from the primary sicula
or conical chamber, which chamber was probably
attached to floating sea-weed, either by a fine thread
(nema), or a disc-like expansion. This budding of
the polyp-bearing thecae gives to the polypary or
colony the appearance of a fret-saw, with the teeth
directed away from the sicula.
The habit of the earlier graptolites was to branch
repeatedly, as in Clonograptus, or to show a com-
pound leaf-like structure as in Phyllograptus. Later
124 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
on the many-branched forms had their branches
reduced until, as in Didymograptus, there were only
two branches. Sometimes the branches opened out
to direct the thecae upwards, the better to procure
their food supply. In Diplograptus the thecae
turned upwards and acquired a support by the forma-
tion of a medium rod (virgula), often ending in a disc
or float. In Silurian times Monograptus prevailed,
a genus having only a single row of thecae supported
by a straight or curved virgula. In Retiolites the
polypary opened out by means of a net-work of fine
strands, rendering it better able to float, at the
same time retaining its original strength.
Lower Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria. —
The Lower Ordovician slates and shales of Vic-
toria have been successfully divided into several dis-
tinct series by means of the Graptolites. These, com-
mencing at the oldest, are : —
(1) Lancefield Series. Characterised by Bryo-
graptus clarki, B. victoriae, Didymograptus pritch-
ardi, D. taylori and Tetragraptus decipiens. Other
forms less restricted are, Clonograptus magnificus
(measuring over a yard in breadth) C. flexilis
0. rigidus, Leptograptus antiquus and Tetragraptus
approximatus (Fig. 73).
(2) Bendigo Series. Characterised by Tetragraptus
fruticosus, T. pendens, Trichograptus fergusoni and
Goniograptus thureaui. This series also contains
Tetragraptus serra (ranging into Darriwill Series),
T. bryonoides, T. quadribrachiatus, T. approximatus
Pig. 73.-LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOUTES.
A— Bryograptus clarki, T. S. Hall. I,. Ordovician. Iyancefield, Vict.
B — Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall sp. I,. Ordovician. Iyancefield.
C— Phyllograptus typus, J. Hall. I,. Ordovician. I,ancefield.
D— Goniograptus macer, T. S. Hall. I,. Ordovician. I^ancefield.
E— Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. X,. Ordovician. I,ancefield.
F— Trigonograptus wilkinsoni T.S.Hall. I,. Ordov. Darriwill, Vict.
rig. 74.— LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOUTES.
A— IyOganograptus logani. J. Hall sp. Iy. Ordov. Newham, Vict.
B— Tetragraptus approxiraatus, Nich. t, Ordovician. Canada and
Victoria. {After Nicholson)
C— Tetragraptus serra, Brongn. sp. T,. Ordovician. Iyancefield. Vict.
D— Didymograptus bifidus, J Hall. I,. Ordovician. Guildford. Vict.
125
126 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
(base of the series), Phyllograptus typus, Dichograp-
tus octobrachiatus, Goniograptus macer and many
Didymograpti, including D. bifidus (Fig. 74).
(3) Castlemaine Series. Characterised by Didy-
mograptus bifidus, D. caduceus and Loganograptus
logani. Phyllograptus persists from the Bendigo
Series. It also contains Tetragraptus serra, T.
bryonoides, T. qiiadribrachiatus, Goniograptus macer
and several Didymograpti.
(4) Darriwill Series. Characterised by Trigono-
graptus wilkinsoni. Also contain Diplograptns,
Glossograptus and Lasiograptus, whilst Didymograp-
tus is rare.
Lower Ordovician Graptolites, New Zealand. —
In New Zealand Lower Ordovician Graptolites are
found in the Kakanui Series, at Nelson, north-west of
South Island. Some of the commoner forms are
Didymograptus extensus, D. caduceus, Loganograp-
tus logani, Phyllograptus typus, Tetragraptus
similis and T. qiiadribrachiatus.
Graptolites agreeing closely with those of the
Lancefield Series of Victoria occur near Preservation
Inlet in the extreme South-west, and have been
identified as Clonograptus rigidus, Bryograptus
victoriae and Tetragraptus decipiens.
Upper Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria. —
The Upper Ordovician rocks of Victoria, as at
Wombat Creek and Mount "Wellington in Gippsland,
and at Diggers' Rest near Sunbury, contain the
double branched forms like Dicranograptus ramosus,
Dicellograptus elegans and D. sextans; the sigmoidal
form Stephanograptus gracilis; and the diprionidian
GRAPTOLITES. 127
fig. 75.— UPPER ORDOVICIAN and SILURIAN GRAPTOLITCS.
A — Dicranograptus raniosus, J. Hall sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
B — Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
C — Diplograptus carnei. T. S. Hall Up. Ordovician. N. S. Wales.
D — Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
K— Glossograptus hermani, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
F — Retiolites australis. McCoy. Silurian. Keilor, Victoria.
G- Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian. Woods Point, Victoria.
(biserial) forms as Diplograptus tardus, Climacograp-
tus bicornis, Cryptcgraptus tricornis, Glossograptus
hermani and Lasiograptus margaritatus (Fig. 75).
Upper Ordovician Graptolites, New South Wales. —
In New South Wales, at Tallong, the Upper Ordo-
vician Graptolites are well represented by such forms
as Dicellograptus elegans, Dicranograptus nicholsoni.
Diplograptus carnei, D. foliaceus, CryptograpUis
tricornis and Glossograptus quadrimucronatus, etc.
Other localities in New South "Wales for this Grapto-
lite fauna are Stockyard Creek, Currowang, Tin-
garingi, Lawson, and Mandurama.
128 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Tasmania. —
From Tasmania a Diplograptus has been recorded,
but the particular horizon and locality are uncertain.
Silurian Graptolites, Victoria. —
In the Silurian shales at Keilor, in Vic-
toria, Monograptas is a common genus, and
Cyrtograptus and Retiolites australis (Fig. 75 F) also
occur. Several species of Monograptus have also
been found at South Yarra and Studley Park. At
the latter place and Walhalla Monograptus dubius,
which is a Wenlock and Ludlow fossil in Britain, has
been found in some abundance (Fig. 75 Gr).
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
SPONGES.
Protospongia sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
ttyalostelia sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Protospongia oblonga, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Stephanella maccoyi, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Carpospongia sp. Silurian: Yass, New South Wales.
ReceptaGulites fergusoni, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Receptaculites australis, Salter sp. Devonian: Victoria and
New South Wales. Carboniferous: Queensland.
( ? ) Lasiocladia hindei, Eth. fil. Carbopermian : Queensland.
Purisiphonia clarkei, Bowerbank. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Geodia sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
Tethya sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
Ecionema newoeryi, McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Victoria.
PJectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.
Protopharetra scoulari, Etheridge, fil. Cambrian: S. Aus-
tralia.
Cosrinocyathus australis, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Archaeocyathina ajax, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 129
CORALS.
Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Tryplasma liliiformis, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South
Wales.
Favosites grandipora, Etheridge fil. Silurian: Victoria.
Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Silurian: Victoria.
Halysites peristephicus, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South
Wales.
Heliolites interstincia, Linne sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria
and Queensland.
Cystiphyllum australasicum, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian;
New South Wales and Queensland.
Favosites multitabulata, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria
and New South Wales.
Pachypora meridionalis, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Queens-
land.
Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous : New South Wales.
Lophophyllum cornicuhim, de Koninck. Carboniferous: New
South Wales.
Zaphrentis profunda, Eth. fil. Carbopermian : Queensland.
Campophyllum columnare, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New
South Wales.
Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Stenopora tasmaniensis, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: Tasmania
and New South Wales.
Flabellum gambierense, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria. S. Aus-
tralia and Tasmania.
Placotrochus deltoideus, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S.
Australia and Tasmania.
Sphenotrochus emarciatus, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S.
Australia, and Tasmania.
Ceraiotrochus exilis, Dennant. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Conosmilia elegans, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Balanophyllia armata, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria and Tas-
mania.
Graphularia senescens, Tate sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S.
Australia.
HYDROZOA.
Clathrodictyon (?) regulare, Rosen sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Actinostroma clathratum, Nicholson. Devonian: W. Austra-
lia.
Strom at oporella eifeliensis, Nich. Devonian: W. Australia.
130 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Dictyonema pulchella, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
Ptilograptus sp. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Callograptus sp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
GRAPTOLITES.
Bryograptus victoriae, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician (Lance-
field Series) : Victoria.
Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Bendigo
Series) : Victoria.
Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician (Castle-
maine Series) : Victoria. Also New Zealand.
Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Castle-
maine Series) : Victoria. Also New Zealand.
Trigonograptus toilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician (Darri-
will Series) : Victoria.
Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Upper Ordovician: Vic-
toria.
Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian: Victoria.
Retiolites australis, McCov. Silurian: Victoria.
LITERATURE.
SPONGES.
Cambrian.— Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. (N.S.),
1892, p. 188.
Ordovician. — Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. I. pt. I.
1889, pp. 60, 61 (Protospongia) . Idem, ibid., vol. XI.
(N.S.), pt. II. 1899, pp. 152-155 (Protospongia and Step-
hanella ) .
Simrian to Carboniferous. — Salter, J. W. Canad. Org. Rem.
Dec. I. 1859, p. 47. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W. S.
Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VI. 1898, pp.
62-75. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XVIII.
(N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 5-15.
Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Q.,
1892, p. 199.
Cretaceous. — Bowerbank, J. S. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869,
p. 342. Etheridge, R. jnr. in Geol. and Pal. Queens-
land, 1892, pp. 438, 439 ( Purisiphonia) .
Cainozoic. — McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877. Chap-
man, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. 2, 1908,
pp. 210-212 (Ecionem,a) . Hinde, G, J. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, vol. LVL, 1900, pp. 50-56 (calcisponges). Idem,
Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 36, 1910, pp. 7-21
( sponge-spicules ) .
LITERATURE. 131
ARCHAE0CYATH1NAE.
Etheridge, R. jnr., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIII. 1890,
pp. 10-22. Taylor, T. G. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. II.,
pt. 2, 1910 (a monograph).
CORALS
Silurian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, vol. II. pt. 1, 1890, pp. 15-21 (Silurian and
Devonian). Idem, ibid., vol. II. pt. 4, 1892, pp. 165-174
Silurian and Devonian). Idem, in Pal. and Geol.
Queensland, 1892. Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I., No.
10, 1891, pp. 201-205 (Rhizophyllum). Id., ibid., vol.
III. No. 2, 1897, pp. 30-33 ( Columnar ia ) . Id., Prog.
Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict,, No. 11, 1899, pp. 30-36. Idem,
Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, No. 13, pt. I., 1904
(Halysites) . Id., ibid., No. 13, pt. 2, 1907 ( Tryplasma) .
De Koninck, L. G. ibid., Pal. No. 6, 1898. Shearsbv, A.
J. Geol. Mag., Dec. V., vol. III. 1906, pp. 547-552. Chap-
man, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vcl. II. pt, 1. 1907, pp.
67-80.
Devonian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. and Foord, A. H. Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. V., vol. XIV., 1884, pp. 175-179 (Alveo-
lites and Amplexopora = Litophyllum) . Etheridge, R.
jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892. Idem. Proc.
Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. IX. 1895, pp. 518-539,
Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VI. pt. 3,
1899, pp. 152-182 (Tamworth District). Id., Rec. Austr.
Mus., vol. IV. No. 7, 1902, pp. 253-260. De Koninck, L.
G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6. 1898.
Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. Ill, pt. 2. 1912,
pp. 215-222.
Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, Pal. No. 5 1891. Idem, in Geol. and Pal.
Queensland, 1892. Id., Bull. Geol. Surv., W. Austr.. No.
10, 1903, pp. 8-10.
Cainozoic. — Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol.
XXVI. 1870, pp. 284-318; vol. XXXI. 1875, pp. 673-678;
vol. XXXII. 1876, pp. 341-351. Woods, T. Proc. Linn.
Soc. New South Wales, vol. XL, 1878, pp. 183-195; ibid.,
vol. XXX. 1879, pp. 57-61. Idem, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Austr., vol. I., 1878, pp. 104-119. Dennant, J. Trans.
R. Soc. S. Austr., vols XXIIL (1899) to XXVIII.
(1904)
STROMATOPOROIDS.
Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII, 1890, p. 193.
132 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
GRAPTOLITES.
McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Decades I. (1874): II. (1875):
V. (1877). Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. IV.
p. I. 1892, pp. 7, 8 (Dictyonema) . Idem, Geol. Mag.
Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp. 438-451; Id., Rep. Austr.
Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brisbane, 1909, pp. 318-320. Id., Rec.
Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 4, 1906, pp. 266-278. Id.,
ibid., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 188-211. Idem, Rec. Geol.
Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. part 1, 1910, pp. 16,
17. Ibid., pp. 49-59.
CHAPTER VIII.
FOSSIL SEA-LILIES, STARFISHES, BRITTLE-
STARS AND SEA-URCHINS.
Divisions of Echinodermata. —
The subkingdom of ECHINODERMATA includes
the above groups comprised in the Classes Crinoidea,
Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea. Besides
these are the less important classes of the Cystidea or
sac-shaped echinoderms (of which no definite remains
are recorded from Australian rocks) ; the Blastoidea
or bud-shaped echinoderms (of which four genera are
known from Australia) ; the Edrioasteroidea or sessile
star-fishes (unknown in Australia) ; and the Holo-
thuroidea or sea-cucumbers (represented as fossils by
the skin spicules and plates, an example of which has
been recorded from Australia).
CRINOIDEA, or Sea-lilies.
Crinoidea, their General Structure —
These often beautiful and graceful animals re-
semble a star-fish mounted on a stalk. They are
composed of calcareous joints and plates, and are
therefore important as rock-formers. The stalk or
column may be either short or long, and is generally
rooted, in the adult stage, in the mud of the sea-
floor. Fossil Crinoids were sometimes furnished with
133
134 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
a coiled termination, which could be entwined around
such objects as the stems of sea-weeds. The crinoid
column is composed of numerous plates, and is round
or pentagonal. Upon this is fixed the calyx or cup,
with its attached arms, which serve to bring food
to the mouth, situated on the upper part of the
cup. The arms are grooved, and the water,
being charged with food particles (animalcula), pours
down these channels into the mouth. The stem ele-
vates the animal above the mud or silt of the sea-floor,
thus making it more easy for it to obtain its food
supply. The stalks of fossil Crinoids sometimes
reached the enormous length of 50 feet. Their
calcareous skeleton is built upon a plan hav-
ing five planes of symmetry; this pentamerism is
found throughout the crinoids, the Mastoids and the
free-moving echinoderma. Crinoids range from
moderately shallow- to deep-water, and at the present
day are almost restricted to abyssal conditions. The
more ancient types usually found their habitats
amongst reefs or in comparatively clear water, where
there was a marked freedom from sediment, although
that was not an essential, as seen by their numerous
remains in the Australian mudstones and sandstones.
Cambrian Crinoids. —
The group of the Crinoidea first appears in the
Upper Cambrian, and persists to the present time.
In North America the genus Dendrocrinus occurs in
the Cambrian and Ordovician; and some stem-joints
from the Upper Cambrian limestone of the Mount
Wellington district, Victoria, may be provisionally
referred to this genus.
SEA-LILIES.
135
Ordovician Crinoids. —
No undoubted Crinoid remains have been found in
the Australian Ordovician ; although many genera are
found elsewhere in that system, chiefly in N. America,
as Reteocriniis, Hybocrinus, Heterocrimis and Den-
drocrinus, and in Europe and North America, as
Bhodocrinus and Taxoerinus.
Silurian Crinoids. —
The Silurian Crinoidea of Australia are largely re-
presented by the remains of the columns or stalks,
which are often found in such abundance as to con-
stitute large masses of subcrystalline limestone, as
that of Toongabbie, Victoria. The columns of the
Crinoids do not usually possess sufficient characters
Fig. 76— FOSSIL CRINOIDS.
A— (?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Side of calyx. Silurian. Yass,
New South Wales
B— (?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Kth. fil. Dorsal Surface. Silurian. N.S.W.
C— Botryocrinus longibrachiatus, Chapm. Silurian. Flemington. Vict.
D— Helicocrinus plumosus, Chapm. Stem, distal end. Brunswick,
Victoria
E— Phialocrinus konincki, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.)
Nowra, New South Wales
F—Isocrinus australis. Moore sp. T,. Cretaceous. Wollumbilla Q'ld.
136 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to enable the forms to be identified. There are, how-
ever, more perfect and identifiable remains of several
very interesting generic types in the Silurian faunas
as follows:—
In New South Wales Pisocrinus is represented with
some reservation by (?) P. yassensis, found at Lime-
stone Creek, near Yass (Fig. 76 A, B).
In Victoria, Helicocrinus plumosus and Botryo-
crinus longibrachiatus occur at Brunswick and Flem-
ington, respectively (Fig. 76). The former is a
delicate and handsome species, having a small cup
with finely pinnate arms, which are forked once, and
with a pentagonal stem coiled at the distal end (see
Frontispiece). The genus Botryocrinns is found in
rocks of a similar age in North America and England.
Hapalocrinus victoriae, a member of the Platy-
crinidae, has been described from the mudstone of
South Yarra, near Melbourne. The species above
mentioned are of Melbournian age, belonging to the
lower stage of the Silurian system.
Devonian Crinoids. —
In the Middle Devonian of Queensland, fragmen-
tary crinoid stems are found interbedded with the
limestone of the Broken River.
Thin slices of the limestone of the same age from
Buchan, Victoria, show numerous ossicles and stem-
joints of Crinoids.
Similar remains have also been recorded from the
Devonian of the Kimberley district and the Gascoyne
River in Western Australia.
Carboniferous Crinoids. —
The Carboniferous (Star Beds) of Queensland has
yielded remains of Actinocrinus.
SEA-LILIES. 137
The Matai Series of New Zealand, which may be
regarded* as almost certainly of Carboniferous age,
contains remains of a Cyathocrinus, found in the
limestone of the Wairoa Gorge.
Carbopermian Crinoids. —
The Carbopermian (Upper Marine Series) of New
South Wales yields the interesting Crinoid having a
large, globular cup, known as Phialocrinus; the best
known species of this genus are P. konincki (Fig. 76
E) and P. princeps. Beds of the same age in New
South "Wales, also in the Upper Marine Series, con-
tain the aberrant Crinoid with strongly sculptured
plates of the calyx in the decorticated condition,
Tribracliiocrinii s c lark ei.
Poteriocrinus and Platycrinus are, with some reser-
vation, recorded from the Gympie Series at Stanwell
and the marine beds of the Bowen River Coalfield
respectively, both in Queensland.
In Western Australia the Carbopermian rocks of
the Gascoyne Eiver are known to contain crinoid
stems, tentatively referred to either the Rhodocrinidae
or the Actinocrinidae. There is also a species
of Platycrinus known from the Gascoyne and Irwin
Rivers, and from the Kimberley District.
Triassic Crinoids. —
The Kaihiku Series of Nelson, New Zealand, has
yielded some crinoid stems, but the genus has not yet
been determined.
Cretaceous Crinoids. —
In the Lower Cretaceous Limestone of Queensland,
at Mitchell Downs and Wollumbilla, a typical Crinoid,
closely allied to the living Pentacrinus is found,
namely, Isocriniis australis (Fig. 76 F).
138 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The Upper Cretaceous opal deposits of White Cliffs
in Wilcarmia, New South Wales, contain many opal-
ised fossil remains, amongst them being Isocrinus
australis, already noticed as occurring in the Lower
Cretaceous of Queensland.
Cainozoic Crinoids. —
Pentacrinus stellatus is a species founded on some
deeply indented pentagonal stem-joints found in the
Oamaru Series (Miocene) at Curiosity Shop,- South
Canterbury, New Zealand, and also occurring in the
Chatham Islands. This species has been identified
in the Aire Coastal beds in Victoria, of the same age.
Another generic type, Antedon, the beautiful
"Feather Star," is frequently met with in Janjukian
strata in Victoria and South Australia, as at Bates-
ford and Mount Gambier, represented by the denuded
crown and the ossicles of the arms of a comparatively
large species; whilst another and smaller form has
been described from beds of the same age from bor-
ings in the Victorian Mallee, under the name of A.
protomacronema.
BLASTOIDEA — Bad-shaped Echinoderms.
Distribution and Characters of Blastoidea. —
This forms a small class which has a few represen-
tatives in the rocks of Australia. Elsewhere they
are chiefly of Devonian and Carboniferous ages. In
Australia they are confined, so far as known, to sedi-
ments of the Carboniferous System. The animal was
rooted to the sea-floor and a jointed stem was usually
present. The cup or theca, as before noted, is bud-
shaped, and consists of basal, radial and deltoid
plates, the edges of which are folded inwards into
STARFISHES. 139
the thecal cavity, and thus the internal organs came
into contact with the incurrent water. The cup
bears five food grooves, bordered by numerous arms
or brachioles, which directed the incurrent particles
into the thecal cavity.
Carbopermian Blastoids. —
Three genera of blastoids have been recorded from
the Gympie Beds, or Carbopermian, of the Rockhamp-
ton District of Queensland. They are, Mesoblastus;
Granatocrinus and Tricoclocrinus. A similar fossil
in beds of like age, and provisionally referred to the
genus Metablastus, has been lately recorded from
Glenwilliam, Clarence Town, New South Wales.
ASTEROIBEA, or Starfishes.
Characters of True Starfishes. —
These free-moving echinoderms are usually five-
sided, though sometimes star-shaped, with numerous
arms surrounding a central disc. The mouth is cen-
tral on the under side of the disc, and the anus above
and near the centre (excentric), the latter being
covered by a porous plate called the madreporite. The
hydraulic system of star-fishes consists of tubes ex-
tending along the grooved arms and giving off side
branches which end in processes called podia and ter-
minating in suckers. The podia pass through pores
in the floor plates of the grooves, and communicate
within the body with distensions called ampulla. By
this means the podia serve as feet, and can be with-
drawn by the expulsion of the water in them into
the ampulla. The stout flexible covering of the star-
fish is strengthened by calcareous plates and bars,
140
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
owing to the presence of which they are often pre-
served as fossils.
Silurian Starfishes. —
The oldest Australian fossil Starfishes are found in
the Silurian. In Victoria they occur in some abund-
ance in the lower, Melbournian, series, but appear to
be absent or at all events very scarce in the upper,
or Yeringian series. The commonest genus is Pal-
aeaster, of which there are two species, P. smythi
(Fig. 77 A) and P. meridionalis, found alike in the
sandy and argillaceous strata near Melbourne.
Urasterella is another genus found in the Silurian
rocks near Melbourne, in which the marginal serie3
of plates seen in Palaeaster are wanting, giving to
the starfish a slender, long-armed aspect (Fig. 77 B).
Pig. 77— rOSSIL STARPISH.
A.— Pa^easter smythi. McCoy sp Silurian. Flemington, Victoria.
B— Urasterella selwyni. McCoy. Silurian. Kilmore, Victoria.
C— Palaeaster gieranteus, Kth. fil. Carbopermian. Near Farley,
Ntw South Wales
D— Pentagonaster sp. Tertiary (Janjukian). Bore in Mallee. Victoria
BRITTLE-STARS. 141
Carbopermian Starfishes.—
In the Lower Marine Series of the Carbopermian of
New South Wales a very large species of Palaeaster
occurs (P. giganteus), measuring 7 inches from point
to point across the disc (Fig. 77 C). Two other species
of the same genus occur in this series (P. stutcKburii
and P. clarkei) the latter also ranging into the Upper
Marine Series.
Cainozoic Starfishes. —
No remains of true Starfishes have been recorded
from Australia between the Carbopermian and the
Tertiary systems. In the Janjukian Series of Vic-
toria the marginal plates of a species of Pentagon-
aster are typical fossils. They have been recorded
from Waurn Ponds, Spring Creek near Torquay, and
Batesford (Fig. 77 D). In the Mallee Bores, both
marginal and abactinal plates of this genus are found
in polyzoal limestone (Miocene). Pentagonaster
also occurs in the Lower Muddy Creek beds (Oligo-
cene), and the Upper beds of the same locality
(Lower Pliocene). A species of Astropecten has
been described from the Waikari River, New Zealand
(Oamaru Series).
OPHIUROIDEA, or Brittle-stars.
Characters of Brittle-Stars. —
The Brittle-stars are frequently found at the pre-
sent day cast up on the fine sandy beaches of the
coast. They are easily distinguished from true star-
fishes by having a definite central disc, to which the
arms are attached. The arms are used for locomo-
tion and prehension, and have their grooves covered
142 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
over with plates. The ossicles of the arms are move-
able and controlled by muscles which enable them to
be used as feet. The lower surface of the disc has a
central arrangement of five rhomboidal sets of jaws,
formed of modified ossicles, called the mouth frame,
whilst the upper surface bears, between one set of
arms, the madreporite or covering plate to the water
vascular system, as in starfishes.
Silurian Brittle-Stars. —
The Brittle-stars in Australia first appear in the
Silurian, but in England and Bohemia date back to
the Ordovician. Protaster is the commonest genus,
and is represented by P. brisingoides of the Mel-
bournian stage of Silurian strata at Flemington (Fig.
78). It also occurs rarely in the Yeringian beds
at Yering, both Victorian localities. A very orna-
mental form, Gregoriura spryi, occurs in the . same
Fig. 78— Protaster brisingoides, Gregory.
Negative cast of the calcareous skeleton. Nat. size.
Silurian Sandstone, Flemington, Victoria
(Nat. Mus. Coll.)
SEA-URCHINS.
143
Fig. 79— A Brittle-Star. (Greagoriura spryi, Chapm )
Nat. size. From the Silurian Mudstone of South
Yarra, Victoria. {Nat. Mus. Coll.)
division of the Silurian at South Yarra. In this
fossil the delicate spines attached to the adambulacral
ossicles are well preserved and form a marginal
fringe to the arm (Fig. 79). Sturtzura is another
Silurian genus, found in the Wenlock of England
and in the Melbournian of Flemington, Victoria.
Cainozoic Brittle-Stars. —
From the Victorian Cainozoic beds, in the Lower
Pliocene of Grange Burn, Hamilton, a vertebral
ossicle of an ophiurian has been obtained, which has
been provisionally referred to the genus Sigsbeia.
ECHINOIDEA, or Sea-urchins.
This group is an important one amongst Austra-
lian fossils, especially those of Cainozoic age.
1U AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Characters of Sea-urchins. —
Echinoids are animals enclosed in a spheroidal box
or test composed of numerous calcareous plates, dis-
posed geometrically as in the Star-fishes, along five
principal lines. The test in the living condition is
more or less densely covered with spines. The
mouth is on the under surface. The anus is either on
the top of the test (dorso-central), or somewhere in
the median line between the two lower ambulacra.
The ambulacra ("a garden path") are the rows of
perforated plates on the upper (abactinal) surface
sometimes extending to the lower surface, through
which protrude the podia, which in Star-fishes are
situated in grooves on the lower surface.
Silurian Palaeechinoids. —
The Palaeechinoids are represented in the Silurian
of Australia by occasional plates, as at Bowning, New
South Wales, and near Kilmore, Victoria, whilst
spines are not uncommon in certain Silurian lime-
stones at Tyer's River, Gippsland.
Oarbopermian Palaeechinoids. —
In the Carbopermian of New South Wales, tests of
Archaeocidaris have been recorded, and also a plate
of the same genus in the Gympie Beds of Rockhamp-
ton, Queensland.
Regular Echinoids. —
The regular Echinoids date from Permian times.
They have two vertical rows of plates for each am-
bulacrum and inter-ambulacrum. The mouth is on
the underside, and the anus abactinal (on the upper
side) and near the centre.
SEA-UECHINS.
Fig. 80— CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.
145
A — Cidaris (Iyeiocidaris^ australiae, Duncan sp. Cainozoic (Janjuk-
ian). Cape Otway. Victoria
B — Psammechinus woodsi, I,aube. Cainozoic (janjukian). Murray-
River Cliffs, S Australia
C— Fibularia gregata, Tate. CHinozo;c (Janjukian). Aldinga, S.A.
D— Echinocyamus (Scutellina) pat el a, Tate sp. Cainozoic (janjuk-
ian). Torquay, Victoria
K — Clypeaster gippslandicus, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
Bairnsdale, Victoria
F — Studeria elegans, I^aube, sp. Cainozoic (janjukian). Murray
River Cliffs, S. Australia
Cainozoic Regular Echinoids. —
In Australasia they make their first appearance in
strata of Tertiary age, and some species, as Para-
doxechinus novus, range through Balcombian strata
to Kalimnan in Victoria, or Oligocene to Lower Plio-
cene, but are more typically Janjukian. Echinus
(Psammechinus) woodsi (Fig. 80 B) is common in
Janjukian strata in Victoria and South Australia
and occurs sparingly in the Kalimnan. Another
common form of the regular Echinoids in Southern
Australia is Cidaris australiae (Fig. 80 A), rang-
ing from Janjukian to Kalimnan, occurring more
frequently in the older series. In New Zealand a
species of Cidaris (C. striata), is known from the
146 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Oamaru Series at Brighton. An Echinus occurs in
the Oamaru Series of Broken River, and two species
of that genus in the Wanganui formation of Shake-
speare Cliff. Temnechinus macleayana has been re-
corded from the Cainozoic (Miocene or Pliocene) of
Yule Island, Papua.
Irregular Echinoids. —
The irregular Echinoids are not known before the
Upper Cretaceous in Australia, and are very com-
mon in the Tertiaries. They are distinguished by
the anus (periproct) passing backward from the apex,
as compared with the regular forms, and by the
elongation of the test and the loss of the strong solid
spines, which are replaced by thin, slender hairlike
spines. The animal is thus better fitted to burrow
through the ooze on which it feeds.
Cretaceous Irregular Echinoids. —
An interesting form, Micraster stveeti, is found in
the Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone of Mary-
borough in Queensland, which reminds one of typical
European species of this genus.
Cainozoic Irregular Echinoids. —
Amongst the Australian Cainozoic Echinoids of the
irregular type the following may be mentioned.
The little subglobular test of Fibularia gregafa, and
Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella (Fig. 80 C, D)
are Janjukian in age. The large Clypeaster, C.
gippslandicus (Pig. 80 E), ranges from the Oligocene
to Lower Pliocene in Victoria (Balcombian to Kalim-
nan), and vies in size, especially in the Janjukian,
with some large species like those from Malta and
Egypt. This genus includes some of the largest known
sea-urchins. The biscuit urchin, Arachnoides (Mono-
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS.
147
stychia) aiistralis, is commonest in the Janjukian,
but ranges from Balcombian to Kalimnan. A com-
mon urchin from the polyzoal rock of Mt. Gambler is
Echinolampas gambierensis, which is also found in
the Lower beds of Muddy Creek. A typical Jan-
jukian fossil is Diincaniaster australiae, formerly
thought to belong to the Cretaceous genus Holaster.
Although found living, the genus Linthia attained its
maximum development both in size and abundance/
in Janjukian or Miocene times, as seen in L. gigas
(having a length of 1\ inches) and L. mooraboolensis.
EcMnoneus dennanti is restricted to the Janjukian.
Several species of Eupatagus occur in the Cainozoic
or Tertiary beds of South Australia, Victoria and New
Zealand; Lovenia forbesi (Fig. 81 C) is common in
Pig. 81— CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.
^ff^
A— H miaster planed eclivis, Gregory. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
Morgan, S. Australia
B— Schizaster sphenoides, T. S. Hall. Cainozoic (Barwonian).
Sherbrooke River, Victoria
C — lovenia forbesi, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murrav
River Cliffs, S. Australia
148 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
the Janjukian to Kalimnan, both in Victoria and
South Australia. In the latter State also occur the
following genera: — Studeria, Cassidulus, Echinolam-
pas, Plesiolampas, Linthia, Schizaster and Brissopsis.
In New Zealand the following Cainozoic genera,
amongst others of the irregular sea-urchins, may be
cited : — Hemipatagus, Brissopsis, Herniaster, and
Schizaster (Fig. 81).
A clypeastroid, Peronella decagonalis has been de-
scribed, from the (?) Lower Pliocene of Papua.
Cainozoic Holothuroidea. —
The HOLOTHUROIDEA (Sea-Cucumbers) are
represented in Australian deposits by a unique
example of a dermal spicule of wheel-like form,
referred to Chiridota, obtained from the Cainozoic
(Janjukian) beds of Torquay. This genus is also
knowTL from the "calcaire grossier" or Middle Eocene
of the Paris Basin, and is found living in all parts of
the world.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
CRINOIDS.
(f) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Helicocrinus plumosus, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Botryocrinus longibrachiatus, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Hapalocrinus victoriae, Bather. Silurian: Victoria.
Actinocrinus sp. Carboniferous: Queensland.
Cyathocrinus sp. Carboniferous: New Zealand.
Phialocrinus konincki, Clarke sp. Carbopermian : New South
Wales.
Phialocrinus princeps, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Trior achiocrinus clarkei, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 149
(?) Platycrinus sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.
Platycrinus sp. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
Isocrinus australis, Moore sp. Cretaceous: Queensland.
Pentacrinus stellatus, Hutton. Miocene: New Zealand, Chat-
ham Ids. and Victoria.
Antedon protomacronema, Chapman. Miocene: Victoria ( deep
borings ) .
BLASTOIDS.
(?) Mesoblastus australis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queens-
land.
STARFISHES.
Palaeaster smythi, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
Palaeaster meridionalis, Eth. fil. Silurian: Victoria.
Urasterella selicyni, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
Palaeaster giganteus, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (L. Mar. Ser.) :
New South Wales.
Palaeaster clarkei, de Koninck. Carbopermian (L. and Up.
Mar. Ser.) : New South Wales.
Pentagonaster sp. Miocene: Victoria.
Astropecten sp. Miocene: New Zealand.
BRITTLESTARS.
Protaster brisingoides, Gregory. Silurian: Victoria.
Gregoriura spryi, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Bturtzura leptosomoides, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
(?) Sigsbeia sp. Lower Pliocene: Victoria.
ECHINOIDS.
Palaeechinus sp. Silurian: Victoria.
(?) Archaeocidaris selwyni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New
South Wales.
Micraster sweeti, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland.
Cidaris (Leiocidaris) aastraliae, Duncan. Miocene and Lower
Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Cidaris striata, Hutton, Miocene: New Zealand.
Echinus (Psammechinus) woodsi, Laube sp. Miocene and L.
Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Temnechinus macleayana, T. Woods. Cainozoic ( ? Lower
Pliocene) : Papua.
Fibularia gregataf Tate. Miocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella, Tate sp. Oligocene to
Miocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Clypeaster gippslandicus, McCoy. Oligocene to L. Pliocene:
Victoria.
150 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Arachnoides (Monostychia) australis, Laube sp. Oligocene' to
L. Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Echinoneus dennanti, Hall. Miocene: Victoria.
Duncaniaster australiae, Duncan sp. Miocene : Victoria.
Lovenia forbesi, T. Woods sp. Miocene and L. Pliocene: Vic-
toria and S. Australia.
Hemiaster planedeclivis, Gregory. Miocene: Victoria.
HOLOTHURIAN.
Chiridota sp. Miocene: Victoria.
LITERATURE.
CRINOIDS.
Silurian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No.
5, 1904, pp. 287-292 (Pisocrinus) . Bather, F. A. Geol.
Mag., Dec. XV. vol. IV. 1897, pp. 337-345 (Hapalo-
crinus) . Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV.
(N.S.), pt. II. 1903, pp. 107-109 (Helicocrinus and Botryo-
crinus). Bather, F. A. Ottawa Nat., vol. XX. No. 5,
1906, pp. 97, 98.
Carboniferous and Carbopermian. — De Koninck, L. G. Mem.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 121-
126. Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland,
1892, pp. 207-219. Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 75-119.
Cretaceous. — Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XXVI.
1870, p. 243. Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal.
Queensland, 1892, p. 439 (Isocrinus) .
Cainozoic. — Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll, and Ech. of New
Zealand, 1873, p. 38.
BLASTOIDS.
Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queens-
land, 1892, pp. 210-213. Taylor, T. G. Proc. Linn. Soc.
New South Wales, 1908, pp. 54-59 (t Metablastus) .
STARFISHES.
Silurian.— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I., 1874, pp. 41-43.
Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I., No. 10, 1891,
pp. 199, 200.
Carboniferous and Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892,
pp. 70-75. De Koninck, L. G. Ibid., Pal. No. 6, 1898,
p. 127.
LITEEATURE. 151
Cainozoic— Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc, Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1902, pp. 81, 82 {Pentagonaster). Hutton, F. W.
Cat. Tert. Moll, and Ech. New Zealand, 1873, p. 38.
BRITTLESTARS.
Silurian.— Gregory, J. W. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VI. 1889,
pp. 24-27. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIX.
(N.S.), pt. II. 1907, pp. 21-27.
Cainozoic— Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1902, p. 82 (cf. Sigsbeia).
ECHINOIDS.
Silurian. — Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1,
1907, pp. 77, 78.
Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 67-69.
Cretaceous. — Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queens-
land, 1892, pp. 559, 560.
Cainozoic— T. Woods. Trans. Adelaide Phil. Soc, 1867.
Laube, G. C. Sitz, k. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. LIX. 1869,
pp. 183-198. Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll, and Ech.
New Zealand, 1873, pp. 38-43. Duncan, P. M. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp. 42-73. Tate,
R. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp. 256
258. Idem, Southern Science Record, 1885, p. 4. Idem,
Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIV. pt. 2, 1891, pp. 270-
282. McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. VI. VII. 1879,
1883. Gregory, J. W. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII.
1890, pp. 481-492. Ibid., Dec. III. vol. IX. 1892, pp.
433-437. Cotteau, G. H. Mem. Zool. France, vol. II.
No. 4, 1889, p. 228; vol. III. No. 5, 1890, pp. 537-550;
vol. IV. No. 5, 1891, pp. 620-633. Bittner, A. Sitz. k.k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1892, vol. 101, pp. 331-371. Hall, T.
S. Proc. Roy. Soc Vic, vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. II. 1906,
pp. 48, 53. Chapman, F. Proc Roy. Soc. Vict., vol XX.
(N.S.), pt. II. 1908, pp. 214-218. Pritchard, G. B. ibid.,
vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. I. 1908, pp. 392-400..
HOLOTHURIAN.
Cainozoic— Hall, T. S. Proc, R. Soc Vict., vol. X. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1902, pp. 82, 83.
CHAPTER IX.
FOSSIL WORMS, SEA-MATS and LAMP-
SHELLS.
The first-named group, the ringed worms, belong to
the phylum Annelida, so-called because of the ring-
like structure of their bodies. The two remaining
groups, the Polyzoa or Sea-mats and the Brachiopods
or Lamp-shells, are comprised in the phylum Mollus-
coidea, or mollusc-like animals.
WORMS (Annelida).
Annelida and their Fossil Representatives.—
These animals, owing to the scarcity of hard parts
within their bodies, play a rather insignificant role as
a fossil group. "Worms are laterally symmetrical
animals, with a dorsal and a ventral surface. They
are segmented, the body being formed of numerous
rings. Only those of the Class Chaetopoda ("bristle-
feet") are represented by identifiable fossil remains.
