u
AVIATION
IN CANADA
1917^1918
<i brief account of the vole
of th BOYAL AIR FORCE CANADA
the Aviation Department of the-
hnpoidL MunitbDns BoarcLanci
the QwddiaTL Aerqplangs limited
COMPILED BY
ALAN SULLIVAN. LT..D.. A. F.
PWNTED BY
ROUS & MANN LIMITED
TORONTO... ...CANADA
While the contents of this volume
present an accurate history of
theR.A.F. Canada, it is to be
under stood that the Air Ministry
is not responsible for any state-
ments made herein.
Copyright, Canada, 1919,
by Alan Sullivan, Toronto
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE WESTERN FRONT IN 1916 7
OFFICIAL PRELIMINARIES 16
AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD . 25
CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED 44
COST OF TRAINING 57
HEADQUARTERS STAFF 61
TRAINING IN GENERAL 76
NORTH TORONTO 85
BEAMSVILLE CAMP 89
INSPECTION 93
THE INSTRUCTOR 100
THE MEDICAL SERVICE 108
WINTER FLYING 125
RECRUITS' DEPOT 135
RECORDS AND RECRUITING 139
THE CADET WING 155
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS 162
ARMAMENT SCHOOL 170
AERIAL GUNNERY 180
CAMERA GUNNERY 193
WIRELESS 197
PHOTOGRAPHY 205
ARMOUR HEIGHTS SYSTEM 211
SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING ........ 220
FLYING ACCIDENTS 224
ROYAL FLYING CORPS IN TEXAS 233
ENGINE REPAIR PARK 251
AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK 256
STORES DEPOT 261
PAY OFFICE 266
MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION 275
ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL 279
ROYAL ENGINEER SECTION 280
CAMP BORDEN 284
LONG BRANCH 288
DESERONTO 289
SPORTS 294
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 302
AERIAL CONDITIONS ON THE
WESTERN FRONT, 1916.
The battle of the Somme in the latter half of 1916
was the principal factor leading to the formation of
the Royal Flying Corps, Canada. Aerial conditions
on the Western Front were at this period of so tense
a nature that they may well be noted before proceeding
to the actual history of the Canadian brigade.
The following sketch makes no pretence of absolute
accuracy. The data available at the moment are not
official, but are compiled from the memories of several
flying officers serving on the Western front at the time.
They may, however, be taken as fairly presenting not
only the development of the Royal Flying Corps, but
also that of opposing enemy aircraft at the period under
consideration.
The British Expeditionary Force commenced oper-
ations in 1914 with a flying arm of four squadrons or
Psome fifty machines, of which no less than thirty were
destroyed during a severe storm at Christmas time by
the collapse of a large hangar at St. Omer, leaving on
the following day approximately 14 serviceable
machines. At this time all aeroplanes in both forces
were unarmed.
It is difficult to say whether British or German
made the first aerial attack on an opposing machine, but
it is undoubted that this type of combat, coming how
it may, found both sides unequipped with the ex-
ception of such offensive power as might be secured
with rifle or revolver. British machines had been thus
armed for months, probably in anticipation of forced
landings behind the German lines and, without question,
enemy aircraft were similarly provided. There ensued
a series of sporting encounters out of which grew the
necessity of arming aeroplanes with rapid-fire guns
mounted mostly on the top of the centre section so
that bullets might clear the propeller blade. This
gun was operated by the pilot, who supplied the sole
method of forward shooting, while the observer, who
was at that time placed in the front seat, fired to the
rear. A year and a half afterwards, the method of
shooting practically through the propeller was evolved,
which, gradually developing, has long since reached
mechanical perfection.
In the early summer of 1916, the British strength
had grown to some 28 or 30 squadrons in France.
These numbered approximately 450 machines, distri-
buted fairly equally along the entire front. A view of
our aerial equipment as contrasted with enemy air-
craft in the battle of the Somme gives the following
data, but it must be understood that this was a period
during which every effort was strained on either side
and type followed type in rapid succession.
BRITISH.
BE2C 2-seater tractor biplane.
1 or 2 Lewis guns.
Observer in front.
Speed 70 miles.
Climb to 10,000 ft. in 50 mins.
Service ceiling 11,000 feet.
FE2B 2-seater pusher biplane.
2 Lewis guns.
Observer in front.
Speed 75 miles.
Climb to 10,000 feet in 40
mins.
Service ceiling 12,000 feet.
Morane 2-seater tractor
(French) both mono and
biplane.
Same guns as BE2C, but with
deflectors.
Speed 80 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 30 mins.
Service ceiling 15,000 feet.
GERMAN.
Fokker Scout tractor mono-
plane.
1 gun shooting through pro-
peller, with deflectors.
Speed 85 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 17 mins.
Albatross Scout tractor bi-
plane.
2 gun synchronized in line of
flight. (First machine thus
equipped.)
Speed 100 m.p.h.
Also 2 seater Albatross ma-
chine.
Roland Scout tractor biplane.
armed as Albatross but not
quite as fast.
Also Roland 2-seater fighter,
speed 90 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 20 mins.
Halberstadt Scout tractor bi-
plane, similar to Albatross.
8
ONE LESS HUN!
RICHTHOFEX S CIRCUS
9
GERMAN "ALBATROSS. 1
GERMAN ' ' HALBERSTADT.
10
BRITISH Continued.
DH2 Scout pusher biplane.
1 Lewis Gun on line of flight
or swivelled.
Speed 90 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 18 mins.
Service ceiling 16,000 feet.
GERMAN Continued.
LVG 2-seater tractor.
Albatross and Aviatik, re-
conn, bombing, and photo.
1 gun synchronized and 1
swivelled.
Speed 85 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 in 25 mins.
Service ceiling 18,000 feet.
FES Scout pusher biplane.
1 Lewis Gun swivelled in line
of flight.
Speed 100 m.p.h.
Climb 15,000 feet in 19 mins.
Service ceiling 18,000 feet.
Nieuport Scout tractor
(French)
1 Lewis Gun over top of
prop, or swivelled.
Speed 100 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 12 mins.
Service ceiling 19,000 feet.
This was the first allied ma-
chine to have a synchronized
Vickers or Lewis gun in
1916.
Spad Scout tractor biplane.
1 synchronized Vickers gun
firing in line of flight
through propeller.
Speed 120 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 9 mins.
Service ceiling 20,000 feet
In addition the British had a squadron or so of
Sopwith Ij/o Strutters, very fast and handy 2-seater
tractors with observer in rear. Also some Bristol
Scouts, Vickers pushers and Martynsydes.
11
The German was in 1916 provided with a gun which
did fire through the propeller. This was on the Fokker.
The advantage thus held by the enemy was also
increased by the fact that their two-seaters carried
pilots in front, thus affording the observer a better
opportunity of firing to the rear. Our BE2C, for
instance, found itself under a handicap in this respect.
The downfall of the Fokker rests with the DH2, a
pusher machine, which gave the forward-seated pilot a
clear field of fire to the front. The DH2, in turn,
yielded supremacy to the German Albatross Scout,
a fast and efficient fighting machine. Thus went the
battle, till in December, 1916, the Nieuport, Spad and
Sopwith Scouts were our kings of the air.
In April of this year began a concentration of
British aerial force on the Somme, where artillery
observation was for the next three months carried
to the utmost in preparation for the great offensive
staged to commence in July. At first it seemed as
though our machines had the air to themselves, for up
till the first week in June our registration proceeded
with practically no counter-battery work. So quiet
was this front, that one pilot reports that he cannot
remember seeing more than two German aeroplanes for
six weeks.
In June came greater activity on the part of the
enemy, but it is without question that we held superior-
ity until September, if at considerable cost. From
September, however, to the middle of October, the
Royal Flying Corps had its work cut out to cope with
the increase in numbers and efficiency of German pilots,
and the introduction of two fast and improved fighting
scouts, the Halberstadt and Albatross D3 and D5.
On the Somme front, approximating twenty-five
miles, we had about twenty squadrons, equalling
about 300 machines; these constituting the majority
of our aerial force in France. Twelve were disposed
for artillery work, the remainder for photography,
reconnaissance and fighting.
12
GERMAN PARABELLUM MOUNTING.
rmsT "FOKKER'' MONOPLANE WITH SYNCHRONIZED GUN
BROUGHT DOWN ON WESTERN FRONT.
13
LOADING POSITION.
LEWIS GUN ON NIEUPORT SCOUT.
14
The battle proceeded with unprecedented in-
tensity, and with it a never-ending aerial warfare.
Pilots were rushed from England with a few hours'
solo work and absolutely no gunnery practice, to
find themselves instantly in the thick of the combat.
It is, therefore, not astonishing that the wastage of
our fighting men ran up to twenty-five per cent, per
month.
The filling up of the Royal Flying Corps combatant
strength was made additionally difficult, as the Corps
could no longer draw from regimental officers now
needed for the coming offensive by which it was
proposed to relieve the tremendous pressure on the
French at Verdun.
It is true that the strength of the Force was, in
anticipation, more than doubled during the three weeks
which preceded the Somme, but this largely ex-
hausted the available supplies of fighting personnel.
How reasonable, therefore, that the established
success of Canadian pilots, and the fact that in Canada
lay an almost untapped reservoir of future strength,
should turn the eyes of the War Office to that Do-
minion. Double operations were planned for the
Spring of 1917. The need was instant and imperative.
15
OFFICIAL PRELIMINARIES.
Authority for the Royal Flying Corps, Canada,
was given at the War Office in December of 1916,
and shortly after, on December 21st, an important
meeting took place at Adastral House, the head-
quarters of the Air Board. Representatives from
various branches of the service were present, and the
situation in Canada was fully discussed with the
following results.
Formation of squadrons was to be pushed at once,
and personnel sent out as opportunity offered. Re-
cruiting offices were authorized, also one large air-
craft park, its location to be fixed later. As to equip-
ment, Curtiss machines had already been ordered and
delivery would commence almost at once from
Buffalo. An establishment of 400 engines with a
monthly wastage of 100 was considered reasonable.
The use of other machines was discussed but left
in abeyance for the meantime, and the meeting closed
with the opinion that training could be carried on in
Canada the year round except in February, the
weather in that month being doubtful.
It was decided at the outset that everything of a
business nature, such as the erection of buildings, pre-
paration of aerodromes, purchase of supplies, etc., was
to be handled by the Imperial Munitions Board,
through a Department of Aviation. This conclusion
was largely influenced by the fact that in correspondence
with the Ministry of Munitions, the Imperial Munitions
Board had placed itself at the disposal of the War
Office to aid in the formation of a Canadian training
wing. Tw r o engineer officers would be detailed to
act as advisers on buildings and aerodromes.
Such was the formal birth of the Royal Flying
Corps, Canada. It may be asked why it was purposed
to recruit and train in Canada by the agency of an
16
Imperial wing, but it suffices to say that the work
of this unit has been only one of the countless instances
of cooperation between the mother country and the
Dominion, that furthermore all arrangements entered
into carried not only the consent and approval of the
Canadian Government, but also the promise of every
assistance, and that the utter fullness of the discharge
of this promise is known best to those who are person-
ally conversant with the various phases of the history
of this unit of the Royal Flying Corps.
At the further meeting of the Air Board, held at
Adastral House, January 1st, 1917, the personnel of the
advance party was selected. The administration section
consisted of the Officer Commanding, at that time
lieutenant-colonel; two squadron commanders a major
and a captain; one flight commander a captain;
one flying officer a lieutenant. The supply section
consisted of one park commander, one first-class
equipment officer and two second-class equipment
officers; these a major, captain and two lieu-
tenants. Two engineer officers, both majors
one of whom was of the Canadian Engineers and the
other from the Royal Engineers services followed a
little later. The recruiting section, composed of a
captain and three lieutenants, completed the party.
Mechanical transport of 21 vehicles was also sent.
At this meeting the general premises governing the
future operations of the wing were outlined, such as
the intention to give only lower training in Canada,
and liaison between the unit and the Imperial
Munitions Board. It was further determined to or-
ganize twenty training squadrons. Owing to con-
ditions in England at the moment, the question of
personnel for the formation of the Canadian wing was
difficult of solution, and it was stated quite frankly that
the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, would be obliged to
do its utmost to train both officers, non-commissioned
officers and airmen for the various duties to be per-
formed.
17
General and personnel equipment was arranged to
be sent from England, but all machines and additional
transport were to be obtained locally. The general
purport of the meeting was, in brief, to provide the
skeleton of a training unit, put this scanty personnel
under the direction of the O.C. and trust to their
united efforts to provide for that expanding output of
partially trained pilots for which at the time there was
such insistent^demand.
Coincident with all this, matters in Canada had
already begun to take shape. There was in Toronto
a small aeroplane factory, which for the past year
or two had been turning out machines used at a
private flying school some nine miles from the city.
Authority was received by the Imperial Munitions
Board from the Air Board to acquire this organization,
which, although its output was necessarily limited,
afforded an opportunity for future expansion, once
suitable premises were secured. The machinery and
equipment of this undertaking were forthwith moved
into much larger buildings leased from a local
engineering works, and took shape as the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited, an organization owned by the
Imperial Government, whose product was intended
primarily to meet the requirements of the new
Canadian wing.
Simultaneously there was formed the Aviation
Section of the Imperial Munitions Board, to which
section detailed reference is made elsewhere. Such,
in short, were the arrangements which had been
completed when on January 22nd the advance party of
the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, arrived in Toronto.
A word about local conditions will not be
amiss. The country was, of course, deep in snow, and
the winter period in its most trying phase. Recruiting,
for which methods had still to be formulated, was
complicated by the fact that no Military Service Act
was in force in Canada, and the country had been
18
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apparently combed bare of those who desired to enlist
voluntarily. It is true that the Royal Naval Air
Service had for months been drawing excellent material
from Canada, but this unit offered the inducement of
a commission on enlistment, while the R.F.C. held
no commissions in its outstretched hands, but merely
the promise of months of arduous work before qualify-
ing for the distinction. That the Corps was authorized
to recruit in Canada was due to an Order in Council
passed by the Canadian Government. Application
was also made to the Department of Militia and
Defence that the unit might be rationed, clothed and
medically attended to by that Department.
An excerpt taken from an early report on Canadian
conditions to the Air Board notes that the Royal
Flying Corps, Canada, was an Imperial unit, paid for
by the Imperial Treasury and wholly independent of
local military command. Also that instructions in the
first instance were very indefinite regarding a host of
important details, but that this fact was in the long
run a blessing in disguise.
A credit of four millions sterling had been estab-
lished with the Imperial Munitions Board for the
purposes of the wing, and it now remained to take action
as quickly as possible.
That no time was lost may be gathered from the fact
that the large C.E.F. Camp at Borden, some seventy
miles north of Toronto, was inspected on January
26th, and on the following day a contract was let under
supervision of the Aviation Department of the Board
for the construction of the first Canadian aerodrome
on an outlying portion of this area. It was to comprise
fifteen flight sheds, with all necessary buildings and
equipment. Simultaneously, recruiting got under way.
Ground was also provided by the Department of Militia
and Defence at Long Branch, some nine miles west of
Toronto, where was formed the first flying unit of the
Royal Flying Corps, Canada.
21
During the last week of the month, a contract was
let for the construction of a large factory for the
Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, supplies of engines and
machines were secured from the Curtiss Manufactur-
ing Company at Buffalo, and sites for additional
groups of squadrons were selected at Leaside, three
miles north of Toronto; Armour Heights, four miles
still farther north; Rathbun and Mohawk, 130 miles
east of Toronto.
Such was the record for nine days' work. Thus
the first of February found the unit with all major
features of its programme settled, and on the threshold
of a development which, as it progressed, was destined
to realize every anticipation.
24
AVIATION DEPARTMENT IMPERIAL
MUNITIONS BOARD
This Department formed a many-sided organization,
by means of which the physical and financial wants of
the Royal Air Force, Can., were provided. It secured
funds from the War Office, spent and accounted for
them; designed, built, and equipped innumerable
structures; purchased all supplies from the sailmaker's
needle to the aeroplane and bought materials from
countless sources for a vast variety of needs.
It delved into electrical and mechanical problems,
sowed grass, bored wells, built railways, leased land,
secured labour of all descriptions, engaged lawyers
and advanced money. If the Royal Air Force was an
Imperial brigade, this section of the "I.M.B." was no
less a Canadian civilian battalion, composed of mem-
bers representing an officer commanding, paymasters,
quartermasters, engineers and sappers, etc., and main-
taining a constant and helpful liaison, without which a
certain history of mutual accomplishments would be
the acme of brevity.
The Department, for purposes of efficiency, was
subdivided into the following sections: Executive,
Purchasing, Construction, Transport, and Aeronautical
Supply all responsible to the Director of Aviation,
and through him to the Imperial Munitions Board
proper. The officers were:
Director of Aviation. . G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E.
