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\ Automobile

Engineering

y/ Genera/ Refe?'ence Work '. »

FOR REPAIR MEN, CHAUFFEURS, AND OWNERS; COVERING THE CONSTRUCTION,
CARE, AND REPAIR OF PLEASURE t;ARS, COMMERCIAL CARS, AND
MOTORCYCLES, WITH ESPECIAL ATTENTION TO IGNITION, START-
ING, AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS, GARAGE EQUIPMENT,
WELDING, FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR,
AND OTHER REPAIR METHODS

Prepared by a Staff of

AUTOMOBILE EXPERTS, CONSULTING ENGINEERS, AND DESIGNERS OF THE

HIGHEST PROFESSIONAL STANDING

Illustrated with over Fifteen Hundred Engravings

SIX VOLUMES

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

CHICAGO

1921

COPTBIOHT, 1909, 1910. 1912, 1915. 1916. 1917. 1918, 1919. 1920. 1921

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Copyrighted in Great Britain
All Riffhta Resenred

A u t horities Consulted

THE editors have freely consulted the standard technical litera-
ture of America and Europe in the preparation of these
volumes. They desire to express their indebtedness, particu-
larly, to the following eminent authorities, whose well-known treatises
should be in the library of everyone interested in the Automobile and
allied subjects.

Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable
co-operation of the foremost Automobile Firms and Manufacturers
in making these volumes thoroughly representative of the very latest
and best practice in the design, construction, and operation of Auto-
mobiles, Commercial Vehicles, Motorcycles, etc.; also for the valu-
able drawings, data, illustrations, suggestions, criticisms, and other
courtesies.

CHARLES E. DURYEA

Consulting Engineer

First Vice-President, American Motor League

Author of "Roadside Troubles"

OCTAVE CHANUTE

Late Consulting Engineer

Past President of the American Society of Civil Engineers

Author of "Artificial Flight," etc.

E. W. ROBERTS, M.E.

Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Author of "Gas-Engine Handbook," "Gas Engines and Their Troubles," "The
Automobile Pocket-Book," etc.

SANFORD A. MOSS, M.S., Ph.D.

Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Engineer, General Electric Company
Author of "Elements of Gas Engine Design"

^«
GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E.

Author of "Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles, and Motorcycles," "Gas, Gasoline,
and Oil Engines," "Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices," etc.

AUGUSTUS TREADWELL, Jr., E.E.

Associate Member, American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Author of "The Storage Battery : A Practical Treatise on the Construction,
Theory, and Use of Secondarv Batteries"

Authorities Consulted— Continued

ROBERT H. THURSTON, C.B., Ph.B., A.M., LL.D.

Director of Sibley College, Cornell University

Author of "Manual of the Steam Engine," "Manual of Steam Boilers,'* etc.

MAX PEMBERTON

Motoring Editor, The London Sphere *

. Author of "The Amateur Motorist"

HERMAN W. L. MOEDEBECK

Major and Battalions Kommandeur in Badischen Fussartillerle
Author of "Pocket-Book of Aeronautics"

EDWARD F. MILLER

Professor of Steam Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Author of "Steam Boilers"

ALBERT L. CLOUGH

Author of "Operation, Care, and Repair of Automobiles"

W. F. DURAND

Author of "Motor Boats," etc.

PAUL N. HASLUCK

Editor, Work and Building World
Author of "Motorcycle Building"

JAMES E. HOMANS, A.M.

Author of "Self-Propelled Vehicles"

R. R. MECREDY

Editor, The Encyclopedia of Motoring, Motor News, etc.

S. R. BOTTONE

Author of "Ignition Devices,*' "Magnetos for Automobiles," etc.

LAMAR LYNDON, B.E., M.E.

Consulting Electrical Engineer

Associate Member, American Institute of Electrical Engineers

Author of "Storage Battery Engineering**

Authors and Collaborators

CHARLES B. HAYWARD

President and General Manager, The Stirling Press, New York City

Member, Society of Automotive Engineers

Member, The Aeronautical Society

Formerly Secretary, Society of Automotive Engineers

Formerly Engineering Editor, The Automohile

C. T. ZIEGLER

Automobile Engineer

With Inter-State Motor Company, Muncie, Indiana

Formerly Manager, The Ziegler Company, Chicago

MORRIS A. HALL

Editor, Automotive Engineering

Formerly Managing Editor, Motor Life; Editor, The Commercial Vehicle, etc.

Author of "What Every Automobile Owner Should Know"

Member, Society of Automotive Engineers

Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers

DARWIN S. HATCH, B.S.

Late Editor, Motor Age, Chicago
Formerly Managing Editor, The Light Car
Member, Society of Automotive Engineers
American Automobile Association

GLENN M. HOBBS, Ph.D.

Formerly Secretary and Educational Director, American School of Correspond-
ence
Formerly Instructor in Physics, The University of Chicago
American Physical Society

HERBERT L. CONNELL, B.S.E.

Late Lecturer, Automobile Division, Milwaukee Central Continuation School
Editorial Representative, Commercial Car Journal and Automohile Trade Journal
Member, Society of Automotive Engineers
Member, Standards Committee of S. A. E.
Formerly Technical Editor, The Light Car

399056

Authors and Collaborators— Continued

HUGO DIEMER, M.E.

Professor of Indastrlal Engineering, Pennsylvania State College
American Society of Mechanical Engineers

HERBERT LADD TOWLE, B.A.

Specialist in Technical Advertising
Member, Society of Automotive Engineers
Formerly Associate Editor, The AutomohUe

ROBERT J. KEHL, M.E.

Consulting Mechanical Engineer, Chicago
American Society of Mechanical Engineers

EDMOND M. SIMON, B.S.

Superintendent, Union Malleable Iron Company, East Moline, Illinois

EDWARD B. WAITE

Formerly Dean and Head, Consulting Department, American School of Cor-
respondence
Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers

JOHN R. BAYSTON

Head, Automobile Engineering Department, American School of Correspond-
ence
Member, Society of Automotive Engineers
Formerly Lecturer, Federal Association of Automobile Engineers, Chicago

W. R. HOWELL

President, W. R. Howell and Company, London, England

WILLIAM K. GIBBS. B.S.

Associate Editor, Motor Age, Chicago

JESSIE M. SHEPHERD, A.B.

Head, Publication Department, American Technical Society

Forev/ord

THE period of evolution of the automobile does not
span many years, but the evolution has been none
the less spectacular and complete. From a creature
of sudden caprices and uncertain behavior, it has become
today a well-behaved thoroughbred of known habits and
perfect reliability. The driver no longer needs to carry war
clothes in momentary expectation of a call to the front.
He sits in his seat, starts his motor by pressing a button
with his hand or foot, and probably for weeks on end will
not need to do anything more serious than feed his animal
gasoline or oil, screw up a few grease cups, and pump up a
tire or two.

€L And yet, the traveling along this road of reliability and
mechanical perfection has not been easy, and the grades
have not been negotiated or the heights reached without
many trials and failures. The application of the internal-
combustion motor, the electric motor, the storage battery,
and the steam engine to the development of the modem
types of mechanically propelled road carriages has been a
far-reaching engineering problem of great difficulty.
Nevertheless, through the aid of the best scientific and me-
chanical minds in this and other countries, every detail
has received the amount of attention necessary to make it
^as perfect as possible. Eoad troubles, except in connection
with tires, have become almost negligible and even the
inexperienced driver, who knows barely enough to keep to
the road and shift gears properly, can venture on long tour-
ing trips without fear of getting stranded. The refinements
in the ignition, starting, and lighting systems have added
greatly to the pleasure in running the car. Altogether, the
automobile as a whole has become standardized, and unless
some unforeseen developipents are brought about, future
changes in either the gasoline or the electric automobile
will be merely along the line of greater refinement of the
mechanical and electrical devices used.

CNotwithstanding the high degree of reliability already
spoken of, the cars, as they get older, will need the atten-
tion of the repair man. This is particularly true of the
cars two and three seasons old. A special effort, therefore,
has been made to furnish information which will be of value
to the men whose duty it is to revive the faltering action of
the motor and to take care of the other internal troubles
in the machine.

CSpecial eiTort h^s been made to emphasize the treatment
of the Electrical Equipment of Gasoline Cars, not only be-
cause it is in this direction that most of the improvements
have lately taken place but also because this department of
automobile construction is least familiar to the repair men
and others interested in the details of the automobile. A
multitude of diagrams have been supplied showing the con-
structive featured and wiring circuits of the majority of
the systems. In addition to this instructive section, par-
ticular attention is called to the articles on Welding, Shop
Information, Electrical Eepairs, and Ford Construction
and Eepair.

Table of Contents

VOLUME VI
Gasoline Tractors (continued) . By Charles B. Hayward t Page *11

Control Systems: Sngine Governors, Tractor Clutches, Friction Drive —
Tractor Transmissions: Automobile Practice, Types — ^Final DriYe— Trac-
tor Operation: Motor: Transmission — Running Gear — Liubrication: Gen-
eral, Clutch, Running Gear — ^Valves — Pistons — Carburetors — Cooling Sys-
tem — Horsepower Rating — Engine Troubles: Failure to Start, Operation,
Engine Noises — Clutch and Transmission — Housing Tractor

Commercial Vehicles . . By Charles B. Hayward Page 85

Introduction: Development of Field, Scope of Commercial Vehicle, Stand-
ard Design, Classification — Electric Vehicles: Range of Use — Advantages
— Power efficiency — Electric Delivery Wagon: Design, Motive Power,
Shaft Drive, Worm Gear Transmission, Shaft and Chain Transmission,
Unit-Wheel Drive, Current and Current Control, Brakes, Tires — Electric
Tractors — ^Industrial Trucks— Electric Trucks: Classification, Character
of Chassis — Gasoline-Driven Vehicles: Gasoline Delivery Wagons: Auto-
car, White — Gasoline Trucks: Motor Design, Ignition, Carburetors, Cool-
ing Systems, Lubrication, .Motor Governors, Clutches, Transmissions,
Side-Chain Drive, Worm Drive, Front Drives, Four-Wheel Drives —
Electric Transmission — Springs — Brakes — Trailers

Electric Automobiles

By Charles B. Hayward. Revised by J. R, Bayston Page 165

Motor: Essentials of Motor — Principle — Armature — Capacity — ^Motor
Speeds — Transmission: Similarity to Gasoline Practice — Usual Gear Re-
duction — Chain Drive — Gear Drive — Worm Drive — Control: Counter
E. M. F. — Controller — Methods of Control — Shu.*;t — Care and Operation
of Electrics: Chargrtng Battery: Direct Current, Sources of Alternating
Current, Charging, Testing Charge, Boosting — Care of Battery — Sources
of Power Loss — Tires and Mileage

Ford Construction and Repair . ..ByJ.R. Bayston Page 233

Construction: Frame, Front and Rear Axle, Power Plant and Accessories,
Springs, Steering Mechanism — Motor: Cycle, Valve Mechanism, Cam-
shaft. Timing Gears, Piston, Connecting Rod, Crankshaft, Flywheel, Mag-
nets — Transmission: The Why of the Transmission — Ford Transmission —
Clutch — Rear Axle Assembly, Brakes, Steering Gear, Overhauling Car:
Cleaning, Removing Radiator, Preliminary Operations, Removing Valves,
Crankcase Repairs, Adjusting Connecting Rods and Main Bearings, Piston
Slap, Grinding Valves, Inlet Valves, Adjusting Valves — ^Assembling Motor:
Inspecting Spark Plugs, Wiring, Timer Coil Adjustment — Overhauling
Transmission: Noisy Transmission, Tearing Down and Assembly — Assem-
bling Clutch — Overhauling Front Axle System: Adjusting Front Axle,
Ball Socket — Equipping Hubs with Timken Bearings: Bearing Sets, Re-
moving Old Bearings, Installing Cups, Making Press Fits, Cones and
Rollers, Periodic Inspection — Springs: Center Bolts, Spring Clips, Shackles
and Bushings — Overhauling. Bear Axle Assembly: Removing Rear Axlo
Housing, Bearings, Thrust Rings, Differential Gears, Ring Gears, Pinion
Gear, Removing Drive Shaft, Drive-Pinion Bearings, Adjustments, Re-
assembling — Lubrication: Oil Troughs, Reservoir, Level, Circulation, Vis-
cosity, Carbon Formation and Effects, Oil Film — Carburetion: Backfire,
Adjustments, Gasoline Line, Spray Nozzle, Hot-Air Pipe, Throttle Ad-
justment, Setting Carburetors for Heavy Fuels, Electrical System:
Insulation, Magnetism. Ignition System: Spark Coils, Vibrator, Con-
denser, Magneto, Magneto Output, Timer, Ignition Circuit, Testing
Coils, Spark Plugs, Care of Ignition, Timer Wires. Generators: Func-
tion, Regulation, Shunt-Wound, Cut-Out on Dash, Cut-Out on Generator,
Current through Cut-Out, Ford Coil Circuit, Adjusting Cut-Out, Check-
ing Cut-Out Action, Removing Generator, Armature, Wiring Diagrams,
Generator Troubles, Generator Reversed, Shorts and Grounds, Brush
Trouble, Spring Tension, Defective Insulation. Testing: Armature and
Commutator, Short Circuit, Testing Fields, Open Circuit, Grounds, Re-
versed Fields, Grounded Terminal. Electric Starter: Construction,
Principle, Fields, Starter Consumption, Brushes, Removing and Dis-
mantling Starter, Starter Troubles, Bendix Drive, Starting Switch.
Lighting System: Bulbs. Bulb Troubles, Switches, Switch Troubles, Horn
Operation. General Information. Summary of Instructions.

Glossary Page 381

General Index . . . . Page 409

•For page numbers, see foot of pages.

tFor professional standing of authors, see list of Authors and Collabo-
rators at front of volume.

GASOLINE TRACTORS

PART II

CONTROL SYSTEM

ENGINE GOVERNORS

Need of Qovernors. Plowing, In order that a tractor may
be operated most economically, it must be capable of one-man
control since, in plowing, conditions are continually encountered
where the driver's attention must be centered on the management
of the plows and the steering of the machine to the exclusion of
everything else. Moreover the demands upon the engine are con-
tinually varying even when the soil conditions are apparently uni-
form for long stretches. Stones, roots, and extra heavy patches
of sod all impose considerable extra load pn the engine ih^X can
be met satisfactorily only by an automatically controlled throttle
if a uniform plowing spe^d is to be maintained.

Belt Work. A far greater load variation 13 encountered in
belt work than in plowing, as in the former the engine may be
running practically idle at one moment and be almost choked
down' by overioading the next, whereas in the latter there is
always a load on the engine and therefore the danger of racing is
absent. Irregular speed under changing load, racing of the idle
engine, and tardy opening of the throttle to meet the increased
load, all of which are unavoidable with hand control, represent
conditions of operation which not only reduce production at the
machine being driven but are very bad for the engine itself as
they result in overheating, prevent proper lubrication, and, not
infrequently, result in burned-out bearings. In any case the pro-
vision of a governor on the engine releases a hand for other and
more productive labor. The majority of tractors go into service
in the hands of an unskilled operator, and unless there is a governor
on the engine, his course of instruction is likely to be marked by
the occurrence of more or less damage that automatic control
would prevent.

98 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Centrifugal Qovernors. Despite almost innumerable attempts
to displace it, the centrifugal prindple first taken advantage of
more than a century ago to control the speed of a steam engine is
still in almost universal use for this purpose. Most tractor
engines are equipped with what is commonly termed a fly-ball
goveraor, though the details of the mechanism and the character
of the throttle valve it is employed to control differ more or less.
In its simplest form such s governor consists of two weights on
the end of oppositely placed arms which are pivoted on a spindle
connected to the throttle valve, either directly or through suitable
linkage, so that any movement of the weights is communicated
directly to the throttle. On a stationary engine the governor may

FiE. SB. Simplei EngiDe Goveracn
Courteji, 0/ Duplex BnamcOatemor Compavv, flrooWlrti. !fm York

be placed upright and is not subjected to vibration or jolting, so
that gravity alone may be depended upon to keep the weights in
their normal position, but on the tractor springs are usually
employed, and the governor may then be placed in any position.
When running below a certain speed, either gravity or the pull of
the spring is sufficiently strong to keep the weights together against
the shaft or close to it. But as the speed increases, centrifugal
force acts on the weights and tends to make them assume a posi-
tion at right angles to the shaft. The faster the engine runs, the
closer the weights approach to this position, but as their move-
ment brings about a proportionate closing of the throttle, the
engine is not given an opportunity to increase its speed. A well-
balanced governor of this type will operate so senatively that

GASOLINE TRACTORS 99

there will be practically no perceptible change in speed between
idling and full load. So far as the tractor is concerned, centrif-
ugal governors are of two general types, those that are an inte-
gral part of the design of the engine and are built right into it
and those that are in the nature of auxiliary devices designed to
be attached to the inlet manifold between the carburetor and the
intake valves.

Azixiliar}f Types. The Simplex governor, shown in Fig. 58,
and the Pierce, illustrated in Fig, 59, are examples of governors
designed to be adapted to any make of motor, the only modifica-
tion necessary depending upon the details of the drive, since the
governor must be driven directly from the motor itself. In the

Simplex the governor weights, which are housed in the casing just
under and to the left of the oil plug shown, operate a grid valve
the openings of which appear in the intake manifold flange at the
left. The driving attachment, designed in this instance for a
flexible shaft drive, appears at the right. Fig. 60 shows the
attachment of a Simplex governor to a Continental motor, the
drive in this case consisting of a solid shaft and bevel gears
operating from the camshaft. The governor is set for the maxi-
mum speed to which the motor on which it is mounted is best
adapted and is then sealed, as shown at the left end. As the
governor mechanism runs in a bath of oil, it requires no attention
except to replenish the oil from time to time.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 101

llie Pierce governor, which is shown in horizontal section,
operates a conventional butterfly type of throttle valve such as is
used in the majority of carburetors. This valve is shown at the
left, while the weights and the driving attachment are at the right.
Between the two is the spring against which the centrifugal force
of the revolving weights must act to close the throttle. Just above

the left-hand end of this spring will be noted a screw adjustment
by means of which the speed for which the governor is set may be
altered. Increasing the tension of the spring by screwing this in
permits an increase in the speed of the motor since the weights
must then revolve at a higher speed in order to overcome the pull
of the spring. This is the principle upon which the adjustment of

102 GASOLINE TRACTORS

all centrifugal governors is based. One method of attaching the
Pierce governor is illustrated in Fig. 61, which shows it mounted

on a Buda motor and driven
I through bevel gearing from the

I camshaft.

' Built-in Types. The part

sectional end view of the engine

of the Creeping Grip tractor,
I Fig. 62, illustrates an excellent

example of a built-in governor.

[ This is driven from a transverse

Fig 83. Governor ««i M^eiic Unit of ^haft which takes its power
cre^ai^rip^rtor Motor through hclical cut gearing from

Courletv ol Bullock Tnulor Company, " o o

ci<i€aoB. ittinou .(i,g timing gear of the motor, the

same shaft also serving as the magneto drive. In expanding,
the revolving weights draw in the sliding shaft shown, which is
linked to a bell-crank lever at its outer end. The lever is attached
to the throttle, which will be noted just to the right of the earbu-

Fig. 64. Gmerson-Br

retor. This bell-crank lever is also attached by linkage to a dash
pot to prevent the governor from "hunting," or "surging," as it is

GASOLINE TRACTORS 103

variously termed, that is, fluctuating violently over a wide speed
range. This governor is designed to control the speed of the
motor between a minimum and a maximum of 400 to 700 r.p.m.
and is adjustable by means of the hand lever shown in Fig. 63,
which illustrates the combined governor and magneto unit before
attachment to the motor.

In Fig. 64, which shows the complete power plant of the
Emerson-Brantingham 12-20 tractor, is illustrated another type of
built-in governor, the details of which are clearly shown. This
governor is driven by a belt and is of the usual steam-engine type
in which the weights are carried on leaf springs, the movement
being transmitted to the throttle through the linkage shown.

TRACTOR CLUTCHES

Functions of Clutches. Since the internal combustion motor
cannot be started under load and will stall if the load be applied
too suddenly, even though the engine is developing its full power,
it is necessary to employ a means of picking up the load gradually
as well as of connecting or disconnecting the motor from the load
as desired. This means is the clutch; and clutch problems on the
tractor are the same in kind but greater in degree than those
encountered on the automobile since the load to be started is so
much greater. An automobile need start its own weight only and
in doing so it encounters but slight rolling resistance, whereas the
tractor must not only get a very much greater weight under way
but in starting it must overcome the far greater resistance repre-
sented by the plows or other load and also that of the ground
itself.

As a general rule the types of clutches employed on tractors
are the same as those used on automobiles, but they are given a
considerably increased area of contact surfaces and these surfaces
are held together under much higher spring pressures in order to
carry the heavier load. Regardless of its type, the principle of
the friction clutch is based upon holding the driving surface
(directly connected to the motor) and ttie driven surface (directly
connected to the transmission or speed reduction gear) in contact
under a pressure per square inch that is greater than that exerted
by the engine in carrying the load. When the pressure required

104 GASOLINE TRACTORS

to cairy the load exceeds that exerted by the clutch spring, the
contact aurfaces shde upon one another and the clutch is said to
slip. Unless this sUpping took place, some one of the links in the
transmission between the wheels or tracks and the engine would
have to give way or the engine itself would be stalled by the load.
It is accordingly the function of the clutch to slip, first, to insure
gradual engagement in picking up the load and, second, to pre-
vent damage to the transmission or the motor when the load
becomes excessive. The latter function, however, is more impor-
tant in theory than in practice since an excessive load almost

Elg. B6. TrsnsDiifuaa Unit of Itlioiua Tractor Showing Multipl»-DiBC Clutch
Courtesy of lainnis Tractor Company. BloominfffDn, lainoit

invariably stalls the motor before the clutch begins to slip, unless
its surfaces have become glazed through wear or its spring has
weakened.

Types of Clutches. In practically every case the flywheel of
the motor itself forms the driving member of the clutch. The
driven member may be a cone faced with asbestos-wire fabric, a
plate faced with similar friction fabric, or a contracting band
similarly faced which is mounted so as to contact with the rim of
the flywheel itself or with that of a smaller drum attached to the
flywheel; or friction-faced shoes may be arranged to expand
against the inner face of the flywheel. The moving force in «very
ease is the clutch spring. In the order mentioned, these types are
known as the cone, plate, contracting-band, and expanding-band.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 105

or expanding-ahoe, clutches. Where a greater contact area is
desired than is afforded by the diameter of the flywheel, a series
of plates or discs is employed. These plates are divided into two
groups, one of which is carried on spindles or bolts attached to -

the flywheel and forms the driving member, while the second
group is similarly mounted on members attached to the clutch
shaft and forms the driven member. When in engagement, the
two groups are pressed together by the clutch spring in the same
maimer as <d other types of clutches. This clutch is known as the

106 GASOLINE TRACTORS

multiple-disc type, and in some instances it operates in a bath of
lubricating oil, the latter being squeezed from between the plates
as they come in contact, thus ensuring gradual engagement. In
Fig. 65 13 shown the multiple-disc clutch of the Illinois tractor,
the clutch being the small group of plates shown at one end of the
transmission unit.

Plate Type, The sectional diagram. Fig. 66, not only serves
to illustrate the details of the dry-plate clutch but also makes
clear the principles of clutch operation. This is the Borg and
Beck clutch as used oq the Molina tractor. One of the asbestos

Fig. 67. Main Clutch of Holt Caten»!l»r Tractor
Courtesy of Hdtt Manu/acHirina Comvmii, Inc., Peoria, lUinoit

rings shown is attached to the flywheel, while the second ring is
carried on the driven clutch member, while between the two is the
clutch disc, which is a ring or disc of steel also attached to the
clutch shaft. By means of the collar and toggle levers which mul-
tiply the force exerted by the spring, this clutch disc is clamped
between the two asbestos rings when the clutch is engaged. The
backward pressure, or reaction of the spring, is taken on the ball
thrust bearing shown, this being an essential of all types of cone
or plate clutches since otherwise this back pressure of the spring
would cause considerable frictional resistance to the revolution of

GASOLINE TRACTORS 107

the clutch shaft. The screw marked A is an adjustment to main'
taia the distance B indicated, this distance being necessary for
the complete release of the clutch when disengaged.

Expanding-Shoe Type. The Lauson tractor clutch affords an
example of the expanding-shoe type which calls for very little

Fig. 88. Friction Trananiiasion of Heider Tractor
CoartMB of flocit /sland Plain CompaTty, Rack lOand, Illinois

explanation. Against the inner face of the flywheel are two
pivoted shoes which are counterbalanced. These shoes are faced
with asbestos brake hning and are designed to be held in contact
with the inner face of the flywheel rim by means of the toggle
mechanism shown. The spring has the same location as in other

108 GASOLINE TRACTORS

types of clutches, while its purpose, like that of other clutches, is
to hold the clutch friction surfaces together under a pressure
greater than that exerted by the engine in driving the tractor
under load. The main clutch of the Holt caterpillar tractor is of
a similar type, Fig. 67.

Contracting' Band Clutch. Neither the contr acting-band nor
the cone clutch calls for much description. The contracting-band
clutch is practically a duplicate of the usual brake mechanism in
which a friction-lined band is pressed against a revolving drum to
bring the latter to a stop. In the case of such a clutch the object
is to bring the contracting band to a stop on the drum, which is

the flywheel, so that both the band and the AjTA-heel revolve
together, this really being the only difTerence between the brake
and the clutch mechanism. The contracting band is attached to
the clutch shaft, or driven member, and when in operation,
revolves with it, thus carrying the load. This clutch is used in
connection with a planetary type of transmission and is accord-
ingly familiar through its employment on many thousand Fords.
CoTie Clutch. In the cone clutch the inner face of the fly-
wheel is turned to a bevel of approximately 30 degrees to form
the driving member into which a cone-shaped member with the
same bevel and lined with asbestos or other friction facing is

GASOLINE TRACTORS 109

pressed by the spring. Owing to the necessarily limited area of
friction contact in this type of clutch, a high spring pressure is
necessary where a heavy load must be transmitted.

On the automobile this spring pressure is very much less than
on the tractor owing to the slight resistance encountered by the
machine in starting, so that the clutch may readily be disengaged
with the foot through the medium of a short lever and pedal, but
on any tractor except a very light one the effort required to do
this would be excessive. The usual method of clutch operation on
the tractor is accordingly by means of a long hand lever provided
with a ratchet or locking detent, so that the clutch may be held
out of engagement. Since it does not benefit the spring to keep it
compressed, the clutch should not be locked out of engagement
any longer than is necessary to shift the transmission gears to
neutral, when the clutch should again be allowed to engage.
Holding the clutch out of engagement overnight or while the
tractor is standing in the field subjects the clutch spring to abuse
and will soon result in weakening it to the point where the clutch
slips whenever any extra load comes on it.

Friction Drive. While all the types of clutches mentioned
are, in a sense, a friction drive in that friction is depended upon
to transmit the power, the so-called friction drive is one in which
the load transmitting members revolve independently of one
another except for a single point, or line, of contact. This is
made clear by the illustration of the friction transmission of the
rieider tractor. Fig. 68. The flywheel is the driving member, as
usual, but in this case its entire outer rim is covered with a
special friction facing consisting of hard fiber. The flywheel
rotates between two large steel discs, either one of which may be
pressed against it. In this instance the left-hand disc is used for
forward movement and the right-hand disc for backing, or reverse.
It is also apparent that the point at which the flywheel makes
contact with the disc determines the speed at which the latter and
the tractor itself are driven.

In the position shown the tractor speed will be the lowest
provided, since the flywheel is in contact with the outer edge of
the disc, so that the relation of the two is that of a small gear to
a large one and the speed of the latter is reduced. As the fly-

110 GASOLINE TRACTORS

wheel moves toward the center of the driven disc, the relationship
between the two becomes that of driving and driven gears which
approach closer and closer to the same size, so that the speed of
the driven member is increased. This movement of the flywheel
is accomplished by mounting the motor itself on slides on the
frame and moving it backward or forward by means of a lai^
hand lever. The direction of movement of the tractor depends
upon which disc is pressed against the flywheel.

Ltfl Whtcl KcKTKll

Bevel Friction Drive. The form of friction drive employed on
the Square Turn tractor is shown in Fig. 69. In this drive the
principle is exactly the same as already outlined, except that
friction-faced (fiber) conical members take the place of the fly-
wheel as the driving member and corresponding cones of iron are
the driven members. The design is also modified to permit of
driving either rear wheel independently or both in different direc-
tions at the same time in order to turn short corners. The small
diagrams showing the different relations in which the driving and
driven members may be placed, Fig. 70, explain the operations
much better than a description. A separate hand lever controls

GASOLINE TRACTORS 111

each of the driven discs, or traction members. Moving both of
them forward drives the machine ahead through both driving
wheels; pulling them back reverses the movement; and each may
be used independently, so that one drives forward while the other
is backing, thus turning the machine as if on a pivot.

TRACTOR TRANSMISSIONS

Speed vs. Weight. The power generated in an engine,
whether by the expansion of steam or that of the ignited gases in
an oil engine, is converted into mechanical energy by applying it
to the movement of weight, and the power itself is represented by
the extent of that weight and the number of times per minute
that it is moved. Hence, for a given power the slower the speed
at which the engine runs, the heavier must be the weight moved
since it is set into movement a smaller number of times per min-
ute. By increasing the speed, or number of impulses per minute,
the weight moved can be correspondingly reduced. This fact
explains why 25 hp. may be generated by a single cylinder sta-
tionary gas engine running at 250 r.p.m. or by a four-cyUnder
motor running: at 1000 r.p.m. and why one motor is scarcely more
than one-eighth the size of the other, although their power output
is the same. The single cylinder engine will weigh 2 tons or more
and will have flywheels of large diameter weighing more than the
total weight of the smaller engine, but both move the same amount
of weight per minute.

Automobile Practice, On the automobile the object of the
designer is to keep the total weight down as much as possible con-
sistent with reliabiUty, so that light high-speed motors running up
to 2000 r.p.m. or higher are employed. Such motors are practical
for automobile use because the speed ratio between the driving
and driven members — ^the motor and the rear wheels — is not
excessive despite the high speed of the motor.

Tractor Practice, But on the tractor, where the maximum
speed in plowing cannot exceed three miles per hour and is pref-
erably less than that (2| miles per hour is recommended by the
Society of Automotive Engineers and niost tractors are designed
to plow at 2§ miles per hour), the higher the speed of the motor,
the greater the number of steps required in the gear reductiqn, an^ ^
each step represents a loss of power in friction as well as addi

•(» J J •>

112 GASOLINE TRACTORS

tional parts to wear out. Since the tractor is not subject to the
same weight limitations as the automobile, there is no advantage
in employing a light high-speed motor. Generally speaking, the
slower the speed of the motor consistent with the avoidance of
excessive weight, the better adapted it is to tractor use. The
slow-speed motor running at 450 to 750 r.p.m. also has the further

• advantage of subjecting its moving parts to less rapid wear in
service and, other things being equal, should require less attention
to keep in satisfactory running condition.

Function of Transmission. In the section on tractor motors
it has been pointed out that the types in general use belong to
two distinct classes: those which have developed with the station-
ary engine as a basis; and those that are an outgrowth of auto-
mobile practice. In either case the engine will only develop its
normal rated power when allowed to run steadily at a rate close
to its maximum speed. A gear reduction must accordingly be
interposed between the motor and the driving members of the
tractor; the speed of the motor determines how great this reduc-
tion must be, while the space and the limit of weight available
determine what form it will take. Whether consisting of a com-
pact unit such as is used on the automobile or of large pinions
and gears occupying the entire space between the frame members
of the tractor, this speed reducing mechanism is usually termed
the transmission. This name includes everything between the clutch
and the final application of the power to the wheels or the tracks,
which is termed the final drive.

Wide Range of Types. Since tractor motors differ so widely,
there is naturally a correspondingly wide range of types of trans-
missions, the latter varying all the way from what is practically a
duplicate of the gear train used on heavy steam tractors, or road
rollers, to the light and compact gear box used on high-speed
automobiles. A few illustrations of typical examples of each class
will suffice to give an idea of how widely this feature of the trac-
tor varies on different designs. In comparing these, it should be
borne in mind that while increased width of gear face affords a
larger wearing surface to carry the load and large gear diameter

• |aeans fewer steps in the reduction, these advantages may be offset
by the' exposure of the gears to dirt and mud.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 113

The great differences in size and weight, in many cases where
the same amount of power is to be transmitted, are accounted for
by a similarly great difference in the character of the materials
used. Small pinions and gears running at high speeds must be
made of alloy steels, hardened and toughened by heat treatment,
and must be run in a bath of oil. Large broad-faced gears, on
the other haild, may be made of steel castings or even cast iron,
and it is the usual practice to run them to a great extent without
protection.

Speeds. Since the speed range of the average farm tractor is
necessarily very low, its requirements are usually covered by the
provision of but two forward speeds, and one reverse. A few
machines are provided with three speed transmissions, but this is
the exception and is due to the use of either a high-speed motor
or an automobile-type transmission. On low gear, which is equiva-
lent to a forward speed of about one mile per hour, the speed
reduction between the motor and the driving wheels of the tractor
may range all the way from 40-1 to 80-1, that is, the motor
makes 80 revolutions to a single turn of the driving wheels in the
second case mentioned. Such a great difference between the motor
speed and that of the machine itself necessitates a number of gear
reductions, each one of which involves a power loss in itself and
also presents an extra wearing surface that needs replacement
sooner or later. Generally speaking, the lower the speed of the
motor consistent with the avoidance of excessive weight, the less
loss there will be in the transmission of the power to the rear
wheels or tracks, as the case may be. The point below which it
does not pay to reduce the motor speed appears to line between
400 and 500 r.p.m., as beyond that the weight increases all out of
proportion to the advantage gained, while the upper limit Ues
between 700 and 800 r.p.m.; that is, a low-speed motor would
govern between these limits, say 450 to 750 r.p.m., and its trans-
mission would be designed to take care of the difference between
750 r.p.m. and the number of turns per minute made by the
driving wheels, which would depend upon their diameter.

A high-speed motor, on the other hand, would run at 1000 to
1200 r.p.m. and its power would fall oflp very rapidly the moment
its speed dropped below 800 r.p.m. To avoid an excessive number

^ 27

114 GASOLINE TRACTORS

of gear reductions, the driving wheels of a tractor equipped with a
high-speed motor would usually be made comparatively small,

GASOLINE TRACTORS 115

which is a disadvantage since such a tractor is constantly climbing
the grade formed by its small wheels sinking into soft earth, or
depressions, and is accordingly expending a large fraction of its

power in lifting itself rather than in driving ahead. It does not
necessarily follow that a tractor equipped with a high-speed motor
always has small driving wheels, since the reduction in speed
required may be taken care of in the final drive.

116 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Heavy Types. Those transmissions which, as already men-
tioned, represent a continuance of the practice followed for years
on heavy steam tractors and road rollers are known as heavy
types. Such a transmission is shown in Fig. 71, which gives a plan
view of the Fort Huron 12-25 friction-driven tractor. It also
affords an example of a tractor with a comparatively high-speed
engine equipped with large driving wheels. There are three gear
reductions in all: the first will be noted at the left; the second is
from this transverse shaft to a central gear on a shorter transverse
shaft which also carries two small pinions meshing with the bull

gears. Ordinarily the bull gears are attached directly to the driv-
ing wheels, but in that location it is difficult to protect them,
while in the present design they are completely encased.

Since a tractor must make very short turns and both wheels
must be driven when going straight ahead, a differential is indis-
pensable. When rounding a short turn, it will be evident that the
wheel on the outside of the curve must travel a much greater dis-
tance than that on the inside and that if both were driven at an
equal speed, one would be forced to slip and impose a heavy
strain on the machine. If the ground condition were such that
the wheel would not slip, rounding the turn would be difficult.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 117

In the Port Huron tractor illustrated the differential is located in
the second transverse shaft which carries the pinions meshing with
the bull gears. As changes in speed are effected through the fric-
tion drive, the gears of this transmission are constantly in mesh.
The Avery transmission shown in Fig. 72, is another example
of the heavy type, the illustration showing the relation of the
horizontal motor to the transmission. The two forward speed
reductions are represented by the two pinions of different sizes
carried directly on the crank-
shaft of the motor, while the
reverse speed is the pinion
just forward of these. The
transverse shaft just under
the rear end of the motor
embodies the differential the
housing of which will be noted
at the right. This shaft also
carries the pinions meshing
with the bull gears. The com-
plete power plant is carried on
a sliding frame, and the differ-
ent speed changes are effected
by moving the motor so as to
bring the different pinions into
mesh with the large gear car-
rying the differential.

Informtvlinff Tvfws Rp_ Fig'*- Cotta A utomobile Tranamiaaon of Dog-
imermeaiaie types. Oe- Quj^j, Type Ab Ueed oq Four-Drive Trftctor

tween the heavy types just '^"''^'^ °^ ^^ijj^^u^ '^'""'"'"''

described and what is prac-
tically a motor-truck transmission, there are a number of trans-
missions that conform to some degree 'with automobile gear-box
practice but are built on much heavier lines, for example, the
transmission of the Best 75 hp. tracklayer type tractor shown in
Fig. 73. Sliding gears are employed for the speed changes, and a
bevel pinion and driving gear on the counter-shaft which incorpo-
rates the differential, the internal bevel gear of which shows plainly
in the illustration. A typical automobile-type transmission is the
Cotta, Fig. 74, as used on the Four Drive tractor.

GASOLINE TRACTORS

GASOLINE TRACTORS 119

A clearer view of the details of the mechanism of a differential
is shown in Fig. 75, which illustrates the Rumely 16-30 transmis-
sion. One of the features of this difFerential is the use of a series
of eight springs for taking up the shock of starting which will be
noted just inside the large gear. Upon engaging the clutch, these
springs must first be compressed before the load falls upon the gear
teeth, thus cushioning the latter. Other similar transmissions are
the Turner, Fig. 76, the Hart-Parr, Fig. 77, and the Nilson, Fig. 78.

Kg. 77. TraoBmiBaion of Hart-Purr Tractor
CmrUiy of Hart-Parr Company, Cha'Ut, Cily, Iowa

Special Types. In Fig. 79 is shown a plan view of the trans-
mission of the Twin City 25-45 tractor, a feature of which is the
use of toothed, or dog, clutches, the details of which are clearly
shown. This view also shows the contracting-band clutch used on
this machine. The dome just to the right of and forward of the
flywheel houses the engine governor. Automobile practice is
closely approached in the Yuba transmission, Fig. 80, and in the
Holt caterpillar transmission, the gear box of the 10-ton Holt

122 GASOLINE TRACTORS

tractor being shown in Pig. 81. Both these types are of the selec-
tive sliding-gear type generally used in automobiles, the Yuba

transmission clearly showing the individual clutches which are
used in the tracklaying machine to enable the operator to drive
either track separately when turning, A feature taken directly

GASOLINE TRACTORS 123

from automobile practice is the use of the worm drive. Fig. 82. The
Huber, Fig. 83, is a type that is in a class by itself. Its details
and method of operation are clearly indicated in the illustration.
Final Drive. As in the case of the automobile there is a
further speed reduction between the engine and rear wheels in the
final drive, but as the speed reduction between the tractor engine -
and its driving members, whether the latter be wheels or tracks,
ia so great, this cannot take the form of a small pair of bevel

gears. The usual method is to employ bull gears, or internal gear
rings of large diameter which are bolted to the driving wheeb and
with which small pinions on the ends of the transverse shafts of
the change-speed gear mesh. In some instances automobile prac-
tice is followed by using a live axle. This is a combination of a
sliding change-speed gear of the selective type with a planetary
gear. The sectional view of the Emerson-Brantingham transmission,
Fig. 84, clearly shows the relation of the selective sliding gears and
the oil level necessary for lubrication.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 125

Pinal. drive in tracklaying macliines is usually through large
sprockets on the ends of the transverse shaft, these sprockets
meshmg in the track itself. The track runs on rollers or balls
and passes around an idler at the end of the tread, this idler
being made adjustable so as to vary the tension on the con-
tinuous track. The details of the Holt caterpillar, the Best
tracklayer, and the Yuba ball-tread machines of this type are
shown in Figs. 85, 86, and 87, which make the principles of
operation so clear that further explanation is unnecessary.

Only a brief mention has been made of a few of the differ-
ent types of transmissions and final drives employed on tractors,
there being so many that it would be out of the question to
attempt to describe all of them, particularly since not a few
have numerous special features. The foregoing examples, how-
ever, cover the principles employed in practically all tractor
transmissions and suflBce to make clear the manner in which
these principles are applied.

TRACTOR OPERATION

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Tractors Different in Design but Alike in Care Required. In

the foregoing pages an attempt has been made to outline briefly
the principles of tractor operation with just sufficient references
to actual types to make the text clear. At the present stage of
development it is hardly possible to select any one manufacturer's
product as typical of tractor design in general or as embodying
throughout those features of design which are most Ukely to become
standardized during the nejrt five years of development. There are
so many diiferent makes on the market and frequently so many
models of each make that it would require a volume larger than the
present one merely to give a brief description of all of them. Con-
sequently, no extended descriptions of any tractors are given here.
While designs and details of construction differ so widely
and so frequently, all oil or gas engine tractors are based on
certain underlying principles and all call for the same kind of
care. The remainder of this article is accordingly devoted to
an outline of the methods >f handling tractors in service with a

126 GASOLINE TRACTORS

view to pointing out clearly just the kind of care the machine
needs to keep it running efficiently. To facilitate reference, this
information is put in the form of questions and answers grouped
under the particular subjects which they cover.

Degree of Care Necessary, Before taking up the detailed
consideration of tractor operation it is well to revert for a moment
to the comparison between the automobile and the tractor in
order to emphasize the great difference in the conditions of oper-
ation of the two. It is a great mistake for the owner or operator
of a tractor to conclude that because he can keep his car running
for weeks at a time and subject it to the severest kind of service
without being called upon to give it more than passing atten-
tion at infrequent intervals, the same amount of care will suffice
to keep the tractor running equally well. The most severe
service to which an automobile can be subjected is trifling com-
pared to what a tractor must undergo in plowing ten hours a
day. No comparison between the two is possible. The atten-
tion demanded in running a tractor is really only comparable to
that required by a marine engine which is run steadily at full
power.

It is naturally impracticable to employ more than one man
to run the average tractor so that the single operator must
assume the combined tasks of the oiler, engine-room attendant,
and engineer on watch in the engine room of a steamer. He
must see that every part is constantly lubricated, must watch
all moving parts in sight from time to time and keep all his
senses on the alert all the time to detect the first indications of
overheating or faulty operation as evidenced by the sounds
produced.

Parts Giving Most Trouble. Over two thousand tractor
owners sent in reports in answer to a questionnaire forwarded to
them by the Department of Agriculture. In answer to the ques-
tion ''What part of your tractor gives you most trouble?" more
than seven hundred mentioned some part of the motor and of
that number considerably over one-half gave the ignition as the
chief source of delay. A leading tractor manufacturer substan-
tiates this by stating in his instruction book that the motor is
responsible for fully 75 per cent of all tractor troubles and that

GASOLINE TRACTORS 127

70 per cent of the motor trouble is due to the ignition. A
resume of the answers sent in to the questionnaire follows:

Maguetos

299

Cylinders and pistons

Spark plugs

110

Clutch

Gears

108

Valves and springs

Carburetor

104

Lubrication

Bearings

Starting

The figures given in each case represent the number of tractor
owners who gave the part in question as the chief cause of their
troubles in operation. These figures do not, however, give any
idea of the relative importance of the parts as sources of trouble.
Failure of the magneto, or even of a spark plug, biings the
tractor to a halt, but the trouble may usually be remedied in a
very short time and no damage is caused, whereas a breakdown
due to faulty lubrication, or to the failure of the cooling system,
which is not mentioned at all, will usually involve the loss of
anywhere from a day to a week besides a heavy repair bill.

Supply of Spares Necessary, The cost of an ample supply
of spare parts is small compared with the time that is saved
when the part most needed is right at hand and can be installed
without delay, so that a number of spares of the most necessary
parts should be considered part of the investment and be bought
at the same time as the machine. Unless it be an ocean-going
steamer, there is hardly another piece of machinery that per-
forms such strenuous service so far from a repair and supply
base as does the tractor. It would be just as foolish for the
chief engineer of a steamer to leave port without any spare
parts in the storeroom and still expect to arrive at his destina-
tion, regardless of what happened, as it is for a farmer to pur-
chase a tractor and expect to get through his first, second, or
any other season of plowing or threshing without vexatious delays
unless he has on hand spares of the parts most frequently needed.

Manufacturer's Service Poor. While it would not be just to
generalize by saying that the service rendered the purchaser by
every manufacturer of tractors is poor, this is true in many cases
and must always remain so for the farmer who is located miles
from the nearest dealer representing the factory. It is nothing
unusual to waste from half a day to a day, telephoning and

128 GASOLINE TRACTORS

waiting for a part to be sent out or driving in for it. The
dealer may be off for the day in some other part of the comity,
making a demonstration or closing a sale, and there may be no
one in his place of business to render the desired service. Mean-
while, the machine is standing idle. There are few replacements
that the experienced driver of a tractor cannot make without
other assistance than that provided by the usual farm shop, so
that if the parts are on hand little time will be lost in getting
the machine under way again.

Parts Needed, While the make of the tractor in question
will determine the character of many of the spares that should
be carried by its owner, there are some that are needed with all
makes. These are valves, valve springs, and small parts needed
in connection with the valves, ignitors, or make-and-break plugs
for low-tension ignition systems, also ignitor trip rods, or rather
the small parts which compose the fittings of the rod rather than
the rod itself, since the latter is not subjected to wear. Spare
connecting cables cut to length and fitted with terminals, whether
for high- or low-tension systems, will often be found valuable.
Extra fan belts and spark plugs should hardly be called spare
parts in this connection since they are absolute necessities at
comparatively short intervals. Hose connections between the
motor and the radiator are also in the same class. Where a
motor is equipped with die-cast main bearings or connecting-rod
bearings, a spare set will often prove to be worth many times
its cost in the saving of plowing or threshing time, since even
wellnattended machines do suffer breakdowns from burnt-out bear-
ings at times. Extra piston rings as well as an extra piston
and a connecting rod are likely to be called for sooner or later.
The magneto is a pretty expensive piece of equipment and, more-
over, it is usually so reliable that it will continue to work season
after season without giving any trouble. But when it does break
down, it is sometimes beyond the ability of the tractor operator
to make the repair. Where two or more tractors are operated on
a farm and the same magneto is standard on all of them, it
would pay to invest in a spare, though at any time but the
height of the season the laying up of one tractor would probably
not cause any trouble.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 129

The foregoing discussion has been confined to. enumerating
motor parts or accessories that should be carried as spares since
they are common to practically all motors. So far- as the rest
of the machine is concerned, the owner must either learn from
experience what parts are likely to wear out rapidly and need
replacement at short intervals, or he must depend upon the
manufacturer's representative to give him this information.
Naturally, the maker and his salesmen do not wish to give the
impression that any of the machine's parts will need replacement
in a short time, and in a good many instances they are as much
in the dark as the purchaser is, since it may be that the model
has just been placed on the market and there has been no oppor-
tunity to learn its weak points in actual service.

Both the time spent in getting information of this kind and
the money invested in the necessary spare parts will return very
substantial dividends when the occasion arises to use the parts.
There are some parts that may never be used, such as a steering
knuckle. Get the manufacturer's representative to give you a
frank opinion. Point out your position, when isolated, and do
not content yourself with his first recommendations. Insist on
finding out what are the weak parts of every important unit.
The factory man has a good line on this by the extent of the
demand for certain replacement parts. It will usually be found a
paying investment to purchase a stock of almost all of them
rather than take chances on getting the particular part most
needed at a time when the tractor is worth a good many dollars
an hour to you.

LUBRICATION

MOTOR LUBRICATION

Q. What grade of lubricating oil should be used for a slow»
speed tractor motor; for a high-speed type?

A. Every responsible tractor manufacturer goes to consider-
able expense to determine just what grade of lubricating oil is
best adapted to his own engines. His investigation covers every-
thing from a chemical analysis and flash test of every grade of
oil recommended for his use to actual tests in service extending
over considerable periods of time. The tractor owner should

130 GASOLINE TRACTORS

accordingly never use anything but the oil recommended by the
manufacturer.

Q. In a motor having any form of splash lubrication, that
is, one in which part of the supply is carried in the crankcase
pan, how often should the oil be drained from the crankcase?

A. The recommendations of different tractor manufacturers
range all the way from every day to once in two weeks, many
giving one week as the maximum period of time the same oil
should be used.

Q. How often should the oil in a circulating system be
completely replaced with a fresh supply?

A. It should be replaced at the intervals given above for a splash
system since the service demanded of the lubricant is the same.

Q. Does oil lose its lubricating qualities through use, and
how can this be determined?

A. High temperature and pressure completely change the
character of lubricating oil and destroy its lubricating qualities.
The lubricating quality of an oil depends upon its viscosity, that
is, its hody, upon which depends its ability to hold apart surfaces
under pressure by a film of lubricant. Dip the finger ends in
some old oil from the crankcase and rub together under pressure.
The oil will have a thin watery feeling and the finger tips may
be pressed into close contact through it. Try the same experi-
ment with some fresh oil, and it will be noted that a sliding
film is formed between the fingers 'despite the greatest pressure
that can be put upon them to squeeze it out.

Q. What influence has the effect of high temperature and
pressure on the length of time during which the oil should be
allowed to remain in the crankcase?

A. Both the temperature and the pressure conditions differ
widely in different engines so that in some the oil literally wears
out much faster than in others and should accordingly be replaced
oftener. The tractor manufacturer has learned from experience
the proper period of time for his motors, and his recommenda-
tion is based on a desire to avoid having his customer pay for
the same experience.

Q. Next to labor and fuel, lubricating oil is the most
expensive item of tractor maintenance. Is it really economy to

GASOLINE TRACTORS 131

replace what appears to be good oil as often as the tractor
manufacturer recommends it?

A. The cost of repairs due to a single breakdown from
failure of the lubrication would usually buy anywhere froln one
to five or more 50-gallon barrels of oil, without taking into
account the loss of time due to the tractor being out of service.
It is the highest form of economy to follow the maker's instruc-
tions in this respect; if these are to discard the oil at the end
of every day's service, it will be found far cheaper in the end to
do so. Many tractor owners do not regard it as necessary to
clean out the crankcase more than once or twice a season, but
instead of saving oil they are simply running up repair bills.

Q. What other causes tend to destroy the lubricating quality
of the oil?

A. Another cause is leakage of the fuel past the pistons so
that the supply of oil in the crankcase is thinned out by the
gasoline or kerosene. This is particularly true of kerosene, espe-
cially if the motor be run at a low temperature so that the kero-
sene vapor condenses into a liquid. The admixture of carbon and
dirt with the oil also tends to destroy its lubricating quality.
Compare the color of oil that has been used for some time with
fresh oil; the difference is due entirely to the foreign matter that
has become mixed with it.

Q. What attention does a force-feed lubricator require?

A. The sight feeds should be watched frequently to note
whether oil is constantly passing through them or not. To make
certain of this, dirt should be wiped from the glasses at least
once a day. While this type of lubrication has the great advan-
tage of constantly feeding fresh oil tothe bearings almost as fast
as it is consumed, its factor of safety is not so high as that of
the splash or circulating type. In other words, failure of the
part is apt to follow immediately upon a stopping of the feed
since it usually receives no lubrication from any other source.
The lubricator must accordingly be watched closely and the
engine stopped at once if any of the feeds has become clogged.

Q. How often should such a lubricator be supplied with fresh oil?

A. The maker's instructions may be followed but a still
better practice is to get into the habit of keeping the lubricator

132 GASOLINE TRACTORS

constantly filled; that is, of filling it twice or oftener a day, if
necessary, rather than waiting until the supply runs low. A
gage glass on the side of the lubricator shows the amount in it.
The plunger pumps which force the oil to the bearings will
always work better when there is an ample supply.

Q. What other precautions should be taken with a force-
feed lubricator?

A. When it is driven by a belt, close watch should be kept
on the belt to see that it does not become too loose, since any
slackening of the belt slows down the pumps and supplies less
oil to the bearings.

Q. How often should a force-feed lubricator be cleaned out?

A. Two or three times a season should ordinarily be ample,
but this will depend to some extent upon the care that is exer-
cised in handling the supply of oil itself. Unless the oil supply
is kept in a covered oil tank, more or less dust and other foreign
matter is bound to find its way into it. The presence of dirt
in the oil will make itself apparent by clouding the inside of the
sight-feed glasses, making them difficult to read. Oil having
visible foreign matter, such as small specks of grit, short ends of
straw, or chaff, in it should never be put into the lubricator
without straining, as it is liable to clog the pump valves.

Q. How is a force-feed lubricator cleaned out?

A. By disconnecting the leads and flushing it out thoroughly
with gasoline or kerosene. The leads should be disconnected at
both ends and also flushed out, blowing through them to see
that they are clear from end to end.

Q. Are some of these leads more apt to clog up than others?

A. Those that supply oil to the pistons are most likely to
clog owing to an accumulation of carbon in the ends opening
into the cylinder. They should be taken off at shorter intervals
and all carbon removed in the tube itself as well as in the open-
ing through which the oil passes through the cylinder wall.

Q. What attention does a circulating system require?

A. A circulating system requires replenishing of the entire
supply after washing out at intervals, as directed in the manu-
facturer's instructions; examination at short intervals of the oil
pump; and frequent washing off of the oil pump screen. Keep

GASOLINE TRACTORS 133

the sight-feed glasses clean and shut down immediately if an oil
stream fails to appear in any of them (some tractors have but
one, others several).

Q. What general precautions should be observed in clean»
ing out a lubricating system of any type and in handling oil?

A. Always avoid the lise of waste or rags from which lint
will detach itself in wiping out the crankcase or any part of the
system, since these threads will invariably clog an oil pump or
feeder tubes. All cans or other vessels used in handling oil should
be kept covered to prevent dust falling in them and should be
wiped clean before using. Dust is simply fine grit, and its pres-
ence in the oil converts it into a grinding compound which will
quickly cut away bearing surfaces.

Q. What other lubrication does the motor require?

A. This will depend entirely on the type of motor. Where
it has overhead valves as used on many tractor motors, the rocker
arm spindles and pin should be oiled at least once or twice a
day with a hand oiler. This applies as well to any other external
moving parts not lubricated by the oiling system of the motor.
The grease cups on the fan and on the pump should be turned
down at least once a day. Some tractors are equipped with
gravity oilers for this purpose. '

CONTROL SYSTEM LUBRICATION

Q. How is the clutch lubricated?

A. On some tractors it is enclosed in the same housing as
the motor and runs in a bath of oil. Where it is not housed in,
grease cups are usually provided on the clutch, and these should
be turned down at least once a day. No oil should be allowed
to fall on the facing, as this would reduce the holding power of
the clutch and cause it to slip.

Q. What attention is required to keep the transmission
properly lubricated?

A. When the transmission is of the enclosed type, running
in oil, it should be kept filled to the height given in the maker's
instructions and with the grade of lubricant recommended. Don't
attempt to use cup grease, or a home-made compound of grease
and oil or graphite^ as the different materials will separate, nor

134 GASOLINE TRACTORS

should heavy steam cylinder oil be used, since it contains animal
fats and will become acid, attacking the steel faces of the gears.
The pressure between the gear teeth in a transmission is very
high so that the oil wears out in time and should be replaced at
intervals of two to three months. Watch the transmission hous-
ing for leaks and renew felt washers or other provision for pre-
venting leaks.

Q. How are open transmission gears lubricated?

A. Where gears are run without a housing, they are not
intended to be lubricated and care should be taken to see that
no oil or grease gets on them as it will hold dirt and grit and
cause the teeth to wear out much faster. The gears should be
kept free of mud and dirt, but an oily rag or waste should never
be used for this purpose. This also applies to the bull pinion
and gear except where completely housed in.

Q. What attention is required to lubricate other moving
parts of the tractor?

A. Grease cups are usually provided on all other moving
parts, and they should be turned down as instructed by the
maker. In some instances the directions are to screw these cups
down as often as twice a day; in others, once an hour.

ENGINE PARTS

ENGINE BEARINGS

Q. How long will motor bearings run without developing
sufficient play to require adjustment?

A. This will depend largely upon the motor itself and the
service demanded of the tractor. If it is being run constantly
with an overload, they will need attention much sooner than
when the machine is not called upon to carry more than 75 per
cent of its load for the greater part of the time. In any case
the bearings should be examined at least once a week; some
makers reconmiend that they be tested for looseness as often as
twice a week when in constant service.

Q. How can the bearings be tested for looseness?

A. They should always be examined just after the motor
has been shut down and is still hot; the amount of play will be

GASOLINE TRACTORS 135

greater when all the parts are cold but some of this will be taken
up by the thickened oil film then present and their condition
cannot be determined as satisfactorily. The connecting-rod bear-
ings are the first to show signs of looseness. Take the handhole
covers off the crankcase and turn the motor until two of the
connecting-rod ends are close to the openings. If there is much
play, it will be evident upon grasping the connecting rod and
attempting to lift it, but this amount would usually cause a
knock in operation. Take a small bar and pry the bearing
upward from below, keeping the other hand on the rod to detect
any movement. Do not confuse the side play of the bearing
with looseness of the bearing itself as a small amount of side
movement is allowed on all connecting-rod bearings. Apply this
test to the other two connecting rods also. A bar may also be
used to detect any looseness of the main or crankshaft bearings.

Q. Will it do any harm to allow a certain amount of play
in these bearings?

A. Nothing will be apt to run up a big repair bill quicker
than running the motor with the bearings too loose. Every
reversal of movement pounds the crankshaft and in time will
cause crystallization of the steel with consequent breakage of the
shaft. The resulting vibration is also detrimental to every other
part of the motor.

Q. How are the bearings adjusted when a test reveals
play in them?

A, Most motor bearings are provided with shims, that is,
small strips of metal placed between the halves of the bearing
and through which the bolts pass to hold the bearing together.
Take off one or more shims on each side of the bearing and
screw down the nuts again tightly. To obtain a proper adjust-
ment, you must be able to set up these nuts as far as they will
go without binding the shaft. Open the pet cocks or the com-
pression release, where one is provided on the engine, and try
the adjustment by cranking the motor by hand. It will be very
difficult to turn the motor over if the bearings are too tight.
They should be adjusted so that the motor turns easily, indi-
cating that there is suflBcient space between the bearing halves
and the shaft to permit the formation of an oil film between

166 GASOLINE TRACTORS

them. The shaft should be tested for play, as already described,
to prevent making the adjustment too loose.

Q. When a bearing is too tight, is it good practice to ease
off the nuts and let the shaft run that way?

A. A bearing is not properly adjusted unless the nuts can
be set up hard on the bearing caps, all adjustments being made
by removing or re-inserting shims, or laminations of metal only a
few thousandths of an inch thick. One or two shims should be
removed from each side at a time and the adjustment tested.
Care must always be taken to see that the bearing cap is replaced
on the bearing from which it was taken and that it is put back
in the same way.

Q. Is it ever necessary to adjust the . piston^pin, or wrist-
pin, bearing?

A. This is the bearing which holds the upper end of the
connecting rod in the piston and if the motor is properly lubri-
cated with clean oil, it will seldom require any attention. In
some motors the pin is held fast in the sides of the piston and
the connecting rod moves on it, and shims are provided on the
connecting-rod bearing for adjustment. In others the upper end
of the connecting rod is clamped fast to the pin, and the pin
moves in bronze bushings in the sides of the piston or bears
directly on the piston walls. Allowing the big-end connecting-
rod bearings and the crankshaft bearings to become too loose so
that the motor knocks is the chief cause of lost motion in the
wrist-pin bearing. Where the pin bears in the piston walls this
may wear the holes out of round so that they have to be rebored
and bushed to make a good bearing.

Q. When the connecting rod or crankshaft bearings of a
motor require adjustment at frequent intervals, what is the cause
of the trouble?

A. The cause is faulty lubrication: failure to clean out the
crankcase at the proper intervals, with the result that the oil
loses its lubricating qualities and the dirt that becomes mixed
with it cuts away the bearing surfaces.

Q. Where bearings have become worn to the point where it is
no longer possible to adjust them properly, is it practical for the
average operator of a tractor to replace them with new bearings?

GASOLINE TRACTORS 137

A. It is not practical unless he has had experience in the
work, since it requires accurate lining up and scraping in of the
bearings to a close fit. Unless this is carried out properiy, such
heavy stresses will be imposed on the crankshaft that it will
break sooner or later. Therefore it is poor economy to attempt
this repair without actually having had experience in making it;
it is one of those things that cannot be learned from an instruc-
tion book. It is necessary to see it done in the shop more than
once and the first attempt should be made under the supervision
of one who has had experience.

VALVES

Q. What attention is required to keep the valves in good
operating condition?

A. The valve stems must be lubricated one or more times
a day, except on motors provided with special means for doing
this automatically. The clearance between the valve tappet and
push rod, or between the end of the rocker arm and the valve
stem, depending upon the type of motor, must be adjusted at
frequent intervals and the valves themselves must be ground as
often as is necessary to keep them tight.

Q. Why is adjustment of the clearance necessary, and
what should this be?

A. The constant hammering of the tappet or rocker arm
against the valve stem tends to increase this clearance as well as
to wear away the parts, thus increasing the distance. The greater
this distance is the less the valve will lift when operated, so that
less fuel is admitted on the intake stroke and some of the exhaust
gases are left in the cylinder on the exhaust stroke, thus cutting
down the power. This clearance should be just sufficient to
allow the valve to close completely under the pull of its spring
when the tappet or rocker arm is released by the cam. It should
be tested and adjusted with the motor hot, since, if made very
close when cold, the expansion of the parts is apt to prevent
the valve from closing properly. An ordinary visiting card or a
piece of tin plate makes a good gage; it should be possible to
slip this between the tappet and stem easily. In any case the
clearance should not exceed ^ inch.

138 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Q. How often should the valves be ground?

A. When a tractor is being used ten hours a day and six
days a week, they will doubtless require grinding once every four
to six weeks, depending more or less on the motor itself; some
motors run very much hotter than others and in some the pro-
vision for cooling the exhaust valve is inadequate, so that more
frequent attention is necessary.

Q. How may the valves be tested for leakage without
taking the motor down?

A. Turn the motor over by band about one-third of a revo-
lution, until two of the pistons are within an inch or two of the
upper dead center. At this point the pressure in the cylinder
that is then on the compression stroke should be highest. Hold
the piston up against this pressure, just exerting sufficient pull
to cause the piston to move if the compression leaks away. In
a motor that is in good condition, there should be no perceptible
movement due to leakage in the course of two or three minutes,
and if the pull of the hand is slackened, the piston should tend
to push the starting crank down again under the influence of
the pressure in the cylinder. Apply the test to each cylinder in
turn and any difiFerence in the compression-holding power of the
different cylinders will be noticeable.

Q. When the usual adjustment of the clearance does not
correct a loose and noisy valve action, what is apt to be the
cause of the trouble?

A. The pin of the cam roller has probably worn so that
there is considerable lost motion between the roller and the pin
on which it turns. The only remedy is to replace the roller
and pin or maybe the tappet complete. Any lost motion at
this point permits the roller to move upward the distance repre-
sented by the wear before the tappet itself can lift. While the
play at any one point may be very small, when it is increased
by an equivalent amount at two or three other points, the total
is sufficient to reduce the effective valve opening considerably,
with a corresponding decrease in the power. When new parts
are not readily obtainable, this condition may be remedied by
boring out the holes of the cam roller and the rocker lever and
fitting them with bushings.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 139

Q. When grinding valves, is it necessary to continue the
operation until the entire valve and seat have taken on a polish?

A. No; the operation may be considered complete when
both the valve and the seat are smooth all around and com-
pletely free from any sign of pitting. A polished surface may
give a little closer fit, but the difference is not enough to com-
pensate for the time necessary to produce it. The grinding
operation should always be finished by the use of the fine grind-
ing compound.

Q. In case a motor has been allowed to run until the valve
seats have become very badly pitted, is it necessary to cut these
down by grinding alone?

A. No; a valve-seat reaming tool should be employed for
cutting away the metal until the pitting has almost disappeared,
and the remainder of the operation should then be carried out
by grinding in the usual manner. No more metal than necessary
should be removed with the reamer as cutting too deep will
simply shorten the life of the cylinder casting. Valves are made
in two standard tapers, 45 degrees and 60 degrees, and care
must be taken to see that the angle of the reamer blades corre-
sponds to that of the valve seat before beginning to cut.

Q. Is there any way of testing the tightness of the valves
before putting them back into the motor?

A. When the valves are in cages, they may be tested by
pouring some gasoline into the cage and noting whether it leaks
past the valve or not.

Q. Does a rapid loss of compression under such a test
always definitely indicate that the valves are at fault?

A. No; the piston rings may be worn or the lubrication
may be poor, so that there is not a good compression seal in
the cylinder. To definitely ascertain the trouble, take out the
spark plugs and pour an ounce or two of heavy cylinder oil into
each cylinder. Turn the motor over fifteen to twenty times
with the plugs out to work this oil down on the pistons, replace
the spark plugs and repeat the test as first described. Failure
to hold compression will then mean poorly seating valves almost
invariably, since, with a fresh oil seal, even loose piston rings
will hold compression when the motor is being turned over by

140 GASOLINE TRACTORS

hand. The necessity for putting in this oil indicates that the
oil in the crankcase or the circulating system needs renewing.
This test for loss of compression should be carried out with the
motor cold.

Q. What is the 1>est method of grinding the valves?

A. With a valve-in-head type of motor, take the valve
cages over to the bench so that there is no risk of getting any of
the grinding compound into the cylinders. Use nothing but the
specially prepared grinding compound designed for this purpose;
ordinary emery and oil should never be employed as it will score
the valve atud its seat. When a special valve grinder is not at
hand, a screw driver bit in an ordinary brace makes the best
grinding tool. Smear some of the compound on the valve, drop it
on its seat and turn it first one way and then the other, making
about a quarter turn in each direction without exerting much
pressure. When the compound has been squeezed out, put in
more and continue the operation, repeating this for fifteen to
twenty minutes. Wash the valve and seat off with kerosene and
examine to see if all signs of pitting have been removed and the
valve has a bright uniform band around its entire circumference.
The presence of any breaks in this ring indicates low spots and
calls for further grinding. Never turn the valve completely
around when grinding, making only a quarter turn, since the com-
plete turn will score the seat. Be careful to flush off every trace
of the grinding compound with kerosene when through to prevent
any trace of it getting into the cylinder. Otherwise, the engine
will be ruined. Where the valves cannot be taken away from the
motor for grinding, the greatest care must be exercised to prevent
any of the compound from getting into the cylinders or down into
the valve guides.

Q. Why is it necessary to grind the valves at such short
intervals?

A. The exhaust valves in particular are subjected to exceed-
ingly high temperatures that pit the metal face of the valve.
Once this pitting starts, it proceeds rapidly and if the valves are
allowed to run too long without grinding, these pits in the valve
face will be so deep that new valves will be necessary. They will
also be deep in the valve seat with the result that a correspond-

GASOLINE TRACTORS 141

ingly longer time is required to grind them out. By grinding at
the proper intervals, only fifteen to twenty minutes will be
required for each valve, whereas if they are allowed to run too
long, it may take an hour or more to get each valve and its seat
into proper condition again. The motor will also run very much
better and deliver more power if the valves are kept in good con-
dition.

Q. What is the cause of a valve leaking very badly at
times?

A. Hard particles of carbon from the cylinder may lodge in
the pitted face of the seat or valve and prevent if from closing
tightly. Even though the valve be held off its seat only a few
thousandths of an inch, it cannot hold any compression.

Q. What is the cause of a valve binding so that it will not
operate?

A. Worn valve guides will sometimes permit suflGicient side
play to cause the valve stem to become bent. Lack of lubrication
and an accumulation of dirt and carbon in the valve guide will
cause the valve stem to expand to a point where it binds hard
and fast in the guide.

Q. What causes a valve head to warp so that the valve
must be replaced?

A. It may be caused by overheating of the motor due to
partial failure of the cooling system, such as may be caused by a
slipping fan belt, trouble with the circidating pump, shortage of
water in the system, or the clogging of some of the pipes or the
radiator. An accumulation of sediment or scale in the jackets or
the radiator may have the same effect.

Q. Do valve springs ever need replacement?

A. In the course of a season's use, the temper may be
drawn suflSciently to make the valve action sluggish, particularly
in a motor that runs very hot, but ordinarily the valve springs do
not often need replacement.

Q. Is it ever necessary to check the valve timing of the
engine?

A. It is never necessary except in reassembling the engine
after it has been taken down. Since the camshafts are made with
the cams integral, no relative movement of the cams is possible

142 GASOLINE TRACTORS

and it is only necessaiy to time one cylinder. Most engines have
reference points by which the valve timing may be checked when
reassembling the engine.

PISTONS

Q. What attention do the pistons require?

A. The piston rings will wear to such a degree that the
pistons no longer hold the compression and there is a substantial
falling off in the power.

Q. How often should it be necessary to replace the piston rings?

A. This will depend entirely upon the care that is taken to
keep dirt out of the lubricating oil and to prevent its entrance to
the motor through the carburetor. If the oil is handled carelessly,
containers being allowed to stand uncovered and a film of dust
settling on them, or if the carburetor is not provided with an air
cleaner, a great deal of grit will find its way into the motor and
will grind the piston rings down rapidly and also the bearings.

Q. How may the pistons be tested for tightness?

A. The valves being in good condition, preferably recently
ground, the test may be made as previously described for testing
the valves; or, with the handhole plates off the crankcase, have an
assistant turn the motor over slowly and note whether there is any
sound of air blowing down past the pistons into the crankcase.
Put a few ounces of fresh oil into each cylinder through the spark
plug openings, replace the plugs, and repeat the test. Loss of
compression may be due entirely to poor lubrication. Drain the
crankcase, wash out with kerosene, and replenish the oil supply;
and test in the same manner.

Q. Is wear of the piston rings the only cause for loss of
compression, aside from pitted valves?

A. An accumulation of carbon under the piston rings may
be holding the piston ring joints apart or the latter may have all
worked into line so that the pressure is escaping through them.
If, with good tight valves, there is still a loss of compression after
putting fresh oil into the cylinders, it is an indication that the
piston rings need attention.

Q. Does the compression fail in all the cylinders equally, or
is one of the cylinders likely to be worse than the rest?

GASOLINE TRACTORS 143

A. The wear is likely to be uneven, so that one or two of
the cylinders will be found very much worse than the rest. Some-
times only one cylinder will fail to hold compression. Test in the
same manner as described for the valves, pulling the crank up
very slowly to note the resistance offered by each piston in turn
as it comes up on the compression stroke. It may be found much
easier to move one of the pistons than the others. When this is
the case, it will be necessary to fit new rings on that piston..

Q. How are new piston rings fitted?

A. Oversize piston rings are supplied for this purpose.
They are slightly larger (a few thousandths of an inch) than those
originally supplied with the motor in order to compensate for the
wear of the cylinder. Take the old rings off by inserting thin
strips of steel (old table-knife blades or discarded hack saws are
excellent for the purpose) at three or four points around the piston
and under the ring. Scrape and wash out all carbon and gummed
oil in the slots. Do not use a file for this purpose. First try the
new rings by fitting them in the cylinder, which operation will
show how much will have to be taken off to allow them to enter
the bore. They must be small enough to insert an inch or two
into the cylinder, since it is turned somewhat larger for a short
distance at the end. If the rings are too large, take a few cuts
with a fine file across the faces of the joint, being careful to keep
the surfaces square and parallel. Very little must be taken off
each time and the ring tried in the cylinder again. The job must
be carried out with painstaking care as unless it is properly done
the new rings will be no better than the old ones. When they
have been properly fitted, use the same strips to place them on
the piston, care being taken not to spring the rings out of round
in putting them on.

Q. When fitting rings in the cylinder as a preliminary to
putting them on the piston, should the break come together for a
good fit?

A. No; allowance must be made for the lengthwise expan-
sion of the ring due to the high temperature, and this allowance
must be greater for the top ring than for the lower ones as it
becomes hotter. Depending upon the diameter of the cylinder,
it is customary to allow xf^ to xJ^ inch between the ends of the

144 GASOLINE TRACTORS

topmost ring and yj^ to tt^ inch for the other two. Bearing
shims are often stamped with the thickness in thousandths of an
inch and may be used as a gage. Unless this allowance is made,
the expansion of the ring will cause it to bind against the cylinder
wall and may cause scoring.

Q. Must the piston ring be a tight fit in the piston slot?

A. Allowance for expansion must also be made here. After
scraping the piston slots free of carbon and washing them out
with kerosene so that they are perfectly clean, insert the ring and
see that it turns freely in the slot. A piece of coated catalog
paper has a thickness of xinnr to ximr inch and it should be possi-
ble to insert a piece of this paper between the ring and the slot.
If the rings are too tight they will bind on the piston and cause
damage as mentioned above. Unless they can be moved freely in
the slots, they will have to be made smaller by taking metal off
the bottom edge of the ring. Smear some valve grinding com-
pound on a flat metal plate or a smooth piece of hardwood plank
and rotate the ring in this under pressure with the hand. Be sure
to wash off all traces of the grinding compound before trying on
the piston again.

Q. Do the pistons themselves ever have to be replaced?

A. The same condition that causes rapid wear of the piston
rings, that is, dirt in the lubricating oil, will also cause equally
rapid wear of the pistons. When this wear amounts to xwff to
yf^ inch, the piston will rock on the piston pin in the cylinder
and produce a distinctive noise, known as piston slap, which can-
not be traced to any other cause. At first, it is likely to be attrib-
uted to a loose bearing, and as it increases it will greatly resemble
a bearing knock. When one piston reaches this stage, it is better
to replace all of them with oversize pistons. The cylinders should
be examined carefully for scoring and tested to see if they have
worn out of round as it may be necessary to rebore them or to
replace the cylinder casting to make a good job of it.

Q. Can the pistons be tested for looseness without taking
the motor down when a knock cannot be traced to any other
cause?

A. The amount of wear that will cause considerable piston
slapping is so small that it would be diflScult to detect it without

GASOLINE TRACTORS 145

having the cylinder and piston on a bench where the fit can be
examined closely. The average driver would never attribute the
loud knocking caused by a loose piston to the apparently slight
amount of play that is revealed when the piston is examined.

Q. What causes besides dirt in the lubricating oil will .
bring about rapid wear of the pistons or scoring of the cylinders?

A. Other causes are the use of a poor grade of oil, using the
same oil too long, or any other condition that results in inefficient
lubrication, such as overheating due to partial failure of the cooling
system. Unless there is a good oil film between the piston and
the cylinder, the metal comes into actual contact and scoring fol-
lows. Too thin an oil will be burned away by the heat of the
explosion as fast as the film is formed on the cylinder, while too
heavy an oil may not reach the upper end of the cylinder bore
owing to failure to pass the piston rings. Worn piston rings will
permit particles of carbon from the combustion chamber to work
between the piston and the cylinder wall. Partial failure of the
lubrication system, such as the clogging of an oil lead in a force-
feed system, the clogging of the screen or of the pump in a circu-
lating system, or an insufiicient supply of oil in a splash system,
will result in scoring.

Cylinder scoring may be due to the piston ring binding
owing to failure to allow for expansion in fitting or to the piston
sticking owing to an accumulation of carbon under it. The wrist
pin may become loose and move endways so that it scrapes against
the cylinder wall; or in assembling the piston and connecting rod,
the wrist pin may be so placed that it presses the piston unevenly-
against one side of the cylinder. Carelessness in valve grinding
that results in some of the compound getting into the cylinder will
cause serious scoring sooner than almost anything else.

CARBURETOR

Q. What attention does the carburetor need?

A. It should be drained at frequent intervals to remove the
accumulation of sediment. Care should be taken to prevent dirt
from getting into the fuel, and the latter should be strained as it is
poured into the tank. In making needle-valve adjustments, the
needle must never be screwed down hard on its seat, since this is

146 GASOLINE TRACTORS

likely to turn a shoulder on it so that proper adjustments cannot
be made with it.

Q. When the carburetor floods, what is the usual cause of
the trouble?

A. The usual cause is dirt lodging under the needle valve in
the float chamber. Where a hollow copper float is used^ it may
have sprung a leak, causing it to sink.

Q. How should the carburetor be adjusted to give the maxi-
mum power with the most economical fuel consumption?

A. Definite instructions covering every make of carburetor
cannot be given, but the same principles can be applied to all.
With the motor running, cut down the fuel supply gradually until
the motor begins to run irregularly or to miss. The fuel mixture
is thus made leaner, and in some cases the motor will back fire
through the carburetor when the mixture becomes too lean.
When the point of adjustment has been found at which the motor
is not getting suflicient fuel, turn back slightly until just enough
fuel is being supplied to permit it to idle regularly. This is
termed the low-speed adjustment and some carburetors have no
other, that is, only the fuel supply can be regulated. Others have
a high-speed adjustment as well; this controls the air supply and
takes the form of an adjustable auxiliary air valve. Speed the
motor up and release the tension of the auxiliary air valve spring
until the point is reached where too much air is being admitted
and the mixture again becomes too lean. Then turn back slowly
until as much air is being admitted as is possible without causing
irregular operation.

Q. Does the working of any other part of the motor influ-
ence the carburetor adjustment?

A. Unless all other parts of the motor are in good working
condition, it will be found impossible to make a satisfactory car-
buretor adjustment. Valves in need of grinding, excessive clear-
ance between valve tappets and stems or rocker arms, worn piston
rings or pistons, and worn valve guides will all influence the adjust-
ment of the carburetor. Air drawn in through worn valve guides,
a leaky intake manifold, or a leak at the throttle valve of the
carburetor will weaken the mixture and make it too lean, so that
the motor loses power and overheats. With the motor running,

GASOLINE TRACTORS 147

take a squirt can and put some gasoline on the intake manifold
gaskets and around the valve stems and note whether it is drawn
in or not. New gaskets will remedy trouble of this nature at the
manifold. Whenever the manifold has to be taken down, it is
always better to replace the gaskets, since it is diflBcult to make
used gaskets tight.

Q. The float valve and needle adjustment being in good
condition, what is the cause of the trouble when a regular flow
of fuel cannot be obtained at the nozzle in the mixing chamber?

A. The supply line may be partially clogged or the vent hole
in the top of the carburetor may be stopped up. This is a small
opening designed to admit air in order that there may be atmos-
pheric pressure on the fuel in the float chamber. If this clogs up,
a partial vacuum is formed. In a gravity system the air vent on
the tank may have become stopped up and the fuel will not flow
to the carburetor owing to the lack of atmospheric pressure on top
of. the supply. In a pressure or a vacuum tank supply system the
trouble may be with the pump, or with loose joints, or with the
tank itself.

Q. When difficulty is experienced in making a satisfactory
low-speed adjustment, what is likely to be the cause?

A. The needle valve may have been forced down on its seat
so that a burr or ring has been formed on the needle. The latter
should be taken out and repointed.

Q. Is an air cleaner indispensable in connection with a
tractor carburetor?

A. It will save its cost and the time required to attend to it
many times over. Without it, pistons, rings, and bearings will
grind out very rapidly, and trouble will be experienced with
accumulations of carbon, more than half of which will be nothing
more nor less than dirt drawn in through the carburetor.

Q. What attention does the air cleaner require?

A. Frequent cleaning is the only attention needed. When
the cleaner is of the dry-air type, the engine should always be
shut down before emptying it. If it is a washer type, see that it
is constantly supplied with plenty of water. Clean out either
type twice a day or oftetier, if necessary, rather than wait until it
is full. Analyses of carbon accumulations taken from automobile

148 GASOLINE TRACTORS

cylinders have shown them to consist of 65 per cent, or more, of
road dirt.

Q. How can an over-rich mixture be detected?

A. Note the color of the exhaust from the muffler. The
presence of black smoke indicates that too much Jpuel is being fed;
blue smoke, too much lubricating oil; and grayish-white smoke,
poor combustion of kerosene usually due to an excess of water.
An over-rich mixture, particularly when kerosene is being used, will
cut the lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and cause scoring
unless remedied.

Q. What is the object of feeding water with the fuel?

A. To assist in keeping the temperature of the engine down
to the proper point for satisfactory working. The steam generated
rapidly absorbs a great deal of the heat and has the further
advantage of preventing the formation of carbon in the cylinders.
It also causes better combustion, particularly in the case of kerosene.

Q. Should water be fed with the fuel regardless of the
grade of oil employed?

A. Little or no water is necessary when using gasoline, but
the majority of motors will not operate satisfactorily on kerosene
without it.

Q. Is there any danger of feeding too much water, par-
ticularly when the motor is running very hot and appears to
need it?

A. Excess water fed with the fuel is liable to lower the
temperature to the point at which kerosene recondenses to a
liquid; in such a case considerable of it works its way past the
pistons and down into the crankcase. This destroys the film of
lubricant on the cylinder walls and is liable to cause damage, not
alone to the cylinders themselves but likewise to the bearings;
thinning the oil in the crankcase destroys its lubricating qualities.
If the motor appears to be getting too hot, the trouble should be
remedied by locating the fault in the cooling or the lubricating
system and not by attempting to overcome it by increasing the
amount of water fed.

Q. What indication is there of excessive water in the fuel?
"A. A grayish white smoke will appear at the exhaust indi-
cating that the kerosene is not being completely burned in the

GASOLINE TRACTORS 149

cylinders. Cut down the water supply very gradually until the
smoke disappears, the motor being kept running at a good speed,
since if run too slowly on kerosene the combustion of the latter
will not be complete owing to the drop in temperature.

Q. Are all tractor motors provided with hand=controlled
apparatus for feeding water?

A. No; some carburetors are designed to feed water auto-
matically as it is needed, while in others the use of a wet air
cleaner is depended upon to supply the proper amount of water
required.

Q. Where hand control is provided, should the water be
fed as long as the engine is running?

A. It is better to shut it off five minutes or so before the
motor is to be stopped, and the fuel should be switched from kero-
sene to gasoline at the same time, as this will leave the motor in
better condition and facilitate restarting.

Q. What precautions should be taken with the water sup-
plied for this purpose?

A. Clean rain water should be used, and it is well to strain
it through two or three thicknesses of cloth to prevent the entrance
of any dirt,

COOLINQ SYSTEM

Q. When the engine overheats despite the fact that the
cooling system is working properly, what is the cause of the
trouble?

A. It may be due either to an over-rich or an over-lean
mixture. In either case combustion is slow instead of taking the
form of the explosion required to produce the maximum power.
The mixture continues to burn throughout the stroke and in the
exhaust passages and muffler. Flame issuing from the exhaust is
an indication of this condition. The ignition may be retarded too
far and bring about the same condition.

Q. What are. some of the causes of failure of the cooling
svstem?

A. Among the causes are the following: insufficient water
supply; fan belt slipping; pump running too slow when driven by a
belt; insufficient lubrication; leaks in radiator or at pump packing
permitting water to escape or air to enter; and clogging of radia-

150 GASOLINE TRACTORS

tor, circulating pipes, or water jackets with an accumulation of
sediment. The cooUng system should be drained at frequent
intervals and flushed out with clean water. An accumulation of
carbon in the cylinders will also cause the engine to overheat and
if allowed to become very bad, will cause preignition, which
imposes very heavy stresses on all moving parts of the engine.

Q. When hard water has to be used in the cooling system
and scale forms, how can this be removed?

A. A strong soda solution made by adding several pounds of
common washing soda to enough boiling water to fill the system
should be used for a day or so in place of ordinary water. The
system should then be drained and flushed out. The use of rain
water will prevent the formation of scale. Particles of iron rust
in the water when the system is flushed should not be confused
with scale; these will always be foimd, even if the system is
drained every day.

Q. Do the flexible-hose connections ever cause any trouble?

A. The inner plies of the hose sometimes become detached
owing to the high temperature of the cooling water and either
partially or wholly clog the passage. The passage is liable to
become wholly clogged with the pump type of circulation owing to
the much smaller diameter of the hose used. To guard against
trouble of this nature, use nothing but the hose connections sup-
plied by the manufacturers as replacements since this hose is
specially made to withstand hot water. Ordinary hose will dis-
integrate rapidly when employed for this purpose and should
never be so used except to tide over an emergency, being replaced
with a new connection as soon as possible.

Q. Is partial or total failure of the cooling system the only
cause of overheating?

A. No; there are numerous other causes of overheating.
The motor may be run with the ignition retarded; the lubrication
may not be efiicient; or carbon may have accumulated in the
combustion chambers, as pointed out in a previous answer.

Q. How can carbon be prevented from accumulating in the motor?

A. After the motor has been shut down for the day and is
very hot, take out the spark plugs, turn the motor over by hand
until all the pistons are at approximately the same height, and

GASOLINE TRACTORS 151

pour into each cylinder about an ounce of kerosene, letting it
stand this way over night. Do not use more than this amount of
kerosene (a tablespoon will hold about an ounce) on the theory
that if a little does good, more will do better, since more kerosene
will cut the lubricating film oflF the cylinder walls and thin the oil
in the crankcase.

Q. How can the fan belt be kept in^good condition?

A. Make adjustments only when the motor is hot and do
not put any more tension on the belt than is necessary to prevent
slipping. A belt that is set up too tightly will wear very quickly
besides imposing undue stresses on the pulley bearings. Keep the
leather soft by applying neatsfoot oil from time to time.

Q. How often should the radiator and cooling system be

drained?

A. Two or three times a season are sufficient in summer if
clean rain water is being used and it is strained before being put
into the radiator. In winter it will be found better practice to
drain the entire system every night rather than to depend upon
an anti-freezing solution, since the latter lowers the boiling point
of the water to such an extent that it is likely to boil away. In
any case, if alcohol is used in the anti-freezing solution, it is
Ukely to boil out of the water, so that the latter cannot be left in
over night with safety. Some tractors are cooled by oil, and in
cold weather it is necessary to thin this oil with kerosene before it
will circulate freely.

Q. When it is discovered that a considerable quantity of
the water has boiled away and the motor is very hot, is it good
practice to fill up with cold water immediately?

A. This should not be done, particularly in winter, as the
fresh supply is likely to be very cold and the sudden contraction
would impose severe stresses on the radiator joints, starting leaks.

Q. What attention does the pump of a circulating system
require?

A. See that the glands are kept tight. The appearance of a
drop of water at the gland indicates the beginning of a slow leak.
Give the gland nut a partial turn to tighten it; if water still
appears, it will be necessary to repack the stuffing box. Use oil-
soaked cotton wick or graphite packing.

152 GASOLINE TRACTORS

HORSEPOWER RATINGS
Q, Why are tractors rated as 10-20, 16-30, etc., always
giving two horsepower ratings?

A. Tractors are designed to be used for belt as well as for
field work. • In doing the latter, the tractor must use a substantial
percentage of its power to move itself. The lower rating accord-
ingly expresses the amount of power available for plowing. When
standing, as in performing belt work, the only losses are caused by
whatever transmission gearing is interposed between the engine
und the belt pulley, so that almost the entire output of the power
plant is available for driving other machinery.

Q. What constitutes an overload, and why do all manu-
facturers warn the tractor user so strongly against subjecting
the machine to overloads?

A. Considerable confusion exists as to the meaning of the
term horsepower. For a few minutes, as in pulling out of a hole,
a heavy draft horse is capable of exerting 600 to 800 pounds draw-
bar pull, which is the equivalent of more than 1 hp., but the
same horse cannot exert much more than an average of 100 pounds
drawbar pull at a speed of three miles an hour in hauling a load
all day. The fact that a tractor having a field rating of 16 hp.
may be pulled out of a bad place by three heavy horses does not
indicate that the team is capable of doing as much work as the
machine. The animals can only exert this much power for a very
short period. The tractor will generate an amount of power at
the drawbar equivalent to fourteen or fifteen horses at the usual
plowing speed and will keep it up all day. A load such as
twelve horses could haul all day would represent the practical
working maximum for such a machine. A heavier load than this,
apart from emergencies which call for all the power the machine
can produce for only a very short period, would represent an over-
load for that tractor. In other words, the tractor should not be
steadily subjected to t, load amounting to more than 75 per cent
of its capacity. Manufacturers warn tractor owners against over-
loading their machines because tractors will wear out very quickly
under the excessive strain and will noV give satisfactory service
during the machine's greatly reduced useful life. Regardless of
the plow rating- of the tractor, as for instance, three-plow or four-

GASOLINE TRACTORS 163

plow, the number of plows used should depend upon the nature
of the soil. When the latter is very heavy, or the plowing has to
be done on an up grade, fewer plows should be used. More and
better work will be done by not subjecting the tractor to any
greater load than it can pull without exerting more than 75 per
cent of its power.

ENGINE TROUBLES

FAILURE TO START

Q. What are some of the commoner causes of failure to
start?

A. Over 95 per cent of all failures to start are due to either
lack of fuel or lack of the spark to ignite it. Part of the remain-
ing 5 per cent are due to the failure of the two to come together
at the right time, while the rest may be put down to faults hav-
ing no connection with either the carburetor or the magneto.

Q. Does lack of fuel in this connection mean an empty
tank and nothing more?

A. While a great deal of energy has been expended to no
good purpose in trying to start an engine that was connected to
an empty gasoline tank, lack of fuel implies a great deal more
than that. It does not do much good to have a full tank unless
the fuel is actually getting into the cylinders every time the
engine turns over. There may be a stoppage between the tank
and the carburetor or between the latter and the cylinders. A
plugged air vent either at the tank or at the carburetor will pre-
vent the liquid fuel from reaching the carburetor nozzle. A
stopped-up carburetor nozzle will not vaporize any fuel, while a
broken throttle connection which leaves the throttle closed will
not permit any spray from an open nozzle to reach the motor, or
at least not enough to render starting easy. Air leaks at the
carburetor, the manifold, or the valve stems will weaken the
mixture considerably.

Q. Is it not as hard to start with too much fuel as with
too little?

A. Flooding the cylinders makes starting very difficult, and
when this has occurred, the only remedy is to shut off the supply
entirely and crank the motor for a few minutes to clean out the

154 GASOLINE TRACTORS

cylinders. Priming too freely is a bad practice, since the liquid
gasoline cuts the lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and
destroys the compression to such an extent that in an old engine
it is next to impossible to start even though the fuel and the
spark come together in the right place at the right time. This is
one of the unspecified causes responsible for part of the 5 per
cent of the failures to start mentioned previously. There will be
a weak explosion every time a cylinder should fire, but not
enough power will be produced to cause the engine to take up its
cycle and run.

Q. When the cylinders have been flooded by over-priming
with gasoline, what should be done?

A. Close the throttle and open the air valve or choker, so
that no gasoline is drawn through the carburetor. Take out the
spark plugs and put 2 or 3 ounces of heavy cylinder oil into each
cylinder. Replace the plugs and turn the motor over for two or
three minutes with the ignition off.

Q. Has the position of the throttle lever any effect on the
fuel supply at starting?

A. Some engines can only be started readily with the throttle
at a certain position, usually not more than one-third open and
sometimes considerably less. On a cold morning opening the
throttle too far is liable to allow too much gasoline in liquid form to
find its way into the cylinders, so that the effect is the same as
that of over-priming or flooding.

Q. How should an engine be primed?

A. Gasoline should be carried in a squirt can for this pur-
pose and not more than a teaspoonful should be squirted into each
cylinder through the pet cocks. If the engine does not start after
priming two or three times, look for some other cause of^fuel or
ignition failure. If the engine starts and only turns over a few
times and then stops, the cause is likely to be lack of fuel as
indicated by the fact that it ran on what was injected into the
cylinders. In priming the float in the carburetor is also depressed
by means of a button or lever provided for the purpose. This
floods the carburetor and causes the gasoline to overflow through
the nozzle into the mixing chamber. The moment any gasoline
leaks out of the carburetor, the float should be released, since

GASOLINE TRACTORS 155

otherwise the cylinders will be flooded. Never prime the car-
buretor just as the engine is starting, as this will produce an
over-rich mixture and probably cause a pop back which may ignite
the gasoline in the carburetor.

Q. Is water in the gasoline a frequent cause of failure to start?

A. It may not be a very frequent cause, but the occurrence
of any water in the gasoline will make it difficult to start the
motor. Being heavier than gasoline the water sinks to the bot-
tom of the tank and there may be enough of it to partly fill the
carburetor. The remedy is to drain the carburetor, taking out
a half-pint or so.

Q. What effect does the use of kerosene as fuel have on
the starting of the motor? ^

A. It has no effect, if the matter is properly handled. At
least five. minutes before the engine is to be stopped the kerosene
should always be shut off and the engine allowed to run on gaso-
line so that all traces of kerosene will be cleaned out of the
cylinders and the manifold. If this has not been done, it will
take considerable cranking to start the engine, and it may also be
necessary to inject 2 or 3 ounces of fresh oil into each cylinder to
renew the compression seal since the kerosene condenses in the
cylinders as soon as they get cold and then runs down past the
pistons into the crankcase.

Q. Will an adjustment of the mixture make starting any
easier?

A. The actual adjustment of the carburetor itself should
never be disturbed for starting purposes, as, if this is done,
either the carburetor will seldom be properly adjusted for efficient
running or a great deal of time will be spent unnecessarily in
making adjustments. Moreover the carburetor parts will soon
wear badly and make efficient adjustment impossible. Most car-
buretors are provided with a choker which, when closed, causes all
the air to be drawn past the nozzle, thus increasing the suction
and giving a rich mixture. This should be closed for starting and
opened the moment the motor gets under way. Ordinarily the
running mixture is too lean to make starting easy.

Q. What are the commoner causes of failure to start
through ignition trouble?

156 GASOLINE TRACTORS

A. Among the causes are the following: a ground or short-
circuit in the wiring; points of plugs burned too far apart; moisture
on the distributor of the magneto; failure of the contact points in
the breaker box of the magneto to separate when the cam strikes
the hinged lever; impulse starter of magneto stuck or spring
broken; putting plug cables on wrong plugs when a change has
been made just before attempting to start; badly sooted plugs;
spark lever advanced too far; and loose connections, particularly
where a separate coil is used with the magneto.

Q. What simple test can be made to determine whether
the spark is occurring in each cylinder at the proper time?

A. Take out the plugs, leaving the cables attached to them,
and lay the plugs on the cylinder head. Then turn the motor
over slowly and note whether or not the sparks occur at the
plugs in the proper sequence. Note whether there is a strong
blast of air from one of the spark plug holes each time the motor
is turned over; if not, pour an ounce or two of fresh oil into each
cylinder. The failure to start may be due to lack of compression.

Q. If 9 when the spark plugs are thus placed, no spark
occurs at them, where should the trouble be sought?

A. Take off the cover of the contact breaker of the magneto;
have an assistant turn the motor over slowly, and note whether
the points of the contact breaker separate twice per revolution
(four-cylinder motor). If they do separate, note whether the
faces of the contact points are clean and square. If they are
blackened or pitted, clean and true them up with a very fine file
or a strip of fine sandpaper, and then so adjust them that they
come together firmly when the cam is horizontal and do not
separate more than ^ inch when the cam is vertical. By giving
the motor a sharp turn beyond a compression point a spark will
be noted between the points; or the impulse starter may be used
and the result noted.

Q. Assuming that a spark takes place between the contact
points of the magneto, but none occurs at any of the spark plugs,
where should the trouble be sought?

A. Open up the distributor of the magneto and wipe it free
of any moisture or dirt that may have accumulated on it. Turn
the motor over and note whether the distributor brush revolves as

GASOLINE TRACTORS 157

it should. Adjust all the spark plug gaps to not more than -gV
inch; see that the plugs are properly cleaned and that they are
lying on their sides on the cylinder heads, so that only their
bodies come in contact with the metal. If they are so placed
that the central electrodes are touching, the current will pass
through them without causing a spark, since there are then no
gaps for it to jump. In case none of these tests produces a
spark at the plugs, there is more than likely to be some internal
trouble with the magneto, though this is of comparatively rare
occurrence.

Q. When the impulse starter fails to operate, what is likely
to be the cause of the trouble?

A. Either the mechanism has become gummed up with oil
and dirt or the spring has broken. Cleaning out the impulse starter
with gasoline and re-oiling will remove the former cause.

Q. When the engine fails to start after having been primed
once or twice and cranked several times, in what order should
the cause of the trouble be sought?

A. This will depend largely upon weather conditions. In
very cold weather it is quite likely that nothing but the low tem-
perature is the cause of difficulty in starting. Results will usually
follow continued cranking, as this warms the engine up somewhat
and makes it turn over easier, with the result that the first weak
explosions may cause it to take up its cycle. In warm weather,
if a start does not follow several attempts at cranking, test the
ignition first and then the fuel supply, applying the different tests
already outlined and in about the order given.

Q. Are there any other points in the ignition system that
are likely to be responsible for failure to start?

A. If, when turning over, the motor produces a spark at the
contact breaker but none at the plugs, investigate the magneto
switch. It may have become broken or its connections may be
faulty. See that it is in the right position, since many tractor
motors can only be stopped by short-circuiting the magneto by means
of the switch. In case the switch is in the S TOP position, no spark
will occur at the plugs. On some tractors the spark-advance lever
takes the place of the switch; by fully retarding it the magneto is
short-circuited, and the motor cannot be started.

158 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Q. Do the magnets of the magneto lose so much of their
strength that no current is produced?

A. In time, the heat and vibration are liable to weaken the
magneto, but this is far from being a common source of trouble.
If, after making the tests mentioned, no spark is produced, take
off the distributor plate of the magneto and rest a screwdriver
blade on the gear casing so that its end comes within | inch of
the collector ring. Turn the motor over, and note whether a
spark jumps this gap. A |-inch spark at this point will indicate
that there is no falling off in the power of the magneto. If a
spark cannot be produced in this way, there is something wrong
with the magneto itself, and it should be sent to the manufac-
tiu'er for repairs. Ordinarily remagnetization is only necessary if
the magneto has been taken apart and the magnets allowed to
stand without a "keeper," or piece of soft iron across their ends,
or if they have been removed from the magneto and reassembled
in the wrong way.

Q. When the contact points have become so badly pitted
and burned away that they cannot be properly adjusted after
cleaning and trueing up, what should be done?

A. One or both of the contacts should be replaced and
adjusted properly. The magneto manufacturer usually supplies a
special wrench for this purpose, one end of it serving as a gage
for the proper gap between them. The lock nut of the movable
point should always be screwed down firmly after the adjustment
has been made or it will back off owing to the vibration.

Q. Are there any connections on the magneto which are
likely to become short=circuited or grounded?

A. When the wire is brought out through the side of the
magneto, the insulation may become so worn that the metal
touches the side of the opening, causing a short-circuit. In the
inductor types of magneto, such as the Remy and K-W, this is
most likely to occur at the grounding screw where the wire is
fastened to the side of the magneto. In shuttle-wound types,
such as the Eisemann, Kingston, and Bosch, the break may be
at the point where the wire is fastened to the armature or where
it is fastened to the collector ring.

Q. Can the contact breaker become short-circuited?

GASOLINE TRACTORS 159

A. Metallic dust or filings will be liable to cause this; the
remedy is to clean out the inside of the box with gasoline. When-
ever an adjustment is made^ the contact points must always be
redressed so as to come together squarely. For this purpose use
only the small file supplied by the manufacturer, and take off just
as little of the platinum as possible, since it is worth consider-
ably more than gold.

Q. How can the contact-breaker box be tested for a short-
circuit?

A. Remove it from the magneto, place a piece of paper
between the points, and then hold the box within | inch of the
shaft while the magneto is turned over with the other hand. No
spark should occur; if it does, it indicates that the insulation of
the adjustable contact point is poor and should be replaced.
The test should then be repeated with the paper removed so that
the points are in contact; a spark should then occur when the
armature is turned over, the breaker box being held within |
inch or less.

Q. Does oil getting on the parts injure the magneto in any
way?

A. If allowed to get ' between the contact points in the
breaker box, it will insulate them. On the shuttle-wound types of
magneto there is a collector ring and brush, and allowing any oil
to get on them will prevent the operation of the magneto alto-
gether. Oil usually carries more or less dirt with it, and if
allowed to get on the distributor, it is liable to cause leakage of the
high-tension current, so that no spark occurs at the plugs.

Q. How often should the contact points of the magneto
need attention?

A. This will depend more or less on the particular type of
magneto and the engine, but they *should be inspected at least
once every thirty days while the tractor is in service steadily and
trued up with the sandpaper or special file whenever the slightest
irregularity of their surfaces is evident. Taking off a little at fre-
quent intervals will keep the points in much better condition and
will save the costly platinum, since once the points start to pit
this process proceeds very rapidly. Emery should never be used
on the points.

160 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Q* Is excess oil in the motor ever a cause of failure to start?

A. When there is so much oil in the motor that considerable
of it finds its way into the combustion chambers, it will collect on
the spark plug points and insulate them, if unburned, or short-
circuit them, if carbonized. The fact that the motor apparently
ran satisfactorily just before being shut down the last time is not
conclusive evidence that the spark plugs are in good condition.
The magneto generates a high voltage when running at full speed,
and the motor will often continue to operate in spite of poor con-
ditions whereas it cannot be started again, once it has become
cold, without first remedying the faults.

Q. What is the commonest cause of failure to start a motor
equipped with low-tension ignition?

A. Dirty plugs; or ignitors, are probably the most frequent
cause. As in the case of the high-tension spark plugs just men-
tioned, the engine may continue to run with the plugs in poor
condition, but once it has been shut down and allowed to become
cold, the magneto will not produce a spark at the dirty plugs at
the low speed at which the engine is cranked. Whenever an
engine with this type of ignition is diflScult to start, the first
thing to do is to examine the plugs. Give them a thorough clean-
ing with gasoline and a wire brush, taking out the moving contact
to remove any soot that has been forced into the bearing. These
plugs may be tested by laying on the cylinder head, contacts up,
and snapping the contact with a small piece of wood while an
assistant turns the motor over so that the magneto is generating.

Q. What other attention do these plugs requu'e?

A. The contact points burn away rapidly and need frequent
dressing up to keep their contact faces from becoming pitted.
They should be trued up in the same manner as directed for the
magneto breaker-box contact points, and while the material is not
so expensive, no more than necessary should be taken off. The
operation should be repeated at frequent intervals to keep the
plugs in good condition.

Q. How may the low-tension magneto be tested to find
out whether it is generating or not?

A. Place a screwdriver blade against the single terminal of
the magneto and hold the end against some metal part of the

GASOLINE TRACTOBS 161

motor whUe the motor is cranked. Move the tip of the screw-
driver over the metal while maintaining contact with the terminal
at the other end and sparks will be noted at the tip. A similar
test may be made by disconnecting the cable leading from the
coil. Rub the metal terminal of this cable over different adjacent
parts of the motor so that contact is made and broken while the
engine is being cranked, and much larger sparks will be noted.