Fossil worms, moreover, chiefly belong to the Order
Polychaeta ("many bristles"). The horny jaws of
these worms are sometimes found in the older rocks
and are known as conodonts.
152
WORMS.
153
Silurian Conodonts. —
Conodonts belonging to three genera are known
from Australia. They are all from the Silurian of the
Bowning District, near Yass, New South Wales, and
are referred to the genera Eunicites, Oenonites and
Arabellites.
Palaeozoic Errant Worms. —
The wandering Worms (Polychaeta errantia) are
also recognised by their impressions, trails, borings
and castings. Burrows formed by these worms are
seen in Arenicolites, found in the Silurian sandstone
of New South Wales, near Yass, and in the Carboper-
mian (Gympie Series) near Rockhampton, Queens^
land. The membranous-lined burrows of Trachy*
derma (T. crassituba) , occur in some abundance in
the Silurian mudstones in the neighbourhood of Mel-
Hg. 82- FOSSIL WORMS.
A— Trachyderma crassituba, Chapm, Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.
B— Cornuhtes tasmanicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. Heazlewood, Tas.
C— Spirorbis ammonius, M. Kdwards, var truncata, Mid. Devonian.
Buchan, Victoria
D~'rorlessia mackayi, Bather. ? Trias. Mt. Torlesse, N. Zealand
154 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
bourne, Victoria (Fig. 82 A). The genus Trachy-
derma is common also to Great Britain and Burmah,
in beds of the same age.
Worm Tracks. —
Some of the curious markings on the Carboniferous
sandstone of Mansfield, Victoria, may be due to worm
trails and castings, especially since they are associated
with sun-cracks and ripple-marks.
Sedentary Worms. —
The sedentary or tube-making Worms (Polychaeta
tubicola) are represented by numerous forms. The
long conical tube of Cornulites tasmanicus is recorded
from the Silurian of Zeehan, Tasmania (Fig. 82 B).
Spirorbis occurs in the Middle Devonian of Victoria
(Fig. 82 C), and W. Australia, and also in the Carbo-
permian of W. Australia. Torlessia is found in the
Trias or Lower Jurassic of the province of Canter-
bury, New Zealand (Fig. 82 D). The genus Serpula
is widely distributed, occurring in the Carbopermian
(Upper Jurassic Series), near East Maitland, New
South Wales ($. testatrix), in the Jurassic of W.
Australia (8. conformis) , in the Lower Cretaceous of
Wollumbilla, Queensland (S. intestinalis) , and the
Darling River, north west of New South Wales,
($. subtrachinus ) , as well as in Cainozoic deposits
in Victoria (8. ouyenensis). Ditrupa is very abun-
dant in some shelly deposits of Janjukian age in
Victoria.
MOLLUSCOIDEA.
The Sea-mats (Polyzoa) and the Lamp-shells
(Brachiopoda) constitute a natural group, the MOL-
LUSCOIDEA, which, although unlike in outward
POLYZOA. 155
form, have several physiological structures in com-
mon. The respiratory organs lie in front of the
month, and are in the form of fleshy tentacles or
spiral appendages. These animals are more nearly
allied to the worms than to the molluscs.
POLYZOA.
Characters of Polyzoa. —
These are almost exclusively marine forms, and are
important as fossils. They form colonies (polypary
or zoarium), and by their branching, foliaceous or
tufty growth resemble sea-weeds. The cells in
which the separate zooids lived have peculiar charac-
ters of their own, which serve to distinguish the dif-
ferent genera.
Subdivisions of Polyzoa. —
Polyzoa are divided into the Sub-classes Phylacto-
laemata, in which the mouth of the zooid has a lip,
and the series of tentacles is horse-shoe shaped; and
the Grymnolaemata, in which there is no lip to the
mouth, and the tentacles form a complete circle. The
first group forms its polypary of soft or horny
material, which is not preserved fossil. The latter
has a calcareous polypary, and is of much import-
ance as a fossil group. This latter subclass is fur-
ther subdivided into the following Orders, viz.:—
Trepostomata ("turned mouths"), Cryptostomata
("hidden mouths"), Cyclostomata ("round
mouths"), and Cheilostomata ("lip mouths" fur-
nished with a moveable operculum).
Trepostomata (Palaeozoic). —
The Order Trepostomata may include some genera
as Monticulipora and Fistulipora, previously referred
156
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to under the corals. They become extinct after Per-
mian times. Fistulipora occurs in certain Gipps-
land limestones.
Cryptostomata (Palaeozoic). —
In the order Cryptostomata we have the genus
Fig. 83— PALAEOZOIC POLYZOA.
A — Fenestella margaritifera, Chapm. Silurian. Near Yeri: g, Vict.
B — Polypora australis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River,
Western Australia
C — Rhombopora tenuis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River,
Western Australia
D — Protoretepora ampla, Iyonsdale sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
Rhombopora with its long, slender branches, which
occurs in the Silurian of Victoria and the Carboper-
mian of Queensland and W. Australia (Fig. 83 C).
Of this order a very important Australian genus is
Fenestella, the funnel-shaped zoaria of which are
found in the Silurian of Victoria and New South
Wales, and also in the Carboniferous of the latter
State. Fenestella also occurs in the Carbopermian of
POLYZOA.
157
W Australia and Tasmania (Fig. 83 A). Accom-
panying the remains of Fenestella in the Carboper-
mian rocks, and closely related to it, are found the
genera Protoretepora and Polypcra (Fig. 83 B, D).
Polyzoa have been noticed in Jurassic rocks in W.
Australia, but no species have been described.
Cheilostomata (Cretaceous). —
Species of the genera (?) Membranipora and
(?) Lepralia, belonging to the Cheilostomata, have
been described from the Lower Cretaceous of the
Darling River, New South Wales, and Wollumbilla,
Queensland, respectively.
Fig. 84— CAINOZOIC POLYZOA.
A — Iyichenopora australis, Mac Gill ivray. Balcombian. Hamilton,
Victoria
B — Heteropora pisiformis, MacGillivray. Janjukian. Moorabool,
Victoria
C— Cellaria australis, MacGillivray. Balcombian. Hamilton. Vict.
D — Selenaria cupola. T. Woods sp. Balcombian. Hamilton, Vict.
E— I^epralia elongata, MacGill. Balcombian. Hamilton, Victoria
158 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Cainozoic Polyzoa. —
A very large number of genera of the Polyzoa have
been described from the Tertiary strata of South
Australia and Victoria. Some of the principal of
these are Crisia, Idmonea, Stomatopora, Lichenopora,
Horner a, Entalophora and Heteropora of the order
Cyclostomata ; and Catenicella, Cellaria, Membtani-
pora, Lunulites, Selenaria, Macropora, Tessarodoma,
Adeona, Lepralia, Bipora, Smittia, Vorina, Cellepora
and Retepora of the order Cheilostomata. Many of
these genera, and not a few Australian species, are
found also in the Cainozoic or Tertiary beds of Orakei
Bay, New Zealand (Fig. 84).
BRACHIOPODA (Lamp-shells).
Brachiopods: Their Structure.—
These are marine animals, and are enclosed in a
bivalved shell. They differ, however, from true
bivalves (Pelecypoda) in having the shell on the
back and front of the body, instead of on each side
as in the bivalved mollusca. Each valve is equi-
lateral, but the valves differ from one another in that
one is larger and generally serves to attach the
animal to rocks and other objects of support by a
stalk or pedicle. Thus the larger valve is called
the pedicle valve and the smaller, on account of its
bearing the calcareous supports for the brachia or
arms, the brachial valve. Generally speaking, the
shell of the valve is penetrated by numerous canals,
which give the shell a punctate appearance. Some
brachiopod shells, as Atrypa and Rhynchonella, are,
however, devoid of these.
BRACHIOPODS. 159
Tig. 85 - LOWER PALAEOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.
A — Orthis (?) lenticularis, Wahlenberg. Up. Cambrian. Florentine
Valley, Tasmania
B — Siphonotreta maccoyi. Chapm. Up. Ordovician. Bulla. Vict.
C — Iyingula yarraensis, Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Victoria
D— Orbiculoidea selwyni, Chapm. Silurian. Merri Creek, Victoria
E — Chonetes melbournensis. Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.
F— Strop heodonta alata, Chapm. Silurian. Near L,ilydale, Vict.
Cambrian Brachiopods. —
Brachiopods are very important fossils in Austra-
lasian rocks. They first appear in Cambrian strata,
as for example, in the Florentine Valley, in Tasmania,
where we find Orthis lenticularis (Fig. 85 A ). In
Victoria, near Mount Wellington, in the mountainous
region of N.E. Gippsland, Orthis platystrophioides is
found in a grey limestone. In South Australia the
grey Cambrian limestone of Wirrialpa contains the
genus Huenella (H. etheridgei). This genus is also
found in the Middle and Upper Cambrian of N.
America.
Ordovician Brachiopods. —
Coming to Ordovician rocks, the limestones of the
Upper r niKe Basin in South Australia contain Orthis
160 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
leviensis and 0. dichotomalis. The Victorian maid-
stone at Heathcote may be of Ordovician age or even
older; it has afforded a limited fauna of brachiopods
and trilobites, amongst the former being various
species of Orthis, Chonetes, and Siphonotreta. The
latter genus is represented in both the Lower and
Upper Ordovician rocks of slaty character in Vic-
toria (Fig. 85 B).
Silurian Brachiopods. —
The Silurian system in Australasia as in Europe,
N. America and elsewhere, is very rich in brachiopod
life. It is impossible to enumerate even all the
genera in a limited work like the present, the most
typical only being mentioned.
In New Zealand the palaeozoic fauna is at present
imperfectly worked out, but the following genera
from the Wangapekian (Silurian) have been iden-
tified, viz., Chonetes, Stricklandinia, Orthis, Wilsonia,
Atrypa, and Spirifer. The specific identificaton of
these forms with European types is still open to ques-
tion, but the species are undoubtedly closely allied to
some of those from Great Britain and Scandinavia.
The Victorian Silurian Brachiopods are represented
by the horny-shelled Lingula, the conical Orbiculoi-
dea, a large species of Siphonotreta, Stropheodonta
(with toothed hinge-line), Strophonella, Chonetes
(with hollow spines projecting from the ventral valve,
one of the species C. melbournensis being characteris-
tic of the Melbournian division of Silurian rocks),
Orthis, Pentamerus, Camarotoechia, Rhynchotrerna,
Wilsonia, Atrypa (represented by the world-wide A.
reticularis) , Spirifer and Nucleospira (Figs, 85, 86).
BRACHIOPODS.
161
New South Wales has a very similar assemblage of
genera ; whilst Tasmania possesses Camarotoechia,
Stropheodonta and Orthis.
Devonian Brachiopods. —
The Devonian limestones and associated strata are
fairly rich in Brachiopods. The Victorian rocks of
this age at Bindi and Buchan contain genera such as
Chonetes (C. australis), Spirifer (S. yassensis and $.
hoivitti) and Athyris.
In New South Wales we again meet with Spirifer
yassensis, veritable shell-banks of this species occur-
ring in the neighbourhood of Yass, associated with a
species of Chonetes (C. culleni) (Fig. 86 D, E).
fig. 86— SILURIAN and DEVONIAN BRACHIOPODS.
A — Caniarotoechia decemplicata, Sow. Silurian. Victoria
B — Nucleospira australis, McCoy. Silurian. Victoria
C— Atrypa reticularis. I,, sp. Silurian. Victoria
D— Chonetes culleni. Dun. Mid. Devonian. New South Wales
E — Spirifer yassensis, de Koninck, Devonian. New South Wales
and Victoria
K
162 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
In the Upper Devonian of New South Wales abun-
dant remains occur of both Spirifer disjunctus and
Camarotoechia pleurodon (var.).
The Upper Devonian Series at Nyrang Creek near
Canowindra, New South Wales, contains a Lingula
(L. gregaria) associated with the Lepidodendron
plant beds of that locality.
Queensland Devonian rocks contain Pentarnerus,
Atrypa and Spirifer. In Western Australia the
Devonian species are Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer cf,
verneuili, S. musakheylensis and Uncinulus cf. timor-
erisis.
Carboniferous Brachiopods. —
The Carboniferous Brachiopod fauna is represented
in New South Wales at Clarence Town and other
localities by a species which has an extensive time-
range, Lcptaena rhomboidalis var. analoga, and the
following, a few of which extend upwards into the
Carbopermian : — Chonetes papilionacea, Productus
semireticulatus, P. punctatus, P. cor a, Orthothetes
crenistria, Orthis (Rhipidomella) australis, 0.
(Schizophoria) resupinata, Spirifer striatus, S. bisul-
catus, Cyrtina carbonaria and Athyris piano sulcat us.
In New Zealand the Matai series, referred to the
Jurassic by Hutton, as formerly regarded by Hec-
tor, and latterly by Park, as of Carboniferous age, on
the ground of a supposed discovery of Spirifer subra-
diatus (S. glaber) and Productus brachythaerus in
the Wairoa Gorge. Although these species may not
occur, the genera Spirifer and Productus are present,
which, according to Dr. Thomson, are distinctly of
pre-Triassic types.
BRACHIOPODS. 163
Pig. 87-CARBOPERMIAN BRACHIOPODS.
A— Productus brachythaerus, Sow. Carbopermian. New South
Wales, &c.
B— Strophalosia clarkei, Kth. sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.
C— Spirifer convolutus Phillips. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.
D— Spirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus, Sow. Carbopermian.
New South Wales, &c.
Carbopermian Brachiopods. —
The Brachiopod fauna of Carbopermian age in New
South Wales is rich in species of Productus and Spiri-
Jer. Amongst the former are P. cor a (also found in
Western Australia, Queensland and Tasmania), P.
brachythaerus (also found in Western Australia and
Queensland), (Fig. "87 A), P. semireticulatus (also
found in Western Australia, Queensland and the
Island of Timor, and a common species in Europe),
and P. undatus (also found in Western Australia and
Queensland, as well as in Great Britain and Russia).
Strophalosia is an allied genus to Productus. It is
a common form in beds of the same age in W. Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, and New South Wales. The best
164 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
known species is 8. clarkei (Fig. 87 B). This type
of shell is distinguished from Productus in being
cemented by the umbo of the ventral valve, which
valve is also generally less spinose than the dorsal.
When weathered the shells present a peculiar silky
or fibrous appearance. The genus Spirifer is repre-
sented in W. Australia by such forms as S. vesper-
tilio, S. convolutns, 8. hardmani, 8. musakheylensis,
and 8. striatus; whilst 8. vespertilio and 8. convolu-
iits are common also to New South "Wales (Fig. 87 C).
and the latter only to Tasmania. 8. vespertilio is found
in the Gympie beds near Rockhampton, Queensland;
and 8. tasmaniensis in Queensland (Bowen River
Coal-field, Marine Series), New South Wales and
Tasmania. Of the smoother, stout forms, referred to
the sub-genus Martiniopsis, we may mention 8. (M.)
subradiatas, which occurs in W. Australia, New
South Wales, and Tasmania (Fig. 87 D).
In the Queensland fauna, the Gympie series con-
tains, amongst other Brachiopods Productus cora,
Leptaena rhoynboidalis var., analog a, Spirifer vesper-
tilio and 8. strzeleckii.
Other Carbopermian Brachiopod genera found in
Australian faunas are Cleiothyris, Dielasma, Hypo-
thyris, Reticularia, Seminula, Cyrtina, and Syringo-
th yris.
Triassic Brachiopods. —
The Kaihiku Series of New Zealand (Hokonui Hills
and Nelson) are probably referable to the Trias. The
supposed basal beds contain plants such as Taeniop-
teris, Cladophlebis, Palissya and Baiera. Above these
are marine beds containing Brachiopods belonging to
BRACHIOPODS.
165
Spiriferina, Rhynchonella, Dielasma and Athyris.
The succession of these beds presents some palaeonto-
logical anomalies still to be explained, for the flora
has a decided leaning towards a Jurassic facies.
Next in order of succession the Wairoa Series, in
the Hokonui Hills and Nelson, New Zealand, con-
tains Dielasma and Athyris wreyi.
The succeeding series in New Zealand, the Otapiri,
or Upper Triassic contains the Brachiopod genera
Athyris1 and Spiriferina, found at Well's Creek, Nel-
son.
Jurassic Brachiopods. —
The marine Jurassic beds of W. Australia, as at
Shark Bay and Greenough River, contain certain
rig. 88— MESOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.
A — Rhynchonella variabilis Schloth. sp. Jurassic. W.Australia
B — Terebratella davldsoni, Moore. I,. Cretaceous. Queensland
C — Iyingula subovalis. Davidson. L. Cretaceous S Australia
D — Rhynchonella croydonensis, Eth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. Queensland
1. — Eeferred by Hector to a new sub-genus Clavigera,
which name, however, is preoccupied.
166 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Rhynchonellae allied to European species, as R.
variabilis (Fig. 88 A), and R. cf. solitaria.
Lower Cretaceous Brachiopods. —
The Lower Cretaceous or Rolling Downs Formation
of Queensland has yielded a fair number of Brachio-
pods, principally from Wollumbilla, — as Terebratella
davidsoni (Fig. 88 B), (?) Argiope ivollumbillensis,
(1) A. punctata, Rhynchonella rustica, R. solitaria,
Discina apicalis and Lingula siibovalis. From beds
of similar age in Central South Australia and the
Lake Eyre Basin Lingula siibovalis (Fig. 88 C), and
Rhynchonella eyrei have been recorded; the latter
has been compared with a species (R. walkeri) from
the Middle Neocomian of Tealby in Yorkshire.
Upper Cretaceous Brachiopod. —
A solitary species of the Brachiopoda occurs
in the Upper Cretaceous of Australia, namely,
Rhynchonella croydonensis (Fig. 88 D) of the Desert
Sandstone of the Croydon Gold-fields and Mount
Angas, Queensland.
Cainozoic Brachiopods. —
The Brachiopoda of the Cainozoic or Tertiary strata
of Australia and New Zealand are well represented
by the genera Terebratnla, Magellania, Terebratulina,
Terebratella, Magasella and Acanthothyris. In the
Balcombian or Oligocene of southern Australia occur
the following: — Terebratnla tateana, Magellania
corioensis, M. garibaldiana and Magasella compta
(Figs. 89 A, D) ; and most of these range into the
next stage, the Janjukian, whilst some extend even
to the Kalimnan. Terebratulina suessi, Hutton sp.
(r= T. scoulari, Tate) ranges through the Balcombian
BRACHIOPODS.
Fig. 89-CAINOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.
167
A — Terebratula tateana, T. Woods. Cainozoic. Victoria
B — Magellania corioensis, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
C— Magellania garibaldiana, Dav. so. Cainozoic. Victoria
D— Magasella compta. Sow. sp. Cainozoic. Victoiia
K — Terebratulina catinuliformis. Tate. Cainozoic. S. Australia
F — Acanthothyris squamosa, Hutton sp. Cainozoic. Tasmania
and Janjukian, but is most typical of the Janjukian
beds in Victoria : it also occurs in the Oamaru Series
of New Zealand ( = Janjukian). Acanthothyris
squamosa (Fig. 89 F) is typical of the Janjukian of
southern Australia, and it occurs also in the Pareora
beds of the Broken River, New Zealand. The latter
are green, sandy, fossiliferous strata immediately
succeeding the Oamaru stone of the Hutchinson
Quarry beds. A. squamosa is said to be still
living south of Kerguelen Island. Magellania insolita
is a Victorian species which is also found in the
Oamaru Series of New Zealand.
Whilst many of the older Tertiary brachiopods
range into the next succeeding stage of the Kalimnan
in Victoria, such as Magellania insolita, Terehratu-
168 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Una catinuliformis (Fig. 89 E) and Magasella compta,
one species, Terebratella pumila, is restricted to the
Kalimnan, occurring at the Gippsland Lakes.
The next stage, the Werrikooian, typical in upraised
marine beds on the banks of the Glenelg River in
western Victoria, contains Magellania flavescens, a
species still living (see antea, Fig. 23), and M.
insolita, having the extraordinarily wide range of the
whole of the Cainozoic stages in southern Australia.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
WORMS.
Eunicites mitchelli, Eth. fill. Silurian: New South Wales.
Oenonites hebes, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Arabellites bowningensis, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South
Wales.
Arenicolites sp. Silurian: New South Wales.
Trachyderma crassituba, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Cornulites tasmanicus, Eth. fil. Silurian: Tasmania.
Spirorbis ammonius, M. Edw. var. truneata, Chapm. Mid.
Devonian: Victoria.
Spirorbis omphalodes, Goldfuss. Devonian: W. Australia.
Serpula testatrix, Eth. fil. Carbopermian : New South Wales.
Torlessia mackayi, Bather. Lower Mesozoic: New Zealand.
Serpula conformis, Goldfuss. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Serpula intestinalis, Phillips. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Serpula subtrachinus, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New South
Wales.
Serpula ouyenensis, Chapm. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Ditrupa cornea, L. sp. var. irormbetiensis. McCoy. Caino-
zoic: Victoria.
POLYZOA.
Rhombopora gippslandica, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Fenestella australis, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Protoretepora ampla, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: W. Australia,
New South Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania.
Polypora australis, Hinde. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 169
Rhombopora tenuis, Hinde. Carbopermian : W. Australia.
Rhombopora laxa, Etheridge sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.
Membranipora wilsonensis, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New
South Wales.
(?) Lepralia oolitica, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Lichenopora australis, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Heteropora pisiformis,, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Cellaria australis, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Membranipora macrostoma, Reuss. Cainozoic: Victoria (also
living).
Belenaria marginata, T. Woods. Cainozoic: Victoria (also
living) .
Macropora clarkei, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Adeona obliqua, MacGill. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Lepralia burlingtoniensis, Waters. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Bipora philippinensis, Busk sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also
living).
Porina gracilis, M. Edwards sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also
living).
Cellepora fossa, Haswell, sp Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
Retepora fissa, MacGill. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
BRACHIOPODA.
Orthis lenticularis, W^ahlenberg sp. Cambrian: Tasmania.
Orthis platystrophioides, Chapm. Cambrian: Victoria.
Huenella etheridgei, Walcott. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Orthis leviensis, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia. (?) Vic-
toria.
Siphonotreta discoidalis, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.
Siphonotreta maccoyi, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.
Lingula yarraensis, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Orbiculoidea selwyni, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Chonetes melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Stropheodonta alata, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Orthis elegantula, Dalman. Silurian: Victoria.
Pentamerus australis, McCoy: Silurian: Victoria and New
South Wales.
Conchidium knightii, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria and New
South Wales.
Camarotoechia decemplicata, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Rhynchotrema liopleura, McCoy sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Atrypa reticularis, L. sp. Silurian: New South Wales and Vic-
toria. Devonian: New South Wales, W. Australia and
Queensland.
Spirifer sulcatus, Hisinger sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Nucleospira australis, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
Chonetes australis, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.
170 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Chonetes culleni, Dun. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales.
Spirifer yassensis, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New South
Wales and Victoria.
Spirifer cf. verneuili, de Kon. Mid. Devonian: New South
Wales and W. Australia.
Lingula gregaria, Eth. fil. Upper Devonian: New South Wales.
Spirifer disjunctus, Sow. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.
Productus cora, d'Orb. Carboniferous: New South Wales
and Queensland.
Orthothetes crenistria, Sow. sp. Carboniferous: New South
Wales.
Spirifer striatus, Sow. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
Productus brachythaerus, Sow. Carbopermian : New South
Wales, Queensland, W. Australia.
Strophalosia clarkei, Eth. sp. Carbopermian: New South
Wales, Tasmania and W. Australia.
kpirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus, Sow. Carbopermian:
New South Wales, Tasmania and W. Australia.
Spirifer convolutus, Phillips. Carbopermian. New South
Wales, Tasmania and W. Australia.
Cleiothyris macleayana, Eth. fil. sp. Carbopermian: W. Aus-
tralia.
Dielasma elongata, Schlotheim sp. Trias (Kaihiku Series) :
New Zealand.
Athyris wreyi, Suess sp. Trias (Wairoa Series) : New Zea-
land.
Athyris sp. Trias (Otapiri Series) : New Zealand.
Rhynchonella variabilis, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Aus-
tralia.
Terebratella davidsoni, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Rhynchonella solitaria, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Lingula subovalis, Davidson. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland
and S. Australia.
Rhynchonella croydonensis, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous:
Queensland.
Terebratula tateana, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
Janjukian) ; Victoria and S. Australia.
Magellania corioensis, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian
and Janjukian) : Victoria and S. Australia.
Magellania garibaldiana, Davidson sp. Cainozoic (Balcom-
bian and Janjukian) : Victoria and S. Australia.
Magasella compta, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian to Kalim-
nan) : Victoria and S. Australia.
Terebratula suessi, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
Janjukian) : Victoria, S. Australia, and New Zealand
(Oamaru Series.)
LITERATURE. 171
Acanthothyris squamosa, Hutton sp. Cainozoic ( Janjukian) :
Victoria and S. Australia, New Zealand (Oamaru Series)
(also living) .
Terehratella pumila, Tate. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) : Victoria.
Magellania flavescens, Lam. sp. Pleistocene: Victoria (also
living).
LITERATURE.
WORMS.
Silurian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII.
1890, pp. 339, 340. Idem, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. (for
1896), 1897, p. 37. Chapman, F. Proc. R, Soc. Vict.,
vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910, pp. 102-105
Devonian— Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. II. vol. VII. 1890,
p. 199. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III.
pt. 2, 1912, p. 220.
Carboniferous. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Aus-
tralia, No. 10, 1903, p. 10.
Carbopermian. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales. Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 119-121.
Lower Mesozoic. — Bather, F. A. Geol. Mag., Dec. V. vol. II.
1905, pp. 532-541.
Lower Cretaceous. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Soc. Geol. Surv..
New South Wales, Pal. No. 11. 1902, pp. 12, 13.
Cainozoic. — Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVI.
(N.S.) pt. I. 1913, pp. 182-184.
POLYZOA.
Silurian.— Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1903, pp. 61-63. Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic,
vol. II., pt. 1, 1907, p. 78.
Carboniferous. — Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. VII.
1890, pp. 199-203.
Carbopermian. — De Koninck Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 128-140.
Cainozoic. — Stolicka, F. Novara Exped., Geol. Theil., vol. I.
pt. 2, pp. 87-158. Waters, A. W. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, vol XXXVII. 1881, pp. 309-347; ibid., vol.
XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 257-276 and pp. 502-513; ibid., vol.
XXXIX. 1883, pp. 423-443; ibid., vol. XL. 1884, pp. 674-
i97; ibid., vol. XLI. 1885, pp. 279-310; ibid., vol.
XLIII. 1887, pp. 40-72 and 337-350. MacGillivray, P.
H. Mon. Tert. Polyzoa Vict., Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict.,
Vol. IV. 1895. Maplestone, C. M. "Further Descr.
Polyzoa Vict.," Proc. Roy. Soc Vict., vol. XL (N.S.J >
pt. I. 1898, pp. 14-21, et seqq.
172 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
BRACHIGPODA.
Cambrian. — Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc S. Austr., vol. XV. 1892,
pp. 185, 186. Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol.
V. pt. 2, 1904, p. 101. Walcott, C. D. Smiths. Misc.
Coll., vol. LIII. 1908, p. 109. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
Vic, vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1911, pp. 310-313.
Ordovician. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Pari. Papers, S. Aust., No.
158, 1891, pp. 13, 14. Tate, R. Rep. Horn Exped., pt.
3, 1896, pp. 110, 111. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv.
Vict., vol. I. pt. 3, 1904, pp. 222-224.
Silurian.— McCov, F. Prod. Pal. Vic. Dec. V. 1877, pp. 19-
29. Eth., R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
vol. 3, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 49-60 (Silurian and Devonian Pent-
ameridae). Idem, Proc. Roy. Soc, Tas., (for 1896), 1897,
pp. 38-41. De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 20-29. Dun, W. S.
Rec Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904,
pp. 318-325 (Silurian to Carboniferous). Ibid., vol.
VIII. pt. 3, 1907, pp. 265-269. Chapman, F. Proc. R.
Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. 1, 1903, pp. 64-79. Ibid.,
vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. 1, 1908, pp. 222, 223. Ibid., vol.
XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I. 1913, pp. 99-113.
Devonian.— McCov, F. Prod. Pal Vict., Dec IV. 1876, pp.
16-18. Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec III. vol. VII.
1890, pp. 100-102. Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal.
Queensland, 1892, pp. 64-68. De Koninck, L. G. Mem.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal., No. 6. 1898, pp.
64-85. Chapman, F. Proc R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII.
(N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 16-19.
Carboniferous. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec Austr. Mus., vol. IV.
No. 3, 1901, pp. 119, 120. Idem, Geol. Surv. W. Austr.,
Bull. No. 10, 1903, pp. 12-23. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol.
Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII., pt. 2, 1902. pp. 72-88
and 91-93.
Carbopermian. — Sowerby, G. B., in Strzelecki's Phvs. Descr.
of New South Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 275-285. kcCoy, F.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. XX. 1847, pp. 231-236. Foord,
A. H. Geol. Mag. Dec III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 105 and
145-154. Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland,
1892, pp. 225-264. De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv.
New South Wales, Pal., No. 6, 1898, pp. 140-203. Dun,
W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII.
pt. 4, 1909, pp. 293-304.
Lower Cretaceous. — Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol.
XXVI. 1870, pp. 243-245. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. R.
Soc. S. Austr., vol. II. pt. 1, 1902, pp. 8, 9.
LITERATURE. 173
Upper Cretaceous. — Etlieridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queens-
land, 1892, p. 560.
Cainozoic— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877, pp.
11-13. Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. III. 1880,
pp. 140-170. Idem, ibid., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp. 250-259.
Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XXXVII. 1905, pp.
474-481 (Revn. Tert. Brach.).
CHAPTER X.
FOSSIL SHELL-FISH (MOLLUSCA).
Molluscan Characters. —
The phylum or sub-kingdom Mollusca is a group of
soft-bodied animals (mollis, soft), which, although
having no external skeleton, usually possess the pro-
tective covering of a shell. This shell is secreted
from the outer skin or mantle, and is composed of
carbonate of lime (calcareous) with a varying propor-
tion of organic material.
Hard Parts. —
Fossil molluscan remains consist practically of the
shells, but the calcareous apertural lid (operculum)
of some kinds is often preserved, as in Turbo and
Hyolithes; or the horny lids of others, as Bithynia of
the European Pleistocene " brick earths." The cuttle-
fishes have hard, horny beaks and internal bones,
and the latter are frequently found fossil in Aus-
tralia.
Characters of Pelecypoda. —
The class for first consideration is the important
one of the Bivalved Mollusca, the LAMELLI-
BRANCHIATA ("plate-gills") or PELECYPODA
174
BIVALVES. 175
("hatchet foot"). The shells are double, hinged dor-
sally and placed on either side of the animal, that is,
they are left and right. The height is measured on a
vertical line drawn from the beaks or umbones to the
ventral margin. The length is the greatest distance
between the margins parallel with a line drawn
through the mouth and posterior adductor impres-
sion. The thickness is measured by a line at right
angles to the line of height. The shell being placed
mouth forward, the valves are thus left and right.
The anterior is usually shorter, excepting in some
cases, as in Donax and Nucula.
Hinge Structure. —
In the absence of the animal, the character of the
hinge-structure is very important. Some are with-
out teeth (edentulous). The oldest forms have been
grouped as the " Palaeoconcha, ' ' and it has been
shown that here, although well-developed teeth were
absent, the radial ribs of the surface and ventral areas
were carried over to the dorsal margin and became a
fixed character in the form of crenulations or primi-
tive teeth.
The taxodont type of hinge teeth shows alternating
teeth and sockets, as in Nucula.
The schizodont type is seen in the heavy, variable
teeth of Trigonia and Schizodus.
The isodont type of hingement is a modification of
the taxodont, represented by two ridges originally
divergent below the beak, and forming an interlock-
ing series of two pairs of teeth and sockets as in
Spondylus; or where the primitive hinge disappears
as in Pecten, the divergent ridge-teeth (crura) may
only partially develop.
176
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The dysodonts have a feeble hinge-structure
derived from the external sculpture impinging on the
hinge-line, as in Crenella.
The pantodonta are an ancient palaeozoic group
which seems allied to the modern teleodont or long
toothed shells, but the laterals may exceed a pair in a
single group, as in Allodesma.
The diogenodonta have lateral and cardinal teeth
upon a hinge-plate, but never more than two laterals
and three cardinals in any one group, as in Crassa-
tellites.
The cyclodonta have extremely arched teeth, which
curve out from under the beaks, as in Gardium.
Fig. 90— LOWER PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.
A — Ambonychia macroptera, Tate. Cambrian. S.Australia
B -Grammysia cuneiformis, Eth. fil. Silurian. Victoria
C— Panenka gippslandica, McCoy sp. Silurian. Victoria
T) — Nucu a melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
E- Nuculites maccoyianus. Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
F — Palaeoneilo victoriae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
BIVALVES. 177
The teleodonts include the more highly developed
types of hinge, with attenuated teeth and sockets.
Common shells of our coast, and from Cainozoic beds,
belonging to this group are Venus, Mactra and Mere-
trix.
The asthenodonta are boring and burrowing mol-
luscs that have lost the hinge dentition from disuse as
Corbula and Pholas.
Cambrian Bivalve. —
The earliest example of a bivalved shell in Austra-
lian ro-cks is Ambonychia macroptera (Fig. 90 A),
which occurs in the Cambrian Limestone of Curra-
mulka, S. Australia. It is quite a small form, being
less than a quarter of an inch in length.
Ordovician Bivalve. —
In the basal Ordovician mudstone of Heathcote,
Victoria, there is a bivalve which in some respects
resembles a Modiolopsis (1M. knowsleyensis), but the
exact relationship is still doubtful.
Silurian Bivalves. —
The Silurian sandstones, mudstones, slates and
limestones of Australia and New Zealand, unlike the
older rocks just mentioned, contain a rich assem-
blage of bivalve fossils. In Victoria the lower
division or Melbournian stage contains the following
principal genera : — Orthonota, Grammy sia, Lepto-
domus, Edmondia, Cardiola, Ctenodonta, Nuculites,
Nucula, Palaeoneilo, Conocardium, Modiolopsis and
Paracyclas. The upper division or Yeringian stage
contains other species of similar genera to those in
the Melbournian, as Grammysia, Palaeoneilo and
Conocardium; whilst Panenka, Mytilarca, Sphenotus,
178 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Actinodesma, Lnnulicardium, Actinopteria and
Cypricardinia are, so far as known, peculiar to this
and a still higher stage. Cardiola is a widely distri-
buted genus, occurring as well in Tasmania ; whilst in
Europe it is found both in Bohemia and Great Bri-
tain. Its time-range in the northern hemisphere is
very extensive, being found in beds ranging from
Upper Ordovician to Devonian. Actinopteria is
found also in New South Wales and New Zealand,
and Pterinea and Actinodesma in New South Wales.
The molluscs with a taxodont hinge-line (beset with
numerous little teeth and sockets) are quite plentiful
in the Australian Silurian; such as Nucida, a form
common around Melbourne (N. melbournensis (Fig.
90 D) ) ; Nnculites, which has an internal radial but-
tress or clavicle separating the anterior muscle-scar
from the shell-cavity, and which is found likewise
in the Melbourne shales (N. maccoyianus (Fig.
90 E) ); Ctenodonta, represented in both the Mel-
bournian and Yeringian stages (C. portlocki) ; and
Palaeoneilo, a handsome, subrostrate generic type
with concentric lamellae or striae, commonest in the
Melbournian, but occasionally found in the younger
stage (P. victoriae Fig. 90 F, Melbournian; — P.
raricostac, Yeringian). Conocardium is represented
by two species in Victoria (C. bellulum and C. costa-
tum) ; whilst in New South Wales C. davidis is found
at Oakey Creek. In New Zealand Actinopteria and
Pterinea occur in the Wangapeka series (Silurian).
Devonian Bivalves. —
The compact limestone and some shales of Middle
Devonian age in the N.E. Gippsland area in Victoria,
BIVALVES.
Fig. 91 -PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.
179
A — Mytilarca acutirostris, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
B — Modiolopsis melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
C — Goniophora australis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
D — Paracyclas siluricus, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
K — Actinopteria australis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales
F — Iyvriopeeten gracilis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales
contain several as yet undescribed species belonging
to the genera Sphenohis, Actinodesma and Para-
cyclas.
The genera Paracyclas, Aviculopecten and Pterinea
have been recorded from New South Wales, chiefly
from the Yass district. The derived boulders found
in the Upper Cretaceous beds forming the opal-fields
at White Cliffs, New South Wales, have been deter-
mined as of Devonian age. They contain, amongst
other genera, examples of Actinopteria (A. australis) ,
Lyriopecten (L. gracilis) (Fig. 91 F), and Lepto-
desma (L. inflation and L. obesum).
Carbopermian Bivalves. —
One of the most prolific palaeozoic series for
bivalved mollusca is the Carbopermian. To select
180 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS,
Fig. 92-CARBOPERMIAN BIVALVES.
A — Stutchburia farleyeasis, Kth. fil. Carbopermiau . N S. Wales
R- Del topecten limaeformis. Morris sp. Carbopermijtn. N.S.Wales
C — Aviculopecten sprenti, Johnston. Carbopernran v..s. Wales
D -Chaenomya etheridgei, de Kon. Carbopermiau. N.S. Walts
E— Pachydomus globosus J. de C. Sow. Carbopermiau. N.S. Wales
from the numerous genera and species we may men-
tion Stutcliburia farleyensis (Fig. 92 A) and
Edmondia nobilissima from Farley, New South
Wales; and Deltopecten limaeformis (Fig. 92 B),
found in the Lower Marine Series at Bavensfield, New
South Wales, and in the Upper Marine Series at
Burragorang and Pokolbin in the same State, in
Queensland at the Mount Britton Gold-field, and in
Maria Id., Tasmania. Deltopecten fittoni occurs in
both series in New South Wales, and in the Upper
Marine Series associated with "Tasmanite shale" in
Tasmania. Aviculopecten squamuliferus is a hand-
some species found alike in Tasmania and New South
Wales; whilst A. tenuicollis is common to W. Aus-
tralia and New South Wales. Other characteristic
bivalves of the Carbopermiau of New South Wales
BIVALVES.
181
are Chaenomya etheridgei (Fig. 92 1)} and Pachy-
domus globosus (Fig. 92 B). The gigantic Eury-
desma cordatum is especially characteristic of the New
South Wales Lower Marine Series, and is also found
in Tasmania. All three species are found in Queens-
land.
Triassic Bivalves. —
The Triassic rocks of New South Wales were ac-
cumulated under either terrestrial, lacustrine, or
brackish (estuarine) conditions. Hence the only
bivalved mollusca found are referred to the fresh-
water genera Unio (TJ. dunstani) and Unionella (U.
bowralensis and U. camei (Fig. 93 A) ). The latter
genus differs from Unio in the structure of the adduc-
tor muscle-impressions.