Secretary MR. GEO. E. WISHART.
Chief Engineer MR. J. B. CARSWELL.
Asst. Chief Engineer . . MR. J. R. HAGELIN.
Purchasing Agent MR. A. H. MULCAHEY.
Asst. Purchasing Agent MR. A. S. McNiNCH.
Supt. Aero. Supplies. . MR. W. B. CLELAND.
The first section, composed of the Secretary and
accountants, was responsible for all expenditures, and
made weekly detailed returns to the Auditor of the
25
Board in Ottawa. They dealt in millions, and submitted
vouchers for all disbursements, as well as reporting all
executive transactions. The advantage . of this co-
operation with the parent organization which dealt in
hundreds of millions, is obvious.
The Purchasing Section was manned by expert buyers
in various branches, and furnished the entire needs of the
brigade with the exception of rations, pay and medical
service. Machinery, tools, boots, oil there were some
ten thousand articles in Stores Depot all of which were
secured by this section of the Department.
The Construction Section, since the autumn of 1917,
erected all buildings used by the brigade, and overhauled
and remodelled other premises secured for their use.
At the outset of operations, various contractors were
employed but, this practice terminated, the Construc-
tion Section was organized under careful supervision
of competent engineers of the Aviation Department
to perform these and added duties. It purchased
its own supplies and was responsible for prices and
quantities, as well as for a Commissary Department
which supplied employees with meals and accommo-
dation.
Transportation always a problem and especially
so in wartime was entrusted to an expert railwayman,
skilled in harassing railway companies into good
delivery. The moving of thousands of men to and
from Texas, with hundreds of carloads of supplies,
came under this section with most creditable results.
Aeronautical supplies were in charge of an expert in
aeroplanes and their parts, who stood between the
aeroplane factory and the aircraft equipment section
of the brigade. Through him were followed up all
machines, engines and spares ordered by the Purchas-
ing Section. Contact was maintained hereby with
American factories, to which periodical visits were
made when the brigade was dependent on these
extraneous sources of supply.
26
J. B. CARSWELL, B.Sc.,
CHIEF ENGINEER.
T. R. HAGELIX,
ASST. CHIEF ENGINEER
W. B. CLELAXD.
SUPT. AERONAUTICAL
SUPPLIES.
GEO. E. WISHART,
SECRETARY.
G. A. MORROW, O.B.E.
DIRECTOR OF AVIATION
A. S. McNINCH,
ASST. PURCHASING AGENT
A. X. MULCAHEV,
PURCHASING AGENT
OFFICERS. AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERI\L MUNITIONS BOARD
Such in brief are the fundamentals, but without
further detail the service given by the Aviation Depart-
ment could not be realized. The following notes
therefore, should prove of interest.
Accounts were under the immediate direction of the
Secretary. So speedily was the Department organized
that time did not afford to investigate either the system
to be adopted or the number of accounts to be opened.
Flexibility was in consequence desirable, and when in
October, 1918, a new set of ledger headings were called
for by the Air Ministry, there was neither difficulty
nor delay in remodelling the existing accounts to the
new form.
The Department was authorized to make disburse-
ments from an imprest fund when immediate payment
was necessary, but this method was only used when
unavoidable, as for instance, outlay in staff payrolls,
initial payments for leases, and in cases where a dis-
count period had nearly lapsed. For such outlay
repayment cheque to the fund was always subsequently
issued.
The standard method of meeting obligations was
by sending certified bills to the Finance Department,
Imperial Munitions Board, at Ottawa, where cheques
were issued therefor. These bills were listed in
alphabetical order, and also chronologically under each
creditor's name. Confusion of any kind was entirely
avoided.
During those months when contractors were em-
ployed in the erection of buildings and other work,
the Aviation Department was continually represented
at the contractor's office by an auditing staff. These
officials checked all time worked, and all disbursements
of every nature on the part of the contractor. Such
obligations were paid by the latter, who then forwarded
29
the receipted bills to the Department. There they
were recorded and sent on to Ottawa for payment.
Extraneous accounting was done in the United
States. When a large part of the brigade went to
Texas in November, 1917, the omnipresent "I.M.B."
accompanied in the person of the Chief Purchasing
Agent, fortified with an imprest fund. This, deposited
in the National City Bank, permitted local payments,
which in turn were submitted to the Toronto Office
with the necessary vouchers. In addition to all the
foregoing, the Board at Ottawa was represented by a
travelling auditor who checked all expenditure before
it was submitted to Ottawa. Thus the Chief Auditor
was kept constantly informed, and enabled to make
regular reports to the Ministry of Munitions in Eng-
land of all disbursements by the Aviation Department.
On page 58 will be found a monthly total of these
amounts, as apart from expenditure by the brigade.
It is impossible to make comparisons, but it is never-
theless believed that in no section of any military
organization has better value been secured for the
amount involved.
The Purchasing Section, up to January 1st, 1919,
issued 15,700 orders and handled 37,300 invoices.
Business of this magnitude demands system, and in
this case got it. On page 35 is a diagram showing not
only the procedure of purchase, but also the history of
invoices when received, reflecting the cooperation be-
tween consumer and purchaser to secure assurance of
the delivery of what has been ordered, before payment.
Mention has been made of the variety of the pur-
chases arranged by this section, and to this might be
added the fact that extremely large quantities were
involved.
30
31
TAPPING A SPRUCE FOR AEROPLANE TIMBER.
(Note axe swinging from belt).
32
IN FLIGHT.
FLYING BOAT HULL UNDER CONSTRUCTION.
33
INDENTS FROM UNITS
STOBES DEPOT
INDENTS COLLECTED INTO REQUISITIONS
HEADQUARTERS
(APPROVED BY O. I/O A.E.)
PURCHASING DEPARTMENT I.M.B.
RECORDED IN FTLB ROOM AS TO DATE or RECEIPT
DISTRIBUTED TO PURCHASING STAFF
TENDERS ASKED BT MAIL, WIRE OH TELEPHONE
ACCORDING TO URGENCY
ORDERS GIVEN REQUISITIONS FTLED
(<J COPIES MADE) CONSECUTIVELY
CONTRACTOR PERMANENT FYLE FOR CHECKING OF INVOICES 3 COPIES TO
Orders show quantities, prices, delivery dates, etc.
STORES DKPC
INVOICI
c, INV<
FYLE ROOM, INVOICE DEPT.
(DATED AND ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY)
RECORDED IN INVOICE LEDGER
CHECKED AGAINST ORDERS
I
FYLB STORES DEPOT STORES DEPOT STORKS DEPOT
RETURNED RETURNED
(INSPECTION NOTE (INSPECTION NOTB
ATTACHED) ATTACHED)
FYLE ACCOUNTING DEPT.
PAYMENT
Fuel requirements for the current year, for instance,
were estimated at nearly 30,000 tons, and, in spite of
certain official privileges extended to the Department,
shipments of this magnitude called for very special
attention, particularly at a time when great public
anxiety was felt in securing fuel supply.
35
Gasoline requirements comprised about 16,000
gallons per month, and this, owing to the limited storage
capacity at the various wings, was very carefully watched
and traced in transit. It speaks well for the Depart-
ment that during a period when the railway system
was congested with freight, flying was not at any time
interfered with owing to shortage of this supply.
The Transportation Section was indebted to the
wonderful cooperation of contractors and railway
companies for assistance in overcoming delays due
to this congestion, as well as to the great shortage of
raw material.
Business between the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor
Corporation and the British Ministry of Munitions was
carried in the Section's purchasing ledgers, as well
as records of all shipments from the Canadian Aero-
planes Limited to the Signal Service of the U.S.
Government. The amount of material shipped to
Texas in 1917 from the factory amounted to not less
than four and a half million dollars. This was a mutually
acceptable arrangement by which training in the U.S.
was carried out most successfully and the output of
the factory maintained at a satisfactory point.
Conjointly with the Purchasing Section, there
must be considered its kindred bureau, the Traffic
Branch. This body traced and delivered all materials
to their proper destination, checked all freight and ex-
press bills, and applied them against their proper
invoices and orders. Investigation of conditions gov-
erning freight rates was a special study, and in one
instance the Traffic Branch was able to prove to
the Canadian Freight Association that the minimum
carload weight previously required on shipments
of aeroplanes and spares was in point of fact unjustified
considering the light nature of the material. This
was subsequently increased, resulting in a marked
saving in the transportation of such material to and
a s
W C
I
5
ll
37
38
from the various camps. The Texas movement in-
volved 375 cars and 5,000 men. This was an admirably
managed undertaking, so successful that within five
days from the date of leaving Canada our machines
were climbing into the air above Texas aerodromes.
The Section of Aeronautical Supply, as has
been stated, maintained liaison between the Aircraft
Equipment Branch of the brigade and the factory;
also it acted as a buffer state between the brigade and the
manufacturer of such technical equipment as cameras,
wireless instruments, machine guns, etc., and the
tremendous number of spare parts involved.
The progress in the training of pilots has from time
to time demanded new equipment of multitudinous
variety. The advanced nature of the work of both
aeroplane and engine repair park called for a steady
stream of those individual members which when
assembled constitute the completed machine. The
selection, purchase, and delivery of the technical equip-
ment of the brigade, fell in short to this section,
which executed the business transactions involved as
required by the Aircraft Equipment Branch at
headquarters.
Liaison between the two has been admirable, and the
result, therefore, eminently satisfactory.
The Construction Section has, in the course of its
strenuous existence, carried out the following work:
miles of railways.
miles of roadways.
18 miles of water mains.
10 miles of sewers.
27 miles of aerodrome drainage.
300 miles of telephone and power lines.
26 individual steam heating plants.
6 central steam heating plants.
400 buildings using 18 million feet of lumber.
39
It had, furthermore, put in five thousand plumbing
fixtures; cleaned, rolled and seeded nearly four thou-
sand acres of land for flying purposes, and done a com-
missary business which touched forty thousand meals
a week.
In these activities it spent five and a half million
dollars.
From all of which it may be seen that what was
accomplished equals the building of a modern town with
streets, sanitation of every description and every
physical equipment.
Had it been a town the work had been easier, but
as it was there were many areas, with two hundred
miles between extreme points.
In dispensing with contractors and assuming itself
all obligations the Department was swayed by but one
fact. The requirements of the brigade were so varying
and so subject to training considerations, that it
seemed impossible to adequately provide for all con-
tingencies by contract. The change took place in the
autumn of 1917, and in the months that followed the
Munitions Board profited by unity of control, by the
opportunity of large bulk purchases of material, and by
every consequent advantage accruing to a single
organization which directs many scattered operations.
The Chief Engineer of this section directed executive
work, his assistant supervised construction. With them
were the heads of the draughting room, the estimating
section and the construction purchasing department,
together with the chief electrician, the plumbing super-
intendent, the heating superintendent, road superin-
tendent and the head of the commissary and transport
section. In the section office a staff of fifty was em-
ployed, when in the middle of October, 1918, there
40
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were 2,200 men on the payroll. The following
diagram illustrates the organization :
CHIEF ENGINEEB
RESIDENT ENGINEERS ASSISTANT CHIEF ENGINEER CHIEF DRAUGHTSMEN SECRETARY
(MAINTENANCE)
ESTIMATING
PRODUCTION CHIEF PLUMBING HEATING ROADS BUYER COMMISSARY ACCOUNTANT
CLERK ELECTRICIAN SUP'T. SDP'T. SUP'T. MANAGES
COMMISSABT STORES
TRANSPORT
The Construction Section was, in fact, pivoted
so that it might at any moment turn its attention to
new work without departing from its main and central
programme, and to this flexibility is attributable the
unquestionable success it achieved.
43
CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.
This organization saw the light officially in De-
cember, 1916, and in twenty-one months had turned
out some 2,900 aeroplanes, valued at nearly fourteen
million dollars. Incidentally, the factory covered
about six acres, and employed something over two
thousand hands.
It was some time before Canadians realized that
the undertaking was that of the Imperial Government
acting through the Imperial Munitions Board, more
familiarly known as the "I.M.B." The primary
purpose was that of supplying aeroplanes for the Royal
Flying Corps, but actually some four and a half
millions' worth of output went to aid training in the
United States.
The officials of the Company were:
President SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E.
Vice-President MR. FRANK P. WOOD.
Director MR. W. PARKYN MURRAY.
Manager MR. E. T. MUSSON.
Secretary MR. P. H. BROOKS.
Chief Engineer MR. M. R. RIDDELL.
Work commenced in leased premises, where the
plant of a small factory which had a year or so before
turned out a few experimental machines was for three
months utilized. This, admittedly a makeshift, ex-
panded in April into permanent premises on Dufferin
Street, covering ultimately some six acres of floor space,
with innumerable mechanical appliances specially de-
signed for the work. The building of this factory
proved something of an achievement, being completed
in about two and one-half months, a notable record
even in a country where quick construction was the rule
of the day. The site, carefully chosen, lay surrounded
by the homes of large numbers of technical trades-
44
G. A. COOPER H. R. BRISTOW C. E. PEARSOX
CHIEF INSPECTOR. ASST. SfPT. FINAL ASSEMBLY' SUPT. WOOD MILL.
AND PANKL UKPTS.
W. E. TREGENZA
MASTER MECHANIC
L. W. COLLIER E. ASHWORTH G. X. DUFFY
SUPT. METAL DEPARTMENT SUPT. FINAL ASSEMBLY GENERAL SUPT.
AND PANEL DEPTS.
P. H. BROOKS
SECRETARY.
E. T. MUSSO.V SIR F. W. BAILLIE, K.B.E. W. P. MURRAY
MANAGER PRESIDENT. DIRECTOR.
M. R. RIDDELL
CHIEF ENGINEER.
G. A. AULT D. J. XEWSOX H. R. CHOATE G. R. C. MERRIAM
DESPATCH DEPARTMENT. CHIEF DRAUGHTSMAN. ASST. SUPT. M ETAL DEPT. CHIEF ACCOUNTANT
W. B. MACDOXALD J. M. WATERMAX A. H. SALTER F. L. SHILLIXGTOX
PLANT ENGINEER. ASS F. CHIEF ENGINEER ASST. MPT. WOOD MILL ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
OFFICIALS AND EXECUTIVE STAFF OF CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED
45
FUSELAGE ASSEMBLY.
SAILMAKIXG ON WINGS.
46
men, and this helped in no small degree to ensure at
all times a full force of highly skilled employees.
The machine adopted for use by the Royal Flying
Corps was the Canadian JN4, of simple design and
presenting no unusual difficulty in manufacture. As
work progressed, however, it became apparent that the
type could be largely improved by change of design and
fabrication, and there was evolved a machine which,
while presenting the same appearance as its predecessor,
contained nevertheless certain fundamental and radical
alterations. Among other points remodelled were the
landing gear the substitution of the "joy stick" for
the former control wheel, the adoption of split trailing
edge instead of flattened tubing, and, most important,
tail units made principally of metal instead of wood,
resulting in an increased factor of safety, especially in
the rudder and vertical stabilizer. Progress without
change is impossible, and thus it proved in this under-
taking.
It will be understood that given soundness of design
there remains to be provided good workmanship and
the best and most suitable materials. The former was
Erocured without much difficulty, but the supply of the
itter involved much thought and experiment, it being
always remembered that the ideal machine combines a
maximum strength with a minimum weight.
Linen for the covering of wings, etc., was imported
first from Ireland, but submarine activity made it
imperative that a substitute be secured. It was found
at the Wabasso Cotton Company's mills in Three
Rivers, Quebec. Here was secured, for the special
purpose required, a cotton fabric of remarkable strength.
One inch in width is able to support some eighty
pounds, and this with a weight which does not exceed
four and a half ounces a square yard. Its adoption
was at once successful, and it proved capable, when
treated with "dope" a waterproof and windproof
solution with celluloid-like finish of performing the
same service as that of the most expensive Irish linen.
47
After fabric came wood, the quality of which was
required to be above anything hitherto known in the
lumber trade. Free from knots, of extreme length,
with no "wind shakes," swirly grain or "pitch pockets,"
it seemed at first unprocurable. Ash for the longerons or
longitudinals of the fuselage, and spruce for wing beams,
wing edges, etc., was of imperative necessity. The
market was searched, but what material was available
proved to yield but a fraction of its total in satisfactory
timber. Then, driven by urgent need, the "I.M.B."
organized a department in Vancouver and began to
buy for itself on the shores of the Pacific. That its
first purchase was rushed by express in carloads from
the Western Coast will indicate how extreme was the
pressure for sound material. The illustrations on pages 32
and 34 give some idea of the magnitude of the operations
required to produce that exact quality of lumber which
the modern aeroplane demands.