Q. If, after making tests successfully, no spark is obtain-
able at the ignitor plug itself, what is the cause of the trouble?

A. The plug is likely to be at fault. Oil that has been used
for any time carries in solution a considerable percentage of
carbon in a finely divided state. When hot, this oil is thin and
is forced into the insulation of the plug, short-circuiting it,
though apparently there is nothing wrong with it. The only
remedy is to renew the insulation of the plug.

Q. Though a test of the ignitors shows them to be in good
working condition, the motor still fails to start and examination
shows every other part to be working properly, so that the fault
is evidently with the ignition, what is the cause?

A. Either some part of the ignitor tripping mechanism has
failed, so that the contacts do not separate, or the timing has
become deranged, so that the separation takes place at the wrong
moment. In the latter case the spark is occurring in the cylinder,
but it is taking place either too soon or too late to fire the charge.
Check up the timmg of the ignitor mechanism in accordance with
the maker's instruction book.

Q. How can the dry cells ordinarily used for starting with
low-tension ignition be tested?

A. A pocket ammeter, or so-called battery tester, should be
used for this purpose. Hold the tips on the cells only long enough
to allow the instrument needle to come to rest, since the ammeter
represents a dead short-circuit on the battery and will run it down
very quickly. If the reading of the anuneter shows less than 10
amperes, the batteries are of no further use for starting purposes
and should be renewed. Any other method of testing will only
show whether the battery is actually dead or not, and dry cells
may make a fairly large spark through the coil but will give a
reading of only 2 to 3 amperes on the instrument and will fail to

162 GASOLINE TRACTORS

ignite the charge in the cylinder. Batteries when this low give
out very quickly. If the switch has been left on the battery side
inadvertently, give the cells ten to fifteen minutes to recuperate
and then test again.

Q. What is likely to go wrong with the wiring of a low-
tension system?

A. About the only thing that can happen to this wiring is a
loose connection at the magneto, at the ground on the motor, at
the ignitor* connection, or at the switch. The switch itself may
become short-circuited and thus prevent any current from reach-
ing the plugs.

Q. Does the tripping mechanism of a low-tension system
require frequent attention?

A. The trip-rod mechanism should be inspected from time
to time to see that it is working normally, as the vibration is likely
to knock it out of adjustment. The springs should be replaced
whenever they show any signs of weakening.

RUNNING TROUBLES

Q. What causes the engine to emit smoke?

A. Among the causes are the following: an over-rich mixture
caused by faulty adjustment of the carburetor; and flooding of the
carburetor due to a leaking metal float or a water-logged cork
float. In either of these cases the smoke will be black. Oil get-
ting into the combustion chambers in excess, caused by feeding
too much oil or by broken or stuck piston rings, will produce a
blue smoke. Feeding an excessive amount of water when burning
kerosene or running the engine. too cold will produce a white or
gray smoke, indicating that the kerosene is not being entirely
consumed.

Q. What is the cause of back firing through the carburetor?

A. A slow-burning fuel mixture is being fed, that is, one
either too lean or too rich, usually the former, so that there is
still flame in the cyUnder when the valve opens. At times this
will occur to such an extent that the flame issues from the exhaust
pipe at the end of the muffler. This is an indication that the
mixture is too rich, since it is still burning after being exhausted
from the cylinder. One of the valves may not be closing properly;

GASOLINE TRACTORS 163

it may be held off its seat slightly by an accumulation of carbon,
or its stem may have become bent, so that the spring cannot
close it. When the ignition has been dismantled, reassembling
the cables on the wrong plugs so s^s to alter the firing order will
cause a back fire, but in this case the engine cannot be started.
An air trap in the fuel line or partial clogging of the latter will
also cause this at times.

Q. What are the commoner causes of missing?

A. The most frequent cause is a defective spark plug.
Owing to the heat and the vibration the porcelain of a plug will
break, but the cracks will be so small that they are invisible.
The pressure forces carbon-laden oil into these cracks and the
plug becomes short-circuited, though apparently in good order.
Test by short-circuiting the plugs in turn with a wooden-handled
screwdriver. When short-circuiting a plug causes no perceptible
difference in the running of the engine, replace it. Pitted and
badly worn contact points in the magneto breaker box will also
cause irregular running. (See the directions given under Failure
to Start.) Missing may also be caused by the fuel mixture being
too rich or too lean, partial stoppage of the fuel line, water in the
gasoline, defective insulation or loose connections, carbon dust on
the distributor plate of the magneto, or a sticking valve.

Q4 In what other ways may spark plugs fail besides the
porcelain cracking?

A. Very frequently the electrodes burn too far apart, so that
the current is unable to jump the gap, or if it does, the spark is
weak and irregular. Plugs become foul through an accumulation
of soot in them, and to clean a badly sooted plug out thoroughly,
it may be necessary to take it apart. The insulation of a mica
plug will fail in time through the hot oil and carbon being driven
into it under pressure, and the only remedy is to replace the
insulator. Leakage around the gasket sometimes occurs, and
when it is not suflScient to cause a hissing noise, it will be indi-
cated by the porcelain of the plug becoming very dirty. Squirt a
Httle oil on the porcelain when the engine is running and bubbles
will form at the gasket if the plug is leaking. Cheap plugs are
made with iron electrodes, and the latter burn away so fast that
it may be necessary to adjust the gap once a day.

164 GASOLINE TRACTORS

Q. What is the cause of preignition?

A. Usually an accumulation of carbon in the combustion
chamber. This carbon deposit often takes the fonn of small
cones which become incandescent when the engine is running
under full load so that the fresh mixture is ignited the moment
it enters the cylinder. When running on kerosene, the piston
head may become so hot as to produce the same result. In
either case, preignition will be evidenced by a heavy pounding
and the engine should be stopped at once as this imposes a very
heavy stress on all the moving parts. Increasing the amount of
water fed with the fuel will remedy it when it is due to over-
heated pistons and the use of kerosene. Otherwise, the engine
will have to be cleaned out to remove the carbon.

Q. How can the accumulation of carbon be prevented?

A. By using only the grade of oil recommended by the
manufacturer of the tractor; cleaning it out and putting in a
fresh supply as often as directed; keeping the piston rings in good
condition, so that an excessive amount of oil cannot find its way
into the combustion chambers; and keeping the carburetor
properly adjusted, so that too rich a mixture is not used. Feed
the proper amount of water when burning kerosene. In spite of
these precautions, more or less carbon will always accumulate in
the cylinders. This amount. can be kept down to a minimum by
pouring a few ounces of kerosene into each cylinder at the end of
a day's run when the engine is still very hot and leaving this in
the cyfinders over night. Before starting up in the morning, the
compression seal should be renewed by putting a few ounces of
fresh oil into each cylinder.

Q. When the engine fires regularly but the explosions are
so weak that very little power is produced, what is the cause of the
trouble?

A. Some of the commoner causes are as follows: spark plug
points burned too far apart; excessive clearance at the valve stem
tappets or rocker arms, so that only a fraction of the fuel required
is being admitted; valves in need of grinding; poor compression
caused by oil not being renewed at sufficiently short intervals;
broken or stuck piston rings; leaks around spark plugs; use of a
fuel mixture that is too lean or too rich, so that slow burning

GASOLINE TRACTORS 16S

results instead of an explosion; a weakened or broken valve
spring; clogging of the passages of the muffler with carbon; or
any obstruction in the exhaust piping.

Q. What causes the engine to run regularly for a time
and then to misfire badly?

A. This may be caused by switching to kerosene before the
engine has run long enough on gasoline to become thoroughly
warmed up; a valve with a bent stem that operates properly at
times and then sticks during a few revolutions; air leaks around
the valve steins or in the intake manifold; dirt in the carburetor,
so that the nozzle is partly clogged at times and free at others;
(iefective insulation or a loose connection which interrupts the
circuit from time to time owing to the vibration of the engine,
causing it to change position; water in the gasoline; carbon on the
distributor plate of the magneto; or faulty spark plugs which will
permit the engine to run regularly when idling but which will fail
the moment the load is applied. A spark plug with fine cracks in
the porcelain will fail under load owing to the greatly increased
pressure in the cylinder, but will often spark regularly when the
engine is running without load. A loose connection or weak spot
in the insulation is the most puzzling of these causes since it is
often the most difficult to find.

Q. What causes the engine to stop suddenly?

A. This is generally due to a failure of the ignition, owing
to a break in the circuit caused by a connection dropping off, the
switch suddenly opening under the vibration, or some part of the
wiring becoming short-circuited. Clogging of the fuel line or of
the cjarburetor nozzle or an empty tank will also result in the
engine stopping. Where the stoppage is due to failure of the fuel
supply from any cause, the engine will not usually come to as
sudden a stop as when the ignition fails. The contacts in the
breaker box of the magneto may have stuck together. If the
cooling or the lubricating system fails, it will also take more time
to bring the engine to a stop and there will be noises that give
ample evidence of the cause of the trouble. The engine should be
shut off the moment these noises occur for otherwise it will be
forcibly stopped by the binding of the pistons, thus putting the
engine out of commission.

166 GASOLINE TRACTORS

ENGINE NOISES

Q. How are the different engine noises that signify trouble
in the operation of the motor characterized?

A. Experienced motor mechanics give a different term to
each one of several distinct classes of noise indicating faulty-
operation, such as knock, hanuner, pound, and slap, and to the
ear that is familiar with them each can be distinguished.

Q. What do these different noises signify to the experi»
enced ear?

A. A knock is the first indication of looseness in a bearing,
usually a connecting-rod big end, and the sound is generally that
of a sharp metallic blow. When it is allowed to develop or when
looseness in the crankshaft bearings develops, the sound becomes
louder but not so sharp and is more aptly described as hammer-
ing, owing to its similarity to the blow of a sledge. Pounding is
caused by preignition and by overheating and is so violent as to
rack the whole motor very badly. Slap is the result of worn
pistons, the skirts or lower ends of which are banged against
the cylinder walls every time the motor fires. The noise pro-
duced is very similar to that of a knock and is often mistaken
for the latter, though an experienced mechanic will seldom go
wrong on this. In addition to the noises mentioned, there is
another that is readily distinguished by the experienced ear, and
that is the clatter caused by a loose valve motion, indicating
that an excessive amount of clearance has been allowed to develop
between the valve tappets and stems or in the rocker arms. To
the inexperienced ear all strange noises will be knocks and it may
seem to be drawing too fine distinctions to differentiate between
knocking, hammering, and pounding, but familiarity with a motor
will enable the operator not only to make these distinctions but
to know as well what causes the different noises.

Q. Which of these noises calls for immediate attention on
the part of the operator to prevent damage to the motor?

A. A very good rule to follow is to shut the motor down
the moment any of these noises is heard and correct the trouble,
but those that call for immediate attention to prevent serious
damage are hammering and pounding. The first indicates a very
loose bearipor. which may result in a broken crankshaft if allowed

GASOLINE TRACTORS 167

to run a moment longer than necessary, while pounding not only
imposes exceedingly heavy stresses on every part of the motor
but may also be the first sign of failure of either the cooling or
the lubricating system. The cause may be nothing more serious
than lack of sufficient water when burning kerosene or the fact
that the spark lever may be advanced too far.

GOVERNOR

Q. What causes the engine to race when the load is thrown

off?

A. The governor needs adjustment, or the connection between
it and the throttle has parted.

Q. What attention does the governor ordinarily need?

A. This depends largely upon the type of governor. Some
are housed in and the lubrication provided for by filling the
housing with oil; such a governor needs very little attention,
except to adjust it when it permits the engine to idle too fast.
An adjusting screw is provided for this purpose. With the engine
running, turn the screw gradually until the engine slows down
to a point where it idles satisfactorily. The governor spring
weakens in time, and the adjustment is provided to permit of
increasing the tension. Apart from this, the only regular atten-
tion required by those types which are not automatically lubri-
cated is to oil the bearings at regular intervals and see that the
connecting linkage is in good order.

CLUTCH AND TRANSMISSION

Q. What provision is made for taking up wear in the clutch?

A. The friction surface, which is usually asbestos on a wire
foundation, should be replaced when worn sufficiently to require
it. After considerable service the spring pressure may let up
sufficiently to cause unsatisfactory operation of the clutch. An
adjustment is provided for increasing the tension of the spring,
and this should be tightened just enough to make the clutch hold
under load; but it is not good practice to attempt to make up for
a badly worn friction facing by increasing the tension of the
spring. Replace the facing first. This, of course, does not apply
to the type employing metal to metal contact surfaces. Apart

168 GASOLINE TRACTORS

from this^ the chief attention required is lubrication, which should
be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions,
some clutch mechanisms calling for oil as much as two or three
times a day.

Q. Is it good practice to let the machine stand with the
clutch out of engagement?

A. No; as it only weakens the clutch spring and shortens
its life. Whenever the machine is to stand more than a few
moments, the gears should be shifted to neutral and the clutch
allowed to engage. It is particularly bad practice to let the
machine stand over night with the clutch out of engagement.

Q. Are a worn friction facing and a weak spring the only
causes of a slipping clutch?

A. Allowing oil or grease to fall on the friction faces of the
clutch will cause it to slip badly.

Q. What attention does the transmission require?

A. Maintain the oil level as indicated in the manufacturer's
instructions and use only the oil called for by the latter. Drain
as often as instructed, and wash out with gasoline or kerosene
before refilling. This is usually two to three times a season,
though some types may require it oftener. When the case has
been cleaned out, inspect the gear teeth carefully for breaks,
and see that any chips or foreign matter are removed. By
filtering the old oil through several thicknesses of cloth, it may
be used for other farm machines which do not require the same
high degree of lubrication as the tractor.

Q. Does the differential require any special form of attention?

A. The differential is frequently combined with the trans-
mission, so that it is lubricated by the same supply of oil. Where
it is separate from the transmission, the attention required is the
same as that just mentioned for the transmission.

HOUSINQ TRACTOR

Q. Does it pay to build a special shelter for a tractor?

A. It will undoubtedly be found a good investment, since
the cost of a building large enough to shelter the tractor and
provide a working bench beside it will usually be less than the
added depreciation incurred by leaving it exposed to the weather.

GASOLINE TRACTORS 169

Q. When the tractor is put up for the season, what atten-
tion should be given it?

A. Before putting the machine away for the winter, the valves
should be ground, the bearings adjusted, the valve mechanism
and the magneto overhauled, the oil drained from the crankcase
and the transmission, and the latter washed out and provided
with a fresh supply of oil. Wash the cylinders and pistons by
putting a pint or more of gaSoline in each cylinder and running
the motor for half a minute. Then put a pint of fresh oil in
each cylinder and turn the motor over by hand a few times to
spread it over the surfaces; otherwise, the cylinders and pistons
may rust. Coat all exposed parts with grease and cover the
machine with a tarpaulin or old canvas. Make a list of all
replacement parts necessary and order them at the time the
machine is put away in order that they may be installed during
the winter.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

INTRODUCTION

Development of Field. While the development of the com-
mercial car was slow at first owing to the numerous shortcomings
of early types, it has advanced with wonderful rapidity during the
past few years and bids fair to supersede, in a comparatively short
time, the use of the horse-drawn vehicle for business purposes, not
only in the large cities but also on the farm. As in the case of the
pleasure car, Europe led in the development of the automobile for
transportation purposes, chiefly with military necessities in view, as
without power-driven vehicles it would be impossible to move the
enormous food and ammunition supplies required by an army of
present-day proportions. However, American manufacturers have
advanced so rapidly in the production of commercial cars during the
past few years that in 1916 the registration of New York City alone
showed a greater number of these vehicles than were reported by the
census of 1915 for the whole German Empire and more than half the
number reported in service in Great Britain during the same period.

Scope of the "Commercial Vehicle". It is important to know
the reasons for the revolution which is now in active progress, as well
as to become familiar with the prevailing practices in America and
abroad in the construction, operation, and maintenance of that large
and varied class of automobiles employed exclusively for business
purposes. Regardless of type, class, or method of propulsion, these
are commonly referred to as ''commercial vehicles". This classifi-
cation embraces not only motor delivery wagons and trucks for the
transportation of merchandise, but also taxicabs, omnibuses, sight-
seeing vehicles, motor road trains, farm tractors, emergency repair
or tower wagons for street-railway service, and also vehicles for
special municipal service — ^ambulances, patrol wagons, fire engines,
street-sprinkling and garbage-removal wagons, and the like. In fact,
it may be said that any automobile not devoted to pleasure is a com-
mercial vehicle, and, as was to be expected, the first types of these

2 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

vehicles were merely pleasure cars transformed to suit the needs of
the occasion. To a certain extent, this still continues to be the case.

Standard Design. Whether it be electric-, steam-, or gasoline-
driven, the general design of the motive power, as well as that of its
transmission to the driving wheels, is practically the same in the
conunercial vehicle as it is in the pleasure car, except that the chain
drive has now almost disappeared on the latter, and all the com-
ponent parts — ^bearings, frames, axles, steering gear, and compen-
sating mechanism — ^are the same. In other words, the chassis in
both cases is composed of similar members. For the sake of brevity
in the present treatise, it is assumed at the outset that the reader
has become familiar with motor-car engineering so far as it relates to
pleasure-car construction; that he understands, from previous study
and the actual handling of machines, the theory of the operation of
the internal-combustion engine; that he is conversant with the dis-
tinguishing characteristics of the several types of engines as well as
with their advantages and Umitations; and that he is acquainted with
the types of transmission systems ordinarily employed on pleasure
cars — in brief, that he understands any reference to component parts,
to their functions, and to their relation to one another, without the
necessity of explanation.

In common with the pleasure car, the commercial vehicle is
capable of traveling at various speeds wherever road conditions will
permit it to go. Both comprise in a single entity a wheeled vehicle
suitable for transportation purposes, fitted with an independent, self-
contained power plant, and both present the same engineering prob-
lems so far as they relate to the construction of the motor, its control,
and the transmission of its power to the road wheels, the design of the
running gear, and the control of the vehicle itself. Divergence in
practice is encountered with the consideration of the purposes for
which each vehicle is designed. The pleasure car is not intended to
be a very efficient vehicle. Its carrying capacity bears a compara-
tively insignificant ratio to its total weight, and, usually, the car is not
designed to work under the same severe and continued conditions
of service that are the first requirements of the commercial vehicle
It must be capable of high speed with its maximum load of passen-
gers and must combine reliability with endurance to an extent
sufficient to meet the demands of its owner when on pleasure bent.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 3

Classification. In order to make the subject as clear as possible
and to facilitate refermce on the part of the student, industrial motor
vehicles as a whole have been classified, first, by their motive power;
and second, by the uses for which they are intended. Thus there
are, today, in the order of their relative importance:

Motive Power

Tjrpes of Vehicles

Electric vehicles
Gasoline-driven vehicles
Gas-electric vehicles .
Steam vehicles

Industrial electric trucks

Delivery wagons

Trucks, vans, and similar freight carriers

Passenger vehicles — stages, busses, taxicabs, sight-seeing
cars, etc.

Municipal vehicles — ^patrol wagons, ambulances, fire appa-
ratus, garbage-removal wagons, street sprinklers, etc.

Special types — ^railway tower wagons, emergency repair
wagons, farm tractors, road trains, etc.

This classification has been made advisedly, for, though kerosene
and alcohol are being experimented with as fuels for the internal-
combustion engine and particularly for commercial purposes, by
far the greater majority of types marketed at present are driven
by gasoline fuel.

Each of the foregoing principal divisions is susceptible of further
subdivision, but this is neither necessary nor desirable. Commer-
cial motor vehicles are now built for almost every conceivable
purpose involving freight hauling or the transportation of pas-
sengers and include many special uses, such as hauling huge reels of
telephone cable and drawing the cable through the underground
conduits, transporting and hoisting safes and pianos, delivering coal
with special dumping wagons, and the like. They differ only in the
special equipment with which they are provided for the service in
view, and, as their construction otherwise is the same, it would only
lead to confusion to attempt to consider them separately.

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Range of Use. Owing to the general recognition of its simplicity
and economy, which has been brought about by a co-operative
propaganda fostered by the electric lighting and power companies^

4 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

the growth of the use of the electric commercial vehicles during the
past few years has been little short of phenomenal. One New York
firm alone uses nearly 350 electric delivery wagons, several have
neariy 100, while no fewer than forty-five have ''fleets" of 10 cars or
more. All told, there are several thousand electric vehicles in New
York City and more than 100 garages and charging stations, while
the demand for current has been so great that the minimum for
charging batteries has recently been reduced to $10 per month.
Current is supplied at a preferred rate under special contract, which
calls for the charging of the batteries during those hours of the night
when the load on the central stations is lowest.

Advantages of the Electric Type. Simplicity, One of the chief
advantages of the electric vehicle, when judged from the purely com-
mercial point of view, is its great simplicity, which, to a very large
extent, solves the labor question that has proved such a deterrent to
the adoption of the gasoline vehicle for commercial service. As the
duties of the driver of an electric vehicle do not extend beyond its
actual starting, stopping, and guidance while under way, anyone
who has been accostumed to the use of horses can master its operation
in the course of a few hours. This also appears to be equally true
of men who have never driven any type of vehicle previous to their
taking the wheel or steering tiller of an electric. Apart from the actual
mechanical control of the vehicle, the driver's only other care is to
keep informed as to the state of charge of the battery by watching
the voltmeter, in order to prevent running the car with the batteries
exhausted, as this is very detrimental to their continued usefulness.
However, as the batteries of most commercial vehicles are charged
every twenty-four hours and the car run is planned to lie within its
traveling radius on a single charge, with a factor of safety allowed in
addition, this is not a very onerous duty. The further requirement
of noting the current consumption on starting and running, as indi-
cated by the ammeter, in order that any defect in the operation of the
running gear of the car may be detected and remedied, is also a very
simple one, so that an unskilled driver is available at a correspond-
ingly lower charge for labor cost in the operation of the vehicle. The
adoption of the ampere-hour meter showing the actual consumption
of battery energy has simplified the task of the driver still
further.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 5

Efficienq/ and Long Life. Broadly speaking, short runs with
many stops are the province of the electric, so that probably 80
per cent of all average city deliveries come within its economic field.
Its labor cost is much lower than that of the gasoline car, since an
unskilled hand can operate it efficiently, while one man at the garage
can take care of nearly twice as many electrics as of gasoline cars.
The electric is easier on tires, owing to its reduced speed, insurance
rates are lower, and its depreciation can be figured on a much more
favorable basis, as it has been shown to have an average effective
life of ten years. The fact that all its moving parts revolve has a
most important influence on its low maintenance cost and reliability,
many electric trucks showing an average of 297 days in service of
the 300 working days in a year.

Power Efficiency. The amount of power available on a single
charge of the batteries without unduly increasing the weight is so
limited that in the design of the electric great care must be taken
to eliminate friction and other sources of power loss at every possible
point. This is further necessitated by the gradually decreasing
efficiency of the batteries with age. Starting with 80 per cent
when new, the efficiency may drop rapidly to 50 per cent or below
unless the batteries are properly maintained, which is likewise true
of the transmission efficiency of the running gear of the vehicle; so
that while unskilled labor may be employed for the operation of the
vehicles this is not the case where their maintenance is concerned.
Power losses due to the tires are also an important factor, and as
the pneumatic tire can very seldom be considered for commercial
service, the same degree of efficiency is not obtainable from the busi-
ness electric wagon as from the pleasure type employing the same
motive power. Road conditions must also be considered — despite the
fact that electrics are employed almost exclusively for city or near-by-
suburban service — ^as mud, snow, and ice in winter, and poor pave-
ments at any time cause an increase in the current consumption.

ELECTRIC DELIVERY WAQON

General Specifications. Whether considered from the point of
view of design and construction or from that of operation, the
electric delivery wagon is, without doubt, the simplest vehicle in
the coDMnercial field. As already mentioned, its operation may be

6 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

mastered in a comparatively short time, either by the ex-horsedriver
or by a person who has never had any experience in the control of a
vehicle, so that the labor cost — ^always an item of importance in this
field — ^may be materially reduced without fear of the equipment
suffering in consequence. It is usually customary with manufac-
turers of these vehicles to adopt a standard form of design, which is
employed throughout in every size listed by the same maker, the only
differences being those of dimension, load capacity of the vehicle,
and capacity of the battery to take care of the increased weight.

Package delivery wagons and express wagons of the electric
type have a useful load capacity ranging from 1000 to 2000 pounds,
though a very few of less than 1000 pounds' capacity were employed
at first. The 40-mile run is standard and is based on an average
speed of 10 to 20 miles an hour, including stops, as the necessity
for frequently stopping and re-starting the car in delivery service
has an important bearing on the mileage of which the car is capable
on a single charge. The latter is naturally figured on the maximum
efficiency of the car as a whole, so that in practice this is seldom
fully realized, owing to the deterioration of the batteries in service.

Design. The electric has progressed through the stages repre-
sented by the angle-iron frame, the armored wood frame, and the modi-
fications of the two as employed on gasoline cars to the now generally
current type of pressed-steel frame. This frame has the advantage
of being extremely strong for its weight. It is composed of side and
transverse members produced in hydraulic presses directly ftom
steel plates of about ^-inch thickness, these members being riveted
together and further reinforced by gussets at the corners. On
account of the height of the vehicle, the frames are made perfectly
rectangular and without either a drop or narrowing forward.

The types of suspension employed also show the same variations
as are to be found in the gasoline-driven cars, some of the smaller
electrics -having the full elliptic springs ordinarily employed on
wagons, while intermediate and heavy vehicles have either straight
semi-elliptic springs front and rear or a half-platform type of sus-
pension in the rear. A study of the Baker and General Vehicle
types of delivery wagons and trucks will show how closely they
approach, as a whole, to what is considered general practice in the
automobile field.

CX)MMERCIAL VEHICLES 7

Because of the heavy loads carried and of the fact that solid
tires are used, the entire running gear has to be planned on a very
liberal scale. This is likewise true of the springs. While it is desir-
able that the latter afford as much protection to the mechanism as
possible, sufficient stability to carry the load is of more importance
than flexibility, as the comparatively slow speeds do not occasion
the violent shocks met with in the pleasure car.

MOTIVE POWER

Type of Motor. As already mentioned, the motive power of
the majority of smaller electric vehicles consists of a single motor,
and, in several makes, such as the Waverley, G.V., G.M.C., and
Detroit, this practice extends to heavy units, with a corresponding
increase in the efficiency of the vehicle as a whole. In order to keep
down the weight as well as the space occupied, these motors are very
small for their power output, and consequently have to be wound for
high rotative speeds. They are usually of the series type of the
General Electric or the Westinghouse make and are designed to
carry heavy overloads for short periods, to enable the car to pull out
of a bad place, to start with full load on a heavy grade, or to meet
similar emergencies, the motor, under such conditions, delivering
an amount of power greatly in excess of its normal rating.

Motor Suspension with Chain Drive. Since the use of spur-gear
drives has decreased, the motor is usually suspended from the frame
by means of transverse members riveted to the side rails and is
placed near, or slightly forward of, the center of the chassis, in
order to give the best distribution of weight. This is an advantage
not obtainable when the motors are hung from the rear axle or too
close to it. In view of the high speed at which the motors run — 1800
to 2000 r.p.m. or more — a reduction in two stages is necessary to
avoid the employment of excessively large sprockets. The first step
is from the motor to a countershaft by means of a single silent chain
of the Morse or the Renold type, the motor being suspended in such a
manner that it may be moved a short distance one way or the other
to permit the adjusting of this chain to the proper tension, Fig. 1.
The large sprocket on the countershaft, which serves to cut down the
speed in the proportion of about 1 to 5, also embodies a diflFerential,
or compensating, gear of the usual bevel or spur type, thus making

8 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

it possible to employ a 9olid one-piece axle instead of weakening
the latter by inserting the balance gear in it. This is an important
feature, as the rear axle must bear 60 to 70 per cent of the total weight
of both the car and the load. From the countershaft, chains are run
to each of the driving wheels. The relative positions of the counter-
shaft and the rear axle are maintained by heavy adjustable radius
rods, attached forward to the outer ends of the countershaft and, at
the rear, to the axle. These rods take the stress of the drive off the

Fig. 1, Motor Suapeneion and Silent-Chain Drive on Bsker Trucks

springs and counteract the tendency of the chains to draw the rear
axle toward the countershaft, under the pull of the motor.

Motor Suspension with Shaft Drive. On light delivery wagons of
the shaft-driven type, three methods of motor suspension may be
noted. In the first method, the motor is placed just forward of the
rear axle, its housing being practically integral with that of the axle.
Either a worm drive permitting of a single-speed reduction or a two-
speed gear through spur gears is employed. As the motor moves with
the axle and their relations are fixed, flexible joints are not required.
A modification of the first method consists in placing the motor under
the car at about the center and mounting it on a flexible suspension
so that it can move under stress without disturbing its alignment;
while the third method provides for taking such stresses on universal
' and slip joints interposed between the motor and the rear axle.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

10 COMMERCIAL VEHICIJiS

The relative locations of the various essentials of a delivery
wagon of the single-motor side-chain-drive type are dearly diown
in Fig. 2 that illustrates a. G.V. chassis of 4000 pounds' capacity, this
being the same except for the differ^g^^in size.

Wonn-Qear Transmission. Vmie the power 13 transmitted
through a combination-chain drive, i.e., silent chain for the first
reduction and roller chains for the final drive, on the majority of
delivery wagons, the practice of utilizing the worm drive, which has
recently been adopted on the pleasure cars, has also been taken up
in this field on the light vehicles. An example of this is represented by

Fig, 3, Reu Ade of Commeicial Electric Delivery Wagon

the G.V. 1000-pound delivery wagon, equipped with a single motor
driving through a propeller shaft having two universals and with
a David Brown (British) type of worm-gear rear axle. On machines
of this class, it is customary to mount the motor on a flexible support,
which permits It to adapt itself to variations in the angularity of
the propeller shaft, thus redudng the load imposed on the universal
joints and, at the same time, avoiding the eifects of torsional stresses
on the motor. As the location of the motor is such as to prevent
the suspension of the battery below the frame in the usual cradle,
it is carried forward under a bonnet, or hood, and the wheel-base of

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES'

Fig. 4. O.M.C. ChuaU with Combinalion Shaft and Chain Drive

the chassis correspondingly lengthened. This is not the case with
the Commercial worm-driven delivery wagon, as in this instance the
motor is placed almost directly on the rear axle, as shown in Fig. 3,
thus eliminating the propeller shaft and the necessity for universal
joints. The spring suspension of the motor will be noted protruding
above its forward end.

Fie. 5. Motor, Drive Shaft, and JackBhaCt Aaumblf Cor G.M.C. Electric Wacou

12 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Shaft and Chain Transmission. The G.M.C. (General Motors
Company) electric embodies a combination of shaft and chain drive,
as shown by the chassis. Fig. 4. This drive incorporates an ingenious

Details of Motor MountioE. Brake, and Drive, G.M.C. Eleci

feature consisting of the use of a spring steel shaft, as shown by the
detail view, Fig. 5. The design of these cars, as shown by the chassis,
is standard for all capacities ranging from a 1000-pound delivery

d» of Waverley 5-Ton 1

wagon up to a 6-ton truck, and, in each case, the section of this shaft
is calculated to transmit the power necessary, with a predetermined
degree of flexure in starting, which serves to cushion the mechanism

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 13

as well as the tires. The pin attachment at the motor and tlie bevel-
gear-driven countershaft eliminate the necessity for universal joints
in this member while still permitting a rigid mounting of the motor
on its sub-frame. As will be noted in Fig. 6, which shows the details
of the complete drive, this sub-frame is carried in bearings on a
tubular transverse member, thus allowing for relative movement in a
longitudinal plane, the shaft itself compensating for torsional stresses.
Unit-Wheel Drives. Mention has already been made of the
abandonment of two-motor drives on comparatively light cars, as
well as the successful employment of a single motor on vehicles up
to 5 tons' capacity, as in the case of the Waveriey 5-ton chassis,

Fig. 8, Two-Motor Aile with Spur<iear Drive, Commercial 2-Ton Truck

Fig. 7. The Commercial electric is an exception to this in that it
shows the successful employment of two motors on cars as small as
one-ton capacity. The rear axle of this car is a complete self-
contained unit, as will be seen upon referring to Fig. 8 illustrating
the drive of a 2-ton Commercial. The form of mounting employed
13 clear in the illustration, while Fig. 9 shows the details of the gear
reduction between the motor and the driving wheel. This concern
also makes a four-wheel drive, which is employed on vehicles of 3J to
7 tons' capacity. On these machines, both front and rear axles are
alike. One of them is illustrated in Fig. 10, in which it will be noted
that the motor and the driving wheel are an integral unit pivoted in

14 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

the axle to permit of utilizing all four wheels for steering. The speed
reduction in this instance is simply a double spur-gear train meshing
with an internal gear cut on a drum in the rear wheel.

Cmiple-Gear Truck Drive. A particularly ingenious example of
the ease and directness with which electricity lends itself to special

lerciiJ Electrie Drive

forms of construction is to be found in the drive of the Couple-Gear
truck, so called because all four wheels are not only driven by electric

Fig. 10. Two-Motot Aile of Fout-Wheel Drive of Commercial Heavy Trucks

motors but are utilized for steering purposes. These vehicles are
built as straight electrics, using a storage battery as the source of

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 15

current; and as gas-electric vehicles, a gasoline engine and generator
forming the power plant, the remainder of the design and construc-
tion heing the same in both cases. Fig. 11 illustrates the detail of
the axle design employed, each wheel being carried on a steering

Fie. 11. Coupk-Geu All!

Spindle, and all four wheels coupled to act in unison, permitting the
car to tmn in a very short radius. The parts shown on the right-
hand spindle in the illustration are the fields of the motor, the wind-

Fig. 12. DiamouDted Coupls-Oear Truck Wheel, Showinc Motor Parts

ings being just visible in the armature tunnel. They are made in
this form, as the motor is practically a part of the wheel.

The motor is built directly into the wheel, as will be apparent
from the illustration of a dismounted wheel shown in Fig. 12. The

16 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

motor 13 of bipolar type, dedgned with flat fields in order that it may
fit within the wheel without unduly increasing its section, and is held
by its attachment to the axle. The wheel accordingly revolves about
the motor, being driven by the two small pinions which are noticeable
on opposite ends of the armature shaft and which mesh with the
circular racks attached to the periphery of the wheel. The brushes
are carried in a yoke bolted to the outer half of the field casting, so

Fi«. 13. Walker Electric Chaseis, ghowinE Combined Motor Axle

that the removal of the latter makes everything accessible. The
cables for the motor current are led through the hollow axle. Apart
from this feature and the employment of a four-wheel steer, the
vehicle itself follows more or less conventional lines.

Balanced Drive. The transmission on the Walker cars, known
as a "balanced drive", is another radical departure from current
practice in this respect. These cars are built in capacities ranging
from 750 to 7000 pounds and have been in successful service for a

100

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 17

number of years. As will be noted in Fig. 13, a single motor is
employed, and it is built practically as an integral part of the rear
axle, the housings of which form the fields. The armature of the
motor is at right angles to the driving wheels, and its shaft is extended
both ways to form the drive. At the outer ends, this shaft carries
small spur pinions which mesh with two large gears. The latter.

Hi. 14. DeUila ol Walker Electric WbEcl Drive

in turn, mesh with an internal gear bolted to the inner face of the steel
rims of the driving wheels themselves. The detail of this is made
plain in Fig. 14, showing one of the wheels with the outer protecting
disc removed. It will be apparent that this constitutes not only
an unusually compact motor unit and transmission, having the great
advantage of being always in direct line with its drive, but that it
likewise dispenses with a differential, as the wheels themselves are
balance gears.

18 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

CURRENT AND CURRENT CONTROL

Battery Equipment. As the motors commonly employed are
wound to take cm-rent at ^ to 85 volts, the battery consists of 44
cells, divided into three or four groups of cells held in separate oak
boxes, or "trays", as they are termed, to facilitate handling. This
voltage is standard, regardless of the size of the vehicle, the latter
being compensated for by changing the capacity of the battery.
Thus, for light delivery wagons, each cell contains three positive and
four negative plates of medium size, giving an 85-ampere-hour dis-
charge capacity, while a 1000-pound wagon is equipped with a bat-
tery having nine-plate cells with a capacity of 112 ampere hours; a
2000-pound wagon, eleven-plate cells of larger dimensions, giving
140 ampere hours; and so on in accordance with the size of the
vehicle and the load it is designed to carry. Most electric vehicles
have the battery underslung, i.e., carried in a cradle supported from
^ the frame of the chassis. The cradle is enclosed in a battery box for
protection against mud and water and has hinged doors at the ends
through which the battery may be introduced or removed. By this
arrangement, the weight of the battery, which is the heaviest single
item in the entire construction, is distributed evenly between the
forward and rear wheels, which leaves the entire floor space of the
wagon available for the load. In special types, such as the G.V.
1000-pound worm-driven delivery wagon, the usual practice in the
pleasure-car method of carrying the battery under a hood forward is
followed. All the wiring between the battery, controller, and motor
is carried beneath the floor and is protected from injury by running
it through iron conduits.

Controller. In the case of delivery wagons and Ught trucks,
the controller itself is placed either beneath the seat or under the
footboards and is similar in construction to those employed on street
cars, but much smaller in size, owing to the low voltage and com-
paratively small amount of current to be handled. It is operated by
a small hand lever and usually provides four speeds ahead and two
reverse, all of which are obtainable by moving the same lever,
although a special lock, or catch, must first be operated before the
vehicle can be moved backward. This usually takes the form of a
pedal, or kick plate, which may be depressed with the heel and must
frequently be held down while reversing. When released, it auto-

102

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 19

matically returns the controller to the ahead position, in order to
prevent the vehicle from being backed inadvertently.

Departures from the usual method of placing the controller are
to be found in some of the medium-capacity vehicles, such as the
Baker, in which the controller is located on the steering column just
. below the footboards; in the Urban, it is placed in a special dash
compartment, the lever being on the steering wheel. This compart-
ment also contains the ampere-hour meter, a type of instrument
which records in watt hours the amount of power drawn from the
battery and, at the same time,
indicates the available amount
remaining at any time. Ampere-
hour meters are coming more and
more into general use on both
pleasure and commercial electrics,
and a detailed description of the
instrument and its use is given
in connection with electric pleas-
ure cars. In service, this dash
compartment is protected by an
aluminum plate through which
the dial of the meter appears. On
the Commercial, the controller is
mounted directly on the steering
colunm and is operated by a sec-
ond smaller wheel. Fig. 15. The

J. n -x « i.1. L j.\. ^- 15- Commercial Electric Controller on

controller itself is thus above the steering Column

footboards, and by the removal

of the protective housing shown becomes very accessible. In cases
where it is necessary to provide for handling heavy currents, a
railway type of controller is employed.

A novel controller installation that gives instant accessibility is
found on the G.M.C., as shown in Fig. 16. The controller proper,
as well as all wiring terminals, fuses, and meters are mounted under
a short hood, the resistance being suspended just beneath the con-
troller, while the charging receptacle is below the center of the bumper.
This view illustrates the forward side of the dash, while Fig. 17 shows
the dde facing the driver. The connection between the control lever

20 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

over the steering wheel and the controller is through a shaft and
a bevel gearing, as shown in Fig, 16. In the illustrations, this lever is

:i InBtalUtion of G.M.C. Elecl

at the neutral position, successive movement from this point forward
giving five speeds ahead and two reverse speeds backward. The

ol of G.M.C. Electric

G.V. control is equally compact, being mounted in a steel box form-
ing the driver's seat, as shown in Fig. 18, The safety switch and

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 21

the plug connection for an inspection lamp are seen on the outside at
the left. Inside are, first, the switch connections, then the fuses, and,
next, the fingers of the controller. At the upper right hand {driver's
left) is the control lever, while just visible below the box is the
resistance.

Safety Devices. In view of the fact that the average driver of
an electric delivery wagon or a truck is either a graduate from the
reins or has had no experience in handling vehicles at all, it has
become customary to provide safety devices which, to a large extent.

Fig. 18. ControllEr Boi of G. V. Electric Delivery Wagon

prevent accidents that might otherwise result from this lack of
experience.

Cut-Out Switch Connected to Brake. The brake is usually inter-
connected with a cut-out switch which automatically shuts off the
power independently of the controller simply by the application of
the fonner. While the brakes are sufficiently i)owerful to stop the
machine even with the current on, forgetting to shut oil the current
would either blow out the fuses or result disastrously to the motor.

Circuit- Breaker and Hand Stvitck. A circuit-breaker is provided
on some cars to obviate the necessity for frequent replacing of the
fuses, this being the usual practice in street railway and other electric
work. Frequently, a hand-operated cut-out switch is also installed

22 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

to permit of inspecting or working on the controller without the
necessity of disconnecting the battery, as a failure to do so where
no switch is provided is apt to result in painful bums, owing to the
large amount of current.

Charging CircuiUBreaker. Another safeguard is an automati-
cally operated circuit-breaker to protect the battery from being
overcharged. This is used in connection with the Sangamo ampere-
hour meter, which is described under the head of "Meters". Unlike
the Anderson device described previously, which can be employed
only where connection can be had to the field coils of the generator,
this circuit-breaker operates exactly the same as the circuit-breaker
in a generating station, which opens the line when an excess amount
of current passes through it, except that in this case its operation is
not controlled by the number of ampere turns on the circuit-breaker
itself, but by a trip switch actuated by the ampere-hour meter when
its dial records that the battery is fully charged.

Devices to Prevent Accidental Starting or Tampering. Devices
are provided to prevent the accidental starting of the vehicle when
not anticipated by the driver; also to guard against tampering by
the ubiquitous small boy. On the G.V. 1000-pound worm-driven
delivery wagon, for example, the emergency brake cannot be locked
on except when the "running switch" is in either the neutral or the
charging position, and cannot be released until thrown into the run-
ning position. Moreover, this switch can be thrown to the running
position only when the controller is at the "off" point, or neutral
position. The interconnection of the brakes and the controller
"throw-off" allows the driver to use both hands for steering, in an
emergency and, at the same time, to cut off the power and apply
both brakes with his feet. This emergency-brake lock compels the
driver to turn off the current by throwing the running switch to
neutral when leaving the car; it also prevents the brake from being
released by an unauthorized person, as the driver can take the switch
handle with him. As the brake cannot be released until the switch
is thrown on, the driver is reminded of that fact. The running-
switch lock prevents the accidental starting of the vehicle, which
might happen if the controller had been tampered with during the
driver's absence, and if, upon his return, he threw the running switch
on without first looking at the controller handle.

106

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 23

Brakes. Owing to the comparatively low speeds, the braking
equipment in the earlier designs usually consisted of a single set of
drums attached to the driving wheels. Against the inner faces of
these steel drums bronze shoes were expanded by means of a pedal
and the usual brake rigging beneath the car. As was the case in
practically all early chain-driven cars, the braking drums carried the
driving sprockets on their outer faces.

But in this, as in many other essentials, practice has been
improved along the lines followed in the gasoline car. It is now cus-
tomary to employ two sets of brakes, one for regular service and one
for emergencies. Usually, both sets of brakes are carried in drums
on the driving wheels, either side by side or concentrically, a friction
facing of asbestos on a woven-wire foundation being employed. In
some cases, the service brake operates on a drum carried on the
armature shaft of the motor.

Tires. While solid rubber tires are most generally employed,
they are not necessarily so, as pneumatic tires are to be preferred
where the merchandise to be carried is of a hght or fragile nature
or where speed is one of the chief features of the delivery service.
They not only reduce the liability to breakage, but also lessen the
cost of maintaining the vehicle in repair. However, as there are
comparatively few branches of commercial service in which the pneu-
matic tire is economically practicable, its use is very limited. The
solid tires employed vary in size from two to four inches, and for
weights in excess of the capacity of the latter, they are used in twin
form on the rear wheels.

SPECIAL FORMS OF THE ELECTRIC

Electric Tractors. The huge street-cleaning or garbage-removal
truck, shown in Fig. 19, is drawn by a 5-ton G.V. electric tractor,
the combination being along lines somewhat similar to the front-
driven electrics adopted by the Paris street-cleaning department for
the same purpose, except that the latter have a two-wheel tractor
and are fitted with a specially designed covered steel body. One use
of the electric tractor built along the lines just referred to is shown
by the Couple-Gear propelled steam fire engine, Fig. 20. Part of
the battery is carried on the frame and the remainder is suspended
beneath it, the power consisting of two Couple-Gear motor wheels

107

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Fig, 19. Five-Ton G. \

mounted on steering spindles and operated by a street-railway type
of controller which will be noted at the left of the driver. The entire
power plant is a complete unit, which is bolted directly to the engine
without further alteration than the removal of its front truck.

Fig. 20. Couple-Gtaj

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 25

Industrial Trucks. One of the most important developments
of the past few years has been the widespread adoption of the so-called
industrial truck. In a broad sense, the term represents a classification
rather than a type, as there are several different types of chassis built
for this purpose. Probably the first of these to be placed in service
was the Lansden dock truck, designed for handling cargo on steam-
ship piers. In addition to this, there are baggage and mail trucks for
use in railway depots, also truck cranes and tractor trucks, and it will
be apparent that they are designed for service where no other form of
power than electricity would be either convenient or permitted. The
battery truck crane, the baggage truck, and the tractor trucks are
merely modifications of the simple freight truck, their functions vary-
ing somewhat in each case. The baggage truck has a field of its own
in the handling of baggage and mail, some being of the drop-frame and
double-platform type and others having the battery and mechanism
placed below the loading platform, which is made of railway-car
height.

The simple industrial, or freight, truck is built in sizes and, capaci-
ties suitable for moving loads on piers, in freight sheds, warehouses,
factories, and industrial establishments generally. Its short wheel-
base permits it to pass through congested spaces, going backward or
forward with the same facility, while it is capable of ascending gradi-
ents of 10 to 25 per cent. On piers and at railway terminals it can
deliver its load on the deck of a vessel or in a box car. The capacity
of such trucks seldom exceeds 2000 pounds, this figure being found
the practical limit for trucks capable of the widest range of action.
The loading space of a truck of this capacity is 28 square feet, while
the total area required for movement is only 34 square feet, the
machine having an extreme width of 4 feet and an extreme length
of 8 feet, so that an industrial truck can be operated wherever a hand
truck can go, while the former will ascend grades impossible to the
latter.

Fig. 21 shows a standard G.V. 2000-pound industrial truck, of
which there are several hundred in use. Both the battery and the
driving mechanism are suspended below the platform, which has
rounded corners and is extended to protect the mechanism at every
point. Its speed on hard level surfaces is 7 miles per hour; its average
radius, 25 miles on one charge of the battery, the current consumption

109

26 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

for a full charge amounting to 6 to 8 kilowatt hours. For grades up
to 10 per cent, only one motor is employed. When equipped with
two motors, each rear wheel is driven by an individual motor geared
to a housed spur gear fastened to the wheel. A spring-returned con-
troller is used, the operating lever returning to neutral when released
by the driver. The brake is also spring-operated and is normally set,
so that in order to run the car the driver must keep the brake pedal
depressed. A further safety precaution is an automatic cut-off

Fig, 21, G,V, One-Ton IndiiBtriai Truck Handling Prdght

switch connected with the brake, so that in releasing the pedal of the
latter the power 13 cut off automatically. In addition to this pedal,
two operating handles are provided, one for the controller and the
other for steering, the truck being capable of turning around in s
7-foot radius. In general freight-shifting service, the hauls averaging
from 200 to 800 feet, each truck displaces from four to six men with
hand trucks. The efiBciency of these trucks is frequently increased by
using them in connection with trailers and large numbers are employed
in factories for transporting material from one department to another.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 27

ELECTRIC TRUCKS

Classification. There is little, if any, difference in design between
delivery wagons and trucks, the frames, axles, wheels, springs, and
transmission simply being made heavier in proportion to the great
increase in load to be carried, while there is a corresponding difference
in the power of the motor or motors and in the size of the chains or
other essentials of the transmission. As already mentioned, some
makes, such as the Walker, adhere to the single-motor power plant
even in sizes up to 2 and 3 J tons' capacity, and the G.V., Lansden,
Waverly, and G.M.C., up to 5 and 6 tons, on the score of increased
economy and higher efficiency, while others, such as the Commercial,
employ two motors on vehicles as small as the 4000-pound size and
four motors on larger trucks.

Next to the delivery wagon, in which electric power has scored a
great success, tn*cks of 2-ton and 3-ton capacity are the most com-
mon forms of electric vehicles — ^though the 5-ton size has come into
general use for brewery service-several hundred being run by brewers
in New York, while one St. Louis company has nearly a hundred.
Electric trucks of 6- and 7-ton capacity are also built. In order to
obtain the increase in load-carrying capacity, the size of the motor
must naturally be enlarged, with a corresponding increase in the power
consumption, which calls for a very much larger battery. In order
that the capacity of the battery may be suflScient to give the vehicle
a practical radius of travel on a single charge without unduly adding
to the weight, the speed is reduced, so that electric trucks of 2-ton
capacity usually have an average speed of 8 to 10 miles an hour;
3-ton trucks, 6 to 9 miles an hour; while 5-ton trucks seldom exceed
7 miles an hour.

Characteristics of Chassis. The electrics listed by the General
Vehicle Company afford an excellent example of a standard design
of chassis applied to cars ranging from 1000 pounds up to 5 tons'
capacity, the intermediate sizes being 2000 pounds, 2 tons, and 3^
tons. Naturally, the first two are delivery wagons and are capable
of traveling 45 miles on a single charge of the battery at a maximum
speed of 12 and 10 miles per hour, respectively. The 2-ton wagon,
while capable of the same mileage, has a maximum speed of but 9
miles per hour. This is further reduced to 8 miles per hour for the
3i-ton truck, which has a radius of 40 miles on a charge, while the

111

28 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

5-toii truck travels only 7 miles an hour as a maximum and has an
extreme radius of 35 miles on a charge. In every case, only a single

motor is used, and as the design in all other respects is also standard
for all sizes, a description of the 4000-pound wagon will suffice.

Fig. 23, General Electric Motor

With the exception of the use of a single-motor drive, a targe
number of the parts employed are practically the same as those used

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 29

in other makes of electrics. The foundation of the entire car consists
of a pressed-steel frame, to which are directly riveted the cradle for

carrying the battery, the spring hangers, and the supports for the
countershaft bearings,

A view of the complete chassis will be found in Fig. 2.
The view is taken from above and illustrates every essential except
the battery. At the rear are the semi-elliptic springs, the solid-steel
axle, artillery wheels with solid rubber tires and large driven sprockets,
driving chains, the single motor suspended from a transverse tubular
member on the frame, the enclosed silent-chain drive from the motor
to the countershaft, the wiring in conduits from the controller to the
motor, and the countershaft with its radius rods to equalize and
maintain its distance from the rear axle. These rods also s

take the stresses of driving off the rear springs. Just in front of the
countershaft is the steel cradle for the battery trays; at the left, that
is, at the front of the truck, is the steering gear, forward axle, springs,
and wheels.

119

30 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

An excellent view of the entire bottom construction, which gives
a clear idea of the arrangement of the power and the drive, is shown
in Fig. 22, while the essentials comprising it are shown in detail in
Figs. 23, 24, and 25. Fig. 23 is a G.E. multipolar, ironclad motor.
Fig. 24 shows the rear axle, while the forward axle and its steering
attachments are shown in Fig. 25. A 44-cell storage battery furnishes
current at 85 volts, the motor being wound to operate economically
at this voltage. . The battery is in sectional form, in crates of such
weight and size as to permit of easy removal or of replacement from
either side of the vehicle. It is so arranged that it may be recharged
without disturbing it; but, where two batteries are employed, a
charged set may be easily and quickly substituted for the exhausted
battery.

The controller is of the continuous-torque type which will per-
mit of changing the motor speeds by degrees without interrupting the
power between any of the steps. This gives a gradual and steady
acceleration, without the jerk and strain so detrimental to the life and
efficiency of every part of the vehicle. The motor is designed along
the lines which have proved so successful in street-railway work. It
has a very heavy shaft as well as a simple and durable brush rigging
and is wound to show not only a high efficiency but also a high capac-
ity for overload. The armature shaft, which is carried on annular
ball bearings that tend to greatly increase the efficiency of the motor
as a whole, is suspended on a transverse bar pivoted to the side mem-
bers of the frame forward of the rear axle. This pivoted suspension
keeps the motor shaft parallel with the countershaft throughout the
entire range of chain adjustment and permits the use of an efficient
silent-chain drive, which, as will be noticed in Fig. 2, is enclosed in
an aluminum housing.

The countershaft is housed in and is carried on four taper-roller
bearings inside the tube, the latter being held in self-aligning ball
sleeves in hangers riveted to the sides of the frame. The two short
driving shafts are connected by a spur differential and carry at their
outer ends small sprockets for the roller chains to drive the rear
wheels, the entire countershaft being a complete unit. It is driven by
a silent chain of ample width running over a small pinion on the motor
and over the gear of the differential. Altogether, this is a very effi-
cient form of truck.

114

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 31

GASOLINE VEHICLES

GASOLINE DELIVERY WAQONS

Classification Limits. It will be found on a brief examination of
the subject that this is a far more comprehensive heading than would
appear at first sight, as it includes everything from the little three-
wheeler up to the type known as the "light truck", but which is, in
reahty, also a delivery wagon with an open platform, or stake type of
body. The range of carrying capacity is from one to two hundred

Fi(. 26. Autocar Two-Cylinder Delivery Wsgoo

pounds up to one ton, or slightly more, as many delivery wagons and
light trucks are built with a load capacity of 2500 pounds or even
3000 pounds.

Autocar. The Autocar delivery wagon. Fig. 26, affords an excel-
lent example of a vehicle designed especially for the most severe
business conditions. The motor is of the two-cylinder, horizontal,
opposed, four-cycle type, the cylinder dimensions being 4f-inch bore
by 4§-inch stroke, and is rated at 18 horsepower. The crankshaft is
mounted on imported annular ball bearings, which not only add
greatly to the efficiency of the motor as a whole, but do away with the
attention necessary to adjust plain bearings. This construction.

32 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

which is far more expensive than plain bearings, also reduces the
number of parts which are subject to damage should the driver
neglect to provide suflBcient oil. The lubrication system is entirely
automatic in operation. Two flywheels are carried on the crankshaft,
the forward one having its blades cast staggered so as to set up a
strong current of air, thus eliminating the necessity of a belt- or gear-
driven fan, while the rear flywheel carries the clutch. The impor-
tance of providing ample weight in the balance wheel is something to
which insufficient attention has been devoted in the past, its influence
upon the starting ability and the smooth-running qualities of the
vehicle being extremely marked, especially where a two-cylinder motor
is employed. Both flywheels on the Autocar motor are counter-
weighted, and this, supplemented by a careful balance of all the
reciprocating parts, makes an extremely smooth- and quiet-running
motor with unusual starting and grade-climbing ability for its size.

The crankcase is spUt horizontally into two sections, the lower
half carrying the cylinders, crankshaft, camshaft, and water pump,
while the upper half carries the push-rod guides, the magneto, the
oiler, and a gear for driving the water pump. The magneto and
oiler are both driven through bevel gears and short shafts, reducing
the possibility of failure in these two highly important essentials —
ignition and lubrication — ^to a minimum. The upper section of the
crankcase is readily removable, carrying its parts with it and thus
giving access to the crankpin bearings without the necessity of
dismantling the motor. A Bosch magneto with a fixed firing point
is employed, thus taking this element of control out of the hands of
the driver. Lubrication is by a force-feed oiler delivering oil through
a sight feed to the crankcase, from which the pistons, crankpins,
and main bearings are lubricated by splash. Both the magneto and
the lubricator are simply attached to the crankcase by wing nuts
so that they may be removed without the aid of tools. A hydraulic
speed regulator, connected in the circulation circuit of the cooling
water, controls a throttle placed in the intake manifold between the
carburetor and the cylinders, limiting the speed of the motor to 1400
r.p.m. and that of the vehicle to 18 to 20 miles per hour.

A patented floating-ring clutch, which has been developed on the
same make of pleasure cars and used for a number of years, constitutes
the first step in the transmission. It consists of a bronze floating

116

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 33

ring, lined with cork inserts on its inner face, and 13 mounted on four
keys on the inside of the rim of the rear flywheel, thus rotating with
the latter. Two cast-
iron rings, adapted to
clamp the bronze ring
when the clutch is en-
gaged, are mounted on
the clutchshaft which
extends into the trans- '
mission case. Engage-
ment is accomplished by ^'"'- ^- ^'"■'"^' Doubl^Reduetion Floating R«r A,U

a sliding trunnion and four toggle links, the motion of which is
checked by a dashpot and a plunger. This insures gradual automatic
action, entirely free from jerk, regardless of the care exercised by the

ir Delivery Wiigon

driver. The addition of small springs to the floating ring eliminates
all noise, whether the clutch be engaged or not.

34 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

The transmission housing is all in one piece, except its cover plate,
and has been so designed that all the shafts and gears may be removed
without disturbing the housing itself. The shafts are large and are

ilg. 20. Autocar Engine and Transimsaioa Mounted on Separate Sub-Framv

carried on adjustable roller bearings, while the gears have broad faces
and heavy teeth. Three speeds forward and one reverse, operating
progressively, are provided, lubrication being obtained by covering
the shafts and gears with a bath of semi-fluid oil.

Both front and rear axles have been designed especially to meet
the requirements of the heavy service imposed upon them in carrying
the load on solid rubber tires. The front axle is of the tubular type,

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 35

with extra heavy yokes for the steering spindles, which are made
integral with the spring saddles. Adjustable roller bearings are
employed in the wheel hubs. The rear axle is of the full floating
type, with a double-gear reduction. A bevel pinion at the end of the
propeller shaft meshes with a large bevel gear on a short transverse
shaft, from which the drive is transmitted to the differential case by
means of a pair of substantial spur gears, the method of mounting
them being shown by Fig. 27. The complete axle, as well as the
spring suspension, the brakes, and other details are shown in the
rear view, Fig. 28.

One of the chief features of advantage on the Autocar delivery
wagon is the mounting of the complete motor and transmission,
barring the rear axle, on an independent sub-frame, as shown in Figs.

39 and 30. An illustration of the complete chassis would show every
part of the power plant to be accessible by lifting the bonnet, while
the complete unit, as shown separately, may be removed from the
chassis and replaced by another. The rear view of the chassis.
Fig. 28, shows the relative location of all the essential parts, including
the gasoline tank, which is placed transversely on the main frame
directly under the driver's seat. The frame is of pressed steel,
perfectly rectangular and heavily reinforced. Two sets of brakes
act on drums attached to the driving wheels, while the suspension
consists of double-elliptic springs in the rear and semi-elliptic springs
placed forward directly under the motor.

White. This may be regarded as a representative standard
design, as will be evident from the photo of the chassis. Fig. 31, show-

36 COMMERCIAL VEHICLTiS

ing that it differs from heavier-capacity vehicles of the same make
only in being shaft-driven and having lighter dimensions. It is built
in 1500- and 3000-pound sizes, the chassis illustrated being of the
latter capacity. Single rear tires are usually fitted on the smaller
car, and pneumatics are frequently employed to take advantage of the
higher speed thus made possible, an example of this practice being
illustrated by Fig. 32. Apart from the difference in dimensions and
tire equipment, both sizes are the same, each being equipped with a
3|- by 5J-inch motor, the cylinders of which are cast in one piece.

Fig. 32. Wbile Delivery Wagon witli Light Tup Body aod Pneumatic Tires

with the intake and exhaust passages integral. This motor is rated
at 30 horsepower and fitted with a compression release for starting.
A single-nozzle water-jacketed carburetor supplied with hot air from
a jacket on the exhaust pipe, a high-tension magneto for ignition,
and a gear-driven centrifugal water pump comprise its auxiliaries.

GASOLINE TRUCKS

Load Efficiency Increases with Size. It will be aj)parent that
above the 2-ton size the load eflSciency increases, as, once a certain
point is reached, additions to the weight caused by increasing the
dimensions of the load-carrying space and adding to the power of the
motor are disproportionately small as compared with the increase in

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 37

load capacity. For example, one truck of 3-ton capacity has a chassis
weighing only 4500 pounds, which tips the scales at 5200 pounds
completely fitted, or "all on^*; on the other hand, another chassis
for the same nominal carrying capacity, i.e., 3 tons, weighs 6000
pounds. However, as no standard for rating the load-carrying
capacity of gasoline trucks has ever been attempted, and one maker's
5-ton truck is sometimes no larger than the 3-ton truck of another,
it is often difficult to make comparisons that will be fair on a basis of
catalogue weights alone.

MOTOR DETAILS
Design

Both the design and construction of internal-combustion motors
for conunercial use are along lines similar to those employed on
pleasure automobiles except as modified by the requirements of
the more severe service. This necessitates a higher factor of safety
throughout, such as increased provision for lubrication and cooling;
extra large bearing surfaces, which must be readily accessible for
adjustment, except, of course, where antifriction bearings are
employed; increased crankshaft dimensions; broad gear faces; and
a considerably increased weight of flywheel in order that the motor
may develop as high a torque as possible at low speeds. The greater
amount of weight in the rim of the flywheel also eliminates motor
vibration to a considerable extent and makes the engine run much
more smoothly. Such variations of design as are usual in the pleasure-
car motors are to be found in the commercial type; in fact, where a
manufacturer builds both types, the same lines are followed in each
case, the only practical difference being in the dimensions and speeds.
It will be necessary, accordingly, to refer to only a few of the more
representative makes.

Long Stroke, Low Speed. Generally speaking, a commercial
motor is of the long-stroke low-speed type, some idea of the propor-
tions being obtainable by the dimensions of the White and the
Pierce-Arrow motors for 5-ton trucks. The former has a 4J-inch
bore by a 6f -inch stroke, while the latter measures 4| by 6 inches.
Similar small variations in dimensions are to be noted in practically
every make, in conformity with the varying standards of compression
and volumetric requirements adopted by their designers. This will

121

38 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

be apparent by a comparison of a few makes, such as the Locomobile,
5 by 6 inches; G.V. and Mercedes, 4.25 by 5,9 inches; Peeriess and
Kelly, 45 by 6i inches; Vulcan, 4| by 5| inches. No increase is made
in motor dimensions above the 5-ton size, the extra carrying capacity
being gained by higher gear reductions and lower speeds, the Vulcan
motor mentioned being employed on both the 5- and 7-ton sizes of
that make. These motors are variously rated at 35 to 40 horsepower,

Fii. 33. PeerlMS 5-Toq Motor, T-Head Typo

viz, Vulcan, 36 horsepower; White, 40; Kelly, 38.5; Peeriess, 32.4;

Pierce- Arrow, 38.

Causes of Variations in Ratings. The variation in the ratings

is due to a number of causes, although one of the chief reasons is the

differences in the practice followed, i.e., in some cases, the power

stated is the maximum indicated horsepower based on the dimensions

DxN
and worked out by the S,A.E. formula of . -, in which D is the

bore, N the number of cylinders, and 2.5 an arbitrary constant
derived from taking the speed characteristics of a large number of
motors and striking an average representing a piston speed of 1000
feet per minute. In other cases, it is the result of actual brake tests

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Tib. 34. White W-Horeepoww Block-Type Motor for 5-Toq Trui

Fie. 35. Piecce-Acraw Motoi for S-Ton Truck

40 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

and is accordingly based on the maximum r.p.m. rate of the motor;
while in still others it is the power which the motor is capable of
developing at the speed at which it is controlled by the governor,
usually 800 to 1000 r.p.m., to give the best service from the truck of
the capacity for which it is designed. For instance, the rating of
the Kelly motor is based on a speed of 900 r.p.m., while that of the
Peerless, Fig. 33, of the same dimensions, is its indicated horsepower
figured according to the above formula. The White motor. Pig. 34,
is an example of the L-head type; while the Pierce-Arrow, Fig. 35,
like the Peerless already mentioned, is of the T-head type.

Accessories '

Ignition. In every department of commercial-car practice, the
designer aims to make the operation of the machine as nearly auto-
matic as possible and to that extent to relieve the driver of any
opportunity to exercise his discretion. The usual practice is to
employ a magneto fitted with an automatic spark-timing device.
This operates on the principle of the centrifugal governor and is
controlled entirely by the speed of the motor, so that when the motor
is stopped the spark timing is fully retarded and there is no danger
from a "back-kick" as is the case where this precaution is inadvertently
overlooked. As the motor speed increases, the occurrence of the
spark in the cylinders is automatically advanced to correspond,
thus relieving the driver of this important function and preventing
the abuse of the motor in unskilled hands. The same slight differ-
ences in detail as found on the pleasure type are also found in the
ignition systems of commercial cars.

Carburetors. Carburetors also are the same both in principle
and construction as on the pleasure cars, except in instances where
they have been specially designed for commercial service, in which
case the modification applies to the construction. In view of the
very general custom in this country of leaving the design of auxiliaries
to the accessory manufacturer, the number of these instances is very
small, so that in the majority of cases the carburetor manufacturer
sells the same carburetor for either type of vehicle. To permit of the
efiicient utilization of lower-grade fuels, ample provision is usually
made for heating the carburetor by a large warm-water jacket and a
supply of hot air taken from a collector located on the exhaust pipe.

124

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 41

Cooling Systems. The so-called direct system, in which air is
relied upon to keep the cylinder walls of the motor at a temperature
that will permit of eflScient operation without danger of seizing,
was never attempted on conunercial vehicles except in the lighter
sizes. Most of these were light deUvery wagons, although one make
of 3-ton trucks employed a blower system for several years. How-
ever, air as the cooling agent without an intermediary in the form of
a water circulation has been definitely abandoned on the commercial
car. Both the principles and the operation are the same as on pleas-
ure cars, due allowance being made for the more severe service by
increasing the size of the pump, the section of the cylinder jackets,
the area of radiating surface, and the diameter of the connections.

Radiator Construction. The radiator is the most vulnerable
part of the truck, and precautions are therefore taken to protect
it from injury. In order to be proof against the constant vibration
and jolting, the gilled-tube type of radiator is employed in the
majority of instances. Accidental damage is usually provided against
by extending the frame and equipping it with a bumper, and further
protection, is sometimes afforded by mounting a heavy wire screen
in front of it. This is done more frequently on honeycomb, or
cellular, radiators, as they are liable to suffer severely when prodded
with the steel-shod pole of a horse-drawn truck, and are difficult
and expensive to repair. In the case of the gilled-tube type, only
those tubes actually struck are likely to be damaged and they will
frequently bend without rupture, while often nothing more serious
happens than the bending and derangement of the cooling fins
with which each tube is surrounded. These tubes are placed ver-
tically and, in the case of the Reo 2-ton truck radiator, Fig. 36,
are made demountable, so that a damaged tube may be easily replaced
in a short time without the necessity for making any soldered repairs.
It will be noted that each pair of tubes is held in place by a bolted
yoke, so that upon loosening the yoke they may be lifted out. This
illustration also clearly shows the flat copper tubes, which are placed
with their narrow edges facing the air current, as well as the copper
radiating fins attached to them. The upper and lower parts of the
radiator are hollow castings, which form tanks, the sides merely
providing a support and spacer for the tubes. The usual construction
consists of a removable tank, which forms the top and bottom

125

42 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

chambers, with a bank of gilled tubes having their ends expanded
and soldered into perforated plates, the 'solder playing an unim-
portant part, as such joints cannot be relied upon where there is
much vibration.

Unless properly provided agwnst, one of the chief sources of
injury to the radiator arises out of the twisting of the frame under
torsional stresses. Flexible joints between the radiator and motor
are accordingly necessary to take care of relative movement, and it is
common practice, both
in this country and
abroad, to employ rubber
hose for this purpose.
By reason of the heavy
loads carried and the use
of solid tires, this precau-
tion is not sufficient to
guard the radiator
against the effects of
vibration and road
shocks, so that it is usu-
ally mounted on some
kind of spring suspension.
This spring suspension

F«. 36. R«o DemomiUble-Seotion Gilled-Tub. Rsdtai™ U3Ually COUsistS of a pair

of helical springs, one on
either side, so that the radiator has no solid connection with its sup-
port. In some instances, the radiator is hung on a pair of trunnions,
similar to a gun mounting, but this form, while providing ample
allowance for movement, does not cushion it against shocks. Still
another method consists in mounting the radiator on an extension
of the motor, the motor itself being carried on a three-point support,
so that the radiator and motor move together; but, unless provided
with some form of spring buffer between them, this type suffers
from the same disadvantage as the one just mentioned. Figs. 37
and 38 show some typical methods of radiator protection.

Fans. In every case, the radiator is supplemented by a fan
driven at high speed, and, in view of the slow gravel of the heavier
trucks, the ph)per working of the cooling system depends upon the

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

effidency of the fan, since the speed of the vehicle cannot force a
strong draft of air through the radiator as it does in a touring
car. Thus, the fan is a very important part of the cooling system
on a slow-moving vehicle, as it
must provide an ample draft, no
matter how low the road speed
may be, otherwise the engine is
liable to heat beyond the point
where the oil begins to lose its
lubricating qualities. An ineffi-
cient fan allows excessive heat-
ing every time it is necessary to
climb a long hill.

Circulating Apparatus. In
the majority^of eases, the cooling

iC &>riiig Ciahiooiiu and Relativi
Movement throucb Clsvisa

water is circulated by a pump on commercial-car motors, though
many heavy trucks, such as the Kelly-Springfield, have thermosiphon
circulation. This pump is of the centrifugal type and is capable
of delivering a much greater volume of water than are those employed
on pleasure-car motors of corresponding power, owing to the reduced
road speeds of trucks. These pumps vary more or less in design,
but are based almost without exception on the centrifugal principle,
as the latter is the only one which will permit of a thermosiphon
circulation through it in case the impeller ceases to revolve. A
stoppage of the gear type of pump also stops the circulation at once.
Lubrication. Granting that an excess can be prevented from
reaching the combustion chambers of the cylinders, it is axiomatic
that the power plant of a motor
truck cannot have too much oil.
In commercial service, the de-
mands upon the lubricating sys-
tem are quite as severe as they
are upon the cooling system, and
the failure of one usually involves
the failure of the other in a short
time. Hence, a greater amount
of oil must be provided and every precaution taken to insure its
reaching the bearings. Except for the increase in the quantity of

44 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

lubricant, this does not differ in any way from the requirements of
the pleasure car. Consequently, the systems employed are practically
the same in both cases. The White lubrication system shown in
Fig. 39 illustrates a typical sight-feed system.

Motor Qovemors
Of the two chief evils that beset the motor truck in the hands
of the untrained driver — speeding and overloading — the former is
the more destructive, as the driver who will overload his truck will
also run at excessive speeds, and, with a heavy load, this is severe
punishment for the entire mechanism. The practice became so
common in the early days of the motor truck — nearly all drivers

Fif, 39. 3i(1it-Feed (Drop) Lubiicating System aa Used oa White Trucks

then being graduates from the pleasure-car field — that it has now
become customary to govern the speed of the motor. The governor
itself is usually sealed to prevent its being tampered with by the driver.
Qeneral Characteristics. The most generally accepted type is
that of the usual centrifugal governor attached directly to the motor
and operating a butterfly valve in the intake manifold between the
regular carburetor throttle and the valve ports. Owing to the high
motor speeds and the slight amount of movement necessary, the gover-
nor is very small and compact, so that it will frequently be found incor-
porated in the erankcase at the end of the camshaft. A variation
from this is a drive taken from an outside auxiliary, such as the mag-
neto shaft or water-pump shaft. In either case, the si>eed of the

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 45

governor is always directly proportional to that of the motor itself
and bears no relation to that of the vehicle. This is a disadvantage
at times, as in pulling through a heavy road on low speed when the
maximum power of which the motor is capable is required.

Controlling Car Speed. An improvement on this practice has
been the adoption of a vehicle "speed controller" which, while acting
on the motor itself in the same manner as the usual motor governor,
is controlled directly by the speed of the car and bears no relation to
that of the engine. With this type, the motor is free to run at any
speed at which the hand-operated throttle will supply it with fuel,
so long as the speed of travel does not exceed that for which the
governor, or controller, is set. So far as the motor is concerned, it is
not directly governed and may be speeded up to any extent necessary
to pull the car through heavy going or out of a ditch, as the controller
does not come into action while the car is moving slowly. Practically,
the only disadvantage of this type is the fact that it does not prevent
the motor from racing, as does the former, when the load is suddenly
removed, with the throttle open. The vehicle speed controller is
driven either from one of the front wheels or from a shaft of the
transmission, as its operation depends entirely upon the speed of
the car. In addition to the centrifugal method of speed control, the
hydraulic principle is also employed. It will be apparent that as
the motor speed increases the circulation of the water, as driven
by the pump, does likewise, and there is a corresponding rise in
pressure in the cooling circulation. This rise in pressure is utilized
to act on a large diaphragm connected with a plunger attached
to a butterfly valve. A description of some of the governors in use
will make clear the method of taking advantage of the different
principles of operation.

Centrifugal Type. In Fig. 40 is illustrated a typical centrifugal
governor designed for attachment to one of the auxiliary shafts, as
will be noted by the driving gears at the bottom. As the revolving
weights tend to spread agamst the compression of the helical spring
surrounding the spindle on which they revolve, they push up a yoke
to which a shaft directly connected with the throttle valve is attached.
As in the case of the steam engine, this valve is entirely independent
of the hand-operated valve which may thus be left all the way open.
The details of construction of the Pierce governor are shown by

129

46 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

tbe sectional view, Fig. 41, in which the weights are at the right.
As the triangular weights open under the centrifugal force generated,
they push the rod forward, and, as this rod has a rack cut on it

Fi(. 40, Sectional Dui|raiii3 ol CfatriCugal Type of Governor

that meshes with a pinion on the butterfly valve, this action tends
to close the valve. A spring keeps this rod pressed against the
spindle on which the weights are mounted, but is not connected with
the spindle in any way. As is true of all governors in this service,

Fit. 41. Sectional View of Pierce Ccutrilugal Motoi Goveraor

a speed adjustment and a method of sealing it against tampering
are provided.

Hydraulic Type. An example of the hydraulic type of governor
is shown in section in Fig. 42, while the application of this form of
governor is illustrated by the Reo 2-ton truck motor, Fig. 43. As

ISO

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

will be seen in the section, this type consists of a water chamber,
diaphragm, spring, and operating lever; the operating mechanism

Hydraulio Type of Governor

being combined with the
governor proper results in
a simple and compact
unit which requires only
one connection. This
connection is led from the
circulating system on the
cold-water side, as will be
noted in Fig, 43, in order
to bring it close to the
pump. As the speed of
the pump increases, the
pressure increases, and
the diaphragm is forced
d'jwn against the spring,
cnrrying with it the lever
operating the valve

48 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

through a rack and a pinion. As the pressure decreases, the spring
returns the diaphragm, and with it the valve, to its normal position.
The water chamber, operating-lever housing, and the spring-retaining
plug are sealed so that the adjustment cannot be varied without
disturbing one of these seals. In this, as well as in the centrifugal
type where the adjustment is eflFected by altering the tension of a
spring, it will be obvious that the spring could readily be screwed
up so tightly that no speed of which the motor was capable would
have any effect on the governor, thus practically cutting out its
action altogether.

POWER TRANSMISSION DETAILS
Clutch and Transmission

Clutches. Cone Type. A comparison of the specifications of a
number of representative makes of trucks reveals a variation in
clutch design about equivalent to what would be found on an equal
number of pleasure cars, except that a greater number of instances of
the leather-faced cone occur in the trucks. This is the oldest type
employed on the automobile and is likewise the simplest in construc-
tion, which probably accounts for its more general retention in the
commercial field. What is termed the direct conical type, in which
the leather-faced cone engages by moving forward into the corre-
sponding wedge-shaped recess of the flywheel, is in more general use
than the indirecty or internal, cone in which the male member moves
backward into engagement. An example of the latter type is found
on the Peerless trucks, while the Garford, Kelly, Vulcan, Mais, and
Pierce are representative of the former. In the case of the Pierce,
the cone operates in an oil bath, the others running dry, as is more
often the case.

Multiple-Disc Type, The Packard and Autocar in this country
and the De Dion in France have long been fitted with a three-plate
type, the Albion (British) having a single-plate form of clutch in the
heavier sizes. Multiple-disc clutches are found on the Locomobile,
the Mack, and the Reo, and other American makes.

Transmission. Owing to the great reduction in speed necessary
between the motor and the driving wheels, transmission plays a
more important part on the commercial vehicle than it does on the
pleasure car. On the Jatter, its services can be dispensed with in an

132

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 49

emergency, as the car can be started on the direct drive in case of
accident to the intermediate speeds, but this would manifestly be
impossible on a heavily loaded truck. In this connection, it is to be
noted that the term "transmission" has come to signify the "change-
speed gearset" alone, doubtless owing to the awkwardness of the latter
appellation, and does not apply to the transmission of the power
from the motor to the rear or front wheels or to all four, as the case
may be.

Sliding-Gear Type. In the majority of instances, the sliding-gear
type of transmission is employed for commercial work, in which the
gears are actually slid into engagement with each other to effect
the various ratios of driving and driven members. This type is

Fie. *i- Type of Transmiasion Employed on Wliite Sbsft-Driven Trucks

practically universal on the pleasure car, so that only a brief reference
to it is necessary here. On almost all except the lighter vehicles, it
provides four forward speeds, the others having but three speeds and
reverse. Fig. 44 shows the White transmission as employed with
a shaft drive. Owing to the controlling connections being absent,
this has been inadvertently photographed with both the first, or
lowest speed, and the direct, or highest speed, engaged. The lai^
gear at the left, shown in engagement with its corresponding gear on
the layshaft, gives the first speed. By moving it forward until the
gear just ahead, with which it is integral, meshes with the next gear
to the right on the layshaft, the second speed is obtained. Moving
the single gear at the right back until it meshes with the right-hand
gear of the pair on the layshaft gives third speed. For fourth speed,

50 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

or direct drive, this aame gear is moved forward, its forward face
being cut in the form of a dog clutch that engages a similar gear
permanently attached to the clutchshsft. This is unusual, as the
dog clutch is generally formed of a smaller diameter extension on
the hub of the direct-drive gear. The two gears at the extreme right-
hand end are permanently engaged and serve to drive the layshaft.
By moving the largest gear to the extreme left, the reverse is engaged,
this being effected through an intermediate pinion, or idler, part of
which is just visible below the main shaft at that point. The moving
members slide on splines cut on the main shaft, the sliding being
sometimes effected by making the main shaft of square seclion.

Fig. 43. Peerless Tmnsmission and Counurahatt

A similar transmission, combined with a bevel drive and spur-
gear differential on a jackshaft for side-chain final drive, is that of the
Peerless, Fig. 45. This is shown engaged on the direct drive, so
the dog clutch is not visible. The material used in the housing is
usually aluminum, sometimes cast iron, and, in the case of the
Locomobile, manganese bronze. Annular ball bearings are employed
in many instances, the bearings themselves being apparent in the
White transmission and their mountings in the Peerless. Taper
roller bearings are also employed for the same purpose. Operation
is almost invariably by the selective method, the gear lever being
shifted across through a gate to pick up one or the other of the
sliding members shown. The control lever of the White, which is
mounted directly on the transmission housing, is shown in Fig, 46.
This lever is more often mounted at the side in a fixture also cany-

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 51

ing the emergency-brake lever, as on the Pierce. On this truck,
only three forward speeds are provided.

Mack Trammiasion. The Mack transmission, Fig, 47, is a
selectively operated type in which the gears of the various speeds
are always in mesh, small clutches being designed to slide in either
direction on the squared main shaft, engaging the particular speed
desired. These clutches are practically small gears which mesh

with internal-gear members attached to the driving members.
They will be noted lying between the driving gears on the main shaft,
in the illustration. The gear housing in this case is of phosphor bronze.
Use of "Dog" Clutches. A variation of the Mack type of trans-
mis^on employs what are known as "dog" clutches, probably from
the fact that they apparently brie into one another, being cut with
a comparatively small number of heavy teeth on their end faces.
These teeth, if they can be properly so-called, are of heavy section

52 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

and are cut with an easy angle which insures ready engagement.
This will be noted in the direct-drive engagement of the White gear-
set. The dog-clutch type of gearset has been employed more in
Great Britain than in this country. Its great advantages are that
the driving gears are constantly in mesh and that the dog clutches
can be engaged without particular attention being paid to the speed
at which the two shafts are revolving, as is necessary with the sliding-
gear type. The details of a transmission of this kind, as well as

Fie. 47. Mack Truumiasiou Uaed on Muibattui Trucks

of the method of operation, are clearly shown in Fig. 48, which is a
Gotta transmission designed for use on worm-driven trucks. As
shown in the illustration, the first, or low, speed is engaged, the
clutch on the layshaft at the lower right-hand corner being in mesh
with its counterpart on the large, or low-speed, gear. The clutch-
shaft being at the right-hand end of the gear box, as shown, the drive
is then through the pinion on it, the large gear below, with which
it is in mesh, and then through the layshaft and the pair of gears
at the left-hand end, these gears being fastened to t-iieir respective

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 53

'shafts. The other gears, with the exception of the clutchshaft
pinion previously mentioned, are free to rotate on their shafts and
are permanently in mesh. However, the male members of the
individual clutches, while free to slide on the shafts, must turn with
them, so that when engaged they "pick up" the various gears cor-
responding to the different speeds,

SUent'Chain Transmission. Another form of transmission,
which has been used to a greater or less extent abroad, but which
has found little favor here, is the silent-chain type. This is along
similar lines to the Mack transmission illustrated, except that roller
chains take the place of the permanently meshed gears, dog clutches
being engaged to pick up the latter according to the speed desired.
Final Drive

Until a few years ago, there was a sharp line of demarcation
between the pleasure car and the commercial vehicle where the

Fi*. 48. Cotta iDdividual (Do«) Clutch TransmiBalgn
D«igaed for Worm-Driven Truoks

important final drive was concerned. Practically all pleasure cars
were shaft-driven, and, to the same extent, commercial cars were
chain-driven. The tendency that has manifested itself in the interim
makes it apparent that the history made in the development of the
pleasure ear is apt to repeat itself in commercial-car development.
In other words, chain-driven trucks were largely in the majority
a few years ago, but the recent advances made in live-axle construction
have had a marked effect and their adoption has now reached such
a scale that, barring something unforeseen, the chain on the truck
will soon disappear as it has from the touring car.

54 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Classification. As at present employed, there are four general
classes of final drive on commercial cars. In the order of their age
and present comparative importance, these are: first, the double
side-chain from a centrally located countershaft carrying the differ-
ential and the bevel drive, and usually combined with the gearset, or
transmission, so called; second, the worm drive, which differs from
the bevel-gear type only by the substitution of a worm and a worm
wheel for the bevel gear and the pinion; third, the double-reduction
live axle, in which a bevel-gear drive is employed in connection with
a second reduction in speed through the spur gears; fourth, the so-
called internal-drive rear axle, in which the first reduction is through
the conventional bevel gear and the second is by means of a small
spur pinion meshing with an internal gear cut on the inner face of a
drum attached to the driving wheel. It may occasion some surprise
to note in this connection that the worm drive is mentioned as being
second in point of seniority, and further that no mention is made of
the standard bevel-gear live axle. In the first place, the use of the
worm on automobiles dates back to its employment on the Lan-
chester pleasure cars in 1898 and its adoption on the Dennis busses
in London in 1903, on which it has been regularly used ever since.
No mention is made of the standard bevel-gear axle here, since the
latter is only adapted for use on light cars. The higher speeds at
which* these vehicles run do not necessitate the employment of
extremely high reduction ratios, so that a live axle of this type may be
employed without having to make the bevel gear of a size that would
seriously reduce road clearance, on the one hand; or a bevel pinion
that would exceed the mechanical limitations of this form of drive,
on the other. It is rarely employed, however, on vehicles of more
than IJ tons' capacity, and the ease with which the entire speed
reduction necessary may be carried out in a single step by means of
a worm gear will doubtless make the straight bevel type obsolete
on commercial vehicles within the next few years.

Side^Chain Drive. Until the introduction in this country, at a
comparatively recent date, of the worm drive, some form of double-
reduction gearing has been used on all heavy motor trucks. The
form most commonly used has been the double side-chain final drive,
in which the primary gear reduction is obtained by means of a bevel
gear driving the jackshaft and a secondary reduction in the chains

138

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

and sprockets. This type of drive, utilizing roller chains, has been
used on nearly all heavy motor trucks since the inception of the com-
mercial vehicle. With but one or two exceptions, on all these
trucks of American manufacture no attempt has been made to house
the chains in, and they run exposed to dirt, mud, and water.

Standard Types. A typical American side-chain drive for trucks
of medium capacity is shown in Fig. 49, which illustrates a "Hmken
unit. Except for the provision of brakes and sprockets at its outer
ends instead of wheels, the countershaft, or jackshaft, is practically

Fig. 46. Timken StsndBrd Jackshaft [or Side-Chain Drive

a bevel-gear live axle. The rear axle is what is known as a "dead"
axle in that it has no moving parts other than the wheels which
revolve on bearings mounted on it. The two wheels are kept at a
predetermined distance apart, and their parallelism is preserved by
two distance, or radius, rods, A little consideration will make it plain
that the thrust of repulsion against the ground of the driving wheels
must be taken up on the vehicle before the latter can move, other-
wise the rear axle would tend to travel forward independently until
checked by the springs, which would then take the driving effort.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

This is frequently done on pleasure cars, and makes a flexible power
transmission which is easy on the mechansim and the tires, but which
is not practical with the heavy loads handled on trucks. Hence, the
radius rods are employed to transmit this strain to the frame of
the car, but, at the same time, they must provide for a certain amount
of relative movement in both a vertical as well as a horizontal plane,
besides affording a certain amount of flexibility.

Radius and Torque Rods. Fig. 50, which represents a well-
worked-out radius-rod design, illustrates how these various require-
ments are met. Starting at the right-hand end of the rod which is
attached to the rear axle, it will be seen that this design consists of
a connecting-rod type of bearing that permits movement in a vertical
plane, as this bearing is held on a tubular section of the axle and

Fig. 50. Flexible Universally Jointed Radius Rod for Double Side-Chain Drive ,

is kept well lubricated. Just forward of the bearing is a heavy spindle
which pivots the rest of the rod on the rear bearing, so that ample
provision is made for lateral movement. The rod proper is in two
parts held together by the compression of a heavy helical spring, which
relieves the mechanism and tires of the initial thrust of starting, and
also prevents shocks to the rear axle reaching the frame via the
radius rod. Further provision for movement in a vertical plane is
made by the attachment of the forward end of the rod to the frame,
which forms a pivoted yoke. The threaded portion and the locked
collar, noticed at the forward end, allow for adjustment in the length
of the rod, this adjustment being provided for in the spring rod
by the nut shown inside the yoke at the forward end. On shaft-
driven cars, a torque rod is employed to take this thrust and also
to take up the twisting effort, or "torque," of the propeller shaft.

140

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 67

Speed Reduction. The rear axle proper is simply a drop foi^ng
of I-beam section representing the strongest and lightest cross-
section for a beam. It is forged integral with the pads, or saddles, for
attaching the springs and is machined to receive the wheel bearings
and the bearings of the radius rods which complete its construction.
The driving sprockets are bolted to -the pressed-steel or cast-steel
brake drums and the latter are in turn bolted to the wood artillery
wheels. On trucks of two to seven tons' capacity, the speed reduc-
tion between the motor and the rear wheeh ranges all the way from 7
to 1 to 14 or 15 to 1. The first step in the reduction is carried out in

Fi(. ni. Rear of Pacliard 5-Ton Chassis, Showing Siie ol Driving Sprockets

the bevel-gear drive of the countershaft and rarely exceeds 4 or 5
to 1, as the use of a larger bevel would involve the use of a cumber-
some and weighty housing. The remaining reduction is accom-
plished by the difference in the driving and driven sprockets. How
great this second reduction may be can be seen from Fig. 51, which
is a rear view of a standard design of side-chain-driven heavy truck,
the Packard. A study of this illustration will make clear several of
the details of axle, spring, brake, and radius-rod construction
described in previous paragraphs.

Worm Drive. The worm gear was tried tentatively on steam
traction engines in England as early as 1850, but it was not until

58 COMMERCIAL .VEHICLES

1898, when it was applied to the driving of the LancQester car, that
it wa3 seriously taken up for this purpose. The Lanchester worm is
similar to the more familiar Hindley type except that it is placed
under the wheel to msure proper lubrication. Both the worm and
wheel are mounted on ball bearings as such a type of bearing is
very satisfactory for this load. Worm gears of this tpye are imported
from England for use on the Detroit electric cars. The first rear-
axle motor-truck drive of the worm type was a 3J-ton Dennis bus

Fig. 52. Phantom View of Pierce Worm-Driven ReBi A>le

running in London. This was first put in service in 1903, and, though
its introduction met with considerable opposition, it proved a success,
and quite a number of worm-driven Dennis busses have been in
service in London for several years. Dennis was also the first to
mount the worm over the wheel, producing the so-called "overhead"
type, which feature also came in for much criticism owing to its
alleged failure to provide lubrication. It will be perfectly obvious
that with the worm-wheel housing only partly full of oil this criticism
would be unfounded, as the wheel acts as an excellent conveyor
to carry the oil up to the worm. Eight years' use in London without
failure of lubrication bears out this statement.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES b9

Development. The London General Omnibus Company was the
first to design and manufacture on a lai^ scale a new type of worm-
gear axle in which the worm gear was mounted on a separate assem-
bly. This design has superseded others until now, with some modi-
fication, it is accepted practice. The worm and the wheel are
mounted in a very rigid block and, with their bearings, housings,
etc., form a complete unenclosed transmission unit, as seen in
' Fig. 52, which is a phantom view of the worm gear employed on the

Pierce trucks, the makers of the latter having been the pioneers
in introducing this type into the United States. This unit is dropped
into the bowl-shaped rear-axle housing and bolted in place. This
mounting lends itself readily to accurate machining, every part
being open and easily accessible. This is also true of the unit as
a whole where inspection, adjustment, and repair are concerned.
This housing is of heavy construction and, as it is rigid, prevents
road shocks or stresses, other than those coming through the driving

60 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

axles, from disturbing the alignment of the worm gear. The housings
of the driving shafts, or axles, are tubular, and the shafts themselves
are assembled through the tubes into the squared sockets in the
differential. This makes a very accessible assembly as, by pulling
out the driving axles and disconnecting the universal joint, the worm
unit can be Ufted out of its housing. The socket, with several
keyways in it extending forward from the worm proper^ is for the
reception of the splined end of the propeller shaft from the gearset.
This keyed socket is the slip end of the rear universal joint in the
shaft line and is designed to prevent relative movement of rear axle
and of gear set from imposing excessive stresses on the propeller shaft.

The driving thrust and the torque are taken on a short heavy
torque rod, which will be noted extending forward from the rear-
axle housing just below the universal joint. This is a heavy drop
forging and, as will be clear, is mounted on a heavy spindle at the
axle housing, allowing for movement in a horizontal plane; while at
its forward end, which is made in the form of a yoke, it is carried
on a horizontal pin permitting a vertical movement to compensate
for variations in the vertical distance between the axle and frame
caused by the compression and recoil of the springs. Its location
is made clear in the chassis view. Fig. 53.

Fig. 54 shows the form of mounting adopted by the Timken
Company for the David Brown type of worm drive which they
manufacture. This is the same as that employed on the Pierce
trucks, but both the method of mounting and the bearings differ.
The Timken Company use their own taper roller bearings, while the
Pierce Company use annular ball bearings. The worm is of the
so-called straight type, meaning that it is of uniform diameter
throughout its length as distinguished from the "hourglass" type.

Standard Types of Worm Gears. In the straight type, the worm
is cylindrical through its entire length, and the worm wheel into
which it meshes is concave. In the hourglass type, both worm and
worm wheel are concave. The advantage claimed for the latter
form is the greater area of engagement, thus spreading the driving
strain over a greater number of teeth and reducing the pressure on
the surface of both. On this type, however, there is only one position
in which the worm and the worm wheel can be located with respect
to each other in order to take advantage of this greater area of con-

144

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 61

tact, while on the straight type it is necessary only to locate the worm
correctly, with respect to the worm wheel, in one direction, since the
worm is cyHndrical and uniform in diameter throughout its entire
length. The straight type is therefore much less liable to damage
through misalignment. With the hourglass type, a slight misplace-
ment in any direction is liable to prove fatal, so that the chances of
trouble in practical operation are greatly reduced in the straight type.
Efficiency of Worm Gears. In an elaborate test of three differ-
ent types of worm gears (by types in this connection being meant

Fie. 54. David Brown Type o( Worm Gear tu Mounted on Timken Ade

differences in tooth form and pitch) made at the Brown and Sharpe
plant to determine which form was best adapted to automobile use,
efficiendes ranging from 90.2 to 95.5 were obtained on the first speed,
91.3 to 93,4 per cent on the second speed, and 90,1 to 97.6 per cent
on the direct drive. The results obtained with a bevel-gear-drive
test made for comparison were 91.4 to 96.6 per cent on first speed,
94.5 to 99.3 on second, and 94.0 to 99.2 on direct drive. So far as
the life of the worm is concerned, mileage records obtained on com-
mercial cars range from 40,000 to 110,000 miles, the lower figure

62 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

being considered only fair for a well-made straight type of worm;
while, on pleasure cars, three years of constant service was not
thought at all unusual.

Double-Reduction Live Axle. As sufficient drop in speed can-
not be had with a bevel gear through a single reduction without
making the driven bevel gear of impracticable proportions, thus
involving excessive weight in the rear-axle housing and a dangerous
lack of clearance between the latter and the ground, an intermediate
spur reduction is introduced just forward of the bevel gears. One
method of accomplishing this is illustrated by Fig. 55, which shows
the extra speed reduction combined in the same housing as the
differential and the bevel drive, an extra cover plate making it
accessible. It will be noted that helical-cut gears are employed

Fig. 65. White Differential, ShoniDg Second-Reduction Gear

instead of the straight-spur type, this form of tooth giving greater
bearing surface, closer engagement, i.e., less backlash, or lost motion,
between the gears and far less noise in running. Another form of
double-reduction axle is the special type developed on the Autocar
delivery wagon and illustrated in connection with the description of
that vehicle.

Internal Qear-DrJven Axle. The internal gear-driven type of
axle is another form of final drive that has been introduced in this
country after a long and successful record abroad. Like the worm
gear, it aspires to the honor of replacing the side chains and, like that
form, also has already made considerable progress in this direction.
In principle, this form of drive consists of making the driving axles in-
dependent of, and external to, the rear axle proper, which, in this case.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 63

13 of the "dead" type, usually a solid section, such as a square or an
I-beam forging. Its functiou is merely to cany the weight of the
car, although it also is made to serve both as a support and as a rein-
forcement for the live axle. In the case of the Mercedes (German)
trucks, on which it has been used since 1900, the driving axle is
placed forward of the dead axle. At their outer ends, the shafts of
the former carry small spur pinions which mesh with large internal
gears cut on rings attached to drums on the rear wheels. One of
these wheels and the driving pinion on the end of the live shaft are
illustrated in Fig. 56, which shows this construction as carried out
on an American-built replica of the German truck in question.

This same form of axle has been employed also for a number of
years in Paris by the builders of the De Dion cars for their commer-
cial types, chiefly busses. In this case, the live axle is carried above

Yig. 66. Meicedea (Germui) Internal Geu Drive, ShDwiii« Prindple of Aotiaa and
ABsembled Rear Wheel

its support. More than a hundred of these busses have been in
service in New York for several years and, as more ara ordered
from time to time to meet the increasing requirements, it must be
concluded that they have been satisfactory. The builders of the Mais
trucks were doubtless the pioneers in the conmiercial use of this form
of axle in this country, and the Mais internal gear-driven rear axle is
probably the form in which this type is most generally used. In this
case, the driving axle is placed forward of the dead axle. Upon com-
paring the size of the driving pinion at the rear wheel with the internal
gear, it will be apparent that a very large gear reduction is conven-
iently obtainable by this method without in any way interfering with
the road clearance of the vehicle. The first reduction consists, of
course, in every ease, of the conventional bevel-gear drive, but, as will
be noted from the part sectional views of the Torbensen and Garford

64 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

types of internal gear-driven axles, as shown in Tiga. 57 and 58, there
is very little reduction between the bevel pinion and its gear. This
' decreases the amount of leverage the pinion has to exert and conse-

Fi«. 57. Torbenaen Internal Gear-Driven Rear Aile

quently decreases the tooth pressure in proportion. In the Torben-
sen axle, the live member, or countershaft, is placed to the rear of the
I-beam supporting member, while in the Garford this is reversed. On
the Jeffery "Quad", it is placed directly over the wheel support, as

.ernal Gear-Driven R«ar Aile

shown by Fig. 59, which illustrates the driving pinion and the wheel
with its internal gear. As this truck steers, drives, and brakes on all
four wheels, a universal joint is placed directly behind the pinion.
Fig, 60 shows the wheel and its gear ready for mounting. A some-

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 65

what similar design is found on the Christie front-drive tractor for fire
apparatus, with the added distinction that on this machine only the
rim of the driving wheel revolves and is carried on a ball bearing'
which is practically the eize of the wheel itself. On the Jeffery, the
wheel revolves on the two taper roller bearings shown.

Differential Lock. The function of the differential, balance gear,
or compensating gear, as it is variously called, is naturally the same
on the commercial vehicle as it is on the pleasure car, i.e., that of
permitting one wheel to run free in rounding a turn so that it may
travel the greater distance represented by the outside circle in the
same time that the inner
takes to traverse its orbit ;
but the differential has
the unfortunate draw-
back of not permitting
any power to reach one
of the driving wheels in
case it is held while the
other is free. This fre-
quently occurs where the
truck settles into a ditch
or extra deep rut in a
soft road, leaving the
other wheel more or less
in the air. Under such
conditions the entire
power goes to the free
wheel, making the prob-
lem of extricating the machine from this predicament much more
difficult. To overcome this disadvantage of the balance gear, it
is customary to provide a differential lock. One form of this lock
is illustrated in Fig. 61. On the right-hand side a four-jaw clutch is
keyed to the drive shaft, but is left free to slide into mesh with Its
corresponding member on the differential housing to permit of lock-
ing the differential gears. This clutch is operated through a suitable
Unkage from the driver's seat. By locking the differential, the sunken
wheel will jiull itself out if the truck is capable of exerting the
necessary power.

66 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Front Drives. Early Development. One of the earliest applica-
tions of power proposed for road locomotion was the attachment of
a self-contained power unit to existing horse-drawn vehicles, and a
number of different types of such units wcFe built in Europe in the
early days of the industry. For some reason, none of them developed
to the point of a commercial success. The front-wheel drive, which
seems to have been discarded almost entirely for some years, has
recently come to the fore again and has been developed very success-
fully for fire apparatus, on which both mechanical and electrical
methods of transmission have been utilized.

Fie. ea. JcHery Wheel »ith Interaal Gear Ready for Mauntmc on Aile

Electric Front Drive. The electric front drive has been utilized
in numerous lines of business, more particularly for brewery and
municipal service, for several years; the Cou'ple-Gear type of electric
motor wheel, previously described in the section on the transmission
of power on electric cars, was employed for this purpose. In some
instances, a single power wheel is used to haul a dump cart or similar
slow-moving vehicle; or a unit, comprising a storage battery, con-
troller, steering gear, axle, and two of these power wheels, is per-
manently coupled to a truck in place of the axle and wheels used
when drawn by horses.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

The power to drive these motors may be supplied by the current
1 a storage battery or from a gasoline-electric generator. The

jl-Driven Commercial-Car Aile F1tt*d with Ditft

Fig. 63. Electric Front Drive Using Couple-Gear Motor Wheeb

dynamo supplies the power directly to the wheel motors through a
three-point controller, there being no other intermediate electric

68 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

member. This controller is fitted with two forward speeds and a
single reverse, the speed and amount of power utilized being con-
trolled chiefly by means of the spark lever and the throttle of the
gasoline motor in the conventional manner. Fig. 62 illustrates a fire
engine gasoline-electric tractor using Couple-Gear drive.

Four-Wheel Drives. To meet the requirements of military
service, a truck must be able to travel "wherever a team of mules can
haul a load". Consequently, Hke that useful quadruped, it must
be equipped with power-transmitting members at all four points of
contact with the ground. While the conventional type of truck
with one or the other of the standard forms of transmission driving
only two rear wheels has proved eminently satisfactory for service
wherever a solid roadbed or its equivalent is to be found, it is of
little use off the beaten track. Ditches, soft ground, sand, and mud,
which do not even embarrass the army mule or, for that matter, the
average team of farm liorses, render the average motor truck abso-
lutely helpless. To be able to extricate itself from bogs and ditches,
it is necessary to be able to "git up and git" on all fours.

To take advantage to the full extent of this form of transmission,
the majority of four-wheel-driven cars both dj-ive and steer through
all the wheels. Accomplishing this presents no particular mechani-
cal difficulties. Three forms of drive have been developed for this
purpose; one in which the power is transmitted through bevel gears
mounted on the steering knuckle,while a second employs the internal-
gear type of drive using universal joints on the driving shafts just
back of the wheels. The third type drives directly to the hubs
of the wheels through hollow steering knuckles. This last type
presents the simplest layout and was one of the first to be developed
in this country on a commercial scale, having been built for several
years by the Four Wheel Drive Automobile Company.

This transmission is a simple modification of the three-speed
individual-clutch type transmitting the power through a broad silent
chain to a parallel shaft placed at the left to clear the engine. This
can be seen more clearly in the photograph of the chassis. Fig. 63.
This chain also serves as the first reduction in the speed, the second
being through the conventional form of bevel gears at the rear and
front axles. Each of these bevel-gear drives incorporates a differ-
ential for balancing the tractive effort at the wheels, while a third

152

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 69

differential centrally placed on the parallel driving shaft balances the
amount of power transmitted to each pair of wheels. This third
differential is built in the large sprocket of the silent-chain drive and
is provided with a locking device controlled by the driver. A brake

Fig. 63. Chassis of Four-Wheel Drive Truck

drum is mounted on the parallel shaft on either side of the main
differential. These transmission brakes are for regular service, the
emergency brakes being mounted in drums on the rear wheels.

Fig, 64. Cha

Owing to their location, the former retard all four wheels simul-
taneously. There are, of course, four universal joints. Steering is
accomplished by means of the front wheels only, so that the rear
axle is of the conventional full-floating construction.