Pig. 93— LOWER MESOZOIC BIVALVES.
A — Unionella carnei- Eth. fil. Triassic New South Wales
B— Mytilus problematicus, Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand
C — Monotis salinaria. Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand
D — Trig-onia moorei, I/ycett. Jurassic. W. Australia
K— Astarte cliftoni, Moore, Jurassic. W. Australia
182 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The Queensland Trias (Burrum Formation) con-
tains a solitary species of bivalved mollusca, Corbi-
cula burrumensis. This genus is generally found
associated with freshwater or brackish conditions.
In New Zealand marine Triassic beds occur, con-
taining, amongst other genera, a species of Lecla. In
the succeeding Wairoa Series the interesting fossil,
Daonella lommeli occurs. This shell is typical of
the Norian (Upper Trias) of the Southern Tyrol.
Above the Daonella bed occurs the Trigonia bed, with
that genus and Edmondia. In the next younger
stage, the Otapiri Series, near Nelson, there are fine-
grained sandstones packed full of the remains of
Mytilus "problematic us (Fig. 93 B) and Monotis
salinaria (Fig. 93 C), the latter also a Noriari fossil.
Jurassic Bivalves. —
Jurassic bivalved molluscs are plentiful in the W.
Australian limestones, as at Greenough River.
Amongst others may be mentioned Cucullaea semi-
striata, Ostrea, Gryphaea, Trigonia moorei (Fig. 93
D), Pecten cinctus, Ctenostreon pectiniforme and
Astarte cliftoni (Fig. 93 E). Several of the species
found are identical with European Jurassic fossils.
Jurassic strata in Victoria, being of a fresh-
water and lacustrine nature, yield only species of
TJnio, as TJ. dacombei, and TJ. stirlingi.
The Jurassic beds of S. Australia contain a species
of TJnio named TJ. eyrensis. In the same strata which
contains this shell, plant remains are found, as
Cladophlebis and Thinnfeldia, two well-known types
of Jurassic ferns.
Ml VALVES.
183
Lower Cretaceous Bivalves. —
In Queensland the Lower Cretaceous limestones
and marls contain a large assemblage of bivalves,
the more important of which are Nucula truncata
(Fig. 94 A ), Maccoyella reflecta (Fig. 94 B), M.
barkleyi, Pecti n socialis and FissHuntila clarkei (Fig.
94 C), from Wollumbilla : and Inoceramus pernoides,
Pig. 94— CRETACEOUS BIVALVES.
A— Nucula truncata, Moore. Iy. Cretaceous. South Australia
B — Maccoyella reflecta, Moore sp. Up. and I,. Cretaceous. Q'lancL
C— Fissilunula clarkei, Moore sp. Up. and I,. Cretaceous. Q'land.
D — Inoceramus carsoni, McCoy. X,. Cretaceous. Queensland
K — Cyrenopsis opallites. Kth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. New South Wales
F— Conch othyra parasitica, Hutton. Cretaceous. New Zealand
/. carsoni and Amelia hughendenensis from the Flin-
der's River (the latter also from New South Wales).
In the Lake Eyre District of S. Australia we find
Maccoyella ~bar~kleyi, which also occurs in Queensland
and New South Wales (at White Cliffs), Trigonia
cinctuta, Mytilus rugocostatus and Modiola eyrensis.
The handsome bivalve, Pleuromya plana occurs near
Broome in W. Australia.
18-4 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Upper Cretaceous Bivalves.—
The Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone at Mary-
borough, Queensland, has yielded amongst others,
the following shells : — Nucula gigantea, Maccoy-
ella reflecta (also found in the Lower Cretaceous of
•Queensland, New South Wales and S. Australia), and
Fissilunula clarkei (also found in the L. Cretaceous
of New South Wales, Queensland and S. Australia).
Some of these beds, however, which were hitherto
believed to belong to the Upper and Lower Series
respectively may yet prove to be on one horizon — the
Lower Cretaceous. Cyrenopsis opallites (Fig. 94 E)
of White Cliffs, New South Wales, appears to be a
truly restricted Upper Cretaceous species.
The Cretaceous of New Zealand (Amuri System)
■contains Trigonia sulcata, Inoceramus sp. and the
•curious, contorted shell, Conchothyra parasitica (Fig.
94 F) which is related to ■ Pugnellus, a form usually
considered as a subgenus of Strombus.
From Papua an Inoceramus has been recorded from
probable Cretaceous beds.
Cainozoic Bivalves. —
In Victoria, South Australia, and the N.W. of Tas-
mania, as well as in New Zealand, Cainozoic marine
b>eds are well developed, and contain an extensive
bivalved molluscan fauna. Of these fossils only a
few common and striking examples can here be
noticed, on account of the limits of the present work.
The commonest genera are: — Ostrea, Placunanomia,
Dimya, Spondylus, Lima, Pecten, Area, Barbatia,
Plagiarca, Cucullaea, Glycimeris, Limopsis, Nucula,
Leda, Trigonia, Cardita, Cuna, Crassatellitp.s, Car-
BIVALVES. 185
fig. 95— CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.
A— Dimya dissimilis, Tate. Balcombian. Victoria
B— Spondylus pseud oradula, McCoy. Balcombian. Victoria
C— Pecten polymorph oides, Zittel. Janjukian. South Australia
D — Iyedavagans. Tate. Janjukian. South Australia
K— Modiola praerupta, Pritchard. Balcombian. Victoria
diam, Protocardium, Chama, Meretrix, Venus
(Chione), Dosinea, Gari, Mactra, Corbula, Lucina,
Tellina, Semele and Myodora.
Persistent Species. —
To mention a few species of persistent range, from
Balcombian to Kalimnan, we may cite the following
from the Cainozoic of southern Australia: — Dimya
dissimilis (Fig. 95 A), Spondylus pseudoradula (Fig.
95 B), Lima (Limatula) jeffreysiana, Pecten poly-
morphoides (found also in the Oamaru Series, New
Zealand) (Fig. 95 C), Am-usium zitteli (found also in
both the Waimangaroa and Oamaru Series of New
Zealand), Barbatia celleporacea, Cucullaea corioensis,
Limopsis maccoyi, Nucula tenisoni, Leda vagans (Fig.
95 D), Corbula ephamilla and Myodora tenuilirata.
186
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Balcombian Bivalves. —
On the other hand, many species have a restricted
range, and these are invaluable for purposes of strati-
graphical correlation. For example, in the Balcom-
bian we have Modiola praerupta (Fig. 95 E), Modio-
laria balcombei, Cuna regularis, Cardium cuculloidesT
Cryptodon mactraeformis, Vertieordia pectinata and
V. excavata.
Pig. 96-CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.
A— Modiola pueblensis Pritchard. Janjukian. Victoria
B— Cardita tasmanica, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania
C — I.ucina planatella, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania
D— Ostrea manubriata. Tate. Kalimnan. Victoria
E— L,imopsis beaumariensis, Chap. Kalimnan. Victoria
F— Venus (Chione) subroborata, Tate sp. Kalimnan. Victoria
Janjukian Bivalves. —
In the Janjukian Series restricted forms of bivalves
are exceptionally numerous, amongst them being: —
Dirnya sigillata, Plicatula ramulosa, Lima polynema,
Pecten praecAirsor, P. eyrei, P. gambierensis, Pinna
cordata, Modiola pueblensis (Fig. 96 A), Area dis-
BIVALVES. 187
similis, Limopsis multiradiata, L. insolita, Leda lep-
torhyncha, L. crebrecostata, Cardita maudensis, C.
tasmanica (Fig. 96 B), Cuna radiata, Lepton crassum,
Cardium pseudomagnum, Venus (Chione) multi-
taeniata, Solenocurtus legrandi, Lucina planatella
(Fig. 96 C), Tellina porrecta and Myodora lamellata.
In Papua a Pecten (P. novaeguineae) has been re-
corded from the 1 Lower Pliocene of Yule Island.
Kalimnan Bivalves. —
The Kalimnan beds contain the following
restricted or upward ranging species: — Ostrea
arenicola, 0. manubriata (Fig. 96 D), Pecten
antiaustralis (also in the Werrikooian Series),
Perna percrassa, Mytilus hamiltonensis, Glycimeris
halli, Limopsis beaumariensis (also Werrikooian)
(Fig. 96 E), Leda crassa (also living), Trigonia
howitti, Cardita solida, C. calva (also living),
Erycina micans, Meretrix paucirugata, Sunetta gib-
berula, Venus (Chione) subroborata (Fig. 96 F),
Donax depressa, Corbula scaphoides (also living),
Barnea tiara, Lucina affinis, Tellina albinelloides and
Myodora corrugata.
Werrikooian Bivalves. —
The next stage, the Werrikooian (Upper Pliocene),
contains a large percentage of living species, as Ostrea
angasij Placunanomia ione (ranging down into Jan-
jukian), Glycimeris radians, Leda crassa (also a com-
mon Kalimnan fossil), various species of Venus
(Chione), as V. strigosa and V. placida, and Barnea
australasiae.
188
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Pleistocene Bivalves. —
The bivalved shells of the Pleistocene are similar to
those now found living round the Australian coast,
as Pecten asperrimus, Mytilus latus, Leda crass®,
Soletellina biradiata and Spisula parva.
Pleistocene shells of bivalved genera occur in the
coastal hills of Papua, including the following : — Cul-
tellus, Corbula, Mactra, Tellina, Venus iCkione),
Dione, Dosinea, Leda and Area.
The SCAPHOPODS ("digger foot") or the "Ele-
plant-tusk shells" are adapted, by their well-
developed foot, to burrow into the mud and sand.
rig. 97- FOSSIL SCAPHOPODS and CHITONS.
A — Deutalium huttoiii, Bather. Jurassic. New Zealand
B — Dentalium mantelli, Zittel. Cainozoic. Victoria
C— Chelodes calceoloides, Kth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales
D-Ischnochiton granulosus, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic (Bale).
Victoria
K — Cryptoplax pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic (Kalimnan). Victoria
CHITONS. 189
Devonian Scaphopods. —
This group of molhisca makes its first appearance
in Australasian sediments in the Middle Devonian
(Murrumhidgee beds) of New South Wales, repre-
sented by Dentalium tenuissirnum.
Jurassic Scaphopods. —
In the Jurassic strata of the Mataura Series of New
Zealand, Dentalium huttoni (Fig. 97 A) occurs at
the Kowhai River and Wilberforce.
Cretaceous Scaphopods. —
Dentalium wollumbillensis occurs in the drab and
dark-coloured limestones of the Lower Cretaceous
of the Lake Byre Basin in S. Australia, and the same
species is also found in the Lower Cretaceous (Roll-
ing Downs Formation) of Wollumbilla, Queensland.
Gainozoie Scaphopods. —
The Cainozoic beds both of New Zealand and south-
ern Australia yield many species of Dentalium, the
commonest and most widely distributed being the
longitudinally ribbed D. mantelli (Fig. 97 B), which
ranges from the Balcombian to the TVerrikooian
stages in Australia, and is also typical of the Oamaru
Series in New Zealand, where it is accompanied by
the ponderous species, D. gigantenm, which attained
a length of over six inches. Another form common
in our Cainozoics is the smooth-shelled D. subfissura;
this also has a wide range, namely Balcombian to
Kalimnan.
Palaeozoic Chitons. —
The POLYPLACOPHORA or Chitons ("Mail-
shells"), first appeared in the Ordovician. In Austra-
190 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
lia Chelodes calceoloides (Fig. 97 C) is found in the
Silurian of Derrengullen Creek, Yass, New South
Wales; and another species of the genus is found in
beds of the same age at Lilydale, Victoria. Between
that period and the Cainozoic or Tertiary there is a
gap in their history in Australia.
Cainozoic Chitons. —
Ischnochiton granulosus (Fig. 97 D) is a Bal-
combian species of the modern type of ' ' mail-shell, ' '
occurring not infrequently in the clays of Balcombe's
Bay, Port Phillip, Victoria. Cryptoplax pritchardi
(Fig. 97 B) is a curious form belonging to the atten-
uated, worm-like group of the Cryptoplacidae, until
lately unknown in the fossil state; it is found in the
Kalimnan Series near Hamilton, Victoria. Several
other genera of the chitons are found fossil in the
Australian Cainozoics which still live on our coasts,
as Lorica, Plaxiphora and Chiton. The first-named
genus is represented fossil by Lorica duniana from
the Turrit ella bed (Janjukian) of Table Cape, Tas-
mania.
Characters of Gasteropoda. —
The GASTEROPODA ("belly-foot") or univalve
shells possess a muscular foot placed beneath the
stomach and viscera. In the Heteropoda this foot is
modified as a vertical fin, and in the Pteropoda as
two wing-like swimming membranes close to the head.
The mantle lobe is elevated along the back like a
hood, and its surfaces and edges secrete the shell
which contains the animal. The shell is typically a
cone (example, Patella or Limpet) which is often
GASTEROPODS. 191
spirally coiled either in a plane (ex. Planorbis), coni-
eally turbinoid (ex. Trockus), or turreted (ex.
Turritella). The body and shell are attached by
muscles, the spiral forms being attached to the colum-
ella or axial pillar, and the bowl-shaped forms to the
inner surface of the shell.
Gasteropod shells are normally right-handed
(dextral), but a few genera as Clausilia, Bulinus
and Physa, are left-handed (sinistral). The
height or length of the shell is measured from
the apex to the lower margin of the mouth.
In coiled shells we may regard them as a
more or less elongated cone wound round a cen-
tral pillar, the columella, or around a central tube.
A turn or coil of the shell is a whorl, and together,
with the exception of the last, form the spire. The
line between two adjacent whorls is the suture. When
the columella is solid the shell is said to be imperfor-
ate, and when a central tube is left by the imperfect
fusion of the whorls, it is perforate. The opening of
the tubular columella is termed the umbilicus, and
this is sometimes contracted by the encroachment of
shell matter termed the callus. The aperture is
entire when the rim is uninterrupted ; and channelled
when there is a basal notch, where the siphon which
conducts water to the gills is lodged.
As a rule the large heavy gasteropods inhabit
shallow water. The following living genera are
characteristic of rocky shore-lines ; Risella, Buccinum,
Purpura and Patella. Genera typical of sandy
shores are Nassa, Natica, Cypraea, Turritella and
Scala.
192
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Cambrian Gasteropods. —
Prom the Cambrian of South Australia Prof. Tate
described some minute Gasteropods which he referred
to the genera Stenotheca (8. rugosa, var. paupera),
Ophileta (0. subangulata) (Fig. 98 A), and Platy-
ceras (P. etheridgei) . In these beds at Curra-
mulka the following Pteropods were found by the
same authority, viz., Salterella planoconvexa, Hyo-
lithes communis (Fig. 98 C) and H. conularioides.
The Cumbrian Limestone of the Kimberley District,
W. Australia, contains the characteristic Pteropod
Salterella hardmani (Fig. 98 B). The shell is a
conical tube, straight or slightly curved, and measur-
ing scarcely an inch in length.
Pig. 98-LOWER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.
A— Ophileta subangulata, Tate. Cambrian. South Australia
B— Salterella hardmani, Foord. Cambria n. West Australia
C — Hyolithes communis. Billings. Cambrian. South Australia
D— Scenella tenuistriata, Chapm. Cambrian Victoria
E- Raphistoma browni Eth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia
F— Helicotoma johnstoni. Eth. fil. Silurian. Tasmania
GASTEROPODS. 193
The Upper Cambrian of the Mersey River District
in Tasmania has afforded some doubtful examples of
the genus Ophileta.
In the Upper Cambrian Limestones of the Dolo-
drook Valley, near Mt. Wellington, Victoria, a minute
limpet shaped G-asteropod occurs, named Scenella
tenuistriata (Fig. 98 D).
Ordovician Gasteropods. —
Ordovician limestones with fossil shells occur in
the Leigh's Creek District in South Australia, and
also at Tempe Downs and Petermann and Laurie's
Creeks, W. of Alice Springs. The euomphaloid
shell Ophileta gilesi was described from Laurie's
Creek, and Eunema larapinta from the Tempe Downs.
A pleurotomarid, Rapliistoma brotvni (Fig. 98)
occurs near Leigh's Creek, and at Laurie's and Peter-
mann Creeks. A Pteropod, Hyolitkes leptns. has
been described from the Lower Ordovician of Coole
Barghurk Creek, near Meredith, Victoria.
Silurian Gasteropods.—
The Silurian Gasteropods are fairly well repre-
sented, especially in the upper stage, and are widely
distributed throughout the Australian fossiliferous
localities. Moreover, some of the species are
identical with those found as far off as North
America and Europe. In Victoria the shales and
sandstones of the lower stage (Melbournian) contain
the genera Bellerophon, Cyrtolites and Loxonema.
The Pteropoda include Tentaculites, Coleolus, Hyo-
lithes and Conularia (C. sowerbii (Fig. 99 F), a
species also found in Great Britain). The Victorian
limestones and mudstones of the upper stage (Yering-
194 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 99— SILURIAN GASTEROPODA.
A— Hyolithes spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
B -Gyrodoma etheridgei, Cressw sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Vict.
C— Bellerophon cresswelli. Kth. fill. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
D— Kuomphalus northi, Kth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
E— Trochonema montgomerii. Kth. fil. so. Silurian. Tasmania
F— Conularia sowerbii, Defr. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
ian) are somewhat rich in Gasteropods, such genera
occurring as Pleurotomaria, Phanerotrema (with can-
cellated shell and large slit-band), Murchisonia,
Gyrodoma, Bellerophon, Trematonotus (a spiral shell
with a large trumpet-shaped mouth and a dorsal row
of perforations in place of a slit-band), Euomphalus,
Cyclonema, Trochus (Scalaetrochus), Niso (Veto-
tuba), Loxonema, Platyceras and Capulus. The
section Pteropoda contains Tentaculites, Hyolithes
and Conularia.
In the Silurian of New South Wales the chief
Gasteropod genera are Bellerophon (B. jukesi),
Euomphalus, Omphalotrochus, and Conularia (C.
sowerbii.) .
GASTEROPODS.
195
In Tasmania are found Raphiskoma, Murchisonia,
Bellerophon, Helicotoma, Trochonema and Tenta-
culites.
Devonian Gasteropods. —
The derived boulders of the White Cliffs opal field
have been referred to the Devonian system, but of
this there is some doubt, as the Gasteropods noted
from these boulders closely resemble those of the
Silurian fauna: they are Murchisonia Euomphalus
(E. culleni), and Loxonema. The genus Murchisonia
has also been recorded from the Baton River, New
Zealand (Wangepeka Series) by MacKay.
The Middle Devonian Gasteropod fauna in Vic-
toria, as found in the Buchan and Bindi Limestones,
comprises Murchisonia, Trochus, and Platyceras.
Fig. 100— UPPER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.
A — Gosseletina australis, Eth. fil. sp. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
B — Yvania konincki, Eth. fil Carboniferous. N.S.Wales
C — Iyoxonema babbindoonensis, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
D— Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana, McCoy. Carboper-
mian. N.S. Wales
I$— Platyschisma oculum, Sow. sp. Carbopermian. N.S.Wales
F— Murchisonia carinata, Eth. Carbopermian. Queensland
11)6 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
In New South Wales the best known genera are
Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Bellerophon, Euom-
phalus and Loxonema. The two latter genera have
also been obtained at Barker Gorge, Western Austra-
lia.
Carboniferous Gasteropods. —
Carboniferous Gasteropoda have been found in New
South Wales, belonging to the genera Gosseletina (6r.
australis) (Fig. 100 A) and Yvania (Y. konincki)
(Fig. 100 B), both of which have their countertypes
in the Carboniferous of Belgium. Y. konincki is
also found in the Carbopermian (Gympie beds) of
Rockhampton, Queensland, while Y. levellii is found
in the Carbopermian of Western Australia.
Carbopermian Gasteropods. —
The Carbopermian gasteropods of New South Wales
are Pleurotomaria (Mourlonia), Keeneia platyschis-
moides, Murchisonia, Euomphalus, Platyschisma (P.
oculum) (Fig. 100 E), Loxonema and Macrocheilus.
Examples of the genus Conularia are sometimes
found, probably attaining a length, when complete, of
40 centimetres.
In Tasmania we find Conularia tasmanica, a hand-
some Pteropod, also of large dimensions. Platy-
schisma, Pleurotomaria (Mourlonia), Bellerophon
and Porcellia are amongst the Carbopermian Gastero-
pods of Queensland.
In Western Australia Pleurotomaria (Mourlonia)r
Bellerophon, Euomphalus, Euphemus, Platyceras,
and Loxonema occur in the Carbopermian.
Jurassic Gasteropods. —
Jurassic gasteropods are found sparingly in the
GASTBROPODS. 197
fig. 101-MESOZOIC GASTEROPODA.
A ENLARGED
ENLARGED ' ..■*£.,. •
A— Turbo australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia
B— Rissoina australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia
C — Natica ornatissima. Moore. Cretaceous. Queensland
D — Pseudamaura variabilis, Moore sp. Cretaceous. Queensland
K~Rostel1aria waiparensis. Hector. Cretaceous. New Zealand
limestone of the Geraldton District and other loca-
lities in "Western Australia. The more important of
these are Pleurotomaria (P. greenoughiensis) , Turbo
(T. australis) (Fig. 101 A) and Rissoina (R. austra-
lis) (Fig. 101 B).
Cretaceous Gasteropods. —
The Queensland gasteropod fauna comprises
Cinulia a typical Cretaceous genus, Actaeon and
Natica. These occur in the Lower Cretaceous or
Eolling Downs Formation. Cinulia is also found in
South Australia at Lake Eyre with Natica (N. orna-
tissima) (Fig. 101 C). Pseudamaura variabilis (Fig.
101 D) is found in New South Wales, Queensland and
South Australia ; whilst Anchura wilkinsoni occurs in
Queensland and South Australia.
198 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
In New Zealand the Waipara Greensands (Cretace-
ous) contain a species of Rostellaria (R. waiparensis)
(Fig. 101 E).
Oainozoic Gasteropods. —
Cainozoic Gasteropods are exceedingly abundant in
beds of that system in Australasia. The Cainozoic
marine fauna in Australia is practically restricted to
the States of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania ;
whilst New Zealand has many species in common with
Australia.
Genera. —
The commonest genera of the marine Cainozoic or
Tertiary deposits are : — Haliotis, Fissurellidea, Emar-
ginula, Subemarginula, Astralium, Liotia. Gibbula,
Eulima, Niso, Odostomia, Scala, Solarium, Crepidula,
Calyptraea, Natica, Rissoa, Turrit ella, Siliquaria,
Cerithium, Newtoniella, Tylospira, Cypraea, Trivia,
Morio, Semicassis, Lotorium, Murex, Typhis, Colum-
bella, Phos, Nassa, Siphonalia, Euthria (Dennantia),
Fusus, Columbarium, Fasciolaria, Latirus, Margin-
ella, Mitra, Volutilithes, Voluta, Harpa, Ancilla, Can-
cellaria, Terebra, Pleurotoma, Drillia, Conns, Bullin-
ella and Vaginella.
Persistent Species. —
Amongst the Cainozoic Gasteropoda of southern
Australia which have a persistent range through
Balcombian to Kalimnan times, we find: — Niso psila,
Crepidula unguiformis (also Werrikooian and Re-
cent), Natica perspectiva, N. hamiltonensis, Turri-
tella murrayana, Cerithium, apheles, Cypraea lepto-
rhyncha, Lotorium gibbum, Volutilithes antiscalaris
GASTEROPODS.
199
(also in Werrikooian), Marginella propinqua, Ancilla
pseudaustralis, Conns ligatns and Bullinella exigua.
Balcombian Gasteropods. —
Species restricted to the Balcombian stage include
Scala dolicho, Seguenzia radialis, Dissocheilus ebar-
neu's, Trivia erugala, Cypraea ampullacea (Fig.
102 A), C. gastroplax, Colubraria Icptoskeles, Murex
didymus (Fig. 102 B), Ebiirnopsis aulacoessa (Fig.
102 C), Fasciolaria concinna, Mitra uniplica, Harpa
Pig. 102— CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.
A — Cypraea ampullacea, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) Victoria
B— Murex didymus, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) Victoria
C — Eburnopsis aulacoessa, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) Victoria
D — Cancellaria calvulata, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) Victoria
K — Vaginella eligmostoma, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) Victoria
abbreviata, Ancilla lanceolata, Cancellaria calvulata
(Fig. 102 D), Buchozia oblongula, Pleurotoma optata,
Terebra leptospira and Vaginella eligmostoma (Fig.
102 E), (also found at Gellibrand River).
200 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
fig. 103— CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.
A — Kutrochus fontinalis, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Vict.
B — Morio wilsoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria
C — Scala lampra, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia
D— Natica gibbosa, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia
E — Volutilithes anticingulatus, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
Victoria
F— Struthiolaria sulcata, Hutton. Cainozoic ( A watere series). New
Zealand
Janjukian Gasteropods. —
Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Janjukian
stage include : — Pleurotomaria tertiaria, Haliotis
mooraboolensis, Liotia lamellosa, Thalotia alternate/,,
Eutrochus fontinalis (Fig. 103 A), Astralhim hud-
sonianum, Turbo atkinsoni, Odostomia polita, Scala
lampra (Fig. 103C), Natica gibbosa (Fig. 103D) (also
found in the Pareora Series of the Oamaru system
and in the Wanganui beds of New Zealand), Calyp-
traea subtabnlata, Turritella aldingae, Cerithiopsis
mulderiy Cerithium flerningtonense, Cypraea platy-
rhyncha, C. consobrina, Morio wilsoni (Fig. 103 B),
Lotorium abbotti, Murex otwayensis, Eburnopsis
GASTEROPODS.
201
iesselatus, Tudicla costata, Latirus semiundulatus,
Fusus meredithae, Columbarium spiniferum, Voluta
pueblensis, V. heptagonalis, V. macroptera (also re-
corded from Hairs Sound, Papua) (Fig. 103 B),
Volutilithes anticingulatus (also from Papua), Harpa
elafhrata, Bela woodsi, Bathytoma paracantha and
Volvulella inflatior.
Dolium costatum, allied to the "Fig-Shell" has
been noted from the Cainozoic clays ( ? Lower Plio-
cene), Yule Island, Papua.
fig. 104— LATE CAINOZOIC and PLEISTOCENE GASTEROPODA
A — Bankivia howitti, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
B — Eglisia triplicata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
C — Voluta masoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
D— Ancilla papillata. Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
K — Terebra geniculata, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
F— -Helix simsoniana, Johnston. Pleistocene. Tasmania
Kalimnan Gasteropods. —
Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Kalimnan
stage, or only passing upwards include: — Bankivia
howitti (Fig. 104 A), Liopyrga quadricingulata,
€alyptraea corrugata, Natica subvarians, Turritella
202 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
pagodula, Eglisia triplicata (Fig. 104 B), Tylospira
clathrata, Cypraea jonesiana, Lotorium ovoideumr
Sistrum subreticulatum, Voluta masoni (Fig. 104 C),
Ancilla papillata (Fig. 104D), Cancellaria wannonen-
sis, Drillia wanganuiensis (also in the Petane Series
of New Zealand), Terebra catenifera, T. geniculate-
(Fig. 104 E) and Ringicula tatei.
New Zealand Cainozoic Gasteropods. —
Characteristic Gasteropoda of the Oamaru Series
in New Zealand are Pleurotomaria tertiaria (also in
the Australian Janjukian), Scala lyrata, Natica dar-
winii, Turrit ella caver sham ensis, Ancilla hebera (also-
in the Australian Balcombian and Janjukian) and
Pleurotoma hamiltoni. Gasteropods of the Awatere
Series in New Zealand are Natica ovata, Striithiolaria
sulcata (Fig. 103 F), and Scaphella corrugata (found
also in the Oamaru Series). The Putiki beds of the
Petane Series in New Zealand contain Trophon
expansus, Pisania dreivi and Pleurotoma wanganuien-
sis.
Werrikooian Gasteropods. —
The marine gasteropods of the Werrikooian of
southern Australia, as found at Limestone Greek,
Glenelg River, Western Victoria, and the Moorabool
Viaduct near Geelong, are nearly all living at the
present time, with the exception of a few older
Cainozoic species. Amongst these latter are Conus
ralphi, Pleurotoma murnclaliana, Volutilithes antis-
calaris and Columbarium craspedotum.
Pleistocene Gasteropoda. —
The Pleistocene land mollusca, and especially the
gasteropods of Australia, present some striking
GASTEROPODS. 203
points of interest, for whilst most of the species
are still living, some appear to be extinct. The
travertine deposits of Geilston, near Hobart, Tas-
mania contain Helix geilstonensis and II. Stanley ana,.
the latter still living. The calcareous Helix sand-
stone of the islands in Bass Strait are largely com-
posed of shells of that genns and generally represent
consolidated sand-dnnes which have undergone a
certain amount of elevation. One of the preva-
lent species is Helix simsoniana (Fig. 104 F), a hand-
some keeled form, somewhat related to the living H.
launcestonensis. It is found in some abundance in
the Kent's Group and in the adjacent islands.
The large ovoid land-shells, Panda atomata, al-
though still existing, are found associated with ex-
tinct marsupials, as Thylacoleo, in the stalagmitic
floor of the Buchan Caves, Gippsland.
The ZWprofodow-breccias of Queensland have
afforded several species of Helix and other land-shells,
as well as the brackish-water genus Melania. The
Raised Beaches of Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and Tasmania all contain species of land
and freshwater shells identical with those now found
living in the same localities.
The Raised Beaches of New Zealand contain numer-
ous marine shells all having living representatives.
Some of these elevated beaches occur as high as 150
feet above sea-level at Taranaki, and at 200 feet near
Cape Palliser in Cook Strait.
Many species of Pleistocene Mollusca identical with
"•"hose now living in Torres Strait, the China Sea and
the Philippine Islands are found in Papua. They
204 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
occur in the greenish sandy clay of the hills near the
present coast line and comprise the following genera
of Gasteropods: — Ranella, Nassa, Mitra, Oliva, Tere-.
bra, ConuSy 8 trombus, Bulla and Atys.
Characters of Cephalopoda. —
The highest class of the mollusca is the CEPHALO-
PODA ("head-feet"). In these shell-fish the ex-
tremity of the body or foot is modified, and furnished
with eyes, a funnel and tentacles. It has also strong
horny beaks or jaws which make it a formidable
enemy to the surrounding life in the sea. In the
chambered forms of this group the animal partitions
off its shell at regular intervals, like the Pearly
Nautilus and the Ammonite, inhabiting only the last
chamber cavity, but still communicating with the
earlier series by a continuous spiral tube (siphuncle).
In some forms like the living squid and the extinct
Belemnite, the shell is internal and either spoon-
shaped, or dart-shaped, that is, subcylindrical and
pointed.
Characters of Cephalopod Shells. — Nautiloidea.—
In geological times the nautiloid forms were the
first to appear (in the Ordovician), and they were
-either straight shells, as Orthoceras, or only slightly
curved, as Cyrtoceras. Later on they became more
closely coiled, and as they were thus less likely to be
damaged, they gradually replaced the straight forms.
The Ammonites have the siphuncle close to the out-
side of the shell, whilst in the Nautilus it is more or
less median. The sutures or edges of the septa in
Nautilus and its allies are curved or wavy, but not so
sharply flexed or foliaceous as in Ammonites. The
CEPHALOPODS. 205
Nautiloidea range from the Ordovician and are still
found living.
Ammonoidea. —
The Ammonoidea appear in Devonian times and die
out in the Cretaceous. They were very abundant in
Jurassic times, especially in Europe.
Belemnoidea. —
The Belemnoidea, ranging from the Trias to Eocene,
comprise the extinct Belemnites, the interesting genus
Spirulirostra of Miocene times, and the living Spirilla.
Sepioidea. —
The Sepioidea or true Cuttle-fishes ("pen-and-ink
fish") range from the Trias to the present day.
Octopoda. —
The Octopoda, with Octopus and Argonauta (the
paper "Nautilus'') are present-day modifications.
The male of the latter is without a shell, the female
only being provided with a delicate boat-shaped shell
secreted by the mantle and the two fin-like expansions
of the dorsal arms.
Ordovician Cephalopods. —
The Ordovician cephalopods of Australasia are not
numerous, and are, so far as known, practically re-
stricted to the limestones of the Larapintine series at
Laurie's Creek and Tempe Downs, in Central South
Australia. Amongst them may be mentioned Endo-
ceras warburtoni (Fig. 105 A), (a straight form in
which the siphuncle is partially filled with organic
deposits) ; Orthoceras gossei; 0. ibiciforme; Trocko-
ceras reticostatum (a coiled form) ; and Actinoceras
tatei (a genus characterised by swollen siphuncular
beads between the septa).
206 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 105— PALAEOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.
A — Endoceras warburtoni Kth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia
B-Orthoceras lineare, Miinstersp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
C — Cycloceras ibex, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
D — Phragmocerassubtrigonum, McCoy. Mid Devonian. Victoria
E — Gastrioceras jack sou i. Eth. fil. Carbopermian. W.Australia
F — Agathiceras micromphalum, Morris sp. Cai bopermian. N.S.W.
Silurian Cephalopods. —
Silurian cephalopods are more generally distri-
buted, and in Victoria constitute an important factor
in the molluscan fauna of that system. Orthoceras
and Cycloceras are the best known genera, represented
by Orthoceras capillosum, found near Kilmore, Vic-
toria; 0. lineare (Fig. 105 B), from the Upper Yarra ;
Cycloceras bullatam, from the Melbournian of Col-
lingwood and Whittlesea; and C. ibex (Fig. 105 C)
from South Yarra and Flemington, in both Mel-
bournian shale and sandstone. The latter species
occurs also at Rock Flat Creek, New South Wales.
Other Victorian species are Kionoceras striatopuncta-
tum, a well-known European fossil with a reticulated
CEPHALOPODS. 207
and beaded ornament, found near Warburton and at
McMahon's Creek, Upper Yarra.
Orthoceras is also recorded from Tasmania and
from the Wangapeka beds of Baton Kiver, New Zea-
land. Cycloliiuites, a partially coiled nautilian is
recorded from Bowning, near Yass, New South Wales ;
whilst the closely related Lituites is noted from the
Silurian of Tasmania.
Devonian Cephalopods. —
The only genus of cephalopoda at present recorded
from the Devonian of Victoria is Phragmoceras (P.
subtrigonum) (Fig. 105 D), whicli occurs in the
Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan, E. Gippsland.
From beds of similar age in New South Wales Ortho-
ceras, Cyrtoceras and Goniatites have been noted;
whilst the latter genus also occurs near Kimberley,
Western Australia. In Queensland Gyroceras philpi
is a characteristic shell, found in the Fanning and
Heid Gap Limestones of the Burdekin Formation
(Middle Devonian).
Carbopermian Cephalopods. —
The Carbopermian rocks of New South Wales have
yielded Orthoceras striatum, Cameroceras, Nautilus
and Agathiceras micromphalum (Fig. J05F). In
Queensland the Gympie Formation contains Ortho-
ceras, Gyroceras, Nautilus, Agathiceras micrompha-
lum and A. planorbiforme. In Western Australia
the Kimberley rocks contain Orthoceras, Glyphio-
ceras sphaericum and Agathiceras micromphalum;
whilst the largest known Australian goniatite, Gastrio-
ceras jacksoni (Fig. 105 E) is found in the Irwin
Eiver District. Actinoceras hardmani is an interest-
208
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
ing fossil from the Carbopermian of Lennard Riverr
N.W. Australia. In Tasmania the genera Orthoceras
and Goniatites have been recorded from beds of simi-
lar age.
Triassic Cephalopods. —
For Triassic cephalopoda we look to New Zealand,
where, in the Mount Potts Spiriferina Beds of the
Kaihiku Series a species of Orthoceras has been re-
corded. The Wairoa Series next in succession con-
tains Orthoceras and an Ammonite.
Jurassic Cephalopods. —
The Jurassic of Western Australia yields a rich
cephalopod fauna, from which may be selected as
Pig. 106-MESOZOIC and CAINOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.
A — Perisphinctes championensis, Crick. Jurassic. West Australia
B— Nautilus hendersoni, Eth. fil. Iy. Cretaceous. Queensland
C — Haploceras daintreei, Kth. sp. I,. Cretaceous. Queensland
D— Crioceras australe, Moore. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
E — Aturia australis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria
F— Spirulirostra curta, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria
CEPHALOPODS. 209
typical examples the Nautilus, N. perornatus and the
following Ammonites : Dorsetensia clarkei; Nor-
manites australis; and Perisphinctes championensis
(Fig. 106 A). These all occur in the Greenough
River District, and at several other Jurassic localities
in Western Australia.
The Jurassic system of New Zealand (Putataka
Series) contains Ammonites aucklandicus and Belem-
nites aucklandicus, both from the upper marine hori-
zon of that series.
Upper Jurassic Ammonites belonging to the genera
Macrocephalites (M. cf. calloviensis) and Erymno-
ceras (E. cf. coronation) have been recorded from
Papua.
Lower Cretaceous Cephalopods. —
Remains of Cephalopoda are fairly abundant in the
Lower Cretaceous of Australasia. From amongst
them may be selected the following — Nautilus hender-
soni (Fig. 106 B) (Q.) ; Haploceras daintreei (Fig.
106 C)) (Q. and N.S.W.) ; Desmoceras flindersi (Q.
and N.S.W.) ; Schloenbachia inflatus (Q.) ; Scaphites
eruciformis (N.Terr.) ; Ancyloceras flindersi (Q. and
N.S.W.); Crioceras australe (Fig. 106 D) (Q. and
S.A.) ; Belemites australis (Q.) ; B. oxys (Q., N.S.W.,
and S.A.) ; B. sellheimi (Q. and S.A.) • B. diptycha,
^canhami, Tate, (Q., N.S.W., and S.A.) ; and B.
eremos (Centr. S.A.)- ».
Upper Cretaceous Cephalopods. —
In the Upper Cretaceous (Desert Sandstone) of
Queensland there occurs a Belemnite somewhat re-
sembling Belemnites diptycha, but with a very pointed
apex.
210 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Cretaceous Cephalopods, New Zealand. —
In New Zealand the Amuri System (Cretaceous)
contains fossils which have been referred to the genera
Ammonites, B acuities, Hamites, Ancyloceras and
Belemnties, but probably these determinations require
some further revision. A species of Belemnite has
also been noted from probable Cretaceous beds in
Papua.
The Cainozoic System in Victoria contains a true
Nautilus, N. geelongensis; and Aturia australis (Fig.