It is interesting to note that even with this admir-
able supply secured, it was found that certain members
were so long that it proved necessary to build them
up, and, in the building, the Canadian Aeroplanes
Limited evolved a scarfed, saw-toothed splice, since
adopted as standard by Britain and the United
States. Repeated tests proved that greater strength
was thus secured than that of solid lumber of the same
dimensions.
The Canadian Aeroplanes Limited propeller is
five-ply white oak, glued, compressed and formed up
by machinery that is almost human and took its
origin from a lathe designed by Peter the Great to
make gun stocks. It is a far cry from Russia to
Toronto, but the principle is identical. No "C.A.L."
propeller has shown manufacturing or engineering
defect. The successor of Peter's lathe carves them,
four at a time, to one thirty-second of their finished
form, and the final touches and balancing are hand
work. To anyone who has seen a nine-foot propeller
running at 1,500 revolutions per minute, its blade
48
points cutting the air at the rate of eight miles a
minute, it will be apparent how fine a workmanship
and accurate a design is embodied here.
From wood pass to metal. Fuselage and internal
wing bracing is with piano-wire which will stand a
pull of a ton, though the members to which it is
anchored weigh but a few pounds. Interplane bracing
will live up to a ton and a half, and the control wires
will stand the same test. So accurate are these latter
that in process of their manufacture the heated metal
is drawn through a forming die made of an aperture
in a diamond.
In the autumn of 1918 it was decided to under-
take the manufacture of a faster and more modern
type of machine the Avro and to this object the
factory diverted its energies. At the date of the
armistice two had been turned out. These machines,
equipped with 130 horse-power Clerget engines, prom-
ised excellent service, and underwent all tests to the
complete satisfaction of all concerned. No less than
one hundred additional had been fabricated and were
ready for assembly when hostilities ceased.
Design - - material workmanship - - inspection!
These are the four cardinal features of the modern
machine. That ah 1 have been amply provided in the
output of the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited is best
evidenced by the fact that not a single one of nearly
three thousand aeroplanes turned out has been
charged with any accident attributable to any fault
in design or manufacture.
From aeroplane to flying boat was a natural transi-
tion in an organization so finely balanced and com-
pletely equipped, and in April, 1918, the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited undertook to build for the United
States navy a fleet of 30 F-5 flying boats, the largest
produced to date on this side of the Atlantic. The
contract involved competition with two other com-
panies. The latter had been in the business from
49
two to four years, and had on hand not only ample
material but also a large staff of assembling mechanics.
In the race that followed, the Canadian Aeroplanes
Limited finished three weeks ahead an illustration of
the fact that the best type of organization is that
which is not so wedded to one class of output as to be
unable to adapt its methods and its plant to kindred, if
varying, undertakings. So satisfactory was the work
to the U.S. authorities, that it called forth the following
letter from the American admiral in charge:
"On account of the excellent workmanship of
Canadian Aeroplanes shown in the construction
of navy flying boats, the bureau is glad to recom-
mend the facilities of your plant, and it is hoped
that additional work in aircraft construction may
be secured elsewhere."
The feat was not without effort. The thirty boats
contracted for have been delivered, the first being
turned out within three months from receipt of order.
The shipments included spares to the extent of one
additional boat in every three, exclusive of hull. It was
not necessary to engage any additional staff, but it was
necessary to give the training required to convert the
aeroplane builder into the boat builder. This con-
struction filled in a period between orders for machines
for the Royal Air Force, but it involved the purchasing
of special material from the United States, in which
market the U.S. competitors of the company were
already firmly established.
Boat building was, however, but a side issue of
the primary purpose of the organization. It was
formed to supply an Imperial brigade with ample
and satisfactory aeroplanes. That this was done is
unquestionable; but it is questionable whether those
responsible for its organization and those under
whose guiding hands it grew so amazingly foresaw the
proportion the business was to assume or the peculiarly
intimate relationship it established with the work
50
FIliST AVKO MACHINE OF C. A. L.
51
FINISHING PROPELLERS.
52
of the brigade. The various reports of the General
Officer Commanding on this subject pay unstinted
tribute to the excellence of the service rendered. More
than this, it is due to the qualities of the Canadian
JN4 machine as manufactured in Toronto by the
Canadian Aeroplanes Limited that training in flying
by the Royal Air Force was so advanced that it covered
the practice of all aerial manoeuvres and "stunts"
possible on any machine.
In the graphs on pages 54 and 55 will be found certain
data of interest giving the progress of manufacture, etc.,
but the essential figures are those not written. They
are to be found, if computable, in the service rendered
to the Empire by some three thousand pilots who
first took to the air in machines made by this great
national plant.
53
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A COMFORTABLE CRASH.
56
THE COST OF TRAINING
Herewith is given a diagram presenting the net
cost of the work of the brigade in Canada. The
disbursements indicated include the total of all sums
paid out both by the Corps and the Aviation Department
ofthel.M.B. '
This cost, being $9,835 per pilot trained, will, it
is estimated, be reduced to $9,660 when the various
assets of the brigade have been liquidated. It will
be seen that no amount has been apportioned against
the complete training of 137 observers, and the partial
training of 3,500 cadets who were on the strength and
in various stages of ground tuition in November, 1918.
From December, 1917 to April, 1918, both brigade
and Imperial Munitions Board expenditures show a
decrease. This is due to the fact that for these months
the cost of aeroplanes, engines, spares, etc., were met
by the U.S. Signal. Service, for whom the Corps trained
a large number of pilots. The amount thus saved by
the Corps may be considered as approximately equal
to that spent on the partial training of 3,500 cadets and
included in the gross sum mentioned.
The increase in outlay by the Imperial Munitions
Board in the autumn of 1918 was occasioned by a large
building programme, designed to accommodate the
entire brigade in winter quarters, no further move to
Texas being contemplated. When hostilities ceased
this accommodation was practically finished.
It will be noted that the winter of 1918 found the
brigade with its capital expenditure complete, and
subject only to such maintenance charges as rations,
pay, repairs, etc. Had training, therefore, been con-
tinued, it is without doubt that pilots would have been
turned out at a cost very much less than that above
indicated.
57
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HEADQUARTERS STAFF.
The duties undertaken by the headquarters staff of
the Corps were, in many respects, much more onerous
than those which fall to the lot of a similar establish-
ment in Great Britain, and comprised not only the
routine work of the brigade, but also very many
functions which under home conditions would have been
assumed by either the War Office or the Air Ministry.
Looking back at the past two years, it appears
that although the headquarters burden was thus
increased, the arrangement proved distinctly to the
advantage of the Corps, resulting as it did in the
centralization of authority and a constant unity of
purpose and procedure which otherwise would have
been difficult of achievement.
To make the matter perfectly clear, the Royal Air
Force, Canada, must be considered as a unit operating
outside the boundaries of the usual activities of the
Air Ministry, and endowed with special authority and
freedom of action, but handicapped, nevertheless, by
certain limitations, which, although greatly alleviated
by the helpful attitude of the Canadian authorities,
made it imperative that extreme care should be used
both in policy and action.
It is obvious from the chapter which deals with
the matter of recruiting, that particular judgment had
to be used in the means adopted to bring the Corps up
to the necessary strength, and it was doubly important
that every precaution be taken to avoid enlisting men
who were subject to the provisions of the Canadian
Military Service Act.
Only in very special cases where the applicant's
qualifications made the enlistment desirable, was any
recruit signed on who came under the provision of this
Act.
61
The organization and formation of units was; of
course, constantly subject to fluctuations in recruiting,
and that these units were so soon brought up to
workable strength, speaks well for the care given in
this respect.
The arrangements made between Brigade Head-
quarters and the Department of Militia and Defence
in Ottawa were all important; and negotiations for
medical service, rations, etc., etc., having been com-
pleted with satisfaction to the Canadian government,
it fell to headquarters staff to maintain a constant and
careful liaison with the various departments involved.
In addition there were also many important con-
ferences at Washington, these resulting in a complete
understanding between the U.S. Signal Service and the
brigade, which understanding took admirable shape in
the reciprocal training agreement so successfully carried
out by the Corps in Canada and Texas.
Responsibility for training in Canada lay with the
officer of headquarters staff on this duty, and constant
touch was maintained with Great Britain in order
that the methods of the Canadian unit might always
reflect every recent advance in the system adopted.
Reference has been made elsewhere to the excellent
service given by the Curtiss engine and Canadian JN4
aeroplane. This machine became out of date a little
later, but such were its qualifications of strength and
manoeuvring capacity, that, during the more recent
period of the work of the brigade all pilots were sent
overseas with flying instruction practically complete,
needing only an introduction to machines, which
although faster and more modern, were able to perform
few manoeuvres which had not already been done on
the JN4.
Owing to the fact that one-half of the personnel
of the brigade was in a constant state of flux, and
moving forward from unit to unit, additional work was
thrown upon both the Records and Quartermaster's
62
CAPT. C. J. BLACKMORE
MAJ. J. INWOOD
63
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M
tEADY FOR THE AIR.
THE TAKE-OFF WINTER FLYING.
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS CANTEEN.
department, and the prompt manner in which these
organizations adapted themselves to the changing needs
is worthy of mention. The move to Texas created an
involved situation which was made workable only by a
very special effort and complete cooperation with the
Imperial Munitions Board, and, in spite of the strain
thus occasioned, the success of this move must always
be recalled with particular satisfaction by those
responsible for its arrangement.
The Quartermaster branch discharged, as well, the
duty of a Quartermaster-General's department, this
being but one instance out of many in which the
obligations of individual sections of the brigade were
enlarged till they paralleled the work elsewhere per-
formed by the Air Board or the War Office,
The composition of the Canadian units decided
upon by the War Office, varied considerably from that
of units already established in England, and, in conse-
quence, the mobilization and equipment tables hereto-
fore in use proved in most respects inapplicable to
Canadian requirements. Thus there was thrown upon
the Aircraft Equipment branch the almost unprece-
dented duty of compiling all the data determining every
item of equipment to be supplied for carrying on the
work of the Corps.
It was provided from the first that responsibility
for price and point of purchase would be borne by the
Aviation Department, and the burden of the A.E.
branch ceased when requisitions were handed to the
former. This, however it eased the situation, still left
upon the A.E. branch the constant onus of working out
in detail the entire list of engines and aeroplanes, with
their multitudinous spares, and the complicated list of
stores, technical and otherwise, requisite for the training
of a continuous stream of pilots.
The records of the branch show that while the
supply of machines from the Canadian Aeroplanes
factory was invariably dependable, considerable diffi-
67
culty was experienced in securing deliveries of engines,
and, on occasions, machines were sent to the wings
without engines, the latter to be installed when received.
Motor transport being carefully considered, the
original orders proved practically sufficient for all
needs, and there was purchased only about one half of
the equipment officially authorized. Had not the
units at Beamsville and Hamilton been organized, the
provision made early in 1917 would have proved
sufficient. In the supply of aeroplane spares, the
excellent service rendered by the repair sections of the
various flying units in making broken parts serviceable,
steadily reduced the monthly proportional outlay.
It is not possible in the scope of a page to go into the
innumerable details, the solution of which rested with
the A.E. branch. Sufficient funds were of course
available, and an admirable cooperation with the
Aviation Department of the I.M.B. always saved the
situation even sometimes at the last moment but the
difficulties overcome were very serious, and there were
times when the imperative demands of the flying wings
seemed almost impossible to satisfy. Added to this,
there was increased difficulty in securing supplies after
the United States entered the war and placed em-
bargoes on many classes of goods. In spite of all,
however, flying was never practically affected by any
lack of material.
Since it is desired only to give an outline of head-
quarters duties, it is asked that the diagram on
page 71 be referred to. The various subdivisions were
found to be satisfactory and workable, and to reflect
with accuracy those administrative needs on the
fulfillment of which depended both the progress of the
unit with its co-related branches, and the quality of the
pilots it was privileged to turn out.
68
GERMAN AERODROME, WESTERN FRONT
69
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Lr.-CoL. J. RUBIE
General Staff duties.
Organization and form-
ation of units.
Discipline.
Establishments.
Arrangement for move-
ment of troops.
-A.O. 2
MAJ. J. M. MITCHELL
General routine.
General administration
Headquarters orders.
Officers' records.
Posting and employ-
ment of officers.
Promotions.
-A.O. 1A.
LT.-COL. A. K. TYLEE
General supervision of
training.
-A.E.
COL. F. R. G. HOARE
Analysis and provision
of all technical supplies
Records MAJOR H. B. DENTON
Recruiting all cadets and airmen
and records of all non-commis-
sioned members .of the Force.
Works Section
MAJOR 0. C. MACPHERSON
Supervision of all structural and
aerodrome work.
Discipline
MAJOR C. R. HUGGINS
Courts martial.
Courts of enquiry re absentees.
CAPT. J. L LANGMUIR
Assistant Provost Marshal.
Medical Boards \ A/r ^^
Dental Services \ MAJ ' REILLT
Organization and control
all medical services.
of
A.O. ZA.CAPT. F. D. WILLIAMS
Pay and allowances.
Examination of unit orders.
Civilian claims.
Transportation Warrants
CAPT. G. J. BLACKMORE
A.O. IB. MAJ. M. A. SEYMOUR
All Flying training; syllabus of
instruction; courts of enquiry
re flying accidents; reports and
graphs re training progress;
technical matters regarding
flying (no material); technical
training of officers, non-com-
missioned officers, cadets and
men.
A.O. 1C. CAPT. W H. FARNELL
Photography; supervision of this
instruction at all units.
A.E. 1. MAJOR J. INWOOD
Assisting A.E.
Quartermaster Services
CAPT. G. J. BLACKMORE
71
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74
75
TRAINING IN GENERAL.
To achieve a brief review of the progressive instruc-
tion received by pilots and observers, it is unfortunately
necessary to omit reference to many developments
which from time to time built up the system finally
secured. This is the more regrettable, since the
foundations were laid under strenuous circumstances.
Insufficient staffs provided with meagre equipment,
much of which they themselves had to evolve, did
notable service at a time when the demands upon them
were constantly increasing. It is hoped, therefore,
that those to whom the brigade is indebted for a vast
amount of admirable and constructive effort will
realize the impossibility of any descriptive detail con-
cerning it, and will find in the ultimate methods
adopted the essential fruit of their early labours.
To the photographic record of training on these
pages it is now desired to add certain data concerning
the routine of instruction.
The cadet enlisting in the Spring of 1918 proceeded
to the Cadet Wing at Long Branch after passing
through the Recruits Depot, where he received an
initiation into infantry training and buzzing (tele-
graphic receiving and sending) up to his ability in the
period. Here he was clothed, equipped and given
lectures on personal hygiene, discipline, and the prim-
ary features of the R.A.F. This course did not
exceed two weeks.
During the eight weeks at the Cadet Wing the
pupil's horizon broadened. He found also that every
inducement was offered to proficiency and hard work,
for instruction continued even in hospital, provided he
was fit to receive it. Sports and physical exercise
kept him in condition, and leave was frequent.
76
PHOTOGRAPHY.
ARTILLERY OBSERVATION SENDING STATIONS.
77
TESTING RIGGING.
His wireless was carried on to receiving and sending
eight words a minute, and instruction was given in
such a way that he was untroubled by the presence
of the cadet beside him, because that cadet received
and sent with a different wave length of transmission
current. Panneau (see illustration on page 199)
was read at four words a minute and practice alter-
nated with the use of Aldis signal lamps. Ground
strips, reproduced electrically in miniature, required
correct reading. The method of locating flashes
(symbolic of shell bursts) on clock coding target
(page 158) demanded special attention to the point of
locating ten successive flashes.
Came then aerial navigation, the knowledge of which
is essential to all who travel by air. An extremely
interesting study this, covering sketching, compass
work both magnetic and prismatic, definitions and
conventional signs used in fact all such information
as is necessary not only to read intelligently and quickly
any civil or military map and absorb the information
' often so vitally necessary, but also to construct one
which shall be legible for general military and
artillery purposes.
It follows, then, that the cadet when he arrived
at the School of Aeronautics had already moulted
much of the civilian. The plumage of the pilot was
beginning to sprout.
At this point his education was carried still further.
He applied his map-reading knowledge to an immense
reproduction of part of the actual theatre of war,
showing whole battlefields in faithful outline. He
studied the plotting of an aerial course from point to
point, with a given wind velocity and speed of aero-
plane. He delved into air and weather conditions
in northern France and learned what targets looked
like when seen from the air. He began photo-
graphy, the study of artillery work, zone call systems
and those simple yet enormously important and pre-
79
arranged signals between battery and aeroplane.
Here, too, he was introduced to the science of bombing.