163

70 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

Jeffery "Quad". This truck is representative of the second
class, or internal gear-driven type mentioned, and has been devel-
oped particularly to meet the United States Army requirements.
The motor is a four-cylinder block-cast type with L-head cylinders
rated at 32 horsepower and is fitted with duplex ignition, i.e., using

Pig. 66. Sectional View of JeSery Front-Wheel Drive
CourtisK of Horsdra Age

two sets of spark plugs simultaneously. The motor is offset to the
right side of the frame and mounted on a three-point suspension,
as shown by the plan view of the chassis, Fig. 64. The drive is
by shaft to a centrally placed four-speed selectively operated gearset
of the sliding-gear type, but the latter differs from the conventional

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 71

form of this type of gearset in that it has no direct drive. The pro-
peller shafts are .gear driven from the layshaft of the transmission,
this construction bringing the forward one sufficiently to one side to
clear the motor. Three differentials are employed, one on each axle
and one in the gear box, all being of the Wayne gearless tyjie. Both
axles are "dead" and are fitted with steering knuckles. The trans-
verse driving shafts at either end are placed above the axles and
springs and have universal joints just inside of the wheels and directly
over their steering pivots, as shown by the sectional view. Fig. 65.
The driving pinion is supported from the steering knuckles between
two taper roller bearings and drives an internal gear mounted in the
enlarged wheel hub. Bolted to this large hub and the wheel itself is

Fig. 6e. Cluusis of JeSeiy "Qua4"

a pressed-steel drum for an external brake, a dust-excluding felt
packing being fitted between the drum and the gear ring. The
abihty of the four-wheel drive to extricate itself from heavy mud and
sand with the same amount of power is due to, the tendency of the
front wheels to climb over obstacles arid, at the same time, assist in
the propulsion of the weight. Enclosed wheels are employed to cut
down the resistance, Fig. 66.

Electric Transmission
Advantages. The practice of utilizing electricity for power dis-
tribution in manufacturing plants was abeady well established before
the advent of the automobile on a commercial scale, and attempts
were made at an early day to utilize its advantages for transmitting

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

€50

the power on the latter. Despite the numerous difficulties met with
at the outset in the application of the sUding-gear transmission, the
employment of electricity has never become as general as its advan-
tages would appear to warrant. A great amount of experimental work,
however, has been done, and numerous different systems evolved.
Probably the only example of the consistent employment of electric
transmission at the present date is to be found in its use dn gasoline-
electric-railway motor cars, of which quite a number are in service.
As the limitation of weight, one of the most important factors to be
considered on the automobile, is lacking in this application, it can

hardly be said to represent an
exact parallel.

One of the chief advan-
tages of the employment of
electric transmission is the
possibility of running the
gasoline motor constantly at
its normal speed, at which it
develops its rated output
most economically and with a
minimum wear. The sharp
contrast between the speed
variations required of the gas-
oline motor employed with a
mechanical transmission and
with one of the electrical type
is shown by the curves in
Fig. 67. With the electric transmission, the gasoline motor speed
remains constant from the time of starting right up to 50 miles
an hour.

Several Systems. To those familar with electric practice it
will be plain that several methods of utilizing electricity for the
transmission of the power on an automobile are available. In general,
however, they may be divided roughly into three divisions. The
first of these is simply a replica of that commonly employed in manu-
facturing plants, i.e., mechanical energy as produced by an engine
is converted into electrical power, transmitted to an electric motor
at a distance, and there reconverted into mechanical energy. This

eo 30

Miles per Hour

Fig. 67. Curves Showing Variations of Engine
Speed for Gasoline-Electric Transmission

156

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 73

double conversion naturally entails a loss of efficiency; but, in manu-
facturing practice, this is considerably less than where the power is
directly transmitted from the engine to the tool at which it is to be
used, and the efficiency increases with an increase in the distance
between the two.

The second system involves the conversion of mechanical into
chemical energy in the storage battery, from which the current is
drawn to operate electric motors in the usual way, Fig. 68. This is
really a self-contained electric in that it carries its own charging plant,
with the further advantage, however, that the excess capacity of the
generator is always available for driving the vehicle. Or, to put it

Fig. es. Couple-Gear GasulinB-Electric System

the other way around , the greater part of the current from the gasoline
motor electric-generator unit is employed for running the car, and
the excess current utilized for charging the storage battery, which
is then said to be "floated on the line."

The third system is based on the principle employed in the cradle
type of electric dynamometer, in which an electric generator is so
mounted that its field may revolve in response to the drag exerted
on it by the armature, this tendency being counteracted by a balance
lever attached to the field. By means of weights placed on this
lever, the effort exerted may be accurately weighed, and the power
. developed by the prime mover driving the generator may be calcu-
lated within close limits.

157

74 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

DETAILS OF CHASSIS AND RUNNING GEAR
Sprinss
The problem of providing a form of spring suspension that will
not be overstiff when the car is empty and still provide sufficient hold-
ing powers to withstand rough road work with a full load, which the
designer of the touring car has had to face, is aggravated a hundred-
fold on heavy trucks. Between the "load" and "no load" points
of the pleasure car, there is a comparatively small range. When a
touring car weighing 4000 pounds, all on, has its full load of seven
passengers averaging 150 pounds each, their combined weight
represents only 25 per cent of the weight of the vehicle itself, but
when a 5-ton truck, weighing slightly over five tons when empty — say
11,000 pounds — receives its full load of five tons plus anywhere from
10,000 to 14,000 pounds, the increase, instead of being from to 25
per cent, is from to 100
per cent plus. There is
also the far greater tend-
ency to side sway, owing
to the height at which
the load is ordinarily
carried.

Semi-Elliptic Usual

Fig. 69. Principle of the Compensating Spring TlTW" A« it nprniits

Support Employed on H*»vy Trucks ' jP=' ^° "^ permits

keeping the center of
gravity down, gives less recoil under heavy shock, and is less subject
to lateral stresses, the flat semi-elliptic type of spring is almost
universally employed on commercial vehicles, from a delivery wagon
up to a 7-ton truck. By delivery wagon in this connection is meant
the type specially designed for commercial service and not the con-
verted touring-car type in which pleasure-car standards remain
unaltered, and the high three-quarter elliptic spring at the rear
is not uncommon.

It will be apparent, however, that no form of spring suspension
would be sufficient in itself to cover such an extended range of loading
as that mentioned and still give even a fair approximation to efficiency
at either extreme. Maximum carrying ability is the chief thing to
be provided, and using springs that will do this alone would be an
easy matter; but the problem is to guard against the maximum

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 75

stresses to which the springs will be subjected under heavy loads and
still have a suspension that will prevent the motor and driving
mechanism of the truck from being pounded to pieces when the
vehicle is running without a load. To achieve this, it is customary to
employ rocking shackles at one end and some form of sliding, or com-
pensating, support at the other, although in nmnerous instances the
springs are shackled at both ends in the same manner. As the driving
strain is practically always taken on radius, or distance, rods in the
case of side-chain-driven cars, and on torque rods on cars of the shaft-
driven tj'pe, there is ample altitude for variation in this respect.

Principle of Compensating Support. The sketch. Fig. 69, illus-
trates the principle upon which all compensating supports for the
springs is based. Of course, this applies only to the rear-wheel springs,
which are usually called upon to bear anywhere from 60 to 85 per
cent of the useful load. The front springs are usually pinned to
the dropped dumb ends of the frame forward and shackled to brackets
at their i*ear ends. The front end of a rear spring is shown by the
illustration. Given a suspension sufBciently stiff to withstand the
maximum load of which the truck is capable, it will be apparent
that when empty the body will be lifted and the sliding end of the
spring will be against the right-hand end of the support. The spring
is then under its minimum compression and will respond more readily
to shock.

Brakes

Usual Types. In as much as the greater loads carried far more
than offset the lower speeds at which commercial cars travel as com-
pared with the pleasure type, there can be no comparison of the
braking requirements of the two. This is particularly the case in as
much as the greatest strain does not come on the brakes because of
the infrequent necessity for stopping suddenly but on account of
their continued use in holding the loaded truck back on long hills.
Commercial-car brake design naturally varies with the type of vehicle
and likewise with its carrying capacity. On light delivery wagons,
the type employed is the same as used on touring cars, viz, internal-
expanding and external-contracting asbestos-fabric-lined shoes in
pressed-steel drums on the rear wheels. In some instances, the
practice, usually confined to the higher-priced* pleasure cars, of placing
the two sets of brak'*^' -^^de by side so that they contact on the same

159

76 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

drum and can be enclosed against the entry of dirt and water, is also
found. An example of the first type mentioned is shown in Fig. 70,
which illustrates a Timken worm-driven rear axle. The brakes on
the Reo chassis are shown in Fig. 71.

Braking All Wheels. Considerable discussion has arisen from
time to time regarding the advisability of braking on all four wheels;

but, prior to the advent of the four-wheel drive, this was tried in only
a comparatively few instances. In addition to providing greater
retarding power, the advantage of eliminating the tendency to skid
has also been attributed to the front-wheel brake. Whtn all four

Fig. 71. Brake DetaU, Reo 2-Ton Chassis

wheels are driven, brakes are applied to all simultaneously, the brak-
ing effort at each wheel being equalized by a compensating device.
On the Jeffery "Quad", these brakes are applied directly to the
wheels themselves and consist of a simple and well-worked-out
internal-expanding cam-actuated type, as shown by Fig. 72.

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 77

TRAILERS
Utilizing Excess Power. Truclts, like all other motor vehicles,
must necessarily be equipped with power plants capable of success-
fully meeting exceptionally severe conditions imposed by heavy
grades and by muddy, sandy, and snowy road surfaces, as well as
the normally easy grade and road conditions encountered by the
average truck during a very large proportion of its service. Hence,
there is a large reserve power-plant capacity idle for a great part of
the time. From the economic standpoint, it is a wasteful condition
for a truck with sufficient power to handle a ten-ton load on smooth

level roads to be restricted to the five-ton load which its structural
parts permit. This applies proportionately to all sizes of commercial
vehicles, from the very lightest up, and it accounts for the widespread
use to which trailers are being put.

Two-Wheel Types. For light- and medium-capacity service,
trailers can be made with only two wheels, thus keeping the wheel-
base of the double unit down and permitting of much higher speeds.
Trailers designed for use in connection with the lightest types of
delivery wagons, such as the Ford, or for the thousands of ex-touring
cars that are spending the second period of their existence in a com-
mercial rSle, usually carry a load ot about 400 pounds. They are

78 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

made to fit any standard make of automobile, a special bracket
being fitted to the rear of the frame of the car. Connection is made
by means of a tongue fitted with a swiveling pin and locked with a
thumb nut, so that the trailer may be attached or detached quickly
without using tools; the pin in question, together with the fact that
the trailer has only a single axle, allows for universal relative move-
ment between it and the towing car.

Four-Wheel Types. It is in the employment of what is prac-
tically a second truck, where its carrying capacity is concerned, that
the use of the trailer shows the greatest operating economy, and

Fig, 73. Troy Trtuler for Motor Trucks

specially designed vehicles have been developed for this purpose.
The builders of the Troy wagons have evolved a special type of
trailer for the motor truck, as shown in Fig. 73.

Troy Trailer. It will be noted upon referring to the illustra-
tion. Fig, 73, previously mentioned, that the construction of the
Troy trailer is along very similar lines to those generally followed in
motor-truck construction. In fact, the trailer is practically a motor
truck without power and, as it is subjected to even heavier loading
and more severe strains than the latter, is built accordingly.

Both sets of wheels are designed to steer and are controlled by
the drawbars at each end of the trailer, the cross-connecting rod of

162

COMMERCIAL VEHICLES 79

the steering gear being attached to the under side of the drawbar
near its rear end. As the drawbar follows its towing truck around
corners, it also serves to swenre the front wheels of the trailer in the
same direction.

163

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

Introduction. The essentials of the electric automobile are
few in number and simple in construction. They are, first, the
storage battery, or source of power; second, the electric motor,
forming the medium through which the current is transformed
into mechanical energy; and, third, the drive, or means by which
the power of the motor is in turn applied to the propulsion of the
vehicle. There are, naturally, differences in design and in the
details by which the power produced at the electrical end is
applied to driving the machine. Where these differences are of
sufficient importance, they are described in detail, and illustra-
tions of the vehicles and their component parts are given, thus
enabling the reader to very easily distinguish between these units
and between their methods of operation.

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES OF THE ELECTRIC

THE STORAQE BATTERY

There is probably no other single electrical device in general
use about which there is so much popular misconception as the
storage battery, or accumulator, as it is more technically known.
It does not in itself create a current of electricity — as does a primary
battery, such as the familiar dry cell, in which chemical processes
actually generate a current of electricity — ^and for this reason the
storage cell is called a secondary battery. The word storage in con-
nection with this type is really a misnomer, as the process by which
it absorbs and re-delivers electricity is not one of storage in any sense
of the word, but consists of chemical conversion and reconversion
upon a reversal jof the conditions. As is the case with electric
vehicles, there are numerous different forms of storage batteries, for
many of which special advantages are claimed; but in general all
lead-plate batteries are alike in principle and are completely described
in the Electrical Equipment section of this set of books. Theoreti-
cally, the principle of the Edison battery is also the same, i.e., that
of a chemical reaction upon the passage of the charging current.

165

2 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

THE MOTOR

Quite in contrast with that of the gasoline car, the motor of an
electric vehicle is probably responsible for less of the troubles encoun-
tered than any other one of the essential components. While the
relative amount of attention it requires at the hands of the owner
of the vehicle is small, a knowledge of its construction and working
will be found of value in the operation and maintenance of the car.
It is here that the energy held in reserve in the storage battery is con-
verted into the mechanical power necessary to move the vehicle.
The reason for the small amount of attention required is apparent in
the small number of parts as well as their great simplicity, though
the great amount of attention that has been devoted to the develop-
ment of the electric motor over a long period of years is largely
responsible for the elimination of the numerous shortcomings of the
earlier types.

Essentials of Motor. The motor consists of afield, an armature
suitably mounted on bearings so that it may be revolved in that field,
a frame, a commutator, and brushes. The term field is the generally
accepted abbreviation for magnetic field, which is the zone of influ-
ence exerted by a magnet, and is referred to in terms of its "lines of
force". A common horseshoe magnet, technically known as a
permanent magnet, will attract to its ends or poles particles of iron
and steel placed within a certain distance of it. The space bounded
by the poles of the magnet and the limits to which its attraction
reaches, is known as its field. With reference to electric motors and
generators, the word is employed to designate the magnets and pole
pieces which serve to create this field, rather than the scope of mag-
netic attraction itself, and it is used to embrace all of them, regard-
less of their number.

Principle of Rotation. The fundamental principle upon which
the functioning of all apparatus of this type is based is to be found
in the fact that when a current of electricity is passed through a coil
of wire surrounding a bar or other form of iron or steel, the metal
becomes magnetic in proportion to the number of turns in the coil
of wire and the strength of the current employed. Every magnet
consists of a north and a south pole, and like poles repel while unlike
poles attract one another. In other words, if two small common mag-

166

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 3

nets are placed on a table with their like poles, i.e., north to north
and south to south, facing one another, the magnets as a whole will
tend to repel one another, and were they sufficiently powerful, would
actually recede from the common center until the limits of their field
were reached. By reversing the polarity of the opposing ends of
the magnets, they would then tend to be drawn to one another until
the poles butted. This, in brief, sums up the philosophy of the
electric motor.

In order to amplify the power, a large number of magnets are
employed; and in order that the energy thus developed may be
utilized, one group of magnets is made stationary while the other
group is free to revolve. In these two groups will be recognized
respectively the field and the armature of the motor, and each magnet
of the groups is of the type known as eledromcLgnets, so termed be-
cause they are magnetic only while a current is passing through their
exciting coils. Those of the field may be distinguished as they take
the form of short thick spokes radiating from the rim or frame toward
the center. They thus surround the space in which the armature
revolves, and are further provided with what are known as pole pieces
in order to fill as much of the space with iron as is possible. As
already mentioned, the field of a magnet is most powerful in close
proximity to it and the armature will be seen to run as closely to the
faces of the pole pieces as good design and construction will permit.

Now it will be remembered that the direction in which the cur-
rent of electricity is sent through the exciting coU determines the
polarity of the resulting magnet. If, with the current traveling round
the coil in one direction, the right-hand end of a bar becomes of north
polarity and the left-hand end of south polarity, it will be evident
that, by reversing the direction of current flow, there will be a cor-
responding change in the location of the poles. Coming back to
practice, in which one set of magnets — ^the field — is held stationary,
while the other may revolve, it will be apparent that as each of the
armature magnets approaches a field magnet by virtue of the attrac-
tion between them, the motion will tend to accelerate up to the point
where they are opposite, but when the moving magnet passes by,
the attraction which still exists will tend to stop the rotation. It is
clear, therefore, that, to bring about the desired rotation of the arma-
ture some device must be used to reverse the direction of the current

167

4 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

in each electromagnet when it has reached a point opposite the field
magnet which is attracting it so that the resulting opposite polarity
may develop a repulsion which will carry the armature in the same
direction. This is just where the function of the conunutator and
the brushes comes in. The brushes serve to lead the current to the
circular group of copper bars which forms the commutator, without
retarding the rotation of the annature. Each section of the com-
mutator is insulated from its neighbors and as the brushes touch
opposite sections simidtaneously the rotation makes the current enter
the armature coils first in one and then in the opposite direction,
through successive sections of the commutator, the current being
reversed and the polarity of the field magnets being changed for each
new position.

The Armature. The foundation of the armature consists of a
cylinder built up of laminations of iron, or punchings, with recesses
cut into their circiunferences to receive the coils of wire, or windings,
each one of which converts the particular section of the core that it
surrounds into a powerful electroiiiagnet when the current is passing.
All the wire employed is strongly insulated, not only to protect neigh-
boring turns from one another, but each winding is also well insulated
from its foundation, whether this be the armature or a field core.
If this precaution were not taken, short circuits or grounds would
occur. The former term is really self-defining as it shows that the
current instead of passing round the entire coil or circuit intended,
would choose the shorter path thus accidentally provided. A ground,
on the other hand, is caused where non-insulated portions of two
different wires carrying a current come in contact with the same or
a connecting piece of metal, or other conducting medium. This
opens up a path of practically zero resistance for the current, thus
diverting it entirely from the path it should follow if its energy were
to be utilized.

Both short circuits and grounds are things with which the owner
of the electric vehicle will have to become familiar to a greater or
less extent in caring for the battery of his car, as well as the remainder
of its electrical equipment, so that their nature has been explained
in detail. While both cause similar results, they are not interchange-
able terms and are employed to convey the distinction mentioned.
In other words, a ground may be a short circuit, but a short circuit

168

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 5

is not always a ground, as the latter implies the diversion of the cur-
rent through' some normally unused conducting medium, while the
short-circuit signifies a breakdown of the insulation of the wiring
or allied appurtenances that permits of the return of the current after
having traversed but a fraction of the path intended for it. Either
trouble naturally places the piece of apparatus in which the break
occurs out of running order until the defect is remedied. In view
of their natiu*e, grounds are usually much more difficult to locate than
shoit-circuits. Some of their further causes and results are men-
tioned in the chapter devoted to the care of the batteries, also that on
the wiring.

Capacity for Overloads. It is this capacity of the motor to stand
excessive overloads that fits in with the requirements of the road,
for it must be borne in mind that the amount of power required to
keep a vehicle rolling after it is once started is very small as com-
pared with the pull necessary to start it, or to accelerate its speed.
The total amount of energy required is in direct proportion to the total
weight, and to the square of the velocity.

Motor Stands 500 Per Cent Overload. The pull, or torque of the
motor as it is called, must be very heavy at starting, particularly
when on an upgrade, and also for moimting inclines. For this
reason, the motor employed is of a type capable of standing for short
periods as much as 500 per cent in excess of its normal rated capacity.
It will be apparent that this converts the 2^-horsepower motor into
one of 12| horsepower in cases of emergency, but it increases
its current consumption under the ordinary conditions of load at
which the greater part of its service is rendered, such as in running
on the level or ascending ordinary inclines. The available amount
of power being so closely restricted by the capacity of the battery,
it will be manifest that this is a most important provision, and as the
average layman talks in terms of horsepower without adequately
comprehending the meaning of the latter, electric vehicle makers
have found it expedient to omit any mention of this factor. The
electric not only is not intended to be capable of the speeds of the
gasoline car, but it does not require such an excessive amount of
reserve power as it has become customary for the manufacturer to
provide on the latter type.

Under usual conditions of running, the average gasoline machine

169

6 'ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

does not employ more than a small fraction of the available power
of its motor and, in consequence, is seldom being operated at
what is technically termed its critical speed, that is, the speed at
which it is most efficient, and therefore most economical. In the
case of the majority of gasoline cars, this critical speed is from 25 to
30 miles an horn*, or even higher, while for the average electric car
it is from 10 to 15 miles an hour, a speed which corresponds so
nearly with the usual speed on the road that the economy of the
electric is very great. Nevertheless the batteries used in the electric
should be charged every night if the car has been used during the
day, as it is always advisable to have the batteries fully charged.
This keeps the cells in good condition.

Motor Speeds. Types of Motor Windings. The speed of elec-
tric vehicles is a most elusive quantity to the uninitiated, prin-
cipally because the characteristics of the series-wound motor
employed are not commonly understood by the layman. The series
type of motor is one in which the windings of the armature and field
are connected in series, i.e., so that the entire current which is fed
to the motor passes through both of its elements consecutively, so
to speak.

In a shunt-wound motor the field is in multiple with the arma-
tiu*e and the entire current passes through the latter, the amount
taken by the field being always proportioned to that required by
the armature for the load it happens to be carrying. As this type
of motor is designed for a constant speed, it is not an economical
motor to use on the electric vehicle owing to the wide fluctua-
tion of both speed and load imposed, so that its employment is
comparatively rare in this field. A compound-wound motor is one
having both series and shunt-coil windings on the fields. Since
most commercial motors for driving machinery, elevators, and the
like are of the constant-speed, compound-wound type, there is a
general impression that the electric car should have a certain nearly
constant speed for all road conditions.

Advantages of Series-Wound Motor. But in the series-wound
motor, the speed varies inversely as the power produced. In other
words, its torque, or pulling power, is highest at low speeds, which
is just the requirement demanded in starting or pulling through
heavy roads. This type cannot be employed for ordinary com-

170

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 7

mercial use, since it will instantly "run away'' or race upon the load
being released, but it can be employed to advantage on vehicles and
in railway service because it is never disconnected from the load.
'Toad" in this case refers to the effort required to move the vehicles
rather than the live load. Series motors are employed on the
electric car because of their higher efficiency, which is of prime
importance, since the object is to produce the greatest amount of
useful energy from a given and limited amoimt of potential energy
stored in the battery. Just the opposite of the gasoline engine, the
chief characteristic of the series-type electric motor is the develop-
ment of increased power with a decrease in the speed. Therefore,
as the vehicle requires greater power for bad roads or grades, it
slows down automatically and in a fixed relation to the power
demanded.

HighrSpeed Single Motor Present Practice. Opinion and prac-
tice are divided on the subject of motor speeds. The higher-speed
motors are more efficient, are better for grades and starting, but
mechanical limitations frequently make them undesirable. Where
formerly motor speeds ranged from 650 to 1100 r.p.m., modem
practice favors higher r.p.m. rates, ranging from 1000 to 2000,
Normal speeds under 1000 are not satisfactory for most conditions,
the use of a low-speed type of motor being one of the causes of the
low efficiency of the earlier electric cars. Another reason was the
employment of two motors on comparatively light cars. This had
a certain advantage in eliminating the differential, but its electrical
efficiency was very low. Modern practice does not sanction the
employment of more than one motor on even the heaviest of pleasure
cars and on commercial vehicles up to 3- or 5-ton capacity. Beyond
that point practice varies somewhat, some makers employing two
driving units on the ground that no differential is needed, that
starting torque is bettered by connecting the armature in series,
and that damage to one motor will still permit the vehicle to travel.
These advantages are more than offset by the higher efficiency
possible in a single and larger electric motor, beside the benefits
derived from the saving in weight of the motor and from the ability
of the manufacturer to combine the two speed reductions necessary
with two motors into one. This avoids some power loss in trans-
mission from +^*' motor to the driving wheels.

171

8 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

THE TRANSMISSION

Similarity to Gasoline Practice. The types of power trans-
mission on the electric vehicle have been the same as on the gasoline
car except that the order of their application has been chronologically
reversed. The latter started in generally as a chain-driven machine,
and quite a mmiber of years elapsed before any other method of
transmitting the power to the rear wheels was attempted. The
electric, on the other hand, began as a gear-driven car, as the practice
of direct-connecting electrical generators and power units, which
first assmned a strong vogue shortly prior to the advent of the
electric automobile, was taken as a precedent. From the point
of view of operating conditions, there is considerable similarity
between the gasoline and the electric machine as far as its power
transmitting system is concerned.

Usual Gear Reduction. Owing to weight and space limitations,
the size of the motor is correspondingly limited, and it is accordingly
necessary to employ high initial rotative speeds, i. e., a very high-
speed motor is essential in both cases, while the starting torque or
pull must likewise be very strong in order to enable the vehicle to get
under way quickly and to start readily on grades. This necessitated
gearing down to a very great extent, the usual ratio on the majority
of the electric vehicles being 10 to 1, i.e., for every ten revolutions
of the motor, the road wheels make but one turn. In order to accom-
plish such a reduction without employing gear wheels of a prohibitive
diameter, it was necessary to bring about this lowering of the motor
speed by means of two steps, or a double train of gears. Spur, or
plain straight-tooth, gears were employed at first, and proved to be
not only noisy, but very wasteful of power.

They were accordingly replaced by chains in many instances,
and by gears of special types, such as the herringbone reducing gears
of the Waverley . In some instances, such as the light Baker runabout
placed on the market several years ago, it was found possible to drive
directly from the motor to the rear axle through the medium of a
single chain, but with this exception the custom of employing two
distinct reductions of speed was generally followed up to a few
years ago. While there were several variations in the manner
of doing this, the general principle was practically the same

172

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 9

in every instance, a ^ngle chain being taken from the end of the
armature shaft of the motor to a countershaft extending clear across
the car and having sprockets at each end. The reduction in speed
from the motor to the countershaft was usually about five to one, and a
similar second reduction was carried out by means of small sprockets
on the ends of the countershaft, and large ones on the driving wheels.
A third class of transmission consists of a combination of gearing and
chain drive, such as were used on the earlier models of the Woods,
and the Waverley electrics, the first reduction of which is a silent
chain.

Chain Drive. During the past few years, practice in the electric
field has closely followed that of gasohne car transmission design,

1^3. 20. Oetu- Type of TnummuBioa

where the final drive is concerned, and in some cases anticipated it.
But for the advent of several low-priced electric cars, some of which
have perpetuated the single-chain drive — using a roller-type chain
and sprockets as the second step in the reduction — this form would
have practically disappeared. It is eflicient and reliable, but not
as clean and sightiy as the shaft type, though this objection may
be readily overcome by enclosing the chain. Economy in initial
cost is one of its chief advantages and, in the case of cars which are
sold at a very low figure, this is naturally of paramount impor-
tance.

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

Gear Drive. The self-contained unit shown in Fig. 20 is an
illustration of what might be termed an instance of reducing the
power plant and final drive to the last degree of compactness. Refer-
ing to the figure it will be noticed that the usual type of motor is
mounted on a forward extension of the rear axle, the first step in
the speed reduction being a pair of herringbone gears. Apart from
this, it is practically a replica of gasoline car practice, as the axle b
of the full floating type commonly employed on the latter, the second

speed consisting of the usual bevel drive, except that the propeller
shaft is only a few inches long and consequently does not require
any universal joints. A somewhat similar type' of transmis-
sion is employed on the Broc electrics. A. full floating type
of axle with shaft drive is also a feature of the Borland, this
form taking its name from the fact that the two driving shafts
are not rigidly fastened at either end — either the differential or
the driving-wheel end — the power being transmitted through a
square-ended section of the shaft ftxioting in the difTerential and a
jaw or similar type of clutch at the wheel, the entire weight of the

174

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES H

car being carried by the tubes or axle housing. An example of a
single reduction-shaft drive is to be found in the Century, using a
Timken bevel-gear rear axle.

An equally compact form which gives a better weight distribu-
tion is the drive illustrated in Fig. 21. This bears a very strong
resemblance to the driving unit of a well-known light gasoline car.
It is a type which affords great rigidity with a very simple con-
struction. The propeller shaft is practically a continuation of the
armature shaft, no universal joint being necessary. At its after
end this shaft meshes with a bevel gear giving a reduction of 2 to 1,
while a spur-pinion reduction lowers the ratio again 4 to 1, or a
total of 8 to 1 between the high-speed motor and the driving wheels.

Fig. 22. Cambiued Bevel and Spur OsHr. Double Speed Reduction
of the Axle Stowa ia Hg. 2S.

The arrangement of the two speed reductions in the axle is shown
by Fig. 22. These bevels have an adjustment by means of a collar
which can be loosened or tightened until a perfect adjustment is
obtained. The larger bevel is mounted on a short jackshaft carried
on ball bearings on both ends, and upon this shaft is mounted the
small spur pinion. On each side of the jackshaft is a threaded
collar which allows for the movement of this shaft either in or out,
which, in conjunction with the adjustment of the bevel gears, permits
of a perfect setting of both sets of gears. The housings consist of
tapering swaged steel tubes which extend from each side of the
differential housing through the brake housings and the wheels,
while the driving effort is taken on the combined torsion and radius
rods pivoted on saddles on the axle just inside the brake drums and
on the rear end of the motor housing.

175

12 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

In this, as in all representative types of final drive on electric
pleasure cars, annular ball bearings are used throughout. One of
these bearings is shown just forward of the small bevel pinion in the
two-speed reduction axle. This is an advanced type of bearing
which the automobile has been largely responsible for developing.
It is far more costly than even the very best of plain bearings, but it
cuts friction down to a practically negligible factor, while it will also
run with a very small supply of lubricant and requires a minimum
of attention. Such bearings are now universally employed, not
alone in the electric motors of these vehicles, but also for the coun-
tershafts and wheels, and in similar locations. If the ball bearing
is not employed, the taper roller type is substituted, the latter
being very much favored for wheel bearings on both gasoline and
electric cars, owing to their ability to withstand heavy thrust as
well as radial loads.

Worm Drive. Development. What would appear to be the
ultimate development in electric car transmission, however, has been
the adoption of the worm drive; and, in taking it up so generally,
the electric vehicle manufacturers have anticipated what is bound
to come on the gasoline pleasure car in the near future, as it already
has in England to a great extent. In this adoption, the history of
the electric self-starter on the gasoline car has been repeated, in that
experiments were carried on for a number of years with little progress
apparent to the world at large, and then, within a comparatively
short time, the worm drive came into more or less general use. In
this case, however, most of the research work was carried out in
England, and a considerable proportion of the worm drives used on
American electric cars are imported from that country. In itself,
this form of drive is not a novelty, the Hindley worm drive, made in
Philadelphia, having been employed on electric elevators for quite a
number of years. Its successful application to the automobile
represented far more of a problem than the bevel-gear type as,
unless correctly designed and machined to the highest degree of
accuracy, the friction and thrust are excessive and the resulting
eflSciency is low.

Advantages of Worm-Gear Transmission. Consideration of the
fundamentals of electric vehicle design, i.e., a light high-speed
motor and a comparatively slow axle speed, will make apparent the

176

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 13

great desirability of the worm drive in this connection. It repre-
seats the most practical means of power transmission from a high-
speed motor direct to the rear axle by means of a single redtiction.
This means saving in weight and the avoidance of the power loss
entailed through the use of the second reduction in the gear ratio
otherwise necessary. A further advantage is its silence in opera-
tion, the wonn and worm wheel representing the closest approach to
this much-to-be-desired feature that is attainable in the transmission
of power by direct metal con-
tact. While its initial cost
is as high, if not higher, than
even the best forms of double
reduction, it eliminates sev-
eral parts, and accordingly
affords a simpler form of con-
struction with a more direct
transmission of the power.

Details of Worm Drive,
Rear Axle, and Brake. The
worm is of alloy steel while
the worm wheel is bronze, a
multiple thread of long pitch
being cut on the former
while the latter is made with
a special form of tooth, as
will be noted by the Rauch
and Lang worm shown in Fig.

r«. 23. Rauch and Lsdc Worm and Gear 23. This is an American

type developed by the mak-
ers of the Rauch and Lang electrics especially for this purpose. In
both this make and the Woods electric the worm meshes with the
worm wheel on its upper side, the relation being shown by Fig. 24,
which illustrates the Ranch and Lang motor and propeller shaft in
addition. Two universal joints, one of them of the slip type to
allow for relative longitudinal movement between the motor and
rear axle, are employed. A brake is placed on the forward end of the
armature shaft, this showing in the same illustration. Fig. 25 shows
the complete Rauch and tang motor and driving unit. A torsion

177

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

rod, parallel with and below the propeller shaft, also serves as a
distance rod between the motor and rear axle and takes all torsional
or twisting stresses to which the axle is subjected when under power.
The forward end of this torsion rod is connected by means of a

ig Motor, Shaft, UoiverEal Jiui

flexible joint of the ball-and-socket type, with the top of the torsion
rod link, which in turn swivels on the rear motor yoke. The rear
end of the torsion rod is taper fitted into a nickel-steel forging, which

Lang Motor and lUar Ailo Unit

sets into a vertical taper bearing in the front end of the axle housing.
The method of hanging the torsion rod leaves the rear axle housing
perfectly free to adjust itself to the relative movement of the axle
and frame due to the compression of the springs. The latter are of
the seven-eighths elliptic type, the upper and lower members of

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

Fig. 2a. Reaz Viaw of Raach and Lang Worm Drive Chttat

which are shackled at the rear ends so that they are flatter than
usual, thus giving better riding qualities. They are held at three
points, which decreases the tendency toward lateral movement or
side sway, the driving strains being taken on tlie front ends of the
lower leaves. The worm and worm wheels are adjusted in perfect
alignment in assembling the unit, and the latter is housed in, so
that no adjustments can be made from the outside. Contrary to
the bevel-gear drive, which in course of time wears out of alignment,
a worm gear continues in alignment regardless of wear, within prac-

Fig. 27. FoiwHd End Toraion Rod, Spring Suapensioii and Brake Details on Rauch and Lang C.

16 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

tical limits^ and once properly adjusted can only be deranged by
subsequent adjustments. A better idea of the various essentials
of the drive will be obtained by reference to the rear view of the
Ranch and Lang worm-driven chassis, Fig. 26. As mentioned
previously, a brake is carried on the armature shaft on this car, the
second set being of the internal expanding type operating against
the drums shown attached to the driving wheels. Fig. 27. On the
Argo and several other cars both sets of brakes are of the internal
expanding type, the details of this type of brake construction being
shown in Fig. 28.

The Ranch and Lang worm drive consists of a combination
radial and thrust annular ball bearing at each end of the worm
and on each side of the worm wheel. Upon the correct alignment
of mounting and proper provision for taking thrust, depends the
success or failure of any worm drive.

THE CONTROL

Unlike the gasoline car, in which the control of its speed and
climbing abilities is divided between a provision for changing the
gear ratio existing between the motor and the driving wheels, and a
means of increasing the speed and power output of the motor itself
through the admission of more fuel and advancing the point of
ignition, that of the electric vehicle is entirely electric. This is largely
responsible for its great simplicity, all changes in either direction
being effected through a single small lever, the manipulation of which
calls for no more skill than the shifting of a trolley-car controller.
But there is quite as much latitude of design to be found in the
methods of control of electrical vehicles as there is in the method
of transmitting the power to the rear wheels, though, as in the case
of the power transmission, there is more or less similarity in the
principles involved.

Counter=E.M.F. Neither a steam engine nor a gasoline motor
can be given "full throttle" to start it without danger of damaging
it. This is due to the inertia of the moving parts, which must be
set in motion gradually and allowed to attain a certain speed
before full power is developed. As the electric motor has no
reciprocating parts, and its revolving armature is carried on the
finest type of anti-friction bearings, the factor of inertia is prac-

180

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 17

tically negligible in so far as it affects starting. It has already
been mentioned that the passage of too great an amount of cur-
rent through a wire, i.e., too great for its carrying capacity, has
a heating effect. The heating increases in proportion to the
excess of current flow over the safe capacity of the wire until it is
sufficient not only to burn off the insulation on the wire, but even
to fuse the wire itself.

Now the resistance of the motor armature windings is very low,
but when the armature is revolving, the electrical resistance is
increased by two factors — ^first, a counter-e.m.f., which is developed
by virtue of the rotation of the armature, and second, the fact that
the wire in the windings becomes warmer, it being a peculiar and
inexplicable phenomenon that the resistance of a wire increases in
proportion to its temperature.

Controller. The inability of the motor to carry more than a
fraction of its normal operating current when starting makes neces-
sary the use of something equivalent to the throttle of the steam
engine for accomplishing this necessary control. As not alone the
character of the external source of power — in this case the battery
— is capable of manipulation, but also the internal relations of the
power-producing elements of the motor itself — ^the armature and
the field — are susceptible of various changes, it will be evident that
the speed range possible under the circumstances may be made as
wide as the designer desires. Ordinarily, most electric vehicles are
provided with a controller giving five speeds forward and two or
three reverse.

Drum Type. In the majority of cases, the controller employed
on the electric automobile is of the drum type, and is practically a
duplicate on a reduced scale of that employed on street railways,
except that the automobile controller is what is known as a contin-
turns torque type. That is, there are no dead spots or idle gaps between
different speeds, the current always being on except when the con-
troller handle is at the neutral position. This insures a continuous
and gradual increase in the speeds without any jerking between
the various steps, and prevents a sudden heavy load being placed
on the motor, as would be the case where a pause was made in shifting
the handle of the controller over a dead gap. The motor continues
to run at the lower current value until the next set of contacts on the

181

18 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

controller is actually delivering a greater voltage or more current.
The drum, or cylinder, is of insulating material and has mounted
on it a number of copper segments of substantial thickness. These
are so spaced that they make contact with corresponding fingers,
also of heavy spring copper, that are held stationary alongside the
drum. The copper bars on the drum are "grounded" to provide
the continuous torgue, that is, they have a common return permitting
the current to reach the motor constantly.

The drum in this instance is seen to be but a section of a cylinder,
on the curved surface of which the spacing of the bars will be ap-
parent. It will also be seen that there is a corresponding finger
making contact with each bar, or in a position to do so when the drum
is turned to bring it around to that particular point. These fingers
are held against the drum very firmly by springs. The open socket
visible at the lower end of each finger is intended to receive the bared
copper wire of which it represents the terminal connection and
it will at once be evident that it is provided with a greater number
of contacts than is the first controller shown. It should be mentioned
here that the drum is spring controlled as well as the contact fingers,
and is also provided with notched stops in order to hold the contacts
on it directly under the ends of the fingers. In the present instance,
which represents the type of controller employed on the Detroit
car, the contact fingers themselves are directly attached to leaf
springs, which are plainly in evidence. The terminals mentioned are
also to be seen along the bottom, while at the left there is an exten-
sion of the shaft on which the drum is mounted. This carries a
lever by means of which the drum may be revolved in order to give
the different speeds, forward and reverse. The latter is generally
accomplished by means of a pole reversing switch, most frequently
incorporated directly in the controller itself, and which always
remains locked under normal running conditions. In order to
bring the reverse into play, it is usually necessary to depress a
small pedal or similar release, in order that the driver may not
inadvertently start the car backward.

Flat Radial Types. A good illustration of a totally different
form of controller is found in the Rauch and Lang cars, and is known
as the flat radial type. In the construction of the earlier models
of the Rauch and Lang car, it was combined with the motor

182

ELECTEIC AUTOMOBILES 19

and countershaft unit, but is now mounted independently and
in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 34, it is shown separately.
Instead of being mounted
on a drum, the contacts are
placed on a stationary seg-
ment representing about
one-fourth of the arc of a
circle. A pivoted arm, held
at what would be the cen-
ter of the circle, is so
mounted that it may be
turned in order to make
contact with the diiferent
blocks, these in turn being
electrically connected to the
terminals shown attached
to the upright piece at the

left of the controller. Asa pig.34. Fu.t ludLd Controller

matter of fact, there are

two separate series of contacts around the arc, and two movable
levers arranged to be moved over them. In this case, the moving

FLush TjTie of Canti

contacts are made of thin copper leaves assembled together and
are held against the contacts by a spring.

20 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

Flush Types. Fig. 35 illustrates a type of controller which is
designed to be countersunk in the seat of its surface so as to be flush
with the latter. This is a plan view, showing the controller as seen
from above, the pattern being one in which the drum is a complete
cylinder. The left-hand panel of the controller holds the fingers
and contacts for the forward speeds, while those at the right are
the reverse speeds, there being four in each direction in this case.
Further to the right is to be seen the operating lever, the pinion visi-
ble on the end of the drum shaft constituting part of the mechanism
for advancing or returning the drum. This consists of a rack in the
shape of a quadrant which meshes with the pinion in question. At
the extreme left is shown the spring-controlled stop which prevents
the drum from being rotated
more than one space at a
time in either direction, and
holds it with the fingers
pressing directly on the con-
tacts at each point of its rev-
olution. The type of control-
ler employed on the Baker
cars is shown in Fig, 36.
Magnetic Type. To fa-
^ ,. „ , ^ „ J ^ - , cilitate the handling of the

Fis. 3fl. BBkBr Conlroller and Operating Levee =

comparatively heavy cur-
rent that is necessary in starting, changing speed in going up hill,
and the like, without having to employ wiring of large size to a
point near the hand-control lever, a modification of the multiple-
unit system of control as used in electric railway service, and par-
ticularly on elevated trains, has been applied to the electric auto-
mobile. In this system only a current of small value is actually
passed through the hand-controlling mechanism, which takes the
form of a small "controller box", as shown in Fig. 37, which repre-
sents part of the control of the Ohio. The controller of the Century
is shown in Fig. 38. By setting this to the speed desired, current
is passed through a magnet in the controller proper. Th^ amui-
ture of the magnet is attracted, and in so doing it closes a switch or
contact for the corresponding speed. There is a magnet or solenoid
for each speed ahead and reverse, which are so connected that, in

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 21

dianging to a higher speed, the contact of the speed below is not
broken until either the switch giving the higher current value is
closed, or the current is shut off, thus releasing all the magnets and

obtaining the advantages of the continuous-torque type of hand
controller. The arrangement effected by the opened and closed
portions of the various magnets determines the direction and

magnitude of the current in the motor circuit in a similar manner
to that provided by the segments and fingers of the drum controller.
The essential difference between the magnetic controller and the

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

ordinary type is that the former is electrically operated, while the
latter is mechanically operated. Hence its location is not governed
by the necessity of mechanically connecting it with the hand lever
through rods, gears, or chains, and it may be placed in any con-
venient location. In the Ohio it is placed under the seat. The
various speeds are obtained by turning the disk on the end of the
contactor box near the driver's hand. Turning to the right gives

I "-'"^ I

the various forward speeds in consecutive order. The neutral
position is as far to the left as the disk will go ; by pushing the button
on top the controller may be turned still further to the left to give
the reverse speeds. When in the neutral position it may be locked
there by pushing in the button at the back, and the controller cannot
then be operated until unlocked with a key. Buttons are also pro-
vided for ringing the bell and operating the magnetic brake. The
contacts are made by spring-held carbon brushes pressing against
the inner face of the disk. In this system of control there are two
independent circuits — the primary circuit passing through the mag-

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

netically-operated switches of the controller from the battery to the
motor, and the secondary circuit, which handles the current of
lesser value employed to operate the magnets, and which is controlled
by the movement of the disk mentioned. The primary wiring
diagram of the Ohio is shown in Fig. 39, and the secondary wiring
diagram in Fig. 40.

Duplex Control. To facilitate the handling of closed cars of
the brougham and other large types of enclosed cars seating five or
more passengers, duplicate-control wiring and duplicate-brake pedals

Broke Pi/^ BuHoft

Belt

I K^

Z Yellow

3 Blue

^ White

Bell Green

Ballery — Block

R-i Stripe

Broke — Brown

TbVf'on Keatatonoe

TbBSon
Jteai9tonc9

Fuaee^ Located on£nd
of Contactor Boh

lb y-^a//«ny

Speed Swit^ Located on
Cnd of Contactor Box

3-A

open When Si^CoriacforComesLj
Fig. 40. Wiring Diagram for Secondary Circuit of the Ohio Magnetic Controller

are provided at two positions; one forward, designed to be operated
from a front seat, and the other similarly located with relation to
the rear seat on the same side. Brake pedals and steering connec-
tions are also duplicated, so that to shift the control of the car from
one location to the other, it is only necessary to release the steering
colunm at one place and insert and lock it in the socket provided
for this purpose at the other. This enables the driver to keep the
way clear ahead no matter how many passengers are carried and
also drive from the rear seat when the load is light.

Care of Controller. The contacts of the hand-operated type of
controller should be inspected at intervals to note whether they are

187

24 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

making proper contact or not. In case the spring of one of the fingers
loses its tension, an arc is apt to form between it and the segment
on the drum and burn the metal. The presence of such an arc will
be noted by a peculiar hissing sound which will be plainly audible if
the cover of the controller box is removed and the car run in a com-
paratively quiet place. This action will also take place to a certain
extent if the controller is held between the notches in changing
speed. The blistered surface of the metal thus resulting will make
poor contact, and will continue to burn ^lore and more unless this
condition is remedied by sandpapering the finger and correcting
the tension of the spring so that contact is made all over the surfaces
that touch. If a finger has become badly burned, it should be
replaced and the new one adjusted to an even, moderate tension.
When necessary to face the fingers to the drum, the sandpapering
should be done on the fingers themselves rather than on the seg-
ments of the drum, as the latter are not so easy to replace. The
drum segments should be kept bright and clean, and should be
lubricated occasionally by wiping with a linen rag and some vaseline.

Methods of G)ntrol. As it is equally important for the owner
of an electric vehicle to familiarize himself with the manner in which
the amount of current sent through the motor is controlled, quite
as much as with the apparatus for effecting this, it has been thought
advisable to devote a short section to this subject. Before taking
up this matter, it will be well to return momentarily to a pre\dously
discussed subject of series and parallel connections.

Series and Multiple Connections. Each cell of a storage bat-
tery is a complete self-contained unit capable of delivering cur-
rent of a certain amount according to its size and capacity, at an
electrical pressure of slightly more than two volts when fully charged.
For purposes of illustration, each individual cell may be likened to a
pump, capable of exerting a pressure of two pounds. It will be quite
apparent that if 24 such pumps, corresponding to the 24 cells of a
48-volt storage battery, were connected together — the outlet of the
first to the inlet of the second and so on throughout the entire 24 —
the series of units would be capable of producing a pressure of 48
pounds. The water delivered could accordingly be forced 24 times
as far, or as high, as one pump could send it, but the quantity raised
would only be that of which one unit was capable. This analogUi»

188

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 25

affords a very clear idea of what is meant by a series connection, as
the statement just made regarding the ability of pumps so connected
applies literally to the storage cells under the same conditions. Again
taking the 24-cell battery as an illustration, this being the former
standard for light pleasure vehicle use, it will be seen that the
output of the battery connected in series, i. e., the positive of one to
the negative of the next and so on throughout the set, would be the
ampere-hour capacity of one cell at 48 volts. The voltage is seldom
constant, but ranges from 2.2 to 1.7 volts per cell, according to the
state of charge that the cell is in at the time; but when a number of
cells are connected in series, the voltage of the battery thus formed
will always be that of the voltage of one cell multiplied by the num-
ber in the battery. For purposes of reference, it is customary to
consider the potential of the storage cell as 2 volts.

To return to the analogue of the pumps, where the conditions
are such that a greater quantity of water is required, but it is not
necessary to raise it to more than half the height to which the 24
pumps in series are capable of sending it, they may be arranged in
two series of 12 each. Double the volume of liquid may then be
raised to a height represented by the ability of the 24-pound pressure
developed. The two groups of pumps are still in series, so far as
they alone are concerned, and each group would have but the capacity
of a single pump at twelve times its pressure. But when the inlets
and the outlets of the two groups are brought together in the case of
either pumps or storage cells, the volumetric capacity is increased to
two units at a pressure of 24 pounds or volts. If, on the other hand,
all the inlets were brought together into one connection and all the
outlets into another, there would result a capacity of 12 pumps, at
the pressure of but one. This last-named arrangement is termed
a multiple connection, while that described above is a combination of
the series and multiple connections, and is accordingly designated by
the term serierS^midtiple.

Given 24 cells or more, the number of series-multiple combina-
tions possible is quite extended, but it will be evident that those at
either extreme of the range would be useless for all practical purposes
in the running of an electrical vehicle. It is accordingly customary
to assemble the cells in sets of six or eight connected in series, which
cells are securely packed in oak cases, the number of the units

189

26 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

employed depending upon the voltage of the motor of the
vehicle.

Resistance in Circuit. Another source of control is to be found
in the motor itself. It will be recalled that the latter generates power
by means of the alternating magnetic attraction and repulsion of
the sections of the armature by the field magnets. The strength of
the latter, as veil as that of the electromagnets composing the arma-
ture, is naturally dependent upon both the amount of current sent
through them and its voltage. One of the simplest forms of con-
trol is naturally that in which the entire battery is in series with
the motor, and in which the relation of the two undergoes no change.
In such a case, resistances of the type shown in Fig. 41 are employed

Fig. 41. Controlling Hheoatflt

to cut down the current sufficiently to give what are usually termed
the starting speeds. In every case, the full energy of the battery is
being drawn upon, but only a part is being utihzed on tiiese first
speeds, the remainder being dissipated by the resistance in the form
of heat. In view of the very short period during which they are em-
ployed, the use of resistances in these starting speeds is not a detri-
ment. This system of control is to be found on the Kauch and Lang
cars, among others, and has the great advantage of discharging all
the cells of the battery uniformly. All the speeds are obtained at
the same voltage and the motor is working at every position of the
controller handle, so that there are accordingly no dead spots and
the circuit is never open, even momentarily. A similar system of

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

control is employed on the Baker vehicles. This will be evident
upon a little study of the accompanying diagram, Fig. 42, illustrating
the wiring and all the connections. The large squares, marked plus
and minus, represent the groups of cells into which the battery is
divided. The individual cells in each group are connected in series
and it will be seen by tracing the connections that the groups are like-
wise in series, a positive being connected to a negative and so on
throughout.

Wiring Diagram. Wiring diagrams appear extremely intricate
to the uninitiated at first sight, but in each instance the course taken
by the current may easily be followed after a little study, and as
familiarizing himself with all the wiring and connections of his car is a

Ktarl/fM

Fig. 42. Control Wiring Diagram

part of the education that no electric vehicle owner should overlook, it
should not be slighted. The diagram received from the manufacturer
of his car will be a b?ue print similar to the one from which the
accompanying illustration was taken, so that it may be studied here
as well as at first hand. Familiarity with one of these diagrams will
prove an "open sesame'* to all others, for, while they all diflPer to a
greater or less extent, it will be easy to trace the different circuits,
once the rudiments are known.

The fact that all of the cells in the battery are in series has
already been mentioned. It will be seen that there are 24 cells in
the battery, giving a working potential of 42 to 60 volts according
to the state of charge. The different points of the controller are
represented by the group of parallel bars in the lower center of the

191

28 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

drawing, marked RA, i?-2, etc. In this case it will be noted that
there are four connections of this nature, R-l to RA, these represent-
ing resistances to cut down the current for starting. They are accord-
ingly known as starting speeds, and are only designed for getting the
vehicle under way, an operation that calls for a heavy torque or pull
on the part of the motor. This requires a large amount of current
and, as already mentioned, it would be apt to burn out the motor
windings if sent through the latter before it had attained suflBcient
speed to build up its counter-e. m. f . to a point where the full cur-
rent may be safely handled. The external resistances themselves
are represented by the bars marked in the same manner, seen diago-
nally to the left and above the controller on the diagram, the connec-
tions between the two being easily traceable.

Further points on the controller are designated as F-1 and 7^-2,
and FF-1 and FF-2, and refer to the connections for altering the rela-
tion of the field and armature. Electric motors employed on auto-
mobiles are generally of what is known as the series type in which
the armature and fields are normally in series with one another. In
other words, the entire current passes through the complete winding
of the motor. By varying this relation in several ways, several steps
in the speed control are possible wthout the intervention of any
resistance. For instance, in the control, as illustrated, the first speed
is obtained by placing the field in series with a resistance, giving a
car speed of 8 miles an hour. By cutting out part of the resistance
and still maintaining the same relation, the car speed is increased to
10 miles an hour, corresponding to the second point on the controller.
At the third point, the resistance is eliminated altogether, resulting
in an increase to 12 miles an hour. A further increase to 14 miles
an hour is obtained by shunting the fields, while the fifth speed of 16
miles an hour results from placing the field in series-multiple. The
last point on the controller shunts the series-multiple field and gives
19 miles an hour.

Office of the Shunt. The term shunt may be explained by
turning again to the water analogy. Electricity, water, or any-
thing else under pressure will naturally follow the path of least
resistance. Take, for instance, a two-foot water main, with a one-
inch outlet tapped into it. The amount of water that will flow
through the one-inch pipe is not alone dependent upon the pressure

192

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 29

in the main, but likewise upon the resistance offered by the one-inch
pipe. This, by analogy, is practically an appUcation of Ohm's law.
Substitute for the water main an electric circuit. At a certain point,
connect to it a by-path in the shape of another circuit of smaller
wire, and in consequence, representing a greater resistance. The
current can pass through these two circuits simultaneously and
the amount of current in the second, or shunt circuit, will be
smaller than that flowing in the main circuit. In fact, the current
will divide itself inversely as the resistance; that is, if a shunt has ten
times the resistance of the wire in the main circuit between the ter-
minals of the shunt, this shunt circuit will carry only one-tenth of the
total current.

The best example of a shunt connection is to be found in the
case of the volt-ammeter, as shown in Fig. 42. For convenience, the
voltmeter and ammeter (ampere-meter) are combined in a single case
as if they were one instrument, but it will be noted that the connec-
tions are the same as if both were independent. As the voltmeter is
always in circuit, whether the car is running or not, it is wound to a
very high resistance so as to consume the minimum amount of current
for its operation. The shunt marked on the lower part of the diagram,
just under the position of the instrument, is really a part of the am-
meter itself. Where only small quantities of current are to be meas-
ured, the full strength is usually passed directly through the am-
meter, but on an electric automobile, this would not be practicable
in view of the wide range and the sudden variation of the storage-
battery current, which in starting frequently takes the form of a
heavy surge. The instrument is accordingly designed to employ but
a fraction of the total current, this fraction bearing a direct relation
to the total current passing, the scale reading of the ammeter being
the same as if the full strength of the current passed through it.

It will be evident that any circuit, such as the field winding
of the motor, when placed in shunt with its supply circuit, will only
take an amount of current depending upon the ratio between its
resistance and that of the main circuit, and that economy in current
consumption results. This explains its employment for two of the
higher speeds of the car, the wiring diagram of which is illustrated in
Fig. 42. It will be noted that this connection is only employed for
the higher speeds; in one case, the field windings being in series them-

193

30 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

selves, and the whole in shunt with the main circuit, to give 14 mUes
an hour; and in the second, the field windings themselves being in
series-multiple and in shunt with the main circuit to give a speed of
19 miles an hour. This is due to the fact that at the higher speeds,
only a relatively small amount of power is required to keep the ma-
chine moving. Electric vehicles as a rule do not run at speeds high
enough to make wind resistance a factor of great importance, and as
a result operate under ideal power conditions when once under way.
In other words, the drav>har pvU, by which is meant the effort neces-
sary to keep the vehicle moving, is very light. At starting, however,
in common with other cars, it is heavy, so that it will be evident that
the shunt coniiection is not applicable to the starting speeds. Its
r61e is that of economy, rather than power, and to obtain the latter
the series connection is necessary.

Fuses. The fuses are a part of the electrical equipment of the
car, mention of which may be appropriately made in this connection,
as their function is that of acting as a safety valve in the control. The
varying resistances of different kinds of metals have been explained, as
well as the heating effect incident to sending a current through a wire,
particularly where the latter is of a size too small to carry the current.
It is well known that lead and similar materials have a very low melt-
ing point, and advantage has been taken of this in connection with
the phenomenon just referred to, to make what are known as electric
fiLses. These are strips of lead alloy of accurately determined sizes,
each size being designed to carry a certain amount of current at a
certain voltage. This is khown as the capacity of the fuse, and be-
tween it and the amount of current that the motor or other apparatus
which the fuse is designed to protect can safely stand there is an
ample margin of safety. In consequence, whenever there is a rush
of current through the circuit, as when the controller lever is pushed
sharply forward toward the full on point, and the brakes happen to
be holding the car, the fuses will "blow out" or melt, and save the
motor from destruction.

194

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 31

CARE AND OPERATION OF THE ELECTRIC

CHARQINQ THE BATTERY

SOURCES OF CHARQINQ CURRENT

Sources of Direct Current. SmaU Generators. There are few
towns, or even villages, in this country at the present day that cannot
boast of electric-lighting facilities, so that the owner of an electric
vehicle will find it possible to obtain charging current for the main-
tenance of. this type of automobile regardless of where he lives.
In case he should reside too far outside the corporate limits of a village
to find such service at his conmiand, or in case he is of a suflSciently
mechanical turn of mind to undertake it, he will find apparatus for
generating the current on his own premises available for a com-
paratively moderate outlay. Though not the simplest, a small direct-
current dynamo driven by a gasoline engine requires but little attend-
ance, and will prove by far the most economical method of charging.
This is particularly the case where the generating set's chief employ-
ment is that of lighting the house, although where an isolated plant
may be installed, the owner of an electric vehicle will find it a great
advantage for charging purposes alone.

The coming of the small gas-electric farm lighting plants has
brought into the industry a form of battery charging apparatus
that is very compact, reliable and one that is inexpensive to operate.
Most of these plants, however, operate on 32 volts and it is then
necessary to charge the batteries of the electric vehicle in parallel.
When 110 volts are available from a small gas-electric plant, charg-
ing may be accomplished in the ordinary method, using a bank of
lights or a rheostat as a resistance to regulate the charging rate.

This may be seen from the fact that in small towns and villages
rates for electric current are usually high. The power unit, the watt,
has already been explained. A kilowatt is 1000 watts, and electric
current is sold by the kilowatt hour, which means the employment
of one kilowatt of current for one hour. Where current is purchased
in comparatively small quantities, the rate is seldom less than 10 cents
per kilowatt hour, and sometimes 15 cents, or more. With an ordi-
narily eflScient generator and gasoline engine, current may be pro-
duced in a small isolated plant for less than 5 cents per kilowatt hour.

The average rimabout battery requires 75 to 80 ampere hours

196

32 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

for a cbarge, while a surrey, phaeton, victoria, brough8in> or ^nl*
lar type will need 100 ampere hours.

Service Mains. If the current be taken from the service mains
at 115 volts, the charge for the runabout battery would be 75X115
= 8625 watt hours, or more than 8J kilowatt hours. The cost of
this would be 86 cents at a 10-cent rate. Even where current is to
be had at more favorable rates, such as 7 or 8 cents a kilowatt
hour, a small engine and dynamo are very much more economical
where no extra attendance has to be figm^ on.

Sources of Alternating Current Turning now to the usual
source of electricity, the aUemaiing current, one is confronted with

V\t. 43. Motor-Oenenitot Set, IIS A.C. to 128 D.O.

the fact that the charging current must in all eases he "direct," neier
"alternating."

Alternating current ha^ been found much more practical for
long-HJistance transmission and distribution, and its use is now very
general throughout the country, so that where the owner of an
electric vehicle decides to fit up his own garage for storing and
charging the car, the first thing to be considered will usually be
some means of rectifying the alternating current, that is, making it
direct. This may take several different forms, such as the motois
generator set and the mercury arc rectifier, but for reasons whidi
will be made plain the mercury arc rectifier will be fottnd the moat
practical and economical ai^Kuratua for the purpoie.

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 33

Motor Generaior. Where there is a considerable amount of
charging to be done, the motor-generator set is frequently employed.

MotDr-Gcnerator >

This consists of an alternating-current motor and a direct-current
generator combined in a single unit, both armatures being on the
same shaft, the supply current simply being utilized to run the
motor. A set of this bind is shown in the accompanying illustra-
tion. Fig. 43, The apparatus is designed to take alternating cm>
rent at 115 volts and generate a direct current at 125 volts. In
Fig. 44 is shown a very well-arranged and complete motor-generator
charging plant.

Mercury Are Rectifier. Owing to its simplicity, as well as to
the fact that it is entirely automatic in action, the mercury arc
rectifier has come into very general favor for storage-battery
charging on a small scale. The apparatus itself b shown in
Figs. 45 and 46, giving, respectively, a front and rear view; the
connections are shown diagrammaticalty in Fig. 47. It will be
seen that the panel board of the instrument incorporates every-
thing necessary for regulating the charge, including a voltmeter, an
ammeter, resistance, main switch, starting switch, circuit breaker,

34 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

and fuses. The circuit breaker is a device designed to protect the
apparatus with which it is connected by opening the circuit when
there is an excess of current, or when the current supply is acci-
dentally cut off. By opening the circuit as soon as this occurs a
rush of current through the apparatus is prevented when the serv-
ice is resumed. Should it fail to act, the fuses represent the
second step in the protective link, but naturally their only func-

tion is to rupture the circuit by melting under the heating effect of
an excessive flow of cmrent.

The mercury arc rectifier consists of a glass vessel, Fig. 48, from
which the air has been exhausted and a certain quantity of metallic
mercury inserted. The tube also has fused into the glass the several
connections necessary. The one negative terminal, called the cathode,
is sealed into the bottom of the tube while two positive terminals,
called anodes, are on opposite sides and a short distance above the
cathode. The anodes are graphite and the cathode mercury. When

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

at rest, there is no electrical connection between them. A starting

anodes is accordingly provided. If the tube be rocked gently after

the switch has been closed, an

arc is established between these

two points. This liberates

suflScient mecury vapor to

start the main arc ; the starting

switch is then opened. An

automatic starting device for

use when charging at night,

takes the form of a shunt cotl

and a solenoid, in which a

plunger operates. When the

arc is broken, the current is

shunted through this solenoid

and the plunger shakes the tul>e

gently, thus re-establishing the

arc and continuing the charge.

METHOD OF CHARQINO
Making Proper Connec-
tions. Batteries are not usu-
ally shipped with the vehicle
itself, but are packed sepa-
rately in a charged condition;
as a freshening charge is re-
quired before the battery is
used, it will prove an advan-
tage to carry this out before
placing the battery in the car.
The groups of cells must be
connected in series — the plus
terminal of one group to the

mhlUSterminalofthenext.and ^'■'■*^- Mercury Arc Rectifier Tube

so on, the fimal positive and negative terminals of the entire set being
connected respectively to the positive and negative terminals of the
source qf the charging current. The charging current must flow into
the battery at the positive pole; a wrong connection will not

36 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

only fail to charge it, but will do a great deal of damage and seriously
impair the life of the battery.

Determining Polarity. Where the polarity of the charging ter-
minals is unknown, the simplest method of determining it is to take
a glass of water into which ^ few drops of acid or a little salt has been
put. Place the wires in it, taking care to keep them well separated.
Bubbles of gas will form on both of the wires, but one will give oflf
gas much more freely than the other. This is the negative pole and
should be attached to the negative charging terminal of the battery.
The other wire will give off comparatively little gas and will rapidly
blacken. This k the positive pole. There are numerous other
tests equally simple, but as this calls for apparatus easily obtained
anywhere, it will be an advantage to memorize it, particularly
as occasions will arise when the vehicle will have to be charged away
from home in the absence of the usual facilities. The wire or con-
nections to the battery from the charging side must be of ample
size to carry the heaviest current used in charging without undue
heating. The sizes used in the car itself form the best guide for this.

Voltage After Charging. The operation of charging will be
the same whether the battery is in or out of the vehicle, but as the
battery was fully charged when shipped, this initial charge will be
a short one. But the greatest care must be taken to charge the
battery fully. The voltage per cell should reach 2.55 volts, with the
current still on, when the cell is fully charged. This would mean
60 to 62 volts for a 24-cell battery.

These voltages. Table II, are approximate and are intended for
guidance only. A battery when cold will show a higher voltage than
one at a higher temperature, and the same thing is true of a new
battery as compared with an old one. It is not safe to regard a fixed
voltage as the end of the charge, but a maximum voltage for the
battery in question.

The rubber plugs should be removed from the cells during the
operation, as the cells will be gassing very freely toward the end of
the charge. This gas is hydrogen and, as it is not only highly
inflammable, but likewise very explosive when mixed in certain pro-
portions with oxygen, care must be taken not to bring a naked flame
anywhere near the battery while in this condition. The plugs may
be left out for a short time after the charge is finished to permit the

200

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

TABLE II
Charging Voltage for Lead Batteries*

^T /^

Volts At

Number of Ceua

Start

Finish

•.

, -64

102

107

112

100

117

105

123

110

128

*Cushing and Smith, Electrical Vehicle Handbook,

escape of the gas. The latter carries more or less of the acid elec-
trolyte with it in the shape of a fine spray, and care should be taken
to keep this spray from falling on the clothes or similar objects, as it
causes ruinous stains, and only a comparatively small quantity is
required to burn holes in cloth.

Temperature of Battery. When the battery is out of the vehi-
cle, as in the case under consideration, the matter of temperature is
not so important, but when it is in the vehicle, precautions must be
taken to provide all possible ventilation. The charging causes a rise
in the temperature of the cells and this should never be allowed to
exceed 110° F. under any circumstances. The lower it can be kept
the better, and a battery which is never allowed to exceed 90° F.
while under charge will last much longer and give better service.
The reason for this is to be found in the fact that the heating causes
the active material in the grids to expand. If this expansion be
excessive, as where the temperature is. allowed to get too high,
the material is apt to bulge completely out of the retaining pockets,
so that it does not return when cooled oS again. This destroys its

201

38 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

connection with the lead grid, cutting down its conductivity and
greatly lowering the efficiency of the cell. Fiui;hermore, after this
bulging of the paste has occurred, there is the possibility at any
time that flakes of active material will drop down below the plates
and cause a short-circuit. Even if it does not cause this trouble,
the accumulation of the material in the bottom may soon be enough
to short-circuit the whole cell unless it is of the type provided with
an especially deep space below the plates. The temperatiu^e should
accordingly be noted from time to time during the charge and, if it
passes safe limits, the charging rate must either be reduced or discon-
tinued altogether in order to give the cells an opportunity to cool off.

Experience has shown that the best results are obtainable from
a storage battery when its temperature is maintained between 70°
and 90° F. during both the charge and discharge. A considerably
lower temperature will materially reduce the available charge of the
battery, but this does not tend to injure it in any way, as a return to
normal temperature restores its capacity. This is not true of a
higher temperature, however, for if it is kept above normal for any
length of time the wear on the plates is excessive.

Charging Rate. Every battery has a certain charging rate, and
this should be taken from the chart sent with it by the manufacturer.
It will be foimd that there are two rates — a starting rate and a
finishing rate — and, as it is during the final part of a charge that the
greatest wear falls on the battery plates, instructions regarding the
strength of the current to be employed for starting and finishing the
charge should be closely followed. The more slowly a battery can be
charged within reasonable limits, the better will be its condition at
all times, and the longer its life. It is not always convenient, how-
ever, to give a battery as slow a charge as desirable in electric vehicle
work. On the contrary, the car is often wanted at short notice not
long after the battery has been discharged, and consequently it
is abused by being charged at an injurious rate for a short period.
Theoretically, 10 amperes for ten hours and 50 amperes for two
hours are the same and should give a battery capacity of 100 ampere
hours. Instructions furnished by the manufacturer as to rates of
charge should be noted and carefully complied with by the owner.

The manufacturer specifies that each type of cell shall be
started at a certain charging rate, say, 10 amperes. The charging

202

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 39

rheostat is manipulated until the ammeter shows that the amount
of current in question is going into the batteries. Fig. 50 shows a
typical form of a charing rheostat. This rate is maintained until
the voltmeter indicates that a certain potential has been reached,
which is usually a voltage of about 2.55 volts per cell, measured

with current flowing. The

charging rate should then be
reduced to 4 amperes, which
causes a considerable drop in
the battery voltage. This re-
duced charging rate is then
maintained until the voltage
again rises to the point at
which the voltmeter stood
when the current was reduced,
i.e., until the voltage ceases to
rise, which will generally be the
same as the voltage at which
the high rate of charge must be
reduced. The total voltage of
the battery is usually taken as
an indication, and when this
fails to reach the desired
figure, it is usually a symptom
that some of the individual
cells have defaulted. The rem-
edy for this is given later.

Precautions. At the end of
both the staTting and finishing ^*- ^- '^■=»' '^^'^ ^'°"*'

periods, the cells will be gassing freely, i.e., giving off large quantities
of hydrogen, and for this reason the battery space of the vehicle
should be open and the room in which the charging is done should
be well ventilated. In addition to being highly inflammable and
explosive, this gas is also very irritant to the throat and lungs and
when present in any quantity causes constant coughing. Nothing
but electric light should ever be employed in a private garage used
for the charging of an electric car.

There are a number of other precautions to be observed when

40 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

placing the battery on charge in the vehicle besides that of providing
ample ventilation, as already mentioned. The controller handle
should be locked in the oflF position, the lamps switched oflF, and the
bell should not be rung during the progress of the charge. The
reason for the first of these precautions is self-evident and for the
latter two is found in the increased voltage during the charge, and
particularly as it approaches completion. This would be sufficient
to cause the lamps to biu"n out and to injiu"e the bell. It is important
that the manufactiu"er's directions with regard to the charging rate
be closely observed. In order to be certain that this is done, the
current should be measured by an accurate ammeter moimted on a
panel board in the garage. The ammeter on the vehicle should never
be employed for this purpose, as the vibration and road shocks to
which it is subjected make this instrument inaccurate.

Starting the Charge. To start charging, the rheostat handle
should be turned so as to throw all the resistance in. The switch
on the panel board should be open, and the charging plug should
then be inserted in its receptacle on the car. These plugs are usually
made so that they can be inserted only in the proper way, and there
is no danger of reversing the polarity of the current in this manner.
Where not thus designated, the terminals are properly marked and
care must be taken to see that the plug is correctly inserted. When
the plug is in, the switch may be thrown on. Battery manufacturers
supply tables showing what the starting and finishing voltages of
the battery should be, as well as its final voltage; but as this will be
influenced by varying conditions, such as the temperature of the
battery and the age of the plates, the figures given are only approxi-
mate. Furthermore, a new battery will have a higher final voltage
than an old one under the same temperature conditions, and both
old and new cells will read higher with the temperature low than
when it is comparatively high. In view of the foregoing, a fixed
voltage cannot be considered as an accurate test in determining the
completion of the charge. Instead, a maximum voltage will be
found the only certain indication.

Automatic Charge^Stopping Device. Where constant attend-
ance during charging is neither practicable nor desirable — as in the
case of the owner who takes care of his own car — ^an automatic
charge-stopping device is a great convenience. This is an attach-

204

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

ment to the Sangatuo ampere-hour meter, and is much used on
such installations. It consists of a solenoid-actuated trip-circuit
breaker. Fig. 51, which is
set in operation by the
pointer of the meter when
closing a drcuit on arriv-
ing at the point of full
charge, a point which has
been fixed by the operator
in advance. However, as
it is necessary to put more
current into a storage
battery than can be
obtained from it, a
certain amount of ovei^
charge must be allowed
for in every case. The
amount necessary will
naturally depend upon
the condition of the bat-
tery as influenced by its
age and the treatment it
has received, but it can
be determined readily after a little experience. In the Sangamo
differential shunt ampere-hour meter referred to, a sliding adjust-
ment is provided for this purpose and, once set, it need not be
disturbed for a consid-
erable period unless
made necessary by a
>hange in the condition
of the battery. With
this adjustment made,
the charging can be done
by any unskilled laborer,
as it is only necessary to
make the charging con-
nection and leave it.
Since the circuit cannot

. 51. Soteooid-ActuaWd Trip Cirouit Breaker

Courtay of Sangaifio Elfctric Comtiany,

Sprinsfitld, Iliitwii

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

TABLE III
Temperature Correction for Specific Qravity of Electrolyte*

30*»F.

40*»F.

60»F.

60° F.

70° F.

80° F.

90° F.

100° F.

1.317

1.313

1.310

1.307

1.303

1.300

1.297

1.293

.12

.08

.05

.02

1.298

1.295

.92

.88

.07

.03

.00

1.297

.93

.90

.87

.83

.02

1.298

1.295

.92

.88

.85

.82

.78

1.297

.93

.90

.87

.83

.80

.77

.73

.92

.88

.85

.82

.78

.75

.72

.68

.87

.83

.80

.77

.73

.70

.67

.63

.82

.78

.75

.72

.68

.65

.62

.58

.77

.73

.70

.67

.63

.60

.57

.53

.72

.68

.65

.62

.58

.55

.52

.48

.67

.63

.60

.57

.53

.50

.47

.43

.62

.58

.55

.52

.48

.45

.42

.38

.57

.53

.50

.47

.43

.40

.37

.33

.52

.48

.45

.42

.38

.35

.32

.28

.47

.43

.40

.37

.33

.30

.27

.23

.42

.38

.35

.32

.28

.25

.22

.18

.37

.33

.30

.27

.23

.20

.17

.13

.32

.28

.25

.22

.18

.15

.12

.08

.27

.23

.20

.17

.13

.10

.07

1.203

.22

.18

.15

.12

.08

.05

1.202

.98

.17

.13

.10

.07

1.203

1.200

.97

.93

.12

.08

.05

1.202

.98

.95

.92

.88

.07

1.203

1.200

.97

.93

.90

.87

.83

1.202

.98

.95

.92

.88

.85

.82

.78

.97

.93

.90

.87

.83

.80

.77

.73

.92

.88

.85

.82

.78

.75

.72

.68

.87

.83

.80

.77

.73

.70

.67

.63

.82

.78

.75

.72

.68

.65

.62

.58

.77

.73

.70

.67

.63

.60

.57

.53

.72

.68

.65

.62

.58

.55

.52

.48

1.167

1.163

1.160

1.157

1.153

1.150

1.147

1.143

*Cuahing and Smith, EUctric Vehicle Handbook.

be broken until the predetermined number of ampere hours have
been absorbed by the battery, the latter will remain connected to
the mains until fully charged, so that there is no danger of either
undercharging or overcharging, as may occur where the charge is
simply limited by the time considered necessary. The circuit of
this charge-stopping device is shown by the diagram, Fig. 52. The
circuit breaker also opens the exciting circuit, so that it carries the
current only for an instant.

Rated specific gravity for various stages of charge is based on
. a temperature of 80^ F. Corrections for temperatures above and
below this point may be made from Table III.

Testing Progress of Charge. Upon the completion of the charge,
the rheostat handle should always be turned back before opening

206

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 43

the battery switch. It is essential that any voltage readings taken
as a guide of the battery's condition should be noted only while the
charging current is on. This applies likewise _

to readings during the discharge of the bat-
tery, which should be taken while the vehicle
is running, as the voltage with the battery
standing idle is of no value as an indication
of its condition.

But the voltage alone must not be de-
pended upon. The specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte as well as the voltage will rise and
reach a maximum as the end of the charge
approaches. Specific gravity readings should
therefore be taken with the hydrometer syringe
provided for this purpose. This instrument
consists of a glass syringe in which there is a
hydrometer. Fig. 54. By inserting the point
of the syringe in the venthole of a battery,
it may be filled with the electrolyte, thus
causing the hydrometer to float. The specific
gravity of the solution may be noted and the
latter replaced in the cell without any neces-
sity for handlmg. Several ceUs in various j^ „ g^^ ^^^
parts of the battery should thus be tested as etepSet

Tig. G3. Aod Testing Sel in Sepanl

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

TABLE IV
Baum6 Scale of Specific Gravities

Baumb

Specific Gravity

Baumb

Specific Gravity

1.000

1.141

1.006

1.150

1.014

1.160

1.021

1.169

1.028

1.178

1.035

1.188

1.043

1.198

1.050

1.208

1.058

1.218

1.066

1.228

1.074

1.239

1.082

1.250

1.090

1.260

1.098

1.271

1.106

1.283

1.115

1.294

1.124

1.306

1.132

1.318

a check of the voltage. An older form of testing set is shown in
Fig. 53. When fully charged, the specific gravity of the electrolyte
should be between 1.270 and 1.280. Because of the spraying
through the ventholes when the cells are gassing freely, and the
loss by sloppage and evaporation, there is a gradual lowering of
the specific gravity. It may be permitted to run as low as 1.250
when fully charged. It is not necessary to make both the voltage
and specific gravity tests every time the battery is charged, but
they should be carried out at least once a fortnight, when all the
cells should be tested to determine if they are in uniform condition.
Baum6 Scale. Hydrometers are often graduated according to
the Baum6 scale. The Baume scale for liquids heavier than water
is based upon the following equation:

145
145— Baum6 degrees

Table IV gives the corresponding specific gravities and Baum6
degrees.

Should the specific gravity of some of the cells be lower than
the remainder of the battery, the low cells should first be charged
separately at a low rate. If the specific gravity increases, it is an
indication that the cell had been discharged to a lower point than the

208

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 45

others and simply needed additional charging. Should this not be
the case, and if neither the specific gravity increases nor the tem-
perature rises rapidly during the charge, it indicates that the gravity
of the electrolyte has been lowered by the addition of water to com-
pensate for loss due to leakage or similar cause. The cell should
accordingly be examined for the cause of the loss by sawing through
the connections or straps and removing the cell from the battery.
If the jar is found to be broken or cracked, a new one should be
substituted, new electrolyte of the same specific gravity as that of
the remaining cells put in, and the cell fully charged. The specific
gravity of the electrolyte should then correspond with that in the
other cells. If the loss of electrolyte has been due merely to slopping
over, electrolyte should be added and the whole tested for the right
specific gravity. The outside of the jar and the tray beneath it should
be thoroughly cleaned, and the cell put back and its connections
burned into place, care of course being taken to have positive and
negative plates connected as they were before removal.

As the electrolyte of the Edison cell does not vary with its
state of charge, the specific gravity test cannot be employed, the
voltmeter affording an accurate indication of the condition of the
cells. Electrolyte cannot be lost from the Edison cell as it is sealed
in, but there is a certain amount of loss by evaporation which must
be replaced with distilled water.

Electrolyte. Manufacturers of storage batteries usually recom-
mend that small users purchase their supplies of electrolyte from them
in order to be certain of its purity and specific gravity. Where this
is not convenient, the owner of the electric vehicle may mix his own
solution. This should consist of distilled water and pure sidphuric
add in the proportion by volmne of one part acid to four and three-
quarter parts of water for electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity, or one
part acid to three of water for 1.275. A glass, porcelain, or earthen-
ware vessel must be employed for mixing the solution, and the acid
must be poured very slowly into the water. Never pour water into
acid, for while the effect of slowly adding acid to water is negligible,
the adding of water to concentrated acid is accompanied by violent
chemical action and an evolution of heat will usually break the
containing vessel and always cause a dangerous spattering of the
acid.

209

46 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

The sulphuric add should be chemically piu«, and, wherever
possible, distilled water should be used. If this is not obtainable?
the use of clean rain water is recommended as being likely to contain
less impurities than any other. The keeping of the electrolyte free
from impurities is a matter of the utmost importance and one that
must ever be borne in mind. All dirt and foreign substances, both
liquid and solid, must be rigidly excluded. A piece of iron in the
shape of a stray tack, small nut, or wire may fall into a cell and ruin
it before its presence is discovered. The presence of iron will be
indicated by the electrolyte and the positive plate becoming a
dirty yellow color. Some other impurities also make their presence
readily known, for instance, chlorine will give off fumes that are
easily recognizable by their disagreeable odor.

Whenever such a condition is discovered, the only remedy is to
dismantle the cell immediately, regardless of the state of charge or
discharge it may be in. Discard the electrolyte and the wood separa-
tors, and thoroughly rinse in running water all parts of the cell,
such as the jar, rubber separators, and both of the elements; the
latter should be washed separately. Reassemble with new electro-
lyte of the same specific gravity as that discarded, and new wood
separators. Charge the cell and discharge fully several times.
After the last of these discharges and before recharging, take the
cell apart a second time, again discarding the electrolyte, rinsing
the parts of the cell in running water and soaking the wood separators
in several changes of water. The cell may now be reassembled
permanently with electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity. It should
be given a long charge before being put into service agam. Care
must be taken not to allow the negative elements to become dry
at any time during this operation, in fact, it is better to keep both
sets of plates under water until reassembled.

Dangers of Overcharging. To revert to the subject of charging
in general, too much cannot be said regarding the evils of giving an
excessive overcharge, an abuse which may occur in two ways: charg-
ing the battery for too long a time, and charging too frequently.
The commoner of these — ^that of charging too long a time — ^is easy
to avoid. The other is not so apparent, and is the result of a practice
which is apt to be indulged in by the uninitiated owner of an
electric car, being due to a desire to have it always ready to run

210

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 47

its available mileage. This is the custom of charging too frequently.
For instance, if the capacity of the battery will run the car 40 miles
on a charge, and but 5 miles are covered and a short charge given,
then 10 miles are covered, and a second charge, followed by a second
and third installment of 10 miles with a charge between each and
after the last, it is obvious that but 35 miles have been covered
altogether, but the battery has been charged four times. This is
three times more than was necessary under the circumstances,
besides which the available radius was not covered, so that the
battery would really not have been discharged had the entire dis-
tance in question been covered without recharging. The greatest
wear on the plates of a battery occurs during the final part of a
charge, so that the oftener the battery is charged the shorter its life
will be. As stated at the outset, the life of the very best cell made
is measured by a certain number of discharges, but this is on the
assumption that it is not recharged until actually discharged each
time. Where a vehicle is employed for short runs, such as those
mentioned, the capacity of the battery will not give as great a
mileage as if the entire distance were covered in one run. When
covering but a few miles in daily service, it is not advisable to
recharge until between 50 and 75 per cent of its capacity has been
exhausted.

Where it is desired to use the car within a comparatively short
time after the battery has been exhausted, it is permissible to hurry
the charge within certain limits by using a higher rate than normal.
This should be employed only at the start of the charge and
should be reduced inmiediately the cells begin to "gas." When the
"finishing" voltage has been reached, the charge should be reduced
to the normal starting charge, the remainder of the charge being
carried out as if the battery had been started on the latter. Great
injury may be done to the plates by "pounding" a nearly full battery
at a high rate of charge. The foregoing precautions do not apply
to the Edison cell.

Time Required to Charge. The time required for charging will
naturally depend upon the extent of the preceding discharge. If the
latter has been two-thirds of the rated capacity of the battery, the
usual pleasure car will require about three hours at the starting rate
and one and a half to two hours at the finishing rate. In other words,

211

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

about 10 to 15 per cent in excess of the amount discharged is usual.
At least once a rOrtnight, a prolonged charge should be given by
continuing the charge for one hour after the specific gravity of the
electrolyte has ceased to rise. Where a vehicle is maintained by its
owner in a small private garage^ and is used more or less during the
day, it will be found a great convenience to do most of the charging
during the night, and for this purpose the mercmy arc rectifier,
described in the chapter on "Methods of Charging", will be found
a great help. Where direct-current service is available at 110, 220,
or 500 volts, such an adjunct will naturally not be necessary. In
over-night charging, precautions must be observed to prevent an
excessive overcharge. To do this, a careful estimate of the current
required to fully charge the battery must be made before putting it
on charge, and the rate adjusted accordingly. If 12 hours be avail-
able for charging and 84 ampere hours are necessary, the average
rate of charge must be 7 amperes. Should the time be only 9 hours,
as where a vehicle has been used in the evening and is wanted again
early in the morning, the average rate would be slightly more than
9 amperes. Where 72 ampere hours are required in 9 hours, the rate
would be 8 amperes, and so on. The rate, however, will also depend
to some extent on the voltage of the charging circuit, in charging
from a source with constant voltage, the rate into the battery
will fall as the charge progresses. This is also the case where the
charging is done with the aid of a mercury arc rectifier. After the
charge is ended, the voltage will drop immediately when the battery
is disconnected.

Charging an Edison Battery. The charging rates of Edison
cells are based on a voltage of 1.85 volts per cell, so that the potential
required to charge a battery of this type is as follows:

NuMBEB OP Cells

VoLTB AcBoss Cells

18.5

37.0

55.5

74.0

92.5

111.0

130.0

148.0

167.0

100

185.0

212

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

These voltages are just suflScient to charge the number of cells
in question at the normal rate during the end of the charge, as the
alkaline cell increases its voltage during charge in the same manner
as the lead cell, there being also a similar drop in voltage when the
charging current is shut off. While a slight reduction in voltage
from the potentials given will not materially affect the charge,
allowance should be made for what is required in every case, if neces-
sary, by charging the battery in series multiple.

Owing to their construction the Edison cells are capable of being
boosted at high rates when it is necessary to charge quickly, but the
temperature must not be allowed to exceed 115° F. The following
are the boosting rates recommended by the makers as the result of
experience:

5 minutes at 5 times the normal rate
15 minutes at 4 times the normal rate
30 minutes at 3 times the normal rate
60 minutes at 2 times the normal rate

The sizes, capacities, charge and discharge rates of the Edison
cells are as follows:

Ttpb A-4

A-5

A-6

A-8

A-IO

A-12

Capacity 150 ampere hours .
Normal charge 1 oq
Normal discharge /

187.5
37.5

225
45

300
60

375
75

450
90

They are capable of discharge rates in excess of these figures in
the same proportion as the boosting rates.

BOOSTING

Advantages of Boosting. The term "boosting" as applied to
electric-vehicle batteries may be defined as "auxiliary charging", and
must not be confused with its use in connection with the charging of
large stationary batteries. As the lead-plate cell becomes com-
pletely charged, its voltage rises to 2.5 volts per cell, which for the
55 cells required to deliver current at 110 volts, would mean a poten-
tial of 137.5 volts, or an increase of more than 20 per cent over that
of the generator. The latter, not only being a constant potential
dynamo, but also being called upon to deliver current for other
service while charging the battery, it is necessary to raise the voltage

213

60 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

of the charging cuirent in order that it may exceed that of the
battery without, at the same time, altering the output of the gen-
erator. For this purpose, what is known as a "booster" is
employed, i.e., a motor-generator which imposes a higher voltage
on the charging current than that at which it is produced by the
main generator.

In the case of a vehicle battery, it usually implies a partial
charge given in a comparatively short time and at current rates
considerably higher than normal, and it represents a practice
which has had an unportant influence on the use of the electric
vehicle for commercial piuposes. For . example, many of New
York's several thousand electric trucks of three to five tons'
capacity are now sent on trips that were considered beyond the
range of the electric only a few years ago, as it is not unusual for
five-ton brewery trucks to make a fifty-to-sixty-mile day's run in
one round trip from the plant. How this is accomplished with
batteries whose normal output only suflSces to run the car forty
miles on a charge will be apparent from a consideration of the
practice of "boosting" the battery, which is usually carried out
during the noon hour.

Regulation of Boosting Charge. Stress has already been laid
on the fact that overcharging at high rates is injurious to the lead
battery, and is the one thing to be most carefully avoided. How-
eVer, the improved forms of vehicle batteries now in use have con-
siderable ability to absorb current at high rates under proper
conditions. The only factors which act injuriously in high-rate
charging are gasdy and heating, and these appear only when the
battery is receiving more current than the plates can utilize.
Therefore, any current rate which the cells will absorb without
gassing is not injurious, and it is upon this principle that boosting
is applied.

Possible Safe Charging Rates. The more nearly discharged a
battery is the higher charging rate it can take, and by starting the
charge at a high rate and tapering to a low rate at the end, a
large proportion of the discharge can be replaced in a very short
time. Table V gives the additional battery capacity which can be
obtained by constant potential boosts with the battery in different
states of discharge.

214

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

TABLE V
Potential Boosts at Different States of Discharge

Battirt Chabqb

20-MlNUTB

Boost
Incbbasb

40-MlNUTS

Boost
Incbbasb

dO-MlNUTB

Boost
Incbkasb

Battery fullv discharged

22%

19%
15%
10%

38%
33%
26%
16%

50%
42%
32%
20%

Batterv three-auarters discharsed

Batterv one-half dischareed

Batterv one-auarter discharged

Expressed in terms of mileage, this would mean that a car,
after having given forty miles on a complete discharge, could have
its battery boosted as follows:

In 20 minutes so as to give 9 miles additional
In 40 minutes so as to give 15 miles additional
In 60 minutes so as to give 20 miles additional

Thus, by charging during the noon hour, 140 per cent of the
battery capacity is obtained in one day, bad weather conditions
particularly representing conditions under which it is advantageous
to be able to boost the battery.

Methods of Boosting. There are several methods by which
boosting can be practically carried out, and the method chosen
depends upon the available charging facilities.

Constant-Potential Method, The ordinary incandescent lighting
circuit is supplied by a constant-potential generator, i.e., the volt-
age does not vary regardless of the ciurent utilized within the
limits of the capacity of the generator. Where conditions permit,
this is the best method because it is entirely automatic and
requires little attention. It is applicable wherever there is avail-
able a voltage of about 2.3 volts per cell of battery — say 110 volts
for 48 cells — and the charging equipment and wiring have sufficient
capacity to carry current up to four or five times the usual charg-
ing rate. A voltage higher than 2.3 volts per cell can be reduced
by having a set of counter-e.m.f. cells figured at 3 volts per cell,
which are always put in series with the battery when it is boosted.
This is a special type of cell designed for this purpose. Thus^the
line voltage is 110 and the battery consists of 40 cells, a reduction
of 18 volts will be necessary, and six of the counter-e.m.f. cells will
be required.

215

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

With the charging voltage thus fixed at 2.3 volts per cell, a
battery in any state of discharge can be put on charge and will
receive in a short time a large proportion of the discharge which
has been utilized. The current input will taper automatically
from a high rate at the start to a low rate at the finish, and no
attention or adjustment is required. The cells will not reach the
free gassing point or, under normal conditions, a high temperature
and, therefore, no harm will result from their being inadvertently
left on charge.

Approximate Constant-Potential Method, This is employed
with a fixed resistance in series with the battery; and when the
time available for boosting is one hour or less, the following
method is often the simplest. Connect a rheostat in series with
the battery and adjust the resistance so that the voltage across
the battery terminals corresponds to that given as follows for the
approximate number of cells.

Number of Cells

VOLTAQB AT BaTTERY

Terminals

48
44
42
40
38

110
98
92
86
80

The circuit can then be left without attention for an hour or
so, and the ciurent will taper off as the voltage of the battery

rises. The table is figured for a line voltage of , and the volt-
ages given are too high for a boost of more than one hour's duration.
Constant-Current Method. In some cases it is more convenient
to boost at a constant rate of current, and, as there is usually a
limited time available, it is desirable to know under any given condi-
tions what rate is safe. This may easily be determined as follows:

. ampere hours already discharged

Chargmg current (amperes)=— — r ., , , . — r — 7^—.

1 + (hours available tor boostmg)

This gives the maximum ciu'rcnt which can be employed for the

time specified without the cells reaching the gassing point. The

method is most conveniently employed where the car is equipped

with an ampere-hour meter. For example, 100 ampere hours have

216

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

TABLE VI
Boosting Rates*

AlfPXRB
HOUBS

TiMB AVAILABLI

J FOR BOOSTINO

}i hour

Hl»our

^ hour

1 hour

lyi hours

IH hours

1% hours

2 hours

DlSCHABQKD

Amperes

100

110

120

130

104

140

112

80 ^

160

120

100

160

128

106

170

136

113

180

144

120

103

190

162

127

108

200

160

133

114

100

210

168

140

120

106

220

176

147

126

110

230

184

163

131

116

102

240

192

160

137

120

106

260

200

167

143

126

111

100

*Co\irtesy of Electric Storage Battery Company.

Explanation. In the left-hand column find the figure nearest to the
ampere hours discharged from the battery; follow across to the column headed
by the available time. The figure at this intersection is the current to be used.

Example. Ampere-hour meter reading, 103 ampere hours discharged;
time available for boosting, one hour. Start at 100 in the left-hand column;
follow across to the column headed 1 hour and find 60, which is the current to be
used.

been discharged and there is one hour available for boosting. Then

100
Charging current = - — - = 50 amperes

In general, this method will not put in as much charge in a
given time as the constant-potential method, and the current must
not be continued beyond the time for which the rate is figured, as
injurious gassing and heating will result. When a considerable

217

54 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

period is available for boosting, and it is convenient to regulate
the current at intervals, a greater amount of charge is possible by
dividing the time into several periods and regulating the amount
of current for each period separately. It will usually be found
that one of the methods outlined will be available, but to obtain
the advantages of boosting without injury to the battery, gassing
must be avoided and the temperature of the cells kept below
110^ R

Table VI is based upon the above formula and saves the
necessity of making calculations.

Importance of Careful Attention to Battery. The battery is
naturally the chief factor in any electric automobile and, as its
initial cost is no small fraction of the total cost of the vehicle, its
proper maintenance is a matter of economy no less than of good
service. More so than any other piece of electrical apparatus, a
storage battery has a definitely determined life. Regardless of the
care given it, the active period of service of which it is capable
may be expressed as a certain number of discharges. By properly
looking after it, this number may be realized, and a greater per-
centage of the energy put into it taken advantage of. In other
words, its life will not only be longer, but its efficiency much
higher during that period as the result of proper care.

SOME SOURCES OF POWER LOSS

As the power of the electric vehicle is closely limited by the
capacity of the battery it carries, it is absolutely essential that every
part of the mechanism be kept in good running order so that none
of the power may be wasted. Whether the machine is considered
as a whole, or each component is treated separately, the electric
vehicle is about as simple as it possibly could be. But the number
of places at which power losses may occur will greatly surprise the
uninitiated owner when he comes to look into the subject. It is
nothing imusual for the purchaser of an electric vehicle to write the
maker a year or so after he has bought it that while the car ran per-
fectly satisfactory at first, its mileage has now been very much
reduced. He has followed instructions implicitly, the battery has beeii
well looked after, and, according to all indications, it is in as good

218

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 55

condition as ever it was, but it is impossible to obtain anything like
the rated mileage from a full charge of the battery. A little investi-
gation will show that, in the majority of cases, the owner, who has
not had the advantage of a mechanical training, has become so
impressed with the great importance of properly maintaining the
electrical end of the car that he has disregarded its mechanical
efficiency entirely.

Non-Alignment of Steering Wheels. One of the most prolific
sources of power losses, and one of the last to be suspected, is non-
alignmeiit of the wheels. A chance blow in drawing up along-
side a curb is sometimes sufficient to make one of the front wheels
"toe in" slightly. The fault is not noticed and may be aggravated
by subsequent blows at the same spot, or on the other wheel. This
may cause the bearings to bind to a certain degree and also to impose
a heavy load on the motor by the new angle which the tires make
with the road surface. It is difficult for the average layman to
appreciate how great an increase in the load such a seemingly trivial
fault as this may create, and it can only be realized to a certainty by
keeping a record of the ammeter readings at all of the speeds under
normal conditions. Just how much current is required to start and
to moimt various grades should be noted. As the service of an
electric vehicle is chiefly confined to urban travel and covers prac-
tically the same routes day after day, it is possible to keep a close
check on current consumption by noting how far the ammeter
needle travels over the dial in running on the level and in mounting
grades that have to be climbed frequently. Small increases in the
current required to do the same work at different times would then
be readily apparent, and as the malady is imposing an extra drain
on the battery, which is simply a waste of energy, its cause should
be looked for and remedied.

The electric vehicle is a power-measuring machine without an
equal, and the driver who has familiarized himself with the per-
formance of his car under favorable conditions should be able readily
to detect the presence of trouble by the increased current consump-
tion and the correspondingly decreased mileage per charge. The
causes may be electrical as well as mechanical, and where a car has
not been properly looked after, it is more than likely that the falling
off in the available radius on a single charge will be traceable to an

219

56 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

accumulation of causes small in themselves, but of considerable
importance in the aggregate. Disalignment of the front wheels
may sometimes be due to the steering gear — ^that is, the connecting
rod which serves to keep these wheels parallel — ^working out of
adjustment. Unless they are perfectly aligned, they not only make
more current necessary to propel the vehicle, but they also serve to
wear out the front tires more rapidly than would otherwise be the
case. Sagging of the rear axle, which was not an uncommon fault
in earlier years, but which is now rare, will produce similar conditions
at the rear wheels and, as the entire power of the car is utilized at
this point, the result is just that much worse.

Worn Chains and Sprockets. Next in the order of importance,
to badly aligned driving or steering wheels from a mechanical point
of view, comes a worn driving chain. This naturally applies to the
chains employed for either of the reductions in motor speed. It is
likewise equally true of the sprockets, but a worn sprocket is prac-
tically always the result of the continued use of an old chain. The
latter is allowed to wear to a point where its pitch is greater than that
of the teeth of the sprocket, and, in consequence, the chain shows a
constant tendency to ride the teeth of the sprocket instead of fitting
snugly between them, as should be the case. This tightens the chain
and imposes a greatly added load upon it and the sprocket, with the
result that the teeth of the latter are also soon worn out of pitch.
When this occurs, the only remedy lies in the replacement of both
chains and sprockets, as the fitting of a new chain on a worn sprocket
aggravates the evil and causes the new chain to wear to a point of
uselessness in a very short time. The best preventive is to watch
the driving chains for such conditions and to replace a chain as soon
as it gives any indication of mounting the teeth instead of running
smoothly.

These instructions apply only to pleasure models antedating
1913-14, as practically all models are now made with the shaft drive
using a bevel gear or worm; but there are thousands of the older
chain-driven cars in service, the electric having a much longer
efiFective life than the gasoline car.

Non-Alignment of Axles. On all electric cars, whether they be
of the chain- or shaft-driven variety, it will be found that some
means are provided for aligning the rear axle. These take the form

220

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 57

of distance or radius rods, attached through the medium of a hinge
joint to the axle and some form of pivot joint at the countershaft, this
construction having been referred to in connection with the descrip-
tion of the transmission of a double chain-driven car. Although
effective means of locking these rods are provided, they are sub-
jected to constant vibration and jolting and sooner or later will
require attention. It will be apparent that if one is adjusted so as
to be somewhat shorter than the other, an excessive fraction of the
load will be imposed on the driving chain on the short side. This
will also place a very heavy strain on the differential or balance gear,
and a greatly added amount of power will be required to drive the
car. The importance of accurately adjusting the distance rods so
that the rear axle will be at right angles with the frame anc. of main-
taining it in that condition may accordingly be appreciated.

Dry Bearings. It would appear almost superfluous to mention
lack of oil as a mechanical source of power loss, but many electric
vehicle owners seldom attach suflBcient importance to the necessity
for oiling the moving parts. It is a popular fallacy, quite generally
indulged in, that the anti-friction bearing is a mechanical device that
requires no lubrication. Ball bearings do call for less attention
in this direction than any other. They need very little oil, and at
much longer intervals than a plain bearing, but they cannot render
efficient service without some lubricant. In fact, it is this very abil-
ity to stand an imconmion amount of abuse that seems to have earned
for the ball bearing its popular reputation for ability to run quite as
well whether it is dry or oiled. The lubricant not only serves the
same end that it does in any bearing — ^that of reducing friction, but
it also acts as a preventive of rust — ^the greatest enemy of the ball
bearing; and as these bearings are rather expensive replacements, it
pays to avoid this by regular oiling at least once a month. Only the
best grade of light machine oil should be employed, or a thin-bodied
and highly-refined vaseline with which the bearing may be packed.
It is quite essential that the lubricant should be entirely free from
acid, which would attack the highly polished surfaces of the balls
and races and destroy the efficiency of the bearing. The electric-
vehicle user's chief safeguard against this is to confine his purchases
to brands reconunended by the manufacturer of the car. Where
the presence of acid is suspected, a simple test may be made by

221

58 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

dipping a small piece of cotton waste in the lubricant and then
wrapping it around a piece of polished steel. This should be placed
in the sun and examined at the end of a H^eek or more. If the lub-
ricant contains acid, there will be traces of its etching efiFect on the
polished surfaces and it is useless. Oil that is entirely free from acid
will not afiFect the most highly polished surface.

Wheels and axles out of alignment, worn chains and sprockets,
improperiy adjusted brakes, which may be draggmg, and neglected
bearings sum up the chief mechanical sources of power loss.

It is quite as important, however, that losses of electric power
be guarded against, as they interfere with the efficient utilization of
the energy stored in the batteries and decrease the available mileage
on a charge, regardless of the condition of the mechanism. Vibra-
tion will prove the undoing of almost anything in the course of time,
and, while every precaution is taken by the manufacturer to provide
durable and permanent connections, it seems practically impos-
sible to provide a form of terminal that will be absolutely proof
against this influence and still permit of being disconnected con-
veniently when required. Air interposes a very high resistance
in a circuit, and but a slight amount of looseness in a connection
creates an air gap that must be bridged by the current in order to
complete the circuit. This causes arcing, or a flashing of the current
across the gap, which is destructive of the terminals and is not in-
frequently responsible for the ignition of adjacent material. As will
be apparent from the wiring diagram given, there are quite a number
of such connections, and going over them systematically at regular in-
tervals is the only way to guard against current losses from this source.

Brushes and Commutator. The brushes and commutator are
the only parts of the electric motor that are subject to wear, and
the life of the commutator is naturally equivalent to that of severiJ
sets of brushes, so that the latter constitute practically the sole item
to be looked after in connection with the motor. They are either
plain blocks of carbon, or carbon with fine copper wire embedded
in it, and are held against the commutator by springs. To examine
their condition closely, the housing should be removed, the rear axle
jacked up, and the motor run on the first speed. No attempt should
be made to run it on any of the other speeds when in this condition,
nor should it be run any longer than necessary. This does not

222

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 59

exactly simulate actual driving conditions as, with the wheels off
the ground, practically no load is imposed on the motor and, while
the latter may spark badly under load, it will frequently give little
indication of this form of trouble when running light.

If the brushes have been sparking badly in actual service there
will be certain signs of this in the shape of the blackened commutator
bars. They should be wiped clean and, if any oil has leaked on to
them from the bearing, all traces of it should be removed. If this
does not suffice to remove the blackened appearance, the sparking
has been such as to biun the copper, and this blackened surface
should be removed with the aid of a piece of very fine sandpaper
held against the commutator while it is turning slowly. Never use
emery cloth for this purpose, as the abrasive material employed in
its manufacture is of a metalUc nature, and not only tends to embed
itself in the insulation between the bars, but, once there, serves as a
conductor and may short-circuit some of the armature coils, result-
ing in serious damage to the motor. If the brushes merely appear
to be glazed but still make good contact all over the bearing surface,
the latter may be rubbed with the sandpaper as well. If they have
worn to a point where the contact is not good, new brushes should
be substituted, and it would be well for the owner of the electric
vehicle who is not familiar with the motor, to have an experienced
person put them in for him the first time — every time, in fact, unless
he is perfectly siu'e of his own ability in this line. A set of brushes
will seldom, if ever, need replacement more than once diuing an
entire season.

For instructions covering seating of brushes, testing springs,
and the like, refer to sections on these faults in the article on
Starting Motors and Lighting Generators.

Armature Troubles. When the housing is off, the brush con-
nections and other motor connections should be inspected for loose-
ness or other faults. Instructions for locating groimds, short-
circuits, or open circuits in the armature and field windings are
given in connection with the articles on Starting and Lighting

Systems.