106 E), a nautiloid shell having zig-zag suture lines
and septal necks enclosing the siphuncle. A. austra-
lis is also found in the Oamaru Series of New Zea-
land; in Victoria it has an extensive vertical range,
from Balcombian to Kalimnan (Oligocene to Lower
Pliocene). Species of Nautilus are also found in the
Janjukian of the Murray River Cliffs; where, in some
cases the shell has been infilled with clear gypsum or
selenite, through which can be seen the tubular siph-
uncle in its original position. Spirulirostra curta
(Fig. 106 F) is an interesting cuttle-bone of rare
occurrence. The genus is represented by two other
species only, occurring in the Miocene of Italy and
Germany. In Victoria it is occasionally found in the
Janjukian marly limestone at Bird Rock near Tor-
quay.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
PELECYPODA.
Ambonychia macroptera, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
(?) Modiolopsis knowsleyensis, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Vic-
toria.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 211
Orthonota australis, Chapm. Silurian ( Melbournian ) : Vic-
toria.
Grammy sia cuneiformis, Eth. fil. Silurian (Melbournian) :
Victoria.
Leptodomus maccoyianus, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian) :
Victoria.
Edmondia perobliqua, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Vic-
toria.
Cardiola cornucopiae, Goldfuss sp. Silurian (Melbournian) :
Victoria.
Panenka gippslandica, McCoy sp. Silurian (Tanjilian) : Vic-
toria.
Ctenodonta portlocki, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Nuculites maccoyianus, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Nucula melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Palaeoneilo victoriae, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Pterinea lineata, Goldfuss. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Lunulicardium antistriatum, Chapm. Silurian (Tanj.) : Vic-
toria.
Gonocardium costatum, Cressw. sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Conocardium davidis, Dun. Silurian: New South Wales.
Actinopteria boydi, Conrad sp. Silurian (Yer. ) : Victoria.
Aviculopecten spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Modiolopsis complanata, Sowerby sp. Silurian (Melb.) : Vic-
toria.
Goniophora australis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Gypricardinia conteocta, Barrande. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Paracyclas siluricus, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Actinopteria australis, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
Lyriopecten gracilis, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
Leptodesma inflatum, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
Stutchburia farleyensis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian : New South
Wales.
Edmondia nobilissima, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New
South Wales.
Deltopecten limaeformis, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania.
Aviculopecten squamuliferus, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales and Tasmania.
Aviculopecten tenuicollis, Dana sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales and W. Australia.
Ghaenomya etheridgei, de Koninck sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales and Queensland.
Maeonia elongata, Dana. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Pachydomus globosus, J. de C. Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland.
Eurydesma cordatum, Morris. Carbopermian: New South
Wales and Queensland.
212 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Unio dunstani, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.
Unionella carnei, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.
Corbicula burrumensis, Eth. fil. Trias: Queensland.
Daonella lommeli, Wissm. sp. Trias: New Zealand..
Mytilus problematicus, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.
Monotis salinaria, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.
Cucullaea semistriata, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Trigonia moorei, Lycett. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Ctenostreon pectiniforme, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Aus-
tralia.
Astarte cliftoni, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Unio dacombei, McCoy. Jurassic: Victoria.
Unio eyrensis, Tate. Jurassic: S. Australia.
Nucula truncata, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland
and S. Australia.
Maccoyella reflecta, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South
Wales, Queensland (also U. Cretaceous), and S. Australia.
Maccoyella barkleyi, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South
Wales, Queensland and S. Australia.
Fissilunula clarkei, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South
Wales, Queensland, and S. Australia; also Up. Cret. in
Queensland and South Australia.
Inoceramus carsoni, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Trigonia cinctuta, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.
Mytilus rugocostatus, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland
and S. Australia.
Cyrenopsis opallites, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South
Wales.
Conchothyra parasitica, Hutton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Dimya dissimilis, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Victoria and
South Australia.
Spondylus pseudoradula, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) :
Victoria and South Australia.
Pecten polymorphoides, Zittel. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Vic-
toria and South Australia; also New Zealand.
Cucullaea corioensis, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Vic-
toria and South Australia.
Leda vagans, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Aal. ) : Victoria and
South Australia.
Corbula ephamilla, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Victoria
and South Australia.
Modiola praerupta, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Pecten praecursor, Chapm. Cainozoic ( Janjukian) : Victoria.
Modiola pueblensis, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Vic-
toria.
Limopsis insolita, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria
and S. Australia. Also Oamaru Ser., N.Z.).
Cardita tasmanica, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.) : Tasmania.
CHAEACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 213
Lucinu planatella, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.) : Victoria and Tas-
mania.
Peeten novae-guineae, T. Woods. Cainozoic ( ?Lower Pliocene).
Yule Island, Papua.
Ostrea manubriata, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Gtycimeris halli, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Limopsis beaumariensis, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan and
Werrikooian) : Victoria.
Trigonia hoivitti, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Mereirix paucirugata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Venus (Chione) subroborata, Tate, sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) :
Victoria and South Australia.
SCAPHOPODA.
Dental him tenuissimum, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New
South Wales.
Dental him huttoni, Bather. Jurassic: New Zealand.
Dentalium loollumbillensis, Eth. fil. L. Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Dentalhim mantelli, Zittel. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Austra-
lia and New Zealand.
POLYPLACOPHORA.
{Jhelodes calceoloides, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Ischnochiton granulosus, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic
(Bale.) : Victoria.
Lorica duniana, Hull. Cainozoic ( Janjukian) : Tasmania.
Crypt o place pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
GASTEROPODA.
Ophileta subangulata, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Platyeeras etheridgei, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Salterella planoconvexa, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
J3 alter ella- hardmani, Foord. Cambrian: W. Australia.
Hyolithes communis, Billings. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Scenella tenuistriata, Chapm. Cambrian (Upper) : Victoria.
Ophileta gilesi, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Raphistoma broioni, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Hyolithes leptus, Chapm. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
Helicoioma johnstoni, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Tasmania.
Coleolus (?) aciculum, J. Hall. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Hyolithes spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Conularia ornatissima, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) : Victoria.
Phanerotrcma australis, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer. ) : Victoria.
Gyrodoma etheridgei, Cressw. sp. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Trematonotus pritchardi, Cressw. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Bellerophon cresswelli, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria.
214 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Euomphalus northi, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Cyclonema australis, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.) : Victoria.
Trochonema montgomerii, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian: Tasmania.
Bellerophon jukesii, de Koninck. Silurian: New South Wales.
Conularia sowerbii, Def ranee. Silurian: Victoria and New
South Wales.
Euomphalus culleni, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
Gosseletina australis, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South
Wales.
Yvania konincki, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales;
and Carbopermian : Queensland.
Bellerophon costatus, Sow. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
Mourlonia humilis, de Koninck. Carbopermian: West Aus-
tralia and New South Wales.
Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana, McCoy. Car-
bopermian: New South Wales.
Keeneia platyschismoides, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Lower
Marine) : New South Wales.
Platyschisma oculum, Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New South
Wales and Queensland.
Macrocheilus filosus, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Locconema babbindonensis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New
South Wales.
Conularia tenuistriata, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South
Wales and Queensland.
Conularia tasmanica. . Carbopermian : Tasmania.
Murchisonia carinata, Etheridge. Carbopermian: Queensland.
Pleurotomaria greenoughiensis, Eth. fil. Jurassic: W. Aus-
tralia.
Turbo australis, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Rissoina australis, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Cinulia hochstetteri, Moore. Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
Australia.
Natica omatissima, Moore. Cretaceous: S. Australia.
Pseudamaura variabilis, Moore sp. Cretaceous: New Soutk
Wales, Queensland and S. Australia.
Anchura wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
Australia.
Rostellaria ivaiparensis, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Niso psila, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Victoria and
S. Australia.
Crepidula unguiformis, Lam. Cainozoic (Bale. -Recent) : Vic-
toria and Tasmania.
Natica hamiltonensis, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale. -Recent) : Vic-
toria and South Australia.
Turritella murrayana, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Vic-
toria, S. Australia and Tasmania.
Cerithium apheles, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) : Victoria.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 215
Volutilithes antiscalaris, McCoy sp. Cainozoic ( Balc.-Werri-
kooian) : Victoria.
Aricilla pseudaustralis, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.) :
Victoria, S. Australia and Tasmania.
Cypraea ampullacea, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Murex didyma, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Eburnopsis anlacoessa, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Cancellaria calvalata, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Vaginella elig mo stoma, Tate. Cainozoic (Bale.) : Victoria.
Eutrochus fontinalis, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Jan Juki an) : Vic-
toria.
Turbo atkinsoni, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Tas-
mania and Victoria.
Seala lampra, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : S. Australia.
Natica gibbosa, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
Also Oamaru and Wanganui Series: New Zealand.
Morio loilsoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
Voluta heptagonalis, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : S. Aus-
tralia.
Volutilithes anticingulat-us, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjuk-
ian) : Victoria and Tasmania. Also Papua.
Bathytoma paracantha, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janj.) :
Victoria and Tasmania. Also Papua.
Dolium costatum, Deshayes. Cainozoic. (? Lower Piocene) :
Yule Island, Papua.
Bankivia howitti, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal. ) : Victoria.
Eglisia triplicata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Voluta masoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Ancilla papillata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Drillia wanganuiensis, Hutton. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria
Also Petane Series: New Zealand.
Terebra geniculata, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Pleurotomaria tertiaria, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria
Also Oamaru Series: New Zealand.
Scala lyrata, Zittel sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru) : New Zealand.
Natica darwinii, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru) : New Zealand.
Turritella caver sham ensis, Harris. Cainozoic (Oamaru) : New
Zealand.
Ancilla hebera, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru) : New Zealand.
Also (Bale, and Janj.) : Victoria, South Australia and
Tasmania.
Pleurotoma hamiltoni, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru) : New
Zealand.
Natica ovata, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series) : New
Zealand.
Struthiolaria sulcata, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series) :
New Zealand.
216 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Trophon eocpansus, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series) : New
Zealand.
Pisania drewi, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series) : New
Zealand.
Bankivia fasciata, Menke. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-Recent) :
Victoria.
Astralium aureum, Jonas sp. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-
Recent) : Victoria.
Natica subinfundibulum, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Werr. ) :
Victoria and S. Australia.
Nassa pauperata, Lam. Cainozoic (Werr.-Rec. ) : Victoria.
Helix tasmaniensis, Sow. Cainozoic (Pleistocene) : Tasmania.
Helix geilstonensis, Johnston. Cainozoic (Pleistocene) : Tas-
mania.
Panda atomata, Gray sp. Cainozoic (Pleist.-Rec.) : Victoria
and New South Wales.
CEPHALOPODA.
Endoceras ivarburtoni, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Orthoceras gossei, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Orthoceras ibiciforme, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Trochoceras reticostatum, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Actinoceras tatei, Eth. fil. sp. Ordovician: S. Australia.
Orthoceras capillosum, Barrande. Silurian: Victoria.
Orthoceras linear e, Minister sp. Silurian (Yer. ) : Victoria.
Cycloceras bullatum, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian) : Vic-
toria.
Cycloceras ibex, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
Kionoceras striatopunctatum , Minister sp. Silurian (Tan-
jilian) : Victoria.
Phragmoceras subtrigonum, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.
Gyroceras philpi, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian: Queensland.
Orthoceras striatum, Sow. Carbopermian : New South Wales.
Agathiceras micromphalum , Morris sp. Carbopermian: New
South Wales and WT. Australia.
Gastrioceras jacksoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
Actinoceras hardmani, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: N.W. Aus-
tralia.
Nautilus perornatus, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Dorsetensia clarkei, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Normanites australis, Crick sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Perisphinctes championensis, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Ammonites aucklandicus, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.
Belemnites aucklandicus, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.
Nautilus hendersoni, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Haploceras daintreei, Etheridge sp. Lower Cretaceous:
Queensland and New South Wales.
LITERATURE. 217
Ancyloccras fiindersi, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land and New South Wales.
Crioceras australe, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland
and S. Australia.
Scaphites eruciformis, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Northern
Territory.
Belemnites diptycha, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland,
New South Wales, and S. Australia.
Belemnites erernos, Tate. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.
Nautilus geelongensis, Foord. Cainozoic ( Janjukian) : Vic-
toria.
Aturia australis, McCoy. Cainozoic (Bal.-Kal.): Victoria.
Oamaru Series: New Zealand.
Spirulirostra curia, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
LITERATURE.
MOLLUSCA.
Cambrian.— Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag.. Dec. III. vol. VII.
1800, pp. 98, 99 (Pteropoda). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc.
S. Austr., vol. XV. 1892, pp. 183-185 (Pelec. and Gastr.),
pp. 186, 187 (Pteropoda). Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans.
R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXIX. 1905, p. 251 (Pteropoda).
Chapman. F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII. pt. II.
1910, pp. 313, 314 (Gastr.).
Ordovician. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Pari. Papers, Leg. Assemb.,
S. Austr., No. 158, 1891, pp. 9, 10 (Gastr. and Ceph.).
Tate, R. Rep. Horn. Sci. Exped., pt. 3, 1896, pp. 98-110.
Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic, vol. XV. pt. II. 1903,
pp. 119, 120 (Hyolithes).
Silurian.— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic, Dec. VI. 1879, pp.
23-29. Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec Austr. Mus., vol. I.
No. 3, 1890, pp. 62-67 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. I.
No. 7, 1891, pp. 126-130 (Pelec and Gastr.). Cresswell,
A. W. Proc R. Soc Vict., vol. V. 1893, pp. 41-44.
Etheridge, R. jun. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. III. No. 4, 1898,
pp. 71-77 ( Gastr.). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, vol. V. pt. 2, 1898, pp. 67-70 (Chelodes). De
Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geo. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
No. 6, 1898, pp. 29-35. Etheridge, R. jnr. Prog. Rep.
Geol. Surv. Vict., No. XL 1899, pp. 34, 35 (Pelec). Idem,
Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No. 2, 1904, pp. 75-77 (Ceph.).
Chapman, F. Proc R. Soc, Vict., vol. XVI. pt. 11. 1904,
pp. 336-341 (Pteropoda). Idem, Mem. Nat. Mus. Mel-
bourne, No. 2, 1908 ( Pelecypoda ) .
218 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Devonian.— McCoy, F. Trod. Pal., Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp.
18, 19 (Ceph.). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal.
Queensland, 1892, p 69 (Gyroceras) . De Koninck, L. G.
Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898,
pp. 85-105.
Carboniferous. — Etlieridge, 11. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. III.
No. 1, 1897, pp. 7-9 {Actinoceras) . Idem, Geol. Surv.
W.A., Bull. No. 27, 1907, pp. 32-37.
Carbopermian. — Morris, J., in Strzelecki's Phys. Descr. of New
South Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 270-278 and 285-291. Foord,
A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 103, 104.
Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp.
264-296. Idem., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol.
IX. 1895, pp. 530-537 (Pelec. and Gastr.). De Koninck,
L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6,
1898, pp. 203-274. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W. S.
Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, vol. II.
pt. I. 1906 (Palaeopecten) . Idem, ibid., vol. II., pt. 2,
1910 ( Eurydesma ) .
Trias. — Zittel, K. Novaia Exped., vol. I. Abth. II. Geol.
Theil., 1864, pp. 26-29. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol.
Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 8-14.
Jurassic. — Zittel, K. Novara Exped., vol. I., Abth. II. Geol.
Theil., 1864, pp. 20-34. Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, vol. XXVI. pp. 245-260 (Jurassic and Cretaceous
Moll.). Etheridge, R. jnr. ibid., vol. XXVIII. 1872,
pp. 317-359 (Palaeozoic, Jur. and Cret. Moll.). Crick,
G. C. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. I. 1894, pp. 385 393 and
433-441 (Ceph.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
XVI. pt. II. 1904, pp. 327-332. Marshall, P. Trans.
New Zealand Inst,, vol. XLI. 1909, pp. 143-145 (New
Zealand Ceph.). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A.
Bull. No. 36, 1910, pp. 30-40.
Cretaceous. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland^
1892, pp. 445-503 and 561-574. Idem, Geol. Surv.
Queensland, Bull. No. 13, 1901, pp. 13-35. Idem, Mem.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. II. pt. 1, 1902 (S.A. Moll.).
Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 11,
1902, pp. 16-49 (New South Wales Moll.).
Cainozoic. — Zittel, K. Novara Exped. Geol. Theil., vol. I.
Abth. II. 1864, pp. 34-55 (Pelec. and Gastr. New Zea-
land). McCoy, F. Prod., Pal. Vict., Dec. T. 1874;
Dec. II. 1875; Dec. III. 1876; Dec. V. 1877; Dec. VI.
1879. Woods, J. E. T. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. (1875), 1876,
pp. 13-26 (Table Cape Moll.). Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc.
New South Wales, vol. III. 1879, pp. 222-240 {Muddy
Creek Moll.). Idem, ibid., vol. IV. 1880, pp. 1-24.
LITERATURE. 219
Hutton, F. \V. Trans. New Zealand Inst. vol. IX. 1877.
pp. 593-598. Ibid., vol. XVII. 1885, pp. 313-332 (New
Zealand Pelec. and Gastr. ) . Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales, vol. F. 2nd ser. (1886), 1887, pp. 205-237
(distr. lists, Pareora and Oamaru). Idem, Macleay, Mem,
Vol. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1893, pp. 35-92 (Plio-
cene Moll. New Zealand). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S.
Austr., vol. VII. 1S86, pp. 96-158. and vol. IX., 1887,
pp. 142-189 (Pelec); ibid., pp. 190-194 ( Scaphopoda ) :
ibid., 194-196 (Pteropoda). Idem, ibid., vol. X. 1888,
pp. 91-176; vol. XI. 1889, pp. 116-174; vol. XIII. 1890.
pp. 185-235; and vol. XVII. 1893, pp. 316-345 (Gastr.).
Idem, Journ. R. Soc, New South Wales, vol. XXVII.
1893, pp. 169-191. Idem, ibid., vol. XXXI. i897, pp.
392-410 (Gastr. and Pelec). Idem, Trans. Roy. Soc
S. Austr., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp. 260-277 (Revision of
Moll.). Pritchard, G. B. Proc. Rov. Soc. Vic, vol. VII.
1895, pp. ^25-231 (Pelec). Idem, 'ibid., vol. VIII 1896,
pp. 79-141 (Moll, of T. Cape). Idem, ibid., vol. XL pt.
I. 1898, pp. 96-111 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. XIV.
pt. I. 1901, pp. 22-31 (Pelec). Idem, ibid., vol. XVI.
pt. II. 1903, pp. 87-103 (Pelec). Idem, ibid., vox. XVI.
pt. I. 1903, pp. 83-91 {Pleurotomaria) . Idem, ibid., vol.
XVII. pt. I. 1904, pp. 320-337 (Gastr.) Idem, ibid..
vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I. 1913, pp. 192-201 (Volutes).
Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. pt. II. 1905, pp.
391-393 (Chitons). Ashby. E. and Torr. W. G. Trans. R.
Soc S. Austr., vol. XXV. 1901, pp. 136-144 (Chitons).
Thomson, J. A. Trans. New Zealand Inst., Vol. XL. 1908,
pp. 102, 103 (N.Z. Moll.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
Vict. vol. XX. pt. II 1908, pp. 218-220 (Chiton). Idem,
ibid., vol. XXV. pt. I. 1912, pp. 186-192 (Gastr.).
CHAPTER XI.
FOSSIL TRILOBITES, CRUSTACEA AND
INSECTS.
Arthropods and their Structure. —
The above-named fossil groups are included by zoo-
logists in the subkingdom Arthropoda ("joint-footed
animals"). The Arthropods possess a body and
limbs composed of a number of jointed segments
covered externally with a hard, shelly material and
separated by a softer, flexible skin. They have no
internal skeleton, and therefore the only portion which
can be preserved in the fossil state is the harder part
of the outer covering. Under exceptional conditions
of fossilisation, however, even frail insects such as
ants, wasps and dragon-flies are sometimes found more
or less wholly preserved and showing their original
minute structure.
Subdivisions of Arthropoda. —
The principal representatives of the group of the
Arthropods which are found as fossils include the
Trilobites ; various Crustacea proper, as Crabs,
Lobsters, Shrimps, Pod-shrimps and Water-fleas; the
Insects; and occasionally Spiders and Scorpions
(Arachnida). The King-crabs and Eurypterids (as
220
CRUSTACEA. 221
the extinct Pterygotus) form a separate sub-class, the
Merostomata, which are placed by some authors in
the group of Spiders and Scorpions: their remains
date back to the time when the older Palaeozoic strata
were deposited.
Crustacea, an Archaic Group. —
A typical division of the Arthropod group, and one
which was well represented from the earliest period
up to the present day, is the CRUSTACEA. As the
name denotes, these animals are generally invested
with a strong shelly covering or " crust," usually of
horny or chitinous material, which in some forms is
strengthened by deposits of phosphate of lime. Of
the horny condition of the shell the groups of the
bivalved Crustacea (Ostracoda) and the "water-
fleas" (Bntomostraca) supply notable instances;
whilst the limy-structured shell is seen in the common
crab. Some authorities separate the great extinct
group of the Trilobites from the rest of the Crustacea ;
but it will here be convenient, in a preliminary study,
to consider them together.
Development of Crustacea. —
The development of the lower forms of the Crustacea
is interesting, from the fact that the young usually
escapes from the egg in a larval state known as a
"nauplius. " In this stage there are no segments
to the body, and but a solitary median eye, such as
may be seen in the common water-flea known to micro-
scopists as Cyclops. The three pairs of appendages
seen in this larval crustacean represent the two pairs
of antennae and the jaws or mandibles of the full-
grown form.
ill AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Among the higher Crustacea, however, there is no
larval form; the young escaping from the egg in a
more or less highly developed condition resembling
the adult. The group of the Crabs, Lobsters and
Shrimps (or Decapoda, i.e., having ten ambulatory
feet) exhibit a larval stage in which the young form
i/'zoea") has a segmented abdomen and seven pairs
of appendages.
Trilobites. —
The first group of arthropods here described is that
of the TRILOBITES. These were so named on
account of the three-lobed form of the body. This
particular feature distinguishes them from the
Crustacea proper; which includes the Phyllopods
(with leaf -like limbs), as the freshwater Estheria,
the Ostracoda or Bivalved Water-fleas, the Barnacles
or Cirripedia and the Higher Crustacea (Mala-
costraca), including Shrimps, Crabs, and Lobsters, of
which the oldest representatives are the Pod-shrimps
(Phyllocarida).
Habits of Trilobites. —
The remains of these primitive but often strikingly
ornamented crustacean-like animals, the trilobites,
are found in comparative abundance in the lime-
stones, mudstones, and even the sandstones of the
older sedimentary rocks of Australasia. They were
amongst the most prolific types of animal life exist-
ing in the seas of Palaeozoic times, and are especially
characteristic of Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian
rocks. Trilobites, as a group, seem to have adapted
themselves to almost all conditions of marine life:
TRILOBITES. 223
some are found in the hardened black mud of shal-
low waters, whilst others are to be looked for in
the limestones and excessively fine sediments of
deeper waters. In all probability certain of these
forms crawled over the soft, oozy sea-bed in order
to obtain their food, and consequently their remains
in the stratified rocks would be restricted to the fine
black shales ; whilst the freely swimming forms could
change their habitat at will, and would be found
alike in sandy or clayey deposits. As some indication
of their varied habits, the eyes of trilobites differ
greatly in size. They are always compound
like the eye of the house-fly, though of a semi-
lunar shape. In some forms the eyes are very
small or even absent, whilst in others they are ex-
ceedingly large and prominent. This latter feature
probably indicates their frequenting moderately deep
water.
Structure of Trilobites. —
The complete structure and zoological relationship
of the trilobites has always been open to some doubt.
As regards the former, within recent years excep-
tionally well-preserved specimens from the Utica
Slates and the Cincinnati Limestone of Ohio, rocks
of Ordovician age, have been discovered and dis-
sected, whereby our knowledge of the organisation of
this group is greatly advanced. These remark-
able fossil remains show that the Trilobites
I)ore on their under surface a number of
appendages, one pair to each segment, except
that of the anal. The front pair is whip-
like and served as antennae ; the others are
224
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Frontal lobe
Head-shield <
Thorax
Pygidium <
glabella divided into seg-
ments by lateral furrows
y eye lobe
„ free cheek
-axal furrow
—•facial suture
fixed cheek
neck furrow
genal spine
^..pleural groove
- axis
-^pleuron
margin
axal furrow
Tig. 107 — Diagram-restoration of an Australian Trilobite.
(Dalmanites meridian us, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp.)
To show the sutures or joints, and the structure of the back of the
carapace. About % natural size.
TRILOBITES. 225
branched, the forward portion being a crawling limb,
and the hinder, which was fringed with bristles or
thin plates, may have served either for swimming or
breathing. At the base of the four pairs of appen-
dages attached to the head there was an arrangement
for biting the food, from whence it was passed to
the mouth. Taking one of the commonest Australa-
sian trilobites, Dalmanites meridianus, for an ex-
ample of general structure, and looking at the back
of the shell or upper surface, we see the trilobate
(three-lobed) form well defined (Fig. 107). The
central ridge is termed the axis, and on either side
of this are arranged the pleural lobes, each well
marked transverse division of which, in the central
or thoracic region, being a pleuron or rib. The whole
body is divided into three more or less distinct por-
tions,— the head-shield or cephalon, the thorax, and
the tail-shield or pygidium. The central area of the
head-shield is called the glabella or cranidium^
against which, on either side, are placed the free
cheeks carrying the compound sessile eyes when pre-
sent. The appendages of the head are pediform or
leglike, arranged in five pairs, and biramous or
forked, excepting the antennae, which are simple and
used as sensory organs. In front of the mouth is
the hypostoma or forelip, and behind it is the metas-
toma or hind-lip. The segments of the head- shield
are most closely united, and in all the trilobites are
of the same number. Those of the thorax have flex-
ible joints and are variable in number. The seg-
ments of the abdomen are fused together and form
a caudal shield or pygidium.
226
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The larval stage of the trilobite was a proto-
nauplian form (that is more primitive than the nau-
plius), the protoaspis; the adult stage, being attained
by the addition of segments at the successive moults.
The earliest known trilobites in Australia are some
Cambrian species from South Australia, Western
Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.
Lower Cambrian Trilobites. —
In the Lower Cambrian Limestone of Yorke Penin-
sula, South Australia, the following trilobites occur:
— a species doubtfully referred to Olenellus ( ? 0.
pritchardi); Ptychoparia howchini (Fig. 108 A) ; P.
australis; Dolichometopus tatei (Fig. 108 B); and
Pig. 108— CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES.
A — Ptychoparia howchini, Kth. fil. L,. Cambrian. South Australia
B — Dolichometopus tatei, H. Woodw. I,. Cambrian. South Australia
C — Agnostus australiensis, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria
D — Ptychoparia thielei, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria
E— Dikellocephalus florentinensis, Eth. fil. 1^. Cambrian. Tasmania
TRILOBITES. 227
Microdiscas subsagittatus. The Cambrian of the
Northern Territory contains Olenellns brownii. In
Western Australia Olenellus forresti is found in simi-
lar beds.
Upper Cambrian Trilobites. —
The Dolodrook Limestone (Upper Cambrian) of
Gippsland, Victoria, contains the remains of the
primitive little trilobite Agnostus (A. australiensis,
Fig. 108 C) ; Crepicephalus (C. etheridgei) ; and
Ptychoparia (P. thielei (Fig. 108 D) and P. minima).
The Upper Cambrian sandstones of Caroline Creek,
Tasmania, contain Dikellocephalus (D. tasmanicus) ;
a species of Asaphas and Ptychoparia (P. stephensi).
Beds of the same age in the Florentine Valley, Tas-
mania, have yielded Dikellocephalus (D. florentinen-
sis, Fig. 108 E).
Ordovician Trilobites. —
Trilobites of Lower Ordovician age or even older,
are found in the Knowsley beds near Heathcote in
Victoria. They are referred to two genera. Dinesus
and Notasaphus. Both forms belong to the ancient
family of the Asaphidae. Associated with these tri-
lobites are some doubtful species of seaweed, spic-
ules of siliceous sponges, traces of threadlike hydro-
zoa, some fragments of graptolites allied to Bryo-
graptus, and several brachiopods. At the Lyndhurst
Goldfields, near Mandurama, New South Wales, trilo-
bites related to the genus Shumardia have been found
associated with brachiopods (lamp-shells), pteropods
(sea-butterflies), and graptolites (hydrozoa) of an
Upper Ordovician facies.
228
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
The limestone beds at Laurie 's Creek and other
localities in Central Australia contain remains of
Asaphus illarensis, A. hoivchini and A. lissopelta;
whilst in the limestone and quartzite of Middle Val-
ley, Tempe Downs, A. thorntoni also occurs.
Silurian Trilobites. —
Trilobites are wTell-known fossils in the Australa-
sion Silurian strata. As they occur rather abun-
dantly along with other fossils in rocks of this age
they are extremely useful aids in separating the sys-
tem into the different beds or zones. In Victoria the
Silurian is divisible into two sets of beds: an older,
or Melbournian stage (the bed-rock of Melbourne)
Pig. 109-OLDER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.
A-Ampyx parvulus, Forbes, var. jikaensis, Chapm. Silurian
(Melb.) Victoria
B— Cypaspis spryi, Gregory. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
C — Homalonotus harrisoni, McCoy. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
D — Phacops latigenalis, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales
TRILOBITES. 229
and a younger, Yeringian (Lily dale series). Trilobites
of Melbournian age are found to belong to the genera
Ampyx, Illaenus, Proetus, Cyphaspis, Encrinurus
(Cromus) and Homalonotus* The commonest species
are Cyphaspis spryi (Fig. 109 B), and Encrinurus
(Cromus) spryi from the South Yarra mudstones;
and Ampyx parvulus, var. jikaensis (Fig. 109 A), and
Homalonotus harrisoni (Fig. 109 C), from the sand-
stone of Moonee Ponds Creek.
The handsome Dalmanites meridianus and Homa-
lonotus vomer occur at Wandong in what appear
to be passage beds between the Melbournian and
Yeringian.
The Yeringian of Victoria is far richer in trilobites
than the preceding series, and includes the genera
Proetus, Cyphaspis, Bronteus, Lichas, Odontopleura,
Encrinurus, Calymene, Homalonotus, Cheirurus, and
Phacops. The rocks in this division occur as mud-
stones, limestones, and occasionally sandstones and
conglomerates. The mudstones, however, prevail, and
these pass insensibly into impure limestones of a
blue-black colour, weathering to brown, as at Seville ;
the change of structure indicating less turbid water.
At Lilydale, and on the Thomson River, as well as
at Loyola and Waratah Bay, almost pure limestone
occurs, which represents clear water conditions, not
necessarily deep ; there, however, trilobites are
scarce, and the prevailing fauna is that of an ancient
coral reef. Some described Yeringian species are
Lichas australis (Fig. 110 A), Odontopleura jenkinsi
(Fig. HOB) (found also in New South Wales), En-
crinurus punctatus (Fig. HOC), Calymene tubercu-
230 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 1 1 0— NEWER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.
A — Iyichas australis, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian) . Victoria
B—Odontopleura jenkinsi- Kth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S.Wales
C — Kncrinurus punctatus, Brunnich sp. Silurian. N.S.Wales
D — Phacops sweeti, Kth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales
B — Phacops serratus, Foerste. Silurian. N.S. Wales
losa, Bronteus enormis, Phacops sweeti, and P. ser-
ratus (Fig. 110 E). In Calymene ("covered up")
the joints of the thorax are facetted at the angles, so
that each plenron could work over that immediately
behind; in consequence of this it could roll itself up
like a woodlouse or slater, hence the name of the
genus. This trilobite also occurs in England, and is
there known amongst the quarrymen and fossil col-
lectors as the "Dudley Locust.' ' Perhaps the most
characteristic and common trilobite of the Yeringian
series in Victoria is Phacops sweeti (Fig. HOD),
formerly identified with Barrande's P. fecundus,
from which it differs in the longer and larger eye
with more numerous lenses. It is found in Victoria
TRILOBITBS. 231
in the Upper Yarra district near the junction of the
Woori Yallock and the Yarra Rivers; north-west of
Lily dale ; near Seville ; at Loyola near Mansfield ; and
at Fraser's Creek near Springfield, Kilmore.
In New South Wales trilobites are abundant in the
Yass district, amongst other localities, where the
upper beds, corresponding to the Yeringian of Vic-
toria, are well developed. Dalmanites meridianus
is common to the Silurian of New South Wales, Vic-
toria, and Tasmania. In Victoria this handsome
species is found in the hard, brown, sandy mud-
stone of Broadhurst's and Kilmore Creeks, and, as
previously noted, in the hard, blue mudstone of Wan-
dong. At the latter locality specimens may be found
in the railway ballast quarry, where they are known
to the workmen as "fossil butterflies. ' ' The species
also occurs at the famous fossil locality of Hatton's
Corner, Yass; at Bowning; and at Limestone Creek,
all in New South Wales. Other trilobites occurring
in the Silurian of New South Wales are Odonto-
pleura jenkinsi, 0. bowning ensis, Cheirarus insignis
and Phacops latigenalis (Fig. 109 D).
In the Wangapeka series of New Zealand the cal-
careous shales and limestones of the upper division
contain Calymene blnmenbachii, Homalonotus knigh-
tii and H. expansus.
Devonian Trilobites. —
Trilobites suddenly became rare in the Australian
Devonian. The only known examples of trilobite re-
mains belong to a species of Cheirurus occasionally
found in the Middle Devonian limestone of Buchan,
232
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Victoria ; and a species of Proetus in the Devonian
of Barker Gorge, Napier Range, West Australia.
Carbopermian Trilobites.—
Trilobites of Carbopermian age are found in New
South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia.
All the genera belong to the family Proetidae. The
genera Phillipsia (P. seminifera, Fig. Ill A), Griff-
thides (G. eichwaldi, Fig. Ill B), and Br achy met opus
Pig. 111— CARBONIFEROUS TRILOBITES and a PHYLLOPOD.
A — Phillipsia seminifera, Phillips. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
B — Griffithides eichwaldi, Waldheim. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
C — Brachymetopus strzelecki. McCoy. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
D — Kstheria cog-hlani, Cox. Triassic. N.S. Wales
(B. strzelecki, Fig. Ill C) occur in New South Wales.
Griffithides eichwaldi is also found in Queensland.
Other Queensland species are Phillipsia woodwardi,
P. seminifera var. australasica and P. dubia. Phillip-
sia grandis is found in the Carbopermian of the Gas-
coyne River, Western Australia.
OSTRACODA. 233
Phyllopoda in Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic.
The PHYLLOPODA, which belong to the Crus-
tacea in the strict sense of the term, comprise the
Estheriidae and Cladocera (water-fleas). The for-
mer group is represented by Leaia mitchelli, which
is found in the Upper Carboniferous or Carboper-
mian of the Newcastle District, New South Wales.
In the still later Hawkesbury series (Triassic) of
New South Wales, Estheria coghlani (Fig. HID)
occurs. This species is a minute form, the carapace
measuring from 1.25mm. to 2mm. in the longer dia-
meter of the shell. In the upper part of the Wairoa
Series (Triassic) of Nelson, New Zealand, there is
found another species of Estheria, identified with a
European form E. minuta. Estheria mangaliensis is
another form occurring in the Jurassic (Ipswich
series) of Queensland. At the present day these little
Estheriae sometimes swarm in countless numbers in
freshwater lakes or salt marshes.
Ostracoda: Their Structure. —
Passing on to the next group, the bivalved OSTRA-
CODA, we note that these have existed from the
earliest geological periods to the present day. They
are usually of minute size, commonly about the six-
teenth of an inch in length, although some attained
a length of nearly one inch (Leperditia) . Their
bodies are indistinctly segmented, and are enclosed
within a horny or calcareous shell. This shell con-
sists of two valves which are joined along the back
by a ligament or hinge, the ends and ventral edge
remaining quite free. The pairs of appendages pre-
sent are the antennae (2), mandibles (1), maxillae
234 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
(2), and thoracic feet (2). The only portion found
in the fossil state is the bivalved carapace, the two
valves being frequently met with still united, espe-
cially when these tiny animals have settled down
quietly on the sea-bed and have been quickly cov-
ered with sediment.
Features of the Ostracod Carapace. —
Since the body parts of the ostracod are wanting
in the fossil examples, the generic determination
is attended with some difficulty, especially in regard
to the smooth or bean-shaped forms. The chief
distinctive characters to note are, the contour of the
carapace seen in three directions (top, side and end
views), the structure of the hinge, and the position
and figure of the muscle-spots or points of adhesion
of the muscular bands which hold or relax the two
valves. The valves in certain genera fit closely upon
one another. In others, one overlaps the other, the
larger being sometimes the right (as in Leperditia) ,
sometimes the left (as in Leperditella) . The hinge-
line is often simple or flange-like, or it may consist
of a groove and corresponding bar, or there may be
a series of teeth and sockets. Lateral eye-tubercles
are sometimes seen on the surface of the valve, whilst
in the animal there was also a small eye.
Habits of Ostracoda. —
Ostracoda swarmed in many of the streams, lakes
and seas of past geological times, and they still exist
in vast numbers under similar conditions. Like some
other minute forms of life, they played a most im-
portant part in building up the rock formations of
OSTRACODA. 235
the sedimentary series of the earth's crust; and by
the decomposition of the organism itself they are
of real economic value, seeing that in some cases their
decay resulted in the subsequent production of oil
or kerosene shales and bituminous limestones. The
Carboniferous oil shales in the Lothians of Scotland,
for example, are crowded with the carapaces of Os-
tracoda associated with the remains of fishes.
Cambrian Ostracoda. —
Some undescribed forms of the genus Leperditia
occur in the hard, sub-crystalline Cambrian Lime-
stone of Curramulka, South Australia.
Silurian Ostracoda. —
In Victoria and New South Wales the oldest rocks
from which we have obtained the remains of Ostra-
coda up to the present, are the uppermost Silurians,
in which series they occur both in the limestone and
the mudstone. In Victoria their bivalved carapaces
are more often found in the limestone ; but one genus,
Beyrichia, is also met with in abundance in the mud-
stone. These mudstones, by the way, must have
originally contained a large percentage of carbonate
of lime, since the casts of the shells of mollusca are
often excessively abundant in the rock, and the mud-
stone is cavernous, resembling an impure, decalcified
limestone. These Yeringian mudstones of Victoria
seem, therefore, to be the equivalent of the calcareous
shales met with in the Wenlock and Gotland Series
in Europe; a view entirely in accordance with the
character of the remainder of the fauna. One of
the commonest of the Silurian ostracods is Beyrichia
kloedeni, a form having an extensive distribution in
236 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
rig. 112— SILURIAN OSTRACODA.
A — Beyrichia wooriyallockensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
B — Xestoleberis lily dalen sis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
C — Argilloecia acuta, Jones and Kirkby. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
D— Bythocypris caudalis, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
K — Primitia reticristata, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
Europe. It occurs in the Silurian mudstone of the
Upper Yarra District. Other species of the same
genus are B. wooriyallockensis (Fig. 112 A), distin-
guished from the former by differences in the shape
of the lobes and its longer valves; also a form with
narrow lobes, B. kilmoriensis ; and the ornate B. mac-
coyiana, var. australis. Of the smooth-valved forms,
mention may be made of Bythocypris hollii, B. cau-
dalis (Fig. 112 D), and the striking form, Macrocy-
pris flexuosa. Regarding the group of the Primitiae,
of which as many as thirteen species and varieties
have been described from the Lilydale Limestone, we
may mention as common forms P. reticristata (Fig.