Moving on to engines of various types, he absorbed
their principles of design and operation with practical
work on the engines themselves which were set up on
running stands at Camp Leaside and subjected to
every temporary indisposition imaginable in order
that the pupil might diagnose and remedy the trouble
(page 83). With the engines he studied the design of
the aeroplane, assembling and dismantling till its
structure became simple and familiar (page 172).
Coincident with all this was his education as a soldier,
with lectures in military law, procedure, the organiza-
tion of various arms of the service, the internal economy
of R.A.F. squadrons, wings, parks and depots and the
various phases of active service duty.
Congested as it may appear, there was in actuality
no congestion. This was due not only to the fact that
instruction was invariably progressive, but also such
mechanical inventiveness had been displayed by the
staff that whenever practical instruction involving
mechanics of any nature was given, there was always
produced the relative mechanical device which showed
the practical application of the theory and demon-
strated quite unmistakably its physical character.
From the School of Aeronautics to which further
reference is made (page 162) the cadet proceeded to the
Armament School. In the chapter under this heading
his course is sufficiently outlined, and by the time he
arrived at a flying wing he had mastered the theoretical
and mechanical essentials of the principles and appli-
ances which were to control his further development.
It was recognized that if instruction in wireless
ceased on arrival at the wings, the pupil at once became
rusty in these requirements, and, from the commence-
ment of the Corps, work classes were invariably held
in this and kindred subjects at all flying units.
80
Now came the time to which the cadet had been
looking forward since his enlistment. Entrusted to a
competent instructor, he embarked on flying tuition.
Here also was practice in aerial photography, vertical
and oblique, and bomb dropping by wireless, in which
the pilot signalled the release of an imaginary bomb,
the message being received by an observer in a camera
obscura hut, who noted also the position of the machine
at the instant of release. Formation and fifty-mile
cross-country flights were practised, the former as in
active service, the latter giving opportunity for map
reading in the air, and the actual collection of a variety
of information which paralleled the duty to be per-
formed at the front.
Here, too, the cadet climbed to 6,000 feet and re-
mained at this height for fifteen minutes. He flew
through clouds guided by compass, read ground strips
and Aldis lamp signals, and in general comported
himself exactly as though in the air over enemy
country, and when he ultimately reported at Camp
Leaside it was as a skilled pilot thoroughly at home in
his machine and ready for the two final periods of his
instruction.
At Leaside, the 43rd Wing, came final tuition in
artillery cooperation. Here the cadet absorbed to his
capacity all that science and a particularly brilliant
system of instruction could give him. The picture
target of former days was reproduced on a huge scale,
and from work on this the pupil took to the air. From
an altitude of 2,000 feet he noted bursts presumed to
be those of batteries, located them on his map and
wirelessed their position to the receiving battery sta-
tion, correcting and directing its fire. Information
was sent down describing the effect of barrage fire, the
movement of troops, the location of wire and similar
details. Contact patrol work was studied, as was
indeed every feature of artillery cooperation duty, even
to the wearing of gauntlets when sending wireless.
81
All through the period of training his physical con-
dition was regarded as of prime importance; and
continual exercises, so arranged as to develop every
bodily power, and, in consequence, every mental
activity, were faithfully practised. The result was a
human mechanism, fit and alert, sound and responsive,
and capable of being brought to the highest possible
pitch of efficiency.
At the School of Aerial Fighting came the last step
in the development of the pilot. Armed with Vickers
and Lewis guns he went through a final course of
ground gunnery which demonstrated the problems and
mechanics of the art of shooting to the last degree. Tak-
ing to the air, first with another pilot, he shot at full-
sized silhouettes anchored in Lake Ontario a mile from
shore. Later, armed with a camera gun loaded with
film, he undertook aerial practice on a brother cadet,
the developed film showing the accuracy of his aim.
Aerial tactics were carried out, and every imaginable
manoeuvre of attack and escape has been observable
for months at this most interesting of camps. Finally,
equipped mentally and physically, with all that the
British Empire could do for him, he left for either
overseas as the highest product of the R.A.F., Can.,
or to the School of Special Flying to be tested as an
instructor, an equally arduous but more thankless
undertaking.
83
NORTH TORONTO.
The North Toronto wing was the third flying station
of the brigade to go into action. It was subdivided into
two units, Leaside and Armour Heights, the ground for
the former being most generously offered free of charge
by the York Land Company and the town of Leaside;
while for the use of the latter area the Corps is in-
debted to F. B. Robins, Esq.
Actual construction commenced on May 21st.
Leaside, comprising 222 acres, presented an admirable
surface which was carefully drained. The structural
programme called for nine flight sheds, together with
instructional and repair buildings, etc. At the close
of hostilities there was accommodation for 89 officers,
230 cadets, 83 warrant officers and sergeants, and about
600 rank and file, the latter being housed in a large
factory building, the use of which was secured from the
Leaside Munitions Company. In the autumn of 1918,
work was commenced on a central heating plant
serving the officers' and cadets' quarters.
The territory north, east and west of Leaside
presented a country with fairly large fields and but
little wooded land, and there was in consequence
every opportunity for forced landings. As this station
was the main point at which training was given in
artillery cooperation, a most complete system of
observation huts connected by telephones, was con-
structed and dotted the countryside for miles around.
Leaside has always been a point of interest to
visitors on account of its proximity to Toronto, and has
had the honor of inspection by H.R.H. Prince Arthur
of Connaught and the Duke of Devonshire, at that time
Governor-General of Canada. From Leaside also started
the aerial mail which, under the auspices of the Aero Club
85
of Canada, made several trips to Montreal and Ottawa,
and demonstrated the great advantage that will no
doubt accrue from the use of aerial transport for
this purpose.
At Armour Heights were the squadrons detailed
to give instruction in what is known as the Armour
Heights course. The aerodrome lies some five miles
north of Toronto. Here accommodation was provided
for 58 officers, 56 cadets, 32 warrant officers and
sergeants and 188 rank and file. The type of building
and general arrangement of the station did not present
any features varying noticeably from other camps, but
this unit was always the object of much interest
to visitors on account of the advanced flying at all
times observable. The output of instructors here
graduated has been vital to the success of the Corps,
and the keenness and enthusiasm displayed was un-
doubtedly fostered by the brilliant example set by
the flight commander who for many months was in
charge. His record has been worthily maintained.
86
87
88
BEAMSVILLE CAMP.
The site of the School of Aerial Fighting was
selected in the autumn of 1917. Actual preparation
of some 300 acres comprising the aerodrome began, and
the work of building was in full swing by December.
Climatic conditions approximated those at Camp
Borden some twelve months previously, it being a
winter of severe cold and high winds, but so earnestly
was construction pushed that the camp stood ready
for occupation when the School of Aerial Gunnery, as
it then was, returned from Texas at the beginning of
April, 1917. This provision did not at the time
include barracks for cadets and rank and file.
As will be understood, complete equipment was
provided for gunnery practice, the several ranges run-
ning from 25 to 200 yards. These were furnished with a
diversity of targets for surprise deflection, miniature
aeroplane and disappearing target work, the type of
butt here constructed proving extremely satisfactory.
Full sized silhouettes of machines, riding on anchored
rafts, were also set out in Lake Ontario a mile or so
from shore, it having already been established in
practice over Lake Worth, Texas, that firing over the
water was of great value, owing to the accuracy with
which registration could be made and also the ex-
cellent opportunity given of arriving at a proper
diving angle. Beamsville provided all such advantages,
and practice was further stimulated by the use of a
fast armour-clad launch, which, travelling at top speed,
offered an unusually good target.
As work developed, it became clear that the School
was in point of fact one of tuition in aerial fighting,
the practice of tactics forming a large part of the
instruction given. Its nomenclature was in conse-
quence altered in July, 1918.
89
In the summer of this year, a fourth squadron was
organized and housed, and steps taken to provide
permanent accommodation for all ranks. This pro-
gramme included additional officers' quarters, and the
construction of about a dozen large buildings on the
hillside which previously held the tents of the unit.
The work had just been completed at the date of the
armistice, when the accommodation at this station
was sufficient for 122 officers, 400 cadets, 96 warrant
officers and sergeants and 768 rank and file.
Other services covered an excellent supply of pure
water from the lake, a complete drainage system, and
ample electrical facilities from the circuits of the
Dominion. Power and Transmission Company of Ham-
ilton, from which city Beamsville is some twenty-three
miles distant to the eastward.
The trip from Toronto by air was always of interest,
paralleling the south shore of Lake Ontario to the
long sandspit that cuts off Hamilton Bay from the
main lake, along this curving bar and thence over
orchard and vineyard along the edge of the great
escarpment over which, a little further eastward,
plunges the Niagara River. This area is appro-
priately called the garden of Canada, and the unit found
itself fortunate in its surroundings.
90
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE.
91
INSPECTION.
The Aeroplane Inspection Department took the
responsibility of determining whether every aeroplane
and every engine bought by the Royal Air Force,
Canada, complied with the rigid requirements laid
down as necessary before acceptance. That the
duties of this organization were, in point of fact,
admirably carried out, is evident in the splendid results
secured by the brigade in flying duty.
The A.I.D. was, under another name, in actual
existence in Canada before the arrival of the Corps
in January, 1917, being then engaged in supervising
the manufacture of machines made in Canada for the
Admiralty by a branch of the Curtiss Aeroplane Com-
pany situated in Toronto. The work at that time
was under the Director of Inspection for the Imperial
Ministry of Munitions.
The coming of the Royal Flying Corps to Canada, and
the consequent demand for the supply of large numbers
of engines and machines, made it advisable that the
unit should reap the fullest possible advantage by the
expansion of inspection work into an organization,
the first duty of which would be vouching for the
quality of aeronautical supplies purchased. In order
that the work of this Department might be kept
absolutely up to date, constant touch was maintained
with the Ministry of Munitions in Great Rritain, and
information regarding every new development was
invariably transmitted to Canada without delay.
Thus it has been possible that the factories in Canada
producing aeroplane material were kept modernized
by the best known methods of inspection.
It will be evident that the term inspection was
something more than a name. All raw material of
every description entering any factory for the manu-
93
facture of aeronautical supplies subject to the Aero-
plane Inspection Department, is held until a release
note is given by the latter, the release note only being
issued, in the case of sheet metal, for instance, when a
sample has been taken from every sixth sheet and
analysed with satisfactory results. In the case of
steel tubing, of which a great deal is used, every tenth
tube is dealt with likewise, the same minute method
being impartially applied to all material received.
As manufacture progresses with the material which
has been passed, the manufactured parts themselves
are subject to a second inspection, and are not allowed
to be sent on to the assembling department unless up
to requirements. A common sight in such factories is
the supervisor's metal cage, and it is on record that
through one cage passed no less than 150,000 metal
parts in one week.
Lastly comes inspection of final assembly; this
formerly applied to every machine, but rigging and
adjusting before leaving the factory was ultimately
reduced to every sixth, results being found acceptable.
Here the same rigid method was carried out, and
examination release sheets were filled in. If results
were satisfactory, these were signed by the Aeroplane
Inspection Department, and a copy passed on to the
Aircraft Equipment Branch of the R.F.C., the latter
refusing each and all deliveries not thus vouched for.
So satisfactorily had the system worked out, that at
the request of the brigade the Aeroplane Inspection
Department installed their representatives to pass
upon the work of the Engine and Aeroplane Repair
Parks of the brigade.
In British Columbia, the A.I.D. gave valuable
services by the passing of all aeroplane lumber pur-
chased by the Imperial Ministry of Munitions for
aeroplane purposes, and from this source was drawn
raw material required by Canadian factories. The
quantities handled were very large, as much as four
94
A PANCAKE.
WHAT A MACHINE DID TO A DERRICK-
PILOT UNHURT.
COLLISION.
95
96
FORMATION.
GLIDING HOME.
MACHINE SEEN THROUGH A VERTICAL "BANK.'
97
98
and a half million feet being inspected in the course
of a month. Other services were the supervision of
the manufacture of the many engines purchased by
the brigade from the Curtiss Aeroplane and Engine
Company in the United States.
In order that there might be a thorough consensus
upon all technical questions, there was formed shortly
after arrival of the R.A.F. an Aircraft Advisory Board.
This consisted of representatives from the factory,
from the R.A.F. and from the A.I.D., and dealt with
the question of any changes required or contemplated
in machines. It is hardly necessary to add that no
alterations were actually made without conference
between the Board and the A.I.D. The chief inspector
states that always and under all circumstances the
greatest possible harmony has existed between his
organization and that of the R.A.F.
99
THE INSTRUCTOR.
Flying instructors are, for the most part, too good
to be sent overseas. This is a bald and possibly
astonishing statement. The rest are usually those who,
being incapacitated at the front from further active
duty, spend the rest of their service imparting valuable
knowledge to others. From which it may be seen that
the appointment is highly honourable as well as
arduous.
In the early days of the R.F.C., Canada, the job
was not as exacting as in the later months of the R.A.F.,
Canada. The instructor was then a man who could
fly. To-day he is still a man who can fly, but has, to
boot, a peculiar and well developed art of infusing his
own skill and courage into the pupil by following a
certain recognized procedure which has been demon-
strated to be the last word in training. There is noth-
ing in this derogatory to the early instructors. Their
work was admirable. In a sense they took even greater
risks, owing to the slight preliminary training then
afforded to pupils before going up. But the in-
structor of to-day is one who himself has been instructed
not only in the mechanics and dynamics of flight,
but also in that inductive process by which he acquires
the complete confidence of his pupil. It will be under-
stood therefore, that on the introduction of the more
modern system of training, to which reference is made on
page 211, it was necessary to re-examine all instructors
and make sure that their abilities equalled the new
requirements. In addition it was constantly necessary
to be sure that instructors were not growing stale in
their work.
While there is undoubted fascination in flying, the
sensation begins to pall after hundreds of hours in the
air in a slow machine which circles somewhat mon-
otonously over areas of which every detail has long
100
101
102
since been memorized. The Canadian JN4 is
considered reliable, with vagaries too slight to demand
much attention, and a most excellent machine for
instructional purposes. It is not as inherently stable
as some others, but instruction on a stable machine
would not have been as desirable as on one which
required constant if simple control, and effected its
higher manoeuvres by acquired momentum and not by
engine power.
In Canadian flying therefore, per se, there is nothing
particularly attractive for the instructor. The most
unstable element is provided by the cadet, and it has
been remarked that at the outset "he has many oppor-
tunities for error and usually discovers them all."
To anyone who has observed a machine reeling un-
steadily around an aerodrome under the guidance of
a fledgling pilot, while his instructor sits impassively in
the seat of danger, it will be apparent that the latter
has attained an abnormal degree of pluck and com-
posure. It is a point of honour with him not to assume
control until it is obviously imperative, and even then
there is danger lest the pupil, in an excess of fear,
cling desperately to the stick and bring about disaster.
With the instructor must be placed the second
in command of squadrons. To this officer falls the
responsibility of conducting the "pool," through which
all pupils pass before being posted out. Here take
place those final tests which determine the cadet's
Eroficiency. Failing in any one, the pupil is returned
>r further tuition. To this officer, therefore, the
squadron commander looks for the ultimate approval
of the work of every cadet, as well for the satisfactory
condition of instructors and aerodrome discipline.
There are compensations, however, it no guarantee
of personal security. To the instructor, for instance,
there is always interest in the never-ending tide of
cadets, their personalities, their characteristics as
developed in the air and their progress. A cadet's
103
first solo flight brings, if successful, a peculiar pride to
the man who taught him to fly, but if not successful a
self-searching to determine what link in the armour of
tuition has been weak for the instructor is held
responsible for the crash.
The wing examining officer was called into exis-
tence by the introduction of the Gosport system, which
in itself has been developed and modified to suit
Canadian conditions. The first result of this intro-
duction was that it became necessary to comb out
instructors, some of whom had been too long on the
job and were "stale," others too old, others too young
to be entirely steady, and others who, though excellent
pilots, could not adopt the principles and psychology
evolved. Still others needed instruction themselves.
To this end the School of Special Flying was established
at Armour Heights under a brilliant pilot. A steady
supply of well-trained men was assured by the opera-
tions of this unit.
Early in the year 1918, the instructors at every
wing were put under the wing examining officer, whose
duty it was to weed out those who got stale, to test the
abilities of all new instructors from time to tune, and
form his own opinion of their instructional capacity.
In addition, it was the obligation of this officer, to
investigate the log book of every machine which
crashed, and demand an explanation of any apparent
discrepancies, and also to keep knowledge of all
crashes so as to determine whether any one instructor
was responsible for an unreasonable number. In the
case of the latter being evident, it was palpable that
the instructor was either stale or too young for his
work, and he was forthwith sent overseas, where
usually under the new and much-longed-for stimulant
he did admirably.