The armature is supported on annular ball bearings in the major-
ity of eases, and while these bearings require little attention, they
should be packed with vaseline as already directed, when needing

223

60 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

lubrication. Oil should not be used as it will flow out on to the
commutator at one end or the armature windings at the other.

Miscellaneous. In speaking of connections, those at the battery
are included and they should be inspected as well. The connections
between the different cells are usually made by burning the lead-
strap terminals together, though some have bolted connections, and
these may jar loose; but the various groups are connected to one
another and to the remaining apparatus, and these terminals are
probably more apt to give trouble than some of the others, as it is
nothing unusual to remove the battery at times and suflBcient care
is not always exercised to have the connections solidly fast.

The loss of electrical energy, due to undercharged and short-
circuited cells in the battery, has been treated in detail in connection
with the care of the battery.

Tires are, without doubt, one of the greatest sources of power
loss on the electric vehicle, and it is one that mystifies the uninitiated
exceedingly. This matter is gone into at length in connection with
tire equipment.

TIRES AND MILEAGE

Relation of Tires to Mileage. It will appear odd and some-
what inexplicable at first sight that these two headings should be
included in the same chapter, for the average man thinks that the
only thing which has any direct influence on the mileage of the car
is the amount of energy the battery is capable of giving forth. As
is pointed out under "Sources of Power Loss", there are many other
factors that affect the available radius of the car more or less indi-
rectly. Tires are not included among these indirect sources, as the tire
equipment has a most direct and, therefore, a most important bearing
on the distance the electric car is capable of traveling on a single
charge of the battery. The gasoline machine is endowed with such
a liberal surplus of driving power that the loss occasioned by tires
represents but an insignificant fraction of the whole; in other words,
is a totally negligible factor. Had it not been for extensive experi-
ments carried out in connection with the electric automobile, the
importance of these losses would not have been definitely known.

When all the points which contribute to both the electrical and
mechanical efficiency of the car have been carefully maintained in

224

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 61

proper working order, and still both the speed and total capacity
of the battery fail to respond, the cause of the trouble may be
summed up in a single word — "tires." For tires constitute the
most important element in the determination of mileage and,
though that fact is seldom, if ever, mentioned in connection with
accounts of phenomenal mileages made on a single charge, they
are the chief controlling factor. The tires usually employed for
such "stunts" are specially made for the purpose and are not
adapted to ordinary service. They have extremely thin walls,
with the thread of the fabric reinforcement running continuously
round the tread of the tire in the same direction, and are not only
very likely to puncture on slight provocation, but are far from
durable. The expense of employing such tires regularly would be
prohibitive, particularly as they are very diflScult to repair when
pimctured.

Kinds of Tires. Pneumatic. On the gasoline car, in view of
the great weights and high speeds, it is solely a question of being
able to make the pneumatic tire sufficiently strong to stand the
unusually severe stresses to which it is subjected. To accomplish
this end, the fabric structure forming the foundation of the shoe,
or outer envelope of the tire, is made of various layers of heavy
canvas placed at angles to one another and solidly vulcanized
together. This construction makes an extremely stiff wall, as is
evidenced by the difficulty in forcing a clincher type of tire on to
the rim. Such a tire will yield to the minimum degree under the
weight of the car or road obstacles when inflated to the proper
pressing. In consequence, it absorbs considerable power. This
loss is still further increased by the use of chains, studs, or similar
anti-skid devices. Tests made on the recording dynamometer of
the Automobile Club of America in New York City have shown
that some forms of non-skid treads, particularly those employing
heavy steel studs embedded in thick leather, absorbed as much as
5 horsepower per wheel to drive them. Tests showing 2 to 2|
horsepower per wheel were not uncommon, and in but few instances
did the loss drop below 1 horsepower per driving wheel, regardless
of the type of tire employed.

It would be manifestly out of the question to expect much in
the way of mileage from an electric vehicle if handicapped in this

225

62 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

manner. Non-skid devices of any kind are rarely seen on electric
automobiles for this reason, about the only occasion when they are
in evidence being in winter, when they are actually required on ice
or slushy pavements to afford suflBcient traction. For electric
service a structure is required in which the fabric foundation is so
constituted as to be able to adapt itself most readily to the distor-
tion caused by being pressed out flat on its contact area with the
road.

Solid, Viewed from one aspect, the electric has an advantage
over the gasoline car. Owing to its greatly reduced speed, the
owner of an electric finds the solid-rubber tire a practical option.
Naturally, there can be no comparison between the riding qualities
of a solid and a pneumatic tire, but as most electric-vehicle work
is over smoothly paved streets, and the reasonable driver should
never take obstructions except at a greatly reduced speed, the
solid tire provides an amount of comfort out of proportion to its
greatly reduced cost as compared with the pneumatic. The mile-
age radius possible with a good solid tire is about the same as that
possible with the standard fabric type of pneumatic usually
referred to by the electric-vehicle manufacturer as a "gasoline"
type of tire, with the advantage in favor of the former in that it
is free from pimcture. i

Test Curves. An extensive investigation has been made of
the subject of tires in the past few years and considerable data
compiled. Herewith is given a series of curves prepared by the
builders of the Ranch and Lang electrics which will suffice to
reveal the great differences in tires where the question of mileage
is concerned, Fig. 78. The curves show that of the solid types
experimented with the Motz tire rendered the best performance.
On referring to the chart, it will be apparent that the showing of
the tire in question is somewhat more imiform than the Diamond
pneumatic type. At the high limit of the range is to be found
the Palmer cord tire, which is a single-tube type of pneiunatic
with thread fabric. Bearing in mind the fact that increasing
speed means a corresponding reduction in the mileage, the applica-
tion of the chart is simple. Taking the Palmer tire just referred
to as an example, select in the vertical column at the left marked
''miles per hour," the rate at which the car is to travel. Trace

226

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 63

this along the horizontal line representing the speed, to the right
until it intersects the characteristic curve of the tire in question.
At that point, rise perpendicularly to the point where the vertical
line meets the top of the chart, which is divided into sections giv-
ing total mileage, by increments of 10 miles. For instance, sup-
pose it be desired to run a car at 15 miles an hour on Palmer cord
tires. Tracing the 15-mile line to the right, it will be found to
intersect the Palmer-tire curve at the vertical Ime corresponding to
100 miles. A striking example of the manner in which mileage
increases with reduced speed may be seen by tracing the 12J-mile

'■

■^

~^;

.1-

, 1

Fi«. 7S. CutvH Showing Test* of Voriaui Tires Mule by Rauch and Lsng Csirisce Company

line to the right until it intersects the Palmer curve. It gives a
total mUeage of 123, or an increase of 23 per cent in the distance
covered for a decrease of but 2J miles per hour in the speed. By
making a further reduction to 10 miles an hour, 130 miles could
be covered on a diarge. This, of course, is not due to any charac-
teristic of the tire, but to the fact that the lower the discharge
rate the greater the capacity of the battery, the phenomenal mile-
ages given being the result of employing a tire that presents the
minimum of resistance to bending.

New Tire Equipment. A little study of the foregoing will
serve to reveal one of the most prolific causes of complaint on the

64 ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

part of uninitiated owners of electric vehicles. After wearing out
one or two tires in service, they instruct the garagemen to put
"new ones" in their place, or they renew the old ones by purchas-
ing in the open market themselves. Unless informed as to the
purpose for which the tires are needed, both the garagemen and
the tire salesman are more than apt to supply a gasoline type of
tire. A distinct falling off in the mileage radius of the car is at
once noticeable, particularly if the owner has been in the habit of
making use of the higher speeds. The cause is apparently inex-
plicable, and the result is a complaint to the manufacturer that
something has gone wrong or that the car is not fulfilling the
promises made for it, when, as a matter of fact, greater care
should have been taken to maintain the tire equipment the same
throughout.

Improper Inflation. Tires have been previously mentioned as
one of the sources of power loss, and the foregoing serves to
explain to a great degree why this is so. An item of considerable
importance in the treatment of tires, which has not been referred
to, is improper inflation. A soft tire naturally consumes more
power to drive it because of the increased friction due to the
greater area of the tire in contact with the ground. Such a condi-
tion is detrimental to the tire itself as it increases the amount of
wear and the danger of rim cuts.

If the tire be too soft, the weight of the car will cause it to
spread unduly at the point of contact with t^e road and this con-
dition will be immediately noticeable. On the other hand, when
the tire is pumped up too hard, the tire will stand just as if it
were bearing no load. Such a condition obviously places too
great a strain on both the fabric and the rubber, and is frequently
the cause of tire failures that are usually assigned to a totally
different reason. With its ordinary load of passengers, the electric
should only cause a slight flattening of the tires at the tread,
experiment showing that the best results are obtained when the
increase in the width of the tire is about 20 to 25 per cent, that is,
a 3-inch tire when properly inflated should measure approximately
3f inches across its horizontal diameter at the part in contact
with the road. Of course, the surest method of avoiding improper
inflation is a tire pressure gage.

228

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES 65

ELECTRIC INDICATING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES
Volt-Ammeter. With an electric, it is important to watch the
volt-ammeter. An example of thia type of combined instrument is
shown by the accompanying illustration. Fig. 79. It will be noted
that the indicating needle of the ammeter does not go to the end
of its scale, but reads both ways, the scale to the left hand being
for the charging current, and that to the right for the discharging
current. These instruments are manufactured in various forms,
one type very much in use having the voltmeter and ammeter

Fig. 76. General ElecMio Voll-A

scales parallel in a vertical plane. Some also have the voltmeter
scale so divided that the reading of the individual cells may be
taken.

By becoming familiar with the readmgs of the instrmnent and
by realizing their significance, the driver of an electric automobile
is in a position not only to judge whether the battery is giving the
proper service, but he also has an accurate gage on the condition
of the running gear and transmission of the vehicle itself. The
instrument is capable, therefore, of giving ample warning by its
defiections of any weakness, electrical or mechanical.

Ampere-Hour Meter. While the volt-ammeter affords a con-
stant indication of the working of th^attery, as well as the effi-

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND

REPAIR

PART I

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTS

Introduction. In preparing this treatise on the construction
and repair of the Ford automobile, the writer has constantly laid
special emphasis upon the principle of operation of the various
units and the most practical methods of repair. There is no^
doubt that the automobile has become one of the most widely
used machines today, and necessarily it has served as an educator
in mechanics. At the same time it is only wisdom — and certainly
economy of both time and effort — ^for one to acquire his knowledge
of the automobile by profiting from the experience of those who
have proved their right to lay down proper practice than it is to
start to do repairing with little or no knowledge of the automobile.

Familiarity with the parts and the principle of their operation
makes it much easier for the mechanic or the owner to locate his
troubles; if he is not acquainted with the right methods of opera-
tion or the functions of the parts, he is usually at a loss to know
where he must look for the seat of the trouble.

In order to understand the operation of the different parts of
the Ford car, a general description of and a detailed statement
of the purpose of the various units will first be given, starting with
the simple ones and progressing to the more complicated assem-
blies. Complete instructions for these units are given in other
parts of this text where each unit is taken up in detail.

Additions to the electrical equipment on all Ford cars at the
factory have opened up a hitherto unknown field to the mechanic
— Si field into which the Ford repair man must be equipped to
enter from now on. . The subject of electrical equipment has been
treated very thoroughly in this volume, special emphasis being
given to the methods of locating grounds, shorts, opens, etc., in
the various units. Diagrams and sketches of wiring connections
are also given.

233

Fig. 1. Plan View of the Ford Chassis

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 3

Frame. The purpose of the frame is to mount the various
units in their respective order. These imits are: motor, radiator,
springs, steering mechanism, body, etc. The Ford frame is con-
structed of pressed steel, of the U section, as this type of con-

5PRIN6 CLIP

SPRING

PRING SHACKLE
SPlNDLEi

Fig. 2. Front Axle Assembly

struction gives the greatest strength for the smallest amount of
steel. There are two cross members, one at each end of the
frame. The pm*pose of these cross members is to hold the side
members in place, and these members are securely fastened
together with rivets. Fig. 1 is a plan view of the Ford chassis,
showing the locations of the various units.

SPRING CUR

SPRING

SPRING SHACKLEi

DIFFERENTIAL HOUSING

LIVE AXLE

Fig. 3. Rear Axle Assembly

Front* Axle. The function of the front axle, Fig. 2, is to sup-
port the weight of the front of the car through the front springs,
and this axle also holds the front wheels in place by means of
spindle bolts. These spindle bolts act as turning pivots for the

235

4 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

wheels when turning a comer. The front axle is drop forged in
an t-beam section. Nearly all cars use a drop-foiled axle as this

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 5

construction greatly reduces the chance of flaws. It is not con-
sidered safe to use a cast-steel or a cast-iron axle.

Rear Axle. The rear-axle housing, Fig. 3, is of drawn-steel
tubing. The parts are riveted together, thereby making a strong
and rigid construction. These joints are also brazed to make them
oil tight. The live-axle shafts and the differential gears are contained
in this housing, together with suitable bearings which prevent undue
wear. The driving wheels are mounted one on each rear-axle shaft.
The differential equalizes the load between the two wheels.

Power Plant. The power plant. Fig. 4, is the most important
unit as it transforms the gasoline into the power which drives the
car. The Ford power plant
is of the single-unit type as
the transmission and the
motor are made in one unit.
A common oil case is used,
although the transmission
cover is a separate casting.
The motor is supported on
the frame at three points,
this construction allowing
great elasticity and pre-
venting, to a large extent,
breakage of the motor sup-
ports.

Power-Piant Accesso-
ries. There are several nec-
essary auxiliary systems or

Ke. 5. Kingston CarbureWr

units that must be used

with every motor. These are the carburetion, ignition, lubrication,

and cooling systems.

Carburetor. The carburetor is an instrument that mixes gaso-
line with air in the proper proportion. The mixture is fed to the
motor in variable amounts, determined by the distance the
throttle is opened by the driver. Fig. 5 is a view of a Kingston
Ford model carburetor.

IgnUitm System. The ignition system furnishes a hot electric
spark in each cylinder at an exact predetermined time after the

6 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

gaa vapor haa been compressed and is ready to be exploded. The
resulting explosion creates a high pressure on the piston and
drives it down, thereby turning the crankshaft. The Ford igni-
tion system consists of a source of current — either magneto or
battery — a timer, four coils, four spark plugs, and wires to make
the necessary connections. A pictorial arrangement of the igni-
tion system is shown in V\g. 6.

Lvbricatimi System. All moving parts in any mechanism
must be lubricated in order to prolong their life. In a gasoline

Hg. e. View of the Ignition System

motor the heat of the explosion must also be taken into con-
sideration, which makes it a particularly difficult mechanism to
lubricate. The lubrication system consists of a reservoir, means of
lifting the oil to a higher level than the parts to be lubricated, and a
pipe to carry the oil to the gear case in the front of the motor.
Cooling System. The explosions produce a great amount of
heat and cause the cylinders to become very hot. Some step
must then be taken to radiate this heat; if the cylinder becomes
too hot, the piston will tend to expand to a larger size than the
cylinder. The piston will then stick, and there will be total fail-

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 7

lire of motor operation. The cooling system consists of a radiator
and a water Jacket surrounding the cylinders. The water cir-
culates through its jacket, lowering the temperature of the cylin-
ders to a point where proper lubrication is possible. The water
then passes through the radiator, where it is cooled. The cir-
culating system of the Ford motor operates on the thermo siphou
principle. As hot water, by its physical properties, is lighter than
cold water, the hot water goes to the top of the cooling system
from the motor. It is cooled in the radiator and travels down by
gravitation; then it enters the cylinder water jackets at the bot-
tom. This action continues
until the motor stops and
the water is cold. Fig. 7
shows the cooling system.

Springs. There are
two springs, of the semi-
elliptic type; one mounted
above the rear axle and
fastened at each end to the
axle housing by spring
shackles and at the center to

theframebytwospring-clips; f^-'' CooUneSytem

the other spring is mounted above the front axle and is fastened at
each end to the axle by spring shackles and at the center to the
frame cross member by two spring clips, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3.

Steering Mechanism. The steering mechanism is mounted on
the left side of the car. (The left side of any car is always the
driver's left when sitting in the driver's position.) The steering
column is supported at the center by the dash and is bolted to the
frame at its lower extremity. The front steering knuckles are
fastened together by a connecting rod, or tie bar, and the steering
column is connected to this bar by a drag link.

OPERATION OF PARTS

Motor. Cycle. The motor is a four-cylinder, four-cycle,
L-head type. A four-cycle motor should really be spoken of as
a four-stroke-eycle motor, as this type requires four complete
strokes of the piston to produce an explosion; the word "stroke"

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

is generally omitted for brevity. In other words, one power stroke
is produced from each cylinder every four strokes, or two revolu-
tions of the crankshaft. As there are four ejhnders in the Ford

INTAKE STSOK£

STROKE
ioQ Strokes

id Eibaust Strokes

motor, a power stroke is produced every half-revolution of the
crankshaft. The operation of the intake and the compression
strokes of the cycle are shown in Fig. 8 while the firing and the
exhaust strokes are shown in Fig. 9.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Intake Stroke. As the piston starts down, the inlet valve

opens and a charge of gas vapor is drawn into the cylinder. "^

Compression Stroke. The piston then moves upward, and

as both valves are closed, the charge is compressed to a pressure

of about 60 pounds per square inch.

Power Stroke. An electric spark then explodes this charge,
increasing the pressure about four times, or to 240 pounds per

square inch. This pressure drives the piston down

> t j ^ with great force.

Exhaust Stroke. The piston then moves up-
ward — ^the exhaust valve opens before the piston
reaches lower dead center — ^forcing the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder, into the exhaust mani-
fold, through the muffler, and into the atmosphere.
This burnt gas miist be expelled to make room for
the fresh gas that is to be taken in at the next
stroke. As both valves are on the same side of
the motor, the cylinder and the combustion cham-
ber have an inverted L shape. This is why it is
called an L-head motor.

Fig. 10. Valve and
Push Rod Assembly

Fig. 11. Relation of Cam to Push Rod

Valve Mechanism. The valves are made of two pieces, a cast-
iron head 1^ inches in diameter and a steel stem ^ inch in
diameter and 5J inches long. The stem is welded to the head
with electricity. The outer edge of the head forms the valve seat
and is turned and ground to an angle of 45° to fit the valve seat
in the cylinder. A small hole is drilled near the end of the valve
stem to allow a pin to be inserted. This pin holds the valve

241

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

spring and seat in place. Operating directly under the valve stem
is a push rod which is driven upward at regular intervals by a
cam on the camshaft. These parts are shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
Camshaft The camshaft is made of vanadium steel, hardened
and ground on. all cam and bearing surfaces to eliminate wear.
The eight cams on this shaft, four intake and four exhaust, are
forged integral with the shaft as this construction prevents any
chance of loose cams. The camshaft and the valve assembly are
shown in Fig. 12.

iXHAUST VALVE5>

INTAKE VALVES

CAM
CAM SHAfT^

TIMIlsfG GEAR^
T1MIV4G DRIVE GEAR-

ilg. 12. Mechanism of Valves in Relative Position

Timing Gears, There are two gears in the timing-gear case
located at the front of the motor. The drive gear is mounted on
the crankshaft, and has twenty-one teeth in mesh with a driven
gear which is mounted on the camshaft. As the driven, or cam-
shaft, gear has forty-two teeth, it runs one-half as fast as the
motor. This speed reduction is necessary as it reqilires two com-
plete revolutions to produce an explosion; therefore, the intake
valve and the exhaust valve must function once in two revolu-
tions. These parts are shown in Fig. 12.

Piston. The piston is made of cast iron and is 3f inches in
diameter. Its purpose is twofold. The piston rings are mounted

242

FOKD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 11

on the piston so that the compression can be securely held; it
also transmits the explosive force to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod. The piston must be a perfect
fit in the cylinder, although a clearance must be
allowed between the piston and the cylinder, this
fit being secured by tumii^ the piston and rolling
the cylinder. The wristpin is mounted in the
piston at each end, and the connecting rod is
fastened to the center of this pin, the pin bear-
ings being at each end of the pin. Bronze bush-
ings are mounted in the piston and form a bearing
surface for the pin. The pin is made of hardened
steel, ground to the exact size, and is in the form
of a tube for the pmpose of reducing the recipro-
cating weight.

Connecling Rod. As several severe strains
must be withstood by the connecting rod, there- Fig, is. Piston and Con-
fore it is a vanadium-steel drop forging of the I """"b k«i

section. Some manufacturers have used tubular connecting rods,
but the I construction has been found to be the most satisfactory
for connecting-rod use. The piston and connecting-rod assembly
is shown in Fig. 13.

Crankshaft. The crankshaft has three main bearings and -
is of the four-throw type. The front and center main bearings are
shorter than the rear main bearing, as the rear bearing has the
greatest amount of strai^i. Nos. 1 and 4 crankpins are in the same
plane, the pistons of these cylinders traveling together; 2 and 3 are
likewise in the same plane. The crankshaft is also a vanadium-
steel drop forging, all bearings and crankpins being accurately

turned and ground. The crankshaft is shown in Fig. 14; the end
thrust of the crankshaft is taken up by the rear main bearing.

12 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Flywheel. The flywheel is bolted to a flange at the rear of
the crankshaft. A flywheel must be used to store up energy
between the high and the low peaks of the power strokes. This
energy is given off when there is but little energy being produced,
this time being between the opening of the exhaust valve of
one cylinder and the starting of the power stroke in the next
cylinder to fire. It would be impossible to run the motor very
slowly unless the flywheel was used.

Magnets. There are sixteen magnets mounted on the fly-
wheel. These magnets are used in conjunction with sixteen coils
to generate an electric current for ignition. In the early Ford
models the lights were also supplied with current from this
magneto. A complete description of this instrument will be found
in the section on the "Electrical System," Part II.

Transmission. It is a generally known fact that transmis-
sions are not used on steam cars or electric vehicles. The question
then arises, why is a transmission — or change-speed gears — neces-
sary in the gasoline automobile? To make this clear, it will be
necessary to call to mind a few principles of the internalcombustion
motor.

The Why of Transmission. The steam engine is an external-
combustion motor; in other words, the fuel is burned in the
firebox of the boiler, outside the cylinder. The steam pressure
is generated in the boiler, and the steam is conveyed to the
cylinder through a pipe. When the throttle is opened, the steam
pressure forces the piston down. If there is a heavy load on
the engine, preventing it from turning, the pressure will stiU be
maintained until the boiler pressure is exhausted, the hot steam
from the boiler supplying the heat that is absorbed by the cylin-
der. When the piston moves down a certain distance, the steam
supply is shut off, this distance depending on the point of the
valve cut-off. The steam contained in the cylinder then expands
and forces the piston out the remainder of the stroke.

The action in the gasoline engine is very different from that
in the steam engine as the gasoline engine is an internal-combustion
motor; that is, the fuel, in the form of a gas, is taken into the
cylinder as the piston travels down on its intake stroke. The
inlet valve then closes and the gas is compressed as the piston

244

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

travels toward the combustion chamber. An electric spark theh--
ignites this gas and raises the temperature to about four times
that of the compression temperature. As the pressure is in direct
proportion to the temperature, it is also increased about four
times. Now, suppose that the motor is connected to a heavy
load, as in the steam engine. The explosion is not strong enough
to move the piston and the heat is quickly absorbed by the
cylinder. This loss of heat lowers the pressure in the same pro-

Fig. 16. Section of tlie Ford TrHnamisaiDU

portion that it was originally raised, and since no outside heat
can be added as in the steam engine, the pressure continues to
decrease until it reaches zero.

All this heat whicli has been absorbed by the cylinders is
wasted heat, or energy— all combustion motors are heat engines —
and additional heat must be supplied in order to furnish constant
pressure on the piston and produce a constant turning force, or
turning torque, on the crankshaft. As this heat cannot be con-

246

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

dnuously supplied, it is necessary to use tranamission reducing
gears. This allows the motor to turn faster than the drive shaft,
thus increasing the number of explosions per revolution of the
drive shaft. This gives a greater turning torque to the motor
and enables it to start the car under a heavy load and to climb
steep hills when loaded. The transmission thus transforms the
internal-combustion motor into a power plant which has an
elasticity nearly approaching that of the steam engine.

Ford Transmisaion. The Ford has a planetary-type transmis-
sion which is entirely different from the transmission used on
other pleasure cars. Fig. 15 shows the assembly of the Ford
transmission, while
Fig. 16 is a simple dia-
grammatic sketch show-
ing the principle of its
operation. The gear C,
however, is eliminated in
the Ford car and a small
external gear is used in-
stead. This does not
alter the principle of
operation. Let us sup-
pose that the gear B,
which is continually in
mesh with the gears A,
is mounted on the crank-
shaft of the motor. This gear will revolve in a clockwise direc-
tion as indicated by the arrow. The three gears A are mounted
on the conunon spider D, and they are continually in mesh
with the external gear B and the internal gear C. In order to
obtain low speed, the gear C must be locked. The drive shaft
is connected to the spider D, and this spider will revolve in a
clockwise direction. As B is turning ^ in a clockwise direction,
and as C is locked, the gears A will travel within C in a
clockwise direction, or in other words, the spider D will revolve
clockwise. When it becomes necessary to reverse the direction of
the car, the gear C is released and connected to the drive shaft
and D is locked. B will then cause the gears A to revolve on

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 16

their spindles in an anti-clockwise direction, and as D is locked,
the internal gear C will revolve in an anti-clockwise direction.
When high speed is used, a separate disc clutch is operated which
connects the motor crankshaft to the drive shaft. The entire
arrangement then revolves as a unit, which has the effect of a
flywheel.

Clutch. It is necessary to have some means of connecting
and disconnecting the power of the motor from the rear wheels in
order that the motor may be started and that the car may be put
in motion without stalling the motor gr causing the car to jerk.

Tie. IT' Coiutructlaii of the Rent Aile

Fig. 35 shows the clutch parts. The clutch performing this
function is of the disc type.

The clutch consists of a number of steel discs, half of them
being fastened to the motor and the other half fastened to the
drive shaft. The motor discs are set alternately between the
drive-shaft discs. These discs are normally held together by a
coil spring, thus causing the drive shaft and the motor to turn as
a single unit. When the driver wishes to disconnect the power of
the motor from the drive shaft, it is only necessary to release the
tension of this spring to allow the discs to slip between each
other. This is accomplished by the driver's pressing on the

16 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

clutch pedal with his left foot part way or by drawing up the con-
trol lever.

Rear-Axle Assembly. The drive shaft connects the dutch to
the rear axle. As the shafts are mounted at right angles, it is
necessary to transmit the power through a set of bevel gears.
The standard ratio between these units is Stt to I. There are
two axle shafts connected at the center by the differential frame;
the differential-gear arrangement. Fig. 17, shows the construction
of the rear axle.

Differeviiai. One of the most important mechanisms of any
automobile is the differential, but as this unit causes very little
trouble, few laymen are aware of its presence or realize its impor-

Flg. IS. Frindple of the DiSereadat

tance. It would be difficult to control the car without a differential
when driving around corners since, when turning a comer, the
outer wheel must turn faster than the inner one as the outer wheel
is describing a larger circle.

The differential gear is used so that either wheel will be
allowed to turn faster than the other and at the same time equal-
ize the power transmitted to each wheel when driving straight-
away. Fig; 18 shows the principle of the differential. Here it
will be seen that the axle is divided into two distinct axle shafts,
A bevel gear is carried at the inner end of each shaft, and these
gears are keyed to the axles so that they revolve with them.
Intermediate bevel gears are mounted on a spider and these

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 17

gears mesh continually with the axle gears. The ring gear 13
bolted to the housing, this housing turning as a unit with the
intermediate gear spindles. The intermediate gears are free to
turn on their spindles and do so when the resistance of one rear
wheel is greater than that of the other. This resistance tends to
hold the imier gear and prevent it from turning as rapidly as the
other axle gear. The intermediate, or differential, gears then turn
on their spindles, thus equalizing the power on the rear wheels.
Now let u3 assume that all gears are in mesh, that power is
being applied to the ring gear, and that the resistance is the same
at both rear wheels. Then the entire assembly— comprising ring
gear, differential, intermediate, or pinion, gears, and axle-shaft gears
—revolves. If both wheels are turning forward at the same speed.

the differential pinions remain stationary and merely act as a
lock, forming a driving connection between the driving gears.
This will cause both wheels to turn in the same direction as long
as the load is uniformly distributed.

Brakes. The braking system forms a very important unit
in the control of the car. If the motive power is disconnected by
the clutch, the car will continue to move on account of its
momentum, and it is therefore imperative that some means of
stopping the car be provided.

There are two braking systems on the Ford car, one operated
by a foot pedal, the other by the band lever. The foot, or service,
brake consists of a brake band operated on a brake drum in the
transmission unit. When the foot pedal is jiepressed, this band
is tightened, causing the speed of the transmission brake drum to

18 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

be checked. As this brake drum revolves at the same speed as
the drive shaft, the speed of the car is materially lessened. This
brake is the one to use when driving the car and is operated by
the right-hand foot pedal.

The emergency brake is of the type shown in Fig. 19, where
there is a brake for each wheel operating on the inside of the
brake drum. The brakes used on the Ford models of a few years
ago were of cast iron made in the form of two semicircular shoes.
The brakes now used are made of cast iron in the form of a

circular shoe. But the center portion of the shoe at the back is
made very thin, so that there is considerable give without break-
ing. The shoe is split at the front to allow a flat cam to be
placed between the ends of the brake shoe. Two coil springs are
fastened between the brake shoes to hold them in the released
position when the cam is flat. If, however, the cam is rocked, so
that instead of lying flat it is moved to such an angle as to
cause the brake shoe to spread, it will grip the internal surface of
the brake drum and retard the movement of the wheels or

260

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

entirely stop the movement of the car. The braking effect
depends • on the distance the brake arm is moved by the driver.
This brake is intended to be used only when the car is standing
or it is necessary to lock the rear wheels when on a hill.

Steering Gear. Every car must have some suitable means of
steering. The steering mechanism^ however, must be so con-
structed as to give unfailing service without ucidue strain on the
driver.

The steering, or wheel, post is a metal rod carried inside the
steering column which is capable of being turned a certain number
of degrees so that the steering arm connected to the drag link
may be moved. This drag link is connected to the connecting

Gears in Steering Column: A, Spark Lever; B, Throttle Lever; C, Pinion
on End of Steering Wheel Shaft; D, E, Quadrants; F, Spider Pinion
Gears; G, Internal Gear,

Fig. 2L Steering Reduction Gears

rod which joins the steering knuckles. The turning of the steer-
ing wheel is thus transmitted to the front wheels in such a man-
ner that the car may be satisfactorily steered. The limit of
movement is determined by the distance the front wheels can be
moved. Fig. 20 shows the construction of the steering column.
The steering post is housed in a metal tube of sufficient size to
carry the spark and the throttle control rods. These rods are
worked by levers placed below the steering wheel and convenient
to the driver's reach. The steering column is set at such an
angle that the steering wheel is in a convenient position to the
driver. The steering wheel consists of a metal spider having four
arms terminating at the oval wooden rim; the intersection of these

261

2a FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

arms at the center forms a boss. A hole is machined to allow
the end of the steering post to enter and form a tight fit. A key
prevents the wheel from turning on the steering post, and a nut
screwed on the end of the steering post holds the wheel in place.

Ford Steering Gear. The Ford steering gear differs radically
from the form used on the conventional car. The spider pinion
gears, which permit a greater movement of the hand than of the
steering arm, are located at the top of the steering post instead of
at the bottom as in other cars. Instead of using the worm gear —
the form most used in the average car — a planetary-gear arrange-
ment is employed. These gears are in a compartment below the
steering wheel and are packed with a lubricant to ensure perfect
operation. The construction of this mechanism is shown in
Fig. 21. This case contains four spur gears, one in the center,
with three surrounding it. These three gears F are each mounted
on individual studs, or spindles, the spindles being attached to a
common triangular plate (or spider) H connected to the top of the
steering post.

The casing 6? is provided with teeth on its inner periphery, and
the three spur gears are in continual mesh with this internal gear.
When the steering wheel is turned, the center spur gear C, con-
nected to the steering wheel, turns the three gears, forcing them
to travel around the inner periphery of the housing. This turns
the triangular plate in the same direction but much slower. The
driver is then enabled to handle the car very readily, even on
unfavorable roads.

OVERHAULING THE CAR

Cleaning Car. One of the first steps in the actual work of
overhauling the power plant is to clean the car very thoroughly.
Any dirt or grit allowed to get into the bearings is likely to cause
trouble by cutting the bearings when the car is again assembled.
The gaskets must also be kept clean, although this is very hard to
do if the adjacent surfaces are covered with dirt and grit. If
particles of dirt get on any of the gaskets, it will be difficult to
make a compression-tight joint. It is generally advisable to use
new ones.

252

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR . 21

Identification of Parts. While the skilled mechanic is sup-
posed to know where each and every part of the Ford ear belongs,
still the individual car owner or the apprentice mechanic is not
usually so proficient, and a great deal of trouble will be avoided
by marking the parts as they are removed from the car.

One method of marking is by small tags or by pieces of
paper through which the bolts are forced. Particular care should
be taken in marking those parts the use of which is not obvious.
Another good method of identification is to number the parts with
the same numbers that they carry in the Ford parts list. Such
parts as the eight valves can be marked with a center pimch,
beginning at the front of the motor with one dot and proceeding
toward the rear of the motor; the last valve will be marked with
eight dots.

In using a center punch for marking the valves, the valves
should be marked before removing to prevent bending the valve
stem. Such parts as the gaskets for the radiator and the two
screws holding the cylinder-outlet water-hose connection to the
cylinder head can be tied on the radiator with a string. This
method of tying the gaskets and other small parts to the larger
parts to which they belong is a great time saver when the car is
assembled. The use of cigar boxes, or boxes of miscellaneous
sizes, in which to keep the parts of the different elements of the
car is also helpful. For instance, all motor parts should be placed
in one box, while the transmission cover bolts and other small
parts belonging to the transmission should be placed in another box.

Removing Radiator. The radiator should be drained pre-
paratory to removing it from the car. Removing the radiator
makes it easier to get at the engine, commutator, and other parts.
In order to drain the radiator, it is usually necessary to clean out
the radiator drain cock after the cock has been opened, as mud
and sediment usually accumulate in the bottom of the radiator.
Fig. 7 shows the radiator and the hose connections.

The radiator is supported by a bracket at each side and by
the water inlet manifold, with a truss rod between the dash and
the radiator. This bracket is bolted to the side members of the
chassis frame. The inlet manifold of the radiator is located in
the center of the base of the radiator header tank, and the outlet

253

22 . FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

manifold i^ offset at an angle from the left side of the bottom
tank, or base of the radiator. The inlet manifold is connected by
a rubber hose and a flanged fitting bolted to the outlet of the
water jacket at the forward end of the cylinder head. The outlet
manifold is bolted to the intake of the water jacket at the left
side of the cylinder block near the base of the water jacket. The
radiator outlet manifold consists of a metal tube and a hose at
each end; there is also a flanged fitting fastened to the cylinder
block and connecting with this manifold. Two cap screws secure
the flanges of the fitting at the oiitlet and at the inlet on the
cylinder head.

PLUG

Fg. 22. Bottom of the Crantcase Sbowing Drain Plug

While the radiator is removed from the car, the radiator hose
connections should be taken off and inspected. No doubt it will
be advisable to put on three new hose connections at this time
since this will tend to eliminate water leaks or clogged water hose
at some future time. Sometimes new hose clamps are also needed.
It is also a good plan to adjust the fan belt at this time, and if it
is badly worn, it should be replaced with a new one. For regular
use, either the leather or the fabric belt gives good results, and
a belt with a coupling can also be carried in the car for emergencies.

Draining Oil. We are now ready to drain the old oil from
the crankcase. After some use, the oil becomes black and dirty
and is filled with metallic particles that have been worn from the
bearings and other parts. Also, after thp oil has been used for

264

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 23

some time it is much thimied out, since the kerosene condensed in
the combustion chamber works down past the piston rings and
destroys the lubricating qualities of the oil. Much wear and tear
will be saved if the oil is changed about every thousand milies.

After removing the crankcase drain plug, located below the
flywheel, and draining out the old oil, about 2 quarts of kerosene
should be poured into the crankcase at the filler spout. The posi-
tion of the drain plug is shown in Fig. 22. Then the motor
should be turned by hand for several revolutions, splashing the
kerosene around in the crankcase to clean out the old oil. If the
front end of the car is jacked up about 6 inches, the kerosene will
run back into the oil reservoir and drain out more completely.
The drain plug should then be replaced. The old oil drained
from the motor should not be used again in the crankcase; it is,
however, satisfactory for spring lubrication and other minor
places on the chassis.

OVERHAULING MOTOR

Preliminary Operations. The first part to be removed is the
cylinder head; but before doing this, it is advisable to remove the
foiu* spark plugs to prevent them from being broken. Fig. 23 is a
view of the motor showing the head detached.

The fifteen cylinder-head bolts should be removed with the
socket end of the spark-plug wrench or a socket speed wrench,
which can be purchased from any supply house. Less time is
required when using the speed wrench.

Before removing the rear cylinder bolts, it is necessary to
take off the small metal plate on the dash under the coil box.

If the valves are to be ground, it is advisable to remove the
exhaust manifold, and the carburetor and intake manifold in one
imit; this will permit easy access to the valves.

Before removing the carburetor, it is first necessary to dis-
connect the gasoline pipe. The gasoline supply should be shut
oflf at the sediment bulb under the gasoline tank. It will also be
necessary to lift the carburetor adjusting rod located on the dash.

In removing the exhaust manifold, it is easier to take out the
exhaust pipe and manifold in a single unit by a straight pull for-
ward. When removing the manifolds, be careful not to injure the

255

24 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

gaskets, as these gaskets ensure a gas-tight joint between the
manifolds and the cyHnder block.

Removing Valves. The first step when removing the valves
is to remove the valve-chamber cover plates, after which the
valve springs may be compressed by means of a suitable valve-
lifting tool and the valve pins pulled out. These pins should be
placed where they will not be lost. Two of the valves are always
in the raised position, and it will be necessary to turn the crank
until these valves go down, when the springs can be compressed
and the valve pins removed.

Tig, 23. Motor Sbondnc the Heul Bcmoved

Crankcase Repairs. We are now ready to remove the lower
cover door of the crankcase. To do this, it is necessary to get
under the car and remove the fourteen ^-inch cap screws. A
special speed wrench is made for spinning out these cap screws.
This wrench. Fig. 24, is very short so that it can be used in the
limited space. In removing the lower crankcase door, the gasket
generally sticks and should be renewed. There is always some oil
left in the connecting-rod dip pans on this cover, consequently
one should not be directly under the pan when it is removed.

Adjusting Connecting Rods. We are now ready to tighten
the connecting-rod bearings, which is best done one at a, time.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Begin at the front connecting-rod bearing and examine the bearing
cap to be sure that it is marked. There is a file mark on this
cap on the side toward the camshaft, and if this
bearing cap is not so marked, this should be
done before the cap is removed. After remov-
ing the connecting-rod cap, file off a small amount
of metal or remove one or more shims, if there
are any. Then replace the cap and tighten the
bolts, but dp not replace the cotter pins at this
time.

Now try the tightness of the front connecting-
rod cap by turning the starting crank. It should
be possible to turn the crank, since the bearing
should be a snug fit only.

After tightening the front connecting-rod
cap, logsen the nuts on the bolts a couple of
turns, then proceed in the same manner with
the second connecting rod. If the cap is too
tight when the bolts are securely tightened, place
one or more shims between the connecting rod and
the cap so that the engine will not be too hard to
crank when all four bearings have been tightened.

The fourth connecting-rod bearing is generally about
as hard to tighten as the other three put together for
it is in a rather inaccessible location and requires the
use of a special wrench. Fig. 25. A special universal
socket speed-wrench can be secured from the Ford

Motor Company.

After fitting [the fourth con-
necting-rod bearing, the bolts on
all four caps should be tightened.

Fig. 24. Speed Wrench
for Inspection Plate

Fig. 25. Fourth Connecting-rod Wrench

Then the cotter pins should be put in and the ends of the cotter
pins spread to keep them from dropping out.

257

26 FOED CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Caution. Care should be taken not to get any broken ends
of the cotter pins in the crankcase. Such bits of metal might be
carried by the oil onto the magneto coils and cause a short
circuit which might result in total failure of motor operation.
A rag should be placed between the coil support and the crank-
case.

Piston Slap. If there has been piston slap in the motor, new
and oversize pistons should be installed at this time. It is some-
times advisable to rebore the cylinders when they are badly worn.
This can be done in almost any good machine shop at small
expense, or the small garage can do the job with a reboring tool
made especially for that pui^se. There are several of these
reboring tools on the
market, and they may
be purchased at a sup-
ply house. If the orig-
inal pistons which
came with the car are
still in the engine,
then the new pistons
should be 0.025 inch
oversize. However, if
the cylinder block has
been rebored and is
'"" fitted with 0.03125-

inch oversize pistons, then pistons .033-inch oversize should be
installed.

Adjusting Main Bearings. Where there have been main-
bearing knocks — they usually cause a deep heavy thud when the
throttle is open and the motor is pulling hard — it will probably be
necessary to remove the engine from the car and tighten the main
bearings. This is best done when the motor is removed from the
frame, thus making all of the bearings accessible.

While it is not difficult to tighten the middle main bearing
through the crankcase-cover lower door without removing the
motor from the frame, still the middle main bearing does not give
trouble very often. It is the rear main bearing which is the most
frequent offender.

Fig. 2e. Remor

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 27

The rear main bearing carries the load of the flywheel and
magnets and the fore part of the transmission, in addition to the
load due to the force from the connecting rods. So, in spite of
the fact that this main bearing is made longer than the others, it
has so much additional work to perform that it wears more
rapidly and is generally the first of the three main bearings to
give trouble. The front main bearing can be tightened without
taking the motor out of the car if there happen to be some
shims between the bearing cap and the cylinder block. It is only
necessary to loosen the bolts, holding the front bearing cap in
place, and pull out one or more shims and then tighten the bolts.

Grinding Valves. In overhauling the motor, grinding the
valves and removing the carbon are generally two of the most
important details that must be undertaken. The carbon is easily
scraped off the piston tops and the cylinder block by a putty
knife or other flexible flat-bladed tool, Fig, 26. A steel scratch
brush,, such as is used to scrape sand from steel castings, is also
useful for removing the carbon from the Ford cylinder head.

Before grinding the valves, it will be necessary to remove all
the valve springs. This is best done by the use of some good
valve lifter, several of which are on the market. The lifter holds
the spring compressed. Fig. 27, while the pin is removed from the
end of the valve stem.

28 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

The work of grindiDg the valves will be made much easier if
the valves are refaced with a valve-refacing tool; if the valve seat
is reamed with a valve tool, then a still better job can be had in
much less time. These operations are shown in Figs. 28 and 29.
After the carbon has been removed from the valves, a small
amount of grinding compound should be placed on the edge of the
valve where the seat is formed. A light push spring about 2
inches long and | inch in diameter should then be placed on the
valve stem, so that, when grinding, the valve will be lifted from
its seat by this spring when the pressure is removed. This
action is necessary to change the position of the cutting compound

and to prevent the valve seat from being grooved. The valve should
be turned with a forked tool, Fig. 30; do not turn the valve in
one direction only as this will groove the seat. The spring should
then be allowed to lift the valve, and when it is lifted, it should be
turned so that the position of the grinding compound will be
changed. This compound is sold in a box with two compart-
ments, one containing the coarse and one the fine compound.
The fine compound is generally satisfactory for the intake
valves.

After grinding the valves, great care should be taken to clean
out all the grinding compound. Do not allow the compound to

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

get on the pistons or the cylinder walls as it will cause a great
deal of wear if left on these parts.

Irdet Valves. In grinding the valves, it will be noticed that
the inlet valves are not usually pitted and scored as much as the
exhaust valves. The reason is that the exhaust valves are sub-
jected to the hot flame of the exhaust gases, while the inlet
valves are cooled by the fresh incoming gases from the car-
biu'etor. For this reason the exhaust valves become much hotter

Fig. 29. Refaoing the Valve Seats

than the intake valves. This heat usually burns the carbon from
the exhaust valves, while the tops of the intake valves are covered
with carbon. As the inlet valves are generally in fair condition,
it is not necessary to reface them to the same extent as the
exhaust valves.

If the motor has been in use for several years, it sometimes
happens that there is suflScient wear around the stems of the
inlet valves to cause air leaks at these points, Fig. 31. This air

261

30 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

leak will sometimes allow enough air to pass into the intake mani-
fold to cause the motor to miss at low throttle openings; it will
also make starting difficult. Replacing the valves wiU reduce ^is
leakage to a certain extent, but sometimes the valve guides are
worn and replacing the valves is not sufficient. Then it will be
necessary to install valves having ^inch oversize stems. When
valves having oversize stems are used, ream out the valve-stem
guides with a ^r-inch oversize valve-guide reamer.

Adjiating Valves. After replacing the valves, it is necessary
to adjust the valve-tappet clearance, which should be between ^V

Fie- 30. Orinding the ViilTea

and -^ inch. For passenger-car use, where one desires to obtain
a quiet-running motor, less clearance than ^ inch can sometimes
be given. This tends to eliminate valve-tappet noises and clicks,
but it will also cut down the power of the motor to some extent.
Not less than 0.008 inch or 0.010 inch clearance for the inlet
valves and noi, less than 0.015 inch clearance for the exhaust
valves should be allowed. No adjustment has been provided by
the Ford Motor Company, so if it is desired to make this adjust-
ment a set of valve-adjusting discs should be purchased. If the
stems are too long, they may be shortened by filing.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

It sometimes happens, after the reground valves have been
run in the engine for a short time, that the valves seat themselves
more deeply into the cylinder block, thus reducing the clearance
between the ends of the valve stems and the tappets. For this
reason, it is better not to replace the covers of the valve chambers
but to measure the valve-tappet clearance and adjust the valves

Fig. 31. Air Leake around th» Valve Stems

again after the engine has been running for fifteen or twenty
minutes.

The clearance should be ehpcked with a thickness, or feeler,
gage, consisting of a number of thin strips of steel. If this tool, is
not at hand, an approximate valve-tappet clearance adjustment
can be secured by using a postal card as a thickness gage. Such a
card is about 0.010 inch in thickness.

Assembling Motor. After cleaning off the carbon and grind-
ing the valves, the cylinder head should be replaced. But before
doing this, the cylinder-head gasket should be carefully cleaned.
It is not necessary to buy a new gasket if the old one has been
removed with reasonable care and is not torn or broken.

32 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

When replacing the cylinder head, turn the starting crank so
that the first and fourth pistons are in the extreme raised position
— on upper dead center — and are projecting above the cylinder
block. The pistons will hold the gasket and keep it from slipping
when in this position. Smearing both sides of the cylinder head
with heavy grease not only helps to keep the gasket in position,
but it will also assist in making a compression-tight joint, as the
grease allows the gasket to work to the correct position and fit
smoothly between the cylinder head and the cylinder block.

It is also a good plan before replacing the cylinder head to
clean the carbon and dirt out of the cylinder bolt holes, using a
twist drill about f inch in diameter. If this dirt is not cleaned
out of the bottom of these holes, it will be impossible to tighten
the bolts enough to make a compression-tight joint between the
cylinder head and the motor block. The bolts are also hkeJy'»to

^15 @ii ©6 ^9 ii^f

©^/^ ®^/^ ®'/^ ®^/^

@\z 7(5) ©a ©10

Fig. 32. Tightening Cylinder Head Bolts

be twisted off when they are being tightened. After replacing the
cylinder-head bolts, spki them down with a speed wrench and
then tighten them with the cylinder-head and spark-plug wrench.
It is not necessary to tighten these bolts with excessive force, as
they may be broken if this is done. There is a certain knack in
tightening these bolts. The center bolts should first be tightened
and then the bolts on each side, working toward the ends of the
cylinder heads, until all the bolts have been tightened. They
should then be gone over for a final tightening. The bolts should
be tightened in the order shown in Fig. 32; if they are first
tightened at one side or at one end of the cylinder head, a
compression-tight joint is hard to make and leaks may occiu*.

Inspecting Spark Plugs. We are now ready to inspect the
spark plugs, which should be taken apart and cleaned before
being replaced in the cylinder head. Emery cloth should not be
used to clean the porcelains as it will remove the glaze and allow

264

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

iillllllllii

oil to soak into the porcelain; then the spark plug will short-
circuit very easily.

After assembling the porcelain and the body of the plug, care
should be taken not to make the nut too tight, as the heat of the
engine may crack the porcelain.

Adjust the gap between the spark-plug points to ^ inch and
bend the grounded point of the electrode upward; then, if oil
collects on the points, it will not bridge the gap but will run off
to the side where it can do no harm. This adjust-
ment is shown in Fig. 33.

Wiring. The timer wires should be replaced
if they are oil soaked and badly worn or if the
insulation is broken near the commutator. When
examining the timer wires, stray ends should be
carefully looked for, as these fine ends may touch
the motor when the spark lever is moved and cause
the motor to miss. The commutator wires require
much more attention than the high tension cables
that lead to the spark plugs. The color of the
wires indicates the terminal to which they should
be attached.

Timer. The timer should be taken apart and
well cleaned, and if the raceway on the inside
of the timer shell is worn or rough, this shell
should be replaced. A worn timer shell will cause
the roller to bounce and this, in turn, may cause Fig. 33. Spark Plug
misfiring of the engine at speeds of 25 m.p.h. or
over. The timer roller assembly is another small part which some-
times causes much trouble. If the timer roller is worn, or the
timer spring weak or broken, it is advisable to replace the entire
roller-brush assembly.

Coil Adjustments. Another part of the ignition system upon
which much of the smooth running of the motor depends is the
adjustment of the vibrator points of the spark coils. These coil
points should be ground smooth and true, so that they make good
contact. After the coil points have been worn down about half-
way, it is usually necessary to replace them with new ones in
order to get an effective coil-point adjustment.

265

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

AIR GAP ADJUSTMEhiTi

VIBRATOR ARM.
VIBRATOBv

If possible, the coils should be taken to the nearest Ford
agency where there is a coil-testing machine and adjusted until
each unit consumes from 1.2 to 1.4 amperes as indicated by the
ammeter of the coil-testing machine. The coil points should
separate about ^ inch when the vibrator is pressed down against
the core of the coil unit. Fig. 34 shows the adjustment of this
unit.

Preparing Motor to Run. After having made sure that the
crankcase drain plug has been tightened and the crankcase lower
door replaced, a gallon of clean oil should be poured into the
crankcase.

We are now ready to replace the radiator and to fill it with
water. After filling the radiator, the joints around the radiator

hose connections and
between the cylinder
head and the cylinder
block should be examined
to see whether there are
any leaks.

The engine can now
be run as slowly as pos-
sible for five or ten min-
utes until the oil is
worked into all the mov-
ing parts and the parts
which have been replaced have had a chance to adjust them-
selves to each other. If new piston rings have been installed or
if the connecting-rod bearings have been tightened, the engine
should be run for an hour or so at a slow sp^ed but with plenty
of oil to give these parts a chance to work into good running
condition.

OVERHAULINQ TRANSMISSION

Noisy Transmission. After a car has been run for several
thousand miles, especially in hilly country, the transmission
becomes very noisy and will grind when either the low-speed or
the reverse-speed brake bands are operated. As there is no power
transmitted through the gears when the car is running in high

VIBRATOR CONTACT POINTS

Fig. 34. Adjustment of the Spark Coils

266

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 35

speed, little trouble will be had with the gears when the car is
being driven in high. The discs in the clutch assembly may be
roughened or worn enough so that they cannot be adjusted any
further by means of the clutch-adjusting screws. When the power
plant is out of the chassis, it is advisable to examine the trans-
mission gearing if unusual noises have been present. The gears
shoiJd not wear very much, although the bushings in these gears
are subjected to considerable wear.

Tearing Down Transmission. CltUch-Disc Assembly. In tak-
ing the transmission apart, it is first necessary to drive out the
clutch spring and the thrust ring support pin, which makes it
possible to remove the clutch shift collar. Group S, Fig. 35. The
driving plate can be removed after the screws bolted to the brake
drum are taken out. The clutch-disc assembly is then exposed
as shown in Group 4* The clutch discs are carried by the disc
drum as shown in Group L A set screw holds this member
securely to the rear end of the crankshaft. After this set screw
is loosened, the disc driun may be removed and the assembly will
then appear as in Group S,

Drum Assembly. The remaining part of the assembly, con-
sisting of reverse drum, low-speed drum, brake drum, and triple
gears, may be easily withdrawn from the flywheel and the crank-
shaft extension known as the transmission shaft. The assem-
bly is then as shown in Group 2. In order to take down the
remainder of the assembly, the driven gear must be removed
from the brake-shaft extension, allowing the three drums to be
pulled apart. The bushings in the triple-gear assembly must be
examined after the transmission has been taken apart. It is also
necessary to examine the pins attached to the flywheel that support
the triple gears. If either the bushings or the pins are worn, there
will be considerable play and the transmission will be very noisy
when operating in low or reverse speed. If the bushings are worn,
they should be removed and new ones installed, special care being
taken to see that the new bushings are reamed concentric so that
the gears will revolve true. The pins mounted on the flywheel
should also be replaced if worn. The bushings in the reverse
drum and gear and in the interior of the low-speed drum and
gear should be carefully examined to make sure that the low-

267

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

si.ii

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 37

speed drum is a good fit on the sleeve of the brake drum; the
reverse drum should also fit properly on the extension of the low-
speed drum. If these bushings are worn so that it is considered
advisable to install new ones, they should be removed and new
ones forced in place by means of an arbor press or a vise.

Before reassembling the brakcKirum unit, the bushings should
be fitted to turn freely on the members by which they are sup-
ported. The surfaces of the brake, the low-speed, and the reverse
drums should not be cut or scored. This scoring often happens
when transmission bands are riveted in place with iron or steel
rivets. Soft copper or brass rivets should always be used for this
purpose, and the rivets should be properly countersunk.

CltUch Discs. The clutch discs should be removed, thoroughly
cleaned, and inspected to see if there are any rough surfaces.
If there are ridges on the plates which come together — a result
of the operator continually slipping the clutch — the ridges should
be removed with a file; if this thins down the plates too much, new
plates should be used. It is advisable to install new plates if they
are rough, as this also indicates that the plates are soft.

Assembly of Transmission. The first parts to be assembled
are the reverse drum and gear, driven gear, low-speed drum and
gear, and brake drum, as shown in Group 1, Fig. 35. These parts
form Group 2. The brake drum should be placed on a bench with the
hub extending upward and the low-speed drum should be placed
over this hub with the gears on top. The reverse drum is then
placed over the low-speed drum with its gear member up. The
two Woodruff keys that connect the driven gear to the brake-
drum hub are then put in place as shown in Group 1. The
driven gear is then placed with the teeth downward so that it will
be next to the low-speed gear; the triple gears are then meshed
with the driven gear, making sure that the punch marks on the
teeth correspond with one another. The reverse gear — the small-
est one of the three comprising the assembly — should be on the
bottom, or down. When the triple gears have been properly
meshed, they should be securely tightened in place with a spring
or wire; the assembly will then be as in Group 2.

Group 2 should then be assembled on the flywheel. The fly-
wheel is placed on the bench with its face downward, the trans-

269

38 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

mission shaft projecting upward. The Growp 2 assembly is turned
over so that the triple-gear assembly will face the flywheel. Then
the group is so placed on the transmission shaft that the triple-
gear pins will pass through the bushings in the triple gears. The
assembly will then have the appearance of Group S. The assembly
should slip readily in place. If it is necessary to use force, the
pins may be bent, or the gears not properly meshed, or the bushings
not reamed.

The clutch-drum key should then be fitted in the transmission
and the clutch-disc carrier drum placed on the shaft, locking it
in place with a set screw provided for that purpose. A heavier
disc than the disc plates is put on the clutch drum first; then a
small clutch disc, and then a large one. This heavy disc, or dis-
tance plate, is not used on the later Ford models. The small and
large discs are then added alternately until all the discs are in posi-
tion. A large disc having keyways on its outer periphery should be
on top when the set is assembled. If a small disc having keyways
in. the inner periphery is left on top, it is likely to drop over the
clutch drum.

When changing from high to low speed, it is impossible for
the high-speed clutch to be engaged. With the clutch-disc drum
and the clutch discs in place, the transmission would have the
appearance of Group 4» It is then necessary to put the clutch-
disc ring over the clutch drum and the clutch push-ring over the
clutch drum and on top of the disc ring, with the three pins pro-
jecting upward as in Group 5. The remaining parts are then
assembled in the order shown in Group 6. The driving plate
should be bolted in position on the brake drum so that the adjust-
ing screws of the clutch fingers will bear against the clutch push-ring
pins. It is then advisable to test the transmission by removing
the drums and plates with the hand. If properly assembled, the
flywheel will revolve freely while any of the drums are being held,
or vice versa.

Assembling Clutch. The clutch parts may be assembled on the
driving-plate hub by slipping the clutch shifter on the hub so that
the small end rests on the ends of the clutch fingers. The clutch
spring should then be replaced with the clutch support inside so
that the flange of that member will rest on the upper coil of the

270

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 39

spring. Next place the clutch spring and the thrust ring with the
notch end down on the driving-plate hub and press the spring
into place, inserting the pin in the driving-plate hub through the
hole on the side of the spring support. One of the best methods
of compressing the spring sufficiently to insert this pin is to loosen
the clutch-finger tension by backing out the adjusting screw.
When these screws are again tightened, the springs should be
compressed to a length of 2 or 2^ inches to ensure against clutch
slippage. Care should be taken that these screws are uniformly
adjusted so that the even compression of the clutch spring is
obtained.

Another method is to assemble the spring on the drive plate
before installing it on the transmission. A vise or arbor press
may then be used to compress the spring. To relieve the pres-
sure on the fingers, a cap screw should be placed between the
plate and the shifter.

OVERHAULING FRONT-AXLE SYSTEM

Inspection of Parts. In overhauling the front-axle system,
one should first take off the two front wheels and clean the grease
from the ball bearings and from the hubs of the wheels. After
removing the ball bearings, the steel balls should be carefully
inspected for any flaws, pits, or cracks; even a tiny defect is
sufficient reason for throwing them away. The surface of a ball
is the important part, and a small crack or flaw will cause the
cutting of the cone and ruin the entire ball bearing. A cross-
section of the front spindle is shown in Fig. 36.

The cones and cups of the front-wheel bearings should be
carefully examined for signs of wear. As a rule, it is advisable to
replace the old cups and cones with new ones, as worn cones will
make it impossible to obtain a satisfactory adjustment of the
front-wheel bearings. When the hardened surface of the cone is
worn away, the cones will then wear away rapidly.

Turning the cones upsid^e down is sometimes suggested, thus
bringing the wear on the opposite side of the bearing. This
practice, however, is not to be recommended as it is almost
impossible to obtain a satisfactory adjustment, one which will be
easy running and not wobble, when the cones are worn to this

271

40 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

condition. These cups and cones are shown at J and iV and
also at and E in Fig. 36.

While the front wheels are off the spindles is a good time to
examine and replace the spindle-body bushings and the spindle-
arm bushing. In order to remove the spindle-body bushings, it is
usually necessary to use one of the special drifts, or punches,
which are made for this purpose by some of the accessory manu-
facturers. If one of these drifts cannot be obtained, the bushings

Sectional View of Front Wheel Spindle, A, Spoke; B, Bolt: C, Oil Re-
taining Widi; D, Hub PUnge; E. Outer Ball Kaee; F, Spindle; G, Hub:
H, Grease Space; T. O, Inner Races or Canes; K, Lock Null L, Hub
Cap) M. Cotter; N, Outer Race; P, Large Ball Bearing; Q. Ball Relaining
Sing: R, Spindle Oiler; S. Spindle- Bolt; T. Fro.it Axle; 0, i^ndle
Baling; W, Slnndle Boll Nut; X. Colter Pin.

Fig. 36. Croaa-Secfion of Front Wheel Spindle

can be driven out by tapping a ^-inch eighteen-thread tap into a
spindle-body bushing and then using an old spindle-body bolt to
drive out both the tap and the bushing.

As a rule, it is advisable to replace the spindle-body bolts
when the bushings are replaced, especially if the bolts show any
sign of wear. After the new bushings have been driven into the
spindle body, it is necessary to ream them out, for which purpose
special reamers are made and can be purchased at accessory houses.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 41

While working at the front-axle system, the nuts on the end
of the front radius rod should be securely tightened and then
cotter pinned. If the slots for the cotter pin in the nut do not
come into alignment with the holes at the ends of the front
radius rod, the nut should be removed and a. small amount of
metal ground or filed from the face of the nut, after which the
nut should be again tightened up. With a little practice, the nut
can be adjusted to turn to the correct position by filing off metal
in this manner.

The late Fords are being equipped with radius rods fastened
to a perch under the axle.

If the nuts on the end of the front radius rods are not kept
tight, the vibration on thck end of these rods will cause fatigue of
the metal and eventual breakage, thus possibly causing an acci-
dent. Also, if the nuts* on the front ends of the radius rods are
not kept tight, the front axle will not be held at the proper slant
to give easy and steady steering.

Adjusting Front Axle. Correct Slant. The adjustment of the
slant of the Ford front axle is of great importance in making the
car easy to steer and in saving wear on the tires. If a line is
drawn through the axis of the front-spindle bolt. Fig. 37, this line
should strike the ground about 1| inches in front of a vertical
line dropped through the center of the axle. By inclining the
front axle in this manner, the front wheels are given a trailer, or
caster, action, which tends to make them come to a straight-
ahead position, just as the front wheel of a bicycle does when the
bicycle is held upright and pushed ahead. This steering action of
the Ford front-axle system relieves the driver of much strain and
fatigue.

Another method of adjusting a front axle to the proper
inclination is by tying a weight on the end of a string and using
it as a plumb bob. Allow the string to touch the lower side of
the front-axle yoke in front of the car, Fig. 38. Under this con-
dition, the string should be about | inch, or about the thickness
of a lead pencil, from the top arm of the front axle.

Still another way to test this front-axle alignment is by the
test method. In using this method, it is necessary to drive the
car and see whether the front wheels swing quickly into the

273

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

—>

^—

Fig. 37. Checking Adjustment of Front Axle

274

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

straight-ahead position after
being turned to one side or the
other. Of course, this test
is made on a smooth level
road.

If the front axle is given
too much slant, there will be
too much tendency for the
wheels to come to a straight-
ahead position, and the driver
will have to exert undue strain
and force when turning a
corner. For straightaway rac-
ing, at high speed on board
tracks, it is the custom of
some Ford racing drivers to
give the front-spindle bolts as
much slant as two or three
inches, as racing on large
tracks does not involve any
short or sudden turns.

In order to get the cor-
rect slant on the front axle,
a large monkey wrench — say
a 30-inch size — or a special
front-axle tool made for this
purpose. Fig. 39, can be
gripped at one end of the
front axle and used to bend
one side of the radius rod, or
"wishbone." After bending
one side in this manner, the
monkey wrench or special tool
is shifted to the other side of
the front axle, near the other
wheel, and then the other side
of the axle is given the same
slant. The Ford Motor Com-

PLUMB
BOB

IPig. 38. Checking Front Axle with Pliimb Bob

275

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

pany recommends that when the radius rods* are badly bent they
should be replaced with new ones.

Ball Socket. It is usually found that the front-radius-rod
ball socket wears loose in time, even though springs are provided
under the nuts of the front-radius-rod studs to take up the wear.
After a year or so of use, it will be found that these studs are
badly worn; as they only cost a few cencs each, it is advisable to
replace them in order to get smooth steady action in the front
radius ball socket.

While the studs are out is a good time to file a little metal
from the face of the ball socket on the base of the crankcase. It
might be thought that removing metal from the face of the ball-
socket cap would be sufficient to eliminate such wear as might be
present, still the socket in the crankcase also wears and it is best
to file it too.

N /

I I
I I

Fig. 39. Wishbone Straightening Tool

As the bolt holes in the front-radius-rod ball caps are usually
badly worn, it is suggested that the ball caps be replaced rather
than an attempt made to file the metal off their faces. Of course,
if the car has been in use for only a short time, filing some metal
from the face of the ball cap will make this joint tight enough for
all practical purposes. Much of the rattle is often due to a loose
joint in the front-radius-rod ball socket and it is worth while to
take particular care in adjusting this socket.

Adjusting Front=Wheel Bearings. After examining the cups
of the bearings in the front wheels and replacing such cups as
may be worn, we are now ready to replace the wheels on the
spindles. If any one of these bearings is not a drive fit into the front
hub, several shims may be placed between the bearing cup and
the sides of the hub. This is to prevent the bearing cup from
turning inside the hub, as all the turning should be done on the

276

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

ball bearings. The shims used should not be thick or heavy, for
if the cup is too tight a drive fit into the hub, the bearing cup
may be slightly distorted — out of round — ^when driven into the
hub. It is better to use several thin shims equally spaced around
the hub and thus center the ball cup in the middle of the hub
than to use a single thick shim at one side. This practice, how-
ever, is not recommended.

The adjustment of the front-wheel bearings should be made
so that the weight of the valve stem is sufficient to start the
wheel in motion and to make the wheel roll to and fro. Yet the
bearings should be carefully adjusted so that there is no percepti-

Fig. 40. Adjustment of Front Wheels

ble shake or play when the spokes are gripped and the wheel is
shaken.

Before leaving the front wheels they should be checked up for
alignment. These wheels should be 3 inches closer together at the
bottom than at the top. Fig. 40. The purpose is to bring the
point of contact between the tire and the ground more nearly
under the point of rotation of the spindle-body bolt. This makes
it easier to steer the car and, by having the point of contact
between the wheel and the ground come more nearly in the same
straight line as the spindle-body bolt, there is less chance of
rocks or stones swinging the wheels to one side. This makes it
easier to drive the car on uneven rocky roads.

We all know that when a rolling hoop is tilted to one side or

277

46 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

the other, it tends to turn a corner or roll to one side in the
direction in which it is slanted. The same action takes place in
the case of the Ford front wheels, and as the front wheels are
slanted outward at the top, they tend to run outward. This
tendency would cause undue friction and tire wear if it were not
corrected by giving the front wheels a little "gather" to make
them J inch closer together in front at a point about 16 inches
above the ground.

EQUIPPINQ FORD FRONT HUBS WITH TIMKEN BEARINGS

Sets of Bearings. Ford closed models and 1-ton trucks have
for some time past been fitted with special Timken roller bearings
on the front wheels. The same bearings can also be installed in
other models to replace the old cup-and-cone bearings, as these
sets are interchangeable. The Ford Motor Company supplies the
bearings in separate packages or cartons; a complete set of bear-
ings for one wheel is in each package. As the Ford spindles have
right- and left-hand threads, it is, of course, necessary to supply
adjusting cones for the outside bearings with corresponding
threads. The packages containing the complete sets of bearings
are plainly marked "right wheel" or "left wheel," according to the
set each package contains.

Removing Old. Bearings. When installing Timken bearings in
the Ford front wheels in place of the old bearings, the first step is
to remove the old bearings from the wheel hubs and clean out the
hub thoroughly so that no grit or metal chips will be left to
damage the new bearings The shoulders of the recesses from
which the ball cups were removed should be inspected carefully
for high spots, which might cause the cups of the Timken bearings
to set high on one side.

The stationary cone is also removed from the inner end of
the spindle as it is to be replaced with a special cone. Be careful
not to leave rough or high spots on the part of the spindle on
which the cone seats, as the Timken inner cone is not pressed
onto the spindle, but is a floating slip fit. It has a clearance on
the spindle of 0.001 inch.

Installing Cups. Both the inner and the outer cups of the
Timken bearings, corresponding to the inner and the outer ball

278

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 47

races, or cups, of the old bearings, are press fits in the hub of the
wheel. The best way to install them is to draw them both into
place at once with a special puller, similar to that shown in
Fig. 41. The large or square end of this device is held in a vise
or with a wrench while the special handle nut on the other end
is turned, forcing the races in position.

Tools of this type can be purchased from the Ford Motor
Company, or they can be made in the repair shop from cold rolled
steel, and a simple forging.

FIc 11. Tool for lastalling Besring Races

If no special puller is available, the cups can be driven into
the hubs, but care must be exercised to drive them evenly all
the way around their circumference. A special driver or arbor.
Fig. 42, is very useful for this purpose. One end of this driver
is used on the large, or inner, cup and the other end ou the
small, or outer, one. The inside cone faces of the cups must

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

not be struck or marred in any way when pressing the cups into
the hub.

Securing Press Fits. As with the cup-and-cone bearings, the
Timken cups must be press fits in the hub. It is advisable to
try both cups by hand to make sure they will not fit too loosely
before attempting to press either one into place. Sometimes a
hub will be damaged and the recess for one of the cups expanded
somewhat as a result of some of the balls being broken in the
old bearing.

If either bearing cup of the Timken set is a loose fit in
the hub, it is safest to install a new hub, as there is no satisfac-
tory method of making a bearing cup a tight fit in a hub too
large for it. Some repair men attempt to make a cup a tight
fit by putting strips of pap)er or emery cloth between the cup and

SHOULDER fOR DRIVING irT LARGE CUP

SHOULDER fOR DRIVING IN SMALL CUP

ROUND SECTION THROUGHOUT
HEAD FOR DRIVING HAMMER AGAINST-

Fig. 42. Special Bearing Replacer

the hub recess; with either material there is a grave danger of
getting the cup out of true. If paper is used, it soon becomes
soaked with grease and pounds or works out of place, leaving
the cup loose. On the other hand, emery cloth cannot be used
at all unless the cup is entirely too loose and sloppy a fit in the
hub recess. To put it another way, if the hub is so large that
it is possible to use emery paper to make the cup a tight fit, it
is not safe to use the hub. The emery is also liable to get into
the bearing and hasten the wear.

The depth of the outer race recess in the latest front hubs
is f inch, but in older hubs it is H inch. Some variation may
occur, therefore, in the depth to which the outer, or smaller,
cups of the Timken bearing sets can be pressed in the front hubs
of various cars.

280

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 49

The principal thing to look out for in connection with the
outer cups is to see that they are pressed into place evenly and
are not high at any spot. It is unimportant if some cups pro-
ject slightly beyond the end of the hub, are flush with it, or set
in slightly, provided they have been pressed in all of the way
and run true.

To test the fit of the inner, or large, cup, be sure the dis-
tance from the outer face of the cup to the edge of the hub at
several different points around the cup is even. Fig, 43. A fine
scale should be used, preferably one divided into 64ths, as a very
slight difference in the depth of the cup at any one point would
cause it to run out of true.

In removing the races used
for the ball bearings, the hub sur-
face is sometimes burred. This
burr may seem very small and of
no consequence, but at the same

time it is in a position to cause rmm

excessive wear. Care should there-
fore be taken to prevent these
burrs when the old races are being
removed.

If burrs are present they may
be removed with a fine chisel and
emery cloth. A little sand or gtit
will cause the same trouble and

. , ^, f -J. Fig. 43. Checkine Evenuesa of BeaTing Cup

to avoid the presence of grit,

the races and hubs should be thoroughly cleaned with gasoline or

kerosene and a stiff brush.

Cones and Rollers. A plentiful supply of a good cup grease
should be packed into the hub as well as into the inner and the
outer cones and roller sets, the spaces around and between the
individual rollers also being filled. The larger inner cone with its
rollers is then placed in the inner cup, and the dust ring and the
felt washer are driven into the large end of the hub so that the
dust cap is flush with the end of the hub.

It will be noticed that the rollers of the Timken bearings are
assembled with the cones instead of with the cups, or races, as

50 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

are the cup-and-cone bearings. For this reason, the large inner
cone must be a floating slip fit on the inner end of the spindle
body.

The wheel, with the inner bearing complete and the dust ring
in place, is nfext mounted on the spindle. It is never necessary
to force the large cone onto the spindle. The outer, or threaded,
cone for that side, with its rollers assembled and properly packed
with grease, is then screwed onto the outer end of the spindle. A
right-hand threaded cone is used on the left spindle and a left-
hand threaded cone on the right spindle, as with the old cup-and-
cone bearings.

The adjusting cone should be run up on the spindle until the
wheel seems to bind slightly. The wheel should then be turned
a few times to make sure that all working parts are in good con-
tact, then the adjusting cone should be backed off about one-fourth
to one-half turn. This will be sufficient to allow the wheel to
revolve freely but without end play.

Sometimes looseness in the spindle-body bushings may be
mistaken for end play in the wheel bearings. To avoid any such
mistake, insert a cold chisel or a screw driver between the jaw
of the axle and the spindle to take up any play that might exist
in the spindle bushings, and test the wheel for end play by work-
ing the wheel back and forth.

When the proper adjustment has been reached, the spindle
washer and the nut should be replaced, the nut being drawn up
tight and then cotter keyed as with the cup-and-cone bearings.
IVIake sure that tightening the nut to the proper notch for
the cotter key does not cause the bearings to bind; turning the
wheel a few times just before the cotter key is inserted will
determine this. The hub cap can then be filled with grease and
reolaced.

Periodic Inspection. Every three or foiu* months the hub
bearings should be cleaned out, repacked with fresh grease, and
readjusted. The old grease should be thoroughly removed with
kerosene or gasoline to make sure that no grit or metal particles
remain in the hub to damage the bearings later. The rollers,
cones, and cups should be carefully examined for pitting or other
signs of wear.

282

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 51

SPRINGS

Replacing Center Bolts. We are now ready to inspect the
front and rear springs. The first point is to make sure that the
springs are correctly centered in the middle of the chassis frame.
Sometimes the center bolts, which hold the leaves of the spring
together and keep the spring from slipping from one side to the
other, are broken. In such case, the spring leaves or the entire
spring is likely to slide a little to one side and cause a slight tilt
of the car. These springs are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.

If a center bolt is broken, it should be replaced with a new
one. To do this work, it wtII be necessary for the mechanic to
remove the entire spring assembly from the car. While the spring
leaves are off the car, the surfaces of the springs should be sand-
papered and covered with grease and graphite. The spring leaves
will then slide freely over each other, thus making the car easy
riding and reducing the likelihood of spring breakage.

Tightening Spring Clips. After replacing the springs on the
car, the spring clips which hold the spring in place should be
securely tightened, and then cotter pinned. After the car has
been in use for some time, the leather pad between the top of
the spring and the cross member of the chassis is squeezed down
a little thinner. This loosens the springs, and it is therefore advis-
able to tighten the spring clips again after the car has been run
from 500 to 1000 miles. Practically all cases of spring breakage
through the middle of the spring are because the nuts on the
spring clips have not been kept sufficiently tight. If this is done,
the middle of the spring is kept as solid as one piece of metal
with the cross member of the chassis and there is practically no
bend or flexing at this point. It is then almost impossible to
break the spring.

Shackles and Bushings. As the shackles at the ends of the
springs come in contact with so much mud and grit, they, and also
the bushings in the ends of the springs, are subjected to rapid
wear. This wear will go on at an increasing rate if the worn parts
are not replaced. It is a comparatively easy matter to drive out
the old bushings from the ends of the springs and to drive in
new ones; and about the only advisable repair on the spring
shackles is to replace them with new ones. A very handy method

283

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

of replacing the spring bushings is shown in Fig. 44. A tube
larger and longer than the bushing is placed on one side of the
spring opposite the bushing to be removed. The new bushing is
placed against the one to come out and the three parts are then
caught between the jaws of a vise. As the jaws are screwed
together, the new bushing forces the old one out of the spring;
then the new bushing is reamed to size. A reamer is not expen-
sive and should be included in the Ford mechanic's tool equip-
ment to secure the best results. The late Fords are equipped
with steel bushings in the springs, which require no reaming.

NEW
BUSHIN6 \

SLEEVE

Fig. 44. Replacing Spring Bushings

OVERHAULING REAR=AXLE ASSEMBLY

Removing Rear=Axle Assembly. With the car jacked up at
the frame, the rear-axle assembly is taken out as a unit. The
two bolts and the cap screws holding the universal joint should
be removed, the brake rods disconnected at the front end, and
the spring shackles removed. The nuts on the front end of the
radius rods near the universal joints. Fig. 45, are then removed,
and after the nuts. Fig. 46, at the rear of the drive shaft holding
the drive shaft in place are removed, the drive-shaft assembly can
be moved toward the front. The wheels are then taken off. The

284

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 53

differential housing is held together by seven bolts, and, after
removing the axle assembly from the car, these seven bolts should
be removed. Put the nuts on the bolts and keep them together
so that they can be found when needed again — in fact, this should
be done with all the removed bolts and nuts. Whenever it is
practical to put the nuts and bolts back in place after disassem-
bling, it should be done, as much time will be saved. When the
seven bolts have been removed, the two main parts of the housing

can be separated, disclosing the differential assembly and the
bevel-gear driving system.

Bearings. The inner and the outer shaft bearings are in the
housing. The sleeves forming the outer parts of these roller
bearings are forced tightly into place, and if an attempt is made
to remove them, they will be spoiled. They are split and are
inserted at the factory with the split edges lapped; these sleeves
may be installed with the use of a hammer. In removing these
sleeves, they will be bent or spnmg so much that they cannot be

54 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

restored to their original accuracy if a special puller mad* /oi
this purpose is not used. If there is wear, the spoiling of the
sleeves does not matter as it will be necessary to install new
ones. There is no way to compensate for the wear in these
bearings.

The rollers, however, come out easily. Because of the ample
length and the extreme hardness of the rollers, they are likely to
show less wear than the sleeves or the live axle shafts. The
rollers bear directly on the live shafts, and as the shafts are neces-
sarily rather soft, there will be no tendency toward brittleness.

Fig. 46, Sectionsl View of Rear Ado

The shafts may therefore be expected to show more wear than the
other bearing parts. This naturally means new shafts.

The rear-axle bearings should then be inspected. If there is
play in the parts of the inner roller bearings, the axle shafts may
not stay exactly in the center of the axle housings. The amount
of play should then be adjusted so that it is the same in one
direction as in the other.

After getting the axle shafts centered in the middle of the
axle housings, the rear nuts on the radius rods should be adjusted
against the shoulders of the drive-shaft housing as shown in
Fig. 45 near the universal joint. After having this adjustment
correctly made, the nuts on the front end of the radius rod
should then be tightened up securely. If these nuts are not kept

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 55

very tight, the radius rods will rattle and pound at this point.
The hammering of metal against metal will also tend to cause
crystallization and fatigue of the steel — a frequent cause of the
breakage of Ford radius rods.

There is little use in half doing a replacement job of this
kind. If there is looseness in the bearings and the sleeves and
shafts show wear, both should be replaced. If only the sleeves are
replaced, there will still be looseness caused by the wear of the
shafts, which will quickly develop into more looseness. In short,
it will not pay. While at it, put in whatever new parts are
needed and make the job right. If this is done, there will be
practically a new outfit.

The inner bearings next to the differential are the same size
as the outer bearing but they will show less wear, as the outer
bearing carries the weight of the car. However, the same prin-
ciples apply to [replacement of these bearings to compensate for
the wear.

Wear of Thrust Rings. The thrust of the bevel driving gears
creates a tendency for the large driving gears and the drive pinion
to move apart. In other words, there is end thrust. This thrust
operates against the thrust rings placed between the differential
case and the rear-axle housing. The rings are of bronze or bab-
bitt and are grooved to distribute the lubricant. The wear on the
rings varies considerably, depending on the kind of roads on
which the car is run, its load, the way it is driven, etc. If there
is wear, the rings should be replaced with new ones.

This ring wear allows the bevel driving gear and its pinion to
separate, consequently the teeth do not mesh as deeply as they
should and there is a reduction of tooth surface in contact, wear
of the teeth, ineflScient operation, and noise. The bronze or the
babbitt rings are placed between steel rings pinned to the differen-
tial cage and to the housing. Thus there are six rings: two float-
ing rings, two rings on the differential cage (one on each side),
and two rings on opposite sides of the axle housing.

Differential Qears. The differential gears are in a cage
which carries the large bevel driving gear. The cage is made in
two halves, and it can be taken apart readily. It is held by
three studs and nuts, and once the nuts are removed, the spider

287

56 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

carrying the three small differential pinions is released, as the spider
is held in place by the two castings that form the differential cage.
This assembly is shown in Fig. 17. The pinion bearings should be
examined for wear as more or less wear is likely to be found. The
pinions themselves are of hardened steel and as a rule do not
wear much; ordinarily they are found in good condition. Look
at the bearings, however, and replace them if worn.

The live shafts and the large gears of the differential can be
removed from the differential cage when the cage has been
separated, which is done by pulling the shafts through the inside
of the cage halves. The gears can be removed from the shafts
after the shafts have been taken out by first forcing the gears
farther on the shafts, permitting the removal of the split rings,
and then sliding the gears off and leaving the keys in their
keyway.

Ring Gear. The large driving, or master, gear is bolted to
the differential spider, so that it can be replaced when it becomes
worn. A new gear should be used if the teeth of the old one are
chipped, burred, or worn.

Pinion Qear. The bevel driving pinion. Fig. 47, on the rear
end of the propeller shaft is subject to greater wear than the ring
gear because it has a smaller number of teeth and therefore a
smaller surface over which the wear is distributed. So it is rea-
sonable to look for some wear in the pinion even if the ring gear
is in good condition. Do not use a pinion that shows signs of
wear or is chipped, as it deteriorates quickly when once it starts
to chip. Removing the pinion is accomplished by taking out the
locking cotter pin that holds the castellated nut, after which the
gear may be taken off with a gear puller.

Removing Drive Shaft from Housing. To remove the drive
shaft from the housing, it is first necessary to remove the uni-
versal joint from the front end of the shaft. This universal joint
is held on the shaft by a pin. The shaft end and the socket are
square thus preventing turning. To remove the pin, two plugs —
one on the top and one on the bottom of the shaft housing, near
the universal joint — ^must first be removed. The bottom plug is
shown in Fig. 48. The pin can then be driven out with a punch,
after which the universal joint will come off when tapped slightly

288

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

with a hammer. The drive shaft can then be removed at the gear
end of the shaft housing.

Drive-Pinion Bearings. Perhaps the most important bearings in
the rear-axle assembly are
those back of the drive pin-
ion. There is a ball-thrust
bearing and a roller bear-
ing, and these should be
thoroughly inspected to
see that there is no lost-
motion; if there is, put in
new bearings as the align-
ment of the gears depends
on the fit here. Even if
everything else is in per-
fect condition, looseness of these bearings will cause grinding and
rapid wear when running.

Caution. If any of the gears have been broken or the teeth
chipped, some of the pieces may have lodged between other
teeth, and they will do a great deal of damage in this position.

47. Driving Pioion mid Ride Gear

Fig. 4S. Uuiveraal Jrant and Housing

The gears should therefore be carefully inspected and any chips
removed.

Models Differ. In the late bearing models the seats in the
central section of the axle housing carrying the inner bearings are
of pressed steel fitted into the castings and held in place by the
same rivets that hold the tubes to the housing castings. In the

58 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

early models these seats are formed directly in the castings by
machining. This makes no difference in the disassembling or the
assembling of the rear axle, but it is a point that is well to men-
tion to avoid any confusion.

Adjustments. In overhauling a Ford rear axle, it should be
borne in mind that while no means of adjusting the mesh of the
gears is provided, all parts subject to wear are removable and
renewable. The non-replaceable parts are not subject to wear.
Therefore, if a rear axle is fitted with a new set of wearing parts,
it will be in as good running condition as when it left the factory,
providing the rear-axle housing has not been sprung or deformed
by accident. All the parts are so easily obtained and installed
that there is no reason for not making the necessary renewals.
Saving money by not installing or renewing worn parts is very
expensive economy, for it will lead not only to excessive wear of
the parts in question but to the imposition of extra strains on
other parts, causing them to wear more rapidly than they should.

For example, consider the thrust collars. If these collars are
loose and other parts fit properly, there will be end play. This
end play will allow the geairs to work away from each other,
placing extra wear on the teeth and increasing the thrust on the
already worn collars and on the important bearings back of the
driving pinion on the rear end of the propeller shaft.

Referring again to the bevel pinion, do not try to remove
it by driving unless the propeller shaft is removed and stripped;
trouble may follow. Use a wood block to drive the shaft out
of the pinion so that the shaft end will not be damaged. The
pinion is mounted on a taper shaft, and once it is started, it drops
oflF. Do not use the Woodruff key — ^which will prevent the pinion
from turning on the shaft — until it is examined to make sure
that it is not battered or worn so that the pinion can move
on the shaft. Be very sure that the key is in place when the
pinion is put back; if not, there can be but one result — ^the car
will not run.

Clean every individual part thoroughly and scrupulously.
Do not leave a trace of old oil or dirt anywhere. When putting
the parts together again, oil them, so there will be no danger
of rusting the surface of the parts that are out of reach of the

290

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 59

oil in the housing. See that the spiral rollers of the roller bear-
ings are thoroughly cleaned inside.

Reassembling. In reassembling the axle, make sure that
all parts go together as they originally belonged. If anything
binds or sticks or will not go in as it should, there is a reason.
Find the reason and remove it instead of trying to use brute
force. Make sure that every nut, every screw, and every bolt is
properly tightened. At the same time, do not make the mistake
of tightening nuts with so much force that the threads are partly
stripped. Be sure that all cotter pins are replaced and that no
passages designed for lubrication are blocked. Finally, see that
this system is given a plentiful supply of the right lubricants.
The Ford rear axle needs plenty of lubrication, and the owner
should see that it gets it.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Importance of Lubrication. Lubrication was the subject of
a very thorough investigation when the Ford unit power plant
was designed because, while the main purpose was to obtain
extreme manufacturing and operating simplicity, sufficient lubrica-
tion at all times had to be provided. From the viewpoint of
an engineer, excessive lubrication of an internal-combustion engine
will not have destructive influence, although accumulations of
oil in the cylinders will coat the spark plugs and will impair, if
not totally prevent, ignition. The unconsumed lubricant will col-
IcQt upon the piston heads and the combustion chamber and will,
with dust and foreign matters drawn through the carburetor air
intake, become burnt and hardened by the heat and form carbon.
While such a condition will lessen the efficiency of the motor, no
actual damage will result unless the motor misfires in which event
extra strains will be placed on the rear axle and the engine.

But if the oil supplied is insufficient, damage will certainly
result, the most probable effect being the heating and scoring
or even the melting of the babbitt-metal bearings of the crank-
shaft and the big ends of the connecting rods. Far more serious
consequences may happen, such as a piston seizing in a cylinder,
which may possibly buckle the crankshaft, bend or break a con-

291

60 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

necting rod, break a piston, or even puncture a hole in the crank-
case, in the event that a connecting rod is broken.

When a bearing is not properly lubricated and it heats ujitil
the babbitt metal is softened or flows from the cage to the rod
end retaining it, it is referred to as a burnt-out bearing. In other
words, because of lack of oil, the friction so heats the metal that
it becomes plastic and no longer supports the load upon it,
taking a new shape and so enlarging that the shaft or rod has
side or end play, which causes a noise of a peculiar and notice-
able character. Obviously the only remedy in such a case is
the replacement of the bearings — not a matter of great cost for
parts, but quite an expense for labor and loss of service until
the replacement is made. The standard labor price for this opera-
tion is $4.50.

G)ntinuous Lubrication. Attention has been directed to the
consequences of excessive and inefiicient lubrication as adequate
lubricity is imperative, and this cannot be obtained unless decided
care is taken, despite the simplicity of the Ford system. In theory
and in practice, the best results can always be obtained with
machinery by feeding the lubricant in small quantities, constantly,
and by having a supply which can be drawn upon for a considera-
ble period of time. In motor-vehicle practice, the last-mentioned
requirement is very important, for frequent renewals would demand
an amount of care that would be objectionable to the drivers.
The purpose of the design of the Ford engine was to have a sys-
tem which would feed oil continuously and which could be operated
for a considerable time or distance with one supply, the replenish-
ments depending largely upon the use made of the car.

Simplicity and economy demand that the system have the
fewest parts practicable, and efficiency requires that the engine be
fully lubricated, especially as many of the owners have little or
no knowledge of mechanics and might, because of ignorance,
neglect conditions that would receive attention from those more
experienced.

Parts of Lubrication System. A sectional view of the Ford
motor. Fig. 49, shows the lubrication system. As previously
stated, the engine block and the head are cast separately, the
cylinder block forming the upper portion of the crankcase, while

292

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 61

the lower half of the crankcase is of pressed steel, about ys i^^h
thick, extended back of the engine to form the bottom section
of the flywheel and gear-set case. " In this pressed-steel section
is an opening extending from a point just forward of the front
wall of No. 1 cylinder to a point directly beneath the wall between
cylinders 3 and 4. This opening is 13f inches long and 5 J inches
wide and is surrounded by a raised edge, and a ring that is f inch
high and | inch wide.

Oil Troughs. The opening is closed by a pressed-steel plate,
or cover, 15^ inches long and 6| inches wide, bolted on with
a gasket between it and the case, thus making an oil-tight joint,
the lap being about f inch. The plate is slightly curved to con-
form with the general shape of the crankcase, and in the plate
are three transverse troughs yq i^^ch deep that are, when the
cover is in place, directly under the caps of the connecting rods
of the first three pistons of the engine. These can be noted in
Fig. 49.

Oil Reservoir. From a point just back of the rear portion
of the ring about the opening, the crankcase is sharply bellied,
or enlarged, to form a housing for the flywheel, and directly under
the flywheel there is a cone-shaped pocket. From this the crank-
case bottom rises to a point slightly above the level of the
connecting-rod caps. From the ring rearward the bell housing
of the flvwheel forms the reservoir in which the oil is carried.

Correct Level of Oil. There are two drain cocks located in
the rear of this oil reservoir, so that the amount of oil contained
in the tank can be ascertained. The motor must never be run
until the oil is below the level of the bottom cock. When starting
on a trip, the reservoir should be filled so that the oil will run
out of the top cock. Be sure that dirt has not obstructed the
openings in these cocks, as they are subjected to a great deal of
road dirt. To secure the best results, the oil level should be
about halfway between the two gage cocks. Were there exact
knowledge of the quantity of oil required to fill the crankcase
between the two drain cocks and were half of this oil placed in
the engine base, perhaps the proper level would be reached, but
there is no way of determining the consumption of the lubricant
other than to learn if there is a flow from the lower cock.

293

FOED CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 63

It should be remembered that the crankcase of the engine
is not obstructed below the level of the main bearings from end
to end and that the flywheel edge as it revolves is about j inch
above the inclined bottom of the case behind it. The engine
case when full will contain about 4 quarts of oil, the lubricant
being ^ inch deep in the troughs behind the three front con-
necting rods in the bottom cover plate and slightly below the level
of the cover plate. The troughs are supposed to contain sufficient
oil to permit the connecting rods to dip into it as they revolve.
When the machine is ascending or descending grades, the flow of
the lubricant in the troughs must be either backward or forward,
and in volume depending upon the angle of the grade.

Circulation of Oil. Assuming that the machine is being
driven on a level surface, the condition of the oil in the crankcase

Cylipde-r Walls 180to550 TaVjr

Fig. 60. Motor Temperatute and Lubrication

is similar to that shown in Fig. 50. About I of the diameter
of the flywheel is submerged in the oil; and the lower part of the
three contracting bands that encircle the revolving planetary-gear
set, the peripheries of the high- and the low-speed drums, and the
surface brake drum are sprayed with oil from the flywheel. At
every revolution of the crankshaft, the caps of the three forward
connecting rods strike the lubricant in the troughs, while the cap
of the rear connecting rod strikes a heavy spray of oil in the
reservoir ahead of the flywheel. The approximate temperature
of the various motor parts is also shown in Fig. 50.

64 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

As the. engine turns, the sweep of the connecting rods into
the oil creates a splash that throws the lubricant from the left
to the right side of the crankcase, and as the ends of the rods are
swung through the space beneath the cylinders, the greater part
of the oil is thrown off in the form of a spray. This is the result
anticipated in all splash systems. The revolution of the gear set
does nothing more than plentifully lubricate the pinions and the
gears, and the degree of the lubrication is greatly in excess of the
actual needs, but this is not a condition that can be criticized as
it is insurance against wear.

As the flywheel revolves in the oil, it carries upward consider-
able lubricant, which is thrown off against the right side of the
crankcase and the top of the flywheel housing. A small funnel is
attached to the inside of the crankcase. Fig. 49. This funnel is
directly in the line of the movement of the flywheel assembly, and
the legs of the sixteen magneto magnets, clamped to the flywheel,
serve as paddles and throw the oil up in considerable quantity
when they rise above the surface of the lubricant; part of this
flows into the funnel. The funnel is connected with a brass tube
that leads along the inside of the crankcase and all the oil col-
lected is carried forward to the gears at the front of the motor in
the timing-gear case. When the crankcase is filled to the level
of the highest drain cock, the volume of the oil circulated will be
the greatest, and with the engine running at 1500 r.p.m., the
circulation will be at the rate of about 2 quarts per minute. As
the oil is consumed and the level is lowered, the volume of the
oil circulated will decrease — probably to less than half the maxi-
mum of 2 quarts, and when below the lower drain cock, the cir-
culation lessens rapidly. Of course, there are other conditions
that influence the oil circulation, the character of the oil — ^for a
heavier lubricant will not be as thoroughly distributed, and a
lighter oil will be carried in a larger volume — the heat of the
engine, temperature of the air, all are factors that must be con-
sidered.

Filling the Troughs. As the oil is carried forward in the tube,
it floods the timing gears and then flows into the bottom of
the crankcase and over the forward end pan, filling the pool
beneath the connecting rods. The connecting rods dip into the

298

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 65

oil about I inch when the piston is on lower dead center. In
recently built chassis, openings are made in the sides of the oil
troughs, varying from ^ to | inch, to reduce the depth of the
oil beneath the connecting rods, but obviously the flow is greatly
dependent upon the heat of the engine, the grade and viscosity
of the oil, and the volume supplied. As the openings are not
uniform in width, one cannot determine what will be the actual
oil depth in the troughs in any given operating condition. The
oil thrown off by the big ends of the connecting rods lubricates
the center and the rear main bearings, the wristpins, cylinders,
pistons, cams, and valve tappets.

Viscosity of Oils. The oil used for lubricating purposes is
intended to form a film between two moving surfaces, and by
preventing actual contact of the parts it minimizes friction. The
fluidity of oil is spoken of as its viscosity and is measured by the
time required for a given volume at a given pressure to pass
through a standard aperture. The time is expressed in seconds
and the reading is usually taken at 200 to 212°F. The range of
the test of oils used in internal-combustion motors is from 180
seconds for a light or medium oil to 2300 seconds for an extremely
heavy oil. Oils of less than 180 have insuSicient body to lubri-
cate satisfactorily and those of more than 800 are unsatisfactory
because the fuel consumption is increased. It has been found by
laboratory tests that maximum results can be obtained in the
cylinder with oil having a viscosity of 180. This affords the
greatest horsepower for the amount of fuel consumed.

Formation of Carbon, Oil from the lubrication of the pistons
and the cylinders is splashed on the lower cylinder walls and is
carried upward and spread over the cylinder walls to the height
of the piston stroke by the pistons and the piston rings. A
certain quantity is thrown off the pistons by the upward strokes
and is projected onto the walls of the combustion chambers. If
the quantity thrown off is small and the mixture is *'lean" and
is consumed rapidly, the oil will be practically all burned by the
explosion and there will be no appreciable deposit of carbon. But
when the quantity is large and the heat of the explosion does not
consume it as readily, the vaporized portion is exhausted with the
gases as smoke and the remainder is left on the walls as the heavy

297

»«"

66 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

end-products of destructive distillation. These are reduced by
the intense heat into a cumulative incrustation that is generally
referred to as carbon deposits.

Effects of Carbon. The deposits of carbon in the combustion
chamber, on the valves and seats, the spark plugs, and the piston
heads decrease the efficiency of the motor; and while burning a
mixture of fuel that will as far as possible secure complete com-
bustion and thorough scavenging of the cylinders will undoubtedly
have some influence, carbonization will eventually result. Yet
the use of a good oil will greatly lengthen the period of service
between removals of carbon. Sooted spark plugs, necessitating
frequent cleaning and causing faulty ignition and loss of power;
carbonized valves and valve ports, followed by leakage, loss of
compression, dilution of fuel, and excessive fuel consumption;
preigiiition from the points of carboA becoming incandescent — all
these are among the certain results of carbonization.

Cylinder Oil Film. The cylinders of the engine are usually
bored to have the same diameter the entire length. The pistons
are generally tiu*ned to have a slightly smaller diameter at the
top, or head, to allow for expansion. The cylinder walls will be
kept reasonably cool by the circulation of the water, but the
pistons are cooled only by the admission of cool fuel and by the
splash of oil into the cylinders. The clearance — ^the space allowed
between the walls of the pistons and the cylinder — ^is filled by
the piston rings, which are formed to be slightly larger than the
cylinders and are compressed into the ring grooves. If the cylin-
ders are true and the piston rings fit perfectly, the latter will
prevent the escape of the gas during the compression and the
explosion strokes, the film of oil between the rings and the cylin-
der walls forming an oil seal. The lubricant that best serves is
that which affords the most perfect seal and the greatest degree
of lubricity.

CARBURETION SYSTEM

Importance of Correct Mixture. Many mechanics do not
realize the importance of a perfect carburetor adjustment. Dif-
fereiit adjustments should be used when the car is driven under
certain conditions. For instance, a certain amount of gasoline can

298

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 67

be saved if the mixture is thinned down when the car is being
driven between towns and a regular speed can be maintained.
The pick-up will not be quite so good, but this sacrifice can be
made in view of the saving in gasoline.

The experienced driver can tell from the sound of the motor
whether it is laboring with an over-rich gas mixture or whether it
is "starving" for want of a mixture sufficiently rich to give the
motor full power and to obtain gasoline efficiency.

Troubles Misleading. Many ignition troubles have symptoms
similar to those of carburetor troubles, and it sometimes takes a
little time to determine which is at fault, the carburetor or the
ignition system. For example, a poorly adjusted carbiu*etor and
a weak magneto have similar symptoms, as a weak magneto will
not satisfactorily fire a charge that is either too rich or too lean.

If the car is taken out on the road and run at about 15
m.p.h., the carburetor can be adjusted so closely that the car
will run perfectly at that speed. As soon as the car is stopped
and again started, the same trouble may recur, and the motor
may misfire a great deal.

Back Fire in Intake Manifold. Too thin a mixture will make
the motor spit-back or back-fire in the intake manifold and into
the carburetor. The layman and even the mechanic will often
wonder how the gas in the intake manifold and in the carburetor
can be burned as the explosion takes place in the cylinder long
after the intake valve has closed. It must be remembered that
a thin mixture burns much slower than either the proper mixture
or the rich one.

There is a lapse in time of only a small fraction of a second
between one explosion and the opening of the intake valve at
the beginning of the next cycle when the motor is running at 1200
revolutions per minute, or 20 revolutions per second. As there is
one explosion in each cylinder in every two revolutions, 10 explo-
sions will occur in that cylinder in 1 second; in other words, tu
second will be the time allowed for the completion of the four
strokes of the cycle. This allows tu second for each stroke of
the piston. When the spark occurs, the thin mixture continues
to burn through the power and the exhaust strokes, and it is
still aflame when the intake valve opens at the beginning of the

299

68 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

next cycle. This gas has then been burning through two strokes
of the cycle, or ^ second, if the motor Is running at 1200 revolu-
tions per minute. The gas in the intake manifold is ignited by
this flame.

Carburetor Adjustments. There are but two parts that can
be adjusted on the Ford carburetor, the float, which needs very
little adjustment, and the needle valve. In order to adjust the
float, it is necessary to take the carburetor apart. The float.

F«. SI. Carburetor Float

Fig. 51, is made of cork and is well shellacked so that the gasoHne
will not be absorbed and cause the float to be heavy, or water-
logged. The float closes the valve that allows the gasoline to
enter the carburetor from the gasoline tank, and if the float is
waterlogged, the valve will not close when the gasoline has
reached its proper level. This will cause the carburetor to leak
when the car is standing and permit a rich mixture when the
motor is running. To remedy this trouble, the float must be
thoroughly dried and a fresh ( oat of shellac applied; or a new

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 69

float may be installed. The float arm must be bent if the gasoline
level in the float is not at the proper point. Fig. 52 is a sectional
view of the Kingston carburetor, while the Holley carburetor is
shown in Fig. 53. The gasoline level must be high enough to
allow the gasoline to come just below the top end of the spray
nozzle. If this level is low, the motor will start hard. If the
float valve C, Fig, 52, does not seat properly, or leaks from any
cause, the carburetor will leak just as though the float was water-
logged. The pin B holds the float and the float lever in proper
relation to the float valve C. The gasoline, or needle- valve,
adjustment is made by
turning the needle J, the
adjustment rod extending

to the dash of the car. If r

the needle is turned to the
right, or clockwise, the
mixture will be made thin-
ner; if turned to the left,
or anti-clockwise, a richer
mixture will result.

Care of Gasoline Line.
The gasoline line is a very
important part of the car-
buretion system. It is „„„.•, „• , „• . ^ v .

" Fig. 52, Sectional View of Kingston Carburetor

sometimes clogged or

obstructed with foreign material, thus preventing the gasoline
from flowing properly to the carburetor. Lack of gasoline will
cause the motor to spit-back in the intake manifold just as it
would if the nozzle was set for too thin a mixture. If the gasoline
line is obstructed, the motor will generally run without missing at
low speeds, but when speeded up, it will start to miss. This is
due to the fact that there is not enough gasoline flowing to the
carburetor to replace the gasoline that the motor has consumed.

Care of Spray Nozzle. The carburetor spray nozzle has a
very small opening and therefore a particle of some foreign sub-
stance can easily clog up this opening. This will cause the motor
to misfire and slow up when the throttle is opened, the motor
acting much as if there was a clogged-up gasoline line. This

SOI

70 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

occurs because the motor requires a great deal more gasoline
when pinni ng fast than when idling. The obstruction can gen-
erally be removed by opening the needle valve a few turns and
then opening the throttle several times in rapid succession; this
draws the dirt or other foreign matter through the Spray nozzle.
The needle must then be turned back to the original position. If
this does not remove the obstruction, it will be necessary to drain

Holes to Needle Valve; I, DraiD.
Fi«. 53. Sectional View ot Holley CKiburelor

the carburetor, which, after it is removed from the car, should be
thoroughly cleaned.

Hot-Air Pipe. The hot-air pipe furnishes a supply of warm
air to the carburetor and vaporizes the fuel. It is advisable to
remove the hot-air tube during the summer months, but this tube
must be on the car during the winter months.