112 E) and P. punctata. This genus is distinguished
OSTRACODA. 237
by the bean-shaped or purse-shaped carapace, with
its well developed marginal flange and mid-dorsal pit.
Other genera which occur in our Silurians and are of
great interest on account of their distribution else-
where, are Isochilina, Aparchites, Xestoleberis, Aech-
mina, and Argilloecia.
The largest ostracod yet described from Austra-
lia, measuring more than a quarter of an inch in
length, occurs in the Upper Silurian of Cliftonwood,
near Yass, New South Wales. It belongs to the genus
Leperditia (L. shearsbii), and is closely related to
L. marginata, Keyserling sp. ; which occurs in strata
of similar age in the Swedish and Russian Baltic
area. A limestone at Fifield, New South Wales,
probably of Silurian age, contains Primitia, Klot-
denia, and Beyrichia.
Devonian Ostracoda. —
The little Primitia cuneus (Fig. 113 A) withabean-
shaped carapace and median pit or depression occurs
somewhat frequently in the Middle Devonian Lime-
stone of Buchan, Victoria. Another species, Primitia
yassensis, is found in the shaly rock of Narrengullen
Greek, New South Wales. It is probable that many
other species of the group of the ostracoda remain
to be described from Australian Devonian rocks.
Carboniferous Ostracoda. —
In Queensland a conspicuous little ostracod is Bey-
richia varicosa from the Star Beds of Corner Creek.
Carbopermian Ostracoda. —
In the Carbopermian of Cessnock, New South
Wales, Primitia dunii occurs; and in that of Far-
ley is found Jonesina etheridgei. From both these
238 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 1 13-UPPER PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC OSTRACODA.
A — Primitia cuneus, Chapm. Mid. Devonian. Victoria
B — Kntomis jonesi, de Kon. Carboniferous. New South Wales
C — Synaphe mesozoica, Chapm sp. Triassic. New South Wales
D—Cy there lobulata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
K — Paradoxorhyncha foveolata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
F — IyOxoconcha jurassica, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
G — Cytheropteron australiense, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
localities Leperditia prominens was also obtained.
Another species from New South Wales is Entomis
jonesi (Fig. 113 B), described from the Muree Sand-
stone by de Koninck.
Triassic Ostracoda. —
The Triassic (Wiannamatta Shales) of Grose Vale,
New South Wales has afforded a few specimens of
ostracoda belonging to Synaphe ($. mesozoica, Fig.
113 C), f Darwinula, and f Cytheridea.
Jurassic Ostracoda. —
The marine Jurassic strata of Western Australia
at Geraldton, have yielded a small but interesting
series of ostracoda, largely of modern generic types,
The genera, which were found in a rubbly Trigonia-
OSTRACODA.
239
Limestone, are Cythere, Paradoxorhyncha, Loxocon-
cha, and Cytheropteron.
Cainozoic Ostracoda. —
The fossiliferous clays and calcareous sands of the
southern Australian Cainozoic beds often contain
abundant remains of ostracoda. The moderately
shallow seas in which the fossiliferous clays, such as
those of Balcombe's Bay, were laid down, teemed
with these minute bivalved Crustacea. All the forms
found in these beds are microscopic. They either
belong to living species, or to species closely allied
to existing forms. Some of the more prominent of
the Balcombian species are Cythere senticosa, a form
which is now found living at Tenedos, and C. clavi-
fig. 114— CAINOZOIC OSTRACODA.
A— Bairdia amygdaloides. G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
B— Cythere clavigera, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
C— Cythere scabrocuneata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
D— Cytherella punctata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
240 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
gera (Fig. 114 B), with the young form sometimes
referred to as C. militarise a species which may still
be dredged alive in Hobson's Bay. Other genera
common in these clays are Bairdia, with its broad,
pear-shaped carapace, represented by the still living
B. amygdaloides (Fig. 114 A). Gytherella, with its
compressed, subquadrate carapace, as seen in C.
punctata (Fig. 114 D), a species having an elaborate
series of muscle-spots, and which, like the previous
species, is found living in Australian seas; and Mac-
rocypris, with its slender, pointed, pear-shaped out-
line.
Cirripedia: Their Habits and Structure. —
CIRRIPEDIA OR BARNACLES.— These curious
modifications of the higher group of Crustacea
(Eucrustacea) date back to Ordovician times. They
appear to have tried every possible condition of exis-
tence ; and although they are mostly of shallow water
habits, some are found at the great depth of 2,000
fathoms (over two miles). Those which secrete lime
or have calcareous shells, attach themselves to stones,
pieces of wood, shell-fish, crabs, corals and sea-weeds.
Others are found embedded in the thick skin of whales
and dolphins, or in cavities which they have bored
in corals or shells of molluscs. Some are found para-
sitic in the stomachs of crabs and lobsters, or within
other cirripedes. They begin life, after escaping
from the egg, as a free-swimming, unsegmented larva
("nauplius" stage), and before settling down, pass
through the free-swimming, segmented "cypris"
stage, which represents the pupa condition, and in
which state they explore their surroundings in search
BAENACLBS. 241
of a suitable resting place for their final change and
fixed condition. Just before this occurs, glands are
developed in the pupa barnacle, which open into the
suckers of the first pair of appendages or antennae.
When a suitable place for fixation has been found,
these glands pour out a secretion which is not dis-
solved by water, and thus the barnacle is fixed head
downwards to its permanent position. The com-
pound eyes of the "cypris" stage disappear, and
henceforth the barnacle is blind. The characteristic
plates covering the barnacle are now developed, and
the six pairs of swimming feet become the cirri or
plumes, with which the barnacle, by incessant wav-
ing, procures its food. In short, as remarked by one
authority, it is a crustacean " fixed by its head, and
kicking the food into its mouth with its legs."
Cirripedes may be roughly divided into two
groups, the Acorn Barnacles and the Goose Barnacles.
Although dissimilar in general appearance, they pass
through identical stages, and are closely related in
most of their essential characters. The latter forms
are affixed by a chitinous stalk or peduncle, whilst
the acorn barnacles are more or less conical and
affixed by the base.
Silurian Cirripedes. —
The stalked barnacles are probably the oldest
group, being found as far back as the Ordovician
period. In Australia the genus Turrilepas occurs
in Silurian rocks, T. mitchelli (Fig. 115 A) being
found at Bowning in the Yass District of New
South Wales. The isolated plume-like plates of
242 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 115— POSSIL CIRRIPEDIA.
/ A
/.'■■'■'■■ '-I ' \
E
\
I
i 4 \
B
6
I
m
A f V_j
Rostrum\y ■ .
A— Turrilepas mitchelli, Eth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales
B — Turrilepas yeringiae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
C — (?) Pollicipes aucklandicus, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru
series). New Zealand
Fig. 116— LIVING AND FOSSIL CIRRIPEDES.
A — Iyepas anatifera, Iy. Common Goose Barnacle. living
B — I,epas pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic. Victoria
PHYLL0CAR1DA. 243
T. ycringiae (Fig. 115 B) are not uncommon in the
olive mudstone of the Lilydale District in Victoria.
Cainozoic Lepadidae. —
The genus Lepas (the modern goose barnacles) is
represented by isolated plates in the Cainozoic (Jan-
jukian) limestones and marls of Waurn Ponds, and
Torquay near Geelong: it also occurs in a stratum of
about the same age, the nodule bed, at Muddy Creek,
near Hamilton, Victoria (L. pritchardi, Fig. 116).
In New Zealand the gigantic cirripede, fPollicipes
aucklandicus (Fig. 115 C), occurs in the Motutapu
beds.
Cainozoic Balanidae. —
The Acorn Barnacles are represented in our Caino-
zoic shell marls and clays by a species of Balanus
from the Janjukian of Torquay; whilst two species
of the genus occur in the Kalimnan beds at Beau-
maris, Port Phillip, in similar beds in the Hamilton
District, and at the Gippsland Lakes.
Phyllocarida : Their Structure. —
A large and important group of the higher Crus-
tacea, but confined to the older rocks of Victoria, is
the order PHYLLOCARIDA. This seems to form a
link between the Entomostraca, including the bi-
valved Ostracoda and the well-known group of the
lobsters, shrimps and crabs. The body of these phyllo-
carids consists of five segments to the head, eight
to the thorax, and from two to eight to the abdomen.
The portion usually preserved in this group is the
carapace, which covers the head and thorax, and
although often in one piece, is sometimes hinged, or
244 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
otherwise articulated along the back. In front of
the carapace there is a moveable plate, the rostrum
or beak (Fig. 117). There are two pairs of anten-
nae to the head, and the animal is provided with a
pair of stalked compound eyes. The thoracic seg-
ments are furnished with soft leaf-like legs as in the
:c yj
4 \>\ rostrum
\2r; j (?) antennae
mandible
Fig. 1 1 7— Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter.
Silurian. Lanarkshire.
{After H. Woodward)
Phyllopods. The abdomen is formed of ring-like
segments, and generally terminates in a sharp tail-
piece or telson, often furnished with lateral spines.
In many respects the ancient phyllocarids correspond
with the living genus Nebalia, which is found inhabit-
ing the shallow waters of the Mediterranean and else-
where.
Ordovician Phyllocarids. —
Phyllocarids of the Lower Ordovician slates are
referred to the genera Rhinopterocaris, Caryocaris,
Saccocaris and Hymenocaris. The first-named is the
PHYLLOCARIDA. 245
Pig. 118-ORDOVICIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.
A
!
<&?
■ 4
B i
c -
(
- ^
^2iS)
<*»>
A — Rhinopterocaris maccoyi, Kth. fil. sp. I,. Ordovician. Victoria
B—Caryocaris angusta, Chapm. Iy. Ordovician. Victoria
C — Saccocaris tetragona, Chapm. Iy. Ordovician. Victoria
Pig. 119-SILURIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.
/W f
."^v
a!
i'/Y
/
ij
/
xf - \
ii
V ■■
<s •
, *" : *
^%^4 ^^^fl^^^l^^-^
[b-
2
U |
"x<3
sail - opines
A— Ceratiocaris pritchardi, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
B— Ceratiocaris cf. murchisoni, Agassiz sp. Silurian. Victoria
C — Ceratiocaris pinguis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
246 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
commonest type, and is found in slates of the Lance-
field, Bendigo and Castlemaine Series at the locali-
ties named, as well as at Dromana. RMnopterocaris
(Fig. 118 A) is readily distinguished by its long —
ovate outline, and this, together with its wrinkled
chitinous appearance makes it resemble the wing of a
dipterous insect. Caryocaris (Fig. 118 B) is a smaller
and narrower form which occurs in the Victorian
Lower Ordovician slates, as well as in ice-borne
blocks derived from the Ordovician, at Wynyard, in
N.W. Tasmania.
Silurian Phyllocarids. —
The chief type of Phyllocarid in the Silurian is
Ceratiocaris (Fig. 119). The carapace is typically
ovate, straight on one edge, the dorsal, and convexly
curved on the other, the ventral. They resemble
bean-pods in outline, hence the name " pod-shrimps/ 9
Several species are known from the Victorian shales,
mudstones, and sandstones; the forms found in Aus-
tralia if complete would seldom attain five inches
in length, whilst some British species are known to
reach the exceptional length of two feet. The long,
grooved and jointed telson is not uncommon in the
sandstones of Melbourne and Kilmore. Other genera
described from Victoria are Aptychopsis and Dithy-
rocaris.
Lower Cretaceous Crab. —
The earliest example of the DEC APOD A in the
Australian rocks, so far recorded, is the Lower Cre-
taceous Prosopon etheridgei (Fig. 120 A) from
Queensland, which has affinities with some Jurassic
and Neocomian crabs found in Europe. Other crus-
DECAPODA.
247
tacean remains of less decipherable nature occur in
this same deposit.
Cainozoic Crabs. —
Of the Cainozoic decapod Crustacea there is a Vic-
torian species of a stalk-eyed crab, Ommatocarcinus
corioensis (Fig. 120 B), found in the marls of Cur-
rig. 120— FOSSIL CRABS and INSECTS.
A — Prosopon etheridgei, H. Woodw. T,. Cretaceous. Queensland
B — Ommatocarcinus corioensis, Cressw. sp. Cainozoic (Jan.) Vic.
C— Harpactocarcinus tumidus, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru).
New Zealand
D — Aeschna flindersensis, H. Woodw. Iy. Cretaceous. Queensland
K — Ephemera culleni, Bth. fil. and Olliff. Cainozoic (Deep I^eads).
New South Wales
lewis and Port Campbell, and probably of Janjukian
age. Various portions of similar Crustacea, consist-
ing of claws and fragmentary carapaces, are found
from time to time in the Victorian clays and lime-
stones of Balcombian and Janjukian ages, but they
are insufficient for identification. A carapace of one
of the Oxystomata (with rounded cephalothorax and
248 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
non-salient frontal region) has occurred in the Ka
limnan marl of the Beaumaris Cliffs, Port Phillip.
It is closely allied to a crab now found in Hobson's
Bay and generally along the Victorian coast.
Kemains of a shore-crab (Fam. Cancridae) are
found at three localities, in the Oamaru Series, in
New Zealand; near Brighton, in Nelson and at
Wharekuri in the Waitaki Valley. It has been de-
scribed under the name of Harpactocarcinus tumidus
(Fig. 120 C), a genus of the Cyclometopa or "bow
crabs. ' '
Pleistocene Lobster. —
Numerous remains of a lobster, Thalassina emerii
(see antea. Fig. 20), supposed to be of Pleistocene
age, occur in nodules found on Queensland and North
Australian (Port Darwin) beaches.
Eurypterids in the Silurian. —
The order EURYPTEBIDA comprises an extinct
group of Crustacea closely allied to the modern King-
crab (Limuhis). The body was covered with a thin
chitinous skeleton, ornamented with regular scale-
like markings. This group is represented in Vic-
torian rocks by the remains of Pterygotus ("Sea-
scorpions'7), animals which often attained a length of
six feet. Pterygotus (see Fig. 121 A) had the fore
part of the body fused, forming the cephalo-thorax,
which was furnished with anterior, marginal facet-
ted eyes and central ocelli or smaller simple ones.
To the ventral surface of the body were attached six
pairs of appendages. The first pair are modified
antennae with pincer-like terminations, used for pre-
EURYPTERIDS. 249
Fig. 121 -SILURIAN EURYPTERIDS.
c§5^>
l«t ***
^H
// \ U
A — Pterygotus osiliensis, Schmidt. I. of Oesel. {After Schmidt)
B — Pterygotus australis, McCoy. Part of a body-segment. Silurian
(Melb.) Victoria
hensile purposes. Then come four pairs of slender
walking feet. The sixth pair of appendages is in
the form of powerful swimming feet or paddles, at
the bases of which are the comb-like jaws. The ab-
domen consists of thirteen joints, the last of which,
the telson, is spatulate and posteriorly pointed. Frag-
ments of a tolerably large species of Pterygotus
occur in the Silurian shales of South Yarra, Mel-
bourne, Victoria. It was probably about 18 inches
in length when complete. Of this form, known as
P. australis (Fig. 121 B), portions of the chelate
(clawed) appendages, and parts of the abdominal
segments have been found from time to time, but no
complete fossil has yet been discovered.
250 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Jurassic Insects. —
Of the group of the INSECT A, the Ipswich Coal
measures (Jurassic) of Queensland have yielded an
interesting buprestid beetle (Mesostigmodera), whilst
beds of the same age in New South Wales contain
the remains of a probable Cicada, associated with
leaves of the fern Taeniopteris.
Lower Cretaceous Dragon-fly. —
From the Lower Cretaceous of the Flinders River
district, Queensland, there has been obtained a fossil
dragon-fly, Aeschna flindersensis (Fig. 120 D).
Cainozoic Insects.
Certain Cainozoic beds of New South Wales, of
the age of the Deep-leads of Victoria, and probably
equivalent to the Kalimnan terrestrial series, contain
a species of Cydnas, a bug-like insect belonging to
the order Rhynchota ; and there are in the same series
a Midge (Chironomus) , a Day-fly (Ephemera, Fig.
120 E) and several beetles (f Lagria, Palaeolycus,
Cyphon and Oxytelus). The occurrence of these in-
sects of the Deep-leads helps to complete the land-
scape picture of those far-off Lower Pliocene times,
when the old river systems brought down large con-
tributions of vegetable waste from higher lands, in
the form of twigs with leaves and fruits; with
occasional evidences of the rich and varied fauna of
insect life which was especially promoted in the damp
and vegetative areas of the lower lands.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 251
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
TRILOBITES.
Ptychoparia howchini, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: South Aus-
tralia.
Dolichomeiopus tatei, H. Woodward. Lower Cambrian: South
Australia.
Olenellus browni, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: Northern Terri-
tory.
Agnostus australiensis, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.
Ptychoparia thielei, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.
Dikellocephalus florentinensis, Eth. fil. Upper Cambrian: Tas-
mania.
Dinesus ida, Eth. fil. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
Asaphus illarensis, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Central S. Aus-
tralia.
Ampyx parvulus, Forbes, var. jikaensis, Chapm. Silurian
( Melbournian ) : Victoria.
Illaenus jutsoni, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian) : Victoria.
Proetus euryceps, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
Cyphaspis spryi, Gregory. Silurian (Melbournian) : Victoria.
Bronteus enormis, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Lichas australis, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Odontopleura jenkinsi, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Encrinurus punctatus, Brunnich sp. Silurian: New South
Wales. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Encrinurus {Gromus) murchisoni, de Koninck. Silurian:
New South Wales.
Encrinurus {Cromus) spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melbour-
nian) : Victoria.
Calymene blumenbachii, Brongn. Silurian (Wangapeka
Series) : New Zealand.
Homalonotus expansus, Hector. Silurian (Wangapeka Series) :
New Zealand.
Homalonotus knightii, Konig. Silurian (Wangapeka Series) :
New Zealand.
Homalonotus harrisoni, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian) :
Victoria.
Homalonotus vomer, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Cheirurus insignis, Beyrich. Silurian: New South Wales.
Phacops sweeti, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian: New South
Wales. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Phacops serratus, Foerste. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Silurian: New South Wales.
252 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Dalmanites meridianus, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp. Silurian:
New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.
Cheirurus sp. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
Proetus sp. Devonian: Western Australia.
Phillipsia seminifera, Phillips. Carbopermian : New South
Wales.
Phillipsia grandis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia and
Queensland.
Griffith-ides eichioaldi, Waldheim. Carbopermian: New South
Wales and Queensland.
Brachy met opus strzelecki, McCoy. Carbopermian: New
South Wales.
PHYLLOPODA.
Leaia mitchelli, Eth. fil. Upper Carboniferous: New South
Wales.
Estheria coghlani, Cox. Trias: New South Wales.
Estheria minuta, Alberti sp. Trias: New Zealand.
Estheria mangaliensis, Jones. Jurassic: Queensland.
OSTRACODA.
Leperditia sp. Lower Cambrian: S. Australia.
Beyrichia kloedeni, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Beyrichia wooriyallockensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian) :
Victoria.
Beyrichia maccoyiana, Jones, var. australis, Chapm. Silurian:
(Yeringian) : Victoria.
Bythocypris hollii, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Macrocypris fleccuosa, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian) Victoria.
Primitia reticristata, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Leperditia shearsbii, Chapm. Silurian: New South Wales.
Primitia euneus, Chapm. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
Beyrichia, varicosa, T. R. Jones. Carboniferous: Queensland.
Primitia dunii, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Jonesina etheridgei, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Entomis jonesi, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Synaphe mesozoica, Chapm. sp. Trias: New South Wales.
Cy there lobulata, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Paradoxorhyncha foveolata, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Loxoconcha jurassica, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Cytheropteron australiense, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Bairdia amygdaloides, Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.
Cy there senticosa, Baird. Cainozoic. Also living: Victoria.
Cy there clavigera, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Vic-
toria.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 253
Cytherella punctata, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living:
Victoria.
Cytherella pulchra, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Vic-
toria.
CIRRIPEDIA.
Turrilepas mitchelli, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Turrilepas yeringiac, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian) : Victoria.
Lepas pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Victoria.
(?) Pollicipes aucklandicus, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oam am
Series) : New Zealand.
Balanus sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian and Kalimnan) : Vic-
toria.
PHYLLOCARIDA.
Rhinopterocaris maccoyi, Eth. fil. sp. Lower Ordovician: Vic-
toria.
Hymenocaris hepburnensis, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Caryocaris marri, Jones and Woodw. L. Ordovician: Vic-
toria and Tasmania.
Caryocaris angusta, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Saccocaris tetragona, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Ceratiocaris cf. murchisoni, Agassiz sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Ceratiocaris pinguis, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian) : Vic-
toria.
Ceratiocaris pritchardi, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
Aptychopsis victoriae, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian) : Vic-
toria.
Dithyrocaris praecooc, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian) :
Victoria.
DECAPODA.
Prosopon etheridgei, H. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Ommatocarcinus corioensis, Cresswell sp. Cainozoic (Jan-
jukian) : Victoria.
Ebalia sp. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) : Victoria.
Bar pact ocarcinus tumidus, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru
Series) : New Zealand.
Thalassina emerii, Bell. (?) Pleistocene: Queensland and
Northern Territory.
EURYPTERIDA.
Pterygotus australis, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian) : Vic-
toria.
254 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
INSECTA.
Mesostig modem typica, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic:
Queensland.
(?) Cicada lowei, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic: New
South Wales.
Aeschna flindersensie, H. Woodward. Lower Cretaceous:
Queensland.
Chironomus venerabilis, Eth. fil. and Oil. Cainozoic: New
South Wales.
Ephemera culleni, Eth. fil. and Oil. Cainozoic: New South
Wales.
Palaeolycus problematicum, Eth. fil. and Oil. Cainozoic: New
South Wales.
LITERATURE.
TRILOBITES.
McCoy, F.Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. III. 1876, pp. 13-20, pis. XXII.
and XXIII. (Silurian). Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. IX. 1877, p. 602, pi. XXVII. (Homalonotus) . Wood-
ward, H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 342-344,
pi. XL (Cambrian). Mitchell, J. Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales, vol. II. 1888, pp. 435-440, pi. XL (Silurian).
Foerste, A. F. Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., vol. III.
pt. V. 1888, pp. 122-128, pi. XIII. Etheridge, R. jnr.
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V. pp. 501-504,
pi. XVIII. (Bronteus) . Idem, Pari. Papers, Leg.
Assemb. S.A., vol. I. No. 23, 1892; ibid., vol. 2, No. 52,
1893 (Asaphas). Id., Geol. Queensland, 1892, pp/ 214-
216, pis. VII. VIII. and XLIV. (Carboniferous). Id.,
Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. VI. (N.S.), 1894, pp. 189 194, pi.
XL (Bronteus). Id., ibid, vol. VIII. (N.S.), 1896, pp.
56, 57, pi. I. (Dinesus). Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V.
No. 2, 1904, pp. 98-101, pi. X. (Cambrian). Id., Trans.
R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXII. 1898, pp. 1-3, pi. IV. (Cam-
brian). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Mitchell, J. Proc. Linn.
Soc. New South Wales, vol. VI. 1892, pp. 311-320, pi,
XXV.; ibid., vol. VIII. 1894, pp. 169-178, pis. VI. VII. ;
ibid., vol. X. 1896, pp. 486-511, pis. XXXVIII.-XL. ; ibid.,
vol. XXI. 1897, pp. 694-721, pis. L.-LV.. Tate, R. Rep.
Horn Exped., 1896, Part 3, Palaeontology, pp. Ill, 112,
pi. III. De Koninek, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 36-47 pi. I. (Silurian); pp.
276-281, pi. XXIV. (Carboniferous). Gregory, J. W.
Proc. R. Soc. Vict, vol. XIII. (N.S.) pt. II, 1901, pp.
179-182, pi. XXII. (Cyphaspis). Ibid., vol. XV. (N.S.)
LITERATURE. 255
pt. II. 1903, pp. 154-156, pi. XXVI. (Dinesus and Notasa-
phus.) Chapman, F. Proc. K. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII.
(N.S.), pt. II. 1910, pp. 314-322, pis. LVIII. and LIX.
(Cambrian). Ibid., vol. XXIV. (N.S.) pt. II. 1912,
pp. 293-300, pis. LXI.-LXIII. (Silurian).
PHYLLOPODA.
Cox, J. C. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V., pt. 3,
1881, p. 276 {Estheria). Etheridge, K. jnr. ibid., vol.
VII. 1893, pp. 307-310, text fig. (Leaia) . Idem, Mem.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 6-8,
pi. I. (Estheria) .
OSTEACODA.
Brady, G. S. in Etheridge, jnr. Geol. Mag., 1876, p. 334 (Caino-
zoic). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 33, 36 (Silurian); ibid., pp.
275, 276, pi. XXIV. (Carboniferous). Chapman, F. Proc.
R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. II. 1904, pp. 199-204,
pi. XXIII. (Jurassic). Idem, ibid., vol. XXII. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1909, pp. 1-5, pi. I. (Leperditia) . Idem, Rec.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp.
1-3, pi. LIV. (Triassic). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict.,
vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, p. 221, pi. XXXVI. (Primitia).
Idem, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903,
pp. 109-113, pi. XVI. (Beyrichia). Ibid., vol. XVII.
(N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 299-312, pis. XIII.-XVII.
(Silurian) .
CIRRIPEDIA.
Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp.
337, 338, pi. XI. (Turrilepas) . Hall, T.S. Proc. R. Soc.
Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.) pt. I. 1902, pp. 83, 84, pi. XI.
(Lepas). Benham, W. B. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. X.
pp. 110-119, pis. IX. X. (f Pollicipes). Chapman, F.
Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1910, pp.
105-197, pis. XXVIII. XXIX. (Turrilepas).
PHYLLOCARIDA.
Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
III. pt. I. 1894, pp. 5-8, pi. IV. (Ordovician). Chap-
man, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903,
pp. 113-117, pi. XVIII. (Ordovician); ibid., vol. XVII.
(N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 312-315, pi. XVII.; ibid., vol.
XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910, pp. 107-110, pi. XXVIII.
(Silurian). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2,
1912, pp. 212, 213, pis. XVII. XVIII. (Ordovician).
256 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
DECAPODA.
Bell, T. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. I. 1845, pp. 03, 94. Text-
fig. (Thalassina) . Woodward, H. Quart. Journ. GeoL
Soc, vol. XXXII. 1876, pp. 51-53, pi. VII. {Harpacto-
carcinus) . Idem. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
vol. VII. (2), pt. 2, 1892. pp. 301-304 pi. IV. (Prosopon) .
Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.) pt. II.
1905, pp. 356-360, pi. XXIII. (Ommatocarcinus) .
EURYPTERIDA.
McCoy, F. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp. 193, 194,,
text fig. (Pterygoius) .
INSECTA.
Woodward, H. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 337-339,.
pi. XI. (Aeschna) . Etheridge, R. jnr. and Olliff, A. S.
Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 7, 189Q
(Mesozoic and Cainozoic).
CHAPTER XII.
FOSSIL FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES,
BIRDS, AND MAMMALS.
Vertebrates. —
The above-named classes of animals are distin-
guished from those previously dealt with, by the pre-
sence of a vertebral column. The vertebral axis may
be either cartilaginous as in some fishes, or bony as
in the greater number of animals belonging to this
subkingdom.
Chordata. —
LINKS BETWEEN THE INVERTEBRATES
AND FISHES. — The curious little ascidians or "sea-
squirts, " belonging to the group Tunicata, are held
by some authorities to be the degenerate descendants
of a free-swimming animal having a complete noto-
chord and nerve-tube, structures which are now only
seen in the tails of their tadpole-like larvae. The
fully developed tunicate is generally sessile and pro-
vided with a thick outer coat (tunic) and muscular
inner lining. This outer coat in some forms, as
Leptoclinurn, is strengthened with tiny calcareous
spicules, and these are sometimes found in the fossil
257 q
258 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
state in Cainozoic clays, as well as in some of the
calcareous deep-sea oozes. The little stellate spicules
of Leptoclinum are abundant in the Balcombian clays
of Mornington, Victoria.
Another primitive form with a notochord is the
Lancelet, but this, having no hard parts, is not found
in the fossil state.
Primitive Types of Fishes. —
FISHES. — The remains of fishes are naturally
more abundant in the fossil condition, owing to their
aquatic habits, than those of other vertebrates. The
earliest fishes were probably entirely cartilaginous,
and some have left only a mere trace or impression
on the rocks in which they were embedded. These
primitive fishes have no lower jaw, and are without
paired limbs. They are sometimes placed in a class
by themselves (AGNATHA). The orders of this
primitive fish series as represented in Australasia are
the Osteostraci ("bony shells"), of which the re-
mains of the Cephalaspis-like head-shield of Thyestes
has been found in the Silurian of N.E. Gippsland,
Victoria (Fig. 122) ; and the Antiarchi, with its
many-plated cuirass, armoured body-appendages, in-
ternal bony tissue, and coarsely tuberculated exterior,
as seen in Asterolepis australis, a fossil occasionally
found in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan,
Gippsland.
True Fishes. — Devonian. —
Of the true fishes (Pisces), the Elasmobranchii
("slit-gills"), a sub-class to which the modern sharks
belong, are represented in the Devonian series by the
paired spines of a form resembling Climatius, found
FISHES.
259
both in Victoria and New South Wales. Remains
of Dipnoi ("double-breather" or lung-fishes) occur
in the Devonian of Barker Gorge, Western Austra-
lia, represented by a new species allied to Coccostens
("berry-bone" fish) ; and in a bed of the same age
at the Murrumbidgee River, New South Wales by
the cranial buckler of Ganorhynclius siissmilchi.
Carboniferous Fishes. —
The Lower Carboniferous sandstone of Burnt
Creek and other localities near Mansfield, Victoria,
contains an abundant fish fauna, associated with stems
fig. 122— Incomplete Head-Shield of Thyestes magnificus, Chapm.
From the Saurian tYeringian) of Wombat Creek, N.E. Gippsland.
4/5 nat. size
260
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
fig. 123
Gyracanthides murrayi,
A. S. Woodw.
X,. Carboniferous. Mansfield,
Victoria.
(Restoration).
About 1/12 nat. size
fig. 124 -TEETH and SCALES of PALAEOZOIC and
MESOZOIC fISHES.
A,,
: -
. ^^.^^ x
r~
A— Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodw. T,. Carboniferous. Victoria
B— Elonichth.\s sweeti, A S. Woodw. Iv Carboniferous. Victoria
C— Corax anstralis, Chapm. I,. Cretaceous. Queensland
D— Belonostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and Woodw. I,. Cretaceous. Q.
FISHES. 261
of Lepidodendron. The slabs of sandstone are often
ripple-marked and show signs of tracks and castings
of shore-living animals. These deposits were prob-
ably laid down in shallow water at the shore margin
or in salt lagoons or brackish areas skirting the coast,
into which at intervals the remains of the giant
lycopods were drifted. The more important of these
fish remains are Elasmobranchs, as Gyracanthides
murrayi (Fig. 123) and Acanthodes australis; the
Dipnoan, Ctenodus breviceps; a Rhizodont or fringe-
finned ganoid, Strepsodus decipiens (Fig. 124 A);
and a genus related to Palaeoniscus, Elonichthys (E.
sweeti9 Fig. 124 B, and E. gibbus). The defence
spines of Gyracanthides are fairly abundant in the
sandstones; whilst on some slabs the large enamelled
scales of Strepsodus are equally conspicuous.
From the sandstones of the same age, Lower Car-
boniferous, in the Grampians of Western Victoria,
some small but well-preserved spines belonging to
the genus Physonemus have been found associated
with a new variety of the well-known European Car-
boniferous brachiopod, Lingula squamiformis (var.
borungensis).
Carbopermian Fishes. —
In the Carbopermian (Gympie Beds) of the Rock-
hampton District, Queensland, a tooth of a Coch-
liodont (" snail tooth") occurs, which has been
doubtfully referred to the genus Deltodus ( ? D. aus-
tralis). The Cochliodontidae show dentition remark-
ably like that of the Cestracion or Port Jackson
Shark. Another tooth having the same family rela-
262 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
tionship has been referred to Tomodus ? convex us,
Agassiz; this is from the Carbopermian of the Port
Stephen district of New South Wales. Prom the
Newcastle Coal Measures in New South Wales a
Palaeoniscus-like fish, Urosthenes australis has been
described.
Carbopermian fish remains are rare in Western
Australia. They comprise a wrinkled tooth of
Edestus (E. davisii) from the Gascoyne River, be-
longing to a fish closely related to the Port Jackson
shark; and a cochliodont, Poecilodus (P. jonesi, Ag.)
from the Kimberley district.
Triassic Fishes. —
Fossil fishes are important and numerous in Aus-
tralian Triassic beds, especially in New South Wales.
At the base of the Hawkesbury or close of the Nar-
rabeen series, the railway ballast quarry near Gos-
ford has yielded an extensive and extremely inter-
esting collection. Near the floor of the quarry there
is a band of sandy shale and laminated sandstone
5 feet 9 inches in thickness, and this contains the fol-
lowing genera : — A dipnoan, Gosfordia; and the fol-
lowing ganoids or enamelled scale fishes — Myriolepis,
Apateolepis, Dictyopyge, Belonorhynchas, Semiono-
tus, Pristisoynus (see antea, Fig. 18), Cleithrolepis
(Fig. 125), Pholidophorus and ? Peltopleurus.
Upper Triassic Fishes. —
In the middle of the Wianamatta or Upper Trias
Series at St. Peter 's, near Sydney, which contains
a fauna described as slightly older in aspect than
that of Gosford, having Carbopermian affinities,
FISHES. 263
\^Xw-V'V\\VtC-' •'- ' ■ : '^''V^vfieaaK^
wmm<v>xM^m ,*
r^-'V- '' • -■; 40-
' ■"■.^■■■■t
;;>;:;■;;;? ■\';\>W{W
.v.'- ;',:.: • . <;'• ■;:r'^-'-
i n
Fig. 125 — Cleithrolepis granulatus, Egcrton.
Triassic (Hawkesbury Series). Gosford, New South Wales,
nat. size. {After Smith Woodward).
there occur in the hard shale or claystone the genera
Plenracanthus (a Palaeozoic shark) ; Sagenodus (a
dipnoan related to Ctenodus of the Victorian Car-
boniferous; and the following ganoids, — Palaeonis-
cus, Elonichthys, Myriolepis, Elpisopholis, Platyso-
mus and Acentrophorus. Prom the soft shales were
obtained Pdlaeoniscus, Sernionotus, Cleithrolepis and
Pholidophorus ; an assemblage of genera somewhat
comparable with the Gosford fauna.
Lower Mesozoic Fishes. —
From the Lower Mesozoic sandstone ( ?Triassic) of
Tasmania, two species of Acrolepis have been de-
scribed, viz., A. hamiltoni and A. tasmanicus. The
former occurs in the thick bed of sandstone, of nearly
264
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
1,000 feet, at Knocklofty; the latter species in the
sandstone with Vertebraria conformably overlying
the Carbopermian at Tinderbox Bay.
Tig. 126— REMAINS of JURASSIC and OTHER
VERTEBRATES.
1 — Ceratodus avus, A. S. Wobdw. I^eft splenial with lower tooth.
Cape Paterson, Victoria. About % nat. size
2 — Ceratodus forsteri, Krefft. I^eft lower tooth. giving. Queens-
land. About lA nat. size
3 — Phalangeal of Carnivorous Dinosaur. Cape Paterson. About
zi nat. size
4— Phalangeal of Megalosaurian. Wealden, Sussex, England.
M nat. size
Jurassic Pishes. —
The Jurassic beds of Victoria contain three genera.
Psilichthys selwyni, a doubtful palaeoniscid was de-
scribed from Carapook, Co. Dundas; whilst Lepto-
FISHES. 265
Fig. 127— Scale of Ceratodus (Neoceratodus) (?)avus, A. S. Woodw.
Jurassic. Kirrak, S. Gippsland, Victoria. About nat. size
lepis, a genus found in the Trias of New South Wales
and the Lias and Oolite of Europe, is represented by
L. crassicauda from Casterton, associated with the
typical Jurassic fern, Taeniopteris. In the Jurassic
beds of South Gippsland, at Cape Paterson, an inter-
esting splenial tooth of the mudfish, Ceratodus, was
found, named C. avus (Fig. 126). Since then, in a
bore-core from Kirrak near the same place a fish
scale was discovered (Fig. 127) which, by its shape,
size and structure seems to differ in no way from the
living lung-fish of Queensland (Fig. 128). It
is reasonable to infer that tooth and scale belong to
266
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
•-> f
/> '
.-V
ilik4
! '. "» '. *.
, V v w
\
w
-
wSEf-
Fig. 1 28 — The Queensland Lung-Pish
or Barratnunda (Neoceratodus forsteri). About l/12th. nat. size
{After Lydekker, in Warners Natural History).
Fig. 1 29— Leptolepis gregarius, A. S. Woodw.
Talbragar Series, Jurassic. Talbragar River, New South Wales
Y2 nat. size
FISHES. 267
the same species ; and in view of the close relationship
of the tooth with that of the living mudfish, rather
than with that of the Ceratodus found fossil in the
Mesozoic of Europe, it may be referred to Ncoccra-
todus, in which genus the living species is now placed.
From the Jurassic beds (Talbragar Series) of New
South Wales, an interesting collection of ganoid fishes
has been described, comprising Coccolepis australis,
Aphnelepis australis, Aetheolepis mirabilis, Archaeo-
maene tenuis, A. robustus, Leptolepis talbragar ensis,
L. lowei and L. gregarina (Fig. 129).
Lower Cretaceous Pishes. —
Fish remains are fairly abundant in the Lower Cre-
taceous of Queensland. They comprise both the
sharks and the ganoids. Of the sharks, a specimen,
showing seven conjoined vertebrae has been named
Lamna daviesii, from the Richmond Downs, Flinders
River district; and a tooth referred to Lamna appen-
diculatus, Agassiz, from Kamileroy, Leichhardt
River, N.W. Queensland. The typical Cretaceous
genus Corax is represented by a small tooth named
C. australis (Fig. 124 C), from the Hamilton River,
Queensland, and which closely approaches the tooth
of Corax affinis, Agassiz, from the Upper Cretaceous
of Europe. Of the ganoid fishes two genera, both
members of the family Aspidorhynchidae, have been
found in Queensland. Aspidorhynchus sp. and Be-
lonostomus sweeti (Fig. 124 D) have both occurred
at Hughenden, Flinders River district. The former
genus has a slender body and produced rostrum; in
Europe it is more characteristic of Jurassic strata.
Belonostomus ranges from the Upper Oolite, Bavaria,
268
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
to the Upper Cretaceous in other parts of the world.