A mind of peculiar judgment is required to find its
chief satisfaction in the achievements of others. This
is demanded of all instructors. Deprived of the
104
105
106
tremendous incentive of contact with the enemy,
isolated, as it were, in a daily repetition of duties that
afford little variety, constantly speeding off others to
that thrilling destination where they fain would be
others who owe to them their fitness to go such is
the every-day grind.
And yet how tremendously it has all counted ! A
large part of the work of the brigade was in preparing
cadets to a point at which they were deemed worthy
of flying instruction. Toward that honourable object
was directed a vast amount of effort. Decorations were
often subsequently won by pupils whose instructors
plugged doggedly along the same old road. There
was no publicity, and only junior very junior rank.
Here, therefore, is given earnestly and officially, the
grateful thanks of the General Officer Commanding
to those men who by their unfailing readiness and pluck
have had so splendid a part in turning out the pilots
the brigade has been privileged to send overseas.
107
THE MEDICAL SERVICE.
The R.A.F., Canada, is indebted to many Canadian
authorities and organizations for assistance rendered,
but to none is the debt greater than to the Canadian
Army Medical Corps for supplying the personnel from
which the medical service of the Royal Air Force has
from time to time been built up. The request was
made in January by the Imperial Government that the
Canadian Militia Department should supply this
service. Prompt action was taken, and from a
small beginning there has been formed a complete
corps of medical officers, medical orderlies and nurses,
skilled not only in everyday practice but also in the
special work called for at flying camps.
The original intention was to supply only a small
camp hospital, with one medical officer and the neces-
sary orderlies at the various aerodromes, but it was soon
determined that the work of the Medical Corps covered
a much wider range than was anticipated. Almost
the first need was that of skilled orderlies who were
specially trained in first aid. Owing to calls from
overseas, the available number of men was very small,
and it was found imperative that the senior medical
officer of the R.A.F. provide the necessary training.
Coincident with this came a further need of isolation
hospitals, which, although the general health of the
brigade was maintained at an unusually high standard,
were found to be essential in order that the work of
training might not suffer in the least degree.
The responsibilities undertaken by the medical
department were made the more onerous, not only
because an extremely low percentage of class "A"
men were enlisted and these only owing to their
possession of invaluable technical ability, but also
because the community at large suffered from severe
108
109
HOSPITAL CAMP BORDEN.
"HUNGRY LIZZIE.
110
civilian epidemics of scarlet fever and influenza. Sur-
gical work, with dental surgery which latter covered
many major operations owing to crashes resulting in
broken jaws and teeth comprised a considerable part
of the duties performed.
A modern operating room was completely furnished
at each aerodrome, together with X-ray equipment at
the "out-stations." In the autumn of 1917, the
medical orderlies were further aided by the introduction
of nursing sisters. For these also we are indebted
to the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and without
question their work has been of the highest possible
advantage. Thus, by degrees, the medical staff of the
Royal Air Force increased its personnel, the burden
of its duties and the value of its services.
Ambulance equipment was of prime importance.
A Packard machine, provided with a special type of
shock absorbers and every possible requisite, not only for
first aid but also for fire extinguishing, was stationed
at each field, and remained on constant and watch-
ful duty from the time the first aeroplane took the
air till the skies were empty for the night. So close
was the lookout, that ' 'first aid" was often tearing full-
powered to the rescue before the crash completed its
descent. The ground traversed being often rough and
devoid of roads, it was imperative that the ambu-
lances be perfectly cushioned, lest the condition of
"shock" as frequently found in "crash" be aggravated
by the journey home. It is hardly conceivable that
there could have been found vehicles better designed for
the purpose than those selected, and unquestionably
lives were saved in consequence of their use. Chemical
extinguishers and asbestos blankets, the latter intro-
duced for protection of the pilot in case the crash was
in flames, were also carried as part of the equipment.
For winter purposes at outlying stations, the aerial
ambulances shown herewith were evolved. With a
wide radius, landings could have been made in any
ill
suitable, snow-covered place, however inaccessible by
motor transport. They were never to be used by the
R.A.F., Canada.
In this connection it is interesting to note the
degree to which the duties of the medical officers in
flying camps varied from the more or less regulated
routine met with in other services. The senior
medical officer has, from time to time, instilled into
his staff certain axioms for their constant guidance.
It has been, for instance, necessary that the medical
officer in flying camps become, as far as possible, the
confidant arid adviser of all ranks. It is advisable
that he himself get into the air as soon as feasible, and
that the machine which carries him be put through
all evolutions, in order to acquaint him with the
physical phenomena of flying. No machine must
leave the ground unless the medical officer on duty
is within reach, nor must the latter leave the aerodrome
while there is a machine in the air. A further respon-
sibility is that he must pronounce upon the fitness of
all cadets and flying officers to take the air, and, further,
without hesitation, prevent any man from going up
who is, in his opinion, unfit. As routine work he must
also conduct a monthly physical inspection of all
cadets, and be present at all "test flights."
The psychological side of medical service takes
on new proportions in a flying camp. The personality
and characteristics of the patient in question must
be always kept in mind so that when investigating
air sickness the medical officer may determine
whether it is real or assumed. The question of fear, i.e.,
"aerophobia," in its actuality, and any loss of nervous
control, must be established if existing and obversely.
Any excitement or tension must be carefully distin-
guished from natural recklessness or other character-
istics of what is termed a "thrusting disposition."
An exhaustive study of the ideal pilot established
the fact that he should have an acute and correct sense
of equilibrium. This does not appear so essential
for an observer, who if he is fairly safe in the air and does
not become giddy in stunting, may prove acceptable.
The "rotation tests," described in detail below,
have proved that as regards a great number of success-
ful pilots referring to those who have flown 100 hours
and more, in no case has a man been discovered
who has not conformed to the above standards laid
down for admission to the brigade. Above all there
is demanded a sound physical condition, by which
alone all bodily functions will respond normally.
The following data are taken verbatim from
memoranda issued by the senior medical officer and
authorized by the G.O.C. for the information of
medical and flying officers:
"For the information of the flying officer, a short
explanation of the phenomena of equilibrium ma^
not be out of place. Deep in the bones of the skull,
in close connection with the hearing apparatus, lie, one
set on each side, a series of three minute canals, filled
with a clear fluid and lined with a membrane inti-
mately connected by delicate nervous elements with
the brain.
"These canals, each corresponding to half of the arc
of a circle, are about half an inch in length, have a
diameter of about one-twentieth of an inch and inter-
communicate. They he in the three dimensions
or planes of space, and it is primarily due to
movements in the contained fluid acting on the delicate
nerve terminals, which are directly connected with
the brain through fibres of the Vill nerve, that man is
enabled to maintain the equilibrium of the body.
It may be of interest to note at this point that the
corresponding system in birds shows the extremely
high degree of development one would expect. Know-
ing that to be a successful pilot a man must have an
accurate and delicate perception of his position in
113
relation to the earth, it is readily seen how intimately
the internal ear, its adjuncts, and the problems involved
in aeronautics are related. It should be understood
that the canals mentioned above have nothing to do
with the sense of hearing.
''Close to these, and in the same portion of the
bone, lie two others closely resembling the spiral
canals found in conch shells, and it is on these
canals, also filled with fluid and lined with cells
connected to the brain by fine nervous filaments, that
we rely for our auditory impressions. It has been
proved that not only dizziness, but also nausea and
vomiting, all untoward symptoms frequently encount-
ered in airmen, are closely connected with lesions or
functional disturbances of the labyrinth of the audi-
tory apparatus.
"In order to test the action of these canals, the
contained fluid may be set in motion by rotating the
body. This is most readily done by seating the patient
in a revolving chair, and so, with the head in different
planes, testing the different canals in turn. It has been
found that pilots experiencing difficulty in flying,
especially in maintaining equilibrium, and those who
are troubled with vertigo or nausea, often show
abnormal reactions, and it is for this reason that these
tests are employed. These 'rotation' or 'turning tests'
have been used for a considerable time in connection
with diseases of the internal ear and in the diagnosis
of lesions of the brain, but it is only recently, as a
result of experimental work, that their application to
aeronautics has been demonstrated and proved to be
of practical value.
"In the 'nystagmus test' the applicant is first
spun in the chair exactly ten times in twenty seconds,
accurately checked with a stop watch. The examiner
now carefully observes certain lateral, jerking move-
ments of the eyes which normally appear, but should
cease on an average in twenty-six seconds. A certain
114
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WINTER CRASHES.
116
variation is allowed from the normal time, and cadets
for pilots not conforming to this test should not be
allowed to fly. In it the head is tilted forward to an
angle of thirty degrees in order to stimulate only those
canals which lie in the horizontal plane.
"In order to stimulate those canals lying in the
vertical plane, 'falling tests' are employed. The
subject is instructed to lean forward, resting his
forehead on his hands which are placed on his knees,
and is then turned alternately to right and left five
times in ten seconds.
"Should he be rotated to the right and be ordered
to sit up, he should immediately fall to the right,
which is the normal reaction, but should he sit directly
upright or fall to the opposite direction, a faulty
functioning of these canals or of the pathways in the
brain is thus demonstrated.
" 'Pointing tests' are applied somewhat similarly.
The candidate is turned ten times in ten seconds
alternately to right and left, with eyes closed. He is
then instructed to raise his arm and point to a fixed
object, usually the examiner's finger, of the position of
which he is already aware. As a result of the dizziness
produced, if he has been turned to the right, he should
point to the right of the object. This 'past-pointing'
is a normal reaction, and any considerable deviation will
immediately reject the applicant. Even after the chair
has stopped, the man still feels that he is turning
and is endeavouring to locate the fixed point. The
'past-pointing' shows that he is attempting to allow
for the rotary motion which he is still experiencing,
though actually the chair is stationary.
"Since the more sensitive, theoretically, a man is,
as shown by 'turning tests,' the more likely he is to
be a good pilot, as he should be able to detect more
accurately and early the movements of his plane
without the use of his eyes. This is, however, true
117
only to a limited degree, for we have found that as a
rule the higher the nystagmus time, the more likely is
the man to suffer from vertigo, nausea or vomiting in
the air. On the other hand, theoretically, a man
with a short period of nystagmus should be less sensi-
tive to unpleasant, subjective sensations, and those
with 'dead labyrinths' ought to be immune.
"The practical deduction is that in good pilots the
ocular oscillations must not vary to any considerable
extent, say not more than ten to twelve seconds;
on the other hand the lower or shorter the time the
better a man should be able to stand the violent
swaying of a captive balloon, since it is this motion
above all others that produces the most intense
nausea and emesis. Following the above to its logical
conclusion, we in practice reject men who show too
nigh a nystagmus time, and recommend for observers,
and especially for balloonists, those showing sluggish
reactions."
Failure to conform to either the pointing or falling
reactions required are good and sufficient reasons to
reject applicants for cadet pilots.
It is probable that to the layman much of the
foregoing will be found technical and scientific, but to
the investigator into the physical and psychical phe-
nomena induced by flying, it should be of direct interest.
In the medical service of the R.A.F., Canada, the
value of these tests in their standardized form
was first proved by their application to men who were
actually unfit to fly, and the case sheets of many such
are on file in that department.
Their adoption only followed after the analysis and
continual checking of results obtained by tests not only
upon those who desired to take to the air, but also
those who, having flown, were reported by their
instructors to be unfit to continue, and which showed
that they were demonstrably correct, and not merely
deduced from a priori assumption.
118
REACTION AFTER TURNING TO THE LEFT.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.
119
EEACTION AFTER TURNING.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.
120
Investigations into "oxygen want," as evidenced
by drowsiness, shortness of breath, fainting, etc., at
considerable altitudes, have led the authorities to sup-
ply pilots with oxygen tanks for use in high altitudes,
since it is not the density of atmosphere but the
dearth of oxygen which causes these distressing
symptoms. An apparatus has recently been perfected
by means of which, by diluting the respired air with
nitrogen, it is now possible to determine accurately the
altitude beyond which a pilot may fly in safety, and so
it is hoped to prevent many casualties, and assist in
the "classification" of airmen with reference to their
flying capabilities.
Vision, which when abnormal causes headaches,
dizziness, etc., should be normally stereoscopic, and the
accommodation perfect in at least one eye; but while
accurate color vision is considered desirable, it is not
essential providing the primary colors are correctly
recognized.
Amongst other tests adopted by the brigade are
those giving the vital lung capacity, the expiratory
force, also complemental and supplemental air, the
former being the measurement of the excess capacity
of the lungs over a normal intake of air, the latter that
quantity of air remaining in the lungs after a normal
expiration.
Excess of any nature is frowned on. Excessive
tea or coffee drinking, or any semblance of nicotine
poisoning at once asserts itself. The strain of in-
struction also produces definite phenomena, and pilots
retained for this duty are limited to three and a half
hours' flying daily. These phenomena are watched for,
and treated sanely and sympathetically, till the indi-
vidual with all his personal variations becomes as it
were a human barometer, which infallibly records the
actions and reactions of the flying man's life.
Owing to the fact that the pioneer attempt at sys-
tematic winter training, without regard to temperature,
121
was undertaken during 1917-18 in Canada and success-
fully concluded during the severest weather of many
years, certain new problems required solution. When
it is realized that machines flew at ground temperatures
as low as 35 degrees Fah., the occurrence of frost
bite and any effect of the intense cold on the mental
faculties, to the extent of producing drowsiness and
even stupor, was extremely infrequent. The flying
clothing provided, the Hawker boots, the gauntlets
and chamois face masks, which were adopted after all
ointments, oils, etc., generally in use in altitude flying,
froze in situ, most effectually prevented the expected
difficulties, so completely indeed that during the whole
winter season no serious casualties could be traced to
the effect of the low temperatures encountered.
Such in brief outline are some of the major investi-
gations peculiar to the duties of the medical staff of
the brigade. To these are of course added others
better known, such as blood pressure, etc. Couple
them with psycho-mental problems, and they give some
suggestion of the history compiled for every would-be
pilot and observer, an intimate history unapproached
in detail and interest by any other tabulation of per-
sonal phenomena.
In conclusion, it is desired that special acknowledg-
ment be made of the exceptional service rendered by
medical officers on the aerodromes, and by the staff of
medical orderlies distributed through the brigade.
The hours of the former were long and arduous, the
duties of the latter, for which they were trained by
the senior medical officer and his staff, were manifold
and pressing. That they were admirably performed
is of common knowledge, but that their swiftness in
succour and skill in first aid saved many a life, is
known only to those who have been privileged to see
them at work.
122
123
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WINTER FLYING.
Prior to the operations of the Corps, it was generally
assumed that the obstacles to intensive training in a
snow-covered country were almost insuperable, but
in the light of last winter's experience it is difficult to
imagine the limit to which the aeroplane may not safely
be used in the latitudes of the far north. Its apparent
fragility, the exposure of the pilot, the fact that a
large percentage of accidents occurred in making
landings, and the mental picture of a machine flounder-
ing through snowdrifts in an attempt to rise, all seemed
to reduce the matter to an impossibility. To-day it
has been demonstrated by the work of the 44th Wing
of this unit that, with such provision as has already
been proved suitable, the aeroplane will rise from a
snow surface more easily than from bare ground at
temperatures far below zero, land in spots inaccessible
in summer time, and that the pilot may be maintained
in physical comfort and security and practically
immune to the weather.
The process was one of return to aboriginal prin-
ciples, in that there was adopted a method used by the
North American Indian, since first he traversed the
frozen waste. Experiments soon evidenced that under-
carriage wheels were out of the question in snow more
than six inches deep, and by the elimination of things
that rotated and the adoption of things that slid,
the aeroplane fell, so to speak, into line with the winter
customs of the country. The progressive experiments
out of which were evolved the skids finally adopted,
called for the united suggestions of the unit, the
Repair Park and the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited,
but passing over the investigations into proper length,
width, anchorage, bow curve, and kindred points, the
result was an effective and curiously attractive combin-
125
ation of ancient and modern. As seen in the illustra-
tion on page 130, this gives the machine a semi-naval
appearance prophetic perhaps of the early union
between the air forces of land and sea in the R.A.F.
Once in regular use, the efficiency of these shoes
became very noticeable. The slight bump observable
in the best of landings smoothed itself out into a
gently cushioned settling in which the actual first
contact with the snow was imperceptible. Similarly,
in taking off, the sensation was as in a toboggan darting
without friction down a steep slope. Breakage in
propellers and undercarriages became reduced to a
minimum, and frequent landings soon ironed out the
white expanse of the aerodrome to an unusually good
surface.
The protection of the pilot was of prime importance
to continuous training, and since flying was carried on
at temperatures much below zero, particular attention
was given to guarding against frostbite. Whale oil,
vaseline, etc., smeared on the skin gave only partial
results, and it was not till long flying boots coming to
the thigh were provided, and chamois masks covering
the face, with holes for eyes and mouth were also issued,
that comfort was finally attained. Thus the pilot
could remain in the air for a much longer period, and
perform instructional work with ease. The unit
lacked the electrically-heated clothing issued on the
Western Front, but it did not suffer in consequence.