TItrottle Adjustment. If the motor runs too fast when the
throttle is fidly closed, it is necessary to adjust the throttle stop
screw. The lock screw that keeps the throttle-adjusting screw
from turning. Fig. 52, should first be loosened. The throttle
screw is then turned out — anti-clockwise — ^until the motor slows
up to the desired speed. The lock screw is then tightened so
that the adjustment will be permanent.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Setting Carburetor for Heavy Fuels. The old Holley carbu-
retors were fitted with a strangUng tube ^ inch in diameter at
the throat. This strangler, or mixing
tube, was satisfactory for the high-
grade fuels of a few years ago, but it
does not handle the present fuel as it
should. This mixing tube. Fig. 54,
can be replaced with a tube f| inch
in diameter at the throat for the
proper mixing of the present heavy

JVevv

'^6

23>

Old

Fig. 54. Carburetor Mixing Tube

fuels. The'smaller tube causes a greater velocity of the gases through
the mixing chamber, and therefore there is a better mixture when the
gas enters the cylinders, which results in greater mileage and power.

TROUBLE SHOOTINQ

KNOCKS IN MOTOR

Q. If the motor has a rather sharp slap or knock, when the
throttle is quickly opened, what may be the trouble?

A. This symptom is indicative of piston slap, fuel knock, or
carbon formation. If the car has not run many thousands of
miles, it would be advisable to eliminate the possibilities of the
piston slap. One of the spark plugs should then be removed and
inspected and the combustion chamber examined through the
spark-plug hole to find out what condition the combustion chamber
is in. If there is a heavy coating of carbon, the cylinder head
should be removed and the carbon scraped off, or it may be
removed by the oxygen process.

Q. If a dull heavy knock is heard when pulling through sand
or up a hilly what does this indicate?

A. This knock generally indicates that the main bearings are
loose, and they should be inspected as soon as possible, as opera-
ting the motor with loose main bearings will cause the crankshaft
pins to wear considerably and there is also a possibility of the
crankshaft being sprung or broken.

Q. If a knock is present when the throttle is closed or when
the car is pulling the motor, such as going down a hill, what does
this indicate?

303

72 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

A. When a knock is produced under these conditions, it
generally is caused by a loose connecting rod. The particular rod
that is loose can be located by shorting the spark plugs with a
hammer or a screw driver. The motor should be running idle
when this test is made. When a double knock is heard, the con-
necting rod in that particular cylinder is loose. This is very
easily detected after a little practice.

Q. If a sharp knock is present when the throttle is quickly
opened; the pistons fit perfectly; there is no carbon deposit; and
all bearings are tight — ^what then should be inspected?

A. About the only other condition that would cause the
motor to knock is a spark advanced too far or an overheated
motor. Either of these will cause the explosion to occur early,
and this early explosion will drive the skirt of the piston against
the cylinder with great force, producing a knock similar to the
piston slap. If this trouble is due to the spark lever being advanced
too far, the knock will usually die out when the lever is retarded.

GENERAL REPAIRS

Q. How often should the Timken wheel bearings be removed
from a Ford to be greased and cleaned?

A. The Ford manual gives the instruction to remove the
front wheel bearings every 500 miles so that the bearings may be
cleaned and repacked with grease. This, however, applies to the
ball-bearing type, which is the regular equipment on all open cars.
For the closed cars, which are Timken equipped, however, it is
necessary to remove the front wheel bearings only about every
2000 miles, washing out the bearings thoroughly with kerosene
and repacking with fresh grease.

Q. When a grinding noise is present, seemingly in the
transmission, what is the cause?

A. This trouble is generally due to worn triple-gear bush-
ings in the transmission. These worn bushings cause the gears to
grind considerably as the teeth do not mesh as they should,
especially when the low-speed or the reverse pedal is depressed.

Q. If a continual thumping noise is heard and it seems to
come from the rear axle, what parts should be inspected to locate
this trouble?

304

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 73

A. The cause of this thump is undoubtedly a chipped tooth
on the ring gear. The chip may have lodged between two teeth,
in which case it will cause a thump every time it passes by the
pinion. This chip should be removed at once, as it is sure to
spring the difiFerential housing and cause much damage if allowed
to remain in this position.

Q. What causes the motor to miss on two cylinders and at
the same time back-fire into the intake manifold?

A. If the timer has been replaced, it is quite likely that the
wires have not been connected properly to the timer terminals.
If this is the case, the spark will occur in two cylinders just as the
piston starts down on the intake stroke instead of when the piston
is just starting down on the power stroke, thus giving a back-fire
in the intake manifold. When these pistons again come up on the
compression stroke and are ready to fire, no spark will occur in
the cylinders as the spark has already taken place one revolution
earlier; therefore, the two cylinders will miss. -

Q. What is the trouble when the motor will not idle down
or pull when operating in low speed?

A. This trouble is undoubtedly due to either the float level
being too low; air leaks around the valve stem, Fig. 31; or air
leaks in the intake manifold. In order to locate leaks in the man-
ifold, a rag moistened with gasoline should be laid over the con-
nections between the manifold and the cylinder block, or gasoline
may be poured sparingly on the manifold. If the motor increases
in speed, it is a sign that the manifold leaks at the place where
the rag was held when the speed of the motor increased.

Q. Is it possible to remove one or two tubes from the Ford
radiator and replace them with new ones?

A. It is possible to remove these tubes, although the pro-
cess necessitates a great deal of work. The head, or tank, must
be unsoldered at the back, removing the rear section so that the
upper ends of the tubes may be unsoldered. The tank at the bottom
of the radiator must also be opened up so that the old tubes can be
unsoldered and the new tubes inserted. If possible, the old tubes
should be repaired; this will generally eliminate considerable work.

Q. How tight should the crankshaft bearings of a motor
be adjusted?

305

74 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

A. Bearings should never be adjusted on any motor so
that the average man cannot crank it with ease. Suppose the
bearings are tightly placed; it will then be necessary for them to
wear a certain amount before a film of oil on a bearing can be
properly formed. After the car is run a few thousand miles, the
bearings are worn to fit more, correctly than they could be
scraped by a first-class mechanic. A very tight bearing will also
loosen quicker than a snug bearing and will natiu'ally cause more
trouble. If the bearings are adjusted so that the piston will
drop by its own weight — if the crankshaft and the rod are on
the bench — ^you will have no trouble with bearing knocks and
the motor can be immediately operated without fear of burning
out the bearings.

Q. How should you proceed to reline the Ford transmission
bands?

A. To reline the transmission bands, it is necessary to
remove the cover of the transmission and flywheel case. The
bands are then moved back, turned around, and lifted out. The
new lining is then riveted in place on each band, preferably with
split rivets. In replacing the bands, it is necessary to wire the
ends together after they have been placed on the transmission
drums so that the pedal bars will engage the ends of these bands
when the cover is set in place. After the transmission cover is
tightly turned in place, the pedals should be adjusted by means
of the adjusting nuts on the pedal bars and on the transmission
case, this adjustment being made through the opening made by
removing the inspection cover on the transmission. These bands
can be exchanged at small cost for new bands.

Q. How is the ring gear adjusted?

A. While there is no adjustment of the ring, or bevel, gear
on the Ford car, if the thrust bearings are in good condition and
not worn, the gears will mesh properly; if, however, these thrust
bearings are worn, they should be replaced as the gears will wear
out rapidly if the car is operated when they are improperly meshed.

Q. How Qiuch clearance should be allowed between the
ends of the piston rings?

A. A clearance of 0.003 inch to each inch of piston diameter
should be allowed between the ends of the piston rings. As the

306

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 75

Ford motor has a bore of 3f inches, a clearance of from 0.012
to 0.015 should be allowed. This, however, is a general rule and
the Ford Motor Company recommends a clearance of 0.012 between
the ends of the upper ring, 0.008 between the ends of the second
ring, and from 0.004 to 0.006 between the ends of the third, or
bottom, ring.

Q. How much clearance should be allowed between the
piston and cylinder when new pistons are being fitted?

A. A clearance of 0.00075 to 0.001 inch for each inch of
piston diameter should be allowed at the top of the piston, using
cast iron as the material for the pistons. When aluminum is
used, 0.0025 to 0.003 inch should be allowed as this metal expands
much more than cast iron.

307

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND

REPAIR

PART II

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Elementary Electrical Principles. All Ford cars are now
equipped with an electric starting and lighting system at the fac-
tory. The mounting of the starter and generator is shown in
Fig. 55. In order to understand this system, a few characteristics
of an electric current will first be taken up.

There are three qualities in an electrical current that must be
understood, as the actions of these qualities determine to a great
extent the trouble in the svstem:

The volt is the unit of electrical pressure, which may be likened
to the pressure in a water-supply system that forces the water
through a pipe.

The ampere is the amount of current that flows through a cir-
cuit, which may be compared to the amount of water that flows
through a pipe.

The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance which tends to
hold back the amperes flowing through a circuit and which may
be compared to the resistance in the water pipe that tends to
hold back the water.

It is therefore evident that if the voltage of a circuit is
increased, there will be more amperes flowing through the circuit,
just as when the pressure in the water-supply system is increased,
there is a greater amount of water flowing through the pipes. If
the size of a wire is increased, a greater amount of current will
flow, just as more water will flow through a 2-inch pipe than
through a 1-inch pipe, the pressure being the same in 'both cases.
It is therefore necessary to use wires of different sizes for different
circuits in the electrical system according to the nimiber of amperes
necessary to operate the particular instrument to which the wires
connect. For instance, the starter cable is No. 0, while the cable

309

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

I for the horn is No. 18; the pressure, or voltage, on the cir-
flit does not exactly determine the size of wire necessary. The

Tig. 5E. Ford Motor Showina MounUng of Starter and Genetalor

greater the voltage, the smaller must be the wire to handle a
given current, as a high voltage would force a greater amount of

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

current through a given resistance. On the other hand, if a
higher amperage is needed, the wire must be larger. If the wire
is too small for a certain current discharge, it will sometimes
become so hot that it will burn or fuse and cause an open circuit.
Insulation* All cables and wires running from the battery to
the various instruments and from the magneto must be covered
with a suitable form of insulation to prevent short-circuits.
Wires carrying low-voltage ciurent, such as used in the Ford car
on the starting and lighting system, do not need so heavy an
insulation as is necessary on the spark-plug cables. The high-
tension, or spark-plug, cables carry a very high voltage, ranging

Combination Hisrh Tension Cable

Lishtinff Cable

Starting
Cable

Fig. 56. Types of Cables Employed in Automobile Electrical Equipment

from 6000 to 18,000, and it is therefore necessary to use a heavy
insulating material of good grade on these wires. Fig. 56 shows the
insulation on the various wires. A water pipe carrying a pressure
of 100 pounds per square inch would necessarily need to be
stronger than one carrying 10 pounds per square inch. This is
equally true of the electrical system, using the voltage carried, as
the determining factor when the thickness of the insulation is to
be ascertained.

Magnetism. When current flows through a conductor, mag-
netism, or magnetic lines of force, flows around this conductor.
Fig. 57. If this conductor, which is generally a wire, is wrapped

311

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Fig. 57. Magnetism Around the Conductor

around a soft-iron core, Fig. 58, and a current is allowed to flow
through this conductor, this core becomes a strong electromagnet.

^, ^^^ The strength of this elec-

tromagnet depends entirely
upon the ampere turns in
the coil. An arrfpere turn
S is 1 turn of wire through
which 1 ampere is flowing.
If there are 100 turns and
4 amperes flow through
the circuit, there are 400
ampere turns in the coil,
and the magnet is four times as strong as if only one ampere
were flowing. If this soft-iron core was replaced with a piece

., ^^ of steel, the magnet would

^-'jT-V-^' ~-Z*^-V-^ be permanent after it was

uii-^""-— * — -^-^ ^-— ^"v2i-i-I once magnetized by the

_ current flowing through the

N * i X^=~ ^:E^^~^EZ t,,^^7^ ^^^ ^ coil. When the soft-iron

core is used, the magnet-
ism is retained only as
long as the current flows.
^^ ""-----"-'-- -''^ The electromagnet is used

Fig. 58. Construction of Electromagnet j^^ ^j^^ p^^j ^^jj^ ^^ ^p^^_

ate the ignition, in the starter and the generator fields, and in
charging magnets in the shop or on the car.

IGNITION SYSTEM

The ignition system consists of a magneto or a battery as a
source of current supply; spark, or induction, coils; a timer; and a
set of spark plugs.

Induction Coils. The Ford induction, or ignition, coils are
located in the coil box on the dash of the car. On the earlier
models — ^which were not equipped with the starting system at the
factory — an ignition switch was placed on the outside of this box.
On the late models the ignition switch is located on the cowl and
forms a part of the lighting switch. There are four coils in this

312

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

box, Fig. 59 showing the box in cross section. Each coil furnishes
a spark to each cylinder of the motor.

If the electromagnet is wound with a niunber of turns of fine
wire over the primary winding, Fig. 59, a transformer is produced.
A spark of very high voltage will be induced in this winding

VIBRATOR ARM
VIBRATOR

VI6RAT0R CONTACT POINT

AIR CaAP ADJUSTMDfT

CONNECTS TO
COMMUTATOR

Fig. 69. Cross-Section of Coil-Box Unit

when the circuit in the primary winding is broken. The current
induced in this secondary winding is as many times stronger than
that flowing in the primary winding as the number of turns of
wire in the secondary is greater than the number of turns in the
primary. For instance, if there are 100 turns in the primary
winding and 100,000 turns in the secondary winding, the voltage

313

82 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

of this secondary current will be 1000 times the voltage of the primary
current, if the resistance in the external circuit of the secondary
is not chaniTed.

'-I-I- T 1 ,

In the case of an ignition
coil, the change in' voltage is very
great as the current from the
secondary winding must have
sufficient pressure, or voltage, to
jump the gap at the spark plug.
This current has a very low
amperage, however, for it never
exceeds tV ampere and generally
it is about ih) ampere. The volt-
age finally depends on the com-
pression and the spark-plug gap.
Vibrator. The vibrator is
"^ used to cause frequent continuous
breaking of the primary circuit,
as a strong current is induced in
Pig. 60. Connmi™rfc™de^ri„theCpii the Secondary winding whcn the
circuit of the primary is broken. By referring to Figs. 59 and 60,
it will be noted that the vibrator is directly above the end of the
core. When the core becomes a magnet, it will attract the vibrator
A, pulling it down and opening the circuit at the point B. The
opening of this primary circuit causes the core to lose its magnet-
ism, and the vibrator is then
drawn up by a spring, again
closing the circuit at the
points B, and the core again
becomes magnetized. This
series of events continues at
the rate of many times a sec-
ond with the result that the
core of the coil alternately

Fig. 61. Construction of the Condenser bcCOmeS a magnet and thcB

an ordinary unmagnetized piece of iron. When the primary circuit
is broken the magnetism instantly disappears causing a secondary
current to be induced in the secondary winding, and each impulse

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

gives a current of sufficient strength to jump the gap between the
points of the spark plug.

Condenser. The condenser, Figs. 60 and 61, acts as a reser-
voir in storing up, or absorbing, a certain portion of the current
at the time the points separate. It may be Kkened to a surge
tank or diaphragm, Fig. 62, which allows the water in a water
system to move into a by-pass when the main outlet is quickly
shut, thereby preventing the breakage of the water pipe. The
condenser is contained in the coil imit and is composed of sheets
of tin foil and paraflSn paper in alternate layers; every other sheet
of tin foil is connected to one of the vibrator points; the remain-
ing sheets are connected to the other vibrator point. The con-

htf&r
Supply

Pressure Chamber-.

Thin £dQe

^alveSeaf

-•Surge Tdnk

Fig. 62. Diagram Showing Hydraulic Analogy of Ignition System

denser prevents the vibrator points from burning rapidly and at
the same time causes the magnetism to disappear quickly. A
certain amount of current is induced in the primary winding at
the time the circuit is broken, and this eddy current tends to
again magnetize the core. This continuous action, if unremedied,
would prevent the quick demagnetization of the core and cause a
very inefficient secondary current. The condenser absorbs the
eddy currents^ thereby allowing a strong spark to be produced at
the spark plug. It is almost a sure sign that the condenser is
defective when the vibrator points start to burn and a white
spark appears at these points. If, after examining the points and
replacing them with a new set, the spark still continues, it is evi-

315

84 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

dent that the condenser has broken down. It will then be neces-
sary to install a new coil as the condenser cannot be repaired.

Fi«. 63. PrinriplB of Induced Ci

Ford Magneto. If magnetic lines of force are cut by a coil,
a current is induced in the coil. By referring to Fig. 63 it will be
noted that the coil is being moved backward and forward on

Fig. M. Magoeta CihIb and Magnets

the end of a permanent magnet. This action induces a current
in the coil in the reverse manner that a soft-iron core was made
an electromagnet by allowing a current to flow through the coil.

_ A Ford magneto utilizes this same prin-

,-''-'''lZ'----'-l~~''~l-: ciple in generating a current for ignition

' ''■'''''' '''''''•", ':■ ""for ignition and lights on early models.

• gN ^ ' — ™ Sg 7 Fig. 64 shows the magneto coils and their

C^-^;:;- ■-^'.■■"'y' / relation to the magnets. There are six-

"~-~;:; — 'S'-''' t*^n stationary coils and sixteen magnets

Fig. 65. Path of Magoetic Lines that are fastened on the flywheel and
o Force revolvc at a distance of Vs inch from the

cores of these coils. The rapid cutting of these magnetic lines of
force by the coils — the magnets moving — induces a current in the
coils of variable voltage, the voltage depending upon the speed at

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

TABLE I
Output of Early Ford Magneto at Various Speeds

R.P.M.

Vol™

A-™™,

K.P,M,

vo™

Am™«»

200

20.0

300

9.2

900

22.8

400

12.2

1000

24.3

500

14.2

1200

3o!o

600

16.4

1500

700

18.8

—

which the motor is operating. The amperage also varies with the
speed of the motor but does not vary as much as the voltage.
The magneto will generate sufficient ciurent to operate the igni-
tion satisfactorily at all motor speeds.

Fig. 66. MouDtiDg nf (he Magnets

Magnetic lines of force pass from the north pole to the south
pole of a magnet, Fig. 65, When these lines of force travel
through a coil in a certain direction, the current will flow from
that coil from a certain terminal in one direction only. If the

86 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

direction of these lines of force is changed, the direction of the
induced flow of current will also be changed. The horseshoe mag-
nets form a magnetic cir-
cuit between their poles;
they are mounted with like
poles together, Fig. 66.
Small steel plates [are
mounted at the ends of the
magnets so that the lines
of force will pass through
the cores of the coils a

Kg. 67. CiUTont Iai]uc«d in Om IHrection i .

greater length of time than
if the ends of the magnets were bare. Alternate coils are wound in
opposite directions so that a current of the same polarity will be
induced in all sixteen coils at the same time. When the south
poles of the magnets are opposite a coil that is wound in one
direction, Fig. 67, the current will flow in the direction indicated
by the arrows. North lines of force are then flowing through the
core of the adjacent coil, and as this coil is wound in the opposite
direction to that of the first coil, the current will flow in the same
direction. When the magnets are turned one-sixteenth of a
revolution, north magnetic lines of force will be flowing through
the first coil and south magnetic lines through the second coil.
The direction of the induced current will then be changed, this
reversal taking place six-
teen times in every revolu-
tion. This position is
shown in Fig. 68.

Table I shows the out-
put in volts and amperes
of the early Ford magneto
at various speeds.
^. „ ^ , . ^ . „ . ^. .. Timer. The timer is

Fig. S8. CuiwQt Induced in Oppoaite Direction

used to distribute the pri-
mary ignition current to the proper coil at the time a spark is
desired to explode a gas chaise in a cylinder.

By referring to Fig. 69, it will be noted tiat there are four
contacts around the inner part of the timer equidistantly spaced.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 87

A roller is mounted on the front end of the camshaft which
makes contact with these segments, thereby completing the pri-
mary circuit through th« spark coil, causing the vibrator to operate,
and producing a secondary spark at the spark plug. A diagram
of the ignition circuit is shown in Fig. 70. The coil box on all
Ford cars is provided with a battery terminal so that a battery
can be utilized for ignition purposes if desired. On the cars
equipped with a starting system at the factory, the starting
battery is connected to this terminal. The Ford Motor Company
recommends that the car be started with the ignition switch in
the battery position and run on the battery until the engine
warms up. The magneto should then be used for ignition as it

»d&innKiien
ibNui

Fig. 60. Patd Timer

is designed to meet this service. The battery connection is made
through the lighting and ignition switch.

Path of Ignition Current. By referring to Fig. 70, it will
be seen that when the switch is on BATTERY, the current leaves
the positive pole of the battery, passes to the starter switch, to
the second terminal on the terminal block, and through the
ammeter to the battery terminal on the back of the switch. The
current then travels to the busbar in the bottom of the coil box,
through the primary winding of coil No. 1 — the timer contact is
on segment No. 1 — through the vibrator points to terminal No. 1
on the timer, to the timer roller, and to the ground, and returns
to the negative post of the battery. As the current flows through

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

the primary winding of the coil, the vibrator starts to operate and
a current of high voltage is induced in the secondary winding
every time the vibrator points open. Tbis high-tension current
flows to the spark plugs and returns to the other end of the sec-
ondary winding through the timer and the timer wires.

MAQtiCr COILS

COMMUTATOR

Pig. 70. Ignition Wiring Diagram

When the switch is turned to MAQ, the current is taken
from the terminal of the magneto and flows to the first terminal
of the terminal block, to the magneto terminal on the back of the
switch, and across the switch and to the busbar in the coil box.
The remainder of the magneto circuit is the same as the battery
circuit except that the magneto current returns to the grounded
end of the magneto coils instead of to the battery.

320

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 89

Testing Dash Coils. If it is thought that the igDition coils
are out of adjustment when the motor misses or is hard to start,
they can be easily tested from the front seat. The cylinders that
are missing can also be located by this method.

Remove the coil-box cover and speed up the motor to a car
speed of about 12 m.p.h. Then- press down on vibrators Nos. 1
and 2 and note the action of the motor. If two explosions are
distinctly heard at the exhaust, it is a sign that Nos. 3 and 4
are operating all right. If, however, there is just one explosion,
it is a sign that one of these cylinders is not working properly.
This fault can be located by the process of elimination. Release
No, 1 vibrator and hold down No, 3 instead; if only one cylinder
is then firing, it is a sign that either No. 4 or
No. 1 is defective. Either one can be eliminated
by holding down its vibrator. If the motor stops,
it should be tried again with the throttle open
a little more. If vibrator No. 4 is then depressed
and the motor stops firing, it is a sure sign that
No. 1 cylinder is missing; this, however, may not
be coil trouble. To eliminate any possibility ^

of coil trouble, one of the properly working coils ■"'^

should be lifted out and exchanged with the sup-
posedly defective coil. If the cylinder still misses,
the spark plug should be examined; if the spark f ti d pJ
plug is all right, the motor should be examined ^i^'^ ^'"^

for loss of compression, valve trouble, dirty commutators, loose con-
nections, or broken wires.

Spark Plugs. In Fig. 71 is shown a partial section of a spark
plug. The center electrode is made of heat-resisting metal so
that it will not fuse and melt away. The porcelain or electrode
insulator is made of material that will not crack with either heat
or cold. It must also withstand any sudden change in tempera-
ture without cracking. If the porcelain does crack or become
porous, as in Fig. 71, it is useless to try to use it as the spark will
pass through the pores instead of jumping the gap at the points.
The current always takes the path of least resistance and the
resistance of a spark gap under pressure is much greater than that
of the path through the porous porcelain.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Care of Ignition System. The timer should be removed at
regular intervals and inspected. Any old grease containing a
great deal of grit and cuttings should be carefully removed. The
contacts should be inspected to make sure that there are no
uneven or worn places such as shown in Fig. 72. If the timer
is in this condition, the motor is likely to miss when running at
a fair rate of speed. The timer roller will enter the low places
and bounce over the contact. The roller spring should be care-
fully examined as the end of this

Pig. 72. Worn Timer

spring may be worn almost in
two, and if it is replaced in this
condition, it is sure to cause
trouble.

Timer Wires. The timer
wires are enclosed in a loom to
prevent them from being dam-
aged mechanically and to keep
them free from oil. They should
be carefully examined to see that
there are no bare wires exposed,
especially where they connect to
the timer. If there is an acci-
dental ground in these wires, the
motor will miss, backfire, or
"kick'* when it is cranked.

STARTINQ AND QENERATINQ SYSTEM

GENERATORS

Function. The generator produces an electric current that
replaces current used from the storage battery. When the starter
is used, current is discharged from the storage battery, and this
current must be replaced as the battery would be exhausted if
this were not done. The lights also take current from the bat-
tery when they are in use if the generator is not generating
sufiicient current to supply them. Fig. 73 shows the assembly of
the starter drive and an outside view of the generator.

It has been stated that if an electric current is passed through
a conductor, which may be in the form of a coil, a magnetic field

322

FOED CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

1
}

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

is produced about the conductor. The introduction of an iron
bar in the coil greatly increases the magnetic effect because it
is much easier for the magnetism to travel through the iron than
through the air inside the coil of wire. For this reason, the iron
core is always used in the electromagnet.

It is also true that if a conductor is passed between the poles
of a magnet through the magnetic field, an electric pressure is
generated, or induced, in the conductor which will cause current
to flow. The greater the number of magnetic lines of force cut
per second by this conductor, the greater will be the amount of
current flowing through it. These
magnetic lines of force can be
increased by winding the field
coils with a greater number of

E^. 75. Windinea of Modern Aimature

ampere turns; by using a higher voltage on the fields; or by increas-
ing the speed of the generator.

A simple generator is shown in Fig. 74, in which a loop of
wire is revolving between the poles of a magnet. In order to
carry the current that is induced in the loop of wire into the
external circuit, a commutator is provided. This consists of two
segments, each being connected to an end of the wire loop. Two
brushes B run on this commutator to collect the current. In all
modern generators a number of loops or coils of wire are mounted
in a rigid manner on a laminated iron core, forming the armature.
Fig. 75. The brushes are so placed on the commutator that the

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

current collected by them flows from one brush through the exter-
nal circuit and back to the other brush.

Regulation. Since the voltage generated in the armature of
a generator is proportional to the number of magnetic lines cut
per second, it is evident that by regulating the speed at which
the armature travels, we can regulate the voltage generated. It
is also evident that by regulating the field strength, and thus
changing the magnetic lines flow-
ing through the armature, we can
regulate the voltage generated.
The latter method is used in the
Ford generator. If this voltage
were not held within certain
limits, the lights on the car would
be burned out as the high voltage
would force enough current
through the lamp filaments to
melt them and cause an open
circuit.

Third Brush. The Ford gen-
erator decreases the field strength
by the use of the third brush.
The field winding is connected
between the grounded main brush
and the small third brush which
bears on the upper side of the
commutator. Fig. 76. The posi-
tion of this brush may be changed
so that it is nearer to or farther
from the grounded main brush.
The distance between these two brushes determines the maximum
strength of the current delivered at the generator.

The action of the third brush is as follows: When the genera-
tor is operating at a low rate of speed, the magnetic lines of force
pass in a straight line from the north field pole to the south field
pole. Fig. 77. It will be noted that the third brush is bearing cm
the commutator segments that are in the direct path of these
magnetic lines of force. WTien the speed of the generator is

INSULATED
BRUSH

3BS
BRUSH

BRUSH
GROUNDED
TO BRUSH
RING

Fig. 76. Generator Field Connections

325

94 . FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

increased these magnetic lines are distorted, Fig. 78. This causes
the coils that are connected to the commutator bars on which
the third brush bears to be out of the direct path of the magnetic
lines. The voltage generated at the bar on which this third brush
bears will then be decreased, and as decreasing the strength of
the field coils decreases the total number of magnetic lines cut
by the armature, the output of the generator will be reduced.

THmo Bkush

To regulate the output of the Ford generator, all lights should
be turned off and the motor should be run on the magneto. The
generator should be warm when the change is made. Remove
the cover that closes the opening in the rear end of the generator
housing. This is done by taking out two round-headed screws
that hold this cover in place. The hexagonal nut holding in
place the bolt that clamps the third-brush holder to the brush
ring is reached through the opening in the rear-end housing. It
is at the right of the generator terminal when facing the rear end
of the generator. A small, thin, open-end wrench is the best

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 95

one to use in turning this nut. Loosen it and then tap the
third-brush holder so as to move it in the slot in the desired
direction. Moving the third brush in the same direction as the
armature is rotating increases the charging rate; moving it in
the opposite direction decreases the charging rate, Fig. 79. The
engine should be running at about 800 r.p.m. and when
the desired output is obtained, the nut should be tightened. The
engine should then be run at different speeds to make sure that

I THti^o B^usH

He. 78. Diatorted Lina al Tatee

the current does not reach a value greater than that indicated
before the nut was tightened. The brush should be set so that
the highest reading is between 10 and 12 amperes. It is good
practice to sandAn the third brush after it has been set in its
new position until all points of the brush touch the commutator.
The method of sanding-in the brush is shown in Fig. 80.

Shunt-Wound Generator. The Ford generator is shunt
wound, which is to say, only a portion of the current generated
passes through the field coils, or the shunt, of the generator. The

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

/^C/feAS£

connections of the shunt fields are shown in Fig. 76. On each of
the four field poles is wound a single field coil, and these coils are
connected in series with each other. The joints between the coils
are made by soldering the wires together and covering the joint
with tape. The resistance of the four field coils when cold is
about 2.45 ohms.

Proper Generator Operation. The cutout should close when
the generator is running at about 600 r.p.m., or at a car speed of

10 m.p.h. At this speed the volt-
age of the generator should be a
little higher than that of the bat-
tery so that the generator can
charge the battery just as soon as
the points close. As the speed of
the engine increases, the output of
the generator will continue to
increase until the generator is run-
ning at 1200 r.p.m. or a car speed
of 20 m.p.h. At this speed the
current reaches its maximum value;
1>£CR£'AS£. at higher speeds the charging rate
decreases. This decrease is caused
by the almost complete distortion
of the magnetic lines of force, which
distortion decreases the voltage at
the third brush.

A charging rate of 10 amperes
is the best for average driving
conditions. The cutout will not
open and disconnect the generator from the battery until the voltage
of the generator has dropped slightly below that of the battery,
when the battery will begin to discharge into the generator. This
will be indicated by the pointer of the ammeter coming to the O
line and moving on the discharge position to 1 or 2 amperes. This
discharge current should not exceed a few amperes and should flow
for only an instant before the cutout points open.

Cutout. The purpose of the cutout is to automatically con-
nect the battery to the generator when the voltage of the gen-

Fig. 79. Rogulation of Third Brush

328

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Fig. 80. Method of Sanding-In a Brush

erator is greater than that of the battery, and to disconnect the
battery from the generator when the voltage of the battery is
greater than that of the
generator. This action
is necessary to prevent
the battery from dis-
charging into the gener-
ator when the motor is
not running.

To accompHsh this
automatic action, two
windings are placed on
the cutout core. Fig. 81.
One is of heavy wire and
carries all the current
generated by the gener-
ator, and the other is of
small wire connected so
that it will receive the full voltage of the generator. The small
wire, or voltage coil, performs the duty of closing the contact
points when the generator voltage
is slightly greater than that of the
battery. The small amount of cur-
rent generated at low speeds flows
through this fine winding and mag-
netizes the core so that it is strong
enough to overcome the tension of
the spring that holds the points
apart. The points then close, and
as long as the generator is charg-
ing the battery, the points remain
in this position. The charging cur-
rent flows through the heavy wind- TO BATTERY
ing and holds the points together.
When the voltage of the generator
falls below that of the battery, the
current begins to discharge into the generator, and therefore the
current through the heavy winding is reversed. Before the reverse

TO GENERATOR

CONTACT POINT

Fig. 81. Simple Cutout

329

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

current starts to flow, the core loses its magnetism as no current
is flowing in either direction. The spring will then open the con-
tact points, breaking the circuit between the battery and the
generator and preventing the battery from discharging ioto the
generator.

Cvioni Mounting. On many cars, the cutout is mounted
under the engine hood on the right side of the dash, and the base

ro GENERATOR

Fig. 82. Cutout Mounted on Dash

of the cutout is grounded to an iron arm projecting upward from
the frame of the car. On later cars, the cutout is on top of the
generator, and its frame is grounded directly to the generator.

Cutout on Dash. There are three terminals on the base of
the cutout, Fig. 82. The two outside terminals are marked
BATT and GEN; the one marked BATT is connected to the

330

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

ammeter, and the one marked QEN is connected to the generator
terminal. The two outside terminals are insulated from the base
of the cutout, while the middle one, which is not marked, is
grounded to the base. A movable arm carries one of the con-
tacts, and a flat spring tends to hold the two contact points apart.
Passing through an opening on this arm is a brass arm stop, and
by bending or straightening this piece, the distance between the
two contact points may be changed. The correct distance is
about Tsr inch.

The stationary contact point is carried on an arm that is
insulated from the upright piece to which it is mounted. The
distance between the points

CUTOUT coven ^

^INSULATOR

CONTACT
'POINTS

INSULATED
/ PLATE

TO GENERATOR

may also be changed by
moving this arm up or
down.

CiUoiU on Generator,
The internal connections of
the cutout when mounted
directly on top of the gen-
erator are shown in Fig. 83.
The part A is bolted to the
generator terminal and is
connected to J5 by a round-
headed machine screw which
may be seen by looking at
the bottom of the cutout;
A and B are both insu-
lated from the base of the cutout, which is fastened to the
base of the generator. The arm C is mounted on and electrically
connected with B, and at one end of the arm C is one of the con-
tact points. The other contact point is fastened to D, which is
insulated from B and C. A brass hook E, which is an extension
of D, acts as a stop for the arm C. This hook can be bent, when
the motor is not running, to change the air gap between the
points so as to secure proper operation of the cutout when the
generator is running. The spring F tends to hold the contact
points away from each other; and the tension of this spring may
be increased or decreased by bending it to secure proper action of

^GENERATOR
FRAME

Fig. 83. Cutout Mounted on Generator

331

100 PORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

the cutout both in opening and in closing the circuit between the
•generator and the battery.

Voltage-Coil Circuit The circuit through the voltage coil is
as follows: from the ungrounded main brush to the generator
terminal, through A to B, through the voltage coil to the base J,
through the generator frame, thence to the grounded main genera-
tor brush, and back to the armatiu'e.

Current Through Cutout. Current from the generator enters
the cutout at A and travels into B and C, through the contact
points into D, thence through the outside winding, which is
heavy wire, and into G which is insulated from all parts except
the coil. The current then passes through the screw H into the
insulated plate. This screw passes through the cutout cover but
is insulated from it. The current then goes to the battery along
the wire fastened to this plate under the screw 7. The screw
H is sealed to the cover and should always be turned down tight
as the charging circuit is broken if this screw is removed.

The base of the cutout, which is screwed down to the genera-
tor frame, is connected to one end of the voltage coil but is
insulated from all other parts except the cover which fits over it;
the other end of the voltage coil is connected to B.

Care of Cutout. The contact points should at all times be
clean and smooth, and when they are touching each other they
should make contact at all points of their surfaces. They may
be cleaned by drawing a rag moistened with gasoline between
them; to make them smooth, a piece of fine sandpaper or a fine
file may be used, drawing the emery cloth or the file between the
contacts while the movable contact is pressed down.

The movable arm which carries one of the points is insulated
from the base of the cutout; care must be taken to see that it
does not become grounded to the base.

Adjusting Cutout. To adjust the cutout, be sure that the
generator is generating about 10 amperes. The specific gravity
of each of the battery cells should not be less' than 1.250. Turn
off all the lamps and run the motor on the magneto. With the
motor running slowly, close the throttle until the points open.
The points may be watched to see when they separate, or the
ammeter pointer may be observed. The pointer will swing past

332

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 101

the O on the ammeter just before the points open, and will then
come back to the O line and remain in that position. Now grad-
ually increase the speed of the engine, carefully watching the
ammeter. When the motor is running at 600 r.p.m., or at a car
speed of 10 m.p.h., the cutout points should close. There should
be a slight movement of the ammeter pointer when the cutout
closes, indicating a charge of 2 or 3 amperes. With a further
increase in speed, the ammeter pointer should gradually go to
10 amperes, and this should be the maximum charging rate.

When the cutout closes and the ammeter reads reversed,
thus indicating that the battery starts to discharge into the genera-
tor, the cutout is closing before the voltage of the generator is
equal to or greater than that of the battery. This is remedied
by bending the spring on the movable arm of the cutout so that
the spring will hold up this arm with greater force. It will then
require a higher generator voltage to close the cutout circuit.
Another way is to increase the distance between the points by
straightening the hook, or the bent-over piece, a little.

If the ammeter pointer does not niove when the cutout points
close, it indicates that the generator and the battery voltage are
equal at this instant. The spring on the movable arm should
then be made stronger by bending, or the distance between the
points should be increased.

If the ammeter indicates 10 amperes charge when the points
close, the cutout does not close soon enough. To remedy this,
the spring on the arm should be weakened, or the distance between
the points decreased.

Checking Cviout Action, To check the action of the cutout
in disconnecting the generator from the battery, gradually decrease
the speed of the generator and watch the ammeter pointer. The
pointer should not move past the O line more than 2 or 3 amperes.
Should this pointer indicate a discharge of more than 3 amperes
or should it remain below the O line for more than an instant,
then the points are not opening soon enough, and the spring on
the movable arm should be straightened, or weakened.

Removing Qenerator. When it is necessary to take out the
generator, the three cap screws that fasten to the front end of
ihe cylinder block should be removed. Then place the point of

333

102

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

a screw driver between the generator and the front end cover
and gradually force out the generator. Always start prying at
the top of the generator and force it backward and downward
at the same time. If it is desired to run the car while the genera-
tor is removed, the timing-gear-case opening where the generator
was removed should be covered with a plate. This plate can be
secured from any Ford dealer or service station.

Remove the cover that closes up the opening in the rear-end
housing by taking out two screws B that hold it in place, Fig. 84.

Fig. 84. Rear End View of Generator

Grasp the pigtails on each brush with a pair of long-nosed pliers
and pull the brushes up until the brush springs snap from the
top of the brushes and bear against their sides. This will hold
the brush clear of the commutator. Then take out the six flat-
headed screws, A, Fig. 85, and insert the point of a screw driver
between the front-end cap and the frame and pry the cap loose.
Next take hold of the generator and pull out the armature. Remove
the rear-end housing by taking out the four screws C, Fig. 84, and
pry the housing loose with a screw driver. When do this, be

334

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

103

careful not to damage the insulation around the generator termi-
nal. When the rear-end housing is loose, it may be pulled back
as far as the wires fastened to the brushes will allow. . These
wires should then be disconnected, or they may be disconnected
first, care being taken to note the connections so that they may
be correctly replaced. Fig. 76 shows the proper connections.

To remove the brush ring, take out the four screws shown
at C in Fig. 84. The main brush-holders are riveted to the ring

Fig. 85. Front End View of Generator

and cannot be removed from it, while the third ^brush-holder is
removable.

Armature. The generator armature is shown in Fig. 86. It
has twenty-one slots and twenty-one segments on the commutator,
and the wires are enameled and cotton covered. The only part
of the commutator that requires attention is that on which the
brushes bear, and this should be kept clean and smooth and
free from oil. There will be no trouble caused by a greasy com-

335

104 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

mutator, if the rear-end bearing on the generator is not given
too much oil and the oil-retaining washer at the front end of the
generator is in good condition. To clean a greasy commutator
hold first a dry rag against it, then a rag moistened with ker-
osene when the generator is running. Do not use too much
kerosene on the rag and always run the generator for a few min-
utes after the rag is removed so that any surplus kerosene may be
dried up. The space between the commutator segments should
be kept free from oil, grease, bits of carbon, and copper. These
spaces may be cleaned with a sharp-pointed tool, scraping out
the dirt until the clean mica shows the entire length of the com-
mutator. The mica should be cut down until it is about ^ inch
below the surface of the commutator. If the commutator is

Fi(. SS. OeDBiator

rough, it may be smoothed by holding a piece of fine sandpaper
against it. Never use emery cloth! If there are grooves around
the commutator, it should be turned in the lathe until the surface
is smooth and of the same diameter at all points.

Wirit^ Diagrams. A wiring diagram of the complete elec-
trical system of the Ford is shown in Fig. 87. This system is for
all cars having the cutout mounted on the dash. A diagram for
all cars having the cutout mounted on the generator is shown in
Fig. 88.

Generator Troubles. Generator Reversed. To test the genera-
tor for reversal, a voltmeter should be used. Fig. 89. Hold one
test point on the ground on any clean metallic spot of the genera-
tor frame and the other test point on the generator terminal. The
voltmeter should show a voltage of about 7 to 7^. If the needle
moves backward the polarity of the generator is reversed.

I s

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

107

This generally happens when the battery is run down. To
remedy this trouble, put in a fully charged battery and hold the cut-
out points closed, by hand, for an instant. Then look at the amme-
ter to see if the generator is charging the battery. If the battery
is still discharging, reverse the field connections in the generator.

REAR BEARING
OILER

GENERATOR
TERMINAL

TO CUTOUT

•VOLTMETER

Fig. 89. Testing Generator for Reversal

To do this, the field wires that are connected to the third brush
and the grounded main brush are exchanged.

Shorts and Grounds, The generator field takes about 2.5
amperes when it is connected to a 6-volt battery if the fields are
not shorted or grounded. When the generator runs as a motor,
it takes 9 amperes from a 6-volt battery if there are no shorts
or grounds in the armature or fields. If there is an indication of
a short or a ground, remove the housing cover and inspect the

339

108

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

BRUSH,

SANOmSPCR

HOLD SWOIWER THIS WAY

wire leading from the terminal on the generator to the ungrounded
main brush and the wires leading from the field coils to the third
brush and the grounded main brush. The insulation on these

wires should not be cut or torn,
and the pigtails should not touch
the end housing or the brush ring,
although no damage will be done
if they touch the brush-holders.

Sparking at Brushes. Exces-
sive sparking at the brushes should
be prevented. If the brushes are
of poor material or are the wrong
size or type of brush, they are
likely to spark. A spark will also

Fig. 90. Correct Way to Sand-In Brushes ^^^ ^^fi^ jf ^j^^ brUshcS are UOt SCt

in proper relation to the windings. If the armature is loose or the
commutator is not running true on the armature shaft, sparks will
also develop at the brushes. If some of the armature coils are short,
or open-circuited, the sparking will occur only when the commutator
segments to which the coils are connected pass under the brushes.
If two adjacent segments are blackened or burned, it is plain that
there is a short-circuit present between the windings connected

to these segments.

Brush Trouble. For inspection
the brushes may be removed by
the use of long-nosed pliers; pulling
on the brush pigtails removes the
brushes from their slots. Of
course, the dust cover must be
removed in order to get at the
brushes. After they are removed,
they should be examined for dirty,
pitted, or insufficient contact sur-

Mg. 91. Incorrect Way to Sand-In Brushes fa^C. The partS of the brUsh SUrf aCC

that make contact with the commutator will be smooth and polished,
while the other parts will be dull and rather rough. If the brush
contact surface is not perfect, cut a piece of fine sandpaper and insert
it between the brush and the commutator with the sanded side

BRUSH.

SANDFWER

00 NOT HOLD SANDRfVPER
IN THIS WAY

340

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 109

toward the brush, as in A, Fig. 90. In Fig. 91, B shows the
incorrect way of sanding-in the brush. The sandpaper should be
drawn back and forth under the brush until all imperfections in
the brush surface have been removed when the brush will fit
the curvature of the commutator properly. When the brushes
are too short, they will give unsatisfactory service, as the spring
tension is greatly reduced. Brushes in these conditions should
be replaced, by brushes secured from the manufacturer of that
particular instrument. As a rule, it is not good policy to use
any brushes other than those manufactured by a reliable con-
cern and for that particular instrument only.

Improper Spring Tension, If the brush springs are broken,
total failure of the instrument may result, or if the brush-holder
becomes gummy so that the brush sticks, a great deal of sparking
at the brushes will be present. Sparking is sometimes the result
of loose brush springs also.

Defective Insulation, If the insulating washers are broken or
in any way damaged, they should be replaced with new ones.
Any grease or any gummy substance should be removed from the
brushes and the brush-holders cleaned with a stiflF hairbrush and
gasoline.

TESTING

Testing Armature and Commutator. A single dry cell is best
to use in testing the armature windings for opens or shorts. The
cell should be connected in series with an itmmeter, Fig. 92. One
post of the cell is connected to one terminal of the ammeter and a
wire having a testing point at one end is connected to the other
post. If desired, this testing point may be eliminated and the
bare wire used instead. A wire is connected on the other ter-
minal of the ammeter and the free ends of the two wires are used
to make contact on the various segments of the commutator,
Fig. 93. Before making the test, the brushes may be raised from the
commutator, or, better still, the armature may be removed from the
generator where it will be much more accessible. The test should
be started on any point of the armature, the two leads touching
the two adjoining segments. Note the reading on the ammeter
and then proceed to the next segments.

341

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

For example, the wire should be placed on segments Nos. 1
and 2 and then on Nos. 2 and 3, etc. The readings of all seg-
ments should be compared, as any great difference is indicative of
trouble on those coils which have different readings. It must be
remembered that when the wires are on contact, a circuit is com-
pleted through the armature, the ammeter, and the dry cell
which will fully discharge the cell if contact is held for any
length of time; just enough con-
tact to allow the operator to read
the ammeter should be made.

If the commutator and the
armature are free from short or

AMMETER

AMMETER-

BATTERY — ho)

HOLD TEST PdrfTS
ON SEGMENTS

lAND2,2AND3t
'3 AND 4, ETC.

BATTERYv

Fig. 02. Armature Testing Set Fig. 93. Testing Armature Coils

open circuits, the ammeter readings between the various pairs of
segments will be about equal. In case the reading becomes much
higher with the test points resting on any pair of segments, this
condition indicates that either the armature coil attached to these
segments or the segments themselves are short-circuited. If the
reading becomes much less, this indicates that a broken, burnt-
out, or otherwise open-circuited armature coil is present between
the two segments where the test points are then touching.

342

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 111

Open CiTcuit. If an open circuit exists, make sure that the
wires soldered to the segments are making perfect contact and
that they are not broken as far as they can be traced. If no
trouble can be detected on the surface, it will then be necessary
for the armature coil to be unwound until the trouble is found,
when repairs can then be made and the armature rewound.

Short-Circuit. If the test indicates that a short-circuit is
present, the mica slots should first be thoroughly cleaned, remov-
ing any bits of metal or carbon that may have lodged in them.
If any of the conmiutator bars have been damaged so that the

copper touches another bar, the metal should be cut away until
they do not touch. If this does not eliminate the trouble as
shown by a record test, the short-circuit is in the armature wind-
ing. This short-circuit can generally be located by using a 6- or a
I2-volt battery, connecting No. leads to the battery terminals
and touching the other ends of these wires to the segments that
indicate a short. Fig. 94. In the majority of cases, smoke will be
produced at some point on the armature, thus showing where the
short exists, and it can often be repaired without removing the
winding. It is sometimes possible to burn out this short with a

112

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

6-volt battery, although some manner of insulation such as shellac
or tape should be made after this kind of repair has been made.

Testing Fields. Open Circuit In making this test, all
brushes should be insulated from the commutator by inserting a
piece of paper between each brush and the conmiutator bars. A
6-volt battery should be used to make the test, having a 6-volt
bulb in series. Fig. 95. Disconnect the wire from the main brush-
holder and touch this wire with one test point while the other test
point is placed on the third brush. The lamp should light; if it

DRYRVCR
VNDCR BAU5HCa

Fig. 95. Toting Field for Open Circuit

does not, this is a certain indication of an open in the shunt
winding. The joints between the field coils should then be care-
fully inspected as the soldering sometimes becomes loosened,
causing a poor connection or an open circuit. If the solder on
these connections proves to be firm, each coil should be tested by
placing the test points on the soldered connections between coils
Nos. 1 and 2 and Nos. 3 and 4, etc.. Fig. 96. If the lamp does
not burn when any coil is tested in this manner, the coil is open-
circuited. In order to repair the open, it will be necessary to
remove the coil. To do this, take out the screw that holds the

344

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

113

pole piece in place and disconnect the coil from the adjoining coil.
If the broken circuit is not visible, the coil must be carefully
unwound until the break is located. It will then be necessary to
make suitable repairs, taking special care to see that each coil is
properly insulated.

Ground. To make tests for a ground in the fields, the tester
should be used according to the method shown in Fig. 97. With
the brushes still insulated from the commutator, one test point
should be placed on the third brush and the other point on any

UNDER BRUSHES

Fig. 96. Testing Each Coil for Open Circuit

part of the generator frame. If the lamp lights, there is a ground
in the field coil or the third brush-holder. If the lamp does not
light, hold the test point that was on the generator frame on the
end housing, this part being removed and not touching the
generator. If the lamp now lights, the third brush-holder or
the insulated brush-holder mounted on the brush ring in the end
housing is shorted. The brush ring must then be removed and
the insulation under the brush-holders carefully inspected to
locate the ground. If the lamp lights when one test point is held
on the third brush and the other test point on the generator

345

114

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

frame^ there is a ground in the field coils. Connection between
the field coils should be carefully inspected for damaged insulation
or places where the bare wires are touching the frame. If these
connections are in good condition, it will be necessary to discon-
nect the field coils from each other by unsoldering the joints
between them. Each coil should then be tested separately by
holding one test point on the generator frame and the other point
on a coil terminal. When the lamp lights, the grounded coil has
been located. The coil should then be removed as previously

HOLD THIS TEST POINT
ON MWN FBW1E Of
.6ENCRAT0R BUT
.NOT ON END
HOUSING IN
\NH»CH
,5RU5HE3
ARE
MOUNTEC

DW WkPCR
UNDER BRUSHdS

^STORAGE
BATTERY 6 VOLT

Fig. 97. Testing for Grounds in Fields

described and the ground repaired. The ground in a field coil is
much easier to locate than a short, as the ground will generally be
present at a point where it touches the field cores, and then it is
usually only necessary to retape the coils. This test is shown in
Fig. 97.

Short-Circuit In order to test the coils for a short-circuit in
their windings, the tester should be used as shown in Fig. 98.
Note the amount of current flowing through the ammeter when the
coil is being tested. With a 6-volt battery, a current of about 10
amperes should flow. If any coil takes more than 10 amperes, it

346

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

115

indicates that this coil is shorted, and it should be removed and
inspected. The field should be repaired, if possible, and care-
fully reinsulated before replacing.

Reversed Fields, To test the polarity of the fields it will be
necessary to use a small compass as in the method shown in
Fig. 99. Alternate fields should show opposite polarity. The
compass should be held about 1 foot from the generator frame and
gradually moved toward one of the screws that hold the field

Fig. 98. Testing Coils for Shorl^Circuit in Fields

poles in pkce. The compass should then be moved toward
another screw and brought nearer, when it should indicate the
opposite polarity. If three successive poles attract the same end
of the compass needle, the coil on the middle pole is wrongly con-
nected, and its connections should be reversed for proper operation.
Generator Terminal Grounded, Sometimes the insulation
around the generator terminal becomes cracked and the terminal
loosens. If it is left in this condition, a ground sometimes results.

347

116

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

This insulation should be carefully inspected; if it is broken or
cracked so that the tenninal might touch the frame, new insula-
tion should be put on.

STORAGE BATTERY

C0MPA5S

COMPASS

C0MWk55

COMPASS

Fig. 99. Testing Coils for Polarity

ELECTRIC STARTER

Construction. The only function of the starting motor is to
crank the engine so that it may start under its own power. This
motor does not generate any current and is entirely disconnected
from the system at all times except when the engine is being
started. The starting motor is a four-pole series-wound instru-
ment located on the left side of the engine in front of the fly-
wheel and is fastened to the transmission cover by four j^-inch
bolts. The drive is of the Bendix type, which threads the pinion

348

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

117

into mesh with the teeth on the flywheel when the starting circuit
is complete by the depression of the starting button. When the
engine starts, the flywheel, running at a higher speed than that of
the pinion, threads the pinion out of mesh with the flywheel gear,
thereby preventing any damage to the starter. The motor pinion
has 10 teeth and there are 120 teeth cut on the periphery of the
flywheel. The gear ratio is, therefore, 12 to 1, the motor turning
12 times to the engine turning once. The starting armature is
mounted on plain bearings, and as the starter is used but little, it
is not necessary to supply it with much lubrication. The bearing
next to the flywheel is lubricated
from the flywheel, while the bear-
ing at the commutator end should
not be supplied with any lubri-
cant. The front bushing is made
of bronze, the rear is of soft
bearing metal, Fig. 113.

Principle of Operation. The
principle of the starting motor is
similar to that of the generator,
except that the operation of the
starting motor is reversed. It
has been previously stated that
when magnetic lines of force are
cut by a coil, a current is induced
in this coil; also that an elec-
tromagnet has a strength depend-
ent upon the amount of current passed through the coil. It may
also be remembered that like poles repel each other and unlike
poles attract each other. For instance, a north pole will attract a
south pole of another magnet while it will repel a north pole of
another magnet. Keeping these facts in mind, let us examine the
illustration. Fig. 100. The current flows from the battery into one
side of the loop, causing south magnetic lines of force to be set up
in the upper part of this loop. The upper motor field, which is a
north pole, will then attract the south pole of the coil, and the
lower field pole, which has a south polarity, will also attract the
north magnetic field that was set up in the lower side of the coil.

Fig. 100. A Simple Starter

349

118

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

TABLE II

Current Consumption of Ford Starter

Condition of Motor

AUPBRES

Volts

Watts

Horsepower
Developed

Running without load
Cranking new engine at

75 r.p.m.
Cranking used engine

at 185 r.p.m.

65 to SO

275 to 300

140

5.75

4.5

5.0

373

1350

700

0.5

1.8

0.93

At the same time that this attraction is taking place, there is also
a repelling force acting between the upper part of the coil and the
south field, and the lower, or north, polarity of the coil and the
upper north field. The modern electric motor is composed of a
series of loops of wire rigidly mounted and is capable of allowing a
large amount of current to flow through its windings. This sets
up a strong magnetic pull which produces great turning torque
when the starter button is depressed.

Fields. The starting .motor is a series-wound machine as
shown in Fig. 101. A series winding is used as this type of instru-
ment produces great turning torque at low speeds, which is the
result desired from any starting motor. The current consumption
of the Ford starter under various conditions is given in Table II.

Brushes. There are four brushes on the starter, one being
connected to one end of the series winding and the opposite brush
to the other end of the series winding. The two opposite brushes
remaining are grounded. The starting current enters the instru-
ment at a connection in the fields shown in Fig. 101. The brushes
are of copper composition, and each brush has two heavy,
uninsulated, copper pigtails. The free ends of these pigtails are
soldered into the copper terminals that are fastened to the
brush-holder by a machine screw. The brushes are f"X|''Xf".
The brush-holders are made of aluminum and are riveted to the
brush ring. The main brushes are insulated from the brush ring
by fiber strips, while the grounded brushes are riveted directly to
the metal of the brush ring, having no wires except the pigtails.
The brush ring is riveted to the housing and therefore cannot be
removed. The same care that is given to the brushes and the

350

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

119

commutator of the generator is also applicable to those of the
starter.

Removing Starting Motor. In order to remove the starting
motor from the car, the pan on the left side of the engine must
first be taken off. The four small screws which hold the shaft
cover to the transmission cover at the back of the flywheel hous-

^?.

VjDdin^ of StAi-ter

ing should then be removed. Then turn the Bendix drive shaft.
Figs, 73 and 113, around so that the set screw on the end of
this shaft is in a horizontal position with the head of the set
screw pointing toward the left, the operator facing the rear of the
flywheel. There is a split spring-lock washer having sharp points at
the joint between the two halves on opixisite sides of the washer, and

120 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

this washer is located under the set screw to prevent it from
becoming loose. One of these points is turned against the Bendix
collar and the other is turned against the screw head. The point
turned up against the screw should be bent back and the set
screw removed. The washer is generally broken when removed,
so it will be necessary to use a new one when replacing the starter.
After the set screw has been taken out, the Bendix pinion spring
and sleeve can be slipped off at the end of the starter. The four
screws that hold the starter housing to the transmission cover are
taken out, and then the motor can be pulled out at the front;
lower, the motor through the opening in the chassis made by
removing the engine pan. If the car is to be used while the
starting motor is removed, the hole in the transmission case
should be covered with a plate which can be secured at any Ford
parts house. When the starting motor is replaced, make sure
that the terminal mounted near the rear end of the starter frame
is on top.

Dismantling Starter. As the Bendix drive was removed
before the starter was taken out of the car, it is now necessary to
remove the cover from the rear-end housing. Force this cover off
with a screw driver, grasp the pigtails of each brush with a pair of
long-nosed pliers, and pull up until the brush spring snaps from
the top of the brush and bears against the side of the brush; this
action will hold the brush away from the commutator. The six
screws in the drive-end cap should be removed and the cap pried
off with a screw driver. The armature can then be removed, and
it becomes necessary as well to remove the rear-end housing by
taking out the four screws that hold it in place. The two leads
from the ungrounded brush-holders are next disconnected and the
brushes removed by unscrewing the proper pigtails and then lift-
ing the brushes out. The brush-holders, however, cannot be
removed. The relative positions of these parts are plainly shown in
Fig. 73.

Starter Troubles. The starter may be tested for shorts,
grounds, and opens in the same way as the generator. If a test for
ground is made and the lamp does not light, the instrument is in
satisfactory condition. If the lamp lights, there is a ground in the
field. Then the next procedure is to disconnect, one at a time,

352

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 121

the two large insulated field wires from the two insulated brush-
holders. Repeat the test as each of these is removed. If the
lamp goes out after one of these wires is removed, the brush-
^ holder to which that wire is attached is grounded to the brush
ring and mu^t be reinsulated. If the lamp still bums after both
wires are removed from the brushes, the ground is in the field
coils of the motor. It is then necessary to disconnect each field
coil and test it. If the lamp lights when a certain field coil is
tested, that field coil is grounded. The coils should be removed
and repaired as described on page 113.

Open Circuit While the field coils are not likely to become
open-circuited, still the soldered joints between the coils should be
inspected carefully to see that they are well soldered. In making
a test for open circuit in the field coils, the connection between
any two coils should be opened. The test lamp. Fig. 96, should be
used in testing each coil by holding the test points on the bare
ends of that coil. If the lamp does not light, the coil is open-
circuited and should be removed and repaired as described on
page 112.

Bendix-Drive Trouble, Sometimes the starter armature will
only spin when the starting button is depressed. This indicates
that the spring connecting the pinion sleeve to the armature shaft
is broken. This break is sometimes caused by attempting to
crank a very cold stiff motor with the starter, or the starter
may not be lined up properly. Therefore, it is advisable to loosen
up the motor with a hand crank if it is stiff or cold.

Starting Switch. The starting switch is operated- by the
driver's foot and enables him to complete the circuit between the
battery and the starting motor so that the engine may be cranked.
A spring in the starter button automatically opens the circuit
when the driver's foot is removed, thereby disconnecting the bat-
tery from the motor. The switch is located under the fioor boards
on the left side of the car.

LIGHTING SYSTEM

Bulbs. The headlights contain two bulbs, a 6-8 volt 17
candle-power, and a 6-8 volt 2 candle-power dimmer bulb. The
tail lamp has a 6-8 volt 2 candle-power bulb.

353

122

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

It is important to use lamps of the proper voltage as a bulb
designed for a lower voltage than 6-8 would be easily burnt out
and one with a higher voltage would not give sufficient light.

BvJb Troubles, If the lamps burn out when they are turned
on while the engine is running at a car speed of about 20 m.p.h.,
there is probably a loose connection between the battery and the
Ughting switch or the generator may be charging at too high a
rate; generally the trouble is an open circuit due to some loose or
broken connection. If the battery is overcharged, run the starter

a few minutes with the ignition

lights

313

TAJL

MAG.
DIM

switch off or biu'n the
over night.

Lighting and Ignition Switch-
es. The Ford sometimes uses a
combination lighting and igni-
tion switch, thus enabling the
driver to turn the lights on or
off and to connect the ignition
coils to either the battery or
the magneto. This switch is
located on the instrument panel
in front of the driver. Several
types of switches are used. On
some of the early models, there
is a push-and-puU button for
controlling the head lamps, while
on the later models, the round-
type switch. Fig. 102, is used.
On the latest models, the round-type switch shown in Fig. 103 is
used. Round-type switches have a handle extending downward
from the center of the switch that controls the lamps. The ignition
is switched on or off by turning the key inserted in the keyhole
in the center of the switch.

Switch Troubles, Some troubles found in the early type of
the round switches were generally due to short circuits between
the wires connected at the back of the switch. The connections
on the back of both switches are shown in Fig. 104. It sometimes
happens that it is impossible to turn off the ignition, and in this

GROUND
BATTERY

Fig. 102. Early Type of Round Switch

354

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

123

event the engine will continue to run after the switch is turned to
the OFF position. If the ignition key is then turned to MAQ
position, the battery will discharge into the magneto at a rate of
about 20 amperes, while the engine is not running. This indicates
that the COIL terminal on the back of the switch is shorted with
the BATT tenninal. If when the lamps burn out the ignition key
is turned to the MAQ position with the engine running, the

5MAIJL DISC
fOR IGNITION

I LARGE DISC
rOR LIGHTS*

MAG

GROUND

AUX.

HEAD

BATT.

SECTION A-A
Fig. 103. Late Type of Round Switch

HEAD terminal is short-circuited with the coil tenninal. If the
battery is used for ignition with this short-circuit present, the
head lamps will burn even if the lighting switch is turned off. If
the small bulbs in the head lamps burn out, it indicates that the
MAQ terminal is short-circuited with the DIM terminal.

With a later type of round switch, these short-circuits do not
occur as this switch has two movable round discs, one for the

355

124

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

ignition and one for the lights. When the ignition key is turned
to the BATT position, the battery furnishes the ignition current.
When running and when the generator is charging, this current
will be furnished by the generator. When the ignition key is
turned to the MAQ position, the ignition current is furnished by
the Ford magneto. When the handle controlling the light switch
is turned to the DIM or the AUX position, the tail lamp and the

LIGHT AND IGNITION
SWITCH. OLD TYPE

BATTERY

LIGHT AND IGNITION SWITCH
NEW TYPE

TO STARTING SWITCH
TO CUTOUT

Fig. 104. Wire Connections on Round-Type Switches

small bulbs in the headlights will burn. With the handle in the
ON position, the tail light and the large headlight bulbs will burn.
The late cars are equipped with Tulite or double filament bulbs.
If switch troubles occur, the entire panel on which the
ammeter and the switch are mounted may be removed from the
front by taking out the four screws in the panel. The entire rear
cover may be removed from the switch in order to look for shorts
in this instrument; it will also be well to examine all wires lead-

356

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 125

ing to the instrument board to see that there are no shorts or
grounds present.

HORN

Operation. The Ford horn is operated from the magneto and
works on the vibrating principle. Its action is similar to that of
the vibrator on the ignition coils, but the vibrator strikes the pin
in the center of the horn diaphragm and causes the sound.

OPERATION OF FORD CAR

Introduction. The mechanical and electrical principles and
troubles of the Ford car having been considered, the reader should
now be able to understand more thoroughly this car's operation.

Operation does not mean the mere pressing of pedals and
pulling of levers; it means ^Iso the why and wherefore of these
actions and a knowledge of what is taking place inside the motor,
the transmission, the rear axle, etc., when the various pedals and
levers are moved. Then, and then only, can the driver hope to
become proficient in the operation of his car.

Preliminaiy Inspections. Cooling System. Before trying to
start the engine, the radiator should be examined to see that it
is full of clean water. If perfectly clean water is not obtainable,
it is advisable to strain the available water through muslin or
other similar material so that foreign matter will not get into the
circulating system and obstruct the small passages in the radiator.

The cooling system holds approximately 3 gallons of liquid.
It is very important that the cooling system be filled before the
motor is operated as the motor will become too hot if this is
not done. When the cooling system is completely filled, water
will run out of the overflow pipe.

The motor will naturally use more water during the first
few days of its operation — because it is a new motor — ^as during
this time the parts are fitting themselves to each other and more
heat is naturally developed. If it is possible to secure rain
water, by all means do so, for rain water does not contain alka-
lies or minerals which tend to deposit sediment and start cor-
rosion in the cooling system. A phantom view of the cooling
system is shown in Fig. 105.

357

/ FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

jGasoline Supply. The gasoline tank should next be examined
^see that there is a sufficient supply of fuel. In filling the tank,
the gasoline should always be strained, preferably through chamois
skin, as this prevents water and other substances from getting
into the tank. Dirt or water in the gasoline is sure to cause

trouble. The small vent hole in the gasoline-tank cap should
not be allowed to get plugged up as this would prevent the proper
flow of the gasoline to the carburetor. There is a drain cock at
the bottom of the tank which may be opened to allow the removal
of sediment or foreign substances which collect in a dirt trap

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 127

above the drain cock. The capacity of the gasoline tank when
full is about 10 gallons. A sectional view of the fuel system is
shown in Fig. 106.

Oil Supply, .The supply of oil should next be inspected.
There are two pet cocks underneath the car in front of the fly-
wheel housing which are used as gages to show the supply of oil
in the reservoir. The upper cock should be opened and a medium
grade of good oil poured into the breather pipe until the oil flows
out of this cock. After the engine has been limbered up, best
results will be obtained by carrying the oil level midway between
the two cocks, but it should be borne in mind at all times that,
under no circumstances, should the oil be allowed to get below
the lower cock.

Control Levers. The next move is to examine the control
levers, which are located underneath the steering wheel.

The right-hand lever controls the throttle and is used to
regulate the amount of gas vapor allowed to pass into the cylin-
der. When the engine is in operation, the farther this lever is
moved down, the faster the engine will run and the greater will
be the power developed. The throttle lever should be opened
about five or six notches. This position varies according to the
setting of the carburetor and the condition of the motor; a little
experience will rightly determine the best position for each indi-
vidual car.

The left-hand lever controls the time that the spark occurs
in the cylinder in relation to the position of the piston. By
pulling this lever down, the spark is advanced and by moving
the lever up, the spark is retarded. In setting the levers before
starting the motor, the spark should be put in about the third
or fourth notch of the quadrant.

The hand lever which comes through the floor boards at the
driver's left should be inspected to see that it is pulled all the
way back as it holds out the clutch when in this position, thereby
disconnecting the motor from the rear axle; at the same time it
applies the emergency brake at the rear wheels..

Starting the Motor. Car with Starter, The ignition-switch
key should then be inserted in the switch and turned to the
battery position (if the car is equipped with a starting and light-

359

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 129

ing system at the factory). The choker should be pulled out if
the motor is cold and held in this position while the starter button
is depressed.

I J ^1 i

The storage oattery then furnishes energy to the starter,
thereby cranking the motor at a rate of speed sufficient to start

130 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

its operation. If the motor does not start at once, do not hold
out the choker, as this will flood the combustion chambers with
too rich a mixture; if the motor starts and then stops, this is
an indication that the motor has either been starved or flooded.
A cloud of heavy black smoke having a gassy smell will come out
of the muffler if the motor has been given too rich a mixture.

Car without Starter. If the car is not equipped with an elec-
tric starter, it ■will be necessarj' to hold out the choke rod which
projects through the front of the radiator while the motor is
being cranked. It is also advisable to open the needle valve,
say J turn, until the motor is warmed up. This is especially

Fig. 108. Dash View of Caia Equipped with Self-SUiter

true during cold weather. If the motor as a rule is very hard to
start during the winter months, a good method to use is to crank
the motor several times with the ignition switch off, holding out
the choke rod while so doing. Then turn on the ignition switch to
the MAQ position and crank the motor. When stopping the
motor, it is common practice, especially in cold weather, to pull
out the choke at the front of the radiator instead of turning o£f the
ignition switch. This operation leaves a rich deposit of fuel in
the combustion chamber which will cause the motor to start
much easier. The various control devices are shown in Fig. 107,
while Fig. 108 shows the arrangement of the controls and instru-
ments on the late models.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 131

SPEED CONTROL

Clutch Pedal. There are three foot pedals that largely
control the operation of the Ford Car. Of course, the throttle
and the spark have a great deal to do with the speed of the car,
but the foot pedals change the relation of the speed of the motor
to that of the rear axle. The first pedal at the driver's left is
for low and high speed, generally called the clutch pedal. When
pressed forward, the clutch pedal engages the low-speed gears,
causing the car to move very slowly but with great force, as the
gear reduction is also great. This gear is also used when the car
is traveling up a steep grade. When the clutch pedal is halfway
forward, all gears are in neutral, being disconnected from the drive
to the rear wheels, and when the hand lever is pulled halfway
back, the clutch pedal will be held in the center, or neutral, posi-
tion. When the clutch pedal is allowed to come all the way back
— toward the driver — by pushing the hand lever forward, the
clutch is thrown in, which causes the drive shaft to turn at the
same speed as the motor. This is generally spoken of as direct
drive, or high gear.

Reverse-Speed Pedal. The second, or center, pedal is used
for reversing the motion of the car. When this pedal is depressed,
the hand lever should be in the neutral position or, what amounts
to the same thing, the clutch pedal should be held in the central
position with the driver's left foot. The reverse pedal may then
be depressed, which operation will cause the car to back up.

Brake Pedal. The right-hand pedal is used as a service
brake, this brake being operated on the transmission drum;
depressing the pedal causes the brakes to be applied.

Hand Lever. The purpose of the hand lever is to hold the
clutch in the neutral position. If it were not for this lever, the
driver would be compelled to stop the motor whenever he left
the car. This lever also applies the emergency brakes at the
brake drums on the rear wheels, thereby preventing the car
from creeping forward when it is being cranked. The emergency
brakes also hold the car when it is going up hill or standing at a
curb or on an incline and are employed when it is desired to
stop the car suddenly, etc. The brakes, however, are not operated
until the lever is pulled back the entire distance. When the lever

363

132 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

is in a halfway position, or almost vertical, the clutch is thrown
out, and when it is placed all of the way forward the clutch is
engaged, driving the drive shaft direct. When the car is to be
reversed, this lever should be placed in a central position as this
will prevent the clutch from dropping into high gear. See Fig. 107
for the position of these pedals.

Starting the Car. After the motor is started and it is intended
to make the car move, the driver should gradually depress the
clutch, or low-speed, pedal, thus bringing the low-speed gears into
operation. It is best to throw the hand lever all the way forward,
at the same time holding the low-speed pedal in the neutral
position, before the low-speed pedal is depressed, as this opera-
tion will then eliminate any further movement of the hand lever
until the car is stopped.

After the car has gained sufficient headway, say 20 or 30
feet, the throttle should be slightly closed and the foot removed
from the clutch pedal, allowing it to come all the way back and
engaging the clutch, thus causing the car to be operated in direct
drive. The speed of the car is now controlled by opening or
closing the throttle. The low-speed gear should never be used
except when necessary, although it is not advisable to cause undue
strain on the motor in order to prevent the low-speed gears from
being used.

Stopping the Car. When the driver desires to stop the car,
the high-speed clutch is released by pressing the clutch pedal for-
ward to the neutral position. The foot brakes should then be
slowly applied until the car comes to a dead stop. It is necessary
to pull the hand lever in the neutral position before the driver
removes his foot from the clutch pedal. If this is not done, the
high-speed clutch will be engaged and the motor will stall.

Before stopping the motor, the throttle should be opened a
little and then the ignition switch should be turned off. This
allows the motor to stop with the cylinders full of fresh gas,
thus enabling it to start very easily.

Spark lever. The spark lever is controlled by the left hand
and should be placed in such a position that the engine will not
knock; this position should be as far advanced as possible. If
the spark is too far advanced, a dull knock will be heard in the

364

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 133

motor. This knock is caused by the explosion occurring before
the piston of the engine has completed its compression stroke.
The very best results are obtained when the spark occurs at a
position as far advanced as possible without knocking. The
spark should be retarded only when the engine slows down on a
heavy road or a steep grade. Care should be exercised not to
retard the spark too far, since when the spark is late, a slow
burning of the gas with excessive heat will result instead of
getting the full power from the explosion.

The greatest economy in operation is obtained by driving
with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the maximum
speed with a given throttle opening. After a little experience, the
driver will become accustomed to manipulating the spark auto-
matically with excellent results.

Throttle. The throttle is controlled by the right hand and
is used to increase the speed of the car to meet the various
road and speed conditions. It is seldom necessary to use low
gear except to give the car momentum in starting; therefore,
practically all the running speeds needed for ordinary travel may
be obtained on high gear. The speed of the car may be tem-
porarily slackened when driving through crowded streets and high-
ways by slipping the clutch. This slipping is accomplished by
partially depressing the high speed or the clutch pedal. This
operation, however, should be used as little as possible as it
causes excessive wear on the clutch plates.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Cooling System. The Ford motor is cooled by the thermo-
siphon system as explained on page 6, Part I. In cold weather
it is very important to prevent the cooling system from freezing,
as this will cause a great deal of damage by bursting the radiator
tubes and possibly cracking the cylinders or the water jackets.
To guard against freezing, a solution of denatured alcohol may be
used to good advantage. Table III gives the different mixtures of
alcohol and water and the freezing points of each.

A solution of 30 per cent alcohol, 60 per cent water, and 10
per cent glycerine is commonly used, its freezing point being the
same as No. 2 solution, 8 degrees below zero. The alcohol in the

365

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

TABLE III

Anti-PreezinE Solutions

8.™..

FaxEUKQ Pourra

Akobol

Water

60%

16° above zero
8° below zero
34" below zero

alcohol-water solution tends to vaporize, and it is therefore neces-
sary to take due caution to see that the solution is up to its
proper strength.

An instrument is now on the market
known as the Radiatometer, Fig. 109,
which tests the gravity of the cooling
fluid in much the same way as the grav-
ity of the electrolyte in a storage cell is
tested. The percentage of the mixture
is easily ascertained when the gravity is
known.

Charging System. When the car has
attained a speed of about IQ miles per
hour in high gear, the ammeter on the dash
should show CHARGE. This ammeter indi-
cation will increase until the car has reached
a speed of about 20 miles per hour. At
higher speeds this charge will taper off,
this being a characteristic of the third-
brush generator, as described on page 93.
When the speed of the car has reached
approximately 15 miles per hour, the
generator should show a charge of from
10 to 12 amperes with all the lights
off. When the lights are turned on, the

Hg. 109. Raditttomeler , . . • i- , i , ..

charging rate as indicated by the ammeter
will drop to about 5 or 6 amperes as the generator is furnishing

current to the lights.

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

135

Care of Battery. The storage battery is a very important
instrument in any car and it should be carefully exanained and a
hydrometer reading taken every week, as this reading indicates the
condition of the charge. A hydrometer reading is shown in
Fig. 110. A battery charged the same amount will have different

HM and a Fully Cbai««l Cell

readings in tropical climates where water never freezes than it has
in other localities. Table IV shows the relation of the readings to
the amount of charge in the battery.

The hydrometer test should not be taken immediately after
the battery is filled with water, as this procedure will not give an

136

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

TABLE IV
State of Charge of Battery

Gravity

Amount of
Charge

Tropical Climate

Cool Climate

1.200
1.175
1.150
1.125
1.100

1.275
1.250
1.225
1.200
1.150

full

three-quarter
one-half
one-quarter
full discharge

accurate reading. It is necessary for the battery to charge some
little time after water is supplied before the reading is taken so
that the acid will be thoroughly mixed. The battery should not
be discharged below one-half charge. When it is in this condition,
it should be taken to a battery station and recharged. In case of
emergency, it is possible to allow the battery to fall to three-
fourths discharge, but this is not good practice and the battery
should be placed on charge as soon as possible. If the motor is
operated without using the starter, the gravity of the cells will be
raised.

If a battery goes dead, the cause of this condition should be
located before the recharged battery is installed, as it is quite pos-
sible that a short or ground is present in the system; also make
sure that the generator is charging properly. When the reading of
one particular cell is more than fifty points different from the
others, it indicates that this cell is not in good order and the bat-
tery should then be taken to a service station for attention.

Distilled water should be added at least once a week if the
electrolyte is not covering the plates. During cold weather this
water should be added only before the car is to b^ operated as it
is likely to freeze if put in at any other time.

GENERAL INFORMATION

Cooling System. The cooling system of the Ford motor has a
capacity of 14 quarts. The inlet hose is If inches in diameter and
2f inches long; while the outlet hose is 2 inches in diameter and 3j
inches long. The hose clamps for the inlet hose are 2J inches in
inside diameter, and the outlet hose is 2| inches inside diameter*

368

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 137

Transmission Band Linings. The transmission and brake
lining is -^ inch thick, IJ inches wide and 23 inches long. Three
of these strips are required, making a total of 69 inches.

Transmission Repairs. Dismantle and clean all parts. See
that all magnet clamps are tight and that magnets are parallel.
Try the triple gear shafts for looseness in the flywheel; if loose,
replace them with oversized shafts. Examine the triple gears for
worn or loose rivets; if the rivets are not tight, peen them; if very
loose, they should be replaced.

Rebushing, Try the triple gears on the shafts; if there is over
.005 inch play in the bushings, they should be rebushed. When
rebushed, the flange face of the new bushings should not project
over .005 inch to .007 inch from the side of the triple gears.
Examine the lugs on the inside of the brake drum; if they are
worn or cut over ^V inch deep on both contact sides, the drum
should be scraped. If the driven-gear sleeve flange-bushing face is
badly worn or too thin, it should be replaced.

Bushing Clearance. The gear shaft should be fitted to the
driven-sleeve bushings to a clearance of .003 inch on a new job
and on a repair job, a clearance of .005 inch. Examine the rivets
on the slow-speed drum, making sure that they are tight. Also
inspect the gears for worn or chipped teeth and test the clearance
of the slow-speed drum on the driven-gear sleeve. There should
be a clearance of .003 inch on a new job and .005 inch on a repair
job.

Reverse Drum Clearance. Examine the rivets and the gear
teeth on the reverse drum. Try the fit between the drum teeth
and the low-speed gear as there should be a clearance of .003 inch
on a new job and .005 inch on a repair job. Examine the driven
gear to see if it is in good condition and try the keys in the key-
ways on the gear sleeve and the driven gear. Place and drive the
driven gear on the driven-gear sleeve — the outer face on the driven
gear should be about .010 inch below the end of the driven-gear
sleeve. After assembling, see that all of the gears revolve freely.
Assemble the gear shaft to the flywheel; then place the drum
assembly, driven gear up, on the bench.

Triple Gear Assembly. Note the punch marks on the triple
gears. Assemble the triple gears to the drum gear assembly with

369

138 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

the punch marks registering on the triple gears. Assemble the
triple gears to the drum-gear assembly, taking note that the punch
marks on the triple gears are facing toward the driven gear.

Setting Triple Gears, The setting of the gears may start at
any point on the driven gear. The other two triple gears are now
spaced by the punch marks, 9 teeth apart, or at 120 degrees from
each other. After the triple gears are assembled to the drmn
assembly, tie a small cord around them so that they will be held
in their relative position.

Placing Gear Unit, Pick up the complete gear unit and
place the gears down and over the gear shafts and the triple-gear
pins. Place the Woodruff keys that hold the disc drum in the
gear shaft; the disc drum should then be driven on securely.
Place and spread the cotter key so that the set screw does not
loosen up and see that the drums are free and that there is not
over ^ inch end play in the brake drum. This is very important.

Clutch Assembly. The clutch discs should then be assembled.
Place a large disc on first, then a small one until 25 are used, end-
ing with a large one. Replace the push ring and try the fit of the
drive plate bushing on the gear shaft; there should be .003 inch
clearance on a new job and .007 inch on a repair job.

Fastening Drive Plate, Release the tension on the clutch
fingers by compressing the clutch spring and placing the drive-
plate cap screw under the clutch shift. The drive plate is then
placed in position and fastened down; now remove the temporary
drive-plate screw under the clutch shift, also the wire from one
drive-plate screw to another. When the clutch is properly
adjusted, there should be f| inch space between the lower side of
the clutch and the drive plate. Fig. Ill is a sectional view of the
assembled transmission.

Timing Gears. There are 42 teeth on the cam gear, this gear
having a diameter of 5| inches; while the crankshaft gear has 21 teeth
and is 2| inches in diameter. The ratio of these gears is 2 to 1.

Rear Axle Gears. The bevel gear in the rear axle has 40
teeth and the pinion has 11 teeth. The gear ratio is 3xV to 1.
When the car is being operated in low speed, the gear ratio
between the motor and the rear wheels is 10 to 1; and when
reverse speed is used, the ratio is 14.5 to 1. V

370

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 139

Alignment of Front Wheels. The front wheels of the car are
set at an angle of 3 degrees; that is, the width between the wheels
at the top is 3 inches greater than at the bottom. The toe-in of
the front wheels is i inch; in other words, the front wheels should

it 3

1"^ S 6

be } inch closer together at the front than at the back. If a
plumb line is dropped through the spindle bolt it should touch the
ground 2^ inches from the center of the tire.

Clutch. The clutch has 12 small discs and 13 large discs. A
large disc should always be on top when the clutch is assembled.

140

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

TABLE V
Magneto Output

R.P.M.

Miles per Houk

Volts

Amperes

Cycles per
Second

Car

Truck

200
400
600
800
1000
1200

5
10
15
20
25
30

2.63

5.26

7.89

10.52

13.15

15.80

0.5
9.8
14.4
18.8
22.8
26.2

6.1

7.9
8.5
8.8
8.9
9.0

26.4

52.8

80.0

106.4

146.4

160

Valves. The valves are 1^ inches in diameter at the h^ad,
having a seat at an angle of 45 degrees to the stem. The valve
stem is ^ inch in diameter and 5| inches long. There is a pin-
hole f inch from the end of the valve stem, this hole being ^
inch in diameter. The exhaust and the inlet valves are of the
same size and they are interchangeable.

Valve Timing. The valves should be timed by the position of
the piston. The measurements for the different models are as fol-
lows:

Models previous to 1913

Exhaust opens f inch before lower dead center
Exhaust closes ^ inch past upper dead center
Intake opens ^ inch past upper dead center
Intake closes | inch past lower dead center

Models later than 1913

Exhaust opens A inch before lower dead center
Exhaust closes upper dead center
Intake opens ^ inch past upper dead center
Intake closes ^ inch past lower de^d center

Magneto. In table V is given the output of the late type of
Ford magneto at various motor speeds.

TROUBLE SHOOTING

WHEN MOTOR FAILS TO START

Q. When the engine fails to start, what parts should be
examined?

A. The first thing to do is to make sure that a suflBcient
supply of gasoline is at hand; also that there is no water mixed
with the gasoline. If water is present, it may freeze at the outlet

372

FORD CONSTRnCTION AND REPAIR 141

of the tank and prevent the gasoline from flowing to the carbure-
tor. If the temperature is not cold enough to freeze, the water
will pass into the carburetor and the combustion chamber and pos-
sibly short the spark plugs.

Q. If the gasoline supply is in good condition, what should
then be examined?

A. The ignition system should be examined to see that suf-
ficient spark is present at the spark plugs at the proper tune. If
the car is equipped with a starter, the ignition switch should be
turned on and the starter button depressed, shorting the spark
plugs with a screw driver or a hammer. The fact that the vibra-
tor coils are operating does not necessarily indicate that a spark is
present of sufficient
strength to prope
ignite the mixture. Wh
the plugs are shorted
this method, a spi
should jump at least
inch to the screw dri'
or hammer.

Q. If no spark o
very weak spark is pn
ent, what should be i
spected?

A. During co...
weather, the timer should

be examined as congealed oil or water may have collected in the
timer, preventing suitable contact from being made with the seg-
ments and the roller. The timer is easily removed by loosening
up the cap screw on the timing-gear case, and after it has been
thoroughly cleaned, it should be supplied with a little oil by the
method shown in Fig. 1 12. The spring on the timer roller may also
be broken; and this will prevent a contact from being made. The
timer should be carefully inspected as well as the surface of the
commutator, as a rough commutator is Hkely to prevent the motor
from starting and it is sure to cause the motor to miss after it is
started. More detailed information on the timer can be found on
page 86.

142 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Q. If the timer is in good condition, what should then be
examined?

A. Examine the vibrator points on the coils for they may be
adjusted too closely. If the car is equipped with a battery supply
for the ignition system, the switch should be turned to the battery
position and the motor turned over until a coil starts to vibrate.
The vibrator adjustment should then be changed until a strong
spark is produced at the secondary terminal. Of course, if the
battery is weak, it will be impossible to make this adjustment.

Q. After adjusting the coils and the motor does not start,
what should be examined?

A. The compression of each cylinder should then be care-
fully tested, using the crank for this operation. Try each cylinder
by placing the crank on each quarter of the shaft and rocking the
motor, thus ascertaining the relative compression of the various
cylinders. If the compression is poor, the cylinders may be full of
carbon; this may cause the valves to remain open, thus losing the
compression through them.

WHEN ENGINE LACKS POWER AND RUNS IRREGULARLY

LOW SPEED

Q. If the engine misses at low speeds and does not develop
much power, what should be examined first?

A. The compression of the motor should be examined by the
method described under "When Engine Fails to Start."

Q. If the compression is in good condition, what then?

A. The carburetor may not be properly adjusted; the adjust-
ment of this instrument determines to a great extent the power
produced by the motor. If the carburetor is set too rich, the
mixture will burn very slowly, developing less power than it
should; and if the carburetor is set too thin, the mixture will burn
still more slowly than the rich mixture, and this will also greatly
decrease the power.

Q. If the carburetor adjustment is correct, what part of the
motor should then be examined?

A. The spark plugs should then be examined as it is quite
possible that they are partially or completely shorted.

374

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 143

Q. After the spark plugs are clean and the motor still
misses^ what parts should be inspected?

A. The vibrator points on the spark coils should then be
examined as it is possible that they have become pitted, causing a
high resistance in the path of the current, thus decreasing the
strength of the spark in the secondary winding.

Q. After the ignition has been carefully looked over and
everything found in good condition, what should be examined?

A. The clearance between the valve stem and the push rod
may be insuflScient to allow the valves to seat properly, thus hold-
ing them open and allowing the motor to miss intermittently.

HIGH SPEEDS

Q. When the motor lacks power and runs irregularly at
high speeds, what should be examined?

A. The spark plugs should first be examined, as it is quite
possible that the spark gap is too wide; perhaps the plugs may be
partially fouled, either on account of a porous or a cracked porce-
lain or because of oil and carbon on the porcelain.

Q. With spark plugs in good condition and the motor still
missing, what should be examined next?

A. The commutator should be carefully inspected as the
timer miay be worn, thus causing the roller to jump over some
segments and to strike others. Missing the segments will natur-
ally prevent a spark from occurring in the cylinder.

Q. If the commutator is in good condition, what other part
should be examined?

A. It is quite possible that some of the valve springs may be
so weak that they will prevent the valves from properly seating;
or the valve stems may be coated with a gummy carbon, causing
the valves to stick and thus lose compression.

Q. If the valves, commutator, and spark plugs are in good
condition, what else would be likely to cause an irregular miss at
high speeds?

A. If the carburetor is improperly adjusted or the gas line is
clogged so that the gasoline is supplied in an insuflBcient quantity
to furnish a perfect mixture, the motor will have a tendency to
miss at high speeds. The vibrator points should also be examined.

375

144 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

WHEN ENGINE STOPS SUDDENLY
Q. When the engine stops suddenly after back-firing in the
intake manifold, what is the first thing to do?

A. The gasoline tank should be examined as it is likely that
the supply has become exhausted.

Q. If there is sufficient gasoline, what should be done?

A. The drain cock at the bottom of the gas tank should be
opened and any sediment in the dirt trap removed. The drain
cock on the carburetor should also be opened, allowing any dirt
that has accumulated in the float chamber to drain out, as water
or any foreign substance is likely to clog up the spray nozzles,
foul the spark plugs, and stop the motor.

Q. If gasoline is running out of the carburetor when the
motor stops, what does this indicate?

A. This condition indicates that the float has stuck, thus
allowing the float valve to remain open. The gasoline then flows
into the float chamber unobstructed, and this condition will cause
the motor to stop by choking it with too rich a mixture. A leaky
float valve may also be responsible for this trouble.

Q. After the carburetion system has been carefully examined
and everything found to be in good condition, what should then
be inspected?

A. The ignition wires leading to the switch, the magneto,
the coils, and the timer should then be carefully examined, as a
loose or broken wire will easily prevent the motor from operating.
It is less likely to be in the timer connections than at the other
places mentioned, as it would be less likely for all the timer wires
to be broken or shorted, which would prevent the motor from
starting. The spring on the timer roller should also be examined
to see if it is broken.

Q. When the car stops because the motor is very hot, what
should be examined?

A. The supply of oil and water should first be examined as
it is quite possible that either one has been exhausted.

IF ENGINE OVERHEATS

Q. If the engine continually overheats, what may cause this
trouble?

376

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 145

A, If there is lack of water in the radiator or of oil in the
crankcase, the motor is bound to overheat; also the fan belt may

be slipping or loose, which would prevent the fan from being
driven at its proper rate of speed.

146 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

Q. Will carbon cause the motor to overheat?

A. Yes; the formation of carbon in the combustion chambers
prevents the heat from being properly distributed, and this will
naturally raise the temperature of the motor to a certain extent.
If carbon is present in the combustion chambers, it should be
removed either by taking off the head and scraping the carbon
from the parts or by using the oxygen-burning method.

Q. If there is a good supply of oil and water, if the fan belt
is in good condition, and if there is absence of carbon in the
cylinders, what then would be likely to cause the motor to over-
heat?

A. If the spark is too far retarded, the explosion will occur
too late in the cylinders, thus causing more heat to be developed,
as the gas does not burn so fast when exploded after the proper
time. If the carburetor is set too rich, a great deal of extra heat
will also be developed which will have a tendency to overheat
the entire motor. Then again, the water-circulation system may
be clogged up on account of sediment in the radiator.

GENERAL TROUBLES

Q. What is the trouble when the starter button is depressed
and the starter armature merely spins but does not engage the
starter pinion with the flywheel?

A. This trouble is undoubtedly due to a broken drive spring,
this spring being shown in Fig. 113. When this spring is broken,
the armature shaft will turn inside the screw shaft, but as the
armature shaft is connected to the screw shaft through the drive
spring, the drive pinion will naturally be unable to turn.

Q. What causes the motor to fail to start after being stopped
for a short time when the carburetor seems to work well and
there is a hot spark? Why will the motor start at once if the
needle valve is turned off and the motor is spun after it has been
standing for a time?

A. Most of the trouble is due to a rich carburetor mixture.
By opening the pet cocks more air is let into the cylinder and a
thinner mixture obtained for starting. The adjustment of the
carburetor should be changed to obtain a thinner mixture, and

378

FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR 147

if the float level is too high it should be adjusted. The spark-
plug points should also be set to make a gap ^ inch wide.

Q. Is there any way to adjust the generator of a 1919
Ford to make it charge the battery at a higher rate?

A. The charging rate of this generator can be adjusted by
shifting the position of the third brush. If this brush is moved
in the same direction as the armature rotates, the charging rate
will be increased; if it is moved in the opposite direction, the rate
will be decreased. Never charge above 12 amperes.

Q. If the ammeter shows a charge of 8 amperes when the
car is traveling at 25 m.p.h. with the lights off, and when the
headlights are turned on, it shows a discharge of 10 amperes,
what is the trouble?

A. A 10-ampere discharge rate when the headlights are
turned on is entirely too much. It indicates that there is a short-
circuit in the lighting system. When the engine is not running
and all the lights are burning, the ammeter should show 5.4
amperes discharge, or with the dimmer and tail lamps burning,
there should be a discharge of 1.25 amperes.

Q. What is the trouble with a Ford car when it misses on
all four cylinders when a steep grade is encountered?

A. The trouble is undoubtedly due to weak magnets which
cause the coils to give a weak current whenever the car slows
down under a load. Examine the coil vibrators as the points may
be badly pitted; the spark-plug points should also be inspected
as too wide a gap will cause this trouble. There may also be
too wide a gap between the magnets and coils.

Q. What is meant by spark advance and spark retard?

A. Advancing and retarding the spark affect the time the
spark takes place in the cylinder in relation to the position of
the piston. If a spark occurs when the piston is at or past upper
dead center, it is said to be retarded. If it occurs before dead
center, the spark is advanced.

When cranking the motor very slowly with the ignition
switch on BATT, the spark must be retarded to prevent an explo-
sion from taking place in the cylinder before the piston has
reached upper dead center. This explosion would reverse the
motion of the motor and cause a kick. The amount of advance

379

148 FORD CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

to the spark when driving depends upon the speed of the motor.
If the motor is pulling hard or turning over slowly, the spark can
be advanced but very little. If, however, the motor is turning
fast with a comparatively light load, then a full advance is
advisable.

Q. How are the magnets of a Ford magneto recharged
without removing them from the car?

A. To charge a Ford magneto without removing the magnets
from the motor, it is first necessary to place the flywheel in the
correct position. To do this, hold a compass near the magneto
terminal 1 inch to the left of the terminal and 6 inches to the
rear; that is, the center line of the engine should be 1 inch to
the right of the center line of the compass, and the compass should
be 6 inches back of the terminal plug. Turn the motor until
the north pole of the compass points directly toward the front
end of the car. Much of the success of the magnet charging
depends on this setting, so it should be done carefully. The next
step is to disconnect the terminal wire from the magneto plug.
Connect the positive battery terminal to the magneto post and
make several flash connections to the ground with the other bat-
tery terminal.

Q. What is the trouble when a Ford heats up after the car
is run about a mile and when after running 5 miles the motor
becomes so hot that the water boils and a great deal pf power
is lost?

A. The roller-brush assembly of the timer is probably worn
to such an extent that the ignition is late or the advance lever
is disconnected or broken so that the spark cannot be advanced.
Although there is sufficient oil in the motor, the oil pipe may be
clogged up and cause considerable heating trouble, as the oil will
not properly circulate. The cooling system may be clogged, the
radiator core painted with a high finish paint. The compression
may be weak or there may be a carbon formation in the cylinders.

380

GLOSSARY

381

GLOSSARY

THE following glossary of automobile terms is not intended in any sense
as a dictionary and only words used in the articles themselves have been
defined. The definitions have been made as simple as possible, but if
other terms unf amihar to the reader are used, these should be looked up in order
to obtain the complete definition.

A. A. A.: Abbreviation for American Auto-
mobile Association.

Abrasive: Any hard substance used for
grinding or wearing away other substances.

AtMorber, Shock: See "Shock Absorber".

Accelerate: To increase the speed.

Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity
of a moving body. In automobiles, the ability
of the car to increase in speed. Pickup.

Accelerator: Device for rapid control of the
speed for quick opening and closing of the
throttle. Usually in the form of a pedal,
spring returned, the minimum throttle open-
ing l^ing controlled by the setting of the
hand throttle.

Accessory: A subordinate machine that
accompanies or aids a more important
machine; as, a horn is an accessory of an
automobile.

Accumulator: A secondary battery or
stora|[e battery. It usually consists of
chemically prepared lead plates combined
with an acid solution. Upon being charged
with an electric current from a primary-
source, a chemical change takes place which
enables the plates in their turn to give a
current of electricity when used as a source
of power, the plates at the same time return-
ing to their onginal chemical state.

Acetone: A liquid obtained as a by-product
in the distillation of wood alcohol, and used
in connection with reservoirs for storing
acetylene for automobile lights, as it dis-
solves many times its own volume of acety-
lene gas.

Acetylated Alcohol : Alcohol which has been
denatured by the addition c? acetylene,
which also mcreases its fuel value. See
"Alcohol, Denatured".

Acetjrlene: A gaseous hydrocarbide used as
an illuminant; is usually generated for that
puri>ose by the action of water on calcium
carbide.

Acetylene Generator. A closed vessel in
which acetylene gas may be produced by the
action of water on calcium carbide and which
supplies the gas under uniform pressure.

Acetylene Lamp: A lamp which bums
acetylene gas.

Acetylite: Calcium carbide which has been
treated with glucose. It is used to obtain
a more uniform and slower i^roduction of
acetylene gas than can be obtained with the
untreated calcium carbide.

Acid: In connection with automobiles the
term usually means the liquid or electrolyte
used in the storage battery. See "Electro^
lyte".

Acid Cure. Method of rapid vulcanization
of rubber without heat. Used in tire repairs.
The agent is sulphur chloride.

Acidimeter. An instrument for determining
the purity of an acid.

Active Material: Composition in grids that
forms plates of a storage battery. It is this
material in which the chemical changes occur

- in charging and discharging.

Adapter: Device by which one type of lamp
burner may be used instead of the one for
which the lamp was designed. Usually a
fitting by which a gas or oil lamp may be
converted into an electric lamp.'

Adhesion: That property of surfaces in con-
tact by virtue of which one of them tends
to stick to the other. It is used as synony-
mous with friction. The adhesion of wheels
acts to prevent slipping.

Adjustment: The slackening or tightening
up of parts to compensate for wear, reduce
friction, or secure better contact.

Admission: In a steam engine, the letting
in of the steam to the cylinder; in gas engine,
the letting in of mixture of gas and air to the
cylinder.

Advanced Ignition: Usually called adoanc-
ing the spark. Setting the spark of an inter-
nad-combustion motor so that it will ignite
the charge at an earlier part of the stroke.

Advance Sparking: A method by which the
time of occurrence of the ignition spark may
be regulated, by completing the electric
circuit at the earlier period.

Advancing the Spark: See "Advanced Ig-
nition".

Aerodynamics: The science of atmospheric
laws, i.e., the effects produced by air in
motion.

After -Burning: Continued burning of the
charge in an internal-combustion engine
aft^ the explosion.

After-Firinft: An explosion in the mufBer or
exhaust passages.

A-h: Abbreviation for ampere hour.

Air Bottle: A portable container holding
compressed air or carbon dioxide for tire
inflation.

Air-Bound: See "Air Lock".

383

GLOSSARY

Air GompreMor: A machine for supplying
air under pressure for inflating tires, starting
the motor, etc.

Air Cooled: Cooled by air direct. Usually
referring to the cylinder of an engine, whose
heat caused by the combustion within it
is carried away by air convection and radia-
tion. ,

Air GooUnft: A system of dispersing b^ air
convection the heat generated m the cylinder
of an internal-combustion motor.

Air Intake: An opening in a carbureter to
admit air.

Air Leak: Entrance of air into the mixture
between carbureter and cylinder.

Air Lock: Stoppage of circulation in the
water or gasoline system caused by a bubble
of air lodging in the top of a bend in the
pipe.

Air Pump: A pump operated by the engine
or by hand to supply air pressure to the oil
tank or gasoline tank; sometimes called
pres«iir0 pump.

Alr-Pump Governor: A device to regulate
the speed of the air pump so as to give a'
uniform air pressure.

Air Resistance: The resistance encoimtered
by a surface in motion. This resistance in-
creases as the square of the speed, which
makes it necessary to employ four times as
much power in order to double a given speed.

Air Tube : See " Pneumatic Tire'*.

Airless Tire: Name of special make of non-
puncturable resilient tire.

A. L. A. M.: Abbreviation for Association
of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers, now
out ot existence.

A. L. A. M . Horsepower Rating : The horse-
power rating of an automobile found by the
standard horsepower formula approved by
the Aasociation of Licensed Automobile
Manufacturers. Since the dismemberment
of this organization, the formula is usually
callsd the S.A.E. rating. This formula is
h.p. —bore of cylinder (in inches) squared X
No. of cylinders +2.5, at a piston speed of
1000 feet per minute.

Alaim, Low-Water: See "Low-Water
Alarm".

Alcoliol: A colorless, volatile, inflammable
liquid which ma^ be used as fuel for internal-
combustion engines.

Alcohol, Denatured: Alcohol rendered unfit
for drinking purposes by the addition of
wood alcohol, acetylene, and other sub-
stances.

Aligncnent: The state of being exactly in
line. Applied to crankshafts aud transmis-
sion shafts and to the parallel conditions of
the front and rear wheels on either side.

Alternating Current: Electric current
which alternates in direction periodically.

Ammeter: An instrument to measure the
values of current in an electric circuit directly
in amperes. Also called ampere meter.

Amperage: The number of amperes, or cur-
rent strength, in an electric circuit.

Ampere: The practical unit of rate of flow
of electric current, measuring the current
intensity.

Ampere Hour: A term used to denote the
capacity of a storage battery or closed-circuit
primary battery. A battery that will deliver

three amperes for six hours is said to have an
eighteen-ampere-hour capacity.

Ampere Meter: See "Ammeter".

Angle-Iron Undoframe: An underframe
constructed of steel bars whose cross section
is a right angle.

Anneal : To make a metal soft by heating and
cooling. To draw the temper of a metal.

Annular Gear: A toothed wheel upon which
the teeth are formed on the inner circum-
ference.

Annular Valve: A circular valve having a
hole in the center.

Annunciator: An installation of electric
signab or a si>eaking tube to allow the pas-
sengers in an enclosed car to communicate
with the driver.

Anti-Freezing Solution: A solution to be
used in the cooling system to prevent freezing
in cold weather; any harmless solution whose
freezing point is somewhat below that of
water may be used.

Anti-Friction Metal: Various alloys of tin
and lead used to line bearings, such as Babbitt
metal, white metal, etc.

Anti-Skid Device: Any device which may
be applied to the wheels of a motorcar to
prevent their skidding, such as tire coverings
with metal rivets in them, chains, etc.

Apron: Extensions of the fenders to prevent
splashing by mud or road dirt.

Armature: In dynamo-electric machines,
the portion of a generator in which the
current is developed, or in a motor, the por-
tion in which the current produces rotation.
In most generators in automobile work, the
arinature is the rotating i>ortion. In mag-
netic or electromagnetic machines the arma-
ture is the movable portion which is attached
to the magnetic poles.

Armature Core: The iron portion of the
armature which carries the windings and
serves as part of the path for the magnetic
flux.

Armature Shaft: The shaft upon and with
which the armature rotates.

Armature Winding: Electrical conductors,
usually copper, in an armature, and in which
the current is generated, in case of a gen-
erator, or in which they produce rotation in
a motor. *

Artillery Wheel : A wheel having heavy wood
spokes.

Aspirating Nozzle: An atomizing nozzle to
make the liquid passing through it pass from
it in the form of a spray.

Assembled Car: A car whose chief parts,
such as engine, gearset axles, body, etc., are
manufactured by different parts makers,
only the final process of putting them to-
gether being carried out in the car-making
plant.

Atmospheric Line: A line drawn on an in-
dicator diagram at a point corresponding
with the pressure of the atmosphere.

Atmospheric Valve: See "Suction Valve".

Atomizer: A device by which a liquid fuel,
such as gasoline, is reduced to small particles
or to a spray; usually incorporated in the
carbureter.

Auto: (1) Popular abbreviation for auto-
mobile. (2) A Greek prefix meaning self.

384

GLOSSARY

Auto-Bus: An enclosed motor-driven public
conveyance, seating six or more people;
usually has a regular route of travel.

Autocar: A motorcar or automobile; a trade
name for a particular make of automobile.

Auto-Gyde: See "Motorcycle".