Remains of a species of Portheus, one of the predace-
ous fishes which lived in the Cretaceous period, con-
sisting* of a portion of the cranium with the anterior
part of the jaws, has been obtained from the Rolling
Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) near Hughen-
den, Queensland.
Cretaceous Fishes, New Zealand. —
The Cretaceous beds of New Zealand are grouped
in ascending order as the Waipara Greensands, the
Amuri Limestone and the Weka Pass Stone. In the
Waipara beds occur the teeth of Notidanus margina-
Fig. 130-CRETACEOUS and CAINOZOIC FISH-TEETH.
A— Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand
B — Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cainozoic. New Zealand
C— Oxyrhina hastalis, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria
D — Iyamna apiculata, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria
H — Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainv. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
F — Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand
FISHES. 269
lis (Fig. 130 A), and X. dentatus. In the Amuri
Limestone N. dentatus is again found, as well as the
genus Lamna, represented by L. compressa, Ag.
(originally described as L. marginalise Davis), L. car-
inata and L. hectori. Two forms of "Elephant fish,?
are represented by their dental plates, namely Cal-
lorhynchus hectori (Fig. 130 B) and Ischyodus thur-
manni, Pictet and Campiche (recorded as I. brevi-
rostris, Ag.).
Cainozoic Fishes. —
Fish remains principally consisting of teeth, are
common fossils in the Cainozoic beds of southern Aus-
tralia, particularly in Victoria, and also in New Zea-
land.
Balcombian Series, Southern Australia. —
The Balcombian beds as seen at Mornington and in
the Lower Beds at Muddy Creek, Hamilton, contain
the teeth of sharks as Odontaspis contortidens, Lamna
crassidens, L. apiculata, Oxyrhina hastalis (rarely),
0. minuta, Car char odon megalodon, and C. robust us.
Janjukian. —
The Janjukian Series (Miocene), represented at
Torquay, Waurn Ponds and Table Cape, contains an
abundant fish fauna, including amongst sharks, Ces-
tracion cainozoicus, Aster acanthus eocaenicus, Galeo-
cerdo davisi, Carcharoides totuserratus, Odontaspis
contortidens, 0. incurva, 0. cuspidata, Lamna crassi-
dens, L. apiculata (Fig. 130 D), L. compressa, L.
bronni, Oxyrhina hastalis (occasional) (Fig. 130 C),
0. desori, 0. retroflexa, 0. minuta, Car char odon
auriculatus (Fig. 130 E), C. megalodon and C.
robustus. A species of chimaeroid or Elephant fish
270
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
is represented by a left mandibular tooth named
Ischyodus mortoni, from the Table Cape Beds, Tas-
mania.
The Corio Bay series contains teeth of Acanthias
geelongensis, Spkyrna prisca, Odontaspis contorti-
dens, 0. attenuata, Oxyrhina minuta, Carcharodon
rnegalodon, amongst sharks ; whilst the spine of a Por-
cupine Fish, Diodon connewarrensis has been ob-
tained from the clays of Lake Connewarre, Victoria.
Kalimnan. —
The Kalimnan Series is also prolific in the re-
mains of fishes, the principal localities being Beau-
maris and Grange Burn, Hamilton. Amongst the
sharks there found are, Notidanus jenningsi (related
rig. 131— CAINOZOIC PISH REMAINS.
A— Carcbaroides tenuidens, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janj.) Victoria
B — Odontaspis contortidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal ) Victoria
C — Galeocerdo latidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
D — Myliobatis morrabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.)
Victoria
K — Iyabrodon confertidens. Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.
F — Diodon formosus, Chapm and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal ) Vict.
FISHES. 271
to the Indian Grey Shark), Cestracion cainozoicus
(related to the Port Jackson Shark), Asteracanthus
eocaenicus, Galeocerdo davisi, G. latidens (Fig. 131 C),
G. aduncus, Odontaspis contortidens (Fig. 131 B),
0. incurva, 0. cuspidata, 0. attenuata, Lamna
apiculata, L. compressa, Oxyrhina hast alls (abun-
dant), 0. desori, O. retro flexa, 0. eocaena, 0. minuta,
Carcharodon auricidatus and C. megalodon. An ex-
tinct species of Sting Ray, Myliobatis moorabbinen-
sis (Fig. 131 D), is found at Beaumaris, represented
by occasional palatal teeth. Mandibular and palatine
teeth of an extinct genus of Elephant Fish, Edapho-
don (E. sweeti) are occasionally found at Beaumaris,
and at Grange Burn near Hamilton. Two extinct
forms of the Wrasse family, the Labridae, are found
in Victoria; the pharyngeals of Labrodon conferti-
dens (Fig. 131E) , occurring at Grange Burn, Hamil-
ton, and those of L. depresses, at Beaumaris. The
palatal jaws of a Porcupine Fish, Diodon formosus
(Fig. 131 F), are frequently met with at the base of
the Kalimnan Series, both at Grange Burn and Beau-
maris.
Oamani Series, New Zealand. —
In New Zealand the Oamaru Series, which is com-
parable in age with the Victorian Janjukian, contains
numerous fish remains, chiefly teeth of sharks. These
are: Notidanus primigenius, N. marginalis (also
occurring in the Waipara Series), Galeocerdo davisi,
Odontaspis incurva, 0. cuspidata, 0. attenuata, Lam-
na apiculata, L. compressa, Oxyrhina retroflexa, Car-
charodon auricidatus, C. megalodon and C. robustus.
The teeth of a Sting Ray, Myliobatis plicatilis
272 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
and of a species of Sea-bream, Sargus laticonus, also
occur in this series (Fig. 130 F).
Pleistocene. —
A species of fish belonging to the family of the
Perches, Ctenolates avus, has been described from
freshwater carbonaceous shale of Pleistocene age
from Nimbin on the Richmond River, New South
Wales.
Amphibians: Their Structure. —
AMPHIBIANS. — This group includes amongst liv-
ing forms the Frogs, Toads, Newts, and Salamanders.
The remains of amphibia are rare in Australasian
rocks, and practically limited to the group of the
Triassic Labyrinthodonts. The Amphibia are distin-
guished from Reptiles by certain changes which their
young undergo after leaving the egg. In this inter-
mediate stage they breathe by external gills, these
being sometimes retained together with the internal
lungs in the adult stage. In the older forms of this
group the vertebra is of the nature of a notochord,
the joints consisting of a thin bony ring with a gela-
tinous interior. The Labyrinthodontia have a long,
lizard-like body, short pectoral limbs as compared
with the pelvic, and five-toed feet. The skull is com-
pletely roofed over. The teeth are pointed, with a
large pulp cavity and wall of infolded or plicated
dentine (hence the name labyrinthodont — maze-,
cooth). The vertebrae are hollow on both sides, some-
times imperfectly ossified, and with a notochordal
canal. Ventral aspect with bony thoracic plates.
Cranial bones deeply sculptured, and carrying mucus
canals.
REPTILES.
273
Carbopermian Labyrinthodonts. —
The genus Bothriceps, probably an Archego-
saurian, is represented by two species, B. australis
and B. major from New South Wales (Fig. 132).
The latter species occurs in the Oil Shale (Carboper-
mian) of Airly.
Tig. 1 32— Bothriccps major, A. S. Woodward.
Carbopermian. New South Wales. About 1/llth. nat. size
{After A. S. Woodward) .
Triassic Labyrinthodonts. —
Prom the Hawkesbury Series near Gosford, New
South Wales, the labyrinthodont, Platyceps wilkin-
soni has been described. The skeleton is nearly com-
plete and exposed on the ventral face; the head is
274 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
27mm. long and 32mm. broad. This specimen is
associated with the remains of ganoid fishes, as
Palaeoniscus and Cleithrolepis, together with the
equisetum-like plant Phyllotheca.
Other, somewhat doubtful remains having similar
affinities to the labyrinthodonts are also recorded
from the Wianamatta beds (Upper Trias) at Bowral,
New South "Wales, consisting of a maxilla with teeth
and 11 vertebrae with ribs of the left side. Eemains
of a labyrinthodont, Biloela, supposed to be related
to MastodonsauruSy have been recorded from the
Hawkesbury Series of Cockatoo Island, Port Jackson,
New South Wales, by W. J. Stephens, and consisting
of a pectoral plate compared by that author with M.
robustus (now transferred to the genus Capitosau-
rus).
The only other recorded remains of this group in
Australasia are those noted by W. J. Stephens from
the Kaihiku Series (Trias) at Nugget Point, Otago;
and in the Otapiri Series (Upper Trias) of the Wai-
roa district, New Zealand.
Reptilia: Their Structure. —
REPTILIA. — The Reptiles are cold-blooded, ver-
tebrated animals, with a scaly skin or armour. Their
respiration is essentially by means of lungs, and they
are terrestrial or aquatic in habit. The skeleton is
completely ossified (bony). Reptiles, although re-
sembling amphibians externally, are more differenti-
ated in structure and of generally larger proportions.
They exhibit great diversity of form, especially as
regards their extremities. They were even adapted
REPTILES. 275
for flying, as in the Pterosaurs ("Flying Dragons")
with their membranous wing attached to the anterior
limb. The Deinosaurs ("Terrible Reptiles") were
often of great size, exceeding the dimensions of any
land mammals, and their limbs were adapted for
walking. The marine reptiles, as the Ichthyosauria
("Fish-lizards") and Sauropterygia ("lizard-
finned") had the limbs transformed into paddles.
The neural spines in the vertebra of the Turtles are
laterally expanded into a carapace and united with
dermal plates. The vertebrae of Reptilia show great
variation of form, being biplanate (amphiplatyan),
biconcave (amphicoelus), hollow in front (procoe-
lus), or hollow at the back (opisthocoelus). In the
case of Reptiles having both pairs of limbs developed,
the cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal regions may
be separately distinguished. Amongst the Ophidia
(Snakes), Pythonomorpha ("Sea-lizards") and Ich-
thyosaurs ("Fish-lizards") there is no differentiated
sacral region. The skull of the Reptiles is nearer
that of Birds than Amphibians. The basiocciput
(basal bone of the skull at the back) articulates with
the atlas (top joint of the backbone) by means of a
single condyle (protuberance). All reptiles, with
the exception of the Chelonians (Turtles), and a few
others, are furnished with teeth: these are formed
chiefly of dentine with a layer of enamel.
Dentition. —
Some teeth have solid crowns (pleodont) ; some grow
from persistent pulps (coelodont) ; socketed teeth
(thecodont) are inserted in alveoli; some are fused
with the supporting bone along the outer rim or top
276 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
(acrodont) ; whilst others are developed laterally
along the flange-like inner rim of the jaw (pleuro-
dont ) .
Permian and Triassic Reptiles. —
The history of Reptilia commences in Permian
and Triassic times, when they were notably repre-
sented by the Theromorphs, Pareiasaarus and Trity-
lodon in South Africa; the Proterosauria of the
European and American Permian and Trias, repre-
sented by the lizard-like Palaeohatteria and the dor-
sally frilled Dimetrodon, with its formidable array
of neural spines; also the Rhynchosauria, with their
beak-like jawTs of the same formations. These two
groups constitute the order Rhynchocephalia, which
is represented at the present day by the Tuatera of
New Zealand.
Triassic Reptile, New Zealand. —
The earliest Australian reptilian record is
that of a vertebra of Ichthyosaurus from the
Kaihiku Series of Mount Potts, New Zealand (Trias-
sic). This specimen was named I. australis by Hec-
tor, but since that species name was preoccupied by
McCoy in 1867 it is suggested here that the New Zea-
land species should be distinguished as I. hectori.
The New Zealand occurrence of Ichthyosaurus makes
the geological history of the genus very ancient in
this part of the world.
Jurassic Reptiles. —
At Cape Paterson, Victoria, in the Jurassic coal-
bearing sandstone an extremely interesting discovery
was made a few years ago, of the ungual bone (claw)
REPTILES.
277
of a carnivorous Deinosaur, probably related to Mega-
losaurus of the European Jurassic and Cretaceous
beds (See Fig. 126, 3, 3 A). The presence of an ani-
mal like this in Australia points to the former exis-
tence of a concomitant terrestrial animal fauna, upon
which the deinosaur must have preyed.
Lower Cretaceous Reptiles. —
The Rolling Downs formation (Lower Cretaceous)
of the Thompson and Flinders Rivers in Queensland
has yielded remains of a Tortoise. NotocJielone cos-
tata (see antea, Fig. 17) ; and the interesting Fish-
lizard Ichthyosaurus. Numerous and well preserved
remains of I. austrdlis, McCoy come from the Flin-
ders River (Fig. 133) ; whilst I. marathonensis is re-
corded from Marathon Station t Queensland. The
former species is typically represented by a nearly
complete skeleton, and was considered by McCoy to
fig. 1 33— Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy.
A-Part of head, showing eye protected by sclerotic plates
B-Left pectoral paddle. L. Cretaceous. Flinders River, Queens-
land. Vs nat. size
{Nat. Mus. Coll,)
278
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
be one of the largest examples of the genus, since a
perfect specimen would probably reach the length
of 25 feet. Its teeth resemble those of I. campy-
lodon, Carter, from the English Chalk. Of the
Sauropterygia two species of Pliosaurus (P. macro-
spondylus and P. sutherlandi) have been described
from the Lower Cretaceous of the Flinders River;
whilst the latter species has also occurred at Pitchery
Creek, Central Queensland and at Marathon. P.
macrospondyhts is distinguished from P. sutherlandi
by the roughened edges of the vertebral centra.
Another genus of the "lizard-finned" reptiles
Pig. 134— FOSSIL REPTILES.
A— Taniwhasaurus oweni, Hector. (I^ower jaw). Cretaceous.
New Zealand
B — Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Teeth). Up. Crttaceous.
New South Wales , ,'
C— Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus. Eth. fil. (Phalangeal). Up.
Cretaceous. New South Wales
D— Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene. Queensland
REPTILES. 279
(Sauropterygia), viz., Cimoliosaurus, occurs in the
Upper Cretaceous of White Cliffs, New South Wales
(Pig. 134 B,C.)
Cretaceous Reptiles, New Zealand. —
The Waipara Series (Cretaceous) of New Zealand
contains a fairly large number of reptilian species
belonging to several genera among which may be
mentioned Plesiosaurus, Polycotylns, and Cimolio-
saurus among the Sauropterygia; and Tylosaurus
and Taniwhasaurus (Pig. 134 A), marine lizard-like
reptiles, belonging to the sub-order Pythonomopha.
Cainozoic and Pleistocene Reptiles. —
The later Cainozoic deposits of Queensland con-
tain remains of Crocodiles referred to Pallymnar-
chus pollens (from Mary vale Creek) and Crocodilus
porosus (from Chinchilla and Areola, near Brisbane,
Queensland). The former species has also occurred
at Clunes, whilst Crocodilus porosus is recorded from
the Loddon Valley, both in Victoria. Another late
Tertiary reptile is the remarkable Horned Turtle,
Miolania oweni, which is found in Queensland in
Pleistocene deposits (Pig. 134 D), and in the Plio-
cene (Deep Leads) of Gulgong, New South Wales;
whilst a second species of the same genus, M. platy-
cepSy is found in coral sand at Lord Howe Island,
400 miles distant from Australia. This genus has a
skull with large bony protuberances, giving it a
horned appearance, and the tail is encased in a bony
siie&th. A species of Miolania is also described from
Patagonia. The Cave deposits of Wellington Valley,
New South Wales, as well as the fluviatile deposits
280 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
of Queensland, have, yielded the bones of several
genera of lizards, including the Giant Lizard (Mega-
lania), which, in its length of 20 feet exceeded that
of most living crocodiles.
Birds. —
BIRDS {AYES). — These warm-blooded animals
are closely related to Reptiles in many essential parti-
culars; and are generally considered to more nearly
approach the Deinosaurs than any other group. The
Ratitae ("Raft-breasted" or keel-less birds) and
Carinatae (with keeled breast-bones), a sub-class
including most modern birds, were probably differen-
tiated before the Cainozoic period.
Jurassic Bird. —
The oldest recorded bird, the remarkable
Archaeopteryx, of the Upper Jurassic of Bavaria in
Europe, belonging to the Saururae (Reptilian-
tailed) is, so far, restricted to the beds of that age.
Miocene Bird, New Zealand. —
The earliest known birds in Australasia occur in
the Miocene rocks (Oamaru Series), of New Zealand.
In this series, in the Marawhenua Greensands, a
Giant Penguin, Palaee udyptes antarcticus is found at
Kakanui near Oamaru, at Curiosity Shop
near Christchurch and at Brighton near Nel-
son, New Zealand: this interesting occurrence
shows that these restricted antarctic birds had
already become an established type as early as
the Miocene. 7
BIRDS.
281
Victorian Cainozoic Bird. —
The impression of a bird's feather, probably of
a Wader, has lately been described from Western
Victoria (see antea Fig. 16 and Fig. 135). This
occurs in ironstone, on the surface of which are also
impressions of Gum {Eucalyptus) and Native Honey-
suckle (Banksia) leaves, of species closely related to
those now growing in the same locality. This iron-
stone is probably of Janjukian age, and may there-
fore be coincident with the New Zealand occurrence
of the Palaeeudyptes in the Oamaru Series.
Pliocene Moa, New Zealand. —
In the Wanganui System (Pliocene) the Putiki
Beds have yielded bones of a small Moa (Dinornis),
probably the oldest example of the group of great
flightless birds which later predominated in New Zea-
land. J.;
fig. 135— Impression of Bird's Feather in Ironstone.
Wannon River, Victoria, (Enlarged).
282 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Pleistocene Struthious Birds, Australia. —
Bones of a struthious or Ostrich-like bird, described
by Owen under the name of Dromornis aastralis, a
bird as large as the Moa, have been recorded from the
Pleistocene of Peak Downs and the Paroo Kiver,
Queensland. Indeterminate species of the same
genera occur in Phillip Co., New South Wales, and
the Mount Gambier Caves, South Australia; whilst
Dromaeus patricius is known from King's Creek,
Darling Downs, Queensland.
Genyornis newtorii is an extinct bird allied to the
Emeus; it has been found in Pleistocene deposits at
Lake Callabonna, South Australia, and other frag-
mentary remains have been identified by Dr. Stirling
and Mr. Zietz from Mount Gambier and Queensland.
Regarding the build and habits of Genyornis, those
authors remark that "Its legs combine a huge femur
nearly as massive, in all but length, as that of Dinor-
nis maximus, and a tibia equalling that of
Pachyomis elephant opus with the relatively slender
metatarse of Dinornis novae-zealandiae (ingens) and
toes which are insignificant beside those of any of the
larger moas." . . . "In height it may be con-
fidently stated to have been from 6 feet to 6 feet 6
inches, that is if the neck should have been of propor-
tions similar to those of Pachyomis elephant opus."
Those authors also attribute a slow, sluggish habit to
the bird, and suggest that herbage rather than roots
formed its food. It is very probable that the foot-
prints of birds found in the older dune rock of Warr-
nambool, Victoria, associated with the doubtful
"human footprints" may have been made by Genyor-
nis or a related form.
BIRDS. 283
An extinct Emu, Dromaeus minor, has lately been
described from the sub-recent deposits in King Island,
Bass Strait.
Pleistocene Carinate Birds, Australia. —
Many genera of carinate birds belonging to living
Australian types have been identified by De Vis from
the fluviatile deposits on the Darling Downs, Queens-
land. These include Falcons (Taphaetus and
Necrastur) ; a Pelican (Pelicanus) ; an Ibis (Palaeo-
pelargus) ; a Spoonbill (Platalea) ; Ducks (Anas,
Dendrocygna, Biziura and Nyroca) ; a Darter
(Plotus) ; a Pigeon (Lithophaps) ; a Ground-pigeon
(Progura) ; a Mound-builder (Chosornis) ; a Rail
(Porphyrio) ; Moor-hens (Gallinula, Tribonyx and
Fulica) ; and a Stork (Xenorhynchus).
Pleistocene and Holocene Birds, New Zealand. —
In New Zealand numerous remains of birds are
found, chiefly in the Pleistocene strata, associated
with Moa bones: such are Cnemiornis, the Flightless
Pigeon Goose (Fig. 135); Harpagomis, a predatory
hawk-like bird larger than any existing eagle; and
Aptornis, an extinct Rail. The sand-dunes, peat
bogs, swamps, river alluvium, caves and rock
shelters of New Zealand often contain numerous
remains of the gigantic Moa birds included in the
genera Dinornis, Pachyornis and Anornalopteryx, of
which perhaps the best known are D. giganteus, D.
maximus (Fig. 136), D. robustus, P. elephantopns
(Fig. 137), and A. antiqua. Some of the species
have become so recently extinct that remains of their
skin and feathers have been preserved in fissures in
284
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
MAMMALS.
285
the rocks where they were shielded from the influence
of air and moisture. The remains of Moa birds are
very abundant in some of the localities as at Hamil-
ton in Southland, where, as Hutton estimated, the
remains of at least 400 birds were contained within
a radius of 25 feet.
Fig. 1 38— Pachyornis elephantopus, Owen sp.
Pleistocene. New Zealand. About l/26th. nat. size.
(After Owen).
Mammalia: Early Types. —
MAMMALIA.— The history of those warm-blooded
animals, the mammals, commences in the early part
of the Mesozoic period. It was then that the skull be-
gan to assume the characters seen in the modern quad-
286 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
rupeds, and their well-formed limb-bones, and fusion
of the three bones on each side of the pelvic arch to
form the innominate bone, also show relationship to
the later types. The earliest ancestral mammalian
forms seem to be related to the theromorphic reptiles,
predominant in the Permian and Trias. The
mammals first to make their appearance were pro-
bably related to those of the Monotreme and Mar-
supial orders. More nearly related to the former is
the group of mammals of the Mesozoic period, the
Multituberculata.
Multituberculata. —
This group comprises the Triassic Tritylodon
(South Africa and Germany) ; the Upper Jurassic
Bolodon (England and United States) ; the Upper
Jurassic to Lower Cainozoic Plagiaulax (England,
United States and France) ; and the Lower Eocene
Poly mas to don (New Mexico). The molar teeth are
ridged longitudinally, and carry numerous tubercles,
hence the name of the group, and resemble the
deciduous teeth of the Duck-billed Platypus (Orni-
thorhynchus) .
Monotremata. —
The Monotremata are represented at the present
day in Australia and New Guinea by the Echidna or
Spiny Anteater, and by the Ornithorhynchus or
Duck-billed Platypus of Eastern Australia and Tas-
mania. These egg-laying mammals show relation-
ship towards the reptiles both in structure and in
methods of reproduction.
A Pliocene species of Ornithorhynchus (0. maxi-
miis) has been recorded from the Deep-leads of Gul-
MAMMALS. 287
gong, New South Wales, and the same beds have
yielded the remains of Echidna (Proechidna)
robusta. Remains of another species, Echidna,
(P.) oweni, have been described from the Pleisto-
cene Cave-breccias of the Wellington Valley Caves,
New South Wales; and Ornithorhynchus agilis is
found in deposits of similar age in Queensland.
Marsupials. —
The Marsupials or pouched mammals belong to the
sub- class Metatheria. They are divided into Dipro-
todontia and Polyprotodontia, accordingly as they
possess a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower
jaw, or many front teeth, hence the names of the two
sub-orders. A later classification of the Marsupials
is that of their division into syndactyla and dia-
dactyla.
The diadactyla have the second and third toes
separate, and are represented by the family
Dasyuridae or Native Cats. These are polyproto-
dont. They are the most archaic of the marsupial
group. Remains of Dasyurus, both of extinct and
still living species are found in Pleistocene Cave-
breccias in Victoria and New South Wales. The
Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus ur sinus) (Fig. 138,
139) and the Tasmanian Wolf {Thylacinus cynoceph-
alus), still living in Tasmania, have left numerous
remains on the mainland, in Victoria and New South
Wales. Of the latter genus an extinct species is T.
major from the Pleistocene of Queensland (Fig. 140).
288
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 139
Skeleton of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp.
(Tasmanian devil).
(F. J. Moore, prep.)
The syndactyla have the second and third toes;
enclosed in a common skin. The Peramelidae and the
Notoryctidae are polyprotodont. The remainder are
Tig. 140
Skull of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).
Pleistocene. Queenscliff, Victoria. About V2 nat. size
{After McCoy).
MAMMALS.
289
Tig. 141 — Thylacinus major, Owen.
Hind part of mandible, outer side. Pleistocene. Queensland.
Y2 nat. size
all diprotodont. The Peramelidae or Bandicoot
family are represented in Pleistocene Cave-breccias
in New South Wales by the genera Peragale and
Perameles.
Pleistocene Diprotodonts. —
Pleistocene remains of the diprotodont forms of this
syndactylous group are Phascolomys (the Wombat),
perhaps ranging as low as Upper Pliocene (P. plio-
cenus) (Fig. 141) ; Phascolonus (P. gigas) (Fig.
142 A)1, a large Wombat from Queensland and New
South Wales and South Australia; the Giant Kan-
garoos, as Macropus titan (Queensland, New South
1. — This genus was described by Owen in 1872 as a sub-
genus of Phascolomys founded on some cheek-teeth; and sub-
sequently, in 1884, the same author described some incisors
under the name of Sceparnodon ram say i, which are now known
to belong to the same animal that bore the cheek-teeth.
290 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Pig. 142— Mandible of Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy
(?) Upper Pliocene (''Gold Cement.') Dunolly, Vict.
About V2 nat. size. {After McCoy).
AVales, Victoria and South Australia), Procoptodon
goliah (Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria),
Sthenarus atlas (New South Wales, Queensland,
Victoria and South Australia), Palorchestes azael
(Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland) ; also
the great Diprotodon, the largest known marsupial,
as large as, and rather taller than, a rhinoceros,
MAMMALS. 291
Pig. 143-CAINOZOIC TEETH and OTOLITH.
A— Phascolonus gigas, Owen. (Molar). Pleistocene. Queensland
B-Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.
C—Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Incisor). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.
D— Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. (Molar). Cainozoic (janj.)
South Austral:a
E— Kekenodon onamata, Hector. (Molar). Cainozoic (Oamarnian).
New Zealand
F— Cetotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. (Tympanic bone). Cainozoic (Janj.)
Victoria
Plei-tocene.
Fig. 1 44— Diprotodon australis, Owen.
South Australia. {After Stirling and Zeitz).
292
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Fig. 145— Upper Surface of the Right Hind Foot of
Diprotodon australis.
A— With the Astragalus (ankle-bone) in position.
B — „ ,, ,, ,, removed.
Cir. Y& nat. size.
fig. 146 — Diprotodon australis, Owen. (Restored).
From a sketch by C. H. Angas.
MAMMALS.
293
found in almost every part of Australia, with an
allied form referred to Nototherium occurring also
in Tasmania (Figs. 143, 144, 145). Nototherium
(Queensland, South Australia and Victoria), was
a smaller animal than Diprotodon, with a shorter
and broader skull and similar dentition. Remains of
the extinct "Marsupial Lion," Thylacoleo carnifex,
an animal allied to the phalangers, have been found
in Cave-deposits in New South Wales, Queensland,
Victoria and Western Australia. Incised bones of
other animals, which are believed to have been
gnawed by Thylacoleo, have been found associated
with its remains. Thylacoleo possessed a peculiar den-
tition, the first pair of incisors in the upper jaw being
Pig. 147— Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen.
Right lateral aspect of skull and mandible.
Pleistocene. Australia. l/5th nat. size.
c, canine, i, incisors, m, molars, p m, premolars.
294
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
very large and trenchant, whilst the canine and two
anterior premolars are small and f unctionless : the
lower jaw has also a pair of large first incisors, behind
which are two small premolars, and an enormous
chisel-edged last premolar biting against a similar
tooth in the upper jaw (Fig. 146).
Fig. 148— Wynyardia bassiana, Spencer.
Upper Cainozoic (Turritella bed). Table Cape, Tasmania.
2/7th nai. size. (Casts in Nat. Mtis. Coll.)
Oldest Known Marsupial.
The oldest marsupial found in Australia is pro-
bably Wynyardia bassiana (Fig. 147), whose remains
occurred in the Turrit ella-bed at Table Cape, which
is either of Miocene or Lower Pliocene age. This
stratum occurs above the well-known Crassatellites-
bed (Miocene) of that locality. So far as can be
gathered from its incomplete dentition, Wynyardia
represents an annectant form between the Diproto-
donts and the Polyprotodonts.
MAMMALS. 295
Pleistocene Genera, also Living. —
Besides the genera above enumerated, many other
marsupials of well-known living species are re-
presented by fossil remains in Cave-deposits and on
"sand-blows" in most of the Australian States. The
genera thus represented in the Pleistocene deposits of
Australia are Bettongia (Prehensile Rat-Kangaroo) ;
Dasyurus (Native Cat) ; Hypsiprymnus (Rat-Kan-
garoo) ; Macropus (Kangaroo) ; Perameles (Bandi-
coot) ; Petaurus (Flying Phalanger) ; Phalanger
(Cuscus) ; Phascolomys (Wombat) ; Sarcophilus
(Tasmanian Devil) ; Thylacinus (Tasmanian Wolf).
Cetacea. —
The order Cetacea includes Whales, Dolphins and
Porpoises. The earliest known forms belong to the
sub-order Archaeoceti, and whilst absent from Aus-
tralian deposits, are found in the Eocene of Europe,
Northern Africa and North America.
Odontoceti: Toothed Whales. —
Remains of Cetacea are first met with in Aus-
tralian rocks in the Oligocene (Balcombian) of Vic-
toria. At Muddy Creek near Hamilton fragments
of ribs and other bones of cetacea, not yet deter-
mined, occur in the tenacious blue clays of the lower
part of the Clifton Bank section. In Australia and
New Zealand the oldest determinable remains of this
order belong to the Odontoceti, members of which
range from Miocene to Pliocene. Teeth of the
toothed whales like Squalodon of the Miocene of
France and Bavaria have been found in New Zealand
(Kekenodon) ; in South Australia (Metasqualodon) ;
and in Victoria (Parasqualodon) . In Victoria the
296 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
teeth of Squalodontidae occur in the Janjukian beds
of Cape Otway, Waurn Ponds and Torquay, repre
sented by molars and anterior teeth of Parasqualodon
wilkinsoni (Fig. 142 B, C). The same species also
occurs at Table Cape, Tasmania, in beds of similar
age. Teeth of Metasqualodon harwoodi (Fig.
142 D ) occasionally occur in the white polyzoal rock
of the Mount Gambier district, South Australia.
The gigantic toothed whale, Kekenodon onamata
(Fig. 142 E) occurs in the Marawhenua Greensands
(Oamaru Series) at Waitaki Valley, Waihao,
Ngapara, Waikouaiti and Milburn in New Zealand.
The molar teeth of this striking species, with their
serrated crowns, measure nearly five inches in length.
Ear-bones of Whales. —
The tympanic bones of whales are not uncommon
in the Janjukian beds of Waurn Ponds, near
Geelong, Victoria ; and they are occasionally found in
the basement bed of the Kalimnan at Beaumaris, Port
Phillip. In the absence of any distinctive generic
characters they have been referred to the quasi-genus
Cetotolithes (Fig. 142 F). McCoy has expressed
the opinion that they may perhaps be referable to
the ziphioid or beaked whales, for undoubted re-
mains of that group, as teeth of Ziphius geelong ensis,
occur in these same beds ; as well as portions of their
rostrate crania, in the Kalimnan basement beds at
Grange Burn, near Hamilton. The large curved
and flattened teeth of Ziphius (Dolichodon) gee-
long ensis are occasionally found, more, or less frag-
mentary, in the polyzoal rock of Waurn Ponds.
MAMMALS.
297
Kalimnan-Scaldicetus. —
From the Kalimnan Series (Lower Pliocene) of
Beaumaris, Port Phillip, there was described a short
time since, a remarkably well preserved specimen of
Scaldicetus tooth belonging to a new form, S. macgeei
(Fig. 148). Another species of the genus, with teeth
of a slender form, has been found in the same geolo-
gical series, at Grange Burn, near Hamilton. In only
one other locality besides Australia does the genus
^m®r\
J^T^T^
:
JS
1
i
^iSSIii:'^%l
frill
1iflll|Iff|
§
i
IB
SI
§ -■ *
lififll
ill
•11
V i
1
W^y^'-S
:^J
Fig. 149. — Tooth of Scaldicetus macgeei, Chapm.
An Extinct Sperm Whale.
From the Kalimnan beds of Beaumaris, Port Phillip, Victoria.
About Va, nat. size.
298 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
occur, viz., at Antwerp, Belgium, in Crag deposits of
Lower Pliocene age.
Sirenia. —
The order Sirenia (Manatees and Dugongs) is re-
presented in the Australian Pleistocene by
Chronozoon australe. The remains consist of the
parietal and upper part of the occipital bones of the
skull, and were discovered in the fluviatile deposits
on the Darling Downs, Queensland. This fossil
skull, according to De Vis, had a shallower temporal
fossa and feebler masticating muscles, as well as a
less highly developed brain than the existing Dugong.
Carnivora. —
The order Carnivora is represented in Australia by
the Native Dog or Dingo (Canis dingo). It is by
no means a settled question whether the Dingo can
boast of very great antiquity. The evidence of
its remains having been found under volcanic tuff
beds in Victoria is not very convincing, for the-
original record does not indicate the precise position
where the bones were found. The fact of the
remains of the Dingo having been found in Cave
deposits often associated with extinct marsupials,
goes a good wray to prove its antiquity. McCoy was
strongly inclined to the view of its Pleistocene age,
and points out that it shows cranial characters inter-
mediate between the Dogs of South America and the
Old World. Fossil remains of the Dingo, associated
with Pleistocene mammalian forms have been
recorded from the Wellington Valley Caves, New
South Wales ; from the Mount Macedon Cave, near
HUMAN REMAINS. 299
Gisborne ; and in the neighbourhood of Warrnambool.
AVestern Victoria.
Pinnipedia. —
Of the fin-footed Carnivores or Seals and Wal-
ruses^ the earliest Australasian record is that of the
remains of a small seal in the Okehu shell-beds near
Wanganui, found in association with the bones of a
small Moa-bird (Dinornis).
Newer Pliocene Seal. —
This seal was referred by Hector to Arctocephalus
cinereus, a species synonymous, however, with the
widely distributed living Seal, Otaria forsteri. Lesson,
of the Southern Ocean. Another and larger species
of eared seal allied to the living Fur Seal, Otaria
forsteri, occurs in Victoria.
Pleistocene Seal. —
This fossil was named Arctocephalus ivilliarnsi by
McCoy, and was found in Pleistocene deposits at
Queenscliff, Port Phillip, at 5 feet below the surface,
in marl and sand stone overlain with limestone.
Although referred at the time of description to the
Pliocene, it has since been proved that at this locality
there is a considerable thickness of practically sub-
recent material which is more accurately classed with
the Pleistocene. Similar remains of eared seals are
not uncommon in the Pleistocene deposits of the
Otway Coast.
Subrecent Human Remains.
On turning to the occurrence of " human fossils"
in Australia we find the geological evidence for any
great antiquity of man on this continent to be very
300 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
scanty and inconclusive. This does not, however,
imply that man's existence in Australia will not
eventually be proved to date back far beyond the
period of the "kitchen middens" of modern
aspect, such as are now exposed on the slopes
behind the sea-beaches, and on the inland
camping grounds. Almost all the records of
Australian human remains that have been
found in other than ordinary burial places, have
proved to be of comparatively recent date. For
example, the partially lime-encrusted body found in
the cave in the Mosquito Plains, north of Penola,
South Australia-, recorded by Tenison Woods, is that
of an aborigine who, in the early days of settlement,
crawled into the cave in a wounded condition. Other
occurrences of human remains in caves, but of fairly
recent date are, a child's skull found in a small cave
at Bungonia, Co. Argyle, New South Wales, recorded
by Etheridge ; and the non-petrified limb-bones found
in a cave at Wellington, New South Wales, recorded
by Kreftt, which were probably washed in from the
surface in recent times. As regards the former, in
Western Australia, as observed by Froggatt, the
natives at the present time seek shelter in caves,
where these occur, instead of building mia-mias.
A more interesting, because probably much older,
occurrence of human remains has been described by
Etheridge and Trickett from one of the Jenolan
Caves (Skeleton Cave) ; and those authors conclude
from "The great lapse of time that must have
accrued to enable the changes already outlined to
have taken place since the introduction of the
HUMAN REMAINS.
301
remains into the Skeleton Cave," that these remains
are ancient.
Curious footprints supposed to resemble impres-
sions of human feet with accompanying impress as
if made by natives seated, have been long known
from the older sand-dune rock of Warrnambool.
They were found at Kellas' Quarry, on the Port
Fairy Road in 1890 and at a depth of 54 feet. In
November, 1912, a further discovery of similar foot-
fi w,^zMM§Wn^
Fig. 1 50— Impressions of Foot-prints in dune sand-rock.
Warrnambool, Victoria. 1/9 nat. size.
(7^. C. Photo) . ( H 'arrnambool Museum) .
302 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
prints were found at Messrs. Steere Bros.' Quarry,
Warrnambool, at a depth of 10 feet, as a block of
stone was being removed for building purposes.
These footprints are even more obscure than those
previously found, and it would be unsafe to affirm
their human origin, although they are suggestive of
such. Their antiquity is certainly great, since the
lavas and tuffs of the Tower Hill district are found
overlying this old dune-rock. Other footprints asso-
ciated with these resemble those of the Dingo and a
gigantic bird, possibly like Genyornis.
Probable Origin of Aborigines. —
Ethnology appears to throw more light upon the
subject than does geology. Australia has in the
past been peopled by two distinct types of man. (1),
the ancestors of the Tasmanians, now alas, extinct,
who according to some authorities came by way of
Australia from Papua through the Malay Penin-
sula, passing over to Tasmania from the main-
land before the separation caused by the sub-
sidence of the Bass Strait area ; and who
were represented by a negroid or woolly-
haired type: (2), the present aboriginals of Austra-
lia, showing affinities with the Dravidians of South-
ern India, a primitive race from whose original stock
the white Caucasian races of Europe were derived.
By intermarriage with a negroid race like the
Melanesian, it is supposed that the black Caucasian
gave rise to the present Australian mixed aboriginal
type, with negroid features, but possessing the long
black hair and keener intellect of the "melanochroi,"
as the dark Eurasian stock was termed by Huxley.
ABORIGINES. 303
Aboriginal Implements. —
The stone implements fashioned by the Tasmanian
aboriginals were roughly chipped and of primitive
type, of such forms as used at the present day by the
Bushmen of South Africa, and representing the eoliths
and palaeoliths of early man in the south of England.
The implements of the Australian aboriginals on the
other hand include besides these both flakes and
worked and polished tools, such as were produced by
the Neolithic men of Europe, as contrasted with the
typically rough palaeolithic tools of the Tasmanian,
who never grooved his axes for hafting as did the
Australian aboriginal. According to some authorities
the Tasmanians represent palaeolithic or even
eolithic man in the character of their implements;
whilst the Australian resembles the Middle or Mous-
terian stage of early man in certain of their ethnolo-
gical characters and in the forms of their implements,
although a marked exception is seen in their manu-
facture of polished adzes, of the neolithic period and
in the use of bone implements such as were used in
Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times. So far no
human remains or handiwork in the form of
chipped implements have been found in other than
superficial deposits, either in Tasmania or Australia.