There were variations, of course, in the powers of re-
sistance to cold, it being found that some pilots could
endure low temperatures much better than others
and this called for the particular attention of the
medical officer on the aerodrome.
As to the engines themselves, but little trouble
was experienced. What did materialize was met by
precautions somewhat similar to those taken in motor
car work under parallel conditions. All petrol, oil and
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LEASIDE IX WINTER.
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water were carefully drawn off every evening, the two
latter being heated when replaced. Radiators were three-
quarter covered by beaver board lined with felt, this
plan working quite satisfactorily. Inspection of rigging
was particularly close, lest the extreme cold should
have set up undue stress in tension members, but the
JN 4 seemed born for the duty, and so far as records
go, no accident took place which is in any way
attributable to mechanical failure brought about by
low temperature.
It was decided also to make certain slight changes
in tail construction should flying be carried on for
another winter. This consisted only of enclosing the
tail skid in a flexible cover at the point where it left
the fuselage to prevent snow from accumulating
inside the latter.
Further protective measures were very simple, such
as wrapping water connections with felt and fabric, and
removing the oil gauge from rear to front seat to
shorten the piping, and leading it between the cylinders
to secure maximum warmth. For the rest, the hangars
were banked with earth some two feet high, and main-
tamed at a temperature not below fifteen degrees of
frost.
That the programme was successful may be seen
from the fact that though the winter was of unusual
severity, both as to cold and snowfall, flying was
carried out for twenty-six days in January, twenty-one
in February, and twenty-five in March. For these
months, the records give an average day temperature
of twenty-six degrees, twenty-two degrees, and seven-
teen degrees above zero, respectively, with a minimum
of thirty-five degrees below. During this period,
some instructors kept up an average flying time per
day of two hours and twenty-five minutes for the whole
three months.
131
On this record it was decided that the training of all
squadrons should be carried out in Canada for the
following winter. This has proved unnecessary. The
campaign is over. But who will now scout the pre-
diction that the far North has no barriers which the
explorer may not surmount with ease and swiftness,
and no secrets which shall not soon be revealed to his
enfranchized gaze.
132
RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF.
133
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RECRUITS' DEPOT JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO
134
RECRUITS' DEPOT.
This unit, formed on February 5th, 1917, was
first stationed in the Givens Street School, Toronto,
which building was also partly occupied by the 228th
Canadian Regiment. Recruiting, however, was active,
and the R.F.C. began to show such strong signs of the
marked popularity it was to attain later, that extra
accommodation was soon required, and Crawford
Street School taken over.
During the summer, it was seen that even this
accommodation was insufficient. The Depot, therefore,
moved out to Leaside, and under canvas.
The strength, at this time about 400, was largely
increased by the arrival of four American squadrons to
be trained by the R.F.C. These were attached to
Recruits' Depot for rations and accommodation. It is
satisfactory to remember that this first contact between
the two corps was productive of an admirable com-
radeship which has existed ever since. It is noted also
that canteen profits greatly increased, and a large per-
centage of these was handed to each American squadron
on its departure.
The quartermaster's branch of the Recruits' Depot
being still at Givens Street, it was realized that much
extra clerical and other work would be saved could the
whole depot be centralized. Steps were therefore
taken by headquarters to acquire convenient barracks
in town.
Early in September, the Recruits' Depot band was
formed largely helped by surplus canteen funds. It
has been a source of much pride and also of a certain
amount of amusement to the men of the depot. All
parties for Texas or the United States were "played"
down to the railway station, and the band and
"Bruno" (the camp dog a handsome St. Bernard)
invariably accompanied the bi-weekly route marches.
135
In October the need of permanent accommodation
in town became urgent. It was eventually found
(owing to the great generosity of the Board of Educa-
tion, Toronto), at the Jesse Ketchum School a large
and commodious building, which was completed as
fast as possible, and loaned absolutely free of cost,
including the larger part of the park attached to the
building, which it was permitted to use as a parade and
sports' ground. This consideration was only typical
of the way in which Toronto public authorities have
invariably dealt with the Royal Flying Corps.
The Depot moved into town on the 17th November,
1917, and was in good workable shape by the middle
of December.
To these barracks, cadets, for the first time, were
sent for preliminary training, and three or four hundred
were thus added to normal strength, which stood at
about 700. The ordinary accommodation proving
insufficient for this number, double bunks were placed
in all the sleeping rooms, where high ceilings and good
lighting made the provision entirely feasible.
The band at this time was a first class organization,
and in great demand for dances and hockey matches-
half the profits made being allotted to the Longwood
Convalescent Home. Concerts were held in the
canteen three times a week. As to exercise, an ice
hockey rink was made, a football ground rolled out,
and three billiard tables put in the canteen, the electric
lighting of the rink being given free of cost by the City
Parks Commissioner. There was, therefore, no lack
of amusement or exercise throughout an unusually
severe winter.
The routine of procedure has been briefly as follows:
Upon arrival at the Depot, all recruits reported to the
non-commissioned officer in charge of the receiving
room, and were allotted sleeping accommodation.
Medical parade for final approval was held each
136
morning at nine o'clock, and an hour later recruits
received their regimental numbers as "finally ap-
proved." Came a parade at quartermaster stores for
issue of kit. Transfer clothing statements and clothing
ledger being signed, all reported back immediately
to the receiving room for the numbering of all articles
of kit now in their possession. Civilian clothes were
packed and sent to any address the owner might wish,
and recruits were turned over to the barrack orderly
sergeant who "carried on."
On discharge, the procedure is practically reversed,
and all men report to the postings department, for the
checking of documents. These being correct, sleeping
quarters are allotted in space set aside for this pur-
pose. The same day, kits are laid out for inspection,
and inventories taken under the supervision of an
officer. These, being signed also by each man concerned,
are sent to the Quartermaster's office, and checked
against the original clothing statements. Deficiency
slips should such result (showing articles deficient,
if any, and their value) go then to the postings depart-
ment, to be checked against pay and mess book. This
information is sent to the officer in charge Records,
on receipt of whose signal that discharge may be
proceeded with, an order is issued to the contractor for
civilian clothing to provide authorized civilian outfit.
The man's kit is turned into the Quartermaster's
store No. 4, where another inventory of articles is made
and forwarded to the Quartermaster's office, to be
again checked against the original clothing statement.
Forms showing actual shortages of kit are submitted
to the Paymaster and a copy of Can. 638 (Particulars
on Discharge) to the Pay Department.
Since the inception of the brigade approximately
16,000 men have passed through this unit. The
process of demobilization will require the above pro-
cedure of discharge to be applied to a strength of not
less than 12,000.
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RECORDS AND RECRUITING.
MECHANICS
The first duty of the R.F.C. comprised the securing
of a continuous inflow of recruits, both mechanics and
cadets, and while it was anticipated that difficulties
would be encountered, local conditions as set forth
below were such as to make the task unexpectedly
arduous. The state of affairs in Canada, so far as
concerns mechanics, was briefly as follows:
(1) Recruiting for the C.E.F. was practically at a
standstill. The country had been "worked
out."
(2) The R.F.C. was practically unknown in Canada.
(3) High wages were being paid to skilled workers.
(4) There was no organized recruiting system in
use, each Canadian unit doing its own.
(5) A very large percentage of skilled mechanics
were essential for the maintenance of aero-
planes and engines, and these were in great
demand at very high wages on munitions.
(6) The fact that, in a large number of cases, men
had to be transported for over 1,000 miles
in order to be even interviewed, or medically
examined, made recruiting both expensive and
difficult.
The brightest point was the lively interest and very
hearty cooperation of every officer of the Department
of Militia and Defence, and of every officer of the
Canadian Forces throughout the Dominion. This co-
operation has been maintained throughout our work.
Without it no success could have been attained. The
spirit of good fellowship and help has been of inestim-
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able value to all our recruiting officers, and later the
same spirit, was encountered among the officials ad-
ministering the Military Service Act, to whose work
the operations of another force engaged in recruiting
men otherwise than through the Military Service Act
organization, must have been a considerable trial.
Instead of objections, the Corps encountered nothing
but assistance.
At the end of January, 1917, recruiting offices
were opened in Toronto and Hamilton, with a trade
test party in each place. The latter was shortly
withdrawn as being unproductive, and merged into a
central test station at Toronto. Simultaneously,
and owing to great distances to be travelled and to
difficulties encountered in obtaining suitable accom-
modation and facilities for trade testing at other
centres, it was decided to establish merely recruiting
offices at outside stations; and offices were opened at
Montreal, Winnipeg and Vancouver, each in charge of
an experienced officer trained by ourselves, assisted
by a staff of non-commissioned officers and men from
England. Oral tests were conducted here, the practical
examination being given after arrival in Toronto.
The question of publicity presented a problem, to
solve which the following methods were employed:
(1) Display advertisements in newspapers (large
dailies).
(2) Written items of news and interesting articles.
(3) Classified advertisements for trades in the
various want advertising columns.
(4) Large posters of striking design used on bill-
boards. These posters were designed by an
advertising company.
This work was supplemented by addresses and re-
cruiting meetings.
141
The cost of (4) was too high to be maintained, and
the results of (1) and (2) were so discouraging in the
first month that another scheme was evolved. As a
result of a conference with the National Board, some
10,000 skilled workers who had volunteered for national
service were circularized with attractive literature.
From this form of publicity only 860 enlistments were
obtained, extending over a period of nearly six months.
On investigation, it was found that the first method
of publicity had been so long used by local Canadian
Forces that the effect lacked novelty, whereas infor-
mation conveyed in articles dealing with aviation
always brought results. Since display advertisements,
however, were a sure means of reaching the public,
they were continued, inasmuch as they served to
stimulate the interest of the newspaper, and thereby
helped in the placing of news items.
The entry of the United States into the war made
it possible to endeavour to recruit British subjects
across the line. Quarters were secured in New York,
and officers visited many of the larger towns, such as
Chicago, Boston, Kansas City, St. Louis, Minneapolis,
etc., where the British Recruiting Mission had offices,
and gave every possible assistance. Occasional visits
were paid to these points, except in the case of New
York, where an officer was permanently stationed, and
from New York came the bulk of the men enlisted in
the United States. Altogether about 627 British
subjects were thus enrolled.
Owing to the distances between centres and the
scattered population, practically all applications for
enlistment were dealt with by correspondence, whether
from headquarters or out-stations. Transportation had
then to be given to bring the applicant probably at
least 300 miles for a Medical Board, after which, if
successful in passing the oral tests, etc., he was
transported to Toronto. This journey, in the case
of a man enlisting in Vancouver, occupied four days
142
and covered 2,500 miles. Sleeping accommodation was
provided, also meals en route. None of these difficul-
ties were encountered in England.
The Medical Boards placed at our disposal by the
Department of Militia and Defence were accustomed
to pass for military service, that is category "A."
For the purposes of the R.F.C., as it then was, men of
lower category than "A" were quite suitable, as no
pack had to be carried and there was little or no
route marching. The composition of the brigade is,
therefore, very largely of men not fit for active service,
and who have been rejected time and time again by the
C.E.F. At the outset, Boards absolutely refused to
pass for us applicants of a lower medical category than
"A," this because the Board was held responsible for
any man returned as unfit on arrival in England and
charged with the cost of his transportation, etc.
Further, the British practice of classifying men into
"A," "B," "C," "D," and "E" categories was not
known. Each assistant director of medical service
required to be acquainted with our methods and
standards, causing, in consequence, considerable delay.
A further problem was that of pay. Whilst the
Corps rate was 15c. higher for skilled labour than the
Canadian forces for unskilled, a very high standard
could not be set for trade test. The first question of
each recruit was: "What is the pay?" "How much will
my wife get?" and such answers as the recruiting officer
could give were not very reassuring. In contrast
with the Canadian overseas man, the prospect was, in
truth, hardly attractive. The wife of the latter, owing
to the benefactions of the Canadian Patriotic Fund
(subscribed unofficially by Canadians) received $20.00
per month and $5.00 for each child, in addition to a
percentage of her husband's pay. As against this the
brigade allowance looked meagre. The relief can be
realized, therefore, when, a little later, the authorities
of the Patriotic Fund, cognizant of the importance of
143
R.F.C. work, and that R.F.C. recruits were A
married men, extended their generosity to the brigade
as regarding men of category "A," who were eligible
for overseas service. Here, too, a tribute must be
paid to R.F.C. men outside this category and unable
to enjoy this special benefit. It speaks highly for the
patriotism of Canadians that these mechanics carried
cheerfully on, though under great personal and financial
disadvantages.
In the early part of 1918, a number of category
"A" men were liberated for the purpose of joining the
C.E.F. and proceeded overseas, thus causing consider-
able shortage of labour in the Corps. Further re-
cruiting appearing impossible, female labour was
employed in the capacity of civilian subordinates. It
was at first thought that these subordinates would be
used only in unskilled trades and office routine, but it was
soon evident that they could be trained for simpler and
lighter mechanical work. A separate section being
formed to handle recruiting and administration, a large
number of patriotic women volunteered for duty with
the Air Force, of whom 1,200 were selected. Through
their work the brigade was tided over a serious shortage
of labour. Unaccustomed to aeroplane work, and
unacquainted with military routine, they have univer-
sally performed sterling service.
From the very first, civilian female subordinates
were employed at headquarters and other units in a
clerical capacity. In the autumn of 1918 they might
have been seen in any of the shops or camps, dressed in
dusters, caps and overalls, taking down engines, grinding
valves, stripping aeroplanes and doing all forms of
manual labour heretofore always performed by men.
At the Repair Parks alone, 135 women were employed
at technical trades, while at the various camps nearly
600 were carrying on as mechanics. In the capacity of
motor drivers they rendered excellent service. A
large proportion of the cars throughout the brigade at
the present time are driven by them.
144
Too much praise cannot be given to the women who
have been employed in many varying capacities by the
R.A.F. throughout Canada. They have given the
greatest satisfaction, and done their work in the most
conscientious manner possible. Furthermore, in spite
of many predictions, they have caused no trouble what-
soever, and submitted themselves apparently without
effort to the necessary discipline of the Force.
The following notes, re female subordinates, may be
of interest, showing their distribution:
In Headquarters Offices and in various cities . 115
Paymaster Department, Victoria St., Toronto. 36
Recruits Depot, Jesse Ketchum, Toronto 18
No. 4 S. of A. University 90
Cadet Wing, Long Branch 9
Armament School, Hamilton 14
Aeroplane Repair Park, Toronto 134
Engine Repair Park, Toronto 65
Stores Depot, Toronto 180
Motor Transport Section, Toronto 50
Engineer Section, Toronto 3
School of Aerial Fighting, Beamsville 91
Forty-second Wing, Deseronto 230
Forty-third Wing, Leaside 161
1,196
At the time of the signing of the armistice, over
7,000 men had been recruited for the mechanical
section of the Royal Air Force, Canada. Nearly
fifty per cent, of these were recruited by corres-
pondence, and as many as 15,000 applications were
handled through recruiting headquarters and the
various out-stations.
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CADETS.
When on May 1st, 1917, the campaign was com-
menced, the assistance of the Aero Club of Canada
was enlisted, and this society used its organization
as a recruiting agency.
At the same time, endeavours were made to approach
the students of public schools and universities by
extensive circularization. It was estimated that about
600 cadet recruits could be handled for training for the
balance of 1917, and about 1,500 in 1918, but al-
though thirty-odd schools and colleges were thus
approached, the scheme was unproductive of results.
It was decided, therefore, to try out more thoroughly
the idea of civilian recruiting committees, and bodies
composed of about three influential, public men were
organized in the following cities:
Toronto, Ontario.
Montreal, Quebec.
Charlottetown, P. E. I.
Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Regina, Saskatchewan.
Calgary, Alberta.
Vancouver, British Columbia.
These committees, being furnished with our medical
standards, were empowered to interview applicants,
have them examined by the local Medical Board and
apply for transportation to Toronto for final test and
approval. It will be understood that the committees
were not active recruiting agents. They simply passed
opinion on the men sent to them by the wing, all
applications being made through headquarters. The
Royal Flying Corps was by this time becoming known
and talked about throughout Canada. Publicity was
better managed, and there were received on an average
147
twenty applications per day from the whole of Canada.
Uneasiness was felt about this time as to an adequate
supply of cadets being available. The demand
was continually increasing. Towards the summer of
1917 it reached 300 per month. A little later in the
fall it rose to 400 and 500 a month, requiring in two
months what in April, 1917, had been estimated as the
need for two-thirds of the whole year.