Autodrome: A track especially prepared for
automobile driving, particularly for races.

Autogenous Welding: See "Welding, Autog-
enous".

Auto-Igniter: A small magneto generator
or dynamo for igniting gasoline engines, the
armature of which is connected with the
flywheel by gears or by friction wheels, so
that electric current is supplied as long as
the engine revolves.

Autoist: One who uses an automobile.

Automatic Carbureter: A vaporizer or car-
bureter for gasoline engines whose action is
entirely automatic.

Automatic Gut-Out: See "Cut-Out, Auto-
matic".

Automatic Sparic Advance: Automatic
variation of the instant of spark occurrence
in the cylinder. Mechanical advancing and
retarding of the spark to correspond with and
controlled by variations in crankshaft speed.

Auto-Meter: Trade name for special make
of combined speedometer and odometer.

Automobile: A motor-driven vehicle having
four or more wheels. Some three-wheeled
vehicles are properly automobiles, but are
usually called tricars.

Automobilist: The driver or user of an auto-
mobile.

.Auto Truck: A motor-driven vehicle for
transporting heavy loads; a heavy com-
mercial car.

Auxiliary Air Valve: Valve controlling the
admission of air through the auxiliary air
intake of a carbureter.

Auxiliary Air Intake: Opening through
which additional air is admitted to the car-
bureter at high speeds.

Auxiliary Exhaust: Ports cut through cyl-
inder walls to permit exhaust gases to be
released from the cylinder when uncovered
by the piston. These are sometimes used
as an additional scavenging means for the
regular exhaust valves.

Auxiliary Fuel Tank: See "Fuel Tank,
Auxiliary".

Auxiliary Spark Gap: See "Spark Qap,
Outside".

Axle : The spindle with which a wheel revolves
or upon which it revolves.

Axle, Cambered: An axle whose ends are
slanted downwards to camber the wheels.

Axle, Channel: An axle which is U-shaped
in cross section.

Axle, Dead: Solid, fixed, stationary axle.
An axle upon which the wheels revolve but
which itself does not revolve.

Axle, Dropped : An axle in which the central
portion is on a lower level than the ends.

Axle, Floating: A full-floating axle. A live
axle in which the shafts support none of the
car weight, but serve only to turn the wheels.

Axle, I -Beam: An axle whose cross section
is in the shape of the letter I.

Axle, Live: An axle in which are comprised

the driving shafts that carry the power of the
motor to the driving wheels.

Axle, Semi-Floating: A live axle in which
the driving shafts carry all of the car
weight as well as transmitting the driving
torque.

Axle, Three-Quarters Floating: A live
axle in which the shafts carry a part of the
weight of the car, while the housing car-
ries the balance of the weight. It is inter-
mediated by a floating axle and the semi-
floating axle.

Axle, Trussed: An axle in which downward
bending is prevented by a truss.

Axle, Tubular: An axle formed of steel tub-
ing. Usually applied to the front axles, but
sometimes used in referring to tubular shafts
of rear axles.

Axle Casing: That part of a live axle that
encloses the driving shafts and differential
and driving gears. Axle housing.

Axle Housing: See "Axle Casing".

Axle Shaft: The member transmitting the
driving torque from the differential to the
rear wheels.

Babbitt: A soft metal alloy used for lining
the bearings of shafts.

Back-Firing: An explosion of the mixture
in the intake manifold or carbureter caused
bv the communication of the flame of ex-
plosion in the cyUnders. Usually due to too
weak a mixture. Popping.

Back Kick: The reversal of direction of the
starting, caused by back-firing.

Backlash: The play between a screw and nut
or between the teeth of a pair of gear wheels.

Back Pressure: Pressure of the exhaust
gases due to improper design or operation of
the exhaust system.

Baflfle Plate: A plate used to prevent too
free movement of a liquid in the container.
In a gas engine cylinder, a plate covering the
lower end of the cylinder to prevent too
much oil being splashed into it. The plate
has a slot through which the connecting rod
may work.

Balance Gear: See "Differential Gear".

Balancing of Gasoline Engines: Insuring
the equilibrium of moving parts to redi 3e
the vibration and shocks.

Ball-and -Socket Joint: A joint in wb ha
ball is placed within a socket recessed o fit
it, permitting free motion in any dir ction
within limits.

Ball Bearing: A bearing in which the rotat-
ing shaft or axle is carried upon a number of
small steel balls which are free to turn in
annular paths, called races.

Balladeur Train: A French name for a slid-
ing change-speed gear.

Barking: The sound made by the explosions
caused by after-firing.

Base Bearing: See "Main Bearing".

Base Explosion: See "Crankcase Explosion".

Battery: A combination of primary or
secondary cells, as dry cells or storage cells.

Battery, Dry: See "Dry Battery".

Battery, Storage: See "Accumulator".

Battery Acid: The electrolyte in a storage
battery.

385

GLOSSARY

Batteiy-Caiarftlng Plug: Power terminals
to which the leads of a storage battery may
be connected for charging the battery.

Battery Gage: (1) Voltmeter or ammeter
or voltammeter for testing the specific
gravity of the electrolyte in a secondary
battery.

Battery S3Tinge : A syringe used to draw out
a part of the electrolyte or solution from a
storage battery cell to test its density and
spedno gravity.

Bauiii\: A scale indicating the specific

Sravity or density of li(][uids and having
agrees as units. Gasolme of a specific
S-avity of .735 has a gravity of 61 degrees
aum^

Bearing: A support of a shaft upon which it
may rotate.

Bearing, Annular Ball: A ball bearing con-
sisting of two concentric rings, between
which are steel balls.

Bearing, Ball: A bearini^ in which the
rotatmg shaft and the stationary portion of
the bearings are separated from shding con-
tact by steel balls. A steel collar fitted to
the shaft rolls upon the balls, which in turn
roll upon steel collar attached to the station-
ary portion of the bearing.

Bearing, Gup and Gone: A ball bearing in
which the balls roll in a race, which is formed
between a cone-shaped fixed collar and a
cup-shaped shaft collar.

Bearing, Main: The bearing in which
rotates the crankshaft of an engine.

Bearing, Plain: A bearing in which the
rotating shaft is in sli(Ung contact with the
bearing supporting it.

Bearing, Radial: A bearing designed to
resist loads from a direction at right angles
to the axis of the shaft.

Bearing, Roller: A bearing in which the

i'ournal rests upon, and is surrounded by,
lardened steel rollers which revolve in a
channel or race surrounding the shaft.

Bearing, Thrust: A bearing designed to
resist loads or pressures parallel with the
axis of the shaft.

Bearing Gap: That portion of a plain bear-
ing detachable from the stationary portion,
and which holds the bearing bushing and
shaft.

Bearing Surface: The projected area of a
bearing in a perpendicular plane to the
direction of pressure..

Beau de Rochaa Gycle: The four-stroke
cycle used in most internal-combustion
engines. This cycle was proposed by M.
Beau de Rochas and put into practical form
by Dr. Otto. See "Four-Cycle".

Belt and Glutch Dressing: A composition
to be applied to belts and clutches to prevent
them from slipping.

Belt Drive: A method of transmitting power
from the engine to the countershaft or jack
shaft by means of belts.

Benzine: A petroleum product having a
specific gravity between that of kerosene and

gasoline. Its specific gravity is between 60
egrees and 65 degrees Baum^.

Benzol: A product of the distillation of coal
tar. Coal tar benzine. Used as a rubber,
solvent and in Europe as a motor fuel.

Berline Body: A limousine automobile body
having more than two seats in the back part.

Bevel-Gear: Gears the faces of whose teeth
are not parallel with the shaft, but are on a
beveled edge of the gear wheel.

Bevel-Gear Drive: Method of driving one
shaft from another at an angle to the first.
The chief method of transmitting the drive
from the propeller shaft to the rear axle
shafts.

B. H. P.: An abbreviation for brake horse-
power.

Bicycle: A two-wheeled vehicle propelled by
the pedaling of the rider.

Binding PosU: See "Terminals".

Bleeder: A by-pass in the sight-feed of a
mechanical oiling system by which the oil
delivered through that feed is allowed . to
pass out instead of going to the bearings.

Blister: A defect in tires caused by the
separation of the tread from the fabric.

Block Chain: A chain used in automobiles,
bicycles, etc., of which each alternate link
is a steel block.

Blow-Back: The backward rushing of the
fuel gas through the inlet valve into the
carbureter.

Blower Gooled: A gas en^^e cooled by
positive circulation of air maintained by a
blower.

Blow-Off: A blow-out caused by the edge of
the bead of tire becoming free from the rim
and allowing the tube to protrude through
the space thus formed.

Blow-Out: The rupture of both the inner
tube and outer casing of a pneumatic tire.

Blow-Out Patch: See "Patch, Tire Repair".

Body: (1) The superstructure of an auto-
mobile; the part that resembles and repre-
sents the bcxly of a horse-drawn vehicle.
(2) In oib, the degree of viscosity. The
tendency of drops of oils to hang together.

Body Hangers: Attachments to or exten-
sions of the frame for holding the body of the
vehicle. They should be properly called
frame hangers.

Boiler: A vessel in which water is evaporated
into steam for the generation of power.

Boiler, Fire-Tube: A tubular steam boiler
in which the end plates are connected by a
number of open ended thin tubes, the spaces
around which are filled with water, the hot
gases passing through the tubes.

Boiler, Flash : A steam boiler in which steam
is generated practically instantaneously.
There is practically no water or steam stored
in the boiler. A flash generator.

Boiler, Water-Tube: A steam boiler in
which the water is carried in metal tubes,
around which the hot gases circulate.

Boiler Alarm: See "Low- Water Alarm".

Boiler Covering: A non-conducting sub-
stance used as a covering for boilers to pre-
vent loss of heat by radiation.

Boiler-Feed Pump: An automatic and self-
regulating pump for supplying a boiler with
feed water.

Boiler-Feed Regulator: A device to make
the feed-water supply of the boiler auto-
matic.

Bonnet: (1) The hood or metallic cover
over the front end of an automobile. See
"Hood". (2) The cover over a pump-
valve box, or a slide-valve casing. v3) A
cover to enclose and guide the tail end of a

386

GLOSSARY

Bteam-engine-valve spindle or the cover of a
piston-valve casing. (4) The pan under-
neath the engine in an automobile.

Boot: A covering to protect joints from dirt
and water or to i}revent the leakage of grease.
(2) Space provided for baggage at the rear
of a car.

Bore: The inside diameter- of the cylinder.

Boss: An enlarged portion of a part to give
a point for attachment of another part.

Bottom: The meshing of gears without
clearance.

Bow Separator: A part to prevent chafing
of the Dows of a top when folded.

Boyle*8 Law of Gases: A law defining the
volume and pressure of gases at constantly
maintained temperatures. It states that
the volume of a gas varies inversely as the
pressure so long as the temperature remains
the same; or, the pressure of a gas is propor-
tional to its density.

Brake: An apparatus for the absorption of
p<>wer by friction, and by clamping some por-
tion of the driving laechanism to retard or
stop the forward motion of the car.

Brake, Air-Gooled : A brake whose parts are
ridged to present a large surface for trans-
ferring to the air the frictional heat generated
in them.

Brake, Band: A brake which contracts
upon the outside of a drum attached to some
part of the driving mechanism.

Brake, Constricting Band : A form of brake
applied by tightening a band around a pulley
or drum.

Brake, Differential: A brake acting upon
the differential gear.

Brake, Double- Acting: A brake which will
hold when the drum is rotating in either
direction.

Brake, Drum, and Band: See "Brake,
Band".

Brake, Emergency: A brake intended to be
used in case the service brake does not act
to a sufficient extent.

Brake, Expanding-Band: A drum brake in
which the braking force is exerted by a band
forced outward against the inner rim of a
pulley.

Brake, External-Contracting: A brake
consisting of a drum affixed to a rotating
part, the outer surface of whieh is encircled
by a contracting band.

Brake, Foot: A*brake designed to be oper-
ated by the driver's foot. A pedal brake.
Usually the service brake.

Brake, Front- Wheel: A brake designed to
operate on the front wheels of the car.

Brake, Gearset: A brake designed to act on
the transmission shaft and attached to the
gearbox.

Brake, Hand: A brake designed to be oper-
ated by means of a hand lever. Usually the
emergency brake.

Brake, Hub: A brake consisting of a drum
secured to one of the wheels. This is the
usual type.

Brake, Internal:^ A brake in which an ex-
panding mechanism is contained within a
rotating drum, the expansion bringing pres-
sure to bear on the drum.

Brake, Internal-Expanding: ^ A brake con-
sisting of a drum, against the inside of which
may be expanded a band or a shoe.

Brake, Motor: A brake in an electric vehicle
which acts upon the armature shaft of the
motor.

Brake, Service: A brake designed to be used
in ordinary driving. It is usually operated
by the driver's foot.

Brake, Shoe: A brake in which a metal shoe
is clamped against a revolving wheel.

Brake, Transmission: , A brake designed to
act upon the transmission shaft.

Brake, Water-Cooled:^ A brake through
which water may be circulated to carry off
the frictional heat.

Brake Equalizer: A mechanism applied to a
system of brakes operated in pairs to assure
that each brake shall be apphed with equal
force.

Brake Horsepower: The horsepower sup-
plied by an engine as shown by the applica-
tion of a brake or absorption dynamometer.

Brake Housing: A casing enclosing the
brake mechanism.

Brake Lever: The lever by which the brake
is applied tc the wheel.

Brake Lining: The wearing surface of a
brake ; usually arranged to be easily replaced
when worn.

Brake Pedal: Pedal by which the brake is
applied.

Brake Pull Rod: A rod traixsmitting the
tension from the lever or pedal to the mova-
ble portion of the brake proper.

Brake Ratchet : A device by which the brake
lever or brake pedal can be set in position and
retained there; usually consists of a notched
quadrant with which a movable tongue on
the lever head or pedal engages.

Brake Rod: The rod connecting the brake
lever with the brake.

Brake Test: A test of a motor by means of a
dynamometer to determine its power output
at different speeds.

Braking Surface: The surface of contact
between the rotating and stationary parts of
a brake.

Braze: To join by brazing.

Brazing: The process of permanently joining
metal parts by intense heat.

Breaker Strip: A strip of canvas placed
between the tread and body of an outer tire
casing to increase the wearmg qualities.

Breather: An opening in the crankcase of a
gas engine to permit pressure therein to
remain equal during the movement of the
pistons.

British Thermal Unit. The ordinary unit of
heat. It is that quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one pound of pure
water one degree Fahrenheit at the tempera-
ture of greatest density of water.

Brougham Body: A closed-in automobile
body having windows at the side doors, and
in front, but with no extension of the roof
over the front seat.

Brush Holder: In electrical machinery, an
arrangement to hold one end of a connection
flexible in contact with a moving part of the
circuit.

B. T. U.: Abbreviation for British Thermal
Unit,

Buckboard : A four-wheeled vehicle in which
the body and springs are replaced by ao
elastic board or frame

387

GLOSSARY

BudcUnft; Irregularitiea in the shape of the
plates of storage cells following a too rapid
discharge.

Bumper: (1) A contrivance at the front of
the car to minimise shock of collision; it con-
sists of plungers working in tubes and gain-
ing elasticity from springs. (2) A bar placed
across the end of a car, usually the front
end, to take the shock of collision and thus
prevent damage to the oar itself. A rubber
or leather pad interposed between the axle
and frame of a car.

Burner, **Torch** I&nlter: A movable auxil-
iary vaporiser for starting the fire in steam
automobile burners.

Bushing: A bearing lining. Usually made
of anti-friction metal and capable of adjust-
ment or renewal.

Bus-Pipe: A manifold pipe.

Butterfly Valve: A valve inserted in a pipe,
usually circular and of nearly the same
diameter as the pipe, designed to turn upon
a spindle through its diameter and thus shut
o£F or permit flow through the pipe. Usually
employed for throttle valves and carbureter
air valverj.

Buzzer: (1) A name sometimes applied to
the vibrator or trembler of a jump-spark
ignition coil. (2) A device used^ in place
of a horn, and consisting of a diaphragm
which is made to vibrate rapidly by an
electromagnet.

By-Pass: A small valve to provide a second-
ary passage for fluids passing through a
system of piping.

C: Abbreviation for a centigrade degree of
temperature.

Calcium Carbide: A compound of calcium
and carbon used for the generation of acety-
lene by the application of water.

Calcium Chloride: A salt which dissolved
in water is used as an anti-freezing solution.

Cam: A revolving disk, irregular in shape,
fixed on a revolving shaft so as to impart to
a rod or lever in contact with it an intermit-
tent or variable motion.

Cam, Exhaust: A cam designed to operate
the exhaust of an engine.

Cam, Ignition: A cam designed to operate
the ignition mechanism. In magnetos it
operates the make-and-break device.

Cam, Inlet: A cam designed to operate the
inlet valve of an engine.

Camber: (1) The greatest depth of curva-
ture of a surface. (2) The amount of
bend in an axle designed to incline the
wheels.

Camber of Spring: The maximum distance
between the upper and lower parts of a
spring under a given load.

Cambered Frame: A narrowing of the front
of a motor car to permit of easier turning.

Cam Gear: The gear driving the camshaft
of a gas engine. In a four-cycle engine this
is the same as the two-speed gear.

Camshaft: A shaft by which the valve cams
are rotated; also known as the secondary shaft.

Camshaft, Overhead : The camshaft carried
along or above the cylinder heads, to operate
overhead valves.

Camshaft Gears: The gears or train of
gears by which the camshaft is driven from

the crankshaft. Half-time gears, timing
gears, distribution gears.

Canopy: An automobile top that can not be
folded up.

Capacity of a Condenser: The quality of
electricity or electrostatic charge. Of a
storage battery, the amount of electricity
which may be obtained by the discharge of
a fully charged battery. Usually expressed
in ampere hours.

Cape Hood:^ An automobile top which is
capable of either being folded up or extended.

Car: A wheeled vehicle.

Carbide: See ♦'Calcium Carbide".

Carbide Feed: A type of acetylene generator
in which the calcium carbide is fed into the
water.

Carbon Bridge: Formation of soot between
points of spark plug.

Carbon Deposit: A deposit upon the inte-
rior of the combustion chamber of a gasoUne
engine composed of carbonaceous particles
from the lubricating oil, too rich fuel mix-
ture, or road dust.

Carbon Remover: A tool or solution for
removing carbon deposits from the cylinder,
piston, or spark plug of a gasoline engine.

Carbonization: The deposit of carbon.

Carbureter: An appliance for mixing an
inflammable vapor with air. It allows air
to be passed through or over a liquid fuel
and to carry off a portion of its vapor mixed
with the air, forming an explosive mixture.

Carbureter, Automatic: A carbureter so
designed that either the air supply alone or
both the air and gasoline supplies are regu-
lated automatically.

Carbureter, Constant-Level: A carbureter
the level of the gasoline in which is main-
tained automatically at a constant height.
A float-feed carbureter.

Carbureter, Exhaust-Jacketed: A carbu-
reter whose mixing chamber is heated by the
circulation of exhaust gas.

Carbureter, Multiple- Jet: A carbureter
having more that one spray nozzle or jet.

Carbureter, Water- Jacketed : A carbureter
whose mixing chamber is heated by the cir-
culation of water from the cooling system.

Carbureter Float: A buoyant part of the
carbureter designed to float in the gasoline
and connected to a valve controlling the
flow from the fuel tank, designed to main-
tain automatically a constant level of the
gasoline in the flow chamber.

Carbureter Float Chamber: A reservoir
containing the float and in which a con-
stant level ol fuel is maintained.

Carbureter Jet: The caning through which
liquid fuel is ejected in a spray from the
standpipe of a carbureter nozzle.

Carbureter Needle Valve: A valve control-
ling the flow of fuel from the flow chamber
to the standpipe.

Carbureter Nozzle: See "Carbureter Jet".

Carbureter Standpipe: A vertical pipe
carrying the nozzle.

Carburetion: The prooess of mixing hydro-
carbon particles with the air. The action in
a carbureter.

Cardan Joint: A universal joint or Hooke's
coupling.

388

Glossary

Cardan Shaft: A shaft provided with a
Cardan joint at each end.

Casing: The shoe or outer covering of a
double-tube automobile tire.

Catalytic Ignition: See "Ignition.Catalytic".

Cell: One of the units of a voltaic battery.

Cell, Dry: See "Dry Cell".

Cell, Storage: See "Accumulator".

Cellular Radiator: A radiator in which the
openings between the tubes are in the form
of small ceils. The same as a honeycomb
radiator.

Cellular Tire : A cushion tire which is divided
into compartments or cells.

Center of Gravity: That point in a body,
which, if the body were suspended freely m
equilibrium, would be the point of applica-
tion of the resultant forces of gravity acting
upon the body.

Center Control: The location of the gear-
shift and emergency brake levers of a car in
the center of a line parallel to the front of
the front seat.

Centigrade Scale: The thermometer scale
invented by Celsius. Used universally in
scientific work.

Century. In automobiling, a hundred-mile
run.

C. G. S. System: Abbreviation for centi-
meter-gram-second system of measurement;
the standard system in scientific work.

Chain, Drive: A heavy chain by which the
power from the motor may be transmitted
to the rear wheels of an automobile.

Chain, Roller: A sprocket chain, the cross
bars of whose links are rollers.

Chain, Silent: See "Silent Chain".

Chain, Tire: A small chain fastened about
the tire to increase traction and prevent
skidding.

Chain Wheel: A sprocket wheel for the
transmission chains of a motor-driven
vehicle.

Change-Speed Gear: See "Gear, Change-
Speed".

Change-Speed Lever: See "Lever, Change-
Speed".

Charge: The fuel mixture introduced into
the cylinder of a gas engine. The act of
storing up electric energy in an accumulator.

Charging: The passing of a current of elec-
tricity through a storage cell.

Charles' Law of Gases: See "Gases, Gay
Lussac's Law of".

Chassis. The mechanical features of a motor
car assembled, but without body, fenders, or
other superstructure not essential to the
operation of the car.

Chauffeur: In America this term means the

{)aid driver or operator of a motor car. The
iteral translation from the French means
stoker or fireman of a boiler.

Check, Steering: See "Steering Check".

Check Valve: An automatic or non-return
valve used to control the admission of feed
water in the boiler, etc.

Choke: The missing of explosions or poor
explosions due to too rich mixture.

Circuit, Primary: See "Primary Circuit".

Circuit, Secondary: See "Secondary €ir*
o\iit".

Circuit Breaker: A^device installed in an
ejectric circuit and intended to open the
circuit automatically under predetermined
conditions of current flow.

Circulating Pump: A pump which keeps a
liquid flowing through a, series of pipes which
provides a return circuit. In a motor car,
water and oil circulation is maintained by
circulating pump.

Circulation Pump: A mechanically oper-
ated pump by which the circulation of water
in the cooling system is maintained.

Circulating System: The method or series
of pipes through which a continuous flow of
water or oil is maintained and in which the
liquid is sent through the system over and
over.

Clash Gear: A sliding change-speed gear.

Clearance: (1) The distance between the
road surface and the lowest part of the
under-body of an automobile. (2) The
space between the piston of an engine when
at the extremity of its stroke, and the head
of the cylinder.

Clearance, Valve: See "Valve Clearance'*.

Clearance Space: The space left between
the end of the cylinder and the piston plus
the volume of the ports between the valves
and the cylinder.

Clevis: The fork on the end of a rod.

Clevis Pin: The pin passing through the
ends of a clevis and through the rod to which
the clevis is joined.

Clincher Rim : A wheel rim having a tiirned-
in edge on each side, forming channels. Into
this the edge or flange of the tire fits, the air
pressure within locking the tiie and rim
together.

Clincher Tire: A pneumatie tire design to
fit on a clincher rim.

Clutch: A device for engaging or discon-
necting two pieces of shafting so that they
revolve together or run free as desired.

Clutch Cone: A clutch whose engaging sur-
faces consist of the outer surface of the
frustrum of one cone and the inner surface
of the frustrum of another.

Clutch^ Gontracting-Band: A clutch con-
snfii3n|g o£ a drum and band, the latter con-
tracting upon the former.

Clutch, Dry-Plate: A clutch whose friction
surfaces are metal plates, not lubricated.

Clutch, Expanding-Band: A clutch consist-
ing of a drum and band, the latter expanding
within the former.

Clutch, Jaw: A clutch whose members lock
end to end by projections or jaws in one
entering corresponding depressions in the
other.

Clutch, Multiple-Disk: A clutch whose
friction surfaces are metal plates or disks,
alternate disks being attached to one mem-
ber and the rest to the other member of the
drive.

Clutch Brake: A device designed to stop
automatically the rotation of the driven
member of a clutch after disengagement
from the driving member.

Clutch Lining: The wearing surface of a
clutch. This may be easily removed and
replaced when worn.

Clutch Pedal: The pedal by which the
clutch may be disengaged, engagement being
:>btaizicd Automatically by means of a spring.

389

GLOSSARY

Glutch Spring: A spring arraneed to either
hold a olutoh out oi gear or throw it into
gear.

Goasttn^: The movement of the car without
constant applications of the motive power,
as in running downhill with the aid of grav-
ity or on the level, through the momentum
obtained by previous power applications.

Gock, Priming: A iimall cock, usually
operated by a lever, for admitting gasoline
to the carbureter to start its action.

GoU, Induction: See "Spark Coil".

Coil, Non-Vit>rator: A coil so designed that
it will supply a sufficient spark for the igni-
tion with one make and break of the primary
circuit.

GoU, Primary: See "Primary CoU".

Coil, Secondary: See "Secondary Spark
CoU".

CoU, Spwrk: See "Spark Ck>U".

Coil, Vibrator: A spark coil with which is
incorporated an electromagnetic vibrator to
make and break the primary circuit.

Coil Vaporizer: An auxiliary vaporizer to
assist in starting a steam boiler.' It is a coil
of ^ tubing into which liquid gasoline is ad-
mitted and burned to start the generation of
gas in the main burner.

CMld Test: The ^ temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit at which a lubricant passes from
the fluid to the solid state.

Gcmbuation Gliamber: That part of an
explosive motor in which the gases are com-
pressed and then fired, usually by an electric
spark.

Combustion Space: See "Clearance" and
"Clearance Space".

Commercial Car: A motor-driven vehicle
for commercial use, such as transporting
passengers or freight.

Commutator: In the ignition system of an
explosive motor, the commutator is a device
to automatically complete the circuit of
each of a number of cylinders in succession.

CommutatM' of Dynamo or Motor: That
part of a dynamo whieh is designed to cause
the alternating current produced in the
armature to flow in one direction in the
external circuit; in a motor, to change the
direct current in the external circuit into
alternating current.

Compensating Carbureter: An automatic
attachment to a carbureter controlling
either air or fuel admission, or both, so that
the projportion of one to the other is always
maintamed under any vibration of power
required.

Compensating Gear: See "Differential
Gear".

Joint: See

'Universal

Compensating

Joint".

Compound Engine: A multiple-expansion
steam engine in which the steam is expanded
in two stages, first in the high-pressure cyl-
inder and then in the low-pressure cylinder.

Compression: (1) That part of the cycle
of a gas engine in which the charge is com-
pressed before ignition; in a steam engine it
18 the phase of the cycle in which the pres-
sure is increased, due to compression of the
exhaust steam behind the piston. (2) ^ The
greatest pressure exerted on the gas in the
compression chamber.

Compression Gliamber: The clearance vol-
ume above the piston in a gas engine; also
called "Compression Space".

Compression Cock: See "Compression-Re-
liefCock".

Compresusion Line: The line on an indi-
cator diagram corresponding to the phase of
the cycle in which the gas is compressed.

Compression -Relief Gock: A small cock by
which the compression chamber of an inter-
nal-combustion motor may be opened to the
air and thus allow the compression in the
cylinder to be relieved to facilitate turning
by hand, or cranking.

Compression Space: See "Compression
Chamber".

Compression Tester: A small pressure gage
by which the degree of compression of the
mixture in a gas-engine cyunder may be
tested.

Compressor, Air: See "Air Compressor".

Condenser: (1) In a steam motor,, an
apparatus in which the exhaust steam is
converted back into water. (2) A device
for increasing the electric capacity of a
circuit. Used in an ignition circuit to
increase the strength of the spark.

Cone Bearing: A shaft bearing in which the
shaft is turned to a taper and the journal
turned to a conical or taper form.

Cone Clutch: A friction clutch in which
there are two cones, one fitting within the
other.

Connecting Rods: The part of an engine
connecting the piston to the crank, and by
means of which a reciprocating motion of
the piston is converted into the rotary
motion of the crank.

Constricting Band Brake: See "Brake,
Constricting Band".

Constricting Clutch: A friction clutch in
which a band is tightened aroimd a drum to
engage it.

Contact Breaker: A device on some forma
of gasoline motors having an induction coil
of the single jump^park type, to open and
close the electric circuit of the battery and
coil at the proper time for the passage of the
arc or spark at the points of the spark plug.

Contact Maker: See "Contact Breaker".

Continental Drive: Double-chain drive.

Control: The levers, pedals, etc., in general
with the speed and direction of a car is regu-
lated by the driver. In speaking of right,
left, or center control, the gearshift and
emergency brake levers only are meant.

Control, Spark: Method of controlling the
power of an engine by varying the point in
the stroke at which ignition takes place.

Control, Throttle: Method of goveniing
the power of the engine by altering the area
of the passage leading to the admission
valve so that the amount of the fuel intro-
duced into the cylinder is varied.

Controller, Electric: Appaiatus for secur-
ing various combinations of storage cells and
of motors so as to vary the speed of the car
at will.

Converter: A device for changing alternat-
ing current into direct current for charging
storage batteries, etc. Converters may be
any of three kinds: rotary, electrolytic, or
mefcury-vapor. The mercury-vapor con-
verter IS most widely used.

390

GLOSSARY

GonTertible Body: An automobile body
which may be used in two or more ways,
usually as an open or closed carriage, or in
which several seats may be concealed, and
raised to increase the seating capacity.

Cooling Fan: Fan used in automobiles to
increase the current of air circulating around
the cylinders, or through the radiator.

uoollng System: The parts of a gas engine
or motor car by which the heat is generated in
the cylinder by the combustion of the fuel
mixtiire. See "Water Cooling" and "Air
Ckwling".

Cork Inserts: Pieces of cork inserted in
friction surfaces of dutches or brakes to
give softer action.

Cotter Pln^ A split metal pin designed to
pass through holes in a bolt and nut to hold
the former in place.

Cloulomb: The unit of measure of electrical
quantity. Sometimes called "Ampere Sec-
ond". It is equivalent to the product of
the current in amperes by the number of
seconds current has been flowing.

GounterlMilance: Weights attached to a
moving part to balance that part.

Countershaft : An intermediate or secondary
shaft in the power-transmission system.

Coupe: An enclosed body seating one or two
passengers and the driver, all within.

Coupling, Flexible: See "Universal Joint".

Cowl: That portion of the body of the car
which forms a hood over the instrument
board or dash.

Cowl Tank: A fuel tank carried under the
cowl and inunediately in front of the dash.

Crank: A lever designed to convert recipro-
cating motion into rotating motion or vice
versa; usually in the form of a lever formed
at an angle with the shaft, and connected
with piston by means of connecting rod.

Crank, Starting: A handle made to fit the
projecting end of the crankshaft of a gas
engine, so that the engine may be started
revolving by hand.

Crankcase: The casing surrounding the
crank end of the engine.

Crankcase Explosion: Explosion of un-
bumed gases in the crankcase.

Crank Chamber: The enclosed space of
small engines in which the crank works.

Cranking : The act of rotating the motor by
means of a handle in order to start it. Turn-
ing the flywheel over a few times causes the
engine to take up its cycle, and after an
explosion it continues to operate.

Crankpin: The pin by which the connecting
rod is attached to the crank.

Crankshaft; The main shaft of an engine.

Crankshaft, Offset: A crankshaft whose
center line is not in the same plane as the
axis of its cylinders.

Creeping of Pneumatic Tires: The tend-
ency of pneumatic tires to push forward
from the ground, and thus around the rim, in
the effort to relieve and distribute the
pressure.

Cross Member: A structural member of the
frame uniting the side members.

Crypto Gear: See "Planetary Gear".

Crystallization. The rearrangement of the
molecules of metal into a crystalline form
under continued shocks. This is often the

cause of the breaking of the axles and springs
of a motor car.

Cup, Priming: A small cup-shaped device
provided with a cock, by which a small
quantity of gasoline can be introduced into
the cylinder of a gasoline engine.

Current: The rate of flow of electricity; the
quantity of electricity which passes per
second through a conductor or circuit.

Current Breakor: See "Contact Breaker".

Current Indicator: A device to indicate
the direction of current flow in a circuit; a
polarity indicator.

Current Rectifier: A device for converting
alternating current into direct current. See
"Converter".

Cushion Tire: See "Tire, Cushion*'.

Cut-Off, Gas Engine: That point in the
cycle of an internal-combustion engine at
which the admission of the mixture is dis-
continued by the closing of the admission
valve.

Cut-Off, Steam Engine: That point in the
cycle of a steam engine, or that point on an
indicator diagram, at which the admission
of steam is discontinued by the closing of the
admission valve.

Cut-Out, Automatic: A device in a bat-
tery charging circuit designed to disconnect
the battery from the circuit when the cur-
rent is not of the proper voltage.

Cut-Out, Muffler: A device by which the
engine is made to exhaust into the air
instead of into the muffler.

Cut-Out Pedal: Pedal by means of which
the engine is made to exhaust into the air
instead of into the muffler.

Cycle: A complete series of operations
beginning with the drawing in of the work-
ing gas, and ending after the discharge of
the spent gas.

Cycle, Beau de Rochas: See "Beau de
Rochas Cycle".

Cylinder: A part of a reciprocating engine
consisting of a cylindrical chamber in which
a gas is allowed to expand and move a
piston connected to a crank.

Cylinder Bore: See "Bore".

Cylinder Cock: A small cock used to allow
the condensed water to be drained away
from the cylinder of a steam engine, usually
called a drain cock.

Cylinder Head: That portion of a cylinder
which closes one end.

Cylinder Jacket: See "Jacket, Water".

Cylinder Oil: Lubricant particularly adapt-
ed to the lubrication of cylinder walls and
pistons of engines.

Dash: The upright partition of a car in front
of the front seat and just behind the bonnet.

Dash Adjustment: Connections by which
a motor auxiliary may be adjusted by a
handle on the dash. Usually applied to
carbureter adjustments.

Dash Coil: An induction coil for jump-
spark ignition, having an element for each
cylinder, with dash connections to the com-
mutator on the engine or camshaft.

Dash Gage: A steam, water, oil, or electric
gage placed upon the dash of the car.

391

GLOSSARY

Day Tjrpe of Engine: The two-cycle inter-
nal-combustion engine with an air-tight
crankcase.

Dead Axle: See "Axle, Dead'*.

Dead Center: The position of the crank and
connecting rod in which they are in the same
straight line. There are two positions, and
in these positions no rotation of the crank-
shaft is caused by pressure on the piston.

Decarbonizer: See "Carbon Remover".

Deflate: Reduction of pressure of air in a
pneumatic tire.

Deflector: In a two-cycle engine, the curved
plate on the piston head designed to cause
the incoming char^ to force out the eschaust
gases and thus assist in scavenging.

Deflocculated Graphite: Graphite so finely
. divided that it remains in suspension in a
liquid.

Demountable Rim: A rim upon which a
spare tire may be moimted and carried, and
so arranged that it may be easily and quickly
taken off or put on the wheel.

Denatured Alcohol: See "Alcohol, De-
natured".

Densimeter: See "Hydrometer".

Depolarizer: Material stirroimding the nega-
tive element of a primary cell to absorb the
gas which would otherwise cause polarising.

Detachable Body: A body which may be
detached from and placed upon the chassis.

Detachable Rim: See "Demountable Rim".

Diagram Indicator: See "Indicator Card".

Diagram, Jeantaud: A diagrammatic rep-
resentation of the running gear of an auto-
mobile, showing it turning corners of various
radii for the purpose of determining the
front-axle and steering connections.

Diesel Gas Engine: Four-cycle internal-
combustion engine in which the erolosion of
the charge is accomplished entirely by the
temperature produced by the mgh com-
pression of the mixture.

Differential, Bevel-Gear: A balance gear in
which the equalizing action is obtained by
means of bevel gears.

Differential, Spur-Gear: A differential gear
in which the equalising action is obtained by
spur gears.

Differential Brake: See "Brake, Differen-
tial".

Differential Case: See "Differential Hous-
ing .

Differential Gear: A mechanism to permit
driving the wheels and yet allow them to
turn a corner without slipping. An arrange-
ment such that the driving wheels may turn
independently of each other on a divided
axle, both wheels being under the control
of the driving mechanism. Sometimes
called balance, compensaiing, or eqtudizing
gear.

Differential Housing: The case that en-
closes the differential gear.

Differential Lock: A device which prevents
the operation of the differential gear, so that
the wheels turn as if they were on a solid
shaft.

Dimmer: An arrangement for lowering the
intensity of, or reducing the glare from
headlights.

Direct Current: A current which does not
change its direction of flow, as the current

from a battery or a direct-current generator.
Distinguished from an alternating current,
which reverses its direction many times a
minute.

Direct Drive: Transmission of power from
engine to the final driving mechanism at
crankshaft speed.

Discharge: In a storage battery, the passage
of a current of electricity stored therein. In
the ignition circuit, the flow of high-tension
current at the spark gap.

Disk Clutch: A clutch in which the power
ia transmitted by a number of thin plates
pressed face to face.

Distance Rod: See "Radius Rod".

Distribution Shaft: See "Camshaft".

Distributor: That part of the if^nition sys-
tem which directs the high-tension current,
to the respective spark plugs in the proper
firing order.

Double Ignition: A method of ignition
which comprises two separate systems,
either of wluch may be used independently
of the other, or both together as desired.
Usually distinguished by two current
sources and two sets of plugs.

Drag: That action of a clutch or brake
which does not completely release.

Drag Link: That rod in a steering gear
which forms the connection between the
mechanism mounted on the frame and the
axle stub, and transmits the movements of
steering from steering post to wheels.

Drive Shaft: The shaft transmitting the
motion from the change gears to the (iriving
axle; the torsion rod.

Driving Axle: The axle of a motor car
through which the power is transmitted to
the wheels.

Driving Wheel: The wheel to which or by
which the motion is transmitted.

Dry Battery: A battery of one or more dry
cells.

Dry Cell: A primary voltaic cell in which a
moist material is used in place of the ordi-
nary fluid electrolyte.

Dual Ignition: An ignition system compris-
ing two sources of current and one set of
spark plugs.

Dust Cap: A metal cap to be screwed over
a tire valve to protect the latter from dust
and water.

Dynamo: The name frequently applied to a
dynamo-electric machine used as a gener-
ator. Strictly, the term dynamo should be
applied to both motor and generator.

Dynamometer: The form of equaliziiig gear
attached to a source of power or a piece of
machinery to ascertain the power necessary
to operate the machinery at a given rate of
speed and under a given load.

Earth: See "Ground".

Economizer, Gas: An appliance to be
attached to a float-feed carbureter to im-
prove the mixture by automatically govern-
ing the amount of air in the float chamber.

Eccentric: A disk mounted off-center on a
shaft to convert rotary into reciprocating
motion.

Economy, Fuel: The fuel economy of a
motor IS the relation between the heat units

392

GLOSSARY

in the fuel used in the motor and the woik
or energy given out by the motor.

Efficiency: The proportion of power ob-
tained from a mechanism as compared with
that put into it.

Efficiency of a Motor: The efficiency of a
gasoline^ motor is the relation between the
heat units consumed by the motor and the
work of energy in foot-pounds given out by
it. Electrical efficiency of a motor is the
relation between the electrical energy put
into the motor and the mechanical energy
given out by it.

Ejector: An apparatus by which a Jet of
steam propels a stream of water in almost
the same way as an injector, except that the
ejector delivers it into a vessel having but
little pressure in it.

Electric Generator: A dynamo-electric ma-
chine in which mechanical energy is trans-
formed into electrical energy; usually called
dynamo.

Electric Horn: An automobile horn elec-
trically operated.

Electric Motor: A dynamo-electric machine
in which electrical energy is transformed into
mechanical energy.

Electric Vehicle: An automobile propelled
by an electric motor, for which current is
supplied by a storage battery carried in the
vehicle.

Electrolyte: A compound which can be
decomposed by electric current. In refer-
ring to storage batteries, the term electro-
lyte means the solution of sulphuric acid in
water in which the positive and negative
plates are immersed.

Electromagnet: A temporary magnet which
obtains its magnetic properties by the action
of an electric current around it and which
is a magnet only as long as such current is
flowing.

Electromotive Force : A tendency to cause a
current of electricity to flow; usually syn-
onymous with potential, difference of poten-
tial, voltage, etc.

Element: The dissimilar substances in a
battery between which an electromotive
force la set up, as the plates of a storage
battery.

Emergency Brake: A brake to be applied
when a quick stop is necessary; usually
operated by a pedal or lever.

En Bloc: That mettod of casting the cylin-
ders of a gasoline engine in which all the
^iindera are made as a single casting.
Blook casting; monoblock casting.

End Play* Motion of a shaft along its axis.

Engine, Alcohol: An internal-combustion
engine in which a mixture of alcohol and air
is used as fuel.

Engine, Gasoline: An internal-combustion
motor in which a mixture of gasoline and air
is used as fuel.

Engine, Kerosene: An internal-combustiom
engine in which a mixture of kerosene and
air is used as fuel.

Engine, Steam: An engine in which the
energy in steam is ubed to do work by
moving the piston in a cylinder.

Engine Primer: A small pump to force fuel
into the carbureter.

Engine Starter: An apparatus by which a
gasoline engine may be started in its cycle of
operatioD^ without use of the starting crank.

It belongs usually to one of four classes: (1)
Mechanical or spring actuated, such as a
coil spring wound up by the running of the
engine or a strap around the flywheel; (2)
fluid pressure, ^ such as compressed air or
exhaust gases induced into the cylinder to
drive the piston through one cycle; (3) the
electric system, in which a small motor is
used to turn the engine over; (4) combina-
tions of these.

Epicydic Gear: See "Planetary Gear".

Equalizing Gear: See "Differential Gear".

Exhaust: The gases emitted from a cylinder
after they have expanded and ^ven up their
energy to the piston; the emission of the
exhaust gases.

Exhaust, Auxiliary: See "Auxiliary Ex-
haust".

Exhaust Horn: An automobile horn ib
which the sound is produced by the exhaust
gases.

Exhaust Lap: The extension of the inside
edges of a slide valve to give earlier closing
of the exhaust. Also called inside lap.

Exhaust Manifold : A large pipe into which the
exhaust passages from all the cylinders open.

Exhaust Port: The opening through which
the exhaust gases are permitted to escape
from the cylinder.

Exhaust Steam: Steam which has given up
its energy in the cylinder ^nd is allowed to
escape.

Exhaust Stroke: The stroke of an internal-
combustion motor during which the burned
gases are expelled from the cylinder.

Exhaust Valve: A valve in the cylinder of
an engine through which the exhaust gases
are expelled.

Expanding Clutch: A clutch in which a
split pulley is expanded to press on the inner
circumference of a ring which surrounds it,
and thus transmits motion to the ring.

Expansion, Gas Engine: That part of the
cycle of ^ a gas engine immediately after
ignition, in which the gas expands and drives
the piston forward.

Expansion, Steam Engine: That portion
of the stroke of the steaiT engine in which
the steam is cut off by the valves and con-
tinues to perform work on the piston, increas-
ing in volume and decreasing in pressure.

Explosive Motor : See ' 'Internal-Combustion
Motor".

Fan, Cooling: A mechanically operated fan
for producing a current of air for ooolillg the
radiator or cylinder of a gas engine.

Fan, Radiator: A ^ mechanically operated
rotary fan used to induce the flow of air
through the radiator to facilitate the cooling
of the water.

Fan Belt:

fan.

The belt which drives the cooling

Fan Pulley: A pulley permanently attached
to the fan and over which the fan belt runS
to drive it.

Fat Spark: A short, thick, ignition spark.

Feed^ Pump: A pump by which water is
delivered irom the tank to the boiler of s
steam car.

Feed Regulator: A device to maintain a
uniform water level in a steam boiler by
controlling the speed of the feed pump.

393

GLOSSARY

Peed -Water Heater: An apparatus for
- heating the boiler-feed water, either by

means of a Jet of steam or steam-heated

coils.

Pender: A mud guard or shield over the
wheels of a car.

Pleld, Ma^e^c: Space in the neighborhood
of the poles of a magnet in which the mag-
netism exerts influence. Field also refers to
the coils which produce the magnetism in a>n
electromagnet.

Pierce Clutch: A clutch which cannot be
engaged easily. A grabbing clutch.

Plller Board: Woodwork shaped to fill the
space between the lower edge of the wind-
snield and the dash.

Pin: Projections cast on the cylinders of a
gas engine to assist in cooling.

Final Drive: That part of a car by which the
driving effort is transmitted from the parts
of the transmission carried on the frame to
the transmission parts on the rear axle.
The propeller shaft in a shaft-drive car.

PireTeet: A test of a lubricant to determine
the temperature at which it will burn.

Pirin^: (1) Ignition of the charge in a gas
engine. (2) The act of furnishing fuel
under the boiler of a steam engine.

Pirst Speed: That combination of transmis-
sion gears which gives the lowest gear ration
forward. Slow speed; low speed.

Plash Boilea*: A boiler arranged to generate
highly superheated steam almost instan-
taneously, by allowing water to come in
contact with very hot metal surfaces.

Flash Generator: See *Tlash Boiler".

Flash Point: The temperature at which an
oil will give off a vapor that will ignite when
a flame comes in contact with it.

Flash Test: A test to determine the flash
point of oils.

Flexibility: In an engine the ability to do
useful work through a range of speeds.

Flexible C!ouplin&: See "Universal Joint".

Flexible Shaft: A pliant shaft which will
transmit considerable power when revolving.

Flexible Tubing: A tube for the conduction
of liquids or gases, which may be bent at a
small radius without leaking.

Float Carbureter: A carbureter for gasoline
engines in which a float of cork or hollow
metal controls the height of the liquid in the
atomizing nozzle. Sometimes called float-
faed carbureter.

Float Valve: An automatic valve by which
the admission of a liquid into a tank is con-
trolled through a lever attached to a hollow
sphere which floats on the surface of the
hquid and opens or closes the valve accord-
ing as it is high or low.

Floating Axle: See "Axle, Floating".

Floating the Battery on the Line: Charg-
ing the battery while it is giving out current.

Flooding: Excessive escape of fuel in a
carbureter from the spraying nozzle.

Flushing Pin: In a float-feed carbureter, a
pin arranged to depress the float in priming.
Also called primer and tickler.

Flywheel: A wheel upon the shaft of an
engine which, by virtue of its moving mass,
stores up the energy of the gas transmitted
to the flywheel during the impulse stroke
and delivers it during the rest of the cycle,
thus producing a fairly constant torque.

Flywheel Marking: Marks on the face or a
fljrwheel to indicate the time of valve open-
ing and closing and thus assist in valve
setting.

Foaming: See "Priming".

Pore Carriage: A self-propelled vehicle in
which the motor is carried on the forward
trucks, and propelling and steering is done
with the forward trucks.

Pore-Door Body: An automobile body hav-
ing doors in the forward compartment.

Four-Cycle or Four-Stroke Cycle: The

cycle of operations in gas engines occupying
two complete revolutions or four strokes.

Four- Wheel Drive: Transmission of driving
effort to all four wheels.

Fourth Speed: That combination of trans-
mission gears which gives the fourth from
the lowest gear ratio forward. Usually the
highest speed.

Frame: The main structural part of a chas-
sis.^ It is carried upon the axles by the
springs and carries the different elements of
the car.

Frame Hangers: See "Body Hangers".

Free Wheel: A wheel so arranged that it
can rotate more rapidly than the mechanisn)
which drives it.

Friction:^ The resistance existing between
two bodies in contact which tends to prevent
their motion on each other.

Friction Clutch: A device for coupling and
disengaging two pieces of shafting while in
motion, by the friction of cones or plates on
one another.

Friction Disk: The thin plate used in a disk
or friction clutch. See Disk Clutch".

Friction Drive: A method of transmitting
power or motion by frictional contact.

Fuel: A combustible substance by whose
combustion power is produced. Gasoline
and kerosene are the chief automobile fuels.

Fuel Economy. See "Economy, Fuel".

Fuel Feed, Gravity: See "Gravity Fuel
Feed".

Fuel Feed, Pressure:

Force-Feed."

See "Lvbrication,

Fuel Feed, Vacuum. See "Vacuum Fuel
Feed".

Fuel-Feed Regulator: A device in the fuel
system of steam motor by which the rate of
flow of fuel to the burner is automatically
regulated.

Fuel Level: The height of the top of the fuel
in the float chamber of a carbureter.

Fuel -Level Indicator: An instrument either
permanently connected to the fuel tank or
which may be inserted thereon to indicate
the quantity of fuel in the tank.

Fuel Tank, Auxiliary: A tank designed to
hold a supply of fuel in addition to that
carried in the main shaft.

Fuse: A length of wire in an electric circuit
designed to melt and open the circuit when
excess current flows through it and thus pre-
vent damage to other portions of the circuit.

Fusible Plug: A hollow plug filled with an
alloy which melts at a point slightly above
the temperature of the steam in a boiler, as
when the water runs low, thus putting out
the fire and preventing the burning out o^
the boiler.

394

GLOSSARY

Gafte: (1) Strictly speaking, a measure of, or
instrument for determining dimensions or
capacity. Practically, the term refers to an-
instniment for indicating the pressure or
level of liquids, etc. (2) The aLstance be-
tween the^ forward or rear wheels measured
at the points of contact of the tires on the
road. Tread; track.

Gage Cock: A small cock by which a pipe
leading to a gage may be opened or closed.

Gage Lamp: Lamp, usually electric, placed
above or near the gages to enable them to be
read at night.

Gage, OU: See *'0U Gage".

Gage, Tire: See "Tire-Pressure Gage".

Gap: In automobiles, the spark gap.

Garage: A building for storing and caring
for automobiles.

Garage, Portable: A garage which may be
moved from one place to another either as a
whole or in sections.

Gas: Matter in a fluid form which is elastic
and has a tendency to expand indefinitely
with reduction in pressure.

Gas Economizer: See "Economizer".

Gas Engine: An internal-combustion motor
in which a mixture of gas and air is used as
fuel. The term is also applied to the gaso-
.'.ine engine.

Gaa Engine, Otto: A four-stroke cycle
engine developed b^ Otto and using the
hot-tube method of ignition.

Gaa Generator: An apparatus in which a
gas is generated for any use.

Gaa Lamp: See "Acetylene Lamp".

Gases, Boyle's Law of: See "Boyle's Law
of Gases .

Gases, Gay Lussac's Law of: Called
Charles*8 Law and the Second Law of Gases.
Law defining the physical properties of
gases at constantly maintained pressure.
It states that at constant pressure the vol-
ume of gas varies with the temperature, the
increase being in proportion to the change of
temperature and volume of the gas.

Gasket: A thin sheet of packing material or
metal used in making joints, piping, etc.

Gasoline: A highly volatile fluid petroleum
distillate; a mixture of fluid hydrocarbons.

Gasoline-Electric Transmission: A sys-
tem of propulsion in which a gasoline engine
drives an electric generator, and the power
is transmitted electrically to motors which
drive the wheels.

Gasoline Engine: An internal-combustion
motor in which a mixture of gasoline and air
ia used as a fuel.

Gasoline Primer: The valve on the car-
bureter of a gasoline engine by which the
action of the engine can be started.

Gasoline-Tank Gage: A fuel-lever indicator
for gasoline.

Gasoline Tester: A hydrometer graduated
to indicate the specific gravity of gasoline,
usually in degrees Baume.

Gate: A plate which guides the gearshift
lever in making speed changes.

Gather: Convergence of the forward por-
tions of the front wheels. Toeing in.

Gay Lussac*s Law of Gases: See "Gases,
Gay Lussac's Law of".

Gear, Balance: See "Differential Gear".

Gear, Bevel: See "Bevel Gear".

Gear, Change-Speed: An arrangement of
gear wheels which transmits the power of
the motor to the differential gear at variable
speeds independently of the motor speed.

Gear, Differential: See "Differential".

Gear, Fiber: A gear cut from a vulcanized
fiber blanks

Gear, Helical: A gear whose teeth are not
parallel to the axis of the cylinders.

Gear, Internal: A gear whose teeth project
inward toward the center from the circum-
ference of gear wheel.

Gear, Planetary: See "Planetary Gears".

Gear, Progressive : See ' 'Progressive Change-
Speed Gears".

Gear, Rawhide: A gear cut from a blank
made up of compressed rawhide.

Gear, Selective: See "Selective Change-
Speed Gears".

Gear, Timing: See "Timing Gears".

Gear, Worm: A helical gear designed for
transmitting motion at angles, usually at
right angles and with a comparatively great
speed reduction.

Gearbox : The case covering the change-speed
gears.

Gear Shifting: Varying the si>eed ration
between motor and rear wheels by operating
the change-speed gears.

Gear-Shift Lever: A lever by which the
change-speed gears are shifted.

Geared-Up Speed: A speed obtained by an
arrangement of gears in the gearset such that
the propeller shaft rotates more rapidly than
the crankshaft.

Gearset: See "Gear, Change-Speed".

Generator, Acetylene: See "Acetylene Gen-
erator".

Generator, Electric: See "Electric Gener-
ator".

Generator, Steam: A steam boiler.

Generator Tubing: Tubing by which acety-
lene is conducted from the generator to the
lamp.

Gimbal Joint: A form of universal joint.

Gong: A loud, clear sounding bell, usually
operated either electrically or oy foot power.

Governor: A device for automatically regit*
lating the speed of an engine.

Governor, Dynamo: A method of auto-
matic control of the generator (usually an
ignition generator, in automobile work) by
which its speed is maintained approximately
constant.

Governor, Hydraulic: A governor applied
to engines cooled by a pump circulation of
water in such a way that the throttle opening
is controlled by the pressure of the water.

Governor, Spark: A method of automati-
cally controlling the speed of the engine by
varying the time of ignition. See "Gov-
ernor",

Grabbing Clutch: See "Fierce Clutch".

Gradometer: An instrument for indicating
the degree of the gradient or the per cent of
the grade. It consists of a level with a
graduated scale.

Graphite: One of the forms in wliich carbon
occurs in matter. Also known as black lead

395

GLOSSARY

and vilwnbaoo. Used as a lubricant in pow-
dered or flake form in the cylinders of
explosive engines.

Gravity-Feed Oiling System: See **Lubri-
cation. Gravity",

Gravity Fuel Feed: Supply of fuel to the
carbureter from the tank by force of gravity.

Grease and Oil Gun: ^ A syringe by means
of which grease or oil may be introduced
into the bearings of the machinery.

Grease Cup: A device designed to feed
grease to a bearing by the compression of a
hand screw.

Grid: A lead plate formed in the shape of a
gridiron to sustain and act as a conductor of
electricity for the active material in a
storage battery.

Grinding Valves: See "Valve Grinding*'.

Gripping Clutch: See "Fierce Clutch".

Ground: An electric connection with the
earth, or to the framework of a machine.

Half-Motion Shaft: See "Half-Time Shaft".

Half-Time Gear: See "Timing Gears".

Half -Time Shaft: The cam shaft of a four-
cycle gas engine. It revolves at one-half
the speed of the crankshaft.

Hammer Break: A make-and-break ignition
system in which the spark is produced when
the moving terminal strikes the stationary
terminal like a hammer.

Header: A pipe from which two or more
pipes branch. Manifold.

Heater, Automobile: A device for warming
the interior of an automobile, usually electric,
or by means of exhaust gases or jacket
water.

High Gear: That combination of change-
speed gears which gives the highest speed.

High -Tension Current: A current of high
voltage, as the current induced in the second-
ary circuit of a spark coil.

High-Tension Ignition: Ignition by means
of high-tension current.

High-Tension Magneto: A magneto which
delivers high-tension current.

Honeycomb Radiator: A radiator consist-
ing of many very thin tubes, giving it a
cellular appearance.

Hood: (1) That part of the automobile
body which covers the frame in front of the
dash. The engine is usually under the hood.
(2) The removable covering for the motor.

Hooke's Coupler: See "Universal Joint".

Horizontal Motor: ^ A motor the center line
of whose cylinder lies in a horizontal plane.

Horn, Automobile: A whistle or horn for
giving warning ol the approach of the
automobile.

Horsepower: The rate of work or energy
expended in a given time by a motor. One
horsepower is the rate or energy expended
in raising a weight of 350 pounds one foot
in one second, or raising 33,000 pounds one
foot in one minute.

Horsepower, Brake: The power delivered at
the flywheel of an internal combustion
engine as ascertained by a brake test.

Horsepower, Rated: The calculated power
which may be expected to be delivered by a
motor. In America the term usually refers

to the horsepower as calculated by the
S.A.E. formula.

Hot- Air Intake: The pipe or opening con-
veying heated air to the carburetor.

Hot-Head Ignition : The method of igniting
the charge ui a gas-engine cylinder by main-
taininfs the head of the combustion chamber
at a high temperature from the internal heat
of combustion, as in the Diesel engine.

Hot-Tube Ignition: An ignition device
formerly used for gas engines in which a
closed metal tube is heated red-hot by a
Bunsen flame. When the compressed gases
in the cylinder are allowed to come in con-
tact with this, ignition takes place.

Housing: A metallic covering for moving
parts.

H.P.: (1) Abbreviation for horaepotoer, (2)
Abbreviation for high pressure.

Hub Cap: A metal cap placed over the outer
end of a wheel hub.

Hydrocarbons: Chemical combinations of
carbon and hydroger in varied proportions,
usually distillates of petroleum, such as
gasoUne, kerosene, etc.

Hydrometer: An instrument by which the
specific gravity or density of liquids may be
ascertained.

Hydrometer Scale, Baum6*s: An arbitrary
measure of specific gravity.

I-Beam: Sometimes called J-jSecfton. A struc-
tural piece having a cross section resembling
the letter I. I-Beam front axle.

Igniter: An insulated contact plug without
sparking points, used in make-and-break
ignition with low-tension magneto.

Igniter, High-Speed: An igniter having a
short spark coil for high-speed engines.

Igniter, Jump-Spark: A system of ignition
in which is used a current of high pressure,
which will jump across a gap in the high-
pressure circuit, causing a spark at the gap.

Igniter, Lead of: Amount by which the igni-
tion is advanced. See "Advanced Ignition".

Igniter, Primary: The apparatus in a pri-
mary circuit for making and breaking the
circuit.

Igniter Sipring: A spring to quickly break
the circuit of a primary igniter.

Ignition, Advancing: See "Advanced Ig-
nition".

Ignition, Battery: A system which gets its
supply of current from a storage battery or
dry cells. This system usually consists of a
battery, a step-up coil, and a distributor for
sending the current to the different spark
plugs.

Ignition, Catalytic: Method of ignition for
explosive motors based on the property of
some metals, particularly spongy platinum,
of becoming incandescent when in contact
with coal gas or carbonized air.

Ignition, Double: See "Double Ignition".

Ignition, Dual: See "Dual Ignition".

Ignition, Fixed: Ignition in which the
spark occurs at a given point in the cycle
and cannot be changed from that point at
the will of the operator except by retiming
the ignition system. Fixed spark.

Ignition, Generator: Ignition current which
is furnished by a combination lighting
generator and magneto. The generator is

396

GLOSSARY

fitted with an Interrupter and distributor.
Sometimes refers to system in which a gener-
ator charges a battery and the latter fur-
nishes the ignition current in connection
with a coil and distributor.

Ignition, High-Tension: Sometimes called
jump-spark. Ignition which is effected by
means of a high-tension or high-voltage
current which is necessary to Jump a gap in
the spark plug.

Ignition, Hot-Head: See "Hot-Head Igni-
tion".

Ignition, Jump-Spark: See "Ignition,
High-Tension".

Ignition, Low-Tension; See "Ignition,
Make-and-Break".

Ignition, Make-and-Brealc: A system in
which the spark is produced by the breaking
or interruption of a circuit, the break
occurring in the combustion space of the
cylinder. The current used is of low-volt-
age, hence ^ihe -synonym, low-tension ignition.

Ignition, Magneto: Ignition produced by
an eiectrio generator, called a magneto, which
is oj^erated by the gas engine for which it
furnuhes current. Dynamo ignition. Gen-
erator ignition.

Ig^Li tion. Master Vitwator : A system which
usee as many non-vibrator coils as there
are cylinders, and one additional coil, called
the master vibrator, for interrupting the
primary odrcuit for all coils. The master
vibrator also is used with vibrator coils in
f^hicb the vibrators are short-circuited.

^nitlon, Prwnature: Ignition occurring so
tar before the top dead center mark that the
explosion occurs belore the piston has. reached
upper dead center.

Ignition, Primary: An ignition systeni in
which a low-tensior current flows through a
primary coil, the ciicuit being mechanically
opened, allowing a mgh-tension spark to
Jump across the gap. See "Primsay Coil".

Ignition, Retarding. Setting the spark of
an internal-combustion motor so that the
ignition wHi oc«ur ai a later part of the
stroke.

Ignition, Self: jUixplosijn of the combusti-
ble charge by heat other than that produced
by the spark. Incandescent carbon will
cause this. Motor overheating because o^
lack of water is another cause.

Ignition, Single: A system using but one
source of current.

Ignition, Synchronized: Ignition by means
of which the timing in each cylinder of a
multicy Under engine is the same. In syn-
chronized ignition the spark occurs at the
same point in the cycle in each cylinder.
This type ot ignition is obtained with a
magneto and is lacking in a multi-coil sys-
tem using vibrator coils.

Ignition, Timing of: The adjustment of the
ignition system so that ignition will take
place at the desired part of the cycle.

Ignition, Two-Independent: See "Igni-
tion, Double".

Ign-tion, Two-Point: A system comprising
two ignition sources, or a double-distributor
magneto, and two sets of spark plugs, both
Of whici. spark at the same time.

Ignition Distributor: See "Distributor."

Ignition Switch: A control or switch for
turning the ignition current on and off volun-
taril.'i

I. H. P.: Abbreviation for indicated horw
power.

Indicated Horsepower: (1) The horse-
power developed by the fuel on the pistons,
lu contradistinction to brake horsepower.
See "Horsepower, Brake". (2) The horse-
power of an engine as ascertained from an
indicator diagram.

Indicator: An instrument by which the
working gas in an engine records its working
pressure.

Indicator Card: A figure drawn by means
of an indicator by the working gas in an
engine. Also called indicaior diagram.

Induction Stroke: The downstroke of a
piston which causes a charge of mixture to
DC drawn into the cylinder.

Inflammation; The act or period of com-
bustion of the mixture in the cylinder.

Inflate: To increase the pressure within a
tire by forcing air into it.

Inflator, Mechanical Tire: A small power-
driven air-pump for inflating the tire; either
driven by gearing, chain, or belt from the
engine shaft, or by friction from the flywheel.

Inherent Regulation: Expression applied
to electric generators which use no outside
means of regulating the output, the regula-
tion being affected by various windings of
the armature and fields.

Initial Air Inlet: See "Primary Air Inlet".

Initial Pressure: Pressure in a cylinder
after the charge has been drawn in but not
compressed.

Injector: A boiler-feeding device in which
the momentum of a steam jet, directed by a
series of conical nozzles, carries a stream of
water into the boiler, the steam condensing
within and heating the water which it forces
along.

Inlet, Valve: The valve which controls the
inlet port and so allows or prevents mixture
from passing to the cylinder.

Inlet Port: Passage or entrance in the cylin-
der wall through which the fuel mixture is
taken. Sometimes called intake port.

Inlet Manifold: Sometimes called intake
manifold or header. A branched pipe con-
nected to the mixing chamber at one end
and at the branch ends to the cylinders so as
to communica^<e with the inlet ports.

Inlet Manifclc*, Integral: A manifold or
header cast integral with the cylinder.

Inner-Tire Shoe: A piece of leather or

rubber placed within the tire to protect the

inner tube.
Inner Tube: A soft air-tight tube of nearly

pure rubber, which fits within a felloe upon

the casing.

Inside Lap: See "Exhaust Lap".

Intake Manifold: The large pipe which
supplies the smaller intake pipes from each
cylinder of a gas engine.

Intake Pipe: Sometimes made synonymous
with inlet manifold. Correctly, the pipe
from the carbureter to the inlet manifold.

Intake Stroke: See "Induction Stroke".

Intensifier: See "Outside Spark Gap".

Intermediate Gear: A gear in a change-
speed set between high and low. In a
tnree-speed set it would be second speed.
In a four, either second or third.

397

GLOSSARY

Intermediate Shaft: See "Shaft, Inter-
mediate'*.

Intemal-Gombostlon Motor: Any prime
mover in which the energy is obtained by
the combustion of the fuel within the
cylinder.

Internal Gear: See "Gear, Internal".

Interrupter: See "Vibrator".

Keyynji Slot in a rotating member used to
hold the key

Kick Switch: Ignition switch mounted so
that the driver can operate it with the foot.

Kilowatt: An electrical unit equal to lOOQ
watts.

Knuckle Joint: See "Swivel Joint".

Jack: A mechanism by which a small force
exerted over a comparatively large distance
18 enabled to raise a heavy body. Used for
raising the automobile axle to remove the
weight from the wheels.

Jacket, Water: A portion of the cylinder
casting through which water flows to cool
the cylinder.

Jacket Water: The cooling water circulating
in a water-cooling system.

Jadcshaft: Shaft used in double-chain drive
vehicles. Shaft placed transversely in the
frame and driving from its ends chains which
turn the rear wheels mounted on a dead
axle.

Jeantaud Diagram: See "Diagram, Jean-
taud".

Joint Knuckle: See "Swivel Joint."

Joule's Law of Gases: See "Gases, Joule's
Law of".

Jump SpKark: A spark produced by a sec-
ondary jump-spark coil.

Jump Spark, Circuit Maker: A mechani-
oally operated switch by which the circuit in
a jump-spark ignition system is opened and
closed.

Jump-Spark €k>ll: An electrical transformer
ana interrupter, consisting of a primary
winding of a few turns o^ coarse wire sur-
rounding an- iron core, and a secondary
winding consisting of a great number of
turns of very fine wire. ^ The condenser is
usually combined with this. Also known as
tecondary spark coil.

Jump-Spark loiter: See "Igniter, Jump-
Spark'*.

Jump-Spark Pluft: See "Spark Plug".

Junction Box: A portion of an electric-
lighting system to which ail wires are carried
for the making of proper connections.

Junk Rinft: A packing ring used in sleeve-
valve motors, it has the same functions as
a piston ring. See "Piston RiDg".

Kerosene: A petroleum product having a
specific gravity between 68® and 40^ Baum^.
It is used as a fuel in internal-combustion
engines and can often be used in gasoline
engines by starting the engine on gasoline,
then switching to kerosene.

Kerosene Burner: A burner especially
adapted to use kerosene as a fuel.

Kerosene Engine: An engine using kero-
sene as fuel.

Key: A semicircular or oblong piece of
metal used to hold a member firmly on a
revolving shaft so as to prevent the member
from rotating.

Key, Baldwin : A key with an oblong section.

Key, Woodruff: A key with a semicircular
section.

Labor: The jerky operation of an engine.
The engine is said to labor when it cannot
pull its load without misfiring or jerking.

Lag, Combustion: The time between the
instant of the spark occurrence and the
explosion.

Lag, Ignition : The time between the instant
of spark occurrence and the time at which
the spark mechanism producing it begins
to act.

Lamp, Trouble: Sometimes called inspec-
tion lamp. A small electric bulb carried in
a suitable housing, and attached to a long
piece of lamp cord. Used for insi)ecting
parts of the car.

Lamp Bulb: The incandescent bulb used in
a lamp.

Lamp Bracket: A support for a lamp.

Lamp Lighter: An apparatus for lighting
gas lamps by electricity. The lamps are
usually so arranged that by pushing the
button the gas is turned on and the spark
made at the same time.

Landaulett A type of car which may be
used as an open or closed car. The rear por-
ti.n of the body may be folded down like a
top.

Landaulet Body: An automobile body
resembling a limousine body, but having a
cover fitted to the back, which may be let
down, leaving the back open. The top
generally extends over the driver.

Lap: To make parts fit ])erfectly by operat-
ing them with an abrasive, such as ground
glass, between the rubbing surfaces. To
finish.

Lap of Steam Valves: In the slide valve of
a steam engine, the amoimt by which the
admission edges overlap the steam port when
the valve is central with the cylinder case.

Layshaft: A countershaft or secondary shaft
of a gearset operated by the main or shifter
shaft.

Lead, or Lead Wire: Any wire carrying
electricity.

Lead: In a steam engine the amount by
which the steam port is opened when the
piston is at the start of its stroke.

Lead Battery: See "Accumulator".

Lead of Igniter: See "Igniter, Lead of".

Lead of Valve: ^ In an en^ne the amount by
which the admission port is opened wheii the
piston ii^ at the beginning of the stroke;
according as this is greater or less, the admis-
sion of working fluid is varied "through
severof fractions of the stroke.

Lean Mixture: Fuel after leaving the car-
bureter, which contains too much air in pro
portion to the gasoline. Sometimes called
thin mixture, rare mixture, or weak mixture.

Lever, Brake: See "Brake Lever."

Lever, Change-Speed: Lever by which the
different combinations of change gears are
made so as to vary the speed of the driving

398

GLOSSARY

wheels in relation to the speed of the engine;
also called gearshift lever.

Leyer* Spark: Lever by which the speed and
power of the en^e are controlled by adjust-
ing the time of ignition.

Lever, Steering: See "Steering Lever".

Lever, Throttle: A lever by which the speed
and power of the engine are controlled by
adjusting the amount of mixture admitted
to the cylinder.

Lever Lock: An arrangement for locking the
gearshift lever in free position so that with
the engine running the driving axle will not
be driven.

Lift: The distance through which a poppet
valve is moved in opening from fully-closed
to fully-open position.

Lifting Jack: See "Jack".

Ligl&ting Outfit, Electric: An outfit for
electrically lighting an automobile. This
usually consists of a dynamo, storage bat-
tery, and lamps and switchboard, with the
necessary wiring and cut-outs.

Limousine Body: An enclosed automobile
body having the front and sides with side
doors. The top extends over the seat of the
driver.

Liner: One or more pieces of metal placed
between two parts so they may be adjusted
by varying the thickness of the liner. Some-
times called a shim. Also refers to a tool
used for lining up parts.

Liner, Laminated : A liner or shim made in
a number of i>arts, the thickness being
varied by removing or adding parts.

Lines of Force: See "Field, Magnetic".

Link Motion: In a steam engine, the name
for the arrangement of eccentric rods, links,
hangers, and rocking shafts by which the
relative motion and position of the slide
valves are changed at will, providing for
varying rates of expansion of tne steam and
thus varying the speed for either forward or
backward motion.

Live Axle: See "Axle, Live".

Lock, Auto Safety: A device arranged so
that it is impossible to start the motor car
except by the proper combination or key.

Lock Nut: A nut placed on a bolt immedi-
ately behind the main nut to keep the main
nut from turning.

Lock Switch: A switch in the ignition cir-
cuit so arranged that it can not be thrown on
except by the use of a key.

Lock Valve : A valve capable of being secured
with lock and key.

Long-Stroke: A gas engine whose stroke is
considerably greater than its bore.

Lost Motion: Sometimes called play or
backlash. Looseness of space between two
moving parts.

Louver: A slit or opening in the side of a
hood or bonnet of a motor car. Used to
allow air from the draft to escape. A venti-
lator.

Low Gear: The lowest speed gear. First
speed in a change-speed set.

Low-Speed Adjustment: A carbureter ad-
justment which regulates the mixture when
the motor is operating slowly, with little
throttle opening.

Low-Speed Band: The brake or friction
band which controls the low speed of a plan-
etary change-speed set.

Low-Tension Current: A current of low
voltage or pressure, such as is generated by
dry cells, storage battery, or low-tension
magneto.

Low-Tension Ignition:

Make-and-Break".

See "Ignition,

Low-Tension Magneto: A magneto which
initially generates a current of low voltage.

Low-Tension Winding: The winding of a
transformer or induction coil through which
the primary or low-tension current flows.

Low Test: Gasoline which has a high den-
sity, thus giving a low reading on the Baum^
scale. Low-grade gasoline.

Low- Water -Alarm: An automatic arrange-
ment by which notice is ^ven that the
water in the boiler is becoming too low for

safety.

Lubricant: An oil or grease used to dimin-
ish friction in the working parts of machin-
ery.

Lubrication: To supply to moving parts
and their bearings grease, oil, or other lubri-
cant for the purpose of lessening friction.

Lubrication, Circulating: A system in
which the same oil is used over and over.

Lubrication, Constant-Level: A system
in which the level in the crankcase is kept to
a predetermined level by means of a pump.

Lubrication, Force-Feed: Method of lubri-
cating the moving parts of an engine by
forcing the oil to the points of application by
means of a pump.

Lubrication, Gravity: Method of supplying
oil to moving parts of an engine by having a
reservoir at a certain height above the highest
point to be lubricated and allowing the oil
to flow to the points of application by
gravity.

Lubrication, Non-Circulating: A system
in which the same oil is used but once.

Lubrication, Pressure-Feed: See "Lubri
cation, Force-Feed".

Lubrication, Sight-Feed: System of lubri-
cation in which the oil pipe to different
points of application is lea through a glass
tube in plain sight ; usually at a point on the
dashboard.

Lubrication, Splash: Method of lubricat-
ing an engine by feeding oil to the crank-
case and allowing the lower edge of the
connecting rod to splash into it.

Lubricator: A device containing and supply-
ing oil or grease in regular amounts to the
working parts of the machine.

Lubricator, Force-Feed: A pump^like dn-
vice which automatically forces oil to the
moving parts.

Magnet: A piece of iron or steel which has
the characteristic properties of being able to
attract other pieces of iron and steel.

Magnet, Horseshoe: A magnet shaped like
the letter U.

Magnet, Permanent: ^ A^ magnet ^ which
when once charged retains its magnetism.

Magnetic Field: See "Field, Magnetic".

Magnetic Spark Plug: A spark plug used
in a make-and-break system of ignition in
which contact is obtained by means of a
magnet.

Magneto: See "Ignition, Magneto".

399

GLOSSARY

Ma^eto:

ator".

See ''Magneto-Electric Gener-

Ma^neto, Double-Distributor: A magneto
with two distributors feeding two sets of
spark pliigs, two in each cylinder and both
«>arking at once. See "Ignition, Two-
Point."

Magneto, Hifth-Tension: A magneto has
two armature windings and requires no out-
side coil for the generation of high-tension
current.

MaftnetOf Induction: A type of magneto in
which the armature and fields are stationary
and a rotator or spool-shaped piece of metal
is used to break the lines of force.

Magneto, Low-Tension: See "Low-Tension
Magneto".

Magneto, Rotating Armature: A magneto
in which the armature winding revolves.

Magneto Bracket: A shelf or portion of the
crankcase web used to support the magneto.

Magneto Coupling: A flexible joint which
connects the magneto with a revolving
motor shaft.

Magneto Distributor: See "Distributor".

Magneto-Electric Generator: A machine
in which there are no field magnet coils, the
magnetic field of the machine being due to
the action of permanent steel magnets.
Usually contracted to magneto.

Main Bearing: A bearing used for support-
ing the crankshaft.

Manifold: A main pipe or chamber into
which or from which a number of smaller
pipes lead to other chambers. See "Intake
Manifold", "Exhaust Manifold", and "Inlet
Manifold".

Manometer: A device for indicating either
the velocity or the pressure of the water in
the cooling system of a gasoline motor.

Master Vibrator: A single vibrator which
interrupts the current to each of a set of
several spark coils in order.

Mean Effective Pressure: The average
pressure exerted upon a piston throughout
Its stroke.

M. E. P. : Abbreviation for mean effective
pressure.

Mercury Arc Rectifier : A mercury vapor con-
verter. See "Mercury Vapor Converter''.

Merrury Vapor Converter: An apparatus
for converting alternating current into direct
current bj'" means of a bubble of mercury in
a vacuum. The vapor of mercury possesses
the property of allowing the flow of current
in one direction only*. Its principal use is
for charging storage batteries.

Me»sh: Two gears whose teeth are so posi-
tioned that one gear will drive the othei are
said to be in mesh.

Misfire: Failure of the mixture to ignite in
the cylinder; usually due to poor ignition or
poor mixtures.

Miss: The failure of a gas engine to exp ode
in one or more cylinders. Sometimes cf lied
misfiring.

Mixing Chamber: A pipe or chaniber
placed between the carbureter and inlet
manifold. Sometimes integral with the car-
bureter or manifold.

Mixing Tube: A tubular carbureter for a
gas or gasoline engine.

Mixing Valve: A device through which air
and gas are admitted to form an explosive

mi^ure. The carbureter of a gasoline
engine combines the mixing valve and
vaporizer.

Mixture: The fuel of a gas engine, consisting
of sprayed gasoline mixed with air.

Monobloc: Cast en bloc or in one piece.
Refers usually to cylinders, which are cast
two or more at once.

Motocycle: A trade name for a special make
of motorcycle.

Motor, Electric: See "Electric Motor".

Motor, Gasoline: See "Gasoline Motor".

Motor, High-Speed: A gas engine whose
rotative speed is very high and whose power
output goes up with the speed to an unusual
degree.

Motor, Horizontal: A gas engine whose cyl-
inder axis lies in a horizontal plane.

Motor, I-head : ^ A gas engine which has
cylinders, a section of which resembles the
letter I. This type has the valves in the
head.

Motor, L-Head: A gas engine in which a
section of cylinders resembles the letter L.
The valves in this type are all on one side.

Motor, Long-Stroke:

Motor".

See "Long-Stroke

Motor, Non-Poppet: A gas engine whose
valves are not of the poppet type. In this
class is the Knight sleeve valve, the rotary
valve, and the piston valve.

Motor, Overhead Valve: A motor with cyl-
inders whose valves are in the head.

Motor, Piston Valve: A gas engine using
valves which are in the form of pistons.

Motor, Poppet: A gas engine using poppet-
type valves. See "Poppet Valve".

Motor, Revolving Cylinder: A motor whose
cylinders revolve as a unit.

Motor, Rotary Valve: One in which the
valves consist of slots cut out along cylin-
drical rods which rotate in the cylinder
casting.

Motor, Sliding Sleeve: The Knight type
motor in which thin sleeves slide up and
down in the cylinder, the sleeves having
ports which register with the inlet and
exhaust manifolds.

Motor, T-Head: A gas engine with the
valves on opposite sides of the cylinders, a
section of which resembles the letter T.

Motor, V-Type: A motor whose cylinders
are set on tne crankcase so as to form an
angle of 45 to 90 degrees between them.

Motor, Vertical: A motor with the cylindei
axis in a vertical plane.

Motorcycle: A bicycle propelled by a gaso-
line engine.

Mud Guard : Metal or leather strips placed
over the wheels to catch the flying mud and
to prevent the clothing from coming in con-
tact with the wheels when entering and
leaving the car.

Muffler Cut-Out: See "Cut-Out, Muffler".

Muffler Cut-Out Pedal: See "Cut-Out
Pedal".

Muffler Exhaust: A vessel containing par-
titions, usually perforated with small holes
and designed to reduce the noise occasioned
by the exhaust gases of an engine, by forcing
the gases to expand gradually.

400

GLOSSARY

Muffler Explosion: Explosion of unburned
gases in exhaust passages of the muffler,
usually due to poor ignition or poor mixture.

Multiple Circuit: A compound circuit in
which a number of separate sources or
electrically op«rated devices, or both, have
all their positive poles connected to a single
positive conductor and all their negative
poles to a single negative conductor.

N.A.A.M«: Abbreviation for National Asso-
ciation of Automobile Manufacturers.

Naphtha: A product of the distillation of
petroleum used to some extent for marine
engines.

Needle Valve: A valve in a carbureter used
for regulating the amount of gasoline to flow
in with the mixture.

Negative Plate: Plate of a storage battery to
which current returns from the outside
circuit.

Negative Pole: That pole of an electric
source through which the current is assumed
to enter or flow back into the source after
having passed through the circuit external
to the source.

Neutral Position: The position of the
change-speed lever which so places the gears
that the motor may run idle, the car remain-
ing still.

Non-Deflatable Tire: See "Tire, Non-
Puncturable".

Non-Freezing Solution: A solution placed
into the radiator of a motor car to prevent
the water therein from freezing. Alcohol
and glycerine are the usual anti-freezing
agents. See "Anti-Freezing Solution".

Non-Puncturable Tire: See "Tire, Non-
Puncturable".

Non-Skid Device: See "Anti-Skid Device".

Odometer: (1) The mileage-recording mech-
anism of a speedometer. (2) An instrument
to be attached to an automobile wheel to
automatically indicate the distance traveled.

Odometer, Hub: A speed-recording device
which is placed on the hub cap of a wheel.

Offset: Off center, as a crankshaft in which
a line vertically through the crankpins does
not coincide with a line vertically through
the center of the cylinder.

Ohm: (1) Unit of electrical resistance. (2)
Amount of electrical resistance. Such resist-
ance as would limit the flow of electricity
under an electromotive force of one volt to
a current of one ampere.

Ohm*s Law: The law which gives the rela-
tion between voltage, resistance, and current
flow in any circuit. Expressed algebraically,

C=-= where C is the current flowing in ara-
li

peres, / the voltage and R the ohmic resist-
ance.
Oil Burner: A burner equipped with an
atomizer for breaking up liquid fuel into a
spray.

Oil Engine: An internal-combustion motor
using kerosene or other oil as fuel.

Oil Gage: (1) A gage to indicate the flow
of oil in the lubricating system. (2) Used
to show the level of oil in a compartment in
the base of a gas engine.

Oil Gun: A cylinder with a long point and a
spring plunger for squirting oil or grease
into inaccessible parts of a machine.

Oil Pump: A small force pump providing a
constant positive supply of ou under pres-
sure; usually considered to be more rehable
than a lubricator.

Oiler: ^ An automobile device for oiling
machinery.

Opposed Motor: A gasoline engine whose
cylinders are arranged in pairs on opposite
sides of the crankshaft, both connecting
rods of each pair being connected to the
same crank, eo that the shock of the explo-
sion in one will be balanced by^ the cushion-
ing effect of the compression in the other.
In general these motors are two-cylinder,
horizontal.

Otto Cycle: See "Four-Stroke Cycle".

Outside Spark Gap: See "Spark Gap, Out-
side".

Overcharged: The state of the storage bat-
tery when it has been charged at too high a
rate or for too great a length of time.

Overhead Camshaft: A camshaft which is
placed above the cylinder of a gas engine.

Overhead Valves: See "Motor, Overhead
Valve".

Overheating: The act of allowing the motor
to reach an excessively high temperature
due to the heat of combustion being not
carried away rapidly enough by the cooling
devices, or to insufficient lubrication. Over-
heating of a bearing is due to insufficient
lubrication.

Packing: The material introduced between
the parts of couplings, joints, or valves, to
prevent the leakage of gas or liquids to or
from them.

Panel, Charging: A small switchboard for
charging a storage battery.

Parallel Circuit: See "Multiple Circuit".

Patch, Tire-Repair: Rubber strips for mak-
ing repairs in punctured or ruptured tires.

Petcock: A control cock which when open
allows gas or liquid to escape from the cham-
ber to which it is attached.

Petrol: Word used in England for gasoline.

Picric Acid: Acid which may be added to
gasoline to increase the motor efficiency.
Gasoline will absorb about five per cent of
its weight of picric acid.

Pin, Taper: A conically shaped pin.

Pinch: A cut in an inner tube caused by the
tube being caught or pinched between the
outer casing and the rim.

Pinion: (1) The smaller of any pair of
gears. (2) A small gear made to run with
a larger gear.

Piston: The hollow, cylindrical portion
attached to the connecting rod of a motor.
The reciprocating part which takes the
strain caused by the explosion.

Piston Air Valve: A secondary air valve in
the piston of earlier types of gas engines to
compensate the imperfect operation of sur-
face carbureters used with those engines
and to secure the injection of a sufficient
quantity of air to insure the combustion of
the charge.

Piston Head: The top of the piston.

401

GLOSSARY

PItton Pin: A pin which holds the connect-
ing rod to the piston.

PUton Rin&: (1) A metal rin^ inserted in a
groove cat into a piston assisting in making
the latter tight in the cylinder. There are
usually three rings on each piston. (2)
Rings about the circumference of a piston,
whose diameter is slightly greater than that
of the piston. These are to insure closer fit
and prevent wearing of the piston, as the
wear is taken up by the rings which may
be easily removed.

Piston Rod: Usually called connecting rod*
The rod which connects the piston with
the crankshaft.

Piston Skirt: The portion of a piston below
. the piston pin.

Piston Speed : The rate at which the piston
travels m its cylinder.

Piston Stroke: The complete distance a
piston travels in its cylinder.

Pitted : Condition of a working surface which
has become covered with carbon particles
which have been imbedded in the metal.

Planetary Gear: An arrangement of spur
and annular gears in which the smaller gears
revolve around the main shaft as planets
revolve around the sun.

Planetary Transmission: A transmission
system in which the speed changes are ob-
tained by a set of planetary gears.

Plate: Part of a storage battery which holds
active material. See "Negative Plate".

Pneumatic Tire: A tire fitted to the wheels
of automobiles, consisting usually of two
tubes, the outer of India rubber, canvas, and
other resilient wear-resisting material, and
the inner composed of nearly pure rubber
which is inflated with compressed air to
maintain the outer tube in its proper form
under load.

Polarizing: Formation of gas at the negative
element of a cell so as to prevent the action
of the battery. ^ This formation of gas is
caused by the violent reaction taking place
in a circuit of low resistance.

Pole Piece: A piece of iron attached to the
pole of a magneto used in an electric gener-
ator.

Poppet Valve: A disk or drop valve usually
seating itself through gravitation or by
means of springs, and frequently opening by
suction or cams.

Port: An opening for the passage of the
working fluid in an engine.

Portable Garage: See "Garage, Portable".

Positive Connection: A connection by
which positive motion is transmitted by
means of a crank, bolt, or key, or other
method by which slipping is eliminated.

Positive Motion: Motion transmitted by
cranks or other methods in which slipping
is eliminated.

Positive Plate: Plate in a storage battery,
from which the current flows to the outside
circuit.

Positive Pole: The source from which elec-
tricity is assumed to flow; the opposite of
negative pole. In a magnet the positive pole
is the end of the magnet from which the
magnetic flux is assumed to emanate.

Pounding in Engine: Pounding noise at
each revolution, usually caused by either

carbon deposit, loose or tight piston, loo^^
bearing or other part, or pre-ignition.

Power Stroke: The piston stroke in a gM
engine in which the exploded gases are
expanding, thus pushing the piston down-
ward.

Power Tire Pump: A pump which is oper-
ated by a gas engine and is used to inflate
the tires of a motor car.

Power Unit: The en^ne with fuel, cooling,
lubrication,^ and igmtion systems, without
the transmission or running; gears. Some-
times the gearset and driving shaft are
included by the term.

Pre-Ignition: See "Premature Ignition".

Premature Ignition: Ignition of fuel before
the proper point in the cycle.

Pressure-Feed: See "Lubrication, Force-
Feed".

Pressure Gage: A gage for indicating the
pressure of a fluid confined in a chamber,
such as steam in a boiler, etc.

Pressure Lubricator: A lubricating device
in which the oil is forced to the bearings by
means of a pump or other device for main-
taining pressure.

Pressure Regulator: A device for main-
taining the pressure of the steam in the
principal pipe at a constant point irrespective
of the fluctuations of pressure in the boiler.

Primary Air Inlet: The main or fixed air
intake of a carbureter.

Primary Circuit: The circuit which carries
low-tension current.

Primary Coll: A self-induction coil consist-
ing of several turns of wire about an iron
core.

Primary Spark Coil: An induction coil
which has only a single winding composed
of a few layers of insulated copper wire
wound on a bundle of soft iron wires, known
as the core, also as a vfipe, or touch, tpark cotZ.

Primer: A pin in a float-feed valve so
arranged that it may depress the float in
priming a gasoline engme. Also called
tickler and flushing pin.

Priming: (1) The canying of water over
with the steam from the boiler to' the
en^ne, due to dirty water, irregular evapo-
ration, or forced steaming.^ (2) Injecting a
small amount of gasoline into the cylinder
of a gasoline engine to assist in starting.

Priming Cock: A control cock screwed into
the cylinder and which when open com-
municates with the combustion chamber
allowing gasoline to be poured into the
cylinder.

Progressive Change-Speed Gears : Change-
speed gears so arranged that higher speeds
are obtained by passing through all the
intermediate steps and vice verea.

Prony Brake: A dynamometer to indicate
the horsepower of an engine. A band
encircles the flywheel of the engine and is
secured to a lever, at the other end of which
is a scale to measure the pull.

Propeller Shaft: The shaft which turns the
rear axle of a motor car. The drive shaft.

Pump, Centrifugal: A pump with a hollow
hub and curved blades which by centrifugal
force throw water or oil into the system
requiring it.

Pump, Circulation:

Pump".

See "Circulation

402

GLOSSARY

Pump, Fuel-Feed: A mechanically oper-
ated pump for insuring positive feed of fuel
to the burner of a steam engine or carbureter
of a gas engine.

Pump, Oil: See "Oil Pump".

Puinp, Plunger: Sometimes called piston
pump. One containing a piston which
forces a liquid to a system.

Pump, Power Tire: See "Tire Pump".

Pump, Steam Boiler-Feed: See "Boiler-
Feed Pump".

Pump, Water Girculatinft: See "Circula-
tion Pump".

Pump Gear: A pump composed of two
gears in mesh placed m a housing. When
the gears revolve they carry oil or water, as
the case may be, on their teeth, which deliver
it to an outlet.

Puncture: The perforation of an inflated
rubber automobile tire by some sharp sub-
stance on the roadbed.

Puncture-Closing Compound: A viscous
compound placed within the inner tire tube
to close the hole caused by a puncture.

Push Rod: A rod which operates the valves
of a poppet-valve motor. A rod which
imparts a pushing motion.

Race: (1) The parts upon which the balls
of a ball bearing roll. (2) When referring
to a gas engine, to operate at high speed
without a load.

Racing Body: A low, light automobile body,
having two seats with backs as low as possi-
ble; designed for large fuel capacity and
very high speed.

Radiator: A device consisting of a large
number of small tubes, through which the
heated water from the jacket of the engine
passes to be cooled, the heat being carried
away from the metal of the radiator by air.

Radiator, Cellular: See "Honeycomb
Radiator".

Radiator, Tubular: A radiator consisting
of many tubes, through which water passes
to be cooled.

Radiator Protector: See "Bumper".

Radius Rod: A bar in the frame of an auto-
mobile to assist in maintaining the proper
distance between centers. Also called
distance rod.

Rawhide Gear: Tooth gears, built up of
compressed rawhide, used for high-speed
drive. Sometimes a metal gear is merely
faced with rawhide for the purpose of reduc-
ing noise.

Reach Rod: See "Radius Rod".

Reciprocating Parts: The parts such as
pistons and connecting rods which have a
reciprocating motion.

Rectifier, Alternating-Current: See "Ciu--
rent Rectifier".

Relief Cock : See "Compression-Relief Cock".

Removable Rim: See "Demountable Rim".

Resiliency: That property of a material
by virtue of which it springs back or recoils
on removal of pressure, as a spring.

Resistance, Electrical: (1) A part of an
electric circuit for the purpose of opposing
the flow of the current in the circuit. (2)
The electrical resistance of a conductor is

that quality of a conductor by virtue of
which the conductor opposes the passage of
electricity through its mass. Its unit is
the ohm.

Retard: With reference to the ignition S3^a-
tem, causing the spark to occur while the
piston is retarding or moving downward on
the working stroke.

Retarding Ignition: See "Ignition, Retard-
ing .

Retarding the Spark: See "Ignition, Re-
tarding .

Retread:^ To^ replace the tread of a pneu-
matic tire with a new one.

Reverse Cam: On a gasoline engine a cam
so arranged that by reversing its motion or
shifting it along its shaft it will operate the
valves and cause the engine to reverse.

Reverse Gear: In a steam engine, a device
by which the valves may be set to effect
motion of the car in either direction. In a
gasoline ^ automobile, the reversing gear is
usually incorporated with the change-speed
gears.

Reverse Lever: A lever by which the direc-
tion of movement of the driving wheels may
be reversed without reversing the engine.
This is usually combined with the change-
speed levers.

Rheostat: A device for regulating the flow
of current in a closed electrical circuit by
introducing a series of graduated resistances
into the circuit.

Rim : The portion of a wheel to which a solid
or pneumatic tire is fitted. A circular,
channel-shaped portion attached to the
wheel felloe.

Rim, Demountable: A rim which may be
removed from the wheel easily in order that
another with an inflated tire may take its
place.

Rim, Quick-Detachable: A rim made of
two or more parts so that the tire may be
detached and attached quickly.

Rim, Removable: See "Demountable Rim".

Road Map: A map of a section or locality
showing the best roads for motor-car travel,
and usually the best stopping places and
repair stations.

Roadster: A small motor car designed to be
fairly speedy; usually has carrying capacity
for an extra large quantity of fuel and sup-
plies; generally seats two persons, with pro-
vision for one or two more, by the attach-
ment of a rumble seat in the rear.

Rocker Arm: A pivoted lever used to oper-
ate overhead valves in a T-head motor-
Rod, Radius: See "Radius Rod".
Rod, Steering: See "Steering Rod".
Roller Bearings: See "Bearing, Roller".

Roller Chain: A chain whose links are pro-
vided with small rollers to decrease the fric-
tion and the noise.

Rotarv Valve: A type of valve somewhat
similar to the Corliss engine valve used on
automobile motors.

Rumble: A small single seat to provide for
an extra passenger on a two-seated vehicle.
Usually detachable.

Runabout: A small two-seated vehicle, usu-
ally of a lower power and lower speed, as
well as lower operating radius, than a road-
ster.

403

GLOSSARY

Running Board: A horizontal step placed
below the frame and used to assist passen*
gers in leaving and entering a motor car.

Running Gear: The frame, springs, motor,
wheels, speed-change gears, axles, and
machinery of an automobile, without the
body; used synonymously with chassia.

Safety Plug: See "Fusible Plug*'.

Safety Valve: A valve seated on the top of a
steam boiler, and loaded so that when the
pressure of the steam exceeds a certain point
the valve is lifted from the seat and allows
the steam to escape.

Saturated Steam: The quality of the
steam when no more steam can be made in
the closed vessel without raising the tempera-
ture or lowering the pressure.

Scavenging: The action of clearing the cyl-
inder of an internal-combustion motor of
the burned-out gases.

Score: To burn, or abrade a moving part
with another moving part.

Screw: An inclined plane wrapped around a
cylinder; a cyUnder having a heUcal groove
cut in its surface.

Searchlight: A headlight designed to throw
a very bright light on the road. Electricity
or acetylene is usually used as an illuminant,
and the lamp has a parabolic reflector and
may be turned to throw the light in any
direction.

Secondary Battery: See "Accumulator".

Secondary Current: A current in which the
electromotive force is generated by induc-
tion from a primary circuit in which a varia-
ble current is flowing. The high-tension
current of a jumcHSpark ignition system.

Secondary Circuit: The circuit which carries
high-tension current.

Secondary Spark Coil: An induction coil
having a double winding ur>on its core.
The inner winding is composed of a few
layers of insulated wire of large size, and
the outer winding consists of a great many
layers of very small insulated copper wire.
Also known as a jump-spark coil.

Seize: Refers to moving parts which adhere
because of operation without a> fi.lm of oil
between thcworking surfaces.

Selective Change-Speed Gears: Change-
speed gears so arranged that any desired
speed combination can be obtained without
going through the intermediate steps.

Self -Firing: Ignition of the mixture in a
gas engine due to the walls of the cylinder or

E articles attached to them becoming over-
eated and incandescent.

Self-starter: See "Engine Starter".

Separator, Steam: A device attached to
steam pipes to separate entrained water
from live steam before it enters the engine,
or to separate the oily particles from exhaust
steam on its way to the condenser.

Series Circuit: A compound circuit in which
the separate sources or the separate elec-
trical receiving devices, or both, are so
placed that the current supplied by each, or
passed through each, passes successively
through the other circuits from the first to
the last.

Set Screw: A small screw with a pointed
end used for locking a part in a fixed position
to prevent it from turning.

Setting Valves: See "Valve Setting*'.

Shaft, Intermediate: The shaft placed
between the first and third motion gearing
and acting as a carrier of motion between
the two.

Shaft Drive: System of power transmission
by means of a shaft.

Shim: See "Liner".

Shock Absorber: A device attached to the
springs or hangers of motor cars to decrease
the jars due to rough roads, instead of
allowing them to be transmitted to the
frame of the carriage.

Short Circuit: A shunt or by-path of com-
paratively small resistance around a portion
of an electric circuit, by which enough cur-
rent passes through the new path to virtu-
ally cut out the part of the circuit around
which it is passed, and prevent it from
receiving any appreciable current.

Sight Feed: An indicator covered with glass
which shows that oil is flowing in a system.
A telltale sight. A check on the oiling
system.

Side-Bar Steering: See "Steering, Side-
Bar".

Side-SUpping: See "Skidding".

Silencer: See "MuflBer, Exhaust".

Silent Chain; A form of driving chain in
which the links are comprised of sections
which so move over the sprocket that prac-
tically all noise is eliminated. Silent chains
are used specially for driving timing gears,
gearsets, etc.

Skidding: The tendency of the rear wheels
to slide sideways to the direction of travel,
owing to the slight adhesion between tires
and the surface of the roadbed, also called
8ide-al%ppinj,

Skip: See "Miss".

Sleeve Valve: A form of valve consisting of
cylindrical shells moving up and down in
the cylinders of such a motor as the Silent
Knight.

Sliding Gears: A change-speed set in which
various gears are placed into mesh by the
sliding on a shaft of one or more gears.

Sliding Sleeve: See "Motor, Sleeve-Valve".

Slip Cover: A fabric covering for the top
when down or for the upholstery of a motor
vehicle.

Smoke in Exhaust: Smoky appearance in
the exhaust due to too much oil, too rich
mixture, low grade of fuel, or faulty ignition.

Solid Thre: See "Tire, Solid".

Sooting of Spark Plug: Fouling of the
spark plug with soot, due to poor mixture,
impure fuel, or improper lubrication.

Spare Wheel: An extra wheel complete
with inflated tire, carried on the car for quick
replacement of wheel with damaged tire.

Spark, Advancing: See "Advanced Igni-
tion".

Spark Coil: A coil or coils of wire for pro-
ducing a spark at the spark plug. It may
be either a secondary or primary spark coil.

Spark Gap: A break in the circuit of a
jump-spark ignition system for producing a
sparK within the cylinder to ignite the
charge. The spark gap is at the end of a
small plug called the spark plug.

Spark Gap, Extra: See "Spark Gap, Out-
side".

404

GLOSSARY

Spark Gap, Outside: A device to overcome
the short circuiting in the spark gap due to
fouling and carbon deposits between the
points of the high-tension spark plug. It is
a form of condenser, or capacity in which
the air acts as the dielectric between two
surfaces at the terminals of a gap in a high-
tension circuit.

Spark Intensifier: See *'Spark Gap, Out-
side".

Spark Lever: See "Timing Lever".

Spark Plug: The terminals of the secondary
circuit of a jumpnspark ignition system
mounted to leave a spark 'gap between the
terminals projecting inside the cylinder for
the purpose of igniting the fuel in the cylin-
der by means of a spark crossing the gap
between them.

Spark Plug, Pocketing: Mounting the
spark plug in a recess of the cylinder head to
reduce the sooting of the sparking points.

Spark Plug, Sooting of: See "Sooting of
Spark Plug".

Spark Regulator: A mechanism by which
the time of ignition of the charge is varied
by a small handle on or near the steering
wheel.

S^ark, Retarding: See "Ignition, Retard-
mg".

Spark Timer: See "Timer, Ignition".

Speaking Tube: See "Annunciator".

Specific Gravity: The weight of a given
substance relative to that of an equal bulk
of some other substance which is taken as a
standard of comparison. Air or hydrogen
is the standard for gases, and water is the
standard for liquids and solids.

Specific Heat: The capacity of a substance
for removing heat as compared with that of
another which is taken as a standard. The
standard is generally water.

Speed -Change Gear: A device whereby the
speed ratio of the engine and driving wheels
of the car is varied.

Si>eed Indicator: An instrument for show-
ing the velocity of the car.

Speedometer: A device used on motor cars
for recording the miles traveled and for
indicating the speed at all times.

Speedometer Gears: Gears used to drive a
shaft which operates the speedometer.

Speedometer Shaft: A flexible shaft which
operates a speedometer.

Spiral Gear: A gear with helically-cut
teeth.

Splash Lubrication: See "Lubrication,
Splash".

Spline: A key.

Spontaneous Ignition: See "Self-Firing".

Sprag: A device to be let down (usually at
the rear of the car) to prevent its slipping
back when climbing a hill.

Spray^ Nozzle: That portion of a carbureter
which sprays the gasoline.

Spring: An elastic body, as a steel rod,
plate, 6r coil, used to receive and impart
power, regulate motion, or diminish con-
cussion.

Spring, Cantilever: A type of spring which
appears like a semi-elliptic reversed; and
which is flexibly attached in the center,
rigidly at one end, and by a shackle at the
other.

Spring, Elliptic: A spring, elliptic in shape,
and consisting of two half-elliptic members
attached together.

Spring Semi-Elliptic: A spring made up oi
a number of leaves, the whole resembling a
portion of an ellipse.

Spring, Supplementary: See "Shock Ab-
sorber".

Spring, Underslung: A spring which is
fastened under the axle instead of over it.

Spring Hangers: See "Body Hangers".

Spring Shackle: A link attached to one end
of a spring which allows for flattening of the
spring.

Sprocket: A wheel with teeth around the
circumference, so shaped that the teeth will
fit into the links of a chain which drives or
is driven by the sprocket.

Starboard: The right-hand side of a ship or
vessel.

Starter, Engine: See "Engine Starter".

Starting, Gas Engine: The operation neces-
sary to make the engine automatically con-
tinue its cycle of events. It usually consists
of opening the throttle, retarding the spark,
closing the ignition circuit, and cranking the
engine.

Starting Crank: A crank by which the
engine may be given several revolutions by
hand in order to start it.

Starting Device: See "Engine Starter".

Starting on Spark: In engines having four
or more cylinders with well-fitting pistons,
it is often possible to start the motor after it
has stood idle for some time by simply clos-
ing the ignition circuit, provided that the
previous stopping of the engine was done
by opening the ignition circuit before the
throttle was closed, leaving an unexploded
charge under compression in one of the
cylinders.