The incised bone-fragment found near Ballarat, in a
bed of silt beneath a sheet of basalt which flowed
from Mount Buninyong, is believed by some to be
evidence of man's handiwork in the early Pleistocene,
though by others thought to have been cut by
the teeth of the "marsupial lion" (Thylacoleo) .
A stone axe of basalt, grooved for the purpose of
304 AUSTEALASIAN FOSSILS.
mounting in a handle, was found in gravel at Bal-
larat at a depth of 22 inches from the surface. This,
however, is no proof of man's antiquity, fo*r super-
ficial deposits of much greater depth are easily accu-
mulated within a short period. Another implement
was found at Maryborough in Queensland in gravels
at a depth of 4 feet from the surface, but not below
the basalt of the main lead. In this case it is believed
that the implement may have fallen into a natural
hollow or wombat-burrow. A bone pointer, such as
used by native medicine men, was some years ago
found buried in the Miocene marls of Waurn Ponds
near Geelong. Its presence in so old a rock is easily
explained from the fact that in the aboriginal cere-
monies the pointer was buried after the incantations.
Seeing the difficulties in the way of discovering re-
liable occurrences of man's handiwork in isolated
examples amongst the older superficial deposits of
silt and gravels, the ancient sand-dunes of Victoria,
which date back at least to Upper Pliocene, should
afford favourable conditions for the preservation of
any really ancient kitchen middens, did such exist.
Moreover, these deposits would have been less liable
to disturbance when once they were covered, than the
inland deposits, for the former are now consolidated
into a tolerably hard stone.
Antiquity of Man in Australia. —
A strong argument in favour of a considerable
antiquity for man in Australia is the fact that the
dialects are many, and marriage and tribal cus-
toms more complex and intricate than would be found
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 305
in a comparatively recent primitive race. In any
case, it is quite possible, if not probable, that man
was in southern Australia before the termination of
the last phase of volcanic activity, since the tuff beds
of Koroit, for example, are quite modern and were
laid down on a modern sea-beach strewn with shells
identical in species and condition with those now
found thrown up in the vicinity at high tide. This
view is quite compatible with the occurrence of dingo
remains (assuming this animal was introduced by
man) in cave deposits in Australia, associated with
extinct forms of marsupials.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE
FOREGOING CHAPTER.
FISHES.
Thyestes magnificus, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Asterolepis australis, McCoy. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
Ganorhynckus siissmilchi, Etheridge fil. Devonian: New
South Wales.
Gyracanthides murrayi, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboni-
ferous : VictorK.
Acanthodes australis, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carbonifer-
ous: Victoria.
Ctenodus breviceps, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous:
Victoria.
Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carbonifer-
ous: Victoria.
Elonichthys sweeti, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous:
Victoria.
Physonemus micracinthus, Chapman. Lower Carboniferous:
Victoria.
(?) Deltodus australis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian : Queensland.
306 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Tomotlus {?)convexus, Agassiz. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Edestus darisii, H. Woodward. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
Peocilodus jonesi, Agassiz. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
Crosfordia truncata, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
Myriolepis clarkei, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.
Apateolepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Dictyopyge robusta, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Belonorhynchus gigas, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Semionotus australis, A. S. WoodAV. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Pristisomus latus, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Gleithrolepis granulatus, Egerton. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Pholidophorus greaarius, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South
Wales.
Pleur acanthus parvidens, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New
South Wales.
Hagenodus laticeps, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South
Wales.
Palaeoniscus crassus, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New
South Wales.
Elonichthys armatus, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South
Wales.
Elpisopholis dunstani, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New
South Wales.
Pholidophorus australis, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New
South Wales.
Psilichthys selwyni, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.
Leptolepis crassicauda, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.
Oeratodus avus, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: Victoria.
Coccolepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South
Wales.
Aphnelepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South
Wales.
Aetheolepis mirabilis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South
Wales.
Archaeomaene tenuis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South
Wales.
Leptolepis talbragarensis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South
Wales.
Larnna daviesii, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Lamna appendiculatus, Agassiz. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
CHAEACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 307
Corax australis, Chapm. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Aspidorhynchus sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Belonostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and A. S. Woodw. Lower Cre-
taceous : Queensland.
Portheus australis, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Cladocyclus sweeii, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous:
Queensland.
Xotidanus marginalis, Davis. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Lamna compressa, Agassiz. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Ischyodus thurmanni, Pictet and Campiche. Cretaceous: New
Zealand.
Odontaspis contortidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.) :
Victoria.
Lamna apiculata, Ag. sp. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.) : Vic-
toria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New Zealand.
Car char odon megalodon, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. Janj. and
Kal.) : Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New
Zealand.
Cestracion cainozoicus, Chapm. and Pritcli. Cainozoic (Janj.
and Kal.) : Victoria.
Aster acanthus eocaenieus, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and
Kal.) : Victoria.
Galeocerdo davisi, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.) :
Victoria. Also Cretaceous (Waipara Series) and Caino-
zoic (Oamaru Series) : New Zealand.
Carcharoides totuserratus, Ameghino. Cainozoic (Janj.) : Vic-
toria.
Odontaspis incurva, Davis sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.) :
Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New Zea-
land.
Occyrhina retroflexa, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.
Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New Zealand.
Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainville sp. Cainozoic (Janj.
and Kal.) : Victoria.
Acanthias geelongensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic
(Janj.) : Victoria.
Ischyodus mortoni, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.) :
Tasmania.
Notidanus jenningsi, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal).
Victoria.
Galeocerdo aduncus, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) : Victoria.
Oooyrhina hastalis, Agassiz. Cainozoic (rare in Bale, and
Janj., abundant in Kal.) : Victoria.
Myliohatis moorabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic
I' Kal.) : Victorin.
308 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Edaphodon sweeti, Chapm. and Priteh. Cainozoic (Kal. ):
Victoria.
Labrodon confertidens, Chap, and Priteh. Cainozoic (Kal.):
Victoria.
Diodon formosus, Chapm. and Priteh. Cainozoic (Kal.) :
Victoria.
Kotidanus marginalis, Davis. Cretaceous (Waipara Series) ;
and Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New Zealand.
Myliobatis plicatilis, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New
Zealand.
Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series) : New
Zealand.
Ctenolates avus, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
'Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft, sp. Pleistocene: New South
Wales.
AMPHIBIA.
Bothriceps australis, Huxley. Carbopermian : New South
Wales.
Bothriceps major, A. S. Woodw. Carbopermian: New South
Wales.
Platyceps wilkinsoni, Stephens. Triassic: New South
Wales.
KEPTILIA.
Ichthyosaurus hectori, Ch. (nom. mut.). Triassic: New Zea-
land.
■(f) Megalosaurus sp. Jurassic: Victoria.
Notochelone costata, Owen sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queens-
land.
Ichthyosaurus marathonensis, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous:
Queensland.
Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous:
New South Wales.
Plesiosaurus australis, Owen. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Polycotylus tenuis, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Cimoliosaurus haastii, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Tylosaurus haumuriensis, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zea-
land.
Taniwhasaurus oweni, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
Pallymnarchus pollens, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland
and Victoria.
CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS. 309
Crocodilus porosus, Schneider. Pleistocene: Queensland and
Victoria.
Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pliocene (Deep-leads) : New
South Wales. Pleistocene: Queensland
Miolania platyceps, Owen. Pleistocene: Lord Howe Island.
Megalania prisca, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
BIRDS.
Palaeeudyptes antarcticus, Huxley. Cainozoic (Oaniaru
Series) : New Zealand.
Dinornis sp. Cainozoic (Petane Series) : New Zealand.
Pelecanus proavis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland. •
Platalea subtenuis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Anas elapsa, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Oallinula strenuipes, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland. .
Fulica prior, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Drornornis australis, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland , and
New South Wales.
Dromaeus patricius, De Vis. Pleistocene. Queensland. .
Dromaeus minor, Spencer. Pleistocene: King Island.
Cenyornis newtoni, Stirling and Zietz. Pleistocene: S. Aus-
tralia.
<Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
Harpagornis moorei, von Haast. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
Aptornis otidiformis, Owen sp. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
Dinornis giganteus, Owen. Pleistocene and Holocene: N. Id.,
New Zealand.
Pachyomis elephantopus, Owen sp. Pleistocene and Holocente:
S. Id., New Zealand.
Anomalopteryx antiqua, Hutton. Pleistocene: S. Id., New
Zealand.
MAMMALIA.
Ornithorhynchus maximns, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan or
L. Pliocene) : New South Wales.
Echidna (Proechidna) robtista, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) :
New South Wales.
Ornithorhynchus agilis, De Vis. Pleistocene: New South
Wales.
Echidna (Proechidna) oweni, Krefft. Pleistocene: New
South Wales.
Wynyardia bassiana, Spencer. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) : Tas-
mania.
310 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Dasyurus inaculatus, Kerr sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and
New South Wales. Living: Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and Tasmania.
Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy. Cainozoic (Werrikooian) :
Victoria.
Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and
New South Wales. Living: Tasmania.
Thylacinus cynocephalus, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria
and New South Wales. Living: Tasmania.
Thylacinus spelaeus, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and
New South Wales.
Thylacinus major, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Peragale lagotis, Reid sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
Living: S. Australia and W. Australia.
Perameles gunni, Gray. Pleistocene: Victoria. Living:
Queensland and Victoria.
Phascolomys parvus, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Phascolonus gigas, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New
South Wales and S. Australia.
Macropus titan, Owen. Pleistocene. Queensland, Victoria,
New South Wales and S. Australia.
Macropus anak, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia
and New South Wales.
Procoptodon goliah, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New
South Wales and Victoria.
Sthenurus atlas, Owen sp. Pleistocene : Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.
Sthenurus occidental-is, Glauert. Pleistocene: W. Australia.
Palorchestes azael, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New
South Wales and Victoria.
Diprotodon australis, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria and S. Australia.
W&f&therium mitchelli, Owen. Pleistocene : Queensland, S.
Australia and Victoria.
Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria and W. Australia.
Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy sp. Cainor.oic (Janjukian)
Victoria and Tasmania.
Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian)
S. Australia.
Kekenodon onamata, Hector. Cainozoic t Oamaru Series)
New Zealand.
Getotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian) : Vic
toria.
Ziphius {Dolichodon) geelongensis, McCoy. Cainozoic (Jan
jukian) : Victoria.
Hcaldicetus macgeei, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan) : Vic
toria.
LITEEATURE. 311
Ghronozoon australis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
Canis dingo, Blunienbach. Late Pleistocene or Holocene:
Victoria.
Otaria forsteri, Lesson. Pliocene (Petane Series) : N. Id., New
Zealand.
Arctocephalus tvilliamsi, McCoy. Pleistocene: Victoria.
LITERATURE.
FISHES.
Silurian.— Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII (N.SL),
pt. II. 1906, pp. 93-100, pis. VII. and VIII. (Thyestes).
Devonian.— McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp, 19,
20, pi. XXXV. figs. 7, 7a, 7b (Asterolepis) . Etheridge,
R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. VI. pp. 129-132, pi. XXVIII.
( Ganorhynchus ) .
Carboniferous and Carbopermian. — Woodward, II. Geol. Mag.,,
Dec. III. vol. III. 1886, pp. 1-7, pi. I. {Edestus.)
Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
296, pi. XXXIX. fig. 1 (Deltodus). De Koninck, L. G.
Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898,
p. 281, pi. XXIV., fig. 11 (Tomodus). Woodward, A. S.
Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 1. 1906 (Mansfield
Series).
Triassic. — Johnston, R. M. and Morton, A. Proc. R. Soc. Tas-
mania (1889), 1890, pp. 102-104: ibid. (1890), 1891, pp.
152-154 (Acrolepis). Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv.
New South Wales, Pal. No. 4, 1890 (Gosford). Ibid. No.
10, 1908 (St. Peters).
Jurassic. — Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, Pal. No. 9, 1895. Id., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser.
VII. Vol. XVIII. 1906, pp. 1-3, pi. I. (Geratodus)..
Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XII. (N.S.) pt. II.
1900, pp. 147-151, pi. XIV. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol.
Surv. Vict. vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 234-235, pi. XXXIX.
( Geratodus ) .
Cretaceous. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales, vol. III. ser. 2, 1889, pp. 156-161, pi. IV. Idem,
Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 503-504. Davis, J.
W. Trans. R. Dubl. Soc. vol. IV. ser. 2. 1888, pp. 1-48,
pis. I. -VII. (Cretaceous and Cainozoic of New Zealand).
Etheridge, R. jnr. and Woodward, A. S. Trans. R. Soc.
Vict., vol. II. pt. II. 1892, pp. 1-7, pi. I. (Belonostomus) .
Woodward, A. S. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. XIX.
312 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
1894, pp. 444-447, pi. X. (Portheus and Cladocyclus) .
Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt.
II. 1909, pp. 452, 453 (Corax) .
Cainozoic. — McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, pp.
8-10, pi. XI. ( Car char odon) . Chapman, F. and Pritchard,
G. B. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1904,
pp. 267-297, pis. V.-VIII. Idem, ibid, vol. XX. (N.S.),
pt. I. 1907, pp. 59-75, pis. V.-VIII. See also Davis, J. W.
( Cretaceous ) .
Pleistocene. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland,
1892, p. 646 (Neoceratodus) . Woodward, A. S. Rec.
Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. pt. 2, 1902, pp.
88-91, pi. XXIV. (Ctenolates).
AMPHIBIA.
Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XV. 1859, pp.
647-649, pi. XXII. figs. 1, 2 (Bothriceps) . Stephens, W.
J. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2. vol. I. 1886,
pp. 931-940. Ibid., 1887, pp. 1175-1182, pi. XXII. Ibid.,
vol. II. 1887, pp. 156-158. Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol.
Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 317-
319, pi. LI. (Bothriceps).
REPTILIA.
Jurassic and Cretaceous. — Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol.
VI. 1874, pp. 333-358.
Cretaceous. — McCoy, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic, vol. VIII. pt. I.
1868, p. 42 (Plesiosaurus) . Ibid., vol. IX. pt. II. 1869,
p. 77 (Ichthyosaurus) . Owen, R. Geol. Mag., Dec. I.
vol. VII. 1870, pp. 49-53, pi. III. (Plesiosaurus). Id.,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 178-183
("Notochelys"=-lSlotochelone) . Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc.
Linn. Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2, vol. III. 1889, pp.
405-413, pis. VII. and VIII. (Ichthyosaurus) . Id., Geol.
and Pal Queensland, 1892, pp. 505-510. Hutton, F. W.
Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 354-358, 1 pi.
( Cimoliosaurus ) .
Pleistocene. — Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, vol. I. pt. 3, 1889, pp. 149-152 (Miolania). Id.,
Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 647-653.
AVES.
Miocene. — Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc vol. XV.
1859, pp. 670-677. Also Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst,
vol. IV. 1872, pp. 341-346, 1 pi. (Palaeeudyptes) . Chap-
man, F. Proc R. Soc. Vict. (N.S.) pt. I. 1910. pp. 21-26,
pis. IV. and V.
LITERATURE. 313
Pleistocene and Holocene. — Von Haast, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. IV., 1872, pp. 192-196; and vol. VI. 1874, pp. 62-75
(Harpagornis) . Owen, R. Memoirs on the Extinct Wing-
less Birds of New Zealand, London, 1879, 2 vols. De
Vis, C. W. Proc. R. Soc. Queensland, vol. VI. pt. I. 1889,
pp. 6-8. Id., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol.
III. ser. 2, 1888, pp. 1277-1292, pis. XXXIIL-XXXVI.
(Carinatae). Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geo!. Surv. New
South Wales, vol. I. pt. 2, 1889, pp. 126-136, pis. XI-
XIII. (Dromornis) . Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
pp. 653-663. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst., xol. XXIV.
1892, pp. 93-172 (Moas). Id., ibid., vol. XXV. 1893,
pp. 14-16, 1 pi. (Anomalopteryx) . Id., ibid., vol. XXIX.
1897, pp. 441-557, figs. (Moas). Id., ibid., vol. XXXVIII.
1906, pp. 66 and 67 (Emeus crassiis) . Hamilton, A.
Ibid, vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 227-257 (Bibliography of
Moas). Ibid, vol. XXX. 1898, pp. 445 and 446 (Euryap-
terycc). Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. R.
Soc. S. Austr., vol. I. pt. II. 1900, pp. 41-80, pis. XIX.-
XXIV. (Genyornis) . Spencer, W. B. Vict. Nat. vol.
XXIII. 1906, pp. 139 and 140; also Spencer, W. B. and
Kershaw, J. A. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne No. 3, 1910,
pp. 5-35, pis. I.-VII. (Dromoeus minor).
MAMMALS.
Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XV. 1859, pp.
676-677 (Phocaenopsis). McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict..
Dec. I. 1874, pp. 21, 22, pis. Ill -V. (Phascolomys) . Ibid,
Dec. II. 1875, pp. 7-8, pi. XL and Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 20
and 21, pi. LV. (Squalodon) . Ibid, Dec. III. 1876, pp.
7-12, pi. XXI. (Thylacoleo). Ibid, Dec IV. 1876, pp.
7-11, pi. XXXI-XXXI1I. (Diprotodon) . Ibid. Dec. V.
1877, pp. 7-9, pi. XLI. and XLIL (Arctocephalus) . Ibid,
Dec VI. 1879, pp. 5-7, pi. LI. (Macropus) : pp. 9-11, pi.
LI-LIII. (Proccptodon) : pp. 13-17, pi. LIV. (Cetoto-
lithes) ; pp. 19 and 20, pi. LV. (Physetodon) . Ibid, Dec.
VII. 1882 ( pp. 7-10, pi. LX. (Cards dingo) : pp. 11-13, pi.
LXXII. and LXII. (Sarcophilus) : pp. 23-26, pi. LIX.
(Ziphius) . Owen, R. Extinct Mammals of Australia,
London 1877, 2 vols. Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol.
XIII. 1881, pp. 434-436, 1 pi. (Kekenodon). Lydekker,
R. (at. Foss. Mammalia, Brit. Mus. part V. 1887. Id.,
Handbook to the Marsupialia, and Monotremata. Allen's
Nat. Librarv, 1894, pt. III. pp. 249-286. De Vis, C. W.
Proc Linn. Soc New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 3, 1883,
p. 395 (Sirenian). Id., ibid, vol. X. 1895, pp. 75-133,
pis. XIV-XVIII. (Macropodidae). Id., Proc R. Soc
314 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Vict., vol. XII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1899, pp. 107-11 (Marsu-
pials ) . Etheridge, K. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland,
1892, pp. 663-683 (Pleistocene Mammals). Dun, W. S,
Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893,
pp. 120-124, pi. XVI. (Palorchestes). Ibid, vol. IV. pt.
3, 1895, pp. 118-126, pis. XL and XII. ( Monotremes ) .
Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. Roy. Soc. S.
Australia, vol. I. pt. I. 1899 (Descr. of Diprotodon,
Manus and Pes.). Spencer, W. B. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1900,
pp. 776-794, pis. XLIX. and L. (Wynyardia) . Hall,
T. S. Proc. R, Soc. Vict. vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1911,
pp. 257-265, pi. XXXVI. (Rev. of Squalodontidae ) .
Spencer, W. B. and Walcott, R. H. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.,
vol. XXIV. (N.S.), pt. I. 1912, pp. 92-123, pis. XXXVL-
XXIX. (Thylacoleo) . Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv.
Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 236-238, pi. XL. (Scaldi-
cetus). Woods, J. E. T. Geol. Observations in S. Aus-
tralia, 1862, pp. 329 and 330 (Human Remains) : also
Krefft, G. Australian Vertebrata, Recent and Fossil, 1867,
p. 91; Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893, pp. 128-132; Etheridge, R.
jnr. and Trickett, O. ibid, vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904, pp. 325-
328.
APPENDIX.— ON THE COLLECTION AND
PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS.
The tools and other paraphernalia necessary for
fossil collecting are fortunately within the reach of
all. The principal of these is a geological ham-
mer, preferably with a pick at one end of the head
and the opposite end square-faced. The pick end is
useful for digging out fossils from soft clays, or for
extracting a block of fossils entire. The square end
is employed for breaking up the slabs or masses con-
taining fossils. To get good results, much will of
course depend upon one's skill in striking the right
face of a block. If bedding planes are present on
the lump from which we wish to extract our fossils,
it will be well to strike at right angles to these layers
in order to split them asunder, thus exposing a shell-
layer corresponding to the original surface of the
ancient sea-bed upon which the organisms accumu-
lated. In some cases the splitting of fossiliferous
rocks may be best carried out with the pick end,
provided it be not too sharply curved. The hammer
should be faced with steel, for many fossiliferous
rocks, especially compact limestones, are apt to se-
verely try the temper of an ill-made tool.
315
316 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
A chisel, of chilled steel, should accompany the
hammer, since this is often of the greatest use in
working out large fossils, more particularly those
that are buried in a cliff or quarry face. The process
of extracting difficult specimens should never be hur-
ried, for one often gets surprisingly good results with
a little extra care.
A strong pocket knife may be used in trimming
specimens and partially cleaning shells that can be
safely manipulated on the spot, but the final cleaning
should be left until the return home. The knife is
also useful for cleaning slates and shales, since the
chisel-edge is frequently a trifle too thick for this
kind of work.
For the more delicate fossils, means for careful
packing should be provided; chip-boxes and cotton-
wool being indispensable for the smaller specimens.
A ready method of packing the fossils obtained from
the friable, sandy tertiary deposits is to store them
in tins, the contents of which can be firmly secured
from rattling by filling up with sand. This sand,
However, should be taken from the same bed in which
the fossils occur, so as to get no admixture of the
smaller shells from another formation or deposit ;
for although we may not wish to examine the finer
material ourselves, it will yield in many cases a rich
harvest to our microscopical friends, such residues
containing microzoa, as shells of foraminifera, poly-
zoa and carapaces of the ostracoda. The residues
referred to may be obtained from many of our marls
and rubbly limestones by the simple process of wash-
ing in water, and repeatedly pouring off the finest
APPENDIX. 317
clayey mud, until only a sandy deposit remains,
which can then be dried and sorted over by the aid
of a lens or low power microscope.
Hints on Fossil Collecting. —
As regards the places most suitable for collecting
fossils, the Cainozoic beds are perhaps, the most
accessible to a beginner, especially in Victoria. For
instance, the cliff exposures at Beaumaris, Port Phil-
lip, will afford a plentiful supply of the little heart-
shaped sea-urchin, Lovenia, and an occasional Tri-
gonia and Limopsis, as well as many other fossils of
the great group of the shell-fish or mollusca. The
richest bed containing the sharks' teeth at the above
locality is almost perpetually covered with a bed of
shingle, but can be reached by digging at the cliff-
base. Isolated specimens, however, although rather
the worse for wear, may often be picked up amongst
the shingle, having been washed up from the fore-
shore by the tide. An enticing band of large bivalve
shells (Dosinea), can be seen halfway up the cliffs,
near the baths at this locality, but are somewhat dis-
appointing, for when obtained they crumble to pieces
in the hand, since their shells are composed of the
changeable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite,
which has decomposed in place in the bed, after the
shells were covered up by the deposit.
Good collections of shells of the Balcombian series
may be easily made at Balcombe's Bay and Grice's
Creek, Port Phillip. They can there be dug out of
the grey-blue clay with a knife, and afterwards clean-
ed at leisure by means of a soft tooth brush dipped
in water. In the cement stone at the same place
318 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
there are numerous shells of pteropods or " sea-but-
terflies" (Vaginella) , and specimens of the stone may
be obtained, showing myriads of the porcelain-like
shells, and also their internal casts in the hard green-
ish coloured matrix.
The ferruginous or ironstone beds seen in the
Flemington Railway cutting, Melbourne, is an old
marine shell-bank, resting on basalt. The shells have
all been dissolved away, and only their casts and
moulds remain. These impressions are, however, so
faithfully moulded that the ornamentation of each
shell can often be reproduced on a squeeze taken
with a piece of modelling wax or plasticine. Such
fossil remains are easily collected by carefully break-
ing up the blocks of ironstone with a hammer.
Quarries in the older limestones and mudstones
in Victoria, New South Wales and other States, are
often good hunting grounds for fossils. The quarry
at Cave Hill, Lily dale, for example, will be found
very profitable, for the limestone is full of corals and
molluscan shells ; whilst the friable or rubbly portion
is worth breaking down for the smaller fossils. The
bed-rock (Silurian) of Melbourne is in places very
f ossilif erous ; the sandstones of Moonee Ponds Creek
generally affording a fair number of brachiopods,
and occasionally corals. The mudstones of South
Yarra, Studley Park, Yan Yean, and other places on
the same geological horizon, contain a rich fauna,
to be obtained only by the assiduous collector who
will search over and break up a large number of
blocks. Practice in this work makes a good collector ;
although of course one must know something about
APPENDIX. 319
the objects looked for, since many apparently obscure
fossil remains of great interest might easily be
passed over for lack of knowledge as to what should
be expected to occur at each particular locality.
Many other good collecting grounds might here be
alluded to, but we have purposely cited only a few
near Melbourne, since a selection from other parts
of Australasia may easily be made from the localities
mentioned in connection with the various groups of
fossils dealt with in the systematic portion of this
work.
Preservation of Fossils. —
Many of the Cainozoic fossils from the shelly sands
and clays are extremely delicate, owing in some cases
to their being imperfectly preserved, seeing that they
frequently contain in their shell-structure layers of
the unstable form of carbonate of lime called aragon-
ite. Fossils containing aragonite are : — Calcareous
Sponges; Corals; Bivalved shells, except Oysters,
Pectens, and the outer layer of Spondylus, Pinna,
and Mytilus; Gasteropods (with a few exceptions) ;
and Cephalopods. In some of these, however, a trans-
formation of the aragonite into calcite enables the
fossil to be permanently preserved. The delicate fos-
sils referred to should be dipped in weak glue or
gelatine and left to dry; after which their final
cleaning can be done with the aid of a little warm
water and a soft brush.
Certain of the clays and mudstones, both of
Cainozoic and Jurassic ages which show re-
mains of plants, such as leaves and fern
fronds, are often best treated with a thin
320 AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
surface layer of paper varnish, before they lose the
natural moisture of the rock; for when they become
perfectly dry the thin carbonaceous film representing
the original leaf-substance peels off, and the fossil
is consequently destroyed. A method of treatment
for Cainozoic leaves, by dipping them in warm vase-
line and brushing off the superfluous material, has
been described by Mr. H. Deane.
Storing Fossils for Reference. —
Fossils specimens are generally best displayed in
cardboard trays ; or if thin wooden paper-covered tab-
lets are used, say of about 3-16in. thickness and cut
to proportionate sizes, the fossils should be held in
place by pins for easy removal, unless more than
one example can be shown together, exhibiting all
aspects, when they can be secured to the tablet by a
touch of seccotine. The smaller shells may be dis-
played in glass topped boxes, which in turn may be
stuck down to tablets or placed in trays.
INDEX.
Aboriginal implements, 303
Aborigines, probable origin
of, 302
Acanthias, 270
Acanthodes, 261
Acanthosphaera, 103
Acanthothyris, 166, 167
Acentrophorus, 263
Acrolepis, 263
Actaeon, 197
ActinoceraSy 205, 207
Actinocrinus, 136
Actinodesma, 178, 179
Actinopteria, 178, 179
Actinostroma, 121, 122.
Arfeoria, 158
Aechmina, 237
Aeschna, 250
Aetheolepis, 267
Agathiceras, 207
AGNATHA, 258
Agnostus, 227
Allodesma, 176
Ambonychia, 177
Ammodiscus, 96, 97
Ammonites, 204, 209, 210
AMMONOIDEA, 205
lwoe6a, 36, 95
AMPHIBI A, structure of,
272
Amphistegina, 100
Amplexus, 117
Ampyx, 229
Amusium, 185
Anas, 283
Anchura, 197
Ancilla, 198, 199, 202
Ancyloceras, 209, 210
ANGIOSPERMEAE, char-
acters 'of, 40
ANNELIDA, 152
Anomalina. 98.
Anomalopteryx, 283
Antedon, 138
ANTHOZOA, 64, 113
Antiquity of man in Aus-
tralia, 304
Aparchites, 237
Apateolepis, 262
Aphnelepis, 267
Apocynophyllum, 91
Aptornis, 283
Aptychopsis, 246
Arabellites, 153
Arachnoides, 146
Araucarioxylon, 68
Araucarites, 89
Area, 184, 186, 188
Archaeocidaris, 144
Archaeocyathina, 113
ARCHAEOCYATHINAE,
112
Archaeomaene, 267
ArchaeopteryXy 280
Ar otocephalus, 299
Arenicolites, 153
Argillaceous rocks, 69
Argilloecia, 237
fArgiope, 166
Argonauta, 205
ARTHROPOD A, structure
and subdivisions of, 38,
220
Asaphus, 227, 228
Aspidorhynchus, 267
Astarte, 182
Aster acanthus, 269, 271
ASTEROIDEA, 139
Asterolepis, 258
Astralium, 198, 200.
Astropecten, 141
Athyris, 161, 162, 165
Atrypa, 158, 160, 162
Aturia, 210
321
322
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Atya, 204
Aucella, 183
Aulopora, 116.
Australian fossiliferous
strata, 45-48.
AVES, 280
Aviculopecten, 179, 180
Axopora, 119
Bactronella, 112
Baculitea, 210
Baiera, 89, 164
Bairdia, 240
Balanophyllia, 118
Balanus, 243
Balcombian bivalves, 186
„ gasteropods, 199
Bandicoot, 289, 295
Bankivia, 201
Banhsia, 91, 281
Barbatia, 184, 185
Barnacles, 240
Barnea, 187
Bathytoma, 201
Bela, 201
Belemnites, 205, 209, 210
. BELEMNOIDEA, 205
Bellerophon, 193, 194, 195,
196
Belonorhynchus, 262
Belonostomus, 267
Bettongia, 295
Beyrichia, 235, 236, 237
Biloela, 274
Bipora, 158
Birds, fossil, 53, 280
Biziura, 283
BLASTOIDEA, distribution
and characters of, 61,
138
Blue-green Algae, 76, 82
Bog iron-ore, 80
Bolodon, 286
Bombax, 91
Bone-beds, 78
Bone-breccias, 79
Bothricepa, 273
#o / ryocrinus. 1 3 6
BRACHIOPODA, structure
of, 57, 158
Brachiopod limestone, 74
Brachymetopus, 232
Brachyphyllurn, 89
Bracken fern, 91
Brissopsis, 148
Brittle stars, characters of,
61, 141
Bronteus, 229, 230
Bryograptus, 124, 126, 227
BRYOPHYTA, characters
of, 39
Buccinum, 191
Buchozia, 199
Bulimina, 97, 98
Bulimia, 69, 191
BwKa, 204
Bullinella, 198, 199
Bythocypria, 236
Bythotrephis, 82
Cainozoic Balanidae, 243
„ bird, Victoria, 281
„ bivalves, 184
„ brachiopods, 166
„ brittle-stars, 143
„ chitons, 190
„ corals, 118
„ crabs, 247
., echinoids, irregu-
lar, 146
„ echinoids, regu-
lar, 145
fisnes, 269
„ Foraminifera, 99
„ gasteropods, 198 '
„ gasteropods, New
Zealand, 202
., Holothuroidea,
148
„ insects, 250
,, Lepadidae, 243
Ostracoda, 239
„ and Pleistocene
reptiles, 279
„ ])lants, 89
Polvzoa, 158
INDEX.
323
Cainozoic Radiolaria, 104
„ scaphopods, 189
„ sponges, 110
„ starfishes, 141
„ strata, 45, 46
Calcareous rocks, 72
„ sponges, 112
Callograplus, 122
Gallorhynchns, 269
Calymene, 229, 230, 231
CALYPTOBLASTEA, 122
Calyptraea, 198, 200, 201
Camarotoechia, 160, 161,
162
Cambrian bivalves, 177
brachiopods, 159
crinoids, 134
Foraminifera, 96
gasteropods, 192
Ostracoda, 235
plants, 82
Radiolaria, 102
sponges, 107
Cameroceras, 207
Gampanularia, 122
Gampophyllum, 115, 117
Gancellaria, 198, 199, 202
Ganis, 298
Cannel coal, 76
Gapitosaurus, 274
Gapulus, 194
Carbonaceous rocks, 76
Carboniferous brachiopods,
162
„ crinoids, 136
„ fishes, 259
„ Foraminifera, 96
„ gasteropods, 196
„ Ostracoda, 237
„ plants, 85
Carbopermian bivalves, 179
„ blastoids, 139
„ brachiopods, 163
„ cephalopods, 207
„ corals, 116
„ crinoids, 137
fishes, 261
„ Foraminifera, 97
Carbopermian gasteropods,
196
„ labyrinthodonts,
273
„ Ostracoda, 237
„ palaeechinoicls, 144
Phyllopoda, 233
„ plants, 86
„ sponges, 110
„ starfishes, 141
„ trilobites, 232
Garcharodon, 269, 270, 271
Carcharoides, 269
Gardiola, 177, 178
Gardita, 184, 187
Gardium, 176, 184, 186, 187
CARNIVORA, 298
Garposphaera, 102
Garpospongia, 109
Garyocaris, 244, 246
Gassidulus, 148
Gatenicella, 158
Gellaria, 158
Gellepora, 158
Genellipsis, 102
Genosphaera, 102, 103
CEPHALOPODA, charac-
ters of, 204
Geratiocaris, 246
Geratodus, 265, 267
Geratotrochus, 118
Gerithiopsis, 200
Gerithium, 198, 200
Gestracion, 261, 269, 271
CETACEA, 295
Getotolithes, 296
Ghaenomya, 181
CHAETOPODA, 152
Ghama, 185
Changes of climate in the
past, 31
CHEILOSTOMATA. 155,
157
Gheirurus, 229, 231
Ghelodes, 190
Cherts, 71
Ghione, 185. 187, 188
Ghiridota, 148
324
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Chironomus, 250
Chiton, 190
Chonetes, 160, 161, 162
CHORDATA, 257
Chosornis, 283
Chronozoon, 298
Cicada, 250
Cidaris, 145
Cimoliosaurus, 279
Cinnamomum, 91
Cinulia, 197
CIRRI Jr EDI A, habits and
structure of, 240
Cladochonus, 117
Cladophlebis, 89, 164, 182
GLADOPHORA, 122
Classification of animals, 35
Clathrodictyon, 121
Clausilia, 191
Clavigera, 165
Clays, 69.
Cleiothyris, 164
Cleithrolepis, 262, 263, 274
Climacograptus, 127
Climatius, 258
Clonograptus, 123, 124, 126
Clypeaster, 146
Cnemiornis, 283
Coals, 76
Coccolepis, 267
Cocconema, 92
Coccosteus, 259
COELENTERATA, charac-
ters of, 37
Coleolus, 193
Collecting fossils, 317
Colubraria, 199
Columbarium, 198, 201,202
Columbella, 198
Conchothyra, 184
Conocardium, 177, 178
Conodonts, 153
Conosmilia, 118
Conularia, 193, 194, 196
Oonws, 198, 199, 202, 204
Coprosmaephyllum, 90
Coral limestone, 73
Corals, 64, 113
Cora#, 267
Corbicula, 182
Corbula, 177, 185, 187, 188
Cordaites, 85
Comulites, 154
Coscinocyathus, 113
Coxiella, 69
Crassatellites, 176, 184
Crenella, 176
Crepicephalus, 227
Crepidula, 198
Cretaceous ( Lower and
Upper) cepha-
lopods, 209
„ cephalopods, New
Zealand, 210
„ Cheilostomata,
157
„ crinoids, 137
„ echinoids ( irregu-
lar), 146
„ ( Lower ) fishes,
267
„ fishes, New Zea-
land, 268
„ Foraminifera, 98
„ gasteropods, 197
„ plants, 89
„ Radiolaria, 103
„ ( Lower ) reptiles,
277
„ reptiles, New Zea-
land, 279
„ scaphopods, 189
„ sponges, 110
Crinoidal limestone, 74
CRINOIDEA, occurrence
and structure of, 61,
133
Crioceras, 209
Crista, 158
Cristellaria, 98
Crocodilus, 279
Cromus, 229
Crustacea, an archaic group,
221
„ development of,
221
„ fossil, 54
Cryptodon, 186
INDEX.
325
Cryptograptus, 127
Crypto place, 190
Cryptostomata, 155, 15G
Ctenodonta, 177, 178
Ctenodus, 261, 2G3
Ctenolates, 272
Ctenostreon, 182
Cucullaea, 182, 184, 18.')
Cultelhis, 188
Cima, 184, 186, 187
Cupressinoxylon, 78, 89
Cupressus, 91
Cuscus, 295
Cuttle-fislies, 205
CYANOPH^CEAE, 82
Cyatfiocrinus, 137
Cyatkophylln m , 113, 115,
117.
Cyclas, 69
Cycloceras, 206
Cyclolituites, 207
Cyclometopa, 248
Cyclonema, 194
CYCLOSTQMATA, 155
Cyan us, 250
Cymbella, 92
Cyphctspis, 229
Cyphon, 250
Cypraea, 191, 198, 199, 200,
202
Cypiicardinia, 178
Cyprid limestone, 75
Cyrenopsis, 184
Cyrtoceras, 204, 207
Cyrtograptus, 128
Cyrtina, 162, 164
Cyrtolites, 193
Oystideans, 61
Cystiphyllum, 116
Cythere, 239, 240
Cytherella, 240
fCytheridea, 238
Cytheropteron, 239
Dadowylon, 68
Dalmanites, 224, 225. 229.