A new plan was therefore necessary. Statistical
research indicated that past efforts had not reached the
public except in large centres. It was, in consequence,
determined to enlarge the civilian committee plan, and
establish committees in every town of 10,000
inhabitants and over, throughout the whole of Canada.
In places of less than 10,000, the assistance of at least
one important man was sought to accomplish this,
and the Dominion was completely divided into five
recruiting districts with headquarters offices at
Vancouver, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal and Halifax.
Each district was supplied with an officer in charge,
and a second officer, whose duty it was to travel con-
tinually from place to place establishing committees
and advise and assist those committees already
established. The scheme proved very successful.
About 350 civilian committees, with a total of over
1,000 members, were established throughout Canada,
and the travelling officers, by the mere fact of their
presence in the different towns, stimulated interest,
and through interviews with local papers obtained
publicity. Coincident with this, the matter of publicity
was tackled in a serious way by a campaign whereby
it was hoped to bring to the notice of every man in
Canada the work being done by, or at least the name
of, the Royal Air Force.
About this time the Military Service Act com-
menced to operate and there seemed a danger of all
the available material being absorbed into C.E.F.
units. A reserve class "B" was therefore started, and
the surplus cadets were placed on this reserve.
148
From this time on, committees cooperating more
fully, the number of applicants steadily increased and
there has been no difficulty since then in supplying the
demand for cadets.
The difficulties encountered in cadet recruiting
were:
(1) The task of informing the public that cadets
would be taken for training as pilots. Not only
had the fact to be known that men were wanted,
but it was also necessary to say exactly what a
pilot had to do. There still seems to be an
impression that it is very difficult to gain
admittance as a pilot.
(2) Before the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was
formed, pilots were trained at a civilian school.
They paid about $400 for the course, and then
had to take a chance of being accepted in
England. The general public required to be ac-
quainted with the fact that training was free
at an Army School.
(3) It was absolutely impossible to interview all the
applicants at headquarters or at brigade
centres, or to deal with them by correspondence.
The committees formed were, therefore, given
this work, and as soon as they thoroughly
realized the requirements, they rendered the
very greatest service, and have been, as pointed
out, the backbone of cadet recruiting.
(4) The medical examination of cadets presented
almost similar difficulties to that of mechanics.
Brigade standards were entirely different from
those usually adopted by the local boards.
It was very difficult to secure an examination
which was anything more than superficial.
The Barany revolving chair is now employed, and
in doubtful cases trial flights involving specified
149
tests are given. In this way it has been poss-
ible to accept some borderline cases, where
under the old system rejections would have
been inevitable.
(5) It should not be forgotten that in this, as well
as in the campaign for recruits, the same staff
was employed.
The brigade was handicapped from the commence-
ment by the absolutely inadequate staff provided. It
has only been by most strenuous efforts in training
officers and men in the work that it was carried on at
all.
At the time of the signing of the armistice, 9,200
cadets had been enlisted for service, while 35,000
applications had been handled by headquarters and
the various outstations.
RECORDS AND PERSONNEL SUPPLY
Unusually complete records of cadets and airmen
enlisted were kept from the very commencement of
work in Canada. Where documents were sent to
officer in charge Records and the War Office, dupli-
cates were always kept. For this reason no change in
organization or administration was necessary when
in September, 1917, the General Officer Commanding
was appointed officer in charge Records for Canada.
The continuous growth of the Air Force in Canada
has meant a corresponding growth in records. From
time to time demands outgrew systems, and it became
necessary to remodel, so as to conform to Imperial
administration and yet dovetail with existing regula-
tions and conditions in Canada.
All posting of mechanics and of cadets throughout
their training has been carried out by this unit. The
records of the training of mechanics, and their pro-
gressive history from station to station, have been
150
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maintained by the individual card system. A complete
history of each cadet from the time he first made appli-
cation until the time he proceeded overseas, through
every stage of training and every movement, has been
kept in minute detail.
New departments required organization to deal
with pensions and other subjects on which there was
very little information available; while the work of
handling other sections, such as discharges, was con-
tinually on the increase.
In many cases the forms called for by K. R. were
not available, new forms being printed locally, also
those used by the Medical Services, which, although
provided by the Canadian Militia, were often not
applicable to Imperial requirements.
It is found, however, on demobilization, that the
records are in excellent shape, and that the informa-
tion at the disposal of this office is complete.
Space does not permit of the printing of the
hundreds of individual names making up the personnel
of those committees in various towns to which the
Corps is so greatly indebted, but to each and all, the
General Officer Commanding tenders in the name of the
Royal Air Force, his most sincere and hearty thanks for
work, without which such progress as may be credited
to the brigade could not have been achieved.
152
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153
RIGHTING A MACHINE.
154
THE CADET WING.
The Cadet Wing, like its younger and larger
brother the School of Aeronautics, found shelter at
its birth in buildings most kindly loaned by the Uni-
versity of Toronto. This was at the beginning of
March, 1917.
Prior to this, all R.F.C. cadets recruited had been
equipped, accommodated and generally looked after
at Victoria College by the Canadian Officers Training
Corps, of the University of Toronto. This unit,
together with the School of Infantry of the District,
continued for some weeks to ration the cadets, but
during hours of parade they came under the Cadet
Wing for instruction.
Already there were in existence the Recruits Depot,
Stores Depot and "X" Squadron at Long Branch. Up
to now there had been no tuition prior to flying,
except such as could be given by the much overworked
but extremely efficient 2nd Lt. in command at Long
Branch.
The strength of the Cadet Wing was, to commence
with, some 50 cadets, taken care of in ground instruc-
tion by 2 officers, 3 non-commissioned officer instructors
and some two or three clerks. Lectures covered
artillery observation, organization of troops, military
law and such technicalities as rigging, engines, etc.
It will, therefore, be seen that the two officers in
charge were required to call upon the sum total of their
knowledge and experience to discharge then* official
duties. The wing was fed direct by the recruiting
office, since cadets did not at first pass through Recruits
Depot.
Gunnery instruction was added shortly, though the
wing was woefully deficient in suitable material.
Simultaneously courses were organized, and a regular
155
programme set on foot. Through the courtesy of the
O.C. School of Musketry Military District No. 2,
arrangements were made by which all cadets took
a course in machine gunnery at Hart House, including
range practice. A Curtiss machine was secured (a
peculiarly massive aeroplane, discarded as impractical
by the Curtiss Company), and though no mechanical
power would have lifted it into the air, its bones
served to illustrate the anatomy of the structure of
which it was a prototype. There was also one Curtiss
and one motor car engine. It will be noted that by
now the wing had assumed the threefold function
of a Cadet Wing proper, a School of Aeronautics and
an Armament School.
As can be understood, the course was not of any
set length. The passage of a cadet through the
organization depended upon his capacity to learn,
and the requirements of the flying units. The first
graduates proceeded to Long Branch where, equipped
with such tuition as time had afforded, they began
flying at once. By the end of April, drafts were sent
to Borden, where further ground instruction was now
being given.
Further expansion came in May, and with it
additional help from the University authorities. The
splendid buildings of Burwash Hall were secured from
Victoria College, and the commodious East Residence
rented from the University of Toronto. It is difficult
to say what would have been the progress of this
work of the Corps, were it not for the constant
consideration received from the President, Governors
and Superintendent of the University.
With expansion, arrived also the need for some
subdivision of duties. The Cadet Wing was too
polyglot. It provided as much as humanly possible
of everything, but not enough of anything. Came
therefore the first demarcation between the Cadet
Wing and the School of Military Aeronautics, i.e.
156
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 43RD WING, LEASIDE.
157
RECEIVING WIRELESS
ARTILLERY OBSERVATION.
158
the junior and senior sections, though for official
purposes of administration they were still unified.
New instructional equipment arrived, and during
May the strength of cadets rose to nearly 150.
Before passing on to later history, it is desired to
give sincere and official recognition to the splendid
work done at this early stage in spite of meagre fa-
cilities and an absurdly small staff. The difficulties
encountered were many and serious. The wing
was still in the throes of active service organization,
but all eyes were turned to the output of cadets as
the crux of the situation, and the means by which
officers and men alike were to justify the programme
then being worked out. The output has never failed,
but at no period did it involve greater personal strain
and effort than in these first two or three months of
this unit's existence.
On June the llth, a staff of nine officers and
thirty-eight men arrived from England to form officially
the School of Aeronautics, and took over general instruc-
tion at the Cadet Wing prior to the final subdivision
of the latter. This occurred on July 14th when the
wing moved out to summer quarters at Long Branch
which was then given up by "Y" Squadron as an
aerodrome. Work continued with constantly increas-
ing numbers, till the winter of 1917, when, on the de-
parture of the 42nd and 43rd Wings for Texas, the
unit divided itself between Borden and Mohawk for
some six months. Here instruction continued without
interruption till April 4th, 1918, on which date the
two sections reamalgamated at Long Branch, with a
strength that now reached a staff of 200 officers and
men and 900 cadets.
The formation of the Armament School in the
early summer permitted the wing to cease elementary
gunnery instruction and devote more time to drill,
discipline and wireless, but it should be remembered
that the Armament School was the logical expansion
159
of work previously carried out at the Cadet Wing and
School of Aeronautics.
In the summer of 1918, the wing was on the lines
of an infantry battalion, with four squadrons and a
headquarters company. Drill, physical training, wire-
less, topography and air force law were in the curricu-
lum, but the essential and psychological duty of this unit
was to impress on the new recruit those fundamental
precepts of military discipline, honour and self respect
on which his future career alone could be successfully
based.
As to relaxation there was begun on July 18th an
excellent monthly magazine, "The Cadet Wing Re-
view," which is second to none of similar publications.
Local talent also conducted a theatre which was a
veritable centre of attraction.
Through this summer, the average strength was 200
staff, and 1,100 cadets. To house them for the winter,
large barracks had just been completed at the close of
hostilities. The output of cadets of the unit will be
noted by the graph on page 161.
160
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SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.
By May 1917, it had become quite apparent that
ground training of cadets demanded an expansion of
treatment which could not be afforded by the then
existing Cadet Wing, however, valiantly the latter
unit might strive, and on the 15th a chief instructor,
for the purpose of starting a School of Military Aeron-
autics, was ordered to proceed to Canada, taking with
him eight other officers and thirty-eight men of various
ranks as a nucleus of an instructional staff.
This advance party worked in conjunction with
the Cadet Wing until July 1st, on which date No. 4
School of Military Aeronautics was recorded as a
separate and official organization.
The anticipated expansion immediately took place,
aided very greatly by the assistance, not only of the
President of the University of Toronto, but also of the
professors of that institution who gave up room after
room, often at great inconvenience to themselves.
About this time, also, a large shipment of aeroplanes
and engines for instructional purposes was forwarded
from England. It was unfortunately lost on the way
out, the immediate effect being that for the first few
months all practical instruction was confined to the
Curtiss engine and JN4 aeroplane.
The length of the course given during this period
was three weeks, but at the end of the month it was
increased to four, and comprised six flights, covering
engines, rigging, wireless, artillery observation, machine
guns, and instruments and bombs.
The importance of the work done at this unit was
now most firmly established. The length of the course
was increased in September to six weeks, and it was
arranged that three courses went through the school
at a time, each composed of 150 cadets with two weeks
162
163
"AERIAL" OF VICINITY OF UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.
(Note the Cadet Camp lying north of main University Building).
164
intervening. By now the strength of the unit had
increased to 19 officers, 119 non-commissioned officers
and men, 149 United States army and naval cadets and
261 Imperial cadets. Occupation of the buildings so
kindly furnished by the University authorities covered
Burwash Hall, East and South residences, School of
Practical Science, Medical Building, portion of Con-
vocation Hall, Thermodynamics Building and dining
halls in University and Victoria College.
In September, instruction was further expanded by
the formation of a school at the factory of the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited, where members of flying units
received introduction to the theory and principle of
aeroplane construction. There were three courses, each
lasting eighteen days, and each being divided into
ten squads, members of which remained together
throughout their entire period of instruction. Exam-
inations were set and corrected by an examining party
at the School under direct supervision of the Com-
mandant, when sixty-five per cent, of marks was
necessary before a cadet passed through and was
posted to a flying unit.
In the month of December, 1917, the strength of
cadets greatly increased and it became necessary to
draw again on the goodwill of the University authorities
and occupy Wycliffe College. Simultaneously a pool
was formed in a remodeled hotel, Haydon House, some
four miles from the School, where were housed such
cadets as the flying units were unable to take owing to
the reduced amount of flying during the winter months.
By the end of the year cadets on the strength
amounted to 721.
Training material now began to arrive more
regularly from England, and, as a result, the instruction
given was considerably diversified.
In March, 1918, a seventh flight was formed for the
study of aerial navigation, in which much more
complete instruction was given in map reading and
165
course plotting. Machine gun instruction was trans-
ferred to the Armament School at Hamilton, and the
time thus secured given to further study of aerial
navigation.
The practical education of the mechanics taught at
the School was ensured by the construction at Leaside
of engine running sheds, in which engines of various
types were set up and their operations drilled into all
pupils under conditions which simulated those on active
service as nearly as possible. Considerable improve-
ment in the engine knowledge of cadets was im-
mediately noticeable.
On April 1st, cadets in training at the School, now
called No. 4 School of Aeronautics, had reached 1,277,
while the staff was composed of 26 officers and 230
non-commissioned officers and men, with the inevitable
result that another residence was taken over from the
University, with housing capacity for 185.
Again a flight was added to the course, this time for
observers, and by July all cadets thus passing through
the unit received instruction in aerial navigation,
instruments, reconnaissance, organization of the Army
and R.A.F., and general military knowledge, photo-
graphy, engines, rigging and wireless.
In September, the process of engine instruction was
still further advanced by discarding the fixed stands
to which Curtiss engines had been rigidly attached, and
substituting in their stead sections of aeroplane fusel-
ages so balanced as to be capable of vertical adjustment,
thus simulating the action of machines when in the
air. To these were attached Clerget engines, which it
was now proposed to use in conjunction with the
Avro machines contemplated for flying instruction.
This departure from the reciprocating to the rotary
type made it necessary to organize special classes of
tuition for non-commissioned officers and men from
various flying units. In this course, the assistance
166
167
PARADE ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS.
CADET CAMP, UNIVERSITY LAWX.
(Note "Aerial" of this Camp on page 164.)
168
given by the School Board of Toronto by the use of a
portion of the Lippincott Technical School proved
greatly to the advantage of the brigade.
The only further change made in the system of
instruction at the School of Aeronautics, was the intro-
duction of the block system in October, 1918, under
which forty hours were allotted to engines, twenty-
seven to aerial navigation, twenty to wireless, twenty-
six to rigging and thirty to artillery observation. The
observers' flight was carried on independently of the
above, and the ninety hours' instruction given to the
latter on technical subjects covered all requirements.
In concluding this very brief sketch of an extremely
important section of the brigade, it is desired to
specially acknowledge the services of not only the
instructing officers but also of the non-commissioned
officers and men on the staff. It fell to the duty of
many sergeants and corporals to demonstrate the
principles and theories of highly technical appliances,
and to demonstrate them moreover in many cases to
men who were much their seniors and who had had the
advantage of a modern and expensive education.
It was, however, uniformly observed that the non-
commissioned officers who occupied this highly re-
sponsible and difficult position, discharged their duty
not only with a dignity beyond all praise, but also with
an exemplary clearness based on an intimate knowledge
of the subject. They were confronted very often with
questions which would have confused many who laid
definite claim to higher attainments, but it has not
yet been found that any one of them was lacking either
in the technical qualification or the power of self
expression which was necessary for the satisfactory
discharge of their duties. The marked improvement
in the all-round ability of cadets arriving at the
various flying wings after the School of Aeronautics had
had time to finally find itself, is due to the excellent
work done by officers and non-commissioned officers
alike at this unit.
169
ARMAMENT SCHOOL.
It is a far cry from the one-time pilot who, between
the vagaries of his machine, took pot shots at his
opponent with a revolver or sporting rifle, to his suc-
cessor of to-day armed with a machine gun that dis-
charges bullets at the rate of 600 per minute through a
four-bladed propeller revolving at the rate of 1,200
times a minute. It was, therefore, the object of
instruction at the Armament School to so train the
would-be pilot that he might have a thoroughly
grounded knowledge of the weapons he was destined to
use. The need of special tuition there given was
further accentuated by the increasing pressure on the
instructors at the School of Aeronautics.
In March, 1918, the O.C. proposed to the War
Office that this School be set on foot immediately, and
matters had been so far advanced by May that neces-
sary construction was well under way. Here again the
R.A.F., Canada, was fortunate in being the recipient
of much consideration from Canadian organizations.