Steam: The vapor of water; the hot invisible
vapor given off by water at its boiling point.

Steam Boiler: See "Boiler".

Steam Condenser: See "Condenser".

Steam, Cycle of: A series of operations of
steam forming a closed circuit, a fresh series
beginning where another ends; that, is,
steam is generated in the boilers, passes
through the pipes of the engine, doing work
successively in its vario'is cylinders, escap-
ing at exhaust pressure to the condenser,
where it is converted into water and returned
to the boiler, to go through the same opera-
tions once more.

Steam Engine: A motor depending for its
operation on the latent energy in steam.

Steam Gage: See "Pressure Gage".

S team Port : See ' ' Admission' * .

Steering, Side-Bar: Method of guiding the
car by means of an upright bar at the side
of the seat.

Steering Angle for Front Wheels: Maxi-
mum angle of front wheels to the axle when
making a turn; should be about 35°.

Steering Check: A device for locking the
steering gear so that the direction will
not be changed unless desired.

Steering Column: See "Steering Post".

Steering Gear: The mechanism by which
motion is communicated to the front axle of
the vehicle, by which the wheeb may be
turned to guide the car as desired.

405

OLOS^AR?

Steering Knuckle: A knuckle oonneoting
the steering rods with the front axle of the
motor.

Steering Lerer: A lever or handle by which
the car is guided.

Steering Neck: The vertical spindle carried
by the steering yoke. It is the pivot of the
bell crank by which the wheel is turned.

Steering Pillar: See ''Steering Post'*.

Steering Poet: The member through which
the twist of the steering wheel is trans-
mitted to the steering knuckle. The steering
post often carries the spark and throttle
levers also.

Steering Rod: The rod which connects the
steering gear with the bell cranks or pivot
arms, by means of which the motor car is
guided.

Steering Wheel: The wheel by which the
driver of a motor car guides it.

Steering Yoke: The Y-shaped piece in
which the front axle terminates. The yoke
carries the vertical steering epindle or
steering neck.

Stephenson Link Motion: A reversing gear
in which the ends of the two eccentric rods
are connected by a link or quadrant sliding
over a block at the end of the valve spindle.

Step-Up Ck>il: A coil used to transform low-
into high-tension current.

Storage Battmy: See "Accumulator".

Stroke: See "Piston Stroke".

Strainer, Gasoline: A wire netting for pre-
venting impurities entering the gasoline feed
system.

Strangle Tube: The narrowing of the
throat of the carbiueter just above the air
inlets in order to increase the speed of the
air, and thus increase the proportion of gas
which will be picked up.

Stroke: The distance of travel of a piston
from its point of farthest travel at one end
of the cylinder to its point of farthest travel
at the other end. Two strokes of the piston
take place to every revolution of the crank-
shaft.

Stud Plate: The plate or frame in a planet-
ary transmission system carrying studs upon
which the central pinions revolve.

Suction Valve: The type of admission valve
on an internal combustion engine which is
opened by the suction of the piston within
the cylinder and admits the mixture. The
valve is normally held to its seat by a spring.

Sulpha ting of Batterv: The formation of
an inactive coating of lead sulphate on the
surface of the plates of a storage battery.
It is a source of loss in the battery.

Superheated Steam: Steam which has been
still further heated after reaching the point
of saturation.

Supplementary Air Valve: See ''Auxiliary
Air Valve".

Swivel Joint: The Joint for connecting the
steering arta of the wheel or lever-steering
mechanism to the arms on the steering
wheel. Also called knttckle joint.

Tachometer: An instrument for indicating
the number of revolutions made by a machine
in a unit of time.

Tandem Engine: A compound engine hav-
ing two or more cylinders in a line, one

behind the other, and with pistons attaohi i
to the same piston rod.

Tank Gage: See "Fuel-Level Indicator".

Tappet Rod: See "Push Rod".

Tazlcab: A public motor-driven vehicle in
which the fare is automatically registered by
the taximeter.

Taximeter: An instrument in a public
vehicle for mechanically indicating the fare
charged.

Terminals: The connecting posts of elec-
trical devices, as batteries or coils.

Thermal Unit:* Usually called the Briiiah
Thermal Utvit, or B. t. u. A measure of
mechanical work equal to the energy re-

auired to raise one pound of water one
egree Fahrenheit.

Thermostat: An instrument to automati-
cally regulate the temperature.

Thermoslphon Cooling: A method of cool-
ing the cylinder of a gas engine. The water
rises from the jackets and siphons into a
radiator from whence it returns to the
supply tank, doing away with the necessity
for a circulating pump.

Three-Point Suspension: A method used
for suspending motor car units, such as the
motor, on three points.

Throttle: A valve placed in the admission
pipe between the carbureter and the admis-
sion valve of the motor to control the speed
and power of the motor by varjdng the
supply of the mixture.

Throttle, Foot: See "Accelerator".

Throttle, Leva*: A lever on the steering
wheel which operates the carbureter throttle.
See "Throttle".

Throttling: The act of closing the admission
pipe of the engine so that the gas or steam is
admitted to the cylinder less rapidly, thus
cutting down the speed and power of the
engine.

Thrust Bearing: A bearing which takes
loads parallel with the axis of rotation of the
shaft upon which it is fitted.

Tickler: A pin in a carbureter arranged to
hold down the float in priming, also called
flushing pin and primer.

Timer, Ignition: An ignition commutator.

Timing Gears: The gears which operate the
camshaft and magneto shaft. The camshaft
gear is twice as large as the crankshaft gear.

Timing Lever: A lever fitted to gas engines
by means of which the time of ignition is
changed. Also called spark lever.

Timing Valve: In a gas engine using float*
tube ignition, a valve controlling the opening
between the combustion space and the

igniter.

Tip, Burner: A small earthen, aluminum, or
platinum cover for the end of the burner
tube of an acetylene lamp. It is usually

f provided with two holes, so placed that the
ets from them meet and spread out in a
fan shape.

Tire, Afa-less: See "Airless Tire".

Tire, Clincher: A type of pneumatic tire
which is held to a clincher.

Tire, Cushion: Vehicle tire having a very
thick rubber casing and very small air space.
It is non-puncturable and does not have to
be inflated, but is not as resilient as a pneu-
matic tire.

406

GLOSSARY

Tire, Non-Deflatable: See "Tire, Non-
Puncturable".

Tire, Non Puncturable: A tire so construct-
ed that it cannot be easily punctured or will
not become deflated when punctured.

Tire, Punctures in: Holes or leaks in pneu-
matic tires caused by foreign substances
penetrating the inner tube and allowing the
air to escape.

Tire, Single-Tube: A pneumatic tire in
which the inner and outer tubes are com-
bined.

lire. Solid: A tire made of solid, or nearly
soUd rubber.

Tire Band: A band to protect or repair a
damaged pneumatic tire. See "Tire Pro-
tector".

Tire Bead: Lower edges of a pneumatic tire
which grip the curved portion of a rim.

Tire Case: (1) A leather or metal case for
carrying spare tire; same as tire holdet,
(2) The outer tube.

Tire Chain: See "Anti-Skid Device".

Tire Filling: Material to be introduced into
th^ tire to take the place of air and do away
with puncture troubles

Tire Gage: Gage used for measuring the air
pressure in a pneumatic tire.

Tire Holder: A metal or leather case for
carrying spare tires.

Tire-Inflating Tank: A tank containing
compressed air or gas for inflating the tires.

Tire Inflater, Mechanical : A small mechan-
ical pump for inflating pneumatic tires.

Tire Patch: See "Patch, Tire Repair".

Tire-Pressure Gage: A i>ressure gage to
indicate the pressure of air in the tire.

Tire Protector: The sleeve or band placed
over a tire to protect it from road wear.

Tire Pump: A pump for furmshing air under
pressure to the tire, may be either hand- or
power-operated.

Tire Sleeve: A sleeve to protect the injured
part of a pneumatic tire. It is a tire pro-
tector which covers more of the circumfer-
ence of the wheel than a tire band. See
"Tire Protector".

Tire Tape: Adhesive tape used to bind the
outer tube to the rim in repairing tires.

Tire Tool:. Tool used to apply and remove a
tire.

Tire Valve: A small valve in the inner tube
to allow air to be pumped into the tube
without permitting it to escape.

Tires, Creeping of: See "Creeping of Tires".

Tonneau: The rear seats of a motor car.
Literally, the word means a round tank or
water barrel.

Torque:^ Turning effort, or twisting effort of
a rotating part.

Torque Rod: A rod attached at one end to
the rear axle and at the other to the frame;
used to prevent twisting of the rear-axle
housing.

Torsion Rod: Th3 shaft that transmits the
turning impulse from the change gears to
the rear axle. Usually spoken of as the
shaft.

Touch Spark: See "Wipe Spark".

Tourabout: A light type of touring car.

Touring Car: A car with no removable rear

seats, and a carrying capacity of four to
seven persons.

Town Car: A car having the rear seats
enclosed but the driver exposed.

Traction: The act of drawing or state of
being drawn. The pull (or push) of wheels.

Tractor: A self proi>elled vehicle for hauling
other vehicles or implements; a traction
engine.

Transmission, Individual Clutch: A

transmission consisting of a set of spur gears
on parallel shafts which are always in mesh,
different trains being picked up with a
separate clutch for each set.

Transmission, Planetary: A transmission
system in which a number of pinions revolve
about a central pinion in a manner similar to
the revolution of the planets about the sun;
usual type consists of a central pinion sur-
rounded by three or more pinions and an
internal gear.

Transmission, Sliding Gear: A trans-
mission system in which sliding change-speed
gears are used.

Transmission Brake: Brake operating on
the gearset shaft or end of the propeller shaft.

Transmission Gears: A set of gears by
which power is transmitted. In automo-
biles, usually called change-speed gears.

Transmission Ratio: The ratio of the speed
of the crankshaft to the speed of the trans-
mission shaft or driving shaft.

Tread : That part of a wheel which comes in
contact with the road.

Tread, Detachable: A tire covering to pro-
tect the outer tube, which may be taken off
or replaced.

Trembler: The vibrating spring actuated by
the induction coil magnet which rapidly
connects and disconnects the primary cu-cuit
in connection with jump-spark ignition.

Truck: (1) A strong, comparatively slow-
speed vehicle, designed for transporting
heavy loads. (2) A swiveling carriage
having small wheels, which may be placed
under the wheels of a car.

Try Cock: A faucet or valve which may be
opened by hand to ascertain the height of
' water in the boiler.

Tube Case: See "Tire Case".

Tube Ignition: See "Hot-Tube Ignition".

Tubing, Flexible: See "Flexible Tubing".

Tubular Radiator: An automobile radiator
in which the jacket water circulates in a
series of tubes.

Tungsten Lamp: Incandescent bulb with
the filament made of tungsten wire.

Turning Moment: See "Torque".

Turning Radius: The radius of a circle
which the wheels of a car describe in making
its shortest turn.

Turntable: Device installed in the floor of a
garage and used for turning motor cars
around.

Two-Cycle or Two-Stroke Cycle Engine:

An internal-combustion engine in which an
impulse occurs at the beginning of every
revolution, that is, at the beginning of every
downward stroke of the piston.

Two- to-One Gear: The system of gearing in
a four-cycle gas engine for driving the cam-
shaft, which must revolve once to every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.

407

GLOSSARY

Under Frame: The main frame of the
chassis or running gear of a motor vehicle.

Unit-Power Plant: A power system consist^
ing of a motor, gearset, and clutch which
may be removed from the motor car as a
unit.

Universal Joint: A jnechanism for endwise
connectign of two shafts so that rotary
motion may be transmitted when one shaft
is at an angle with the other. Also called
universal coupling, flexible coujdingt Cardan
joint and Hooke'a joint:

Upkeep: The expenditure for maintenance
or expenditure required to keep a vehicle in
good condition and repair.

Vacuum Fuel Feed : A system of feeding the
gasoline from a tank at the rear of an auto-
mobile by maintaining a partial vacuum at
some point in the system, usually at the dash,
the fuel flowing from this point Dy gravity to
the carbureter.

Vacuum Line: In an indicator diagram, the
line of absolute vacuum. It is at a distance
corresponding to 14.7 pounds below the
atmospheric Une.

Valve: A device in a passage by which the
flow of liquids or gases may be permitted or
stopped.

Valve, Admission: The valve in the admis-
sion pipe of the engine leading from the car-
bureter to the cylinder by which the supply
of fuel may be cut off.

Valve, Automatic: See "Automatic Valve".

Valve, Inlet: See "Inlet Valve".

Valve, Mixing: See "Mixing Valve".

Valve, Muffler Cut-Out: See "Cut-Out,
Muffler".

Valve, Overhead: See "Overhead Valve".

Valve, Poppet: See "Poppet Valve".

Valve, Rotary: See "Motor, Rotary Valve"*

Valve, Suction: An admission valve which
is opened by the difference between the pres-
sures in the atmosphere and in the cylinder.

Valve Gage: A valve-retaining pocket which
is attached to the cylinder.

Valve Clearance: The clearance of pla^
between the valve stem and the tappet.

Valve Gear: The mechanism by which the
motion of the admission or exhaust valve is
controlled.

Valve Grinding: The act of removing marks
of corrosion, pitting, etc., from the seats and
faces of poppet or disk valves. The surfaces
to be ground are rotated in contact with each
other, an abrasive having been supplied.

Valve Lift: See "Lift".

Valve Lifter: A device for raising a poppet
valve from its seat.

Valve Seat: (1) That ix)rtion of the engine
upon which the valve rests when it is closed.
(2) The portion upon which the face of a
valve is in contact when closed.

Valve Setting: The operation of adjusting
the valves of an engine so that the events of
the cycle occur at the proper time. Also
called valve timing.

Valve Spring: The spring which is around
the valve stem and is used to return the

valve to closed position after it has been
opened by the cam:

Valve Stem : The rod-like portion of a poppet
valve.

Valve Timing: See "Valve Setting".

Vaporizer: ^ A device to vaporize the fuel for
an oil engine. In starting it is necessary to
heat the vaporiser, but the exhaust gases
afterwards keep it at the proper tempera-
ture. The carbureter of the gas engine
properly belongs under the general head of
vaporizeTt but the term has become restricted
to the vaporiser for oil engines.

Variable-Speed Device : See ' 'Gear, Change-
Speed".

Vertical Motor: An upright engine whose
piston travel is in a vertical plane.

Vibrator: The part of the primary circuit of
a jump-spark ignition system by which the
circuit is rapidly interrupted to give a trans-
former effect in the coil.

Vibrator, Master: See "Master Vibrator".

Volatile: Passing easily from a liquid to a
gaseous state, in opposition to fixed.

Volatilization: Evaporation of liquids upon
exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures.

Volt: Practical unit of electromotive force;
such an electromotive force as would cause
a current of one ampere to flow through a
resistance of one ohm.

Voltammeter: A voltmeter and an ammeter
combined; sometimes refers to wattmeter.

Voltmeter: An instrument for measuring
the difference of electric potential between
the^ terminals of an electric circuit. It
registers the electric pressure in volts.

Vulcanization: The operation of combining
sulphur with rubber at a high temperature,
either to make it soft, pliable, and elastic, oi
to harden it.

Vulcanizer: A furnace for the vulcanization
of rubber.

Walking Beam: See "Rocker Arm".

Water Cooling: Method of removing the
heat of an internal-combustion motor fiom
the cylinders by means of a circulation of
water between the cylinders and the outer
casing.

Water Gage: An instrument used to indicate
the height of water within a boiler or other
water system. It consists of a glass tube
connected at its upper and lower ends with
the water system.

Water Jacket: A casing placed about the
cylinder of an internal-combustion engine to
permit a current of water to flow around it
for cooling purposes.

Watt: The unit of electric power. It is the
product of the current in amperes flowing in

a circuit by the pressure in volts. It is rr^

74o

of a horsepower.

Watt Hour: The unit of electrical energy.
The given watt-hour capacity of a battery,
for instance, means the abihty of a battery
to furnish one watt for the given number of
hours or the given number of watts for one
hour, or a number of watts for a number of
hours such that their product will be the
given watt hours.

Welding, Autogeneous: A method of joining
two pieces of metal by melting by means of a

408

GLOSSARY

blow torch biinuxM acetylene in an atmos-
phere of oxygen. This melts the ends of the
parts and these are then run together.

Wheel, Artillery: A wood-spoked wheel
whose spokes are in line with a line drawn
vertically through the hub.

Wheel, Dished: A wheel made concave or
convex so that the hub is inside or outside as
compared with the rim. ^ This is to counter-
act the outward inclination of the wheel due
to the fact that the spindle is tapered and
that its outward center is lower than its
inner center.

Wheel, Double-Interacting: The mecha^
nism by which two wheels are hung on one
hub or axle, the outer being shod with an
ordinary^ solid tire and the inner with a
pneumatic tire, so that the weight of the
vehicle bears against the lowest point of the
pneumatic tire of the inner wheel to give tbe
durability and tractive properties of a solid
tire with the resiliency of a pneumatic.

Wheel, Spare: See *'Spare Wheel".

Wheel Steering: See ''Steering Wheel".

Wheel, Wire: A wheel with spokes made of
wire.

iVheei Puller: A device used for pulling
automobile wheels from their axles.

Wheel Steer: A method of guiding a car by
means of a hand wheel.

Wheel, Steering Angle for: The angle
which the steering column makes with the
horizontal. It varies from 90** to 30* or less.

Wheelbase: The distance between the road
contact of one rear wheel with the point of
road contact of the front wheel on the same
side.

Wheels, Driving on All Four: The method
of using &11 four wheels of an automobile as
the driving wheels.

Wheels, Driving on Front: The method of
using the two front wheels as the drivers.

Wheels, Steering on Rear:^ Method of
guiding the vehicle by turning the rear
wheels.

Whistle: An automobile accessory oonflisting
of a signalling apparatus giving a loud or
harsh sound. Also called a horru

Wind Guard: See "Wmd Shield*'.

Wind Shield: A glass front placed upright
on the dash to protect the occupants of the
car from the wind.

Wipe^ Spark: Form of primary sparking
device in which a spark is produced by a
moving terminal sliding over another ter-
minal, the break thus made causing a spark.
Also called touch spark.

Wipe-Spark Coil: A primary spark coil
with which the spark is made by wiping
contact.

Wire Drawing: The effect of steam passing
through a partially closed valve or other
constricted opening; so called from the thin-
ness of the indicator diagram.

Working Pressure: The safe working pres-
sure of a boiler, usually estimated as ^ of
the pressure at which a boiler will burst.

Worm: A helical screw thread.

Worm and Sector: A worm gear in which
the worm wheel is not complete but is only
a sector. Used especially in steering
devices.

Worm Drive: A form of drive using worm
gears. See "Gears, Worm".

Worm Gear: The spiral gear ^n which a
worm or screw is used to rotate a wheel

Worm Wheel: A wheel rotated by a worm.

Wrist Pin : See-*'Piston Pin".

X Spring; A vehicle spring composed of two
laminated springs so placed one upon the
other that they form the letter X.

Yorke, Steering: See "Steering Yoke".

409

INDEX OF WIRING DIAGRAMS

Diagrams with Plate Numbers Are Blueprints Placed in Numerical Order throughout
Volumes III and IV; Numbers Opposite Remaining Diagrams Refer to Bottom Folios in
the Volumes Noted.

Abbott-Detroit 1916-17— Remy System Vol. IV,

Abbott-Detroit 1916-17, Model 6-44— Remy System Vol. Ill,

Ahrens-Fox Fire Engine — Delco System Vol. Ill,

Allen 1916, Roadster. Model 37 — ^Westinghouse System Vol. IV,

Ammeter, Method oi Connecting to Shmit Vol. Ill,

Ammeter Principle Vol. II,

Anderson 1920, Series 20 — Remy System Vol. Ill,

Apperson — Bijur System Vol. Ill,

Apperson 1916-17-18 — Remy Ignition System Vol. IV,

Apperson 1919-20, Anniversary Model — Bijur System Vol. Ill,

Apperson, Model 8- 18- A — Remy Systems Vol. Ill,

Apperson, Models 6-16, 8-16, 6-17, 8-17 — ^Remy Ignition and

Bijur Starting and Lighting Systems

Armature Testing Vol.

Atlas Three-Quarter-Ton Truck — Remy System

Atterbury 1920, U.S.A. Class B Military Truck— Delco Sys-
tem

Atwater-Kent Ignition System — HoUier Eight

Atwater-Kent Ignition System^Maxwell 1920 Vol.

Atwater-Kent Ignition System — Paige 1920, Models 6-42 and

6-55 Vol. IV,

Atwater-Kent Ignition System— Velie 1920. Model 34 Vol. IV.

Atwater-Kent Ignition System— VeUe 1920, Model 48 Vol. IV,

Atwater-Kent Ignition System, Closed-Circuit Type Vol. IV

Atwater-Kent System— Packard 1920 Single Six Vol. IV

Auburn 1916, Models 4-38, 6-38, 6-40— Remy System Vol. IV

Auburn 1917, Model 6-39— Remy System Vol. IV

Auburn, Models 4-40, 4-41, 6-45, 6-46— Remy System Vol. Ill

Auburn, Model 6-40— Delco Single-Unit System Vol. Ill

Auburn, Model 6-44 — Delco System Vol. Ill

Austin Twelve — Delco System Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite Four-Pole Generator Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System — Briscoe 1917 Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Briscoe 1920, Model 4-34 Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Case 1917, Model T-17 Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Chevrolet 1917-18-19, Model D Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Chevrolet 1918-19, Model FA Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Chevrolet 1920. Model FB Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System — Chevrolet, Model F Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Chevrolet, Model 490 Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System — Chevrolet, Royal Mail and Baby Grand

Models Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite Svstem^-Columbia 1920, Series 7R Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System— Maxwell 1917 Truck Vol. IV

Auto-Lite System — Olympian 1917 Vol. IV

Auto-Lite System — Overland Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite Svstem— Overland 1920 Four Vol. IV

Auto-Lite System — Overland, Light Four, Model 90-4 Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System — Overland, Models 85 and 85-B Vol. Ill

Auto-Lite System — Peerless 1917, Series 2 and 3 Vol. IV

Page 42
Plate 1
Plate 2
Page 148
Page 266
Page 365
Plate 3
Page 293
Page 41
Plate 4
Plate 5

Vol. Ill, Page 302
VI, Pages 342, 343
Vol. Ill, Plate 6

Vol. Ill, Plate 7
Vol. IV, Page 93
IV, Plates 104, 105

Plate 146
Page 186
Plate 185
Page 324
Plate 144
Page 40
Page 39
Plate 8
Page 254
Page 321
Page 322
Page 270
Page 268
Plate 10
Plate 24
Plate 30
Plate 32
Plate 33
Page 272
Page 269

Page 256
Plate 43
Plate 103
Plate 138
Page 279
Plate 139
Page 277
Page 276
Plate 154

411

2 INDEX

Auto-Lite System— Willys-Knight, Model 88-4 Vol. Ill, Page 282

Auto-Lite System— Willys-Knight, Model 88-8 Vol. Ill, Page 283

Auto-Lite System— Wolverine, Model 349 Vol. Ill, Page 273

Automatic Electromagnetic Pinion Shift Vol. IV, Page 146

Battery Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 113

Berling Ignition System— Locomobile 1919-20, Model 48 Vol. IV, Plate 100

Bijur Starting-Motor Installation — Hupmobile Vol. Ill, Page 288

Bijur System — ^Apperson Vol. Ill, Page 293

Bijur System — Apperson 1919-20, Anniversary Model Vol. Ill, Plate 4

Bijur System— Apperson. Models 6-16, 8-16, 6-17, 8-17 Vol. Ill, Page 302

Bijur System— Hupmobile Vol. Ill, Page 292

Bijur System— Jeffery 1916, Chesterfield Six Vol. Ill, Page 257

Bijur System— Jeflfery, Chesterfield Six Vol. Ill, Page 290

Bijur System— Jeffery Six, Model 671 Vol. Ill, Page 298

Bijur System — ^.Jordan Sixty Vol. Ill, Page 287

Bijur System— King 1917-18, Models EE and F Vol. IV, Plate 86

Bijur System— King Eight, Model EE Vol. Ill, Page 286

Bijur System — National Highway Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 299

Bijur System— Packard 1915, Models 3-38,and 5-48 Vol. IV, Plate 140

Bijur System— Packard 1916 Six Vol. Ill, Page 208

Bijur System— Packard 1916 Twin Six Vol. IV, Plate 141

Bijur System— Packard 1920. Models 3-25 and 3-35 Vol. IV, Plate 143

Bijur System— Packard Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 308

Bijiu: System— Scripps-Booth Vol. Ill, Pages 294, 295

Bijur System— Velie 1920, Model 48 Vol. IV, Plate 185

Bijur System— Winton Vol. Ill, Page 289

Bijur System — Winton, Limousine Six, Model 22-A Vol. Ill, Page 306

Bijur System— Winton, Touring Six, Model 22-A Vol. Ill, Page 303

Bijur Vibrator Voltage Regulator Vol. Ill, Page 285

Bosch DU Type Magneto Vol. IV, Pages 341, 342

Bosch Duplex Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 53

Bosch Ignition System — Locomobile 1913, Models 38 and 48 Vol. IV, Plate 98

Bosch Ignition System — Mercer, Series 22-70 Vol. Ill, Page 315

Bosch Ignition System — Pierce-Arrow, Series Four, Models

38, 48, and 66 Vol. IV, Page 129

Bosch Ignition System, Two-Spark Magneto Vol. IV, Pages 345, 346

Bosch Ignition System, Vibratmg Duplex Tjrpe Vol. IV, Page 343

Bosch Switch Pedal Vol. Ill, Page 311

Bosch-Rushmore Generator Vol. Ill, Page 215

Bosch-Rushmore System — Locomobile 1911-12 Vol. IV, Plate 97

Bosch-Rushmore System — Marmon, Model 34 Vol. Ill, Page 314

Bosch-Rushmore System — Mercer Vol. Ill, Page 312

Briggs-Detroit Eight — Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 9

Briscoe 1917— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 268

Briscoe 1920, Model 4-34 — Connecticut Ignition and Auto-
Lite Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. Ill, Plate 10

Buick 1914, Model B-54-55— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plates 11, 12

Buick 1916— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 342

Buick 1916, Model D-54-55— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 13

Buick 1918, Models E-4-34-35 and E-4 Truck— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 14

Buick 1919, Model 44-50, Four and Six— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 15

Buick 1920, Export Model, KX-44, 45, 49— Delco System. . . Vol. Ill, Plate 16

Buick 1921 Six— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 17

Buick, Models D-34-35— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 343

C & C Welding System Vol. V, Page . 23

Cadillac 1912— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 336

Cadillac 1914— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 338

412

INDEX ^ 3

Cadillac 1915— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 339

CadiUac 1919, Model 57— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 18

Cadillac 1920, Model 59— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plates 19, 20

Cadillac, Model 53— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 347

Cadillac, Model 55— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 348

Cartercar 1914, Model 7— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 21

Cartercar 1915, Model 9— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 22

Case 1915, Model 30— Westinghouse System Vol. Ill, Plate 23

Case 1917, Model T-1 7— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Plate 24

Case 1920, Enclosed Cars, Model V — Delco Ignition and

Westinghouse Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. Ill, Plate 26

Case 1920, Model V, Serial Nos. 34860-36860 and Serial No.

36961 and Up— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 25

Chalmers 1915, Model 29— Westinghouse System , . Vol. Ill, Plate 27

Chalmers 1916-17 — Remy Ignition and Westinghouse Start-
ing and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 43

Chalmers 1917-18, Model 6-30— Westinghouse System Vol. Ill, Plate 28

Chalmers 1918 — Remy Ignition and Westinghouse Starting

and Lighting System Vol. IV, Page 44

Chandler 1917, Light-Weight Six, Serial Nos. 35001-60000,

Gray and Davis System Vol. Ill, Page 412

Chandler 1917, Light-Weight Six, Regular Series — Gray and

Davis System Vol. Ill, Page 411

Chandler 1920, New Series Model— Westinghouse System. . . Vol. Ill, Plate 29

Chevrolet 1917-18-19, Model D— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Plate 30

Chevrolet 1918, Models D-4 and D-5— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 31

Chevrolet 1920, Model FB — Remy Ignition and Auto-Lite

Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. Ill, Plate 33

Chevrolet, Model F— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 272

Chevrolet, Model 490— Auto-Lite Single-Wire System . . Vol. Ill, Page 269

Chevrolet Royal Mail and Baby Grand Models — Auto-Lite

Two-Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 256

Cole 1913, Model 4-40— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 35

Cole 1913, Models 4r40, 4-56, and 6-60— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 34

Cole 1914, Series 9, Four and Six Vol. Ill, Plate 36

Cole 1914, Series 9, Six— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 37

Cole 1915, Model 4-40— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 38

Cole 1915, Model 6-50— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 39

Cole 1918, Model 870— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 40

Cole 1919, Model 870, Serial Nos. 34000-51001— Delco Sys-
tem Vol. Ill, Plate 41

Cole 1920, Model 870, Serial No. 57200 and Up— Delco Sys-
tem Vol. Ill, Plate 42

Cole, Model 860— Delco Svstem Vol. Ill, Page 325

Cole, Model 870— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 326

Columbia 1920, Series 7R— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Plate 43

Commerce, Model E — Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 44

Compound- Wound Generator Vol. II, Page 394

Connecticut Ignition System s Vol. Ill, Page 111

Connecticut Ignition System — Briscoe 1920, Model 4-34. . . . Vol. Ill, Plate 10

Connecticut Ignition System— Dort 1916-17 Vol. IV, Pages 144, 147

Connecticut Ignition System — Lexington 1920, Model S . . . . Vol. IV, Plate 95
Connecticut Ignition System — Lexington, Series 6-0-17 and

6-00-17 Vol. IV, Page 134

Connecticut Ignition System — Metz 1920, Master Six Vol. IV, Plate 108

Connection of Condenser in the Coil Vol. VI, Page 314

Control Wiring Diagram Vol. VI, Page 191

Crow Elkhart 1916, Model 30— Dvneto Svstem Vol. Ill, Plate 45

Crow Elkhart 1916-17, Model C 23— Dyneto System Vol. Ill, Plate 46

.Cunningham 1913, Model M, Hearses and Ambulances —

North East System Vol. Ill, Plate 48

413

4 INDEX

Cunningham 1913-14, Model M— North East System Vol. Ill, Plate 47

Cunningham 1918-19, Model V-3— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 49

Cunningham, Model V — Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Page 143

Cutout Vol. VI, Page 329

Cutout on Dash Vol. VI, Pages 330, 337

Cutout on Generator Vol. VI, Pages 331, 338

Daniels 1917 Eight— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Page 138

Daniels 1920, Model D-19— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 50

Davis, Models 6-H, 6-1, &-K— Delco System : . . Vol. Ill, Page 329

Davis, Model 6-J— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 330

Delco Cutout Relay Vol. Ill, Page 331

Delco Generator, Adjusting Third Brush Vol. Ill, Page 355

Delco Ignition Relay Vol. Ill, Pages 121, 123, 124

Delco Ignition System— Case 1920 Enclosed Cars, Model V. Vol. Ill,, Plate 26

Delco Ignition System— Haynes, Models 40, 40-R, 41 Vol. Ill, Page 353

Delco Ignition System — National 1917-18, Highway Six. . . . Vol. IV, Page 149

Delco Ignition System — National Twelve, Series A-K Vol. Ill, Page 370

Delco Ignition System — National Highway Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 299

Delco Ignition System— Packard 1920 Single Six Vol. IV, Plate 144

Delco Ignition System— Stuta 1918, Model 4-S Vol. IV, Plate 181

Delco Interrupter for High-Speed Engines Vol. Ill, Page 122

Delco Single-Unit, Single- Wire System Vol. Ill, Pages 210, 252

Delco Single-Unit System, Brushes and Brush Switches Vol. Ill, Page 323

Delco Starting-Motor Circuit Vol. Ill, Page 337

Delco System — Ahrena-Fox Vol. Ill, Plate 2

Delco System— Atterbury 1920, U.S.A. Class B Military

Truck Vol. Ill, Plate 7

Delco System— Auburn, Model 6-40 Vol. Ill, Page 254

Delco System— Auburn, Model 6-44 Vol. Ill, Page 321

Delco System— Austin Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 322

Delco System- Buick 1914, Model B-54-55 Vol. Ill, Plates 11, 12

Delco System— Buick 1916 Vol. Ill, Page 342

Delco System— Buick 1916, Model D-54-55 Vol. Ill, Plate 13

Delco System— Buick 1918, Models E-4-34-35 and E-4 Truck Vol. Ill, Plate 14

Delco System— Buick 1919, Model 44-50, Four and Six Vol. Ill, Plate 15

Delco System— Buick 1920, Export Model, KX-44, 45, 49. . . Vol. Ill, Plate 16

Delco System— Buick 1921 Six Vol. Ill, Plate 17

Delco System— Buick, Models D-34-35 Vol. Ill, Page 343

Delco System— Buick, Models D-44-45-46-47 Vol. Ill, Page 344

Delco System— Cadillac 1912 Vol. Ill, Page 336

Delco System— CadUlac 1914 Vol. Ill, Page 338

Delco System— Cadillac 1915 Vol. Ill, Page 339

Delco System— Cadillac 1919, Model 57 Vol. Ill, Plate 18

Delco System— Cadillac 1920. Model 59 Vol. Ill, Plates 19, 20

Delco System— Cadillac, Model 53 Vol. Ill, Page 347

Delco System— Cadillac, Model 55 Vol. Ill, Page 348

Delco System— Cartercar 1914, Model 7 Vol. Ill, Plate 21

Delco System— Cartercar 1915, Model 9 Vol. Ill, Plate 22

Delco System— Case 1920, Model V, Serial Nos. 34860-36860

and Serial No. 36961 and Up Vol. Ill, Plate 25

Delco System— Cole 1913, Model 4-40 Vol. Ill, Plate 35

Delco System— Cole 1913, Models 4-40, 4-56, and 6-60 Vol. Ill, Plate 34

Delco System— Cole 1914, Series 9, Four and Six Vol. Ill, Plate 36

Delco System— Cole 1914, Series 9, Six Vol. Ill, Plate 37

Delco System— Cole 1915, Model 4-40 Vol. Ill, Plate 38

Delco System— Cole 1915, Model 650 Vol. Ill, Plate 39

Delco System— Cole 1918, Model 870 Vol. Ill, Plate 40

Delco System— Cole 1919, Model 870, Serial Nos. 34000-

61001 Vol. Ill, Plate 41

414

INDEX 5

Delco System— Cole 1920, Model 870, Serial No. 57200 and

Up. .'. Vol. Ill, Plate 42

Delco System— Cole, Model 860 Vol. Ill, Page 325

Delco System— Cole, Model 870 Vol. Ill, Page 326

Delco System— Cunningham 1918-19, Model V^3 Vol. Ill, Plate 49

Delco System— Daniels 1920, Model D-19 Vol. Ill, Plate 50

Delco System— Davis, Models 6-H, 6-1, 6-K Vol. Ill, Page 329

Delco System— Davis, Model 6-J Vol. Ill, Page 330

Delco System— Elcar 1920 Vol. Ill, Plate 58

Delco System— Elgin, Model 6-E-16 Vol. Ill, Page 333

Delco System— Elkhart, 1917 Model Vol. Ill, Page 334

Delco System— Elkhart, Models G-H-K, Serial No. 15000

and Up Vol. Ill, Plate 59

Delco System— Essex 1919, Model A Vol. Ill, Plate 63

Delco System— Essex 1920, Model A Vol. Ill, Plate 64

Delco System— G.M.C. 1919-20, Truck Models 16, 25, 26, 30,

and 31 Vol. Ill, Plate 66

Dyneto System— Holmes 1918-19-20 Vol. Ill, Plate 71

Delco System— Hudson 1914, Model 6-40 Vol. Ill, Plate 72

Delco System— Hudson 1914, Model 6-54 Vol. Ill, Plate 73

Delco System— Hudson 1915, Model 6-40 Vol. Ill, Plate 74

Delco System— Hudson 1915, Model 6-54 Vol. Ill, Plate 75

Delco System— Hudson 1916, Model 6-40 Vol. Ill, Plate 76

Delco System— Hudson 1917, Super-Six Vol. Ill, Page 354

Delco System— Hudson 1919-20, Super-Six, Model O Vol. Ill, Plate 77

Delco System— Jackson 1915, Model 6-48 Vol. Ill, Plate 80

Delco System— Jordan 1920, Model F Vol. IV, Plate 81

Delco System— Jordan 1920, Model F, Series 2 Vol. IV, Plate 82

Delco System— Jordan 1920, Model M Vol. IV, Plate 83

Delco System— Kissel 1917 Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 357

Delco System— LaFayette 1920 Eight Vol. IV, Plate 94

Delco System— Liberty 1917 Vol. Ill, Page 358

Delco System— Marmon 1920, Model 34-B Vol. IV, Plate 102

Delco System— Moon 1914, Model 42 Vol. IV, Plates 113, 114

Delco System— Moon 1914, Model 6-50 Vol. IV, Plate 115

Delco System— Moon 1915, Model 4-38 Vol. IV, Plate 116

Delco System— Moon 1916, Models 6-30 and 6-40 Vol. IV, Plate 117

Delco System— Moon, Model 6-43 Vol. Ill, Page 397

Delco System— Moon, Model 6-66 Vol. Ill, Page 366

Delco System— Nash 1919. Models 681 and 682 Vol. IV, Plate 118

Delco System— Nash, Model 681 Vol. Ill, Page 369

Delco System— Nash Truck Model Vol. IV, Plate 120

Delco System— National 1918, Model AF-3 Vol. IV, Plate 121

Delco System— Oakland 1914, Model 36 Vol. IV, Plate 123

Delco System— Oakland 1914, Models 48-62 Vol. IV, Plate 124

Delco System— Oakland 1914, Models 48-62-43 Vol. IV, Plates 125, 126

Delco System— Oakland 1915, Model 37 Vol. IV, Plate 127

Delco System— Oakland 1915, Model 49 Vol. IV, Plate 128

Delco System— Oakland 1917, Model 32-B Vol. Ill, Page 373

Delco System— Oakland 1920, Model 34-C Vol. IV, Plate 129

Delco System— Oakland Model 34 Vol. Ill, Page 374

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1913, Model 53 Vol. IV, Plate 130

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1914, Model 54 Vol. IV, Plate 131

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1915, Model 42 Vol. IV, Plate 132

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1915, Model 55 Vol. IV, Plate 133

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1917, Model 45 Vol. Ill, Page 377

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1917, Model 45-A Vol. Ill, Page 378

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1919, Model 45-A Vol. IV, Plate 135

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1919, Model 45-B Vol. IV, Plate 136

Delco System— Oldsmobile 1920. Model 45-B Vol. IV, Plate 137

Delco System— Packard 1919-20, Models 3-25 and 3-35 Vol. IV, Plate 142

415

6 INDEX

Delco System— Paterson 1914, Models 32 and 33 Vol. IV, Plate 148

Delco System— Paterson 1915, Models 4-32 and 6-48 Vol. IV, Plate 149

Delco System— Paterson 1916, Model 6-42 Vol. IV, Plate 150

Delco System— Paterson 1917, Models 6-45 and 6-45 R. . . . . Vol. IV, Plate 151
Delco System— Paterson 1920, Models 6-46 and 6-46 R

(Using 7-W Continental Engine) Vol. IV, Plate 153

Delco System— Paterson 1920, Model 6-47 (Using 7-R Con-
tinental Engine) Vol. IV, Plate 152

Delco System— Pathfinder 1917 Twelve Vol. Ill, Page 383

Delco System— Pierce-Arrow 1919-20, Models 38 and 48 Vol. IV, Plate 155^

Delco System— Pilot 1917, Model 6-45 Vol. Ill, Page 384

Delco System— Premier 1917, Model 6-B Vol. Ill, Page 389

Delco System— Premier 1919, Models 6-B and 6-C Vol. IV, Plate 159

Delco System— Premier 1920, Model 6-D Vol. IV, Plate 160

Delco System— Stephens 1917 Vol. Ill, Page 390

Delco System— Stephens 1919, Models 70 and 75 Vol. IV, Plate 172

Delco System— Stevens-Duryea 1915, Model D-6 Vol. IV, Plates 173, 174

Delco System— Stutz 1918, Series S Vol. IV, Plate 180

Delco System— Westcott Vol. Ill, Page 350

Delco System— Westcott 1915, Models U-6 and 0-35 Vol. IV, Plate 187

Delco System— Westcott 1920, Models A-38 and C-38. . .Vol. IV, Plates 189, 190
Delco System— Westcott 1920, Model C-48 (Using 9-N Con-
tinental Engine) Vol. IV, Plates 191, 192

Delco System— Westcott, Series 19 Vol. IV, Plate 188

Delco System, Method of Locating Gromids Vol. Ill, Page 360

Delco System, Method of Locating Open Circuits Vol. Ill, Page 363

Delco System, Method of Locating Short-Circuits Vol. Ill, Page 361

Delco Third-Brush Regulator Vol. Ill, Page 328

Delco Two-Unit System .Vol. Ill, Pages 346, 351

Dixie Magneto Vol. Ill, Pages 43, 44, 45

Dodge— North East System Vol. IV, Page 24

Dodge 1915— North East System Vol. Ill, Plate 51

Dodge 1917— North East Single- Wire System •. Vol. IV, Page 29

Dort 1915, Models 4 and 5— Splitdorf-Apelco System Vol. Ill, Plate 53

Dort 1916-17 — Connecticut Ignition and Wcstinghouse Start-
ing Systems Vol. IV, Page 144

Dort 1916-17— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Page 147

Dort 1917, Model M-9T— Westinghouse System Vol. Ill, Plate 54

Dry Cells in Series Multiple for Ignition Circuit Vol. 11, Page 364

Dual Ignition System Vol. Ill, Pages 48, 52

Duplex Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 53

Dyneto Generator Circuit Vol. Ill, Page 396

Dyneto One-Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 397

Dyneto Regulator Cutout Vol. Ill, Pages 392, 395

Dyneto Starting-Motor Circuit Vol. Ill, Page 396

Dyneto System— Crow Elkhart 1916, Model 30 Vol. Ill, Plate 45

Dyneto System— Crow Elkhart 1916-17, Models CE-30, 33.. Vol. Ill, Plate 46
Dyneto System— Elcar 1917-18-19, Models D, E, G 4 and

D, E, G 6 Vol. Ill, Plate 55

Dyneto System— Franklin 1920, Series 9-B, Serial No. 17200

and Up Vol. Ill, Plate 65

Dyneto System — Franklin, Series 8 Vol. Ill, Page 393

Dyneto System — Franklin, Series 9 Vol. Ill, Page 394

Dyneto Two-Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 397

Eisemann Dual Magneto Vol. TV, Page 332

Elcar 1917-18-19, Models D, E, G 4 and'D, E, G 6— Dyneto

System Vol. Ill, Plate 55

Elcar 1920— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 58

Elgin 1917, Model 17— Wagner System Vol. Ill, Plate 57

416

INDEX 7

Elgin 1917 Six— Wagner System Vol. IV, Page 117

Elgin 1918— Wagner System Vol. IV, Page 118

Elgin 1920, Model K— Wagner System Vol. Ill, Plate 56

Elgin, Model 6-E-16— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 333

Elkhart, 1917 Model— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 334

Elkhart, Models G-H-K, Serial No. 15000 and Up— Delco

System Vol. Ill, Plate 59

Empire 1915, Model 31— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 60

Empire 1916, Model 33— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 61

Enger 1916-17 Twelve— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 62

Essex 1919, Model A— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 63

Essex 1920 Model A— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 64

Firing Order of Fom'-Cylinder Motor Vol. Ill, Page 74

Firing Order of Six-Cylinder Winton Motor Vol. Ill, Page 75

Fl3rwheel Drive with Double-Gear Reduction, Connections

of Motor and Switch Vol. Ill, Page 234

Ford— Gray & Davis System Vol. IV, Pages 166, 167, 168

Ford Ignition Coil, Internal View Vol. VL Page 313

Ford Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 57; Vol. VI, Page 320

Ford Sedans and Coupes Vol. IV, Page 155

Ford Standard System, Cutout on Dash Vol. VI, Page 337

Ford Standard System, Cutout on Generator Vol. VI, Page 338

Franklin 1920, Series 9-B, Serial No. 17200 and Up— Dyneto

System Vol. Ill, Plate 65

Franklin, Series 8 — Dyneto System Vol. Ill, Page 393

Franklin, Series 9 — Dyneto System Vol. Ill, Page 394

G.M.C. 1919-20, Truck Models 16, 25, 26, 30, and 31— Delco

System Vol. Ill, Plate 66

Generator Field Connections Vol. VI, Page 325

Generator Test Stand Switchboard Vol. IV, Page 367

Grant 1916-17^ Model K — Remy Ignition and Wagner Start-
ing and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 45

Grant 1918 Six— Wagner System Vol. IV, Page 124

Grant 1919, Model G— Wagner System Vol. Ill, Plate 67

Gray and Davis Dynamo and Regulator Vol. Ill, Page 416

Gray and Davis Lighting Switch Vol. Ill, Page 407

Gray and Davis Single- Wire System with Grounded Motor. . Vol. Ill, Page 406
Gray and Davis Single- Wire System with Grounded Switch . Vol. Ill, Page 408
Gray and Davis System — Chandler 1917, Light- Weight Six,

Serial Nos. 35001-60000 Vol. Ill, Page 412

Gray and Davis System — Chandler 1917, Light- Weight Six,

Regular Series Vol. Ill, Page 411

Gray and Davis System— Ford Vol. IV, Pages 166, 167, 168

Gray and Davis System — Lexington 1920, Model S Vol. IV, Plate 95

Gray and Davis System— Metz 1918 Vol. IV, Plate 107

Gray and Davis System— Paige 1920, Models 6-42 and 6-55 ."Vol. IV, Plate 146

Gray and Davis System — Peerless, Model 56 Vol. Ill, Pages 403, 404

Gray and Davis System— Stearns-Knight 1913, Model 28-9 . Vol. IV, Plate 170

Grounds, Locating Vol. Ill, Pages 360, 376, 379, 385

Growler for Testing Armature Vol. IV, Page 356

HAL Twelve — Remy Ignition and Westinghouse Starting

and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 49

HAL Twelve, Model 21 — Remy Ignition and Westinghouse

Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 133

Hall Double HeadUght Vol. Ill, Page 247

417

8 INDEX

Harroun 1918, Model A-A-1— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 68

HaiToun, Model A-A-1 — ^Remy System Vol. IV, Page 50

Haynes 1915-16, Models 33, 34, 35, 36, 37— Remy System. . Vol. Ill, Plate 69

Haynes 1916-17 — Remy Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 46

Haynes 1917, Light Six— Leece-Neville System Vol. IV, Page 17

Haynes 1920, Model 46, Twelve— Leece-Neville System Vol. Ill, Plate 70

Haynes Light Six — ^Leece-Neville System Vol. IV, Page 14

Haynes, Models 40, 40-R, 41 — Delco Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 353

Headlight, Double Vol. Ill, Page 247

HeinzenSpringfield Cmrent Regulator and Battery Cutout . . Vol. Ill, Page 422

Heinze-Springfield System — Regal Vol. Ill, Page 421

Heinze-Springfield System— Regal 1917 Vol. IV, Plate 161

High-Tension Ignition System Vol. Ill, Pages 15, 22, 37

High-tension Magneto System Vol. Ill, Page 37

Hcnlier Ei^ht — Atwater-Kent Ignition and Splitdorf Starting

and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 93

Holmes 1918-19-20— Dyneto System Vol. Ill, Plate 71

Hudson 1914, Model 6-40— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 72

Hudson 1914, Model 6-54— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 73

Hudson 1915, Model 6-40— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 74

Hudson 1915, Model 6-54— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 75

Hudson 1916, Model 6-40— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 76

Hudson 1917, Super-Six— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 354

Hudson 1919-20, Super-Six, Model O— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 77

Hupmobile — Biiur Starting Motor Installation Vol. Ill, Page 288

Hupmobile— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 292

Hupmobile — Westinghouse Single-Unit System Vol. IV, Page 135

Hupmobile 1916-17, Series N, Serial No. 60000 and Up— Vol. IV, Page 137

Ignition Distributor, Relation to Engine Crankshaft Vol. Ill, Page 72

Ignition Switchboard Vol. IV, Page 369

Ignition Systems Vol. Ill, Pages 12, 13, 15, 22, 37;

Vol. V, Pages 410, 413, 416, 427

Induction Coil, Testing Vol. IV, Page 318

Interstate 1916-17— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 53

Interstate, Model TF— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 78

Interstate, Model TR— Remy System Vol. Ill, Plate 79

Jackson 1915, Model 6-48— Delco System Vol. Ill, Plate 80

Jackson 1917, Wolverine. Model 349— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 273

Jeffery 1916, Chesterfield Six— Bijur Two- Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 257

Jefifery, Chesterfield Six— Bijur Two-Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 290

Jefifery Six, Model 671— Bijur System. Vol. Ill, Page 298

Jordan 1920, Model F— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 81

Jordan 1920, Model F, Series 2— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 82

Jordan 1920, Model M— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 83

Jordan Sixty— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 287

K-W Magneto Circuits Vol. Ill, Page 42

King 1915, Models C and D— Ward Leonard System Vol. IV, Plate 84

King 1916, Models D and E— Ward Leonard System Vol. IV, Plate 85

King 1917-18, Models EE and F— Bijur System Vol. IV, Plate 86

King 1920, Model H— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 87

King Eight, Model EE— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 286

Kissel 1915, Model 4-36— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 88

Kissel 1915, Model 6-42— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 89

Kissel 1916, Models 4-32 and 4-36— Westinghouse System. . . Vol. IV, Plate 90
Kissel 1916, One Hundred Point Six — Remy Ignition and

Kissel Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 54

418

INDEX 9

Kissel 1917, One Hundred Point Six — ^Westinghouse System. Vol. IV, Plate 91

Kissel 1917 Twelve— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 357

Kissel 1918, One Hundred Point Six— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 92

laine 1916, Model 6-36— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 93

Krit 1915— North East System Vol. IV, Page 25

LaFayette 1920 Eight— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 94

Leece-Neville Sj^tem — Haynes 1917, Light Six Vol. IV, Page 17

Leece-Neville System— Haynes 1920, Model 46, Twelve Vol. Ill, Plate 70

Leece-Neville System — ^Haynes Light Six Vol. IV, Page 14

Leece-Neville System — ^White Vol. IV, Page 15

Leece-Neville System— White, Model GM Vol. IV, Page 18

Leece-Neville System, Generator and Circuit-Breaker Cir-
cuits Vol. IV, Page 15

Lexington 1920, Model S— Connecticut Ignition and Gray

and Davis Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 95

Lexington, Series 6-0-17 and 6-00-17— -Connecticut Ignition

and Westinghouse Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 134

Liberty 1919-20, Models 10-B and 10-C— Wagner System. . . Vol. IV, Plate 96

Lighting Circuit Vol. II, Page 362

Locomobile 1911-12 — Bosch-Rushmore System Vol. IV, Plate 97

Locomobile 1913, Models 38 and 48 — ^Bosch Dual Ignition

System Vol. IV, Plate 98

Locomobile 1915, Closed Car — Westinghouse System , Vol. IV, Plate 99

Locomobile 1919-20, Model 48 — Berling Ignition and West-
inghouse Starting and Lighting Systems ; Vol. IV, Plate 100

Locomobile Six, Series Two, Models 38 and 48 — ^Westing-
house System Vol. IV, Page 132

Low-Tension Ignition System Vol. Ill, Pages 12, 13

McLaughlin — Remy System Vol. IV, Page 63

Madison 19X8— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 101

Magnet Charger Vol. IV, Page 321

Magnet Recharger Vol. Ill, Page 132

Magneto Vol. II, Page 390

Magneto Coils Vol. IV, Pages 310, 311

Magneto Details Vol. Ill, Pages 42, 43

Magneto System, Hi^h Tension Vol. Ill, Page 37

Make and Break Ignition System Vol. Ill, Pa^s 12, 13

Marion-Handley 1917 Six — ^Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Page 150

Marmon 1920, Model 34-B— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 102

Marmon, Model 34— Bosch-Rushmore System Vol. Ill, Page 314

Maxwell 1916-17— Simms-Huff System Vol. IV, Pages 80, 81

Maxwell 1917 Truck— Auto-Lite System Vol. IV, Plate 103

Maxwell 1918— Sinuns-Huff System Vol. IV, Pages 83, 84

Maxwell 1920 — Atwater-Kent Ignition and Simms-Huff

Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plates 104, 105

Mea Ignition System, Magneto Type Vol. IV, Page 348

Mercer — Bosch-Rushmore System Vol. Ill, Page 312

Mercer 1917— U.S.L. System *. . . Vol. IV, Page 106

Mercer 1918-19-20— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 106

Mercer, Series 22-70— Bosch Ignition and U.S.L. Starting

and Lighting Systems Vol. Ill, Page 315

Mercury Arc Rectifier Circuit Vol. VI, Page 199

Metz 1918— Gray and Davis System Vol. IV, Plate 107

Metz 1920, Master Six— Connecticut Ignition and Westing-
house Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 108

Midco System on Motorcvcle Vol. V, Page 267

Midco Third-Brush Regulation on Motorcycle Vol. V, Page 266

419

10 INDEX

Mitchell 1916-17. Model C-42— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 111

Mitchell 1920, Model F-40— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 112

Mitchell— Lewis 1914-15— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 109

Mitchell-Splitdorf System— Mitchell 1917, Model D-40 Vol. IV, Page 94

Moline Tractor, Model D— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 110

Moon 1914, Model 42— Delco System Vol. IV, Plates 113, 114

Moon 1914, Model 6-50— Delco Vol. IV, Plate 115

Moon 1915, Model 4-38— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 116

Moon 1916, Models 6-30 and 6-40— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 117

Moon, Model 6-43— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 365

Moon, Model 6-66— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 366

Nash 1919, Models 681 and 682— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 118

Nash 1920. Models 681 and 682— Wagner System Vol. IV, Plate 119

Nash, Model 681— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 369

Nash Truck— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 120

National 1917-18, Highway Six — Delco Ignition and West-

inghouse Starting Systems Vol. IV, Page 149

National 1918, Model AF-3— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 121

National 1920, Series BB, Serial No. 60000 and Up— West-

inghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 122

National, Highway Twelve — Delco Ignition and Bijur Start-
ing and Lighting Systems Vol. Ill, Page 299

National Six — Remy Double-Deck Unit Vol. IV, Page 71

National Twelve, Series A-K — Delco Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 370

Non-Vibrator High-Tension System Vol. Ill, Page 22

North East Dynamotor Vol. IV, Page 23

North East Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 328

North East Model "B" Starter-Generator Vol. IV, Page 32

North East Model *'D" Starter-Generator Vol. IV, Page 31

North East System Vol. IV, Pages 26, 27, 30

North East System — Cunningham 1913, Model M, Hearses

and Ambulances Vol. Ill, Plate 48

North East System— Cunningham 1913-14, Model M Vol. Ill, Plate 47

North East System— Dodge Vol. IV, Page 24

North East System— Dodge 1915 Vol. Ill, Plate 51

North East System— Dodge 1917 Vol. IV, Page 29

North East System— Krit 1915 Vol. IV, Page 25

Oakland 1914, Model 36— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 123

Oakland 1914, Models 48-62— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 124

Oakland 1914, Models 48-62-43— Delco System Vol. IV, Plates 125, 126

Oakland 1915, Model 37— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 127

Oakland 1915, Model 49— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 128

Oakland 1917, Model 32-B— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 373

Oakland 1917, Model 34-B— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 64

Oakland 1920, Model 34-C— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 129

Oakland, Model 32— Remy System Vol. IV, Pages 63, 65

Oakland, Model 34r— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 374

Ohio Magnetic Controller, Primary Circuit Vol. VI, Page 186

Ohio Magnetic Controller, Secondary Circuit Vol. VI, Page 187

Oldsmobile 1913, Model 53— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 130

Oldsmobile 1914, Model 54— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 131

Oldsmobile 1915, Model 42— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 132

Oldsmobile 1915, Model 55— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 133

Oldsmobile 1917, Model 37— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 134

Oldsmobile 1917, Model 45— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 377

Oldsmobile 1917, Model 45-A— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 378

OldsmobUe 1919, Model 45-A— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 135

420

INDEX 11

Oldsmobile 1919, Model 45-B— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 136

Oldsmobile 1920, Model 45-B— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 137

Olympian 1917— Auto-Lite System Vol. IV, Plate 13S

Open-Circuits, Locating Vol. Ill, Pages 363, 380, 381, 385, 386

Overland — ^Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 279

Overland 1920 Four- Auto-Lite System Vol. IV, Plate 139

Overland Light Four, Model 90-4— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 277

Overland, Models 85 and 85-B— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 276

Packard Fuelizer Vol. I, Page 321

Packard 1915, Models 3-38 and 5-48— Bijur System Vol. IV, Plate 140

Packard 1916 Six— Bijur Two-Unit Two-Wire System Vol. Ill, Page 208

Packard 1916 Twin Six— Bijur System Vol. IV, Plate 141

Packard 1919-20, Models 3-25 and 3-35— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 142

Packard 1920, Models 3-25 and 3-35— Bijur System Vol. IV, Plate 143

Packard 1920, Single Six — Delco Ignition and Atwater-Kent

Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 144

Packard Twelve— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 308

Packard Twin Six, Models 2-25 and 2-35 Vol. Ill, Page 307

Paige 1916-17, Model 6-39— Remy Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 57

Paige 1920, Models 6-42 and 6-55 — Atwater-Kent Ignition

and Gray and Davis Starting and Lighting Systems .... Vol. IV, Plate 146

Paige, Model 6-55— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 58

Paige-Detroit, Model 6-40— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 145

Pan, Model 250— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 147

Parallel Control for Dinmiing Headlights Vol. Ill, Page 243

Paterson 1914, Models 32 and 33— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 148

Paterson 1915, Models 4-32 and 6-48— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 149

Paterson 1916, Model 6-42— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 150

Paterson 1917, Models 6-45 and 6-45 R— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 151

Paterson 1920, Models 6-46 and 6-46 R (Using 7-W Con-
tinental Engine) — Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 153

Paterson 1920, Model 6-47 (Using 7-R Continental Engine)

—Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 152

Pathfinder 1917 Twelve— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 383

Peerless 1917, Series 2 and 3— Auto-Lite System Vol: IV, Plate 154

Pierce- Arrow — Westinghouse Voltage Regulator Vol. IV, Page 352

Pierce- Arrow 1919-20, Models 38 and 48— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 155

Pierce-Arrow, Series Four, Models 38, 48, and 66 — Bosch

Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 129

Pierce-Arrow, Series Four, Models 38, 48, and 66 — Westing-
house System Vol. IV, Pages 130, 131

Pilot 1917, Model 6-45— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 384

Premier 1914, Model A— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 156

Premier 1915, Model 6-50— Remy System Vol. IV, Plates 157, 158

Premier 1917, Model 6-B— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 389

Premier 1919, Models 6-B and 6-C— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 159

Premier 1920, Model 6-D— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 160

Regal — Heinze-Springfield System Vol. Ill, Page 421

Regal 1917— Heinze-Springfield System Vol. IV, Plate 161

Remy Dual Ignition System Vol. Ill, Page 52

Remy Ignition System — ^Apperson 1916-17-18 Vol. IV, Page 41

Remy Ignition System — Apperson, Models 6-16, 8-16, 6-17,

8-17 Vol. Ill, Page 302

Remy Ignition System— Chalmers 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 43

Remy Ignition System — Chalmers 1918 Vol. IV, Page 44

Remy Ignition System— Chevrolet 1920, Model FB Vol. Ill, Plate 33

Remy Ignition System— Grant 1916-17, Model K Vol. IV, Page 45

421

12 INDEX

Remy Ignition System — ^H A L Twelve Vol. IV, Page .49

Remy Ignition— H A L Twelve, Model 21 Vol. IV, Page 133

Remy Ignition System — Haynes 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 46

Remy Ignition System — Kissel 1916, Hmidred Point Six .... Vol. IV, Page 54

Remv Ignition System— Paige 1916-17, Model 6*39 Vol. IV, Page 67

Remy Ignition System— Stearns 1916-17-18 Vol. IV, Page 74

Remy Ignition System — Steams-Knight 1916-17, Model

SKL 4 Vol. IV, Plate 171

Remy Ignition System— Studebaker 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 75

Remy Ignition System— Studebaker 1920, Series 20 Vol. IV, Plate 179

Remy Ignition System — Studebaker Four and Six Vol. IV, Page 123

Remy System— Abbott-Detroit 1917 Vol. IV, Page 42

Remy System— AbbottrDetroit 1917, Model 6-44 Vol. Ill, Plate 1

Remy System— Anderson 1920. Series 20 Vol. Ill, Plate 3

Remy System — Apperson, Model 8-18-A Vol. Ill, Plate 5

Remy System— Altas Three-Quarter-Ton Truck Vol. Ill, Plate 6

Remy System— Auburn 1916, Models 4-38, 6-38, 6-40 Vol. IV, Page 40

Remy System— Auburn 1917, Model 6-39 Vol. IV, Page 39

Remy System— Auburn, Models 4-40, 4-41, 6-45, 6-46 Vol. Ill, Plate 8

Remy System— Briggs-Detroit Eight Vol. Ill, Plate 9

Remy System— Chevrolet 1918, Models D-4 and D-5 Vol. Ill, Plate 31

Remy System — Commerce, Model E Vol. Ill, Plate 44

Remy System— Empire 1915, Model 31 Vol. Ill, Plate 60

Remy System— Empire 1916, Model 33 Vol. Ill, Plate 61

Remy System— Enger 1916-17, Twelve Vol. Ill, Plate 62

Remy System— Harroun 1918, Model A-A-1 Vol. Ill, Plate 68

Remy System — ^Harroun, Model A-A-1 Vol. IV, Page 50

Remy System— Haynes 1915-16, Models 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 . . Vol. Ill, Plate 69

Remy System— Interstate 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 53

Remy System— Interstate, Model TF Vol. Ill, Plate 78

Remy System— Interstate, Model TR Vol. Ill, Plate 79

Remy System— Kissel 1918, One Hundred Point Six Vol. IV, Plate 92

Remy System — McLaughlin Vol. IV, Page 63

Remy System— Madison 1918 Vol. IV, Plate 101

Remv System— Mitchell 1916-17, Model Cr42 Vol. IV, Plate 111

Remy System— MitcheU 1920, Model F-40 Vol. IV, Plate 112

Remy System— Mitchell-Lewis 1914-15 Vol. IV, Plate 109

Remy System— Moline Tractor, Model D Vol. IV, Plate 110

Remy System — National Six Vol. IV, Page 71

Remy System— Oakland 1917, Model 34-B Vol. IV, Page 64

Remy System— Oakland, Model 32 Vol. IV, Pages 63, 65

Remy System— Oldsmobile 1917, Model 37 Vol. IV, Plate 134

Remy System— Paige, Model 6-55 Vol. IV, Page 58

Remy System— Pan, Model 250 Vol. IV, Plate 147

Remy System— Premier 1914, Model A Vol. IV, Plate 156

Remy System— Premier 1915, Model 6-50 Vol. IV, Plates 157, 158

Remy System— Reo 1914-15 Vol. IV, Page 67

Remy System— Reo 1916 Vol. IV, Page 68

Remy System— Reo 1917, Four and Six Vol. IV, Page 69

Remy System— Reo the Fifth Vol. IV, Page 66

Remy System— Reo, Model F, 1500-Pound Truck Vol. IV, Page 163

Remy System— Reo, Models T and U Vol. IV, Plate 162

Remy System— Saxon 1917, Model S-4 Vol. IV, Plate 166

Remy System— Scripps-Booth 1919, Models 6-39 and 6-40. . Vol. IV, Plate 167

Remy System— Scripps-Booth 1920, Series B Vol. IV, Plate 168

Remy System— Scripps-Booth, Model G Vol. IV, Page 70

Remy System— Steams-Knight, Model SKL 4 Vol. IV, Page 73

Remy System— Studebaker 1914-15, Grounded Battery Vol. IV, Plate 175

Remy System— Studebaker 1914-15, Insulated Battery Vol. IV, Plate 176

Remy System— Studebaker 1918, Models SH, EH, and EG. Vol. IV, Plate 178
Remy System— Stutz 1914-15 Vol. IV, Plate 177

422

INDEX 13

Remy System— Stutz 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 76

Remy System— Sun, Light Six, Model 17 Vol. IV, Plate 182

Remy System— Templar 1918-19-20, Model A-445 Vol. IV, Plate 183

Remy Svstem— Velie 1916, Model 22 Vol. IV, Page 61

Remy System— Velie 1918-19, Models 38, 39-7, and 39,

Sport Vol. IV, Plate 184

Remy System— Velie, Model 22 Vol. IV, Page 69

Remy System— Velie, Model 28. Vol. IV, Page 62

Remy Thermostatic Switch Vol. IV, Pages 51, 52

Reo 1914-15— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 67

Reo 1916— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 68

Reo 1917 Four and Six — Remy Svstem Vol. IV, Page 69

Reo the Fifth— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 66

Reo, Model F, 1500-Pound Truck— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 163

Reo, Models T and U— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 162

Root & Vandervoort 1920, Models J and R— Wagner System Vol. IV, Plate 164

Round-Type Switches, Wire Connections Vol. VI, Page 356

Sangamo Ampere-Hour Meter, Charge-Stopping Device Vol. VI, Page 205

Sangamo Ampere-Hour Meter, Differential Shunt Type Vol. VI, Page 230

Saxon 1916, Model 14— Wagner System Vol. IV, Plate 165

Saxon 1917, Models B-5-R and B-6-R— Wagner System Vol. IV, Page 109

Saxon 1917, Models S-3-T, S-4-T, and S-4-R Vol IV, Page 110

Saxon 1917, Model S-4— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 166

Scripps-Booth— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Pages 294, 295

Scripps-Booth 1919, Models 6-39 and 6-40— Remy System . . Vol. IV, Plate 167

Scripps-Booth 1920, Series B— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 168

Scripps-Booth Four and Eight — Wagner Two-Unit System. . Vol. IV, Page 126

Scripps-Booth, Model G — Remy System Vol. IV, Page 70

Section of Coil-Box Unit Vol. VI, Page 313

Series Control for Dimming Headlights Vol. Ill, Page 246

Series Generator Vol. II, Page 393

Series Winding of Starter Vol. VI, Page 351

Short-Circuits, Locating Vol. Ill, Pages 361, 379, 380, 381, 386, 387

Shunt-Wound Generator Vol. II, Page 393

Simms-Huff Svstem Vol. IV, Page 79

Simms-Huff System— Maxwell 1916-17 Vol. IV, Pages 80, 81

Simms-HuiT System— Maxwell 1918 Vol. IV, Pages 83, 84

Simms-Huf! System— Maxwell 1920 Vol. IV, Plates 104, 105

Splitdorf-Apelco System Vol. IV, Page 88

Splitdorf-Apelco System— Dort 1915, Models 4 and 5 Vol. Ill, Plate 53

SpUtdorf Lighting Generator and VR Regulator Vol. IV, Page 90

Splitdorf System^HoUier Eight Vol. IV, Page 93

Standard 1917 Ei^ht, Model F— Westinghouse System Vol. IV, Plate 169

Starting-Motor Circuit Vol. II, Page 362

Stearns 1916-17-18— Remy Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 74

Steams-Knight 1913, Model 28-9— Gray and Davis System . Vol. IV, Plate 170
Steams-Knight 1916-17, Model SKL 4 — Remy Ignition and

Westinghouse Lighting and Starting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 171

Steams-Knight, Model SKL 4— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 73

Stephens 1917— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 390

Stephens 1919, Models 70 and 75— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 172

Stevens-Duryea 1915, Model D-6— Delco System Vol. IV, Plates 173, 174

Storage Battery, Charging from Lighting Circuit Vol. IV, Page 303

Storage Battery, Methods of Discharging Vol. IV, Page 209

Storage Battery, Testing Rate of Discharge Vol. IV, Page 228

Storage Battery, Two- Voltage Connections Vol. IV, Pages 233, 234

Storage Battery, Voltage Testing Vol. IV, Page 236

Studebaker 1914-15, Grounded Battery — Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 175

Studebaker 1014-15, Insulated Battery — Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 176

423

14 INDEX

Studebaker 1916-17— Remy Ignition System Vol. IV, Page 75

Studebaker 1918, Modds SH, EH, and EG— Remy System . Vol. IV, Plate 178
Studebaker 1920, Series 20— -Remy Ignition and Wagner

Starting and Lighting System Vol. IV, Plate 179

Studebaker Four and Six, Models SF and ED — ^Remy Igni-
tion and Wagner Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Page 123

Stutz 1914-15— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 177

Stutz 1916-17— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 76

Stutz 1918, Model 4-S— Delco Ignition System Vol. IV, Plate 181

Stutz 1918, Series S— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 180

Sun, Light Six, Mode^ 17— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 182

Templar 1918-19-20, Model A-445— Remy System Vol. IV, Plate 183

Testmg Generator Armature Vol. VI, Pages 342, 343

Testing Generator Fields for Grounds . . : Vol. VI, Page 346

Testing Generator Fields for Open Circuits Vol. VI, Pages 36, 345

Testing Generator Fields for Short-Circuits Vol. VI, Page 347

Testing Generator For Reversal Vol. VI, Page 339

Testing Set Vol. Ill, Page 261

U.S.L. 12— 6-Volt External-Regulator System Vol. IV, Page 100

U.S.L. 24— 12-Volt External-Regulator System Vol. IV, Page 99

U.S.L. 24— 12-Volt Inherently Regulated System Vol. IV, Page 101

U.S.L. System— Mercer 1917 Vol. IV, Page 106

U.S.L. System— Mercer, Series 22-70 Vol. Ill, Page 315

Variable Dimming Resistance Vol. Ill, P&ge 247

Velie 1916, Moder22— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 61

Velie 1918-19, Models 38, 39-7, and 39, Sport— Remy System. Vol. IV, Plate 184
Velie 1920, Model 34 — Atwater-Kent Ignition and Westing-
house Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 186

Velie 1920, Model 48 — Atwater-Kent Ignition and Bijur

Starting and Lighting Systems Vol. IV, Plate 185

Velie, Model 22— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 59

Velie, Model 28— Remy System Vol. IV, Page 62

Voltmeter, Method of Connecting to Circuit Vol. Ill, Pages 2&, 265

Voltmeter, Method of Shunting in Circuit Vol. II, Page 364

Voltmeter Principle Vol. II, Page 365

Wagner System— Elgin 1917, Model 17 Vol. Ill, Plate 57

Wagner System— Elgin 1917 Six Vol. IV, Page 117

Wagner System— Elgin 1918 Vol. IV, Page 118

Wagner System— Elgin 1920 Vol. Ill, Plate 56

Wagner System— Grant 1916-17, Model K Vol. IV, Page 45

Wagner System— Grant 1918 Six Vol. IV, Page 124

Wagner System— Grant 1919, Model G Vol. Ill, Plate 67

Wagner System— Nash 1920, Models 681 and 682 Vol. IV, Plate 119

WagRerSystem—Root&Vandervoortl920, Models J and R.. Vol. IV, Plate 164

Wagner Svstem— Saxon 1916, Model 14 Vol. IV, Plate 165

Wagner System— Saxon 1917, Models B-5-R and B-6-R Vol. IV, Page 109

WagnerSystem— Saxonl917,ModelsS-3-T,S-4-T,andS-4-R. Vol. IV, Page 110

Wagner System — Scripps-Booth Four and Eight Vol. IV, Page 126

Wagner System— Studebaker 1920, Series 20 Vol. IV, Plate 179

WagnerSystem — Studebaker Four and Six, Models SF and ED. Vol. IV, Page 123

Wagner Svstem (Early Model) Vol. IV, Page 112

Ward Leonard System— King 1915, Models C and D Vol. IV, Plate 84

Ward Leonard System— King 1916, Models D and E Vol. IV, Plate 85

Westcott 1915 U-6 and 0-35— Delco System Vol. IV, Plate 187

424

INDEX 15

Westcott 1917-18— Delco System Vol. Ill, Page 350

Westcott 1920, Models A-38 and C-38— Delco System. .Vol. IV, Plates 189, 190
Westcott 1920, Model C-48 (Using 9-N Continental Engine)

Delco System Vol. IV, Plates 191, 192

Westcott, Series 19— Delco System. Vol. IV, Plate 188

Westinghouse Cutout Switch Vol. VI, Page 140

V»^estinghouse External-Regulator System Vol. IV, Page 141

Westinghouse Generator with Self-Contained Regulator Vol. IV, Pages 140, 351

Westinghouse Ignition System, Horizontal Type Vol. IV, Page 330

Westinghouse Ignition System, Vertical Type

Vol. Ill, Page 106; Vol. IV, Page 331

Westinghouse Lighting System — Pierce-Arrow, Series Four,

Models 38, 48, and 66 Vol. IV, Page i30

Westinghoase Starting System — Pierce-Arrow, Series Four,

Models 38, 48, and 66 Vol. IV, Page 131

Westinghouse System— Allen 1916, Roadster, Model 37 Vol. IV, Page 148

Westinghouse System— Case 1915, Model 30 Vol. Ill, Plate 23

Westinghouse System— Case 1920 Enclosed Cars, Model V. . Vol. Ill, Plate 26

Westinghouse System— Chalmers 1915, Model 29 Vol. Ill, Plate 27

Westinghouse System— Chalmers 1916-17 Vol. IV, Page 43

Westinghouse System— Chalmers 1917-18, Model 6-30 Vol. Ill, Plate 28

Westinghouse System — Chalmers 1918 Vol. IV, Page 44

Westinghouse System — Chandler 1920, New Series Model. . . Vol. Ill, Plate 29

Westinghouse System — Cunningham, Model V Vol. IV, Page 143

Westinghouse System— Daniels 1917 Eight Vol. IV, Page 138

Westinghouse System— Dort 1916-17 Vol. IV, Pages 144, 147

Westinghouse System— Dort 1917, Model M-9T Vol. Ill, Plate 54

Westinghouse System — H A L Twelve Vol. IV, Page 49

Westinghouse System— H A L Twelve, Model 21 Vol. IV, Page 133

Westinghouse System — Hupmobile Vol. IV, Page 135

Westinghouse System — ^Hupmobile 1916-17, Series N, Serial

No. 60000 and Up Vol. IV, Page 137

Westinghouse System— King 1920, Model H Vol. IV, Plate 87

Westinghouse System— Kissel 1915, Model 4-36 Vol. IV, Plate 88

Westinghouse System— Kissel 1915, Model 6-42 Vol. IV, Plate 89

Westinghouse System— Kissel 1916, Models 4-32, 4-36 Vol. IV, Plate 90

Westinghouse System — ^Kissel 1917, One Hundred Point Six. Vol. IV, Plate 91

Westinghouse System— Kline 1916, Model 6-36 Vol. IV, Plate 93

Westinghouse System — ^Lexington, Series 6-0-17 and 6-00-17 Vol. IV, Page 134

Westinghouse System— Locomobile 1919-20, Model 48 Vol. IV, Plate 100

Westinghouse System — Locomobile Six, Series Two, Models

38 and 48 Vol. IV, Page 132

Westinghouse System — Marion-Handley 1917 Six Vol. IV, Page 150

Westinghouse System— Mercer 1918-19-20 Vol. IV, Plate 106

Westinghouse System— Metz 1920, Master Six Vol. IV, Plate 108

Westinghouse System — National 1917-18, Highway Six Vol. IV, Page 149

Westinghouse System — National 1920, Series BB, Serial No.

60000 and Up Vol. IV, Plate 122

Westinghouse System— Standard 1917 Eight, Model F Vol. IV, Plate 169

Westinghouse System — Stearns-Knight 1916-17,

Model SKL-4 Vol. IV, Plate 171

Westinghouse System— Velie 1920, Model 34 Vol. IV, Plate 186

Westinghouse System with Separately Mounted Regulator. . Vol. IV, Page 145

Westinghouse Voltage Regulator Vol. IV, Pages 350, 352

White — Leece-Neville System VoL IV, Page 15

White, Model G-M— Leece-Neville System Vol. IV, Page 18

Willys-Knight, Model 88-4— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 282

Willys-Knight, Model 88-8— Auto-Lite System Vol. Ill, Page 283

Winton— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 289

Winton, Limousine Six, Model 22- A — Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 306

Winton, Touring Six, Model 22-A— Bijur System Vol. Ill, Page 303

425

GENERAL INDEX

In this Index the Volume Number appears in Roman numerals — ^thus: I,
II, III, IV, etc., and the Page Number in Arabic numerals — ^thus: 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc. For example: Volume IV, Page 327, is written, IV, 327.

The page numbers of this volume wUl he found at the bottom of the pages;
the numbers at the top refer only to the section.

IV,

295

294

Vol. Page
A

ABC aviation motor I, 94

A.LA.M. horsepower for-
mula I, 132, 142

A.L.A.M. (S.A.E.) spark

plug V, 270

Abbott-Detroit-Remy in-
stallation

Absolute pressures

Absolute zero

Absorption of heat

Accumulator (see Storage
battery)

Acetylene (see also Oxy-
acetylene welding,
Index, Vol. V)

Ackerman steering con-
struction

Acme torsion spring

Active material

Adiabatic compression

Admission stroke I, 14, 66, 70,

156; V, 244, 245, 352; VI, 241

Admission in two-cycle

motor I, 83

After-treatment (see Oxy-
acetylene weld-
ing. Index, Vol. V)

Advance of spark

III, 59, 65, 73, 77; VI, 364

Air cleaners V, 389

Air cooling (see also Avia-
tion motors. In-
dex, Vol. I)
I, 150, 443; V, 248; VI, 125

Note. — For page numbers »ee So(A of pages.

Vol. Page
II, 198

V, 14, 112

II, 92, 93

II, 195

IV, 175, 179

I, 68, 70, 73

VI,
I,

261
357

V, 215

1,22,86

IV,
V,

148
375

Air cushion

Air leaks at inlet valves

Air-pressure feed

Air-supply system for gar-
ages

Airplane motors (see also
Aviation motors,
Index, Vol. I)

Alcohol as fuel

I, 111, 113, 114, 115, 118

Alignment of front wheels.

Ford VI, 273, 277, 371

Allen car III, 77

Allen- Westinghouse instal-
lation

Allis-Chalmers tractor

Alternating current, sources
of

Aluminum
cleaning

specific resistance of
welding

American Die and Tool
Company trans-
mission interlocks

American motors, valve
timing

American Power Boat As-
sociation horse-
power formulas

American wire gage

Ames equalizing spring

Ammeter III, 240, 266; IV, 77,

85, 97, 105; VI, 366

Amperage V, 414; VI, 314, 317

VI, 196

IV,

11,
V,

241
359

11,
I, 379, 380

I, 133, 134
II, 367
II, 198

427

INDEX

Vol. Page
Ampere II, 355; V, 409; VI, 309

Ampere-hour capacity of

battery IV, 175, 179

Ampere-hour meter VI, 103, 229

Ampere turn VI, 312

Angular brushes IV, 103

Annular bearings II, 72, 148; VI, 176
Anti-freezing solutions

I, 114, 442, 446; VI, 365
Apelco-Splitdorf installa-
tion IV, 88
Apollo horn III, 240
Apperson car III, 77
Apperson-Bijur installation

III, 291, 293, 301, 302
Apperson-Remy installa-
tion IV, 41
Approximate - constant - po-
tential boosting VI, 216
Arbor press V, 173
Arc welder V, 22
Arcing VI, 222
Armatures III, 375; VI, 166, 168, 223
cores II, 389; IV, 313, 314, 316
of Ford generator VI, 324, 335, 341
magneto IV, 313, 314, 316, 335
testing III, 281, 375; IV, 316, 353
winding II, 388; IV, 347
Assembling
motor VI, 263
rear axle VI, 291
transmission VI, 269
Astatic gap IV, 314, 316, 318
Atlas tractor V, 411
Atmospheric pressure I, 66; V, 352
Atoms I, 121
Atwater-Kent distributor III, 22
Atwater-Kent ignition sys-
tem III, 106; IV, 321
Atwater-Kent interrupter

III, 19, 106, 108
Auburn car III, 77

Auburn-Delco system

III, 254, 255, 321
Auburn-Remy installation IV, 39, 40
Aultman-Taylor lubrication V, 399
Austin car III, 78

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Austin-Delco installation III, 322
Autocar delivery wagon VI, 115

Autocar engine I, 18

Auto-Lite starting and
lighting system
(see also Index,
Vol. Ill) III, 255, 267

Automatic advance device III, 104
Automatic Atwater-Kent

ignition system IV, 324

Automatic battery cutout III, 218
Automatic charge-stopping

device VI, 204

Automatic engagement III, 230

Automatic governor, Eise-

mann IV, 334

Automatic inlet valve V, 249

Automatic spark plug III, 28

Automatic switch

III, 110, 112; IV, 325; V, 264
Automatic valye V, 338

Automatically timed igni-
tion systems III, 68
Automobile* 1,116,145;

V, 341, 387, 391,395,406
Automobile motors (see also

Motors) I, 18, 86; V, 292, 309
Automobile repairs (see also
Trouble shooting)

V, 86, 97, 328
Auto-Ped V, 235

Auxiliary air valve I, 249; V, 374
Auxiliary charging VI, 213

Auxiliary-type governors VI, 13
Avery horizontal motor V, 438

Avery transmission VI, 29, 31

Aviation motors (see also

Index, Vol. I) I, 22, 86

B.R. 1 and 2 I, 96

Bass^-Selve I, 97

Curtiss V type I, 101

Duesenberg I, 106

Frederickson I, 91

Hall-Scott I, 100

Jupiter I, 95

King-Bugatti I, 99

Liberty V type I, 104

428

INDEX

Vol. Page

Aviation motors (continued)

Marlin-Rockwell

I, 93

Mercury

I, 96

Napier Lion

I, 109

Sunbeam-Coatalen

I, 109

Wasp

I, 94

Axle bearings

II, 147

Axles II, ISr, 215, 247;

V, 103;

VI, 220, 235, 237, 248, 271,284

B.R. 1 and 2 aviation mo-
tors I, 96
B.&S.wire gage II, 367
Back-firing I, 77, 83, 85, 347;

V, 33, 34, 90, 372; VI, 299, 301
Back-kick releases III, 233

Backlash II, 115

Baggage trucks VI, 109

Baker controller VI, 184

Baker delivery wagon VI; 103

Baker truck VI, 92

Balance gear VI, 149

Balanced drive, delivery

wagon VI, 100

Ball and Ball carburetor I, 289

Ball bearings

I, 477, 478, II, 147, 148; VI, 271, 289
Ball governor on magneto III, 70
Ballast coU IV, 324, 330

Ballast resistor III, 106

Bass6-Selve aviation motor I, 97
Bates tractor V, 412

Battery (see Storage bat-
teries)
Battery breaker IV, 331, 339

Battery circuit III, 252

Battery cutout III, 218,

392, 395, 402; V, 266; VI, 328
Auto-Lite system III, 275, 284

Delco system III, 331, 362

Heinze-Springfield sys-
tem III, 426
Leece-Neville system IV, 12
North East system IV, 22, 28
Remy system IV, 47
Simms-Huff system IV, 82, 85

Note. — For page nurnbera see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Battery cutout (continued)
summary of instructions IV, 273
Wagner system IV, 111
Westinghouse system IV, 135
Battery equipment, deliv-
ery wagon VI, 102

Battery ignition systems
(see also Index,
Vol. Ill) III, 103; IV, 321
Battery terminal VI, 319

Baum6 scale I, 111; VI, 208

Bearing bushings, remov-
ing V, 175
Bearing puller IV, 371
Bearing scrapers V, 132
Bearings I, 150, 204, 211, 217,
468, 473; II, 27, 54, 72, 147,
240; V, 126, 243, 336; VI, 48,

221, 271, 276, 278, 284, 292
Belt drive II, 56; V, 230, 257

Belt work, demands on

tractor VI, 11

Bench work V, 115, 172

Bendix drive III, 230, 271, 425;

IV, 55, 60, 146; VI, 348, 353, 377
Bennett air washer I, 333

Bennett carburetor I, 329

Benzol I, 115, 118, 325

Best tractor VI, 30, 31, 38, 39

Bethlehem tractor V, 376

Bevel differential II, 236

Bevel friction drive VI, 24

Bevel-gear live axle, truck VI, 138
Bevel gears II, 222; VI, 145

Biddle can III, 78

Bijur ignition system III, 307

Bijur starting and lighting
system (see also
Index, Vol. Ill)

III, 207, 258, 284
Blacksmith welding V, 11

Blowing down boiler V, 331

Blowouts II, 331

Blowpipe (see also Oxy-
acetylene welding.
Index, Vol. V) V, 88, 89, 93
BoUer V, 301, 317, 333

429

INDEX

Vol. Page

Boiling points

I, 111, 113, 114, 115; V, 301

Boosting VI, 213

Bore of motor (see also Avi-
ation motors. In-
dex, Vol. I) I, 79, 182

Borg & Beck clutch II, 22; VI, 19, 20

Boring operations V, 188

Bosch ignition system

III, 48, 63, 75, 315; IV, 129, 339

Bosch impulse starter V, 433

Bosch lamps III, 242

Bosch magneto III, 33, 66, 318

Bosch spark plug III, 26

Bosch switch-pedal opera-
tion III, 311

Bosch voltmeter and switches III, 240

Bosch-Rushmore starting
and lighting sys-
tem (see also In-
dex, Vol. Ill)

III, 215, 230, 309
Bottleneck frame II, 157
Boiu'-Davis car III, 78
Boyle's law V, 296
Brake drum VI, 267, 269
Brake horsepower I, 12, 125, 126, 128
Brake linings, riveting V, 158
Brake pedal VI, 363
Brakes (see also Index, Vol.

II) II, 215, 250, 256;
V, 256; VI, 107, 159, 249, 363
Brass welding V, 84

Brazing V, 11, 78, 163

Breaker ^

Bosch magneto IV, 339

Eisemann magneto

IV, 331, 335, 337
Mea magneto IV, 349
North East system IV, 327
testing with IV, 318
Westinghouse system IV, 329

Brewster car III, 78

Briscoe car III, 78

Briscoe-Auto-Lite installa-
tion III, 268
British thermal unit V, 298

Note. — For page numbers see foot oj pages.

Vol. Page
Bronze welding V, 84

Brown-Lipe-Chapin M&S

differential II, 238

Brown & Sharpe taper V, 156

Brush frame II, 164

Brush-holders VI, 341, 350

Brushes II, 396; III, 280, 323,

368; IV, 21, 102, 111; V, 288;

VI, 168, 222, 324, 340, 350
Bucking coil

II, 396; III, 271; VI, 22, 121; 139
Buckling IV, 198

Buda motor VI, 14, 16

Buick car III, 78

Buick-Delco installation III, 251,

252, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343,

344, 349
Built-in governors VI, 13, 15, 16

Bulbs, lamp VI, 353

BuD gears VI, 30, 37

Bullock tractor VI, 14

Burner in steam automo-
bile V, 314, 337
Bushings VI, 283, 369
Butt-contact switches III, 236
Butt weld V, 79
Butterfly valve I, 245

Cable III, 95, 99

Cable drives II, 56

Cadillac cam mechanism I, 396

Cadillac car III, 76, 78, 118

Cadillac carburetor I, 321

Cadillac clutch II, 19, 26

Cadillac connecting rods I, 205

Cadillac cylinder chassis I, 431

Cadillac lubrication I, 451, 457

CadiUac motor I, 44, 156, 378, 428
Cadillac thermostatic device I, 439
Cadillac transmission and

housing II, 40

Cadillac valve mechanism I, 389
Cadillac-Delco installation

III, 335, 336, 338, 339, 347, 348
Calorie V, 298

Cam I, 378, 384, 388

430

INDEX

Vol. Page
Camless engine I, 415

Camshaft I, 378, 389, 414, 415;

V, 361; VI, 242
Canfield patent III, 26

Cantilever spring II, 174, 178, 180
Capacity

II, 379; III, 24; IV, 175, 179, 307
Capacity of battery, deliv-
ery wagon VI, 102
Carbon deposits I, 114, 159, 175;

V, 95, 271, 272, 281; VI, 259, 297
Carbonizing flame . V, 18, 36

Carburetion system VI, 237, 298

Carburetors (see also Index,

Vol. I) I, 147, 241; V,
273, 278, 370; VI, 69, 124, 255
Ball and Ball I, 289

Bennett I, 329

Bennett air washer I, 333

Cadillac I, 321

Carter I, 308

Depp^ gas generator I, 334

Ensign I, 336

Ensign fuel converter I, 337

Essex I, 271

Ford types

I, 265, 279, 299, 308; VI, 300
Holley I, 266, 272, 325, 326;

V, 388; VI, 301, 303
Hudson I, 271

Johnson I, 305

kerosene types I, 325

Kingston I, 265, 274; VI, 237, 301
Marvel I, 296

Master I, 277, 329

Maybach I, 245, 247

Miller I, 279, 329

Newcomb I, 292

Packard I, 316

Packard fuelizer I, 318

Parrett air cleaner I, 334

Pierce- Arrow I, 314

Rayfield I, 285

Schebler I, 299

Stewart I, 302

Stromberg I, 244, 254

Tillotson I, 313

Note. — For page numbert tee foot of pagee.

Vol. Page

Carburetors (continued)

Webber

281

Zenith

I, 251,

,260

Carpentier manograph

Carter carburetor

308

Case car

III,

Case lubrication

397

Casing of tire II, 311, 319, 330

Cast-ahiminum welding V, *81

Cast axles II, 143

Cast iron

cleaning IV, 241

scale on V, 173

welding V, 69

Cast-steel wheels II, 283

Caster action of front wheels VI, 273

Castings, welding V, 67

Caterpillar tractor

VI, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39
Cell, storage battery

IV, 174, 175, 177, 206
Center bolts of springs VI, 283

Centigrade scale V, 295

Centrifugal governors VI, 12, 128, 129
Century magnetic controller VI, 184
Chadwick car III, 78

Chain drive II, 223, 252; III,

280; V, 231, 258; VI, 91, 94, 173
Chain four-wheel drive II, 131

Chams, worn VI, 220

Chalmers car III, 78

Chalmers-Gray and Davis

. installation III, 405

Chalmers-Remy installation IV, 43, 44
Chandler car III, 79

Chandler-Gray and Davis

installation III, 405, 411, 412
Charge, fuel proportions of

I, 74, 112, 119, 341
Charge-stopping device VI, 204

Charging battery III, 313; IV,
135, 175, 177, 188, 221, 231;

VI, 195, 199
Charging rate VI, 202

Charging rheostat VI, 203

Charging system VI, 366

Chassis, Ford, VI, 234, 235

431

INDEX

Vol.

Page

Chassis group

II,

154

Check valves

319

Chemical compound

120

Chemical rectifiers

IV,

223

Chevrolet car

III,

Chevrolet cylinder assembly I, 173
Chevrolet- Auto-Lite instal-
lation III, 255, 256, 269, 272
CWcago car III, 79

Chipping V, 117, 119, 156

Chisels V, 117, 156

Chrome-steel magnets IV, 319

Circuit, electric (see also

Index, Vol. II) II, 353

Circuit breaker III, 219, 258,

367; IV, 13, 15, 16, 272; VI,

105, 106
Circulating-splash lubrica-
tion system V, 397
Circulation of cooling water

I, 436, 446; V, 404
Cleaning battery IV, 201, 239

Cleaning car VI, 252

Cleaning electrical equip-
ment IV, 239
Clearance I, 74, 393, 405; V, 153,

279, 306
Cleveland tractor V, 377

Clincher rims II, 292

Clincher tires II, 286, 297

Clutch (see also Index, Vol.

II) II, 11, 70, 79; III,
231; V, 259, 285; VI, 17, 81,

132, 247, 270, 370
Qutch-disc assembly VI, 267, 269, 270
Clutch facings II, 18, 19; V, 159

Clutch leathers V, 159

Clutch pedal VI, 363

CoeflScient of expansion V, 46

Coefficient of friction of

clutch discs II, 18

Coey car III, 79

Coil springs II, 195

Coil testing machine * VI, 266

Cold weather, effect on
storage battery

IV, 193, 195, 225, 233

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Cole car III, 79, 102, 117

Cole-Delco installation

III, 325, 326, 345
Combination drive VI, 94

Combination switch

III, 332, 351; VI, 354
Combustion, analysis of

process I, 121

Combustion mixture

I, 74, 112, 119, 341
Conmiercial delivery wagon

VI, 94, 95, 103
Commercial truck VI, 97, 98

Conunercial vehicles (see
also Electric com-
mercial vehicles.
Gasoline commer-
cial vehicles, and
Trucks) VI, 85

Commutator II, 385; III, 280,
372; IV, 115, 356; V, 288; VI,

168, 222, 324, 335, 341, 351
Commutator wires VI, 265

Compensating gear VI, 91, 149

Compensating spring sup-
port VI, 159
Compound distributor III, 45
Compound engines V, 308
Compound-wound genera-
tor II, 394
Compound-wound motor

II, 400; VI, 170
Compression gage I, 178

Compression line I, 83

Compression in motor

I, 73, 81, 93, 122, 123, 160
Compression stroke I, 14, 68,

72, 155; V, 244, 245, 353, 355;

VI, 241
Condenser (electrical) II,. 379;
III, 24, 30, 251; IV, 32; V,

418; VI, 315
Condenser (steam engine) V, 310
Conditioning charge

IV, 190, 194, 195, 196, 207, 221
Conduction V, 294

Conductivity V, 44

432

INDEX

Vol. Page
Conductors II, 358, 366; V, 409

Cone clutches

II, 11, 13; VI, 18, 22, 132
Cone-and-cup bearings VI, 271, 276
Cone puller IV, 377

Connecticut automatic

switch III, 110; IV, 325
Connecticut ignition sys-
tem

II, 109, 111; IV, 134, 144, 147
Connecticut interrupter III, 109

Connecting rods I, 147, 202, 220;
V, 129, 243, 248, 249, 251,

281; VI, 243, 256
Connections VI, 199, 222, 224

Constant-current boosting VI, 216
Constant-current generator III, 211
Constant-voltage boosting VI, 215
Constant-voltage generators III, 216
Constant-voltage regula-
tion IV, 47, 89
Contact breaker

III, 128; V, 426, 429
Contact maker III, 19, 23

Contact points IV, 276

Continental cylinder I, 171

Continuous holding ring

rim II, 298, 305

Continuous-torque control-
ler VI, 114, 181
Contracting-band clutch

VI, 18, 22, 33
Contraction of metals (see
Oxy-acetylene
welding, Index,
Vol. V)
Control
of electric car VI, 180

of tractor VI, 11, 47

Control levers VI, 359

Controllers

. Ill, 215; VI, 102, 181, 187
Convection V, 294

Cooling systems (see also
Index, Vol. I)
1, 29, 31, 149, 430; V, 248, 402;

VI, 63, 125, 238, 365, 368

Note. — For page numhere see foot of pages.