231
Daonella, 182
Darter, 283
fDarwinula, 238
Dasyurus, 287, 295
DECAPODA, 246
Deep Leads, fruits of, 91
„ insects from, 250
Deltodus, 261
Deltopecten, 180
Dendrocrinus, 134, 135
Dendrocygna, 283
Dendrograptus, 122
Dendrophyllia, 119
Dennantia, 198
Dentahum, 189
Dentition of Reptiles, 275
Deontopora, 120
Desmoceras, 209
Devonian bivalves, 178
„ brachiopods, 161
„ cephalopods, 207
,, corals, 115
„ crinoids, 136
fishes, 258
„ gasteropods, 195
,, Ostracoda, 237
„ plants, 85
„ Radiolaria, 102
scaphopods, 189
,, stromatoporoids,
121
„ trilobites, 231
DIADACTYLA, 287
Diatomite, 72
Diatoms, 92
Dicellograptus, 126, 127
Dichograpttis, 126
Dicranograptus, 126, 127
Dictyonema, and allies, 122
Dictyopyge, 262
Didymograptus, 124, 126
fDidymosorus, 89
Dielasma, 164, 165
Dikellocephalus, 227
Dimetrodon, 276
Dimya, 184, 185, 186
Dinesus, 227
Dingo, 298, 305
Dinomis, 281, 282, 283. 299
Diodon, 270, 271
326
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Dione, 188
Diphyphyllum, 113
Diplograptus, 124, 126, 127,
128
Diprotodon, 51, 290, 293
Diprotodon-breccias, 203
DIPROTODONTIA, 287
Dtscina, 166
Discorbina, 98
Dissocheilus, 199
Dithyrocaris, 246
Ditrupa, 154
Ditrupa limestone, 74
Dolichodon, 296
Dolichometopus, 226
Dolium, 201
Dona^, 175, 187
Dorset ensia, 209
Dosinea, 185, 188
Drillia, 198, 202
Dromaeus, 282, 283
Dromornis, 282
Duck, 283
Duncaniaster, 147
Emu, 283
Encrinurus, 229
Endoceras, 205
Endothyra, 96, 98
Entalophora, 158
Entomis, 238
Ephemera, 250
Equisetites, 40
Errant worms, 153
Erycina, 187
Erymnoceras, 209
Estheria, 233
Eucalyptus, 90, 91, 281
Eulima, 198
Eunema, 193
Eunicites, 153
Euomphalus, 194, 195, 196
Eupatagus, 147
Euphemus, 196
Eurydesma, 181
EURYPTERIDA, 248
Euthria, 198
Eutrochus, 200
Evolution of life-forms, 33
Ear -bones of whales, 296
Early observers, 24
Eburnopsis, 199, 200
Echidna, 286, 287
Echinocyamus, 146
ECHINODERMATA, char-
acters of, 37, 59
„ divisions of, 133
ECHINOIDEA, 143
Echinolampas, 147, 148
Echinoneus, 147
Echinus, 145
Ecionema, 112
Edaphodon, 271
Edestus, 262
Edmondia, 177, 180, 182
Eglisia, 202
Elephant-fish, 269, 271
Elephant-tusk shells, 188
Elevated sea-beds, 27
Elonichthys, 261, 263
Elpisopholis, 263
$ wi a rginu la, 198
Fagus CNotofaqus) , 91
Falcon, 283
Fasciolaria, 198, 199
Favosites, 73, 114, 115, 116
Feather-star, 138
Fenestella, 156, 157
Fibularia, 146
Fishes, fossil, 53
„ primitive tvpes, 258
true, 258
Fish-lizards, 275, 276, 277,
278
Fissilunula, 183, 184
Fissurellidea, 198
Fistulipora, 155, 156
Flabellina, 98
Flabellum, 118, 119
Flightless pigeon goose, 283
Flints, 71
Flying phalanger, 295
Foraminifera, characters of,
36, 95
fossil, 65
INDEX.
327
Foraminiferal limestone, 73
Fossil faunas, differences in,
43
Fossiliferous strata, Aus-
tralia, 45-48
„ strata, New Zea-
land, 49
Fossil, origin of name, 23
Fossils an index to age of
strata, 26, 32
., nature of, 21
,, petrifaction of, 23
„ preservation of,
23
„ structure preser-
served in, 24
Fossil wood, 24, QQ, 68
Frondicularia, 97, 98
Fruits of the deep leads, 91
Fulica, 283
Fusus, 198, 201
Galeocerdo, 269, 271
Gallinula, 283
Gangamopteris. 86
Ganorhynchus, 259
Gari, 185
GASTEROPODA. charac-
ters of, 190
Gastrioceras, 207
Geinitzina, 98
Genyornis, 282, 302
Geological epochs, 45-49
Geology, scope of, 21
Giant kangaroo, 289
lizard, 280
„ penguin. 280
Gibbula, 198
Ginkgo, 89, 91
Girvanella, 76, 82, 86
Glauconite casts of fora-
minifera, 96
Glossograptus, 126, 127
Glossopteris, 86
Glycimeris, 184, 187
Glyphioceras, 207
Gomphonema, 93
Gondwana-land, 87
Goniatites, 207, 208
Goniograptus, 124, 126
Gosfordia, 262
Gosseletina, 196
Grammy sia, 177
Granatocrinus, 139
Graphularia, 118, 119
Graptolites, Bendigo series,
124
„ Lancefield series,
124
„ nature of, 63, 123
„ Tasmania, 128
GRAPTOLITOIDEA, 123
Gregoriura, 142
Griffithides, 232
Gromia, 95
Ground pigeon, 283
Gryphaea, 182
Grypotherium , 5 3
Guide fossils, 43
GYMNOSPERMEAE, char-
acters of, 40
Gyracanthides, 261
Gyroceras, 207
Gyrodoma, 194
Halimeda limestone, 75
Haliotis, 198, 200
Haliserites, 83
Hahjsites, 114
Hamites, 210
Hapalocrinus, 136
Haploceras, 209
Eaplophragmium, 97, 98
Harpa, 198, 199, 201
Harpactocarcinus, 248
Harpagornis, 283
Haiok,1 283
Helicocrinus, 136
Helicotoma, 195
Heliolites, 115, 116
Heliopora, 115
Heliosphaera, 103
#eZ^, 203
Hemiaster, 148
Hemipatagus, 148
Heterocrinus, 135
328
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
HETEROPODA, 190
Heteropora, 158
Hexactinellid sponge, 107,
110
Hinge-structure, in bivalves,
175
Holaster, 147
HOLOTHUROIDEA, 148
Homalonotus, 229, 231
Horner a, 158
Huenella, 159
Human remains, subrecent,
299
Eyalostelia, 108, 110
Hybocrinus, 135
Hydr actinia, 119, 120
HYDROZOA, 63. 119
Hymenocaris, 244
Hyperammina, 97
Hyolithes, 192, 193, 194
Hypothyris, 164
Hypsiprymnus, 295
Ibis, 283
Ichthyosaurus, 276, 277,
278
Idiostroma, 121
Idmonea, 158
Illaenus, 229
Indusial limestone, 75
Inoceramus, 183, 184
Insects, 53, 250
Ironstone, 80
Irregular ecliinoids, 146
Ischnochiton, 190
Ischyodus, 269, 270
Isochilina, 237
Isocrinus, 137, 138
Janjukian bivalves, 186
„ gasteropods, 200
Jonesina, 237
Jurassic bird, 280
bivalves, 182
brachiopods, 165
cephalopods, 208
fishes, 264
Foraminifera, 98
Jurassic gasteropods, 196
insects, 250
Ostracoda, 238
Phyllopoda, 233
plants, 89
reptiles, 276
scaphopods, 189.
Kalimnan bivalves, 187
„ gasteropods, 201
Kangaroo, 295
Keeneia, 196
Eekenodon, 295, 296
Kerosene shale, 77
Kionoceras, 206
Kloedenia, 237
Labrodon, 271
LABYR1NTHODONTIA/272
Lagena, 98
fLagria, 250
Lamna, 267, 269, 271
Lamp-shells, 57, 158
Lasioclaaia, 110
Lasiograptus. 126, 127
Latirus, 198. 201
Laurus, 91
Leaia, 233
Leda, 182, 184, 185, 187,
188
Leonardo da Ynici, 25
Lepas, 243
Leperditella, 234
Leperditia, 233. 234, 235,
237, 238
Lepidocyclina, 99, 100
„ limestone, 73
Lepidodendron. 40, 85, 261
beds, 162
Lepralia, 157. 158
Leptaena, 162. 164
Leptoclinum, 257, 258
Leptodesma, 179 ■
Leptodomus, 177
Leptograptits. 124
Leptolepis, 264, 265, 267
Lepton, 187
Lichas, 229
Liclienopora , 158
INDEX.
329
Lieberkuehnia, 95
Lima, 184, 185, 186
Limatula, 185
Limestones formed by or-
ganisms, 72
Limnaea, 69
Limopsis, 184, 185, 187
Limulus, 248
Lirigula, 160, 162, 166, 261
Linthia, 147, 148
Liopyrga, 201
Liotia, 198, 200
Lithistid sponges, 109, 110
Lithological evidence, value
of, 44
Lithophaps, 288
Lithothamnion, 75
Lituites, 207
Lituola, 97
Loganograptus, 126
Lophophyllum, 117
Lorica, 190
Lotorium, 198, 200, 202
Lovenia, 147
Lower Cambrian trilobites,
226
., Cretaceous bivalves,
183
„ brachiopods, 166
,, cephalopods. 209
„ crab, 246
„ dragon-hy, 250
„ fishes, 267
„ reptiles, 277
Mesozoic fishes, 263
Ordovician grapto-
lites, New Zealand,
126
„ Ordovician grapto-
lites, Victoria, 124
Loxoconcha, 239
Loxonema, 193, 194, 195,
196
Lucina, 185, 187
Lung-fish, 265
Lunucammina, 98
Lunulicardium, 178
Lunulites, 158
Lyriopecten, 179
Maccoyella, 183, 184
MacrocephaJites, 209
Macrocheilus, 196
Macrocypris, 236, 240
Macropora, 158
Macropus, 289, 295
Macrotaeniopteris, 88
Mactra, 177, 185, 1S8
Madrepore limestone, 73
Magasella, 166, 168
Magellania, 166, 167. 168
Magnolia, 91
Maiden-hair tree, 89
Mail-shells, 189
MAMMALIA, early types,
. 285
Mammals, fossil, 51
Manatees and dugongs, 298
Marginella, 198, 199
Marginulina, 98
Marsupial lion, 293
Marsupial, oldest known
Australian, 294
Marsupials, 287
„ Pleistocene and
living, 295
Martiniopsis, 164
Mastodonsaurus, 274
Material for fossil collect-
ing, 315
Megalania, 280
Megalosaurus, 277
Melania, 203
Melosira, 92
Membranipora , 157, 158
Meretrix, 177. 185, 187
Mesoblastus, 139
Mesostigmodera. 250
Mesozoic strata, 46
Metablastus, 139
Metasqualoclon, 295, 296
METAZOA, 95
Micraster, 146
Microdiscus, 227
Mikrogromia, 95
Millepora, 119
Milleporids, 119
Miliolina, 96, 100, 101
330
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Miocene bird, New Zealand,
280
„ leaf-beds, 90
Miolania, 279
Mitra, 198, 199, 204
Moa-birds, 281-285, 299
Modiola, 183, 186
Modiolaria, 186
Modiolopsis, 177
MOLLUSC A, characters of,
38, 56, 174
MOLLUSCOIDEA, charac-
ters of, 38, 57, 154
Monactmellid sponges, 109,
110
Monogenerina, 97
Monograptus, 124, 128
Monostychia, 146
Monotis, 182
MONOTREMATA, 286
Monticulipora, 155
Monticuliporoids, 117
Montlivaltia, 118
Moor-hen, 283
Mopsea, 119
Morio, 198, 200
Mound-builders, ^83
Mourlonia, 196
Mud-fish, 265, 267
Muds, 69
Muds tone, 70
MULT1TUBEECULATA,
286
Murchisonia, 194, 195, 106
Murex, 198, 199, 200
My odor a, 185, 187
yiyriolepis, 262, 263
Mytilarca, 177
Mytilus, 182, 183, 187, 188
Naming of animals, 34
Nassa, 191, 198, 204
Natica, 191, 197, 198, 200,
201
Native cat, 287, 295
dog, 298
„ honeysuckle, 91, 92
NAUTILOIDEA, 204
Nautilus, 204, 207, 209, 210
Navicula, 92
Nebalia, 244
Necrastur, 283
Neoceratodus, 267
Newer Pliocene seal, 299
Newtoniella, 198
New Zealand fossil if erous
strata, 49
Niso, 194, 198
Nodosaria, 98, 100
Xonionina, 96
Normanttes, 209
Notasaphus, 227
Xotidanus, 268, 269, 270,
271
Notochelone, 53, 277
NotopJiyllia, 118
NototheiHum, 293
Nubecularia, 97, 98
Nucleospira, 160
Nucula, 175. 177, 178, 183,
184, 185
~Nuculites, 177, 178
Nullipore limestone, 75
Nummuhtes, 65, 99
Nummulitic limestone, 73
Nyroca, 283
OCTOPODA, 205
Octopus, 205
Odontaspis, 260, 270, 271
ODONTOCETI, 295
Odontopleura, 229, 231
Odostomia, 198, 200
Oenonites, 153
Olenellus, 226, 227
OZiva, 204
Ommatocarcinus, 247
Omphalotrochus, 194
Oolitic ironstone, 81
Ophileta, 192, 193
OPHIUROIDEA, 141
Orbiculoidea, 160
Orbitoules, 99
Ordovician bivalve, 177
„ brachiopods, 159
„ cephalopods, 205
INDEX.
331
Ordovician corals, 113
„ crinoids, 135
„ gasteropods, 193
Phyllocarida, 244
Radiolaria, 102
„ sponges, 108
trilobites, 227
Omithorhynchus, 286, 287
Orthis, 159, 160, 161, 162
„ limestone, 74
Orthoceras, 204. 205, 206,
207, 208
Orthonota, 111
Orthothetes, 162
OSTRACODA, features of
carapace, 234
habits of, 234
„ structure of, 233
Ostrea, 182, 184, 187
Otaria, 299
Oxyrhina, 269, 270, 271
OXYSTOMATA, 247
Oxytelus, 250
Pachydomus, 181
Pachyornis, 282, 283
Pachypora, 73, 116
Palaeaster, 140, 141
Palaeeudy.pt es, 280, 2S1
Palaeohatteri<u 276
Palaeolycus, 250
Palaeoneilo, 177, 178
Palaeoniscus, 261, 263, 274
Palaeopelargus, 283
Palaeozoic chitons, 189
„ Cladophora, 122
., Cryptostomata,
156
„ errant worms, 153
„ strata, 47
„ Trepostomata,
155
Palissya, 89, 164
Pallymnarclius, 279
Palorchestes. 290
Panda, 203
Panenka, 111
Paraeyainus, 118
Paracyclas, 111, 179
Paradox echinus, 145
Paradoxorhyncha, 239
Parasqualodon, 295, 296
Paretasaurus, 276
Patella, 190, 191
Pecten, 175, 182, 183, 184,
185, 186, 187, 188
PELEC ¥PODx\, characters
of, 174
„ hinge structure
of, 175
Pelican, 283
Pelicanus, 283
Pelosina, 97
fPeltopleurus, 262
Pentacrinas, 137, 138
Pentagonaster, 141
Pentamcrus, 160, 162
Penteune, 91
Peragale, 289
Perameles, 289, 295
Perispliinctes, 209
Permian and Triassic rep-
tiles, 276
Perna, 187
Pevonella, 148
Persoonia, 90
Petauriis, 295
Petraia, 113
Phacops, 229, 230, 231
Phalanger, 295
Phanerotrema, 194
Phascolomys, 289, 295
Phascolonus, 289
Phialocrinus , 137
Phillipsia, 232
Phoenicopsis, 88
Pholas, 111
Pholidophorus, 262, 263
P/ios, 198
Phragmoceras, 207
Phryganea, 75
PHYLACTOLAEMATA, 155
PHYLLOCARIDA, struc-
ture of, 243
Phyllocladus, 90
Phyllograptus, 123, 126
332
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
PHYLLOPODA, 233
Phyllotheca, 274
Physa, 191
Physonemus, 261
Pigeon, 283
Pinna, 186
PINNIPEDIA, 299
Pisania, 202
fPisocrinus, 136
Placopsilina, 97
Placotrochus, 118
Placunanomia , 184, 187
nagiarca, 184
Plagiaulax, 286
Planorbis, 191
Plants, fossil, 66
Plant series, characters of,
39
Platalea, 283
Platyceps, 273
Platyceras, 192, 194, 195,
196
Platycoila, 91
Platycrinus, 137
Platyschisma, 196
Platysomus, 263
Placoiphora, 190
Plectroninia, 112
Pleioclinis, 91
Pleistocene birds, New Zea-
land, 283
„ bivalves, 188
,, carinate birds,
283
„ diprotodonts, 289
fish, 272
„ Foraminifera, 101
„ gasteropods, 202
„ lobster, 248
„ plants, 91
seal, 299
Plerophylhim , 117
Plesiastraea, 119
Plesiolampas, 148
Plesiosaurus, 279
Pleuracanthus, 263
Pleurodiciyum , 114
Pleuromya, 183
fPleurostomella. OS
Pleurotoma, 198, 199, 202
Pleurotomaria, 194, 196,
197, 200, 202
Plicatula, 186
Pliocene moa, New Zealand,
281
Pliosaurus, 278
Plotus, 283
Fodocarpus, 90
Poecilodus, 262
fPollicipes, 243
POLYCHAETA, 152. 154
Polycotylus, 279
Polymastodon, 286
Polymorphina, 98, 100
POLYPL ACOPHOK A, 1 89
Polypora, 157
POLYPROTODONTIA, 287
Polyslomella, 101
POLYZOA, characters of,
59, 155
,, subdivisions of,
155
Polyzoal limestone, 74
Porcellia, 196
Porcupine fish. 270, 271
Porina, 158
Porphyrio, 283
Portheus, 268
Poteriocrin us, 137
Prehensile Uat-kan^aroo,
295
Preservation of fossils, 319
Primitia, 236, 237
Pristisomus, 262
Procoptodon, 290
Productus, 162, 163, 164
Proechidna, 287
Proetus, 229, 232
Progura, 283
Prcsopow, 246
Prot aster, 142
Protocardium, 185
Protopharetra, 113
Protoretepora, 157
Protospoiu;ia, 107, 108
PROTOZOA, characters of.
36, 65, 95
INDEX.
333
Psammechinus, 145
Pseudamaura, 197
Psilichthys, 264
PTERIDOPHYTA, charac-
ters of, 40
PTERIDOSPERMEAU,
characters of, 40
Pterinea, 178, 179
Pteris (Pteridium) , 91
PTEROPODA, 190, 192,
193, 194
Pterygotus, 248, 249
Ptilograptus, 122
Ptychoparia, 226, 227
Pugnellus, 184
Pulvinulina, 98
Purbeck marble, 74
Purisiphonia, 110
Purpura, 191
RADIOLARIA, characters
of, 36, Q6
„ habitat of, 101
„ structure of, 101
„ subdivisions, 102
Rail, 283
Raised beaches as distinct
from middens, 29
Ranella, 204
Range-in-time of fossils, 50
Raphistoma, 193, 195
Rat-kangaroo, 295
Receptaculites, 109
Regular echinoids, 144
Reinschia, 78
Reptiles, fossil, 53
„ dentition of, 275
„ structure of, 274
Reteocrinus, 135
Retepora, 158
Reticularia, 164
Retiolites, 124, 128
Rhacopteris, 86
Rhinopterocaris, 244, 246
Rhipidomella, 162
Rhizophyllum, 113
Rhodocrinus, 135
Rhombopora, 156
Rhynchonella, 158, 165, 166
RHYNCHOTA, 250
Rhynchotrema, 160
Ringicula, 202
Risella, 191
Rissoa, 198
Rissoina, 197
Rostellaria, 198
Rotalia, 96, 101
Rugose corals, 113
Saccammina , (.)6.
Saccocaris, 244
Sagenodus, 263
Salterella, 192
Sandstones, 71
Sanidophyllum , 115
Sarcophikis, 287, 295
Sargus, 272
tfcaZa, 101, 198, 199, 200,
202
Scalaetrochus, 194.
Scaldicetus, 297
Scaphella, 202
Scaphites, 209
SCAPHOPODA, 188
Scenella, 193
Sceparnodon, 289
Schizaster, 148
Schizodus, 175
Schizophoria, 162
Schloenbachia, 209
Scutellina, 146
Sea-beds far from tiie pre-
sent coast, 29
Sea-bream, 272
„ -cucumbers, 148
„ -firs, 119, 122
„ -mats, 154, 155
„ -pen, 119
„ -urchins, 59, 143
„ characters of, 144
Sedentary worms, 154
Seguenzia, 199
Selenaria, 158
Semele, 185
Semicassis, 198
Seminula, 164
334
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Semionotus, 262, 263
SEPIOIDEA, 205
Serpula, 154
Serpulite limestone, 74
Sertularia, 119, 122
Shales, 69
Sharks, 267, 269, 270, 271
Shell-limestone, 74
tihumardia, 227
tiigsbeia, 143
Siliceous rocks, 71
Silicified wood, 24
Siliqaaria, 198
Silurian bivalves, 177
„ brachiopods, 160
„ brittle-stars, 142
„ cephalopods, 206
„ cirripedes, 241
„ conodonts, 153
,, corals, 113
„ crinoids, 135
„ Foraminifera, 96
„ gasteropods, 193
„ graptolites, Vic-
toria, 128
„ Hexacoralla, 114
„ Octocoralla, 115
„ Ostracoda, 235
,; palaeechinoids,
144
Phyllocarida, 246
., plants, 82
Radiolaria, 102
sponges, 109
starfishes, 140
stromatoporoids,
121
trilobites, 228
Kiphonalia, 198
hiphonia, 110
fiiphonotreta, 160
SIRENIA, 298
Kistrum, 202
Slate, 70
Smith, William, 26
Smittia, 158
Solarium, 198
SolenocurUts, 187
SoleteUina, 18S
Sphaerosiderite, 80
SphenoptertSj 85, 89
Sphenotrochus, 118, 119
Sphenotus, 177, 179
tiphyma, 270
tipirifer, 160, 161, 162, 163,
164
Spiriferina, 165
,, -beds, 208
Spirillina, 96
Spirorbis, 154
Spirula, 205
Spirulirostra, 205, 210
Spisula, 188
Spondylostrobus, 91
Spondylus, 175, 184, 185
SPONGES, characteristics
of, 64, 107
Spongilla, 72
Spongodiscus, 103
Hpongophyllum, 116
Spoonbill, 283
Spore coal, 76
tiqualodon, 295
titacheia, 97
Star-corals, 119
Starfishes, characters of,
61, 139
Staurolonche, 103
Stauroneis, 92
Steno, 25
Stenopora, 117
Stenotheca, 192
Stephanella, 109
Stephanograptus, 126
Stephanotrochus, 118
Sthenurus, 290
Sting-ray, 271
Stomatopora, 158
Storing fossils, 320.
Stork, 283
Strata, superposition of, 41
„ vertically arrang-
ed, 44
Stratigraphical series, gen-
eral thickness, 44
Stratigraphy, 27
Rtrepsodtis, 261
Streptelasma, 113
INDEX.
335
Htricklandinia, 160
Stromatopora, 120, 121
Stromatoporella, 121, 122
STROMATOPOROIDS, 63,
120
Strombus, 184, 204
Strophalosia, 163
8tropheodonta, 160, 161
Strophonella, 160
Struthiolaria, 202
Studeria, 148
Sturtzura, 143
Stutchburia, 180
STYLASTERIDS, 119
Subemarg inula, 198
Submerged forests, 30
Sunetta, 187
Superposition of strata, 41
Synaphe, 238
S YIN DACTYL A, 288
Synedra, 92
Byringopora, 114
JSyringothyris, 164
Tabellaria, 92
Taeniopteris, 88, 89, 164,
250, 265
Taniwhasaurus, 279
Taphaetus, 283
Tasmanian devil, 287, 295
wolf, 287, 295
Tasmanite, 77
Taxocrinus, 135
Tellina, 185, 187, 188
Temnechinus, 146
Tentaculites, 193, 194, 195
Terebra, 198, 199, 202, 204
Terebratella, 166, 168
. Terebratula, 166
Terebratulina, 166, 167
Tertiary ironstone, 81
Tessarodoma, 158
TETEACORALLA, 113
Tetractinellid sponge, 110,
112
Tetmgraptus, 124, 126
Textularia, 98, 100
Thalassina, 248
THALLOPTl Y V A, charac-
ters of, 39
Thalotia, 200
Thamnastraea, 118
Thinnfeldia, 88, 89, 182
Thurammina, 97
Thyestes, 258
Thylacinus, 287, 295
Thylacoleo, 293, 303
Time-range of fossils, 50
Tomodus, 262
Toothed whales, 295
lorbanite, 77
Torlessia, 154
Trachy derma, 153, 154
Trachypora, 117
Trematonotus, 194
Trematotrochus, 118, 119
TREPOSTOMATA, 155
Tretocalia, 112
Triassic bivalves, 181
brachiopods, 164
cephalopods, 208
crinoids, 137
nshes, 262
Foraminifera, 98
labyrinthodonts,
273
Ostracoda, 238
Phyllopoda, 233
plants, 88
reptiles, New Zea-
land, 276
Tribonyx, 283
Tribrachiocrinus, 137
Trichograptus, 124
Tricoelocrinus, 139
Trigonia, 175, 182, 183, 184,
187
Trigonograptus, 126
TRILOBITES, habits of,
, 222
„ structure of, 223
Tritylodon, 276, 286
Trttna, 198, 199
Trochoceras, 205
Trochonema, 195
Trochus, 191, 194, 195
Trophon, 202
386
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Truncatulina, 98, 100
Tryplasma, 113
Tuatera, 276
Tudicla, 201
TUNICATA, 257
Turbo, 197, 200
Turrilepas, 241, 243
Turrit ella, 191, 198, 200,
201, 202
Turrit ella -limestone, 74
Tylosaurus, 279
Tylospira, 198, 202
Typhis, 198
Uncinulus, 162
Unio, 181, 182
Unionella, 181
Upper Cambrian trilobites,
227
Cretaceous bivalves,
184
Cretaceous brachio-
pod, 166
Cretaceous cephalo-
pod, 166
Triassic fishes, 262
Ordovician grapto-
lites, New South
Wales, 127
„ Ordovician - grapto-
lites, Victoria,
126
TJ raster ella, 140
Urosthenes, 262
Valvulina, 97, 98
Venus, 177, 185, 187, 188
VERMES, characters of, 37
Vertebraria, 264
VERTEBRATA, characters
of, 38, 257
Verticordia, 186
Vetotuba, 194
Voluta, 198, 201, 202
Volutilithes, 198, 201, 202
Vol vox, 78
Volvulella, 201
Warrnambool footprints,
301
Werrikooian bivalves, 187
„ gasteropods, 202
Whales, 295
White coal, 77
Wilsonia, 160
Wombat, 289, 295
Worms, fossil, 59, 152
Worm- tracks, 154
Wrasse family, 271
Wynyardia, 294
Xenophanes, 24
Xenorhynchus, 283
Xestoleberis, 237
Xiphosphaera, 103
Yvania, 196
Vaginella, 198, 199
Vaginulina, 98
Zaphrentis, 117
Ziphius, 296
INDEX.
337
INDEX TO AUSTRALASIAN LOCALITIES.
Appended letters indicate the State or Country: —
N.S.W., New South Wales: X.T.. Northern Territory; N.Z.,
New Zealand: Q., Queensland: S.A., South Australia: T.,
Tasmania; V., Victoria; W.A., Western Australia.
Adelaide, S.A., 102
Aire Coast, V., 138
Airly, N.S.W., 273
Alice Springs, S.A., 193
Altona Bay. V., 112
Areola, Q., 279
Arcoona, S.A., 91
Ardrossan, S.A., S2, 107
Bacchus Marsh, V., 88, 90
Balcombe's Bar, V., 190,
239, 317
Bald Hill, V., 88
Barker Gorge, W.A., 196,
232 259
Barraba, N.S.W., 93, 102
Batesford, V., 73, 100, 138,
141
Baton River, N.Z., 195, 207
Bay of Islands, N.Z., 93
Beaumaris, V., 119, 243,
248, 270, 271, 29G, 297,
317
Bendigo, V., 108, 109, 124,
246
Berwick, V., 68
Bindi, V., 109, 121, 161, 195
Bingera, N.S.W., 102
Boggy Creek, V., 112
Bowen Pviver, Q., 117, 137,
164
Bowning, N.S.W., 144, 153,
207, 231, 241
Bowral, N.S.W., 274
Brighton, N.Z., 146, '248,
280
Broadhurst's Creek, V., 231
Broken River. N.Z., 146,
167
Broken River, (,)., 136
Broome, W.A., 183
IJriiDSwick, V., 136
Buchan, V., 79, 109, 115,
136, 161, 195, 203, 207,
231, 237, 258
Bulla, V., 122
Bnno-onia, N.S.W., 300
Burdekin, Q., 115, 116
Burnt Creek, V., 259
Burrogorang, N.S.W., 180
Camperdown, V., 74
Canobolas district, N.S.W.,
114
Canowindra, N.S.W., 162
Canterbury, N.Z., 154
Cape Liptrap, V., 71
Cape Otway, V., 119, 296
Cape Palliser, N.Z., 203
Cape Paterson, V., 265, 276
Carapook, V., 264
Caroline Creek, T., 227
Casterton, V., 265
Castlemaine, V., 126, 246
Cavan, N.S.W., 109
Cessnock, N.S.W., 237
Chatham Ids., 138
Chillagoe, Q., 115
Chinchilla, Q., 279
Clarence Town, N.S.W., 139,
162
Cliftonwood, N.S.W., 237
Clunes, V., 279
Cockatoo Id., N.S.W., 274
Collie, W.A., 98
338
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Collingwood, V., 206
Coole Barghurk Creek, V.,
193
Cooma, N.S.W., 93, 102
Copeland, N.S.W., 85
Corio Bay, V., 270
Corner Creek, Q., 237
Croydon, Q., 89, 166
Curiosity Shop, N.Z., 138,
280
Curlewis, V., 112, 247
Curramulka, S.A., 108, 177,
192, 235
Currowang, N.S.W., 127
Dalton, N.S.W., 90, 91
Dargo Higii Plains, V., 91
Darling Downs, Q., 53, 110,
282, 283, 298
Darling Kiver, N.S.W., 154,
157
Darriwill, V., 126
Delegate River, N.S.W., 114
Derrengullen Creek, N.S.W.,
190
Diggers' Rest, V., 126
Dolodrook River, V., 193,
227
Dromana, V., 246
Dundas Co., V., 264
East Maitland, N.S.W., 154
Elizabeth River, S.A., 91
Fanning River, Q., 207
Farley, KS.W., 180, 237
Fernbrook, N.S.W., 109
Fifield, N.S.W., 237
Flemington, V., 136, 142,
143, 206, 318
Flinders, V., 65, 112
Flinders River, Q., 183, 250,
267, 277, 278
Florentine Valley, T., 159,
227
Fraser's Creek, V., 231
Gascoyne River, W.A., 117,
136, 137, 232, 262
Geelong, V„ 100, 119, 120,
243
Geilston, T., 203
Gellibrand River, V., 199
Geraldton, W.A., 98, 197,
238
Gippsland Lakes, V., 168,
243
Gisborne, V., 299
Glenelg River, V., 168
Glenwilham, X.S.W., 139
Goodradigbee River, N.S. W.,
109
Goonoo, N.S.W., 85
Gordon River, T., 115
Gosford, N.S.W., 53, 262,
263, 273
Grampians, V., 261
Grange Burn, Hamilton, V.,
143, 270, 271, 296, 297
Greenough River, W.A., 165,
182, 209
Grey River, N.Z., 78
Grice's Creek, V., 317
Grose Vale, N.S.W., 238
Gulgong, N.S.W., 279, 286
Gunning, N.S.W., 91
Haddon, V., 68
Hallett's Cove, S.A., 119
Hall's Sound, Papua, 201
Hamilton, N.Z., 285
Hamilton, V., 190, 243, 270,
271, 295, 296, 297
Hamilton River, Q., 267
Hatton's Corner, N.S.W.,
114, *31
Heathcote, V., 160, 177, 227
Hobart, T., 68, 203
Hokonui Hills, N.Z., 164,
165
Hughenden, Q., 267, 268
Iguana Creek, V., 85
Irwin River, W.A., 97, 98,
137, 207
Island of Timor, 163
INDEX.
339
Jenolan Caves, N.S.W., 102,
121, 300
Kakanui, N.Z., 280
Kamileroy, Q., 267
Keilor, V., 128
Kent's Group, T., 203
Kilmore, V., 144, 206, 231,
246
Kilmore Creek, V., 231
Kimberlev, W.A., 136, 137,
192, *207, 262
King Island, T., 53, 104,
283
King's Creek, Q., 282
Kirrak, V., 265
Knocklofty, T., 264
Knowsley, V., 227
Ivoroit, V., 305
Kowhai River, N.Z., 189
Lake Callabonna, S.A., 51,
282
Lake Connewane, V., 270
Lake Eyre, S.A., 166, 183,
189, 197
Lake Frome, S.A., 91
Lancefield, V., 93, 108, 122,-
124, 246
Laurie's Creek, S.A., 193,
205, 228
Lawson, N.S.W., 127
Leichhardt River, Q., 267
Leigh's Creek, S.A., 193
Lennard River, W.A., 208
Lilydale, V., 73, 82, 96, 114,
121, 190, 229, 231, 236,
243, 318
Limeburners Point, V., 79
Limestone Creek, Glenelg
River, V., 202
Limestone Creek, Yass,
N.S.W., 136, 231
Loddon -Valley, V., 279
Lord Howe Id., 279
Loyola, V., 109, 121, 229,
231
Lyndhurst, N.S.W., 227
Macmahon's Creek, V., 207
Maddinglev, V., 90
Mallee, V., 71, 101. 119, 138,
141
Mandurama, N.S.W., 102,
127, 227
Manly, N.S.W., 88
Mansfield, V., 53, 122, 154,
231, 259
Marathon Station, Q.. 277
Maria Id., T., 180
Maryborough, Q., 146, 184,
304
Maryvaie Creek, Q., 279
Melbourne, V., 82, 136, 140,
153, 178, 246
Mersey River, T., 77, 97,
193
Milburn, N.Z., 296
Mitchell Downs, Q., 137
Mitta Mitta River, V., 114
Molong, N.S.W., 114
Moonee Ponds (reek, V.,
229, 318
Moorabool River, V., 112,
120, 202
Mornington, V., 65, 70. 90,
112, 118, 258, 269
Mosquito Plains, S.A., 300
Mount Angas, Q., 166
„ Buninyong, V., 303
„ Gambier, S.A., 71,
91, 119, 120, 138,
147, 282, 296
Lambie, N.S.W., 85
„ Macedon Cave, 298
Potts, N.Z., 276
„ Victoria, N.S.W., 88
„ Wellington, V., 126,
134, 159, 193
„ Wyatt, Q., 109
Muddy Creek, Hamilton, V.,
141, 147, 243, 269, 295
Mudgee, N.S.W., 109
Muree, Raymond Terrace,
N.S.W., 238
Murray River Cliffs, S.A.,
58, 210
3^0
AUSTRALASIAN FOSSILS.
Murrumbidgee River, N.S.-
W., 114, 189, 259
Napier Range, W.A., 232
Narrengullen Creek, N.S.-
W., 237
Nelson, N.Z., 78, 126, 164,
165, 182, 233, 248
Newcastle, N.S.W., 233
Ngapara, N.Z., 296
Nimbin, Richmond River,
N.S.W., 272
Norseman district, W.A.,
110
Nugget Point, Otago, N.Z.,
274
Nungatta, N.S.W., 85
Nyrang Creek, N.S.W., 162
Oakey Creek, N.S.W., 178
Oamaru, N.Z., 110, 280
Orakei Bay, N.Z., 158
Otway Coast, V., 90
Fakaraka, N.Z., 93
Papua, 100, 146, 148, 184,
187, 188, 201, 203, 209,
210
Paroo River, Q., 282
Peak Downs, Q., 282
Penola, S.A., 300
Peter maim Creek, S.A., 193
Phillip Co., N.S.W., 282
Pine Creek, Q., 93
Pitfield Plains, V., 90
Pitcherv Creek, Q., 278
Pokolbin, N.S.W., 97, 180
Port Campbell, V., 247
Port Darwin, N.T., 103, 248
Port Stephen, N.S.W., 262
Preservation inlet, N.Z.,
126
Ravensneld, N.S.W., 180
Reid Gap, Q., 207
Richmond Downs, Q., 267
Richmond River, N.S.W., 93
Rock Flat Creek, N.S.W.,
206
Rockhampton, Q., 110, 139,
144, 153, 164, 196, 261
Rough Range, W.A., 116,
122
Sale, V., 112
San Remo, V., 122
Sebastopol, V., 93
Seville, V., 229, 231
Shakespeare Cliff, N.Z.,
146
Southland, N.Z., 285
South Yarra, V., 128, 136,
143, 206, 229, 249, 318
Spring Creek, Torquay, V.,
141
St. Peter's. Svdnev, N.S.W.,
262
Stanwell, Q., 137
Stockyard Creek. , N.S.W.,
127
Stroud, N.S.W., 86
Studley Park, V., 128, 318
Sunbury, V., 126
Table Cape, T., 74, 190, 269,
270, 294, 296
Talbot, V., 93
Talbragar, 267
Tallong, N.S.W., 127
Tamworth, N.S.W., 85, 103,
115
Taranaki, N.Z., 203
Jempe Downs, S.A., 193,
205, 228
Thompson River, Q., 277
Thomson River, V., 229
Tinderbox Ray, T., 264
Tingaringi, N.S.vV., 127
rToongabbie, V., 74, 135
Torquav, V., 74, 141, 148,
243, 269, 296
Tver's River, V., 82, 144
Upper Finke ±>asin, S.A.,
159
INDKX.
341
Upper Yarra, V., 206, 207,
231, 236
Vegetable (reek, N.S.W., 91
Waikao, N.Z., 296
Waikari River, X.Z., 141
Waikouaiti, N.Z., 296
Wairoa, N.Z., 274
Wairoa Gorge, N.Z., 137.
162
Waitaki Vallev, N.Z., 296
Walhalla, V., 114, 121, 128
Wandong, V., 229, 231
Wanganui, X.Z.. 209
Wannon River district. V.,
53, 90
Waratah Bav, V., 114, 121,
229
Warburton, V., 207
Warrnambool, V., 282, 299,
301, 302
Wan in Ponds. V., 90, 119,
141, 243, 269, 296
Wellington Valley, X.S.W.,
287, 298, 300
Wells Creek, X.Z., 165
West Melbourne Swamp, V.,
51
Westport, X.Z., 78
Wharekuri, X.Z., 248
White Cliffs, X.S.W., 138,
179, 183, 184, 195, 279
Whittlesea, V., 206
Wilberforce, N.Z., 189
Wilcannia. N.S.W., 138
Wirrialpa, S.A., 159
Wollumbilla. Q., 98, 137.
154, 157. 166, I S3, 189
Wombat Creek, \ .. 109, 126
Woori Yallock (reek, V.,
231
Wormbete Creek, V., 74
Wynyard, T., 246
Nan Yean, V., 318
Y;iss. X.S.W., 65, 109. 114.
121, 153, 161. 179. 190.
207, 231, 237. 241
Yering, V., 142
Yorke Peninsula, S.A., 226
lule ^d.. Papua, 146, 187.
201
Zeehan, T., 154
CORRIGENDA.
Page 65, for head-line "Protozoa" read "Ifoa- Fossils arc
Found."
Page 147, for head-line "Characteristic Fossils" read "Sea-
urchins."
Page 273, for head-line "Reptiles" read "Amphibians"
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