On learning that accommodation was required for the
purposes of the School, the Canadian Westinghouse
Company Limited, one of the most important in-
dustrial concerns in Canada, most generously offered
the use of a large factory in Hamilton free of charge,
together with adjacent grounds, and shortly after-
wards the brigade was further helped by permission
to use the area of a 9-hole golf course immediately
adjoining. This very considerate proposal was made
by the Hamilton Golf Club, and was gratefully ac-
cepted.
These preliminaries successfully arranged, the
matter began to move rapidly.
In May three officers and two non-commissioned
officers left England to form the nucleus of the
170
171
RIGGING FLIGHT, SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.
AEROPLANE DESIGN, SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.
172
instructional staff, bringing with them such material
as could be provided at the moment. The Aviation
Department of the Imperial Munitions Board assumed
responsibility for the physical portion of the work
in hand, under the supervision of the Royal Engineers
section of the brigade. This provision included ranges,
armouries, workshops, instructional and lecture build-
ings, a hospital, and the general adaptation of the interior
of the factory buildings to the purposes required.
All this advanced so swiftly that by June 19th,
the factory building was equipped, and the Armament
School, which up to this time had formed a portion of
the Cadet Wing at Long Branch, moved to its new
quarters on June 20th.
The course of instruction called for a much further
excursion into applied mechanics than any portion
of the tuition formerly given. As it progressed, it soon
became evident that the embryonic pilot was keen for
intimate knowledge of the guns on the efficiency of
which his future victories depended, and his general
course was so modulated as to give him the opportunity
to master the last detail. The question of a method
of sighting which would allow a deflected aim to be laid
on a moving machine received mathematical attention,
as was also the synchronizing of a gun with the revolv-
ing blades of the propeller. On this and other points,
information was continually being received and com-
municated through the School to other units of the
brigade.
Drafts of cadets, arriving on Wednesday after-
noons, were immediately handed over to the quarter-
master's department, where arrangements for their
domestic comfort were made for the four or five
weeks they were to remain. The following morning
instruction began, first with one gun, its description,
action, care and possible troubles in the air, accompanied
by range work and constant handling. The question
of aiming was gradually introduced and ran progres-
173
sively throughout the course, until the pupil felt that
he could, without effort, fire the gun in the air, making
allowances for his own speed and direction, his enemy's
speed, direction and range, and instantaneously adapt
his fire to meet the ever-varying and never-ending
manoeuvres of his own and his enemy's machine.
Both guns and sights having been mastered, the
cadet was introduced to the subject of gearing his
gun to fire through his propeller at varying rates of
revolutions. The principle upon which this gearing
depended, though one of great difficulty in instruction,
was nevertheless the subject which, of all others, pro-
voked the greatest interest amongst the pupils.
Arrangements were completed to enable the pilot
actually to carry out the process of synchronizing his
gears and propeller under conditions which perfectly
simulated his position in a machine. He was thus
enabled to watch the principle at work.
Instruction being completed in two guns, ammuni-
tion, aerial bomb sights and synchronizing gears,
another section of the School undertook the pupils'
training in bombs, bomb dropping and bomb sights.
The increasing importance of this subject was
appropriately balanced by the very wide range of
sights and bomb-dropping apparatus demonstrated by
specially experienced instructors, whereby the pupil
was made cognizant of all the operations of loading
bombs on machines, fusing them, attaching the
necessary releasing gear, and so loading his machine
that he could at will drop any type of bomb suited
to any target which might suddenly present itself, from
a group of infantry which needed scattering, to the
ammunition dump to be exploded.
The peculiar path taken by a bomb in falling from a
machine with a forward momentum imparted by the
speed of the machine, needed very special mathematical
calculation to enable the pilot to release it at a con-
174
LIBRARY, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON.
CADET BARRACKS, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON.
175
ENGINE FLIGHT.
CLERGET EXGIXE ON ROCKING NACELLE.
176
TILTING.
CADET SPORTS.
177
ENGINE TEST, CAMP BORDEN.
ENGINE REPAIR, CAMP BORDEN.
178
siderable distance from his objective, and to this end
a variety of bomb sights were explained and practised
with from dummy machines with unfused bombs over
mechanically moving scenery.
The flying camps, to which cadets were posted on
the completion of their course in elementary gunnery,
carried on further practices in cooperation with this
school, and instructors were sent to these wings from
time to time to cooperate, and to insure that no gaps
or overlaps occurred in the cadet's training. By this
means the pilot who left this country for overseas was
assured that he had covered every section of the field
of armament, and that no situation was likely to occur
during his flying career with which he could not deal.
In addition to the training of embryo pilots, courses
of instruction were conducted for observers, during
which, for a period of three weeks, they were made
competent to handle the gun which they would be
required to use overseas. By the use of guns with
camera attachment, recording a photograph on a
graduated screen instead of firing a shot, the resultant
photograph revealed to the observer the effect of his
shoot, and his graduation was not considered complete
until he was able to produce a collection of photographs
which evidenced an automatic and deadly aim.
During the period in which this School operated,
an average of more than 400 cadets per month was
instructed, and the record which each carried overseas
showed a complete and thorough course of ground train-
ing performed entirely under Canadian tuition.
179
AERIAL GUNNERY.
For the first few months, the Corps had an all
sufficiency of work in organizing depots, selecting
aerodromes, arranging for recruiting, and numberless
other activities on all of which largely depended what-
ever future success might be achieved. There was
no aerial gunnery for the reason that there were no
instructors. What had been done on the ground was
elementary, and reasonably so, due to the lack of
material. Matters moved forward when the first
instructors arrived in Canada on April 25th, 1917,
and, having formed a class of picked mechanics (the
instructors of the future), enabled the School of Aerial
Gunnery to be organized at Camp Borden on May 1st.
The School had just two guns and 18 pupils the
historic "eighteen" who formed the first shipment of
real pilots. The latter had no aerial work the overseas
call was too imperative but each fired 40 rounds at a
ground target.
Meantime the School of Aeronautics was busy, and
the effect became noticeable. Camp Borden, relieved of
much elementary training, did higher and aerial work,
and got for itself ranges, fixed targets and silhouettes.
The course lengthened to three weeks with 100 rounds
fired in the air from a Lewis gun no aerial Vickers
being available. In July came more guns and equip-
ment from England, the second course began with
62 cadets and the state of affairs definitely improved.
Camera guns turned up, and became instantly popular.
Work commenced on fitting a timing gear so that the
gun might shoot through the propeller. The chief
disadvantage was the shortage of serviceable machines
available.
180
181
SYNCHRONIZED VICKERS ' GUN.
SYNCHRONIZING GEAR.
182
In August began the third course with sixty-six
cadets and an organization fairly complete, being
forty officers and ten N.C.O. instructors. Now, too
a JN4 machine was converted to a JN4A with the
pilot in front and a Scarff mounting behind for the
observer, as in the Bristol fighter. A decided acquisi-
tion this, and a quantity were ordered. Surprise
deflection shooting was introduced. It was a busy and
interesting period.
The fourth course in September had 124 cadets.
The tuition given was of proved value. Lectures came
in by the fighting instructor, and naturally increased
the pupils' confidence. The latter were now firing 750
rounds from the ground and 150 from the air, and the
squadron worked at high pressure to give each pupil
three hours' aerial gunnery flying a matter of difficulty
owing to the scarcity of machines with synchronized
guns. It was probably due to this that cadets were
getting too much Lewis gun observers' work. The fault
was rectified, though the mountings were not entirely
satisfactory.
The fifth course began in October with a total of
238 pupils, who proceeded with the unit to Texas and
enojyed excellent facilities which had been foreseen
and provided. The number of available machines
increased, and were divided into C.C. gear (synchron-
ized gear) camera gun and turret machine flights.
Actual aerial instruction was given twenty-four hours
after arrival at this far Southern field.
The history of Royal Flying Corps gunnery in
Texas is a progressive document, too lengthy to give in
detail. Here the unit had its first target practice
over water Lake Worth proving ideal for the purpose,
and instruction was greatly aided owing to a better
observation of fire and a clearer angle of approach.
In December the pupils turned out numbered 264,
an average flying time of practically five hours a
marked improvement.
183
In January the aerial work of the School was
further increased. Range work (25 yards) was taken
over by the wings. All synchronized guns were moved
from the side of the cowling to the top, thus creating
active service conditions. No. 2 squadron came into
being with twelve machines, giving 30 in toto, the
work being done by flights. Two machines were con-
verted to Canadian Gothas, with the gun firing through
the bottom of the fuselage. The output of pupils
increased to 310, with average flying time of 5J^
hours.
February saw the use of a good armour-plated dis-
appearing and running target, and cadets also fired
from a cage that travelled along a cableway between
two towers, but the speed was too low to be of value.
The February output was 313 pupils. The instructing
personnel had now increased to 60 officers (50 flying),
1 warrant officer, 60 N.C.O.'s and 250 men.
March, a busy month, with 336 pupils and flying
time average of 6^ hours, was a record in output and
time flown.
April saw the School on its own aerodrome at
Beamsville, Ontario, where facilities were ahead of
anything heretofore existing. Came as well a third
squadron. The output was 243 pupils, all R.F.C.
with 7 hours and 40 minutes flying, the record time to
date.
In the following month the syllabus was amended,
this being the result of a visit to England by the
officer in charge of Canadian training. All straight
target shooting was abolished, and deflection sights
were introduced so as to allow for a speed of 100
m.p.h. of an enemy machine. Small model aeroplanes
were built and set up beside the targets. At these the
pupil aimed, the deflection of the gun sights bringing
his shots on to the target where their accuracy was of
course registered. No less than 17 various practices
were laid down. The improvement in ground work
soon became noticeable.
184
185
SHOOTING THROUGH PROPELLER.
BESIDE THE FUSELAGE.
VARIOUS GUN MOUNTINGS.
GROUND PRACTICE.
ISC)
In May, also, the Armament School opened at
Hamilton, and relieved the School of Aerial Gunnery
of giving elementary instruction after pupils had
already learned to fly.
During June a fourth squadron was added to train
observers exclusively, enabling the School to adopt the
ideal principle of giving all pilot cadets synchronized
gear and camera gun training, and all observer
cadets instruction in Lewis and turret camera guns,
the sequence being as follows:
1. 1 hour dual camera gun 12 pictures of sil-
houette taken by diving on it from behind.
2. 1 hour dual, with pictures of a target machine in
the air, allowing for speed of 100 m.p.h. and
necessary deflection.
3. Dual, on C.C. gear (instructor in back seat)
diving at angle of 60 to 45 at silhouettes in
Lake Ontario, 200 rounds or one hour.
4. Dual, 1 hour or at least 60 rounds with gun
stoppages. This determines the pupil's pro-
ficiency in clearing jambs.
5. Dual, enfiling with C.C. gear, 200 rounds
diving from 1,000 to 100 feet at dummy trench
in Lake Ontario.
During all firing over the water, observations are
taken from a watch tower, and a complete report of all
results is compiled.
There follows then another 4 hours' dual, after which
the pupil goes solo and repeats all he has previously
done under the watchful eye of his instructor.
Arriving at the final instructional squadron, there
ensues an ultimate 4 hours' dual work before the
nearly graduated pilot is asked to do one spiral, two
vertical banks, three loops, four Immelmann turns,
five half-rolls and six complete rolls. During all this
187
time he is equipped with a camera gun, and expected
to manoeuvre into a position favorable for attacking
another machine, simultaneously avoiding being photo-
graphed himself by an opponent.
This brought about marked proficiency, and it was
proved quite clearly that pilots had been going over-
seas with too much straight shooting and not enough
practice during stunting. The new system, however,
brought tuition up to conditions actually existing at the
front at the time. Several experienced pilots became
available, and their lectures were most valuable. The
output of cadets was (June) 182, but the average flying
had gone up to 11 hours.
In July the School became that of Aerial Fighting
a more descriptive title, since tactics were so promin-
ent in its course. The contrast with June of 1917 was
somewhat remarkable, there being now 92 officers and
700 other ranks. During this month rocking nacelles
and Scarff mountings were introduced for all ground
work, and all pilot instructors were arranged to be
examined monthly. This led to the discovery that
refresher courses were necessary in cases, these being
forthwith commenced. The month's output was 262,
with flying time with guns of 11 hours.
In August, the observers' course was well under
way, being a modification of that arranged for pilots.
There was naturally no C.C. shooting, but instruction
covered every practical method of firing at possible
targets from the observer's seat. This month there
were graduated 246 pupils with a slightly reduced
flying time of 9J^ hours.
By September pupils were passing all tests under the
same instructor in any one squadron. This, coupled
with the use of speaking tubes, was of considerable
help. Further guns, gears and equipment had come
in from England, and the situation was now vastly
different from that which pertained to earlier months
188
WING OFFICE, ETC. BEAMSVILLE.
RANGES BEAMSVILLE.
189
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when the School was forced to manufacture much of
its own equipment. Instruction was going well, and
the output reached 270, with a flying time of more than
9 hours.
The officer personnel expanded in October to 110,
this being of great assistance. Pilots were limited to
three hours per day in the air, and, in consequence,
machines had not been reaching a maximum flying
time. The effect of good instruction at the Armament
School was now most noticeable, as pupils were coming
through with increased technical knowledge of gunnery
and guns. The first Canadian -built Avro machine
was flown during this month, with a most satisfactory
performance. The output touched 281 and flying
time 10 hours.
Such in brief is the record. The value may best
be judged by the service rendered by those who passed
from the harmless silhouettes floating on the smooth
surface of Lake Ontario to engage the deadlier machines
that haunted the high altitudes over the Western front.
192
CAMERA GUNNERY.
Before carrying out aerial practice with machine
guns, embryo pilots and observers are required to
attain a certain standard in camera gun work, both
on the ground and in the air. The camera used is
designed to resemble, both in operation and in ap-
pearance, the Lewis machine gun, the difference being
that upon the trigger being released the camera gun
registers a photograph upon a film. Reloading is by
pulling back the cocking handle, which brings another
film into place.
Practices being concluded, the cadet takes his own
film to the nearest photographic sub-station, where it
is developed in about ten minutes, and, still wet, is
then submitted to the instructor, who forthwith
criticizes the work of his pupil in the presence of the
latter.
The camera gun is best suited for enabling the
pupil (pilot or observer) to ascertain his proficiency
in the use of deflection sights, and his ability to place
the enemy machine in correct position in the ring,
according to his line of flight. Errors in aiming are
checked by the photograph being taken through a
glass screen, this being marked with circles, each
valued at seven and a half feet taken from 200 yards'
distance, which is the distance advised for commencing
a combat. On examining the film, after development,
the instructor can explain the error in deflection or
elevation by the position of the machine in relation to
the rings.
In the illustrations, these being from camera gun
films, will be noted the enemy machine as seen by the
gunner through the ring sight at the moment of
firing. In the first case the aim is low and to the right.
193
In the second print the pupil has fired low and in
front. The encircled dot shows the point at which
the gunner should have aimed when the pilot of the
target machine was flying directly toward the inner
ring at 100 miles per hour.
On taking to the air with the camera gun, the
observer is piloted by an instructor, and is initiated
not only in the photographing of other machines, but
also in manoeuvres which have for their object the
avoidance of being photographed by the opposing camera
gun. Finally, the pupil engages in aerial combat with
another machine piloted by a "hostile" instructor, and
each machine attempts to "shoot down" the other. In
this contest the pilot or observer who obtains the most
accurate pictures is counted the victor. Every prin-
ciple of aerial fighting as taught both in lectures and
in the air, is practised, and upon its completion the
results, as inflexibly registered by the camera gun, are
subject to the keenest criticism.
104
CAMERA GUNNERY.
195
196
WIRELESS.
It was, of course, recognized from the very first
that thorough acquaintance not only with every means
of communication from the air to the ground, but also
ability to read every signal necessarily transmitted
from the ground to the air, was one of the most im-
portant requirements in the training of a pilot.
The langing of guns (particularly heavies), the
finding of targets and their destruction have all been
successfully accomplished by cooperation between the
Silot and the communicating battery. Numberless
evices have been experimentally tried such as coloured
lights, signalling by lamps, etc., etc.; but none proved a
means of communication which was not only reliable
but which also afforded no invitation to attack by the
enemy. As the outcome, the wireless system from the
aeroplane to the ground, and ground strips, or panneau,
from the ground to the aeroplane were adopted and
uniformly used. As far as concerns the training work of
the Canadian wing of the Royal Flying Corps, the
methods used were naturally those already established
in England.
On arrival at the Recruits' Depot, the cadet
received his first initiation, together with a small
amount of instruction in the code used. Moving
hence to the Cadet Wing at Long Branch, wireless
formed a definite part of the routine of the day's work.
The cadet was required to successfully send and
receive six words per minute, and for purposes of
instruction telephones were connected to the buzzer
circuits. In the tuition of sending, Morse recorders
operated by means of a silenced key were installed,
and picture targets, constructed with miniature