IV, 241
II, 359
V, 82
II, 358
II, 291

V, 60, 64

Vol. Page
Copper
cleaning

specific resistance
welding
Copper conductors
Cord tires
Corner weld
Cost
of operating tractor V, 346

of oxy-acetylene cutting V, 110
of welding V, 110

Cotta transmission V, 31, 136

Coulomb II, 355

Counter e.m.f. II, 400

Countershaft VI, 91

Couple-Gear drive mechan-
ism II, 136, 137; VI,

98, 99, 107, 150, 157
" Cracked 'Voils V, 370

Cranes I, 162, 164

Crank arrangement I, 34

Crankcase I, 30, 103, 226, 472;

V, 107, 243; VI, 256
Crankcase drain plug VI, 255

Crankshafts I, 147, 166, 214;

V, 243, 282; VI, 243
Crecium points IV, 336

Creeper I, 212

Creeping-grip tractor VI, 15, 16

Critical speed of motor VI, 170

Crosby indicator I, 54

Cross-connecting rods II, 124

Crude oil 1,111,113

Cunningham- Westinghouse

installation IV, 143

Cup-and-cone bearings VI, 271, 276
Current II, 353, 368, 381; III,

16, 29, 32, 127; V, 408; VI, 309
Current, ignition VI, 314, 317, 319
Current control, delivery

wagon VI, 102

Curtiss V-type aviation

motor I, 101

Cushion tires II, 278

Cut-off V, 305, 307, 337

Cutout (see Battery cutout)
Cutout switch VI, 105, 201

433

INDEX

Vol. Page
Cutters V, 177, 178, 193

Cutting, oxy-acetylene V, 86

Cutting-in bearing V, 130

Cycle of motor VI, 239

Cyclemotor V, 235

Cylinder I, 30, 103, 147, 166;

V, 105, 141, 242; VI, 258
Cylinder head VI, 255, 263

Cylinder-head bolts, tight-
ening VI, 264
Cylinder oil fihn VI, 298

Daniels-Westinghouse in-
stallation IV, 138
Dash, cutout mounted on VI, 330
Dash coils, testing VI, 321
David Brown worm gear VI, 144
Davis-Delco installation

III, 329, 330
Dayton Airless tire II, 288

Dayton motor bicycle

V, 234, 249, 260, 261
J)ead axle VI, 139

Dead center I, 42; V, 185

Dead center indicator I, 184

Dean knife starting switch III, 236
De Dion car II, 231; III, 76, 79

Deflector, piston V, 247, 248

Delco distributor

III, 118, 119; IV, 306
Delco ignition relay

III, 121, 124, 125
Delco ignition system II, 403;
III, 102, 115, 117, 122, 123,

299, 353, 370; IV, 149
Delco interrupter III, 115, 116, 122
Delco starting and lighting
system (see also
Index, Vol. Ill)
III, 206, 208, 214, 227, 319
Delco timer III, 116, 120

Delivered horsepower I, 125

Delivery wagons VI, 89, 115

Demountable rim II, 298, 309

Demountable-rim tires II, 287

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Dendy - Marshall horse-
power formula I, 133
Depp^ gas generator I, 334
Detroit lubrication I, 460; V, 399
Diagrams I, 61, 66, 70, 79, 83,

84; V, 306, 309
Diametral-pitch method of

designing gears V, 169, 170
Diaphragm regulator V, 322

Diehl electric dynamometer I, 130
Dielectric stress III, 98

Dies V, 148, 150

Differential I, 34, 153; II, 215,

236; VI, 30, 91, 248
Differential gears VI, 287

Differential lock, truck VI, 149

Differential winding

III, 271; IV, 22
Dimming devices III, 246

Direct cone clutch II, 12, 13, 14

Direct current, sources of VI, 195
Direct drive VI, 363

Disc clutch II, 11, 13; VI, 247

Discharging battery

IV, 60, 175, 178, 180, 228, 233
Disco system III, 391

Distance rods VI, 140, 221

Distillate, carburetor for I, 277

Distilled water IV, 176, 182; VI, 368
Distributor III, 22, 23, 45, 51,
114, 118, 119; IV, 329, 346,

347, 348; V, 428
Distributor disc IV, 335

Distributor leakage III, 129

Dixie car III, 80

Dixie interrupter III, 44

Dixie magneto III, 42

Dodge car III, 80, 117, 118

Dodge-North-East installa-
tion IV, 22, 24, 29
Dog clutch VI, 33, 134, 135, 137
' * Dolly ' ' for handling truck

wheels II, 285

Dorris car I, 172; II, 25; III, 80
Dort car III, 80

Dort-Westinghouse instal-
lation IV, 144, 147

434

INDEX

Vol. Page
Double-acting motor I, 12, 15

Double carburetors I, 253

Double-chain drive II, 223

Double-deck Remy system IV, 60
Dpuble-drop frame II, 157

Double-nozzle carburetor I, 251

Double-opposed motor I, 18

Double reduction live axle,

truck VI, 146

Double shackle II, 188

Double-spark ignition III, 27, 54

Double-spoke wheel II, 281

Double-tube tires II, 285

Douglas motorcycle V, 253

Down stroke of two-cycle

motor I, 17, 155

Dual carburetor I, 253, 275

Duesenberg aviation motor

I, 106, 279
Drag link II, 120

Drain cock VI, 358

Draw filing V, 124

DrUl presses V, 143, 180, 221

Drill sizes for standard

threads V, 148

Drilling

V, 144, 164, 173, 179, 181, 188
Drive V, 257; VI, 132, 137, 172

balanced drive VI, 100

chain drive II, 223, 252; III,

280; V, 231, 258; VI, 91, 94, 173
Couple-Gear

II, 136; VI, 98, 107, 150, 157

electric II, 38, 56, 135; VI, 150, 155

shaft and chain drive VI, 96

shaft drive II, 220; VI, 92

unit-wheel drives VI, 97

worm gear VI, 94, 138, 141, 176

Drive-pinion bearings VI, 289

Drive plate VI, 370

Drive shaft, removing from

housing VI, 288

Driving fit V, 189, 190

Driving shaft II, 215, 220

Driving wheels, small VI, 28

Drop-forged axle II, 144; VI, 4
Drop-forged connecting rod VI, 243

Note. — For page numbera see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Drop-forged crankshaft VI, 243

Dropped rear axle II, 230

Dnun assembly ' VI, 267

Drum controller VI, 181

Dry ceU II, 403; III, 16; V, 262

Dry-crankcase lubrication V, 400
Dry-disc clutches II, 17, 70

Dry-plate clutch VI, 20

Dry storage of batteries IV, 218

Dual ignition system III, 48, 75

Dual magnetos IV, 331, 339, 346, 349
Dual t3rpe timer III, 119

Dummy brake drum II, 262

Dununy valve seat V, 281

Dunlop tire II, 285

Duplex control VI, 187

Duplex ignition system III, 53

Duplex sjTstem IV, 344

Duplex vibrator IV, 344

Dynamo (see Generator)
D3mamo-electric machines II, 397
Dynamometer I, 127

Dynamotor (see also Gen-
erator and Start-
ing motor) 11,401; III,
206, 319, 391; IV, 22, 77, 87,

95, 111, 135
Dyneto system (see also
Index, Vol. Ill)

III, 206, 391

Eagle horizontal motor V, 437, 438
Eddy currents II, 389; VI, 315

Edge weld V, 59, 60

Edison battery III, 17; IV, 22, 182
Edison cell VI, 209, 212, 213, 231

Efl&ciency

I, 15, 69, 126; IV, 179; VI, 89
Eight-cylinder lifters IV, 323

Eight-cylinder motors I, 41, 101,

157, 217, 253, 350, 388; III, 45
Eighteen-cylinder motors I, 110

Eisemann ignition

III, 36, 69; IV, 331
Eisemann impulse starter V, 434

435

INDEX

Vol. Page
Electric automobiles (see
Electric commer-
cial vehicles and
Electric pleasure
cars)
Electric brakes II, 251, 259

Electric car springs II, 185

Electric circuit (see also In-
dex, Vol. II) II, 353
Electric clutch H, 24
Electric commercial vehicles VI, 87

advantages VI, 88

ampere-hour meter VI, 103

baggage trucks VI, 109

Baker delivery wagon VI, 103

Baker trucks VI, 92

balanced drive, delivery

wagon VI, 100

battery equipment, de-
livery wagon VI, 102

brakes, delivery wagon VI, 107

capacity of battery, de-
livery wagon VI, 102

care of VI, 88

chain drive, delivery

wagon VI, 91, 94

circuit-breaker, delivery

wagon VI, 105, 106

combination drive VI, 94

Commercial delivery

wagon VI, 94, 95, 103

Commercial truck VI, 97, 98

compensating gear VI, 91

continuous-torque con-
troller VI, 114

controller on delivery

wagons VI, 102

countershaft VI, 91

Couple-Gear drive VI, 98, 99, 107

current control, delivery

wagon VI, 102

cutout switch, delivery

wagon VI, 105

delivery wagon VI, 89

differential gear VI, 91

drive
balanced drive VI, 100

Note, — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page

Electric commercial vehicles

(continued)

drive

chain drive VI, 91

Couple-Gear VI, 98

shaft drive VI, 92

shaft and chain drive VI, 96

unit-wheel drives VI, 97

worm gear VI, 94

efficiency VI, 89

emergency-brake lock VI, 106

freight truck VI, 109

G.E. motor VI, 212, 214

G.M.C. delivery wagon VI, 103

G.M.C. electric wagon VI, 95, 96

G.V. delivery wagon VI, 93, 94, 104

G.V. electric truck VI, 111

G.V. industrial truck VI, 109

G.V. tractor VI, 107

industrial truck VI, 109

mileage, trucks VI, 111

motor VI, 91

motor suspension, deUv-

ery wagon VI, 91

overcharging battery VI, 106

pneumatic tires VI, 107

rear axle VI, 92
safety devices, delivery

wagon VI, 105
shaft and chain drive,

delivery wagon VI, 96
shaft drive, delivery

wagon VI, 92

side-chain drive VI, 94

silent chain VI, 91

solid tires VI, 107
speed of motors, delivery

wagon VI, 91
speed reduction (see

Drive and Trans-
mission)
tires, delivery wagon VI, 107
tractors VI, 107
trucks VI, 111
underslung battery VI, 102
unit-wheel drives, deliv-
ery wagon VI, 97

436

INDEX

Vol. Page
Electric commercial vehicles
(continued)
Urban delivery wagon VI, 103
useful load capacity VI, 90

voltage required, deliv-
ery wagon VI, 102
Walker electric wheel

drive VI, 100, 101

Waverly truck VI, 96, 97

wonn gear drive, delivery

wagon VI, 94

Electric current (see Cur-
rent)
Electric drive

II, 38, 56, 135; VI, 150, 155

Electric furnace V, 164

Electric gear-shift ' IV, 286

Electric pleasure cars VI, 165

acciunulator VI, 165

alternating current,

sources of VI, 196

ampere-hour meter VI, 229

annular ball bearings VI, 176

anodes of mercury arc

rectifier VI, 198

arcing VI, 222

armature of motor VI, 166, 168, 223
axles, non-alignment of VI, 220
Baker controller VI, 184

battery, charging (see
charging battery)
battery connections VI, 224

bearings, dry VI, 221

brushes of motor VI, 168, 222

care of VI, 195, 218

cathode of mercury arc

rectifier VI, 198

Century magnetic con-
troller VI, 184
cham drive VI, 173
chains, worn VI, 220
charging battery VI, 195, 199
approximate-constant-
potential boosting VI, 216
automatic charge-stop-
ping device VI, 204
auxiliary charging VI, 213

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Electric pleasure cars (con-
tinued)
charging battery
Baumd scale VI, 208

boosting VI, 213

boosting formula . VI, 216

charge-stopping device VI, 204
charging rate VI, 202

charging rheostat VI, 203

connections, proper VI, 199

constant-current boost-
ing VI, 216
constant-pote n t i a 1

boosting VI, 215

Edison cell VI, 209, 212, 213

electrolyte VI, 207, 209

fire hazard of battery

VI, 200, 203
formula for constant-
current boosting VI, 216
gassing of battery VI, 200, 203
hydrometer readings VI, 207
low cells VI, 208

mercury-arc rectifier VI, 212
overcharging, dangers of VI, 210
"pounding" a battery VI, 211
Sangamo ampere-hour

meter VI, 205

service mains VI, 212

short-circuits, battery VI, 202
starting charge VI, 204

temperature of battery

VI, 201, 218
temperature correction
for specific gravity
of electrolyte VI, 206

testing charge VI, 200, 204, 206
time required VI, 211

voltage VI, 200, 204

commutator of motor VI, 168, 222
compound-wound motor VI, 170
connections VI, 222, 224

continuous torque con-
troller VI, 181
control VI, 180
controllers VI, 181, 187
critical speed VI, 170

437

INDEX

Vol. Page
Electric pleasure cars (con-
tinued)
direct current, sources of VI, 195
distance rods, adjustment

of VI, 221

drive VI, 172

drum controller VI, 181

duplex control VI, 187

Edison cell VI, 231

electromagnets VI, 167

field of motor VI, 166

final drive VI, 173

flat radial controller VI, 182

flush type controller VI, 183, 184
full floating axle VI, 174

fuses VI, 194

G.E. volt-ammeter VI, 229

gas-electric lighting plant VI, 195
gassing VI, 200, 203, 216

gear drive > VI, 174

gear reduction VI, 172

grounds VI, 168

indicating instruments VI, 229
inflation of tires VI, 228

loose connections VI, 222, 224

lubrication of bearings VI, 221
magnetic controller VI, 184

mercury arc rectifier VI, 197

mileage VI, 224

motor VI, 166, 171

motor generator VI, 197

multiple connections VI, 188

non-alignment of axles VI, 220
non-alignment of wheels VI, 219
non-skid tires VI, 225

Ohio magnetic controller

VI, 184, 186, 187
operation of VI, 195

overloads, capacity of

motor for VI, 169

pneumatic tires VI, 225

polarity of charging ter-
minals VI, 200
power losses VI, 218, 224
radius rods, adjustment of VI, 221
Ranch and Lang car

VI, 177-180, 182

"Nc/U, — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Electric pleasure cars (con-
tinued)
Raulang electric coach VI, 164
rectif 3dng alternating cur-
rent VI, 197
resistance in circuit VI, 190
rheostat VI, 190
sanding-in brushes VI, 223
Sangamo ampere - hour

meter VI, 230
series connections VI, 188
series - multiple connec-
tions VI, 189
series-wound motor VI, 170, 192
service mains, charging

current from VI, 196
short-circuits VI, 168
shunt VI, 192
shunt-wound motor VI, 170
solid tires VI, 226
specific gravity of electro-
lyte, temperature
correction for VI, 206
speed of motor VI, 171
speed reduction VI, 172
steering gear, poor ad-
justment VI, 220
storage battery VI, 165
tables
approximate-constant-
potential boosting
rates VI, 216
boosting rates VI, 213, 215-217
charging voltage for

lead batteries VI, 201
constant-current boost-
ing rates VI, 217
Edison cell data VI, 212, 213
temperature correction
for specific gravity
of electrolyte VI, 206
taper roller bearings VI, 176
temperature of battery VI, 201
tires VI, 224
transmission VI, 172
volt-ammeter VI, 193, 229
wheels, non-alignment of VI, 219

438

INDEX

Vol. Page
Electric pleasure care (con-
tinued)
wiring diagram VI, 191

worm drive VI, 176

Electric principles

II, 352, 404; VI, 309
Electric starting and light-
ing (see Starting
and lighting)
Electric Storage Battery
Company lead-
burning outfits IV, .211, 213
Electric thermostat IV, 51

Electric transmission

II, 38, 56, 135; VI, 150, 155
Electric welding V, 21

Electrical equipment II, 351;

III, 11; IV, 11; V, 262; VI, 309
Ford car VI, 309

ignition (see Ignition)
repairs (see Trouble

shooting)
starting and lighting

III, 205; IV, 11
storage batteries (see
Storage* batteries)
Electrical lag IV, 345

Electrical troubles V, 288

Electrically operated gears II, 51
Electrically operated

switches III, 237

Electrine I, 115

Electrode of spark plug III, 26

Electrolyte IV, 175, 186, 188;

V, 270; VI, 207, 209
Electromagnet II, 372; VI, 167, 312
Electromagnetic switch IV, 151

Electromotive force II, 357

Elgin-Delco system III, 333

Elgin- Wagner installation IV, 117, 118
Elkhart car III, 80

Elkhart-Delco installation III, 334
Elliott front axle II, 137, 138, 146
Elliott reversed front axle

II, 137, 138, 146
Emergency bralce VI, 250, 363

Emergency-brake lock VI, 106

No'e. — For page numbers see foot of pcige*.

Vol. Page
Emerson-Brantigham trac-
tor VI, 16, 17, 37
Emery paste V, 143
Emery wheel V, 221
Empire car III, 80
En bloc cylinders I, 167, 169
End thrust in rear-axle as-
sembly VI, 287
Enger car III, 80
Engine (see Motor)
Engine governors VI, 11, 81, 128
Engine stands V, 218
English Standard thread V, 148
Ensign I, 336, 337
Entz electric drive II, 57
Epicyclic gear II, 38, 54; V, 260
Equalizing charge

IV, 190, 194, 207, 221
Erie car III, 81

Essex carburetor I, 271

Evaporation points V, 369

Excelsior motorcycle

V, 248, 254, 256, 257, 264, 268
Excelsior twin motor I, 22

Exhaust cam I, 378

Exhaust-gas jacket I, 344

Exhaust lap V, 307

Exhaust manifold

I, 149, 424; VI, 255
Exhaust pipe I, 78

Exhaust-pressure feed I, 357

Exhaust stroke I, 15, 69, 77, 155;

V, 245, 246, 354; VI, 341
Exhaust system I, 149, 423, 486

Exhaust temperature I, 150

Exhaust in two-cycle motor I, 83
Exhaust valves I, 78, 149, 380;

V, 249; VI, 261, 372
Expanding-band clutch VI, 18, 21
Expansion (see Oxy-acety-
lene welding. In-
dex, Vol. V)
Expansion line I, 69, 77, 83

Expansion reamer V, 152

Explosion line I, 74, 83

Explosion motors

I, 11; V, 244; VI, 244, 246

439

INDEX

Vol. Page
Explosion pressure I, 76

Explosion stroke I, 69

Explosion temperature I, 160

Explosive mixture

I, 74, 110, 112, 119, 341
External-combustion en-
gines V, 244; VI, 244
External lubrication I, 448, 461
External regulation III, 215;

IV, 89, 96, 98, 102, 141, 145
External thread V, 148

F.R.P. car III, 81

Fahrenheit scale V, 295

Fan I, 441, 444, 445; VI, 126

Fan motors I, 89, 109

Farquhar tractor V, 343

Female clutch member II, 12

Fergus car I, 464; II, 162

Fiat I, 106; III, 81

Field II, 373; III, 281, 382; .

IV, 16; VI, 166, 350
Field magnets II, 390

Field testing VI, 344

Fifth-wheel front axle II, 137

Filing V, 119, 136, 157

Final drive (see also Index,
Vol. II)

II, 215; VI, 37, 137, 173
Final gear reduction II, 215

Fire hazard of battery VI, 200, 203
Fire prevention IV, 136

Fire-tube boilers V, 317

Firing order and ignition advance

I, 34; III, 73; V, 428
Allen III, 77

Apperson III, 77

Auburn III, 77

Austin III, 78

Biddle III, 78

Bour-Davis III, 78

Brewster III, 78

Briscoe III, 78

Buick III, 78

Cadillac III, 78

Case ~ III, 78

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Firing order and igmtion
(continued)
Chad wick
Chalmers
Chandler
Chevrolet
Chicago
Coey
Cole
De Dion
Dixie
Dodge
Dorris
Dort
Elkhart
Empire
Enger
Erie
Fiat
Ford
Franklin
F. R. P.
GUde
Grant
HoUier

Homer-Laughlin
Hudson
Hupp
Interstate
Jackson
Jeffery
King
Kisselkar
Kline

Lexington-Howard
Liberty
Locomobile
McFarlan
Madison
Marion-Handley
Marmon
Maxwell
Mercer
Militaire
Mitchell
Moline
Monroe

Vol. Page
advance

III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,

m,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,
III,

78
78
79
79
79
79
79
79
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
83
84
84
84
84
84
84
85
85
85
85
86
86
86
86
86
86

440

INDEX

Vol. Page
Firing order and ignition advance
(continued)
Moon III, 86
Murray III, 86
National III, 86
Oakland III, 87
Oldsmobile III, 87
Packard III, 87
Paige-Detroit III, 87
Pathfinder III, 88
Patterson III, 88
Peerless III, 88
Pierce- Arrow III, 88
Pilot III, 89
Premier III, 89
Princess III, 89
Pullman III, 89
Regal III, 89
Reo III, 90
Ross III, 90
Saxon III, 90
Scripps-Booth III, 90
Simplex III, 90
Singer III, 90
Spaulding III, 90
Sphinx III, 90
Standard III, 91
Steams III, 91
Studebaker HI, 91
Stutz III, 91
Sun III, 91
Thomas III, 91
Trumbull III, 91
Velie III, 92
Westcott III, 92
Willys-Overland III, 92
Winton III, 92
Firing position, finding I, 176
Fu-ing stroke VI, 240, 241
Firing up steam automobile V, 330
Five-cylinder motors I, 91
Fixed-pitch method of de-
signing gears V, 169, 170
Fixed-spark ignition sys-
tems III, 68
Fixed-timing-point ignition

systems III, 68

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Flame (see Oxy-acetylene
welding. Index,
Vol. V)
Flame, speed of propaga-
tion I, 119; IV, 345
Flame travel IV, 345
Flame welding processes V, 11
Flange weld V, 59, 60, 79
Flashing point 1,112,115
Flat radial controller VI, 182
Flexible frame II, 161
Flexible joints II, 216, 217, 218, 219
Flexible mounting II, 156
Float I, 242, 247, 263, 339, 346;

VI, 300
Float-feed carburetor I, 243

Floating discs II, 20

Fldating-ring clutch VI, 116

Flooding of carburetor V, 278

Flush type controller VI, 183, 184
Flux (see also Oxy-acety-
lene welding. In-
dex, Vol. V)
Fly-ball governor VI, 12

Flywheel I, 151, 480, 492;

V, 243, 248, 249; VI, 244
Flywheel drive III, 234

Flywheel-gear starter in-
stallations III, 229, 233, 237
Fljrwheel markings I, 391

Folding steering wheels II, 119

Foot brake VI, 249

Foot-operated switches III, 237

Foot-pound V, 299

Force, definition V, 298

Force-feed splash system V, 398

Forced circulation of water V, 404
Forced fit V, 189, 190

Forced induction I, 243

Forced lubrication I, 464

Ford construction and re-
pair VI, 233
admission stroke VI, 241
alignment of front wheels

VI, 273, 371
armature of generator VI, 335, 341
assembUng motor VI, 263

441

INDEX

Vol. Page
Ford construction and re-
pair (continued)
axles

II, 249; VI, 235, 237, 248, 271, 284
back fire in intake mani-
fold VI, 299
bearings VI, 276, 278, 284
Bendix-drive trouble VI, 353
brake lining VI, 369
brake pedal VI, 363
brakes VI, 249
brushes VI, 340, 350
bulbs VI, 353
bushings VI, 283, 369
camshaft VI, 242
carbon formation VI, 297
carburetion system

I, 265, 279, 299, 308; VI, 237, 298
center bolts of springs VI, 283
charging magnets IV, 308; VI, 380
charging system VI, 366

cleaning car VI, 252

clutch II, 32; VI, 247, 270, 370, 371
clutch-disc assembly VI, 267, 269
clutch pedal VI, 363

commutator testing VI, 341

compression stroke VI, 241

condenser VI, 315

connecting rod VI, 243, 256

control levers VI, 359'

cooling system

VI, 238, 357, 365, 368
crankcase I, 228; VI, 256

crankshaft VI, 243

cutout VI, 328

cycle of motor VI, 239

cylinder oil fihn VI, 298

dash coils, testing VI, 321

differential VI, 248

differential gears VI, 287

drive-pinion bearings VI, 289

drive plate VI, 370

drive shaft, removing

from housing VI, 288

drum assembly VI, 267

electrical system

IV, 152, 158; VI, 309

Note. — For page numbera see foot of pixgea.

Vol. Page
Ford construction and re-
pair (continued)
engine (see motor)
exhaust stroke VI, 241

field testing VI, 344

fields of starter VI, 350

final drive II, 222

firing stroke VI, 240, 241

flywheel VI, 244

four-cycle motor VI, 239

frame VI, 235

front axle VI, 235, 271

front hubs, equipping
with Timken bear-
ings VI, 278
front wheels, alignment

of VI, 371

gasoline line, care of VI, 301

gasoline supply VI, 358

gear unit VI, 370

generators VI, 322

grinding valves VI, 259

grounds VI, 339, 345, 347, 352

hand lever VI, 363

heavy fuels, setting car-
buretor for VI, 303
horn VI, 357
hotrair pipe VI, 302
ignition current, path of VI, 319
ignition system III, 54, 56,

57, 134, 187; VI, 237, 312
induction coils VI, 312

inlet valves VI, 261

insulation VI, 311, 341

intake manifold, back

fire in VI, 299

intake stroke VI, 241

knocks in motor, trouble

shooting VI, 303

L-head motor VI, 241

lighting and ignition -

switches VI, 354

lighting system VI, 353

lubrication system VI, 238, 291

magnetism VI, 311

magneto III, 54, 134; IV, 307;

VI, 244, 316, 372

442

Vol.

XIN.

Page

^ Ford construction and re-

pair (continued)

magnetometer

Ill,

134

magnets

VI,

244

charging in car IV, 30^

;vi.

380

charging out of car

IV,

310

charging on flywheel

IV,

310

main bearings, adjusting

VI,

^58

motor

171

fails to start

VI,

372

knocks in

VI,

303

lacks power

VI,

374

operation of

VI,

239

overhauling

VI,

255

overheats

VI,

376

preparing to run

VI,

266

* runs irregularly

VI,

374

starting

VI,

359

stopping

VI,

364

stops suddenly

VI,

376

circulation of

VI,

295

correct level of

VI,

293

draining

VI,

254

supply

VI,

359

viscosity of

VI,

297

oil reservoir

VI,

293

oil troughs VI, 293

,296

open circuit VI, 343, 344

,353

operation of car

VI,

357

charging system

VI,

366

control levers

VI,

359

cooling system

VI,

365

preliminary inspections

VI,

357

speed control

VI,

363

starting the motor

VI,

359

overhauling the car

VI,

252

cleaning car

VI,

252

draining oil

VI,

254

identification of parts

VI,

253

overhauling front-axle

system

VI,

271

overhauling motor .

VI,

255

i overhauling rear-axle

assembly

VI,

284

overhauling transmis-

sion

VI,

266

INDEX

Vol. Page
Ford construction and re-
pair (continued)
overhauling the car

removing radiator VI, 253

pinion gear VI, 288

piston VI, 242

piston slap VI, 258

planetary gear II, 55; VI, 246, 252
power plant VI, 237

power stroke VI, 240, 241

radiator, removing VI, 253

radius-rod ball socket VI, 276

rear axle I, 475; VI, 237, 248, 284
rear axle gears VI, 370

rebushing VI, 369

recharging magnets

IV, 308; VI, 380
regulation of generator VI, 325
reversal of generator VI, 336, 347
reverse drum clearance VI, 369
reverse-speed pedal VI, 363

ring gear VI, 288

shackles VI, 283

short-circuit VI, 339, 343, 346, 352
shunt-wound generator VI, 327
slant of front axle VI, 273, 371

spark coil adjustments VI, 265
spark lever VI, 364

spark plugs VI, 264, 321

sparking at brushes VI, 340

speed control VI, 363

spray nozzle, care of VI, 301

spring clips, tightening VI, 283
springs II, 184; VI, 239, 283, 341
starting and generating

system VI, 322

starting motor VI, 348

starting switch VI, 353

steering mechanism

II, 111; VI, 239, 251, 252
storage battery, care of VI, 367
suction stroke VI, 241

switches VI, 354

tables

anti-freezing solutions VI, 366

battery, state of charge

of VI, 368

Note, — For page numbers see foot of pages.

443

INDEX

Vol. Page
Ford construction and re-
pair (continued)
tables
current consumption of

Ford starter VI, 350

magneto output VI, 372

output of early Ford
magneto at vari-
ous speeds VI, 317
testing generator VI, 341
third brush VI, 325
throttle VI, 302, 365
thrust rings, wear of VI, 287
timer VI, 265, 318
timer wires VI, 322
timing gears VI, 242, 370
Timken bearings, equip-
ping front hubs
with VI, 278
transmission VI, 244, 246, 266
transmission lining VI, 369
transmission repairs VI, 266, 369
triple gear assembly VI, 369
trouble shooting VI, 303, 372
valve timing VI, 372
valves VI, 241, 372
adjusting VI, 262
grinding VI, 259
inlet valves VI, 261
removing VI, 256
vibrator VI, 314
viscosity of oils VI, 297
wiring diagrams VI, 336
wiring of motor VI, 265
working stroke VI, 240, 241
Ford-Gray and Davis start-
ing and lighting
system IV., 158
Ford - Heinze - Springfield

installation III, 424

Ford-North-East installa-
tion IV, 26
Fordson tractor

V, 362, 385, 388, 392, 403
Forged axles II, 144

Forges V, 11, 163

Forgings, welding V, 67

Note. — For -page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Form-wound armature II, 389

Formed plates IV, 175, 177

Formulas

A.L.A.M. (S.A.E.) I, 132, 142

brake horsepower I, 126, 128

cables, size of III, 95

constant-current boosting VI, 216
Dendy-Marshall I, 133

electric dynamometer I, 128

finding specific gravity

from degrees Baum4 I, 111
gasoline I, 121

horsepower

I, 123, 132, 143; II, 357
indicated horsepower I, 124, 127
mechanical efficiency I, 126

Ohm's law II, 355

power formula II, 357

pressure ratio . I, 76

Prony brake I, 126

R.A.C. I, 132, 142

racing-boat I, 133

relation between pressure

and volume of air I, 68

Roberts I, 133, 134

S.A.E. I, 132, 142

two-cycle I, 127, 134

White and Poppe I, 133

Four-cycle diagram I, 83

Four-cycle motor I, 13, 14, 25,

48, 155; V, 244, 248, 249, 352;

VI, 239
compared with two-cycle

I, 86, 134
Four-cylinder crankshaft

I, 215, 216
Four-cylinder motors I, 38, 40,

101, 157; V, 231, 237, 240, 251
carburetors I, 349

valve timing I, 391, 392

Four-Drive tractor VI, 31

Four-speed gear boxes II, 41

Four-terminal starter-gen-
erator IV, 28
Four valves per cylinder I, 243, 385
Four-wheel brake VI, 160

444

INDEX

Vol. Page
Four-wheel driving, steer-
ing, and braking

II, 128; VI, 152
Four-wheel tractors

V, 343, 344, 375, 376
Four-wheel trailers VI, 162

Fourteen-cylinder motors I, 96

Fourth - connecting - rod

wrench VI, 257

Fractional distillates of pe-
troleum I, 111, 121
Frames (see also Index, Vol.

II) II, 154, 155; V, 97;

VI, 235
Franklin car

I, 19, 88, 150, 444; III, 81
Franklin-Dyneto installa-
tion III, 393, 394
Franklin governor IV, 334
Frederic kson aviation '

motor I, 90, 91

Freight truck VI, 1,09

Fresh-oil lubrication V, 401

Friction clutch VI, 17

Friction-disc transmission II, 127
Friction drive VI, 23

Front axles II, 137; VI, 235, 271

Front drives VI, 150

Front hubs, equipping with

Timken bearings VI, 278
Front main bearing VI, 259

Front springs VI, 159

Front-wheel drive II, 126

Front wheels, alignment of VI, 371
Fuel, kinds of I, 110; V, 313, 368

Fuel automatic relief V, 321

Fuel converter. Ensign I, 337

Fuel feeding I, 356

Fuel gages I, 361

Fuel injection I, 242

Fuel knock I, 120

Fuel pump I, 358

Fuel spray I, 248

Fuel system I, 356; V, 205, 211,

213, 319, 367; VI, 358
Fuelizer, Packard I, 318

Full-elliptic springs II, 174, 176

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Full floating axle

II, 228, 229, 233; VI, 174
Fuses II, 369; III, 238, 260, 316;

V, 269; VI, 194
Leece-Neville system IV, 13, 16
North East system IV, 22

Remy system IV, 56

summary of instructions IV, 271
U.S.L. system IV, 97, 107

Fusible plug V, 318, 332

G.E. motor VI, 212, 214

G.E. volt-ammeter VI, 229

G.M.C. delivery wagon' VI, 103

G.M.C. electric wagon VI, 95, 96

G.R.C. wheel II, 275

G.V. delivery wagon VI, 93, 94, 104
G.V. electric truck VI, 111

G.V. industrial truck VI, 109

G.V. tractor VI, 107

Gage pressures I, 66

Gap, spark-plug VI, 265

Garage, public (see also In-
dex, Vol. V) V, 197
Garford internal gear drive VI, 147
Gas-electric transmission VI, 155
Gas-electric trucks VI, 99
Gas forge V, 163
Gas furnace V, 164
Gas friction I, 78, 83
Gas generator I, 334
Gas oil I, 111
Gas speeds I, 90, 384
Gasses, laws of V, 296
Gasket punch IV, 376
Gasoline I, 12, 110, 111
formula I, 121
fuel knock I, 110, 120
grade of I, 110, 111, 258, 347
solid I, 116
supply of I, 116, 117, 248, 298
Gasoline commercial ve-
hicles (see also
Electric commer-
cial vehicles and
trucks) VI, 115

445

INDEX

Vol. Page
Gasoline commercial ve-
hicles (continued)

air cooling, truck VI, 125

Autocar delivery wagon VI, 115

balance gear ^ VI, 149
bevel-gear live axle,

truck VI, 138

brakes VI, 159

carburetor, truck VI, 124
centrifugal governor,

truck VI, 128, 129
clutch, truck VI, 132
compensating gear VI, 149
compensating spring sup-
port VI, 159
cone clutch, truck VI, 132
cooling systems, truck VI, 125
cotta transmission VI, 136
Couple-Gear wheel VI, 150, 157
David Brown worm gear VI, 144
dead axle VI, 139
delivery wagons VI, 115
differential lock, truck VI, 149
distance rods, truck VI, 140
dog clutch, truck VI, 134, 135, 137
double reduction live

axle, truck VI, 146
drive VI, 132, 137

electric front drive VI, 150

electric transmission VI, 155

fans, truck VI, 126

final drive, truck VI, 137

floating-ring clutch VI, 116

four-wheel brake VI, 160
four-wheel drives, army

truck VI, 152

four-wheel trailers VI, 162

front drives VI, 150

front springs VI, 159
Garford internal gear

drive VI, 147
gasoline-electric trans-
mission VI, 155
gear set, truck VI, 132
gilled - tube radiators,

truck VI, 125

governors, truck VI, 128

Note, — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Gasoline conmiercial ve-
hicles (continued)
horsepower ratings VI, 122

hourglass worm gear VI, 144

hydraulic governor, truck

VI, 129, 130
ignition, truck VI, 124

internal cone clutch,

truck VI, 132

internal-gear drive VI, 138, 146, 154
Jeffery "Quad" VI, 153, 154, 160
Jeffery rear axle VI, 148

live axle, truck VI, 138, 146

lubrication, truck VI, 127

Mack transmission VI, 135

Mack internal-gear driv-
en axle, truck VI, 147
Manhattan truck VI, 136
Mercedes internal - gear

drive VI, 147

motor, truck VI, 121

motor governors, truck VI, 128
multiple - disc clutch,

truck VI, 132

oil VI, 127

Packard truck VI, 141

Peerless truck VI, 122, 124, 134
Pierce governor VI, 129, 130

Pierce- Arrow truck

VI, 123, 124, 142, 143
pumps, truck VI, 127

radiator construction,

truck VI, 125

radius rods, truck VI, 140

rear-wheel springs VI, 159

Reo truck VI, 125, 126, 130, 160
S.A.E. horsepower for-
mula , VI, 122
semi-elliptic springs on

trucks VI, 158

shackles VI, 159

side-chain drive, truck VI, 138
silent-chain transmission,

truck VI, 137

sUding-gear transmission,

truck VI, 133

springs VI, 158

446

INDEX

Vol. Page
Gasoline commercial ve-
hicles (continued)
straight worm gear VI, 144

stroke of motor VI, 121

Timken brakes • VI, 160

Timken mounting for

worm gear VI, 144

Timken side-chain drive VI, 139
Torbensen internal-gear

drive VI, 148

torque rods, truck VI, 140

trailers VI, 161

transmission, truck VI, 132

Troy trailer VI, 162

trucks VI, 120

two-wheel trailers VI, 161

useful load VI, 115, 120, 158

vehicle speed controller,

truck VI, 129

water cooling, truck . VI, 125
White delivery wagon VI, 119
White differential VI, 146

White lubricating system VI, 128
White motor VI, 123, 124

White radiator mounting VI, 127
White transmission VI, 133-135
worm drive, truck VI, 138, 141

worm-driven trucks,

transmission VI, 136

Gasoline drainage V, 211

Gasoline line I, 347; VI, 301

Gasoline pressure V, 332, 334

Gasoline pump V, 336

Gasoline-strainer trouble I, 339

Gasoline tanks

I, 347, 356, 360; V, 205, 213
Gassing of battery

Vl, 191, 200, 203, 216

"Gather" of front wheels VI, 278

Gear II, 73

cutting V, 168

faces II, 78

meshing III, 317

pitch II, 78

troubles I, 406; II, 78; IV, 119

types II, 73

Gear covers I, 229, 232

Noie. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Gear drive VI, 174

Gear pullers II, 63; V, 176

Gear pumps I, 437, 455, 456

Gear-reduction (see Drive
and Transmission)
Gear release III, 274

Gear sets
automobile

I, 33, 151; II, 38, 215; III, 226
motorcycles V, 260

trucks VI, 132

Gear-shift IV, 286

(3ear unit VI, 370

(jrearless differential II, 239

General Electric rectifier - IV, 223
(jrenerator (see also Dyna-

motor) II, 384; III,

102, 103, 250, 391; V, 15, 263, 264
Auto-Lite sjrstem

III, 267, 270, 271, 281
Bijur system III, 284

Bosch-Rushmore system

III, 215, 309
connections III, 215

Delco system III, 345

Dyneto system III, 392, 396

Ford system

IV, 152, 159, 171; VI, 322
Gray and Davis system

III, 398, 399, 400; IV, 159, 171
Heinze-Springfield system III, 420
inspection of IV, 16

Leece-Neville system

iv, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21
regulation (see Regula-
tion of generator)
Remy system

III, 103, 104, 204; IV, 47
Sinmis-Huff system IV, 85

Splitdorf system IV, 90

summary of instructions IV, 243
test chart III, 414

tests of IV, 85

troubles III, 425

Wagner system IV, 121

Westinghouse system

III, 103, 105, 213; IV, 139

447

INDEX

Vol. Page

Generator connections III, 215

Generator terminal grounded VI, 347

Generator test chart III, 414

Generator test stand IV, 363

Generator troubles III, 425; VI, 336

Gilled-tube radiators, truck VI, 125

Glare III, 245

Glide car III, 81

Globular worm gear II, 100
Governors I, 51; IV, 334; V,

357; VI, 11, 81, 128

Grabbing clutch II, 32

Grant car III, 81
Grant-Lee three-speed gear

box II, 43
Grant-Lee transmission in-
terlock II, 50
Grant-Remy installation IV, 45
Grant- Wagner installation IV, 124
Graphite as lubricant I, 465
Graphite welding process V, 23
Gravity feed I, 356, 361
Gravity lubrication I, 460
Gravity-return layout II, 323
Gray and Davis starting
and lighting sys-
tem (see also In-
dex, Vol. Ill)

III, 212, 229, 236, 398
Gray and Davis-Ford start-
ing and lighting

system IV, 158

Grease I, 465, 466; V, 211

Grease cups I, 462, 473

Grids IV, 175

Grinders V, 177, 221, 223

Grinding compound V, 128; VI, 260
Grinding operations

I, 183, 390, 403; V, 272

Grinding valves VI, 259
Ground II, 365, 383; III, 113,
126, 250, 259, 281, 359; IV,
35, 85, 125, 136, 354; VI, 168,

339, 345, 347, 352

Ground-return circuit II, 361

Growler armature tester IV, 353

Note. — For page numbera see foot of pages.

Vol. Page

H A L=Remy installation

IV, 49, 133
H A L=Westinghouse in-
stallation IV, 133
Hack saws V, 182, 221
Hackett car, gear box in II, 43
Half-time shafts I, 376
Hall double headlight III, 247
Hall-Scott aviation motor I, 100, 104
Hammering V, 19, 56, 69
Hand grinding V, 177
Hand lapping of cylinders V, 141
Hand lever VI, 359, 363
Hand tools V, 148, 163, 219
Hand wheels, different

forms of II, 116

Hardening steel V, 166, 167

Harley - Davidson motor-
cycle
V, 226, 238, 249, 254, 256, 261, 262
"Harpoon" switch, Ward-
Leonard III, 237
Harris steam-cylinder oil V, 328
Harroun-Remy installation IV, 60
Hart-Parr tractor VI, 33, 344, 401
Hartford brake II, 259
Hartford shock absorber II, 195
Hartford starter III, 234
Haynes car

I, 382; III, 118, 119, 233, 353
Haynes-Leece-Neville sys-
tem IV, 13, 14, 17
Haynes-Remy installation IV, 46
Haywood vulcanizer II, 317
Headlight reflectors III, 244
Headlights VI, 353
Heat efficiency of motor V, 402
Heat transformation V, 298
Heat transmission V, 293
Heat treatment of metals V, 165, 175
Heat units of fuels

I, 112, 114, 115, 117; V, 298
Heating the charge

I, 242, 245, 342, 351; V, 380
Heating effect of current II, 368

Heating of motor I, 446

448

INDEX

Vol. Page
Heating system of garage V, 210
Heavier fuels

1, 113, 117, 241, 249, 253; VI, 303
carburetors for I, 275, 277, 325

hot-spot manifold I, 352

Heavy-type transmissions VI, 26, 30
Heider cooling system V, 405

Heider tractor VI, 21, 23

Heinze-Springfield starting
and lighting sys-
tem (see also In-
dex, Vol. Ill) III, 420
Hele-Shaw clutch II, 21
Helical gear differential II, 238
Helicoidal worm gear II, 100
Henderson motorcycle

V, 239, 240, 251, 257, 258
Herz automatic coupling III, 70
Herz magneto III, 70, 71

Herz spark plug III, 29

Heussler alloys II, 372

High gear VI, 363, 365

High-speed motors

III, 120; V, 230, 253; VI, 27
High-speed steel, hardening V, 167
High - tension armatures,
testing (see Arma-
tures, testing)
High-tension cables

II, 361; III, 92, 97; VI, 265, 311
High-tension coils, testing IV, 316
High-tension currents

V, 415; VI, 311
High-tension ignition III, 11, 14,

15, 22, 37, 137; V, 417, 424
High-tension magnetos

III, 33, 35, 39; IV, 312; V. 262
High-tension spark plug III, 26
Hindley worm gear II, 100

Hinkley truck hot-spot

manifold I, 353

Hoadley four-wheel drive II, 131
Hoists I, 162

Holley carburetor I, 266, 272,

325, 326; V, 388; VI, 301, 303
HoUier car III, 81

Note. — For pagf numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Hollier-Atwater-Kent in-
stallation IV, 93
Hollier-Splitdorf installa-
tion IV, 93
Holmes car I, 19, 88
Holt motor V, 439, 441
Holt tractor VI, 20, 22, 33, 38, 39
Homer Laughlin car II, 126; III, 82
Hoover shock absorber II, 196
Horizontal carburetors

I, 252, 265, 352
Horizontal ignition, West-

inghoiise IV, 329

Horizontal motors I, 18; V, 437

Horns III, 240; VI, 357

Horsepower and rating cal-
culations (see also
Index, Vol. I) I, 123;
II, 356; V, 230, 299; VI, 66, 122
Hot-air pipe VI, 302

Hot riveting V, 160

Hot-spot manifold I, 352

Hotchkiss drive II, 180, 227

Hourglass worm gear VI, 144

Housings II, 236

Hoyt magnetometer III, 134

Hoyt testing volt-ammeter III, 128
Huber tractor VI, 36, 37

Hudson car I, 271, 395; III, 82
Hudson-Delco installation III, 354
Hudson Super-Six engine III, 227
Hunting of governor VI, 16

Hupp car III, 83

Hupp-Bijur installation

III, 291, 292, 300

Hupp-Westinghouse instal-
lation IV, 135, 137
Hyatt roller bearings I, 476
Hydraulic brakes II, 251, 260
Hydraulic clutch II, 22
HydrauHc governor VI, 129, 130
Hydraulic shock absorbers II, 201
Hydraulic transmission II, 56
Hydrometer

IV, 183, 200, 237; VI, 207, 367

449

INDEX

Vol. Page
I
I-beam frame II, 156

I-beam section of front axle II, 145
l-head cylinder I, 167, 174

Idling adjustment of car-
buretors I, 258, 264, 307, 327
Ignition (see also Index,
Vol. Ill, and sep-
arate Index of
Wiring Diagrams,
Vol. VI) I, 28, 31, 49,
75, 149; III, 11; IV, 72, 321;

V, 264, 273, 407; VI, 124
Atwater-Kent system

III, 106; IV, 321
Bijur system III, 307

Bosch system

III, 48, 53, 75, 315; IV, 129, 339
Ck)nnecticut system

III, 109, 111; IV, 134, 144, 147
Delco system II, 403; III, 102,
115, 117, 122, 123, 299, 353,

370; IV, 149
Ford system III, 54, 56, 57,

134, 187; VI, 237, 312
Remy system

III, 50, 52, 112, 302; IV, 242

repairs IV, 321

Ignition coils VI, 312, 321

Ignition current

amperage of VI, 314, 317

path of . VI, 319

voltage of VI, 311, 314, 316

Ignition distributor and

engine crankshaft III, 72
Ignition and lighting switch VI, 354
Ignition relay III, 119, 121

Ignition switch III, 114

Ignition switchboard IV, 368

Ignition timing III, 59, 65, 71,

73, 77; V, 421; VI, 364
Ignition troubles, similarity
to carburetor
troubles VI, 299

Illinois tractor VI, 18, 20

Impeller I, 438

Impulse starter IV, 338, 342; V, 432

Note. — For page numbere see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Incandescent lamps III, 242

Independent regulation III, 215

Indian motorcycle

V, 255, 256, 258, 263, 264
Indicated horsepower

I, 83, 123, 124, 127
Indicating battery cutout . IV, 12
Indicating instruments VI, 229

Indicator I, 51; IV, 12, 55, 77, 97

Indicator cards (see also In-
dex; Vol. I)
1, 51, 66, 70, 79, 83, 84; V, 306, 309
Individual clutch II, 38

Induction II, 377, 411; III, 32

Induction coU III, 11, 20, 31,

38, 60, 178, 190, 251, 253; IV,
316; V, 264, 417; VI, 312, 321
Inductor magneto III, 39; V, 424
Industrial truck VI, 109

Inflation of tires VI, 228

Inherent regulation III, 213;

IV, 96, 97, 98, 102, 103, 121
Initial compression V, 353

Inlet cam I, 378

Inlet manifold (see Intake

manifold)
Inlet manifold of radiator VI, 253
Inlet-pipe trouble I, 340

Inlet valves and ports I, 78, 81,
149, 380, 406; V, 244, 249;

VI, 261, 372
Inner tube II, 291, 327

Inside casing forms II, 321

Inside method of repairing

blowout II, 332

Inside and outside method
of repairing blow-
out II, 333
Inspection
of generator IV, 16
of motor I, 338
Installing new battery IV, 217
Insulation II, 360, 377; III, 98;

V, 410; VI, 311, 341
Kerite III, 99

Intake manifold

I, 147, 242, 347; V, 279

450

INDEX

Vol. Page
Intake manifold (continued)
backfire in VI, 299, 301

removing VI, 255

Intake stroke I, 14, 66, 70, 155;

V, 244, 245, 352; VI, 241
Internal - combustion en-
gines

I, 11; V, 244; VI, 244, 246
Internal cone clutch, truck VI, 132
Internal cooling and scav-
enging I, 444
Internal-expanding brakes II, 251, 252
Internal-gear drive

II, 232; VI, 138, 146, 154
Internal-gear driven axle VI, 146
Internal lubrication I, 448

Internal short-circuit

IV, 176, 186, 187, 196, 197, 198
Internal thread V, 148

Interrupter III, 19, 44, 106, 108,

109, 114, 120, 122, 174
Interstate car III, 83

Interstate-Remy installation IV, 53
Inverted Lemoine front axle II, 141
Iron, specific resistance II, 359

Ironclad field magnets II, 396

Isothermal compression I, 73

Vol. Page

J-D spark plugs
J.H.S. shock absorber
Jack

Jackson car
Janney-Williams gear
Jamo taper

III, 25

II, 197

II, 241

III, 83

II, 56

V, 156

Jeffery car II, 131, 202; III, 83, 207
JefiFery-Bijur system

III, 257, 288, 290, 297, 298
Jeffery "Quad" VI, 153, 154, 160

Jeffery rear axle VI, 148

Johnson carburetor I, 305

Joints, types of V, 59, 64, 79

Jordan-Bijur system III, 287

Joule's law II, 368

Jumper IV, 19

Jupiter aviation motor I> 94, 95

N<Ae. — For page numbers tee foot of pagea.

K-W interrupter III, 41

K-W magneto III, 39, 40, 42; V, 424
K-W road smoother II, 196

Keeper of magnet IV, 319, 321

Kempshall tire tread II, 287

Kerite insulation III, 99

Kerosene I, 110, 111, 113

carburetors for

I, 325; V, 381, 384, 385

fuel knock I, 121

Keyseating, hand V, 156

Kick-up frame II, 154, 157

Kick starter V, 256

Kilowatt-hour II, 357

King car I, 377; II, 178; III, 76, 84
King-Bijur installation III, 286

King-Bugatti aviation

motor I, 99, 279

Kingston carburetor

I, 265, 274; VI, 237, 301
Kissel automobile III, 84

Kissel starting and lighting

system IV, 54

Kissel-Delco installation III, 357
Klaxon horn III, 240

Kline car III, 84

Knife switehes III, 236

Knight motor I, 157, 375, 378, 416
Knocking I, 120, 159, 160, 446;

V, 271; VI, 80, 303, 364
Knox tractor II, 182, 260

Krit - North - East instal-
lation IV, 25, 26

L-head cylinder

I, 167, 172, 395; VI, 241
LaFayette car I, 372; II, 70

Lag of valve V, 364

Laminated contact switeh III, 237
Lamp testing outfit

III, 261, 360, 361, 363
Lamps II, 369; III, 242, 402; IV, 222
Lap weld V, 59, 64

Lapping operations

1, 183, 214, 225; V, 136, 141

451

INDEX

Vol. Page
Late spark X, 81; III, 60, 71; VI, 365
Latent heat V, 300

Lathe V, 183, 220, 223

Laughlin joint II, 127

Lead burning IV, 211; V, 91

Lead-plate storage battery

IV, 22, 174
Lead sulphate IV, 178

Lead of valve V, 308, 364

Lean mixture I, 119, 346, 347

Leeoe-Neville starting and

Ughting system

(see also Index,

Vol. IV)

III, 233; IV, 13, 14, 17
Lemoine front axle II, 137, 138, 140
Lens-type reflector III, 244

Lever control V, 276

Lever-operated braking sys-
tem II, 256
Lexington-Howard car III, 84
Lexington - Westinghouse

installation IV, 134

Leyland steam truck V, 293

Liberty car III, 84

Liberty-Delco installation III, 358
Liberty fuel I, 117

Liberty motor I, 103, 104, 106

Lighting
of cars

III, 242; IV, 72, 279; VI, 353
of garages V, 207

Lighting and ignition

switches VI, 354

Lighting switches III, 234, 407

Limiting relay IV, 22

Lines of force II, 375

Linkages V, 311

Litharge IV, 175

Live axle VI, 37, 138, 146

Local wedge demoimtable

rim II, 298

Locomobile brake drum II, 259

Locomobile car III, 84, 229

Locomobile clutch II, 20

Locomobile connecting rods I, 203
Locomobile cylinder I, 167, 168

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Locomobile lubrication
Locomobile pistons
Locomobile springs
Locomobile transmission
Locomobile valves

Vol. Page

I, 463

I, 191

II, 185

II, 45

I, 19, 382

Locomobile - Westinghouse

installation IV, 132

Loose connections

IV, 15, 16, 60; VI, 222, 224
Low cells IV, 188; VI, 208

Low gear VI, 25, 364, 365

Low-speed drum VI, 267, 269

Low-speed motor VI, 27

Low-tension currents V, 415

Low-tension ignition sys-
tem
III, 11, 13, 20, 135; V, 416, 420
Low-tension magneto III, 33

Low-tension wires, insulat-
ing VI, 311
Low-water automatic valve V, 326
Lubrication (see also Index,

Vol. I) I, 150, 448; VI,
43, 127, 221, 238, 291, 349
brakes II, 259

clutches II, 18, 27

drills V, 147, 182

Ford VI, 238, 291

general I, 464; VI, 291

motor I, 448; VI, 291

motorcycles V, 249, 254, 274, 288
rear axles II, 241

springs II, 189, 190

steam automobiles

V, 313, 332, 334
steering-gear assembly II, 126

tractors V, 391

transmissions II, 53, 72

M&S differential

II,

238

McFarlan car

III,

McLaughlin - Remy in-

stallation

IV,

Machine processes

173

Machine tools

220

Mack transmission

VI,

135

452

INDEX

Vol. Page
Madison car III, 85

Magnet
charging III, 132; IV, 321

Ford magneto III, 64, 134;

IV, 307, 308; VI, 244, 316, 372

keeper IV, 319, 321

materials IV, 319

strength, loss in IV, 319

testing IV, 320

Magnetic break IV, 314, 316

Magnetic clutch II, 24

Magnetic controller VI, 184

Magnetic meridian II, 371

Magnetic permeability II, 377

Magnetic spark plugs III, 27

Magnetic substances II, 372

Magnetically operated

switches III, 237

Magnetism (see also Index,

Vol. II) II, 370; VI, 311
Magneto (see also Index,

Vol. Ill) II, 390; ni,
16, 32; V, 262, 274, 414, 416,

420, 424

Ford (see Ford magneto)

polarization of IV, 312

repairs IV, 331

test stand for IV, 361

Magneto breaker IV, 331, 339

Magneto generator V, 264

Magneto ignition systems,

repairs IV, 331

Magneto terminal VI, 320

Magneto-t3T)e interrupter

III, 109, 115
Magnetometer III, 134

Main bearings, adjusting VI, 258
Mais internal-gear driven

axle VI, 147

* ' Make-and-break ' ' igniter I, 49
Make-and-break plugs

III, 16, 421, 423
Male clutch member II, 12, 33

Malleable-iron welding V, 77

Manhattan truck VI, 136

Manifold
exhaust I, 149, 424; VI, 255

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Manifold (continued)

intake I, 147, 242, 347; V, 279;

VI, 255, 299, 301
Manly truck, shackle on II, 188

Manograph I, 54

Manograph cards I, 79

Marion-Handley car III, 85

Marion - Handley - Westing-
house installation IV, 150
Marlin-Rockwell aviation

motor I, 92, 93

Marmon car

II, 141, 162, 181; III, 85
Marmon 1920 chassis I, 148
Marmon crankcase I, 228
Marmon cylinders I, 174
Marmon lubrication I, 455, 457
Marmon manifold I, 351
Marmon 1920 motor I, 144
Marmon piston I, 189, 190
Marmon- Bosch- Rushmore

installation III, 314

Marvel carburetor I, 296

Master camshaft I, 390

Master carburetor I, 277, 329

Master relay IV, 22, 31, 32

Master vibrator III, 21; IV, 317
Maxwell car III, 86

Maxwell-Gray and Davis

installation III, 405

Maxwell-Simms-Huff in-
stallation IV, 80, 81, 83, 84
Mazda lamps III, 242

Mea magneto

III, 65, 67, 68; IV, 347, 349
Mean effective pressure I, 124, 127
Mechanical efficiency I, 124, l26
Mechanical equivalent of

heat V, 299

Mechanical lag III, 12

Mechanical stress III, 98

Mechanically operated

spark plug III, 12

Melting point * V, 44

Mercedes internal - gear

drive VI, 147

Mercer car III, 86

453

INDEX

Vol. Page
Mercer - Bosch - Rushmore

installation III, 312, 313

Mercer-U.S.L. installation

III, 315; IV, 106, 107
Mercury-arc rectifiers

IV, 223; VI, 197, 212
Mercury aviation motor I, 95, 96
Merkel motor bicycle V, 235
Metallic welding process V, 23
Metals

properties of V, 44

welding V, 53, 69, 77, 78, 82, 84
Meters VI, 231

Metric plugs III, 29

Metz final drive II, 224

Mica undercutting machine IV, 356
Micrometer V, 139

Micrometer fit, filing to V, 124

Midco electrical system.

V, 264, 266, 268
Middle main bearing VI, 258

Midgley indicator I, 59

Mileage of vehicles VI, 90, 111, 224
Militaire car III, 86

Militaire motorcycle V, 240

Miller carburetor I, 279, 329

Milling V, 193, 223

Milling cutters V, 193

Misfiring I, 345; III, 58; IV, 312
Mitchell car III, 86

Mitchell-Splitdorf installa-
tion IV, 94
Mixing chamber I, 250
Mixture, explosive

I, 74, 110, 112, 119, 341; V, 372
Molecule I, 120

Molinecar > III, 86

Moline tractor

V, 398, 441, 442; VI, 19, 20
Moline-Knight motor

I, 375, 419; III, 227
Monroe car I, 388; III, 86

Moon car , III, 86

Moon-Deteo installation

III, 365, 366
Morse tapers V, 146

Motor, electric VI, 166, 171

JVote. — For page nunUttira tee foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Motor, gasoline I, 11, 147, 155,
159, 283; II, 397; III, 220,

250; VI, 91, 121
. automobile I, 18, 86; V, 292, 309
explosion motors I, IT

failure of IV, 21; VI, 372

knocks in I, 120, 159, 160, 446;

V, 271; VI, 80, 303, 364
lacks power VI, 374

lubrication I, 448; VI, 43, 291

motorcycle I, 20; V, 227, 230,

237, 244, 248, 271
noises in VI, 80

operation of VI, 239

overhauling VI, 255

overheats VI, 376

parts of VI, 48

preparing to run VI, 266

nms irregularly VI, 374

speed vs. weight VI, 25

starting VI, 359

stops suddenly VI, 364, 376

temperature VI, 245, 295

tractor V, 351, 357, 435

troubles W, 67

Motor fuels 1,110,116

Motor-generator

II, 401; IV, 223; VI, 197
Motor governors VI, 11, 81, 128

Motor suspension, delivery

wagon VI, 91

Motorboat horsepower

formulas I, 133

Motorcycles (see also In-
dex, Vol. V.) V, 227
Muffler V, 287
Multi-cylinder motors

I, 156, 253, 388, 454
Multiple circuit II, 363

Multiple connections VI, 188

Multiple disc clutch

II, 13, 16, 70; VI, 20, 132
Multiple gap IV, 314, 318

Multiple-nozzle carbure-
tors I, 254, 277, 279
Multiple valves I, 243, 385; V 366
Multipolar field magnets II, 396

454

INDEX

Multi-vibrator
Murray car

Vol. Page
III, 21
III, 86

Vol. Page

Naphtha I, 111

Naphthalene I, 110, 111, 115

Napier Lion aviation motor I, 109
Nash-Delco system III, 369

National bus V, 293

National car

I, 168, 350, 424; III, 86, 370
National-Bijur installation III, 299
National-Remy installation IV, 60, 71
National-Westinghouse in-
stallation IV, 149
Needle assembly of under-
cutting machine IV, 359
Needle valve I, 246, 272, 339, 346,

347; V, 371; VI, 301
Negative storage-battery
plate

IV, 175, 177, 178, 179, 197
Nelson-U. S. installation IV, 111

Neutral flame V, 18, 35, 54

Newcomb carburetor I, 292

Nilmelior magneto III, 66

Nilson tractor VI, 33

Nine-cylinder motors I, 95, 96

Non-alignment of axles VI, 220

Non-alignment of wheels VI, 219

Nonconductors (see also In-
sulation) II, 360
Non-magnetic materials II, 372, 377
Non-return layout of tire

repair equipment II, 323
Non^kid tires II, 287; VI, 225

Non-vibrator coil III, 22, 37

Non-vibrator high-tension

ignition system III, 22
North East starting and
lighting system
(see also Index,
Vol. IV)

III, 228, 233, 234; IV, 22, 327
North way cone clutch II, 43

Northway motor II, 43

Northway three-speed

transnussion II, 43

Note. — For page numberB see foot of pages.

Oakland car II, 43; III, 87, 119, 214
Oakland-Delco installation

III, 345, 373, 374
Oakland-Remy installation

IV, 60, 63, 65
Ofeldt fuel feed V, 328

Ohio magnetic controller

VI, 184, 186, 187
Ohm II, 355; V, 409; VI, 309

Ohm's law II, 355

Oil I, 465, 466, 469; V, 254, 275,

328, 398

circulation of VI, 295

correct level of VI, 293

draining VI, 254

viscosity of VI, 297

Oil cups I, 462

Oil drainage V, 211, 213

Oil film in cylinder VI, 298

Oil furnace V, 165

Oil-Pull tractor

V, 400, 420, 436, 437; VI, 32
Oil pumps I, 150, 455; V, 214, 254, 327
Oil reservoir VI, 293

Oil troughs VI, 293, 296

Oilless bearings I, 475

Oilzum steam- cylinder oil V, 328
Olds-Delco installation III, 377, 378
Oldsmobile car III, 87, 102

One-cyUnder motor I, 39

One-wire systems V, 268

Open circuit II, 362; III, 127, 362;
IV, 15, 354; V, 288; VI, 341,

343, 344, 353
Open-circuit readings

valueless IV, 199, 236

Open-circuited armature

coils III, 380

Open-circuited field coils III, 382, 386
Operation of Ford VI, 357

charging system VI, 366

control levers - VI, 359

cooling system VI, 365

preliminary inspections VI, 357
speed control VI, 363

starting the motor VI, 359

465

INDEX

Vol. Page
Orem air cleaner V, 395

OsciUograph diagrams III, 64

Otto four-stroke cycle I, 12, 66, 70
Ours car (French) ,

clutch on II, 20

Outlet manifold of radiator VI, 253

Outside lap V, 307

Over-rich mixture III, 25

Overcharging battery VI, 106, 210

Overhauling battery IV, 205

Overhauling the car VI, 252

cleaning car VI, 252

draining oil VI, 254

identification of parts VI, 253

overhauling front-axle

system VI, 271

overhauUng motor VI, 255

overhauling rear-axle

assembly VI, 284

overhauling transmission VI, 266

removing radiator VI, 253

Overhauhng motorcycle V, 280

Overhead valve I, 409; V, 244

Overhead welding V, 41

Overhead worm VI, 142

Overland car I, 391, 438, 449, 457;

II, 141, 183, 202; III, 92, 229,

237, 271
Overloads VI, 66, 169

Oversize pistons VI, 258

Oversize tires, use of II, 289

Oversize valves VI, 262

Owen Magnetic car II, 57, 252

Oxidation (see Oxy-acety-
lene welding. In-"
dex. Vol. V)
Oxidizing flame V, 18, 36

Oxy-acetylene cutting V, 86

Oxy-acetylene lead burning V, 91
Oxy-acetylene welding (see

also Index, Vol. V) V, 11
Oxygen V, 13, 109

Oxygen-adding devices I, 324

Oxygen process of removing

carbon I, 175; V, 95

Oxygen volumes, factors

for correcting V, 110

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
P
Packard car I, 408, 440; III, 87,

207, 237, 238
Packard carburetor I, 240, 316

Packard fuelizer I, 318

Packard motor I, 45, 104, 106, 227, 228
Packard truck VI, 141

Packard-Bijur installation

III, 208, 305, 307, 308; IV, 172
Packard-Delco installation IV, 172
Paige-Detroit car III, 87

Paige-Gray and Davis in-
stallation III, 405
Paige-Remy installation IV, 57, 58
ParaboUc reflector III, 244
Parallel circuit II, 363
Parker pressed-steel wheels II, 279
Parker rim-locking device II, 310
Parrett air cleaner I, 334; V, 390
Parrett motor V, 440, 442
Pasted plates IV, 175
Patches on tires II, 319, 327
Pathfinder car III, 88
Pathfinder-Delco installa-
tion III, 383
Patterson car III, 88
Pedals, clutch II, 25, 36
Peening V, 172
Peerless car 1, 426; II, 45, 231, 253;

III, 88, 229
Peerless truck VI, 122, 124, 134

Peerless-Gray and Davis

installation III, 403, 404, 405
Perlman rim patents II, 306

Permanent magnets II, 373, 390

Peroxide of lead IV, 175, 177, 178
Petrol-electric drive II, 56

Petroleum, number of bar-
rels produced I, 116
Petroleum products

I, 111, 117, 121, 277; V, 369
Peugeot cam mechanism I, 389

Philadelphia storage-bat-
tery grid IV, 175
Pierce governor VI, 13, 129, 130
Pierce- Arrow car I, 19, 314, 449;

II, 259; III, 88, 100, 207

456

INDEX

Vol. Page
Pierce-Arrow truck VI, 123, 124,

142, 143
Pierce- Arrow- Westinghouse

instaUation IV, 130, 131, 353
Pilot car III, 89

Pilot-Delco installation III, 384

Pilot light V, 315,322, 330

Pinion gear VI,- 288

Piston and accessories I, 45, 75, 81,
147, 190; V, 135, 243, 248,

281; VI, 56, 242
Piston rings I, 81, 147, 191, 195,

201; V, 135; VI, 242
Piston slap I, 122, 179; VI, 258

Piston travel I, 66; III, 60

Pitottube I, 302

Pittsfield multi-vibrator

coil III, 21

Plain bearings I, 474; II, 147

Plain cables III, 99

Plain rims II, 292

Plain-tube carburetors I, 254

Planer V, 194

Planetary gear II, 38, 54; III, 227;

IV, 114; V, 260; VI, 246
Planetary steering gear VI, 252

Planimeter I, 124

Plants storage battery IV, 177

Plate clutch II, H; VI, 18, 20

Platform springs II, 174, 177

Pleasure-car steering wheels II, 117
Pleasure-car wheels II, 266, 268

Plowing, demands on trac-
tor VI, 11
Plug (see Spark plug)
Plunger pumps I, 438, 455, 456
Pneumatic brakes II, 251
Pneumatic shifting system II, 53
Pneumatic tires II, 285; VI, 107, 225
Polarity of charging term-
inals VI, 200
Polarity of magnet II, 373
Polarization of high-tension

magnetos IV, 312

Poppet valves I, 373, 378

Porcelain of spark plug VI, 321

Port Huron tractor VI, 28, 30

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Portable voltammeter III, 264

Ports of motor I, 78, 81; V, 246

Positive plate of battery

IV, 175, 177, 178, 179, 197
Potential II, 354

"Pounding** a battery VI, 211

Power II, 382

Power-driven tools V, 220

Power formula II, 357

Power losses VI, 218, 224

Power output I, 86, 89; VI, 25, 26, 27
Power plant VI, 237

Power-plant accessories VI, 237

Power stroke I, 14, 69, 77, 155;

V, 244, 245, 354, 355; VI, 240, 241
Power transmitted by

clutch, increasing II, 20
Pratt & Whitney taper V, 155

Pre-compression I, 84

Preheating air I, 342, 344

Preheating in welding V, 50

Preignition I, 73, 120, 332

Premier car II, 188; III, 89

Premier-Delco installation III, 389
Press fits V, 175, 189, 190

Pressed-steel axles II, 145

Pressed-steel frame II, 156, 158, 161
Pressed-steel wheels II, 279

Pressure V, 297, 301

in gas engine

I, 68, 73, 77; V, 355; VI, 245

in steam engine V, 307

Pressure-circulated lubrica-

cation I, 451, 460; V, 400
Pressure feed I, 357

Pressure ratio I, 76

Pressure-time synchronizer I, 63
Pressure-volume sychron-

izer I, 64

Primary batteries III, 16

Primary circuit V, 425

Primary current III, 11

Primary winding VI, 313, 315

Princess car III, 89

Progressive gears II, 39

Prony brake I, 125

formula I, 126

457

INDEX

Vol. Page
Protective devices

111,218,258, 311,331
Public garage (see Garage,
public, Index,
Vol. V)
Pullman car III, 89

Pumps I, 437, 446; VI, 127

Punctures II, 327

Push rods and guides

I, 394, 410; IV, 373

Q.D. tire and rim II, 287, 292

Quenching V, 66

Quick-detachable rims II, 287, 292

R.A.C. horsepower formula I, 132, 142
R.P.M. of motors (see Avia-
tion motors. In-
dex, Vol. I)
Racing-boat horsepower

formulas I, 133

Racing-type carburetor I, 279

Radial brushes IV, 103

Radial-load bearings II, 147

Radial motors I, 43, 88, 89, 94, 95, 96
Radiation V, 294

Radiatometer VI, 366

Radiators I, 150, 433, 445, 446;

V, 405; VI, 125, 253
Radius rod II, 226; VI, 140, 221,

273, 275, 276, 286
Radius-rod ball socket VI, 276

Railway car transmissions II, 53
Railway-type brake II, 251

Rain water for cooling sys-
tem VI, 357
Rainer car, shackle on II, 188
Ratchet reversing switch IV, 56
Rating of motors 1, 123, 132, VI, 66
Rauch and Lang car VI, 177, 182
Raulang electric coach VI, 164
Rayfield carburetor I, 15, 285
Reading-Standard cone

clutch V, 259, 260

Reamer grinder V, 178

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Reaming V, 151

Rear axles (see also Index,

Vol. II) II, 215; VI, 92,

237, 248, 284
Rear axle gears VI, 370

Rear-end construction II, 167

Rear main bearing VI, 259

Rear-wheel springs VI, 159

Reassembling (see Assem-

bUng) V, 126

Rebabbitting bearings V, 126

Reboring the cyUnders VI, 258

Rebushing VI, 369

Recharging magnets III, 131 ; IV, 308
Rectifiers VI, 223

Rectifying alternating cur-
rent VI, 197
Red lead IV, 175
Reducing flame V, 18, 36
Refacing valves VI, 260
Reflectors III, 244
Regal car III, 72, 89
Regal - Heinze - Springfield

installation III, 421

Regulation of generator III, 211,

226, 395; V, 266; VI, 325
Auto-Lite system III, 270

Bijur system III, 284

Bosch-Rushmore sjrstem III, 309
constant-current gen-
erator III, 211
constant voltage gen-
erator III, 216
Delco system III, 213, 214, 324,

328, 346, 355
Dyneto system III, 392

Gray and Davis system III, 399, 402
Heinze-Springfield sys-
tem 111,422,426
independent controllers III, 215
inherently controlled

generator III, 213

Leece-Neville system IV, 11

North East system IV, 22, 28

Remy system IV, 47, 56

reverse-current relays III, 218

Simms-Huff system IV, 77, 82, 85

458

INDEX

Vol. Page
Regulation of generator
(continued)
Splitdorf system IV, 88

summary of instructions IV, 247
third-brush method III, 213,

214, 328, 355; V, 266; VI, 325
U.S.L. system IV, 96

voltage regulator III, 285, 324

Wagner system IV, 111, 121

Westinghouse system IV, 135, 139
Westinghouse voltage

regulators IV, 349; V, 29,

31, 89, 93, 111
Regulator

III, 420; V, 29, 31, 89, 93, 111
Regulator-cutout III, 392, 396, 402, 426
Relay, ignition III, 119, 121

Reliance spark plug III, 25

Remy generator III, 103, 104, 204
Remy ignition system

III, 50, 62, 112, 302; IV, 242
Remy magneto III, 49, 60, 52, 54

Remy magneto contact

breaker III, 33

Remy non-vibrator ooil III, 23
Remy reverse-current relay III, 219
Remy starting and lighting
system (see also
Index, Vol. IV) III, 204,

236; IV, 47, 133
Renault radiator I, 436

Reo car I, 36, 213, 437; II, 169,

253; III, 90, 231
Reo truck VI, 125, 126, 130, 160

Reo-Remy installation

IV, 60, 67, 68, 69
Repairs (see Trouble shoot-
ing)
Resistance, electrical II, 355, 358,

366, 368, 381 1 III, 250; VI, 190
Resistance unit III, 117

Retard of spark

III, 59, 73, 77; VI, 365
Retarded spark

I, 81; III, 60, 71; VI, 366
Retreading II, 334

Retreading vulcanizers II, 322

Note. — For page numbera 9ee foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Reversal of generator VI, 336, 347
Reversal of magnetism

IV, 313, 314, 316
Reverse-current relays III, 218

Reverse drum VI, 267, 269, 369

Reverse series-field winding IV, 139
Reverse-speed pedal VI, 363

Reversed Elliott front axle

II, 137, 138, 146
Rheostat VI, 190

Rich mixture I, 119, 346; V, 372
Rim-cut repair II, 333

Rim-locking device II, 310

Rims of tires (see also In-
dex, Vol. II) II, 292, 347
Ring armature winding II, 389
Ring gear I, 34; V, 161; VI, 288
Riveting V, 168
Rivets and steel plates,

proportions V, 160

Roberts horsepower formu-
las I, 133, 134
Roberts motor with rotary

valve I, 423

Roller bearings I, 475, 478; II, 147,

148; VI, 278, 285, 289

Roller-chain drive

Roller clutch

Roller contact timer

Rope drives

Ross car

Rotary motors

Rotating valves

Round-type switches

Royal Automobile Club
(England), report
on Knight engine

Rumely transmission

"Running in" motors

II, 224

III, 233

III, 19

II, 66

III, 90

I, 88, 90, 92, 96

I, 376, 422

VI, 354

I,
VI,

418

134

S.A.E. horsepower formula

I, 132, 142; VI, 122
S.A.E. keyseat sizes V, 156, 157

S.A.E. spark plug III, 29; V, 270
S.A.E. standard oversizes I, 183

S.A.E. standard thread V, 148

459

INDEX

Vol. Page
Safety devices, delivery

wagons VI, 105

Safety gap III, 37, 130

Safety spark gap V, 419

Safety valve V, 326

Sand blisters II, 331

Sanding-in brushes

rV, 103, 111; VI, 223, 327, 340
Sandusky tractor VI, 36

Sangamo ampere-hour

meter VI, 205, 230, 232

Saturated steam V, 302

Saxon car III, 90

Saxon-Wagner installation

IV, 109, 110
Scale method of testing

magnets IV, 320

Scale prevention V, 333

Scavenging I, 71, 85

Schebler carburetor I, 299

Schwartz wheel II, 270

Scissors-action brake II, 251

Scripps-Booth car I, 457; III, 90, 114
Scripps-Booth-Bijur instal-
lation III, 291, 294, 295, 304
Scripps»Booth-Remy instal-
lation IV, 70
Scripps-Booth- Wagner in-
stallation IV, 126
Secondary circuit V, 426
Secondary current III, 12; VI, 313
Secondary flame V, 34
Selective sUding gears

II, 39, 41; VI, 36
Self-excited fields 11, 393

Self-hardening steel V, 167

Self-induction II, 378; III, 20

Semi-elliptic springs

II, 174, 175, 182; VI, 158
Semi-floating axle II, 228, 229

Semi-reversible steering

gear II, 113

Semi-socket wrench I, 221, 222

Sensitive drill V, 181

Separators, battery IV, 176, 205, 207
Series charging of battery IV, 222
Series circuit II, 362; V, 413; VI, 188

N(^. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Series control for dimming

headUghts III, 246

Series generator II, 393

Series-multiple circuit II, 363; VI, 189
Series plugs III, 27

Series-wound motor

II, 400; III, 224; VI, 170, 192
Service brake VI, 107, 249, 363

Service mains, charging

current from VI, 196, 212
Service stations, equipment III, 413
Setting of cars (see Valve

timing)
Seven-cylinder motors I, 94

Seven-eighths floating axle II, 228
Shackles II, 188; VI, 159, 283

Shaft brakes II, 251

Shaft and chain drive, de-
livery wagon VI, 96
Shaft drive II, 220; VI, 92
Shaler vulcanizer II, 317
Shaper V, 190
Sharp Spark spark plug III, 28
Sheet-aluminum welding V, 79
Sheet-steel welding V, 56, 61
Sheet-steel wheels ' II, 276
Sheffield Simplex engine,

mount in g of

starter III, 232

Shock absorbers II, 155, 194, 210

Shoe of tire . II, 311

Short-circuit II, 365, 383; III, 126,

359, 379, 385, 388, 410; IV, 16,

21, 85, 127, 174, 176, 181, 183,

312; V, 288,- VI, 168, 339, 341,

343, 346, 352, 354
• storage battery

IV, 174, 176, 181, 183; VI, 202
tests for IV, 312

Short-circuited generator

armature coils III, 380

Short>-circuiting generators IV, 13
Shrink fit V, 190

Shunt II, 364; VI, 192

Shunt circuit II, 363

Shunt-wound generator

II, 394; VI, 327

460

INDEX

Vol. Page
Shunt-wound motor II, 400; VI, 170
Siddeley-Deasy car, canti-
lever spring on II, 178
Side-by-side internal brakes II, 252
Side-chain drive VI, 94, 138
Side cutters V, 193
Side-wall vulcanizer II, 321
Sight feed I, 150
SUent chain J, 377, 408; II, 224;
III, 228, 280; IV, 22, 38;

VI, 91, 137
Silicon steel, use in magneto

armature core IV, 316
Silver, electrical resistance

of II, 358
Simms magneto III, 63
Simms-Huff starting and
lighting system
(see also Index,
Vol. IV) IV, 77
Simplex car III, 90
Simplex governor VI, 12, 13
Singer car III, 90
Single-acting external-con-
tracting brakes II, 251
Single-acting motors I, 16
Single-break interrupter,

testing with IV, 318
Single-cylinder motor

V, 238, 248, 285
Single-drop frame construc-
tion II, 157
Single-spark interrupter III, 106, 109
Single-imit starting and

lighting systems III, 206

Bijur system III, 284

Delco system III, 251, 319

Disco system III, 391

Dyneto system III, 391

North East system IV, 22
Remy system IV, 56, 60

Simms-Huff system IV, 77

Splitdorf system IV, 87

U.S.L. system IV, 95

Wagner system IV, 111

Westinghouse system IV, 135

Note. — For page nuvf^t^^ *w foot of pages.

Vol. Page

Single-wire starting and
lighting systems

II, 359, 361; III, 207, 267
Auto-Lite system III, 267

Bijur system III, 284, 288, 291

Bosch-Rushmore system III, 309
Delco system III, 251, 319, 345

Dyneto system III, 391

Ford system IV, 152

Gray and Davis system III, 398
Heinze-Springfield sys-
tem III, 420
motorcycle installation V, 268
North East system IV, 22, 24, 29
Remy system IV, 47
Sinmis-Huff system IV, 77
Wagner system IV, 122
Westinghouse system IV, 135, 139

Six-cyUnder crankshaft I, 215

Six-cylinder motor

I, 40, 96, 97, 100, 157
manifolds for I, 349

valve timing I, 392, 394

Six-stroke cycle I, 17

Six-volt starting and Ught-
ing systems
Auto-Lite system III, 267

Bijur system III, 284, 288, 291

Delco system III, 319, 345

Disco system III, 391

Dyneto system III, 392

Ford system IV, 152

Gray and Davis system III, 398
Heinze-Springfield sys-
tem III, 420
Leece-Neville system IV, 11
Remy system IV, 47
Splitdorf system IV, 87, 88
U.S.L. system IV, 95, 100
Wagner system IV, 121
Westinghouse system IV, 139

Sixteen-cylinder motors

I, 43, 99, 101, 106, 159

Sixteen-valve engine

I, 243, 385; V, 366

Sixteen-volt sjrstems IV, 22, 26

Slant of front axle VI, 273, 277, 371

461

INDEX

Vol. Page
Sleeve-valves I, 20, 91, 157, 375, 415
Sliding fit V, 175

Sliding gear II, 38, 39, 41; VI, 36, 133
Sliding sleeve I, 20, 91, 157

Sliding valves I, 37^

Slip joints ' II, 218

Slipping clutch

II, 28; III, 212; VI, 18, 365
Slow-burning mixture V, 372

Smalley motor I, 16, 47

Smith motor wheel V, 232, 249, 250
Soft-iron core of electro-
magnet VI, 312
Soils, resistance of V, 351
Soldering V, 133
Solenoids II, 375
Solid tires II, 278; VI, 107, 226
Spark
effect of compression on III, 129
length of IV, 330, 331, 334, 335
retarded I, 81; III, 60, 71; VI, 365
speed of propagation IV, 345
timing

III, 59, 65, 73, 77; V, 421; VI, 364
Spark coil

III, 20, 178; V, 416; VI, !265
Spark control devices III, 18

Spark gap IV, 314, 318

Spark lever 1, 153; II, 120; VI, 359, 364
Spark plug III, 12, 25; V, 270, 274,

419, 429; VI, 264, 321
summary of instructions III, 167
threads of III, 28

troubles III, 129

wires (see High-tension
cables)
Sparking at brushes VI, 340

Spaulding car III, 90

Specific gravity I, 111, 113, 115,
117; IV, 177, 179, 184, 186,

188, 197; VI, 206
Specific heat I, 76; V, 46, 298

Specific resistance of metals II, 359
Speed control VI, 363

Speed of motor (electric) VI, 91, 171
Speed of motor (gas) VI, 25, 27, 91

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Speed reduction (see Drive
and Transmission)
Speed wrench VI, 256

Sphinx car III, 90

Spindles, front-wheel VI, 272

Spinning of clutch ll, 33

Spiral bevel gears for final

reduction II, 223

Spit back in intake mani-
fold VI, 299, 301
Splash lubrication

I, 461; V, 394; VI, 296
Splash-pressure lubrication I, 449
SpUtdorf anuneter V, 268

SpUtdorf controller III, 215

Sphtdorf distributor III, 45

Splitdorf generator III, 217

Splitdorf magneto III, 62

Splitdorf magneto g e n -

erator V, 263, 264

Sphtdorf starting and light-
ing system (see
also Index, Vol. IV) IV, 87
Spongy metalUc lead IV, 175, 177, 178
Spot-welder V, 21

Sprague electric dynamo-
meter I, 128
Spray nozzles (see Needle

valves)
Spring cUps II, 246; VI, 283

Spring drive II, 227

Spring pressure in clutches II, 16
Springs (see also Index,

Vol. II) II, 31, 155; VI, 158,

239, 283, 341
Spur and bevel steering

gear II, 100

Spur differential II, 236

Spur gears for final reduc-
tion II, 222
Square Turn tractor VI, 22, 24
Staggered spokes II, 270
Standard car III, 91
Standardization III, 219, 223
Stanley steam car V, 290, 292,

310, 312, 315, 317, 320
Starter-generator IV, 28, 31 32

462

INDEX

Starting

in cold weather

failure of

speeds
Starting charge

Vol. Page

VI, 359, 364

IV, 226

IV, 72, 92

III, 223

VI, 204

Starting and generating

system VI, 322

Starting and Ughting (see
also Indexes, Vols.
Ill and IV)

III, 205; IV, 11
Auto-Lite system III, 255, 267

Bijur system III, 207, 258, 284

Bosch-Rushmore system III, 309
Delco system

III, 206, 208, 214, 227, 319
Disco system III, 391

Dyneto system III, 206, 391

Ford system IV, 152; VI, 322

Gray and Davis Ford

system IV, 158

Gray and Davis system

III, 212, 229, 236, 398
Heinze - Springfield sys-
tem III, 420
Leece-Neville system IV, 11
North East system IV, 22
Remy system IV, 47
Simms-Huff system IV, 77
Splitdorf system IV, 87
U.S.L. system IV, 95
Wagner system IV, 111
Westinghouse system IV, 135
Starting motor (see also
Dynamotor)

III, 220, 252; VI, 348
Auto-Lite system III, 229, 271, 274
Bijur system III, 288

Bosch-Rushmore system

III, 225, 231, 309, 318
Delco system III, 337, 346, 349

design peculiarities III, 224

Dyneto system III, 396

Ford system IV, 152, 157; VI, 348
Gray and Davis system

III, 229, 399, 401
heat generated in II, 368

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Starting motor (continued)
Heinze - Springfield sys-
tem 111,420,424
Leece-Neville system IV, 12
motor windings and poles III, 224
motorcycle V, 256
Remy system III, 204; IV, 55
SpUtdorf system IV, 91, 92
starting speeds III, 223
summary of instructions IV, 261
test chart III, 418
voltage III, 224
Wagner system

III, 226, 227; IV, 121
Ward-Leonard model

III, 227, 228, 229
Westinghouse system

III, 225, 226, 228; IV, 146
Starting switch

Auto-Lite system III, 274

Delco system III, 235, 349

Ford system VI, 353

Gray and Davis system

III, 236, 402
North-East system IV, 34, 35

ftemy system III, 236

Simms-Huff system IV, 81

SpUtdorf system IV, 88

U.S.L. system IV, 102, 107

Westinghouse system III, 235

"Starving" the motor

I, 341; VI, 299
Static point IV, 317

Stationary vs. automobile

engines I, 46; V, 2.^2, 309
Steam automobiles (see also

Index, Vol. V) V, 291

Steam-cylinder oil V, 328

Steam cut-off V, 305

Steam-engine-type indica-
tor I, 51
Steam gage V, 326
Steam lap V, 307
Steam system V, 323
Steams car I, 215; III, 91
Stearns-Gray and Davis

installation III, 405

463

INDEX

Vol. Page.
Steams-Knight car

I, 20, 167, 453, 457; II, 46
Steams-Remy installation IV, 73, 74
Sted
cleaning IV, 240

cutting V, 87

hardening V, 166, 167

specific resistance II, 359

tempering V, 165

Steel plates and rivets, pro-
portions V, 160
Steel welding V, 63
Steel wheels II, 283
Steering mechanism (see
also Index, Vol.
II) I, 147, 153, 473;
II, 91; VI, 220, 239, 251, 262
Stephen&-Delco installation III, 390
Stephenson link V, 311
Stethoscope, locating noises

by I, 179

Stewart carburetor I, 302

Stewart vacumn feed I, 357

Stopping the car VI, 364

Stopping the motor VI, 364

Storage batteries (see also

Index, Vol. IV) II, 404;
III, 17, 222; IV, 22, 90, 135,
173; V, 263, 269, 273, 288,
414; VI, 165, 195, 199, 224, 367
Storing battery IV, 217

Straight-side tires II, 298

Straight split rim II, 304

Straight worm gear VI, 144

Stranded cables II, 361

Strength of magnet, loss in V, 319
Stroke of motors (see also .
Aviation motors.
Index, Vol. 1) VI, 121

Stromberg carburetor I, 244, 254

Stromberg fuel pmnp I, 358

Structural fram^ II, 156

Studebaker car

II, 12, 47, 232; III, 91
Studebaker cylinders I, 169

Studebaker lubrication I, 450

Studebaker manifold I, 348

Note. — For page numbers tee foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Studebaker radiator I, 433

Studebaker-Remy installa-
tion IV, 75, 123
Studebaker- Wagner instal-
lation IV, 123
Stutz car I, 19, 387; II, 47; III, 91
Stutz-Remy installation IV, 76
Sub-frames II, 159
Suction inlet valve, mano-

graph card I, 82

Suction pressure I, 72

Suction stroke I, 14, 66, 70, 155;

V, 244, 245, 352; VI, 241
Sulphatmg IV, 187, 193, 194

Sulphuric acid

IV, 176, 177, 179, 183, 189
Sun car III, 91

Sunbeam-Coatalen aviation

motor I, 109

Superheated steam V, 302, 308

Superior spark plug III, 27

Surging of governor VI, 16

Sweating V, 135

Switch for ignition switch-
board IV, 370
Switch-pedal operation III, 311
Switchboards
generator test stand IV, 366
ignition IV, 368
Switches (see also Starting

ing8witch)III, 114, 177,
234, 320, 407; IV, 278; VI, 354
Symbols, significance of III, 248

Syringe hydrometer IV, 184

I, 167, 172, 396
II, 367

T-head cylinder
Tables
American wire gage
approximate - constant -
potential boosting
rates VI, 216

aviation motors I, 89

B.& S wire gage II, 367

battery, state of charge

of VI, 368

464

INDEX

Vol. Page
Tables (continued)
boosting rates VI, 213, 215, 216, 217
canying capacity of wires II, 370
characteristics of North

East starting and

lighting apparatus IV, 36
charging voltage for lead

batteries VI, 201

clearance, effects of I, 74

comparative strength of

steel channel aind

laminated w a o d

frames II, 162

constant-current boost-
ing rates VI, 217
current consumption of

Ford starter VI, 350

cutting costs V, 110

drill sizes for standard

threads V, 148

Edison cell data VI, 212, 213

fuels for motors I, 112

keyseat sizes V, 157

Knight engine, report on I, 418
magneto output VI, 372

Morse tapers V, 146

output of early Ford

magneto at vari-

ous speeds VI, 317

Oxygen volumes, factors

for correcting V, 110

properties of metals V, 45

proportioning of weights

in building up

tread II, 335

rivets and steel plates,

proportions V, 160

soils, resistance of V, 351

soldering fluxes V, 133

steel, color at various

temperatures V, 166

steel plates and rivets,

proportions V, 160

temperature of battery VI, 201
temperature correction

for specific gravity

of electrolyte VI, 206

Note. — For page numbert see foot of page*.

Vol. Page
Tables (continued)
test chart for Gray and

Davis generators III, 415
test chart for Gray and
Davis starting mo-
tor III, 417
valve timing of American

cars I, 379

welding costs V, 110

Tacking V, 67, 60

Tail lamp VI, 353

Tailings I, 113

Tanks, welding V, 60, 65

Taper pins V, - 155

Taper roller bearings VI, 176

Tappet clearances V, 279

Tapping V, 147

TeUtale IV, 55

Temperature V, 297, 355

efifect on battery IV, 187, 193,

225, 233, 237; VI, 201, 218
effect on hydrometer

tests IV, 188, 190; VI, 206
effect on oil IV, 227

effect on explosive mix-
ture IV, 227
in motor cylinder

I, 70, 72, 73, 150; VI, 245, 295
effect on spark IV, 227

effect on voltage tests IV, 200

Temperature coefficient II, 359

Temperature correction for
specific gravity of
electrolyte VI, 206'

Temperature regulator I, 273

Tempering steel V, 165

Templar power plant II, 26

Ten-cylinder motors I, 93

Terminal pressure V, 356

Test charts III, 415, 417

Test lamp VI, 344, 352, 353

Test stands
generator IV, 363

magneto IV, 361

Testers, magnet IV, 320

Testing
armatures IV, 316, 354

465

INDEX

Vol. Page

Testing (continued)
charge of battery

VI, 200, 204, 206
field winding IV, 16

Ford magnetos IV, 308, 312

generators IV, 85; VI, 341

Gray and Davis system III, 413
grounds IV, 35, 85, 125, 136

high-tension coils IV, 316

- ignition systems III, 126

magneto V, 424

magnets IV, 320

motors I, 125, 127, 129, 134

open circuits . IV, 354

rate of battery charge IV, 208, 231
rate of battery discharge

IV, 209, 228, 233
short-circuit IV, 16, 21, 85, 127, 312
switch IV, 35
voltage regulator IV, 151

Testing devices III, 258, 261

Thermal conductivity V, 44

Thermal efficiency I, 69; V, 402

Thermodynamics
of explosion motors I, 51

of steam V, > 300

Thermoid-Hardy imiversal

joint II, 217

Thermometers V, 295

Thermosiphon circulation

I, 29, 439; V, 404; VI, 239, 365
Thermostatic devices

I, 439, 464; IV, 48, 326
Thickness gage VI, 263

Thin mixture V, 372

Third brush III, 213, 328, 355;

V, 266; VI, 325
Delco system III, 213, 328, 355
Leece^Neville system IV, 11, 20
Remy system IV, 47, 48, 52
Westinghouse system IV, 135, 142

Thomas car III, 91

Thor light-weight motor-
cycle V, 237

Threads

spark plug III, 28

standard V, 147, 148

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Three-plate clutch II, 15, 16

Three-point suspension II, 159, 183
Three-port two-cycle

engine V, 246

Three-quarter elliptic

springs II, 174, 176

Three-quarter floating axle

II, 228, 229, 235
Three-speed gear

II, 40, 71; V, 238, 261
Three-wheel tractors V, 411

Throttle V, 338; VI, 302, 365

Throttle lever

I, 153; II, 120; VI, 359
Throttle valves I, 245; V, 293

Throttling I, 85

Throttling governor I, 51

Thrust bearings II, 27, 147

Thrust collars VI, 290

Thrust rings, wear of VI, 287

Tie rods II, 124

Tillotson carburetor I, 313

Time factor of induction coil HI, 60
Timer III, 19, 23, 116, 117, 119,

120, 174, 188; VI, 265, 318, 322
Timer wiring VI, 265, 322

Timing

Dixie magneto III, 44

ignition system III, 59, 65,

73, 77; V, 421; VI, 364
K-W inductor magneto III, 40
valves I, 84, 379, 380, 381,

391, 420. 482; V, 283, 293,

363; VI, 372
Timing allowance III, 60

Timing gears I, 406; V, 282, 283,

361; VI, 242, 370
Timken bearings I, 476; VI, 278

Timken brake II, 253

Timken front axle II, 138

Timken mounting for worm

gear VI, 144

Timken rear axle VI, 160

Timken side-chain drive VI, 139

Tires (see also Index, Vol.

II) II, 215, 285; V, 275;

VI, 107, 224

466

INDEX

Vol. Page
Toe-in of front wheels VI, 371

Toggle-action brake II, 251, 253

Tool grinding V, 177, 178

Tools II, 325; V, 164, 185, 219

Torbensen internal gear

drive VI, 148

Torque, securing in gasoline

engine VI, 246

Torque rod II, 215, 224; VI, 140
Torque tube II, 227

Total heat of steam V, 301

Touring switch IV, 98, 193

Track-laying tractor V, 377, 378,

412; VI, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39
Tracklayer motor V, 439, 441

Tractors (see also Index,

VoLV) ' V, 341; VI, 11
automobile practice

VI, 17, 23, 25, 26, 31, 33, 40
auxiliary-type governors VI, 13
Avery transmission VI, 29, 31

bearings VI, 48

belt work, demands of VI, 11
Best tractor VI, 30, 31, 38, 39

bevel friction drive VI, 24

Borg and Beck clutch VI, 19, 20
Buda motor VI, 14, 16

built-in governors VI, 13, 15, 16
bull gears VI, 30, 37

Bullock tractor VI, 14

carburetor VI, 69

care of VI, 39

bearings VI, 48

carburetor VI, 59

control system lubrica-
tion VI, 47
clutch VI, 81
cooling system VI, 63
engine (see motor)
governor VI, 81
horsepower ratings VI, 66
housing for VI, 82
knocks VI, 80
lubrication VI, 43
motor VI, 43, 48, 67, 80
overload of tractor VI, 66
pistons VI, 56

Note. — For page numhere see foot of p<ige8.

Vol. Page
Tractors (continued)
care of

ratings, horsepower VI, 66

transmission VI, 81

valves VI, 51
caterpillar tractor

VI, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39

centrifugal governors VI, 12

clutch VI, 17, 81

cone clutch VI, 18, 22
contracting-band clutch

VI, 18, 22, 33

control system VI, 11, 47

cooling system VI, 63

Cotta transmission VI, 31

creeping-grip tractor VI, 15, 16

differential VI, 30

dog clutch VI, 33

driving wheels, small yi, 28

dry-plate clutch VI, 20
Emerson-Brantingham

tractor VI, 16, 17, 37

engine (see motor)

engine governors VI, 11

expanding-band clutch VI, 18, 21

final drive VI, 37

fly-ball governor VI, 12

Four-Drive tractor , VI, 31

friction clutch VI, 17

friction drive VI, 23

gear-reduction VI, 25

governors, engine VI, 11, 81

hammer VI, 80

Hart-Parr tractor VI, 33

heavy-type transmissions VI, 26, 30

Heider tractor VI, 21, 23

high speed motor VI, 27

Holt tractor VI, 20, 22, 33, 38, 39

horsepower ratings VI, 66

housing for VI, 82

Huber tractor VI, 36, 37

hunting of governor VI, 16

Dlinois tractor VI, 18, 20

knocks VI, 80

Uve axle VI, 37
low-gear, speed reduction

on VI, 25

467

INDEX

Vol. Page

Tractors (continued)

Transformer (see In

iuction

low-speed motor

VI,

coil)

lubrication

VI,

Transformer principle

Moline tractor

VI, 19,

II, 377; VI,

313

motor

Transmission (see also In-

lubrication

VI,

dex, Vol. II) I, 33, 151;

noises in

VI,

II, 38, 215; III

:, 226; VI, 25,

parts of

VI,

81, 132,

172, 244, 246,

266

speed vs. weight

VI,

Transversely split rim II,

300

troubles

VI,

Triple gears

VI, 267, 269,

369

multiple-disc clutch

VI,

Trouble finding outfit I,

130

Nilson tractor

VI,

Trouble shooting

VI, 256, 303,

372

Oil-Pull tractor

VI,

automobile

V, 86, 97,

328

operation

VI,

axles

151

overload of tractor

VI,

Bendix drive

III,

425

Pierce governor

VI,

brakes

II,

261

pistons

VI,

carburetor

I, 338; VI,

299

plate clutch

VI, 18,

.20

clutch

II, 28, 37

plowing, demands of

VI,

connecting rods

207

Port Huron tractor

VI, 28,

cooUng system

445

pound

VI,

crankcase

I, 230; VI,

256

power of motor

VI, 25,

crankshaft

218

ratings, horsepower

VI,

cylinder

175

repairs

VI, 40,

electrical III,

126, 410, 424;

Rumely transmission

VI,

IV, 307, 425; V, 288, 423,

429

Sandusky tractor

VI,

equipment for

IV,

353

selective sliding-gear

Ford magneto

IV,

307

transmission

VI,

frame

II,

169

Simplex governor

VI, 12,

front axle

. II,

149

slap

VI,

gears I, 406; II, 78; IV,

119

sliding-gear transmission

VI,

generator

HI,

425

slipping of clutch

VI,

ignition systems

III, 126; IV,

Spare parts needed

VI,

307, 312,

321; V, 423,

speed of motor

VI, 25,

429; VI,

299

Square Turn tractor

VI, 22,

inlet manifold

355

surging of governor

VI,

knuckle bolt

II,

153

track-laying tractor

lubrication

469

VI, 31, 35

, 36, 38j

,39

magneto

transmission

VI, 25,

-81

IV, 307, 312; 321; V, 423,

429

troubles and repairs VI

, 40, 43,

.67

motor

I, 159, 160,

402

Turner tractor

VI,

inotorcycles

271

Twin City tractor

IV,

mufller

430

valves

VI,

pistons

195

Yuba tractor VI

, oSf oOj

,39

polarization of high-ten-

Trailer action of front

sion magnetos IV,

312

wheels

VI,

273

rear axle

II,

241

Trailers

VI,

161

spark plug

III, 129; V,

430

Note. — Far page nuihbera see foot of pages.

468

INDEX

Vol. Page
Trouble shooting (continued)
spindle II, 153

springs II, 190

starting motor III, 410, 424

steam automobiles V, 328

steering-gear assembly II, 115

tires II, 315, 348

tractor VI, 40, 43, 67

transmission II, 61, 72; VI, 266, 369
valves I, 397

welding V, 40

Westinghouse voltage

regulators IV, 349

Troy trailer VI, 162

Trucks (see also Electric
commercial ve-
hicles and Gaso-
line commercial
vehicles) VI, 111, 120

carburetor I, 311

frames II, 167

internal-gear drive II, 232

springs II, 182

steering gear 11,106,113

steering wheels II, 117

wheels II, 280

Trumbull car III, 91

Trundaar tractor V, 378

Truss rods II, 244

Tubular axles II, 145

Tungar rectifierg IV, 223

Tungsten magnets IV, 319

Tungsten lamps III, 242

Turner tractor VI, 32

Turntable V, 212

Twelve-cyhnder motor

I, 42, 101, 104, 106, 109, 158
crankshaft I, 217

double carburetors I, 253

magneto III, 45

manifolds I, 350

valves I, 388

Twelve-cylinder valve re-
mover I, 400
Twelve — six-volt system IV, 87
Twelve-volt systems

Bijur system III, 284, 291

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Twelve-volt systems (con-
tinued)
Bosch-Rushmore system III, 309
Disco system III, 391

Dyneto system III, 391

Leece-Neville system IV, 12

North East system IV, 22, 24, 25
Simms-HufP system IV, 77

SpUtdorf system IV, 87

U.S.L. system

IV, 95, 99, 100, 101, 107

Wagner system IV, 111

Westinghouse system IV, 135

Twenty-four-volt systems

Leece-Neville system IV, 12

North East system IV, 22, 27

U.S.L. system IV, 95, 99, 101

Twin City tractor V, 367; VI, 33

Twin-cylinder motor

V, 227, 230, 237, 249, 285
Two-cycle diagram I, 83

Two-cycle motor I, 14, 16, 46,

83, 91, 155; V, 244, 246, 248
vs. four-cycle motors I, 134

indicated horsepower for-
mula I, 127
motorboat horsepower

formulas I, 133

Two-cylinder motors

I, 34, 39, 93, 101
Two-port two-cycle engine

V, 247, 248

Two-spark magneto, Bosch IV, 345

Two-speed axle II, 41

Two-speed gear V, 237, 260, 261

Two-stage carburetor I, 289

Two-imit systems III, 206

Auto-lite system III, 267

Bijur system III, 284

Bosch-Rushmore system III, 309

Delco system III, 345

Disco system III, 391

Dyneto system III, 392

Ford system IV, 152

Gray and Davis S3r8tem III, 398

Heinze-Springfield s y s -

tern III, 420

469

INDEX

Vol. Page
Two-unit systems (continued)
Leece-Neville system IV, 11

Remy system IV, 47

Splitdorf system IV, 88

Wagner system IV, 121, 122

Westinghouse system IV, 139

Two-voltage batteries, con-
nections for IV, 234
Two-wheel trailers VI, 161
Two-wire systems III, 207, 255
Bijur system III, 284, 288, 291
Chevrolet -Auto -Lite in-
stallation III, 255
Jeffrey-Bijur installation

III, 258, 288
Leece-Neville system IV, 11

motorcycle installation V, 268

North East system

IV, 22, 25, 27, 30
Remy system IV, 60

Splitdorf system IV, 87

U.S.L. system IV, 95, 111

U.S.L. system (see also
Index, Vol. IV)

III, 232, 315; IV, 95
U.S.S. thread V, 147, 148

Undercharging IV, 187, 193, 194

Undercutting machine IV, 356

Underpans II, 165

Underslinging II, 187

Underslung battery VI, 102

Underslung suspension II, 154

Undergrounded-circuit sys-
tem V, 268
Unisparker III, 19, 107
Unit power plant I, 25, 154, 157;

II, 38, 43, 156, 251; VI, 236, 237
Unit-type sub-frame II, 159

Unit-wheel drives, delivery

wagon VI, 97

Universal joint I, 152; II, 215, 216
Universal- joint housings II, 243

Universal Q.D. rim II, 295

Up stroke of two-cycle mo-
tor I, 17, 156

Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Upper dead center, finding III, 73
Urban delivery wagon VI, 103

Useful load VI, 90, 115, 120, 158

III, 25
V, 147, 148

V-Ray spark plugs
V thread
V-type motor

I, 18, 43, 89, 101, 109, 157, 159
connecting-rod bearings I, 205

manifolds I, 350

motorcycle installation

V, 227, 237, 249
valves I, 388, 396

Vacuum feeds I, 253, 357

Valve gears V, 311

Valve-in-head motor I, 173, 174

Valve lifter VI, 259

Valve-tappet clearance VI, 262

Valves (see also Index,

Vol. I) I, 18, 30, 149, 373, 409
Ford car VI, 241, 256, 259, 372
motorcycles'

V, 243, 249, 272, 279, 281, 283
timing I, 84, 379, 381, 391, 420,

482; V, 283, 293, 363; VI, 372
tire II, 290, 313

tractors V, 360; VI, 51

Vehicle speed controller VI, 129

Velie car III, 92

Velie tractor manifold I, 355

Velie-Remy installation

IV, 56, 59, 61, 62
Vent, hole in gasoline-tank

cap VI, 358

Ventilation of garage V, 210, 211

Venturi-tube mixing chamber I, 250
Vertical ignition unit III, 106; IV, 330
Vertical motors

I, 48, 89, 97, 99, 100, 157; V, 441
Vertical welding - V, 41

Vibrator III, 20, 190; IV, 317, 340,"^

344; V, 418; VI, " 314
Vibrator coils III, 20

Vibrating duplex system J IV, 344
Vibrating-type horn III, 240, 241

Vib rating-type regulator IV, 56, 88, 89

470

INDEX

Vol. Page
Viscosity of oils VI, 297

Vises V, 116, 220

Volt II, 355; V, 409; VI, 309

Volt-ammeter VI, 193, 229

Voltage II, 354, 380; V, 414;

VI, 102, 200, 204

of battery ceU IV, 177, 179

change of IV, 79

determining IV, 22

of ignition current VI, 311, 314, 316

of lamps . Ill, 243

of starting systems III, 224

Voltage coil VI, 329, 332

Voltage control devices III, 18

Voltage drop II, 359, 380; III, 94, 95

Voltage regulation IV, 56

Voltage regulator III, 285, 324, 422;

IV, 89, 90, 139, 151
Pierce-Arrow IV, 353

Westinghouse IV, 349

Voltage standards III, 219

Voltage tests III, 265; IV, 320

Voltanmieter III, 264

Voltmeter tests III, 386; IV,

198, 200, 208, 210, 235, 237

Volume of gases V, 297

Volumetric efficiency I, 79, 387

Vulcanization of tires II, 315

patches II, 328

types of outfits II, 317, 320

W-type aviation motor I, 89, 109, 110

Wagner starting and light-
ing system (see
also Index, Vol.
IV)

III, 226, 227; IV, 45, 111

Walker electric wheel drive

VI, 100, 101
Ward-Leonard automatic

cutout III, 218

Ward-Leonard controller III, 215
Ward-Leonard current con-

troUer III, 216

NiAe. — For page numbers aee foot of pages.

Vol. Page
Ward-Leonard " harpoon ' '

switch III, 237

Ward-Leonard starting

motor III, 227, 228, 229

Warner clutches II, 13, 15

Wash rack IV, 376

Wasp aviation motor I, 93, 94

Water cooling (see also
Aviation motors,
Index, Vol. I) I, 29,

31, 150, 430; V, 248, 252; VI, 125
Water
for cooling system VI, 357

for electrolyte IV, 176

Water jackets I, 150, 185, 242,
248, 342, 344, 352, 431, 445;

V, 380
Water-level indicator V, 324, 331

Water pump V, 335

Water supply of garage V, 210

Water system V, 323

Water-tube boilers V, 318

Waterproof magneto, Eise-

mann IV, 331, 335

Waterproof spark plugs III, 28

Watt II, 356; V, 409

Watt's diagram of work I, 52

Waukesha motor V, 396

Waverly truclq VI, 96, 97

Webber carburetor I, 281

Weight of motor (see also
Aviation Motors,
Index, Vol. I) VI, 25, 27

Weld, bmlding up V, 40

Welding (see also Oxy-
acetylene welding,
' Index, Vol. V)
I, 185, 226; II, 170, 236; V, 11
Welding flame V, 18, 35, 54

Westcott car III, 92

Westcott-Delco installation

III, 345, 350

Westinghouse air spring II, 198
Westinghouse contact

breaker III, 104

Westinghouse fuse block III, 239

471

INDEX

VoL Page
Westinghouse generator

III, 103, 105, 213
Westinghouse ignition unit

III, 105, 107; IV, 329, 330
Westinghouse starting and
Ughting system
(see also Index,
Vol. IV)
III, 225, 227, 228, 235; IV, 135
Westinghouse voltage reg-
ulators rV, 349
Wet storage of batteries IV, 218
Wheel post VI, 251
Wheel pullers II, 283
Wheels (see also Index,

Vol. II) II, 93, 266,

307, 309, 345; VI, 219
White delivery wagon VI, 119

White differential VI, 146

White lubricating system VI, 128
White motor VI, 123, 124

White radiator mounting VI, 127
White transmission VI, 133, 134, 135
White-Leece-Neville instal-
lation IV, 13, 15, 18
White and Poppe horse-
power formula I, 133
White steam car V, 292
Whitworth thread • V, 148
Wilcox-Bennett air cleaner

V, 393, 394
Wilcox-Bennett kerosene

carburetor V, 381

Willard battery

IV, 180, 181; V, 269
Willys-Knight motor I, 417, 420

WiUys - Knight - Auto -
Lite installation

III, 282, 283
Willys-Overland car III, 92

Winter weather, effect on
storage battery

IV, 193, 195, 225, 233
Winton car II, 43, 45, 107, 183,

190; III, 75, 92

Note. — For page numbera see foot of paget.

Vol. Page
Winton-Bijur installation

III, 288, 289, 294, 303, 306
Winton-Gray and Davis

installation III, 405

Wire wheels II, 272, 309

Wiring III, 92, 127, 359; V, 432;

VI, 265, 322
Wiring diagrams (see also
separate Index of
Wiring Diagrams,
Vol. VI)

III, 248; IV, 264; VI, 191, 336
Wisconsin motor I, 385

"Wishbone" VI, 275

Wolverine-Auto-Lite in-
stallation III, 273
Wood frames II, 161
Wood wheels II, 268, 281
Woodruff keys V, 158
Woodworth adjustable tire

tread II, 288

Work, definition V, 299

Workbench IV, 375; V, 216

Working fit V, 189

Working stroke I, 14, 69, 77,

155; V, 244, 245, 354, 355;

VI, 240, 241
Workstand equipment II, 242

Worm drive VI, 94, 138, 141, 176

Worm-driven trucks, trans-
mission VI, 136
Worm gear vs. bevel gears VI, 145
Worm gear for final reduction II, 222
Worm-gear steering gear II, 101
Wristpin VI, 243
Wrought iron, cutting V, 87

X-type aviation motors I, 89

Yale and Towne hoist I, 162

VI, 33, 38, 39

Yuba tractor

Zenith carburetor

I, 251, 260

472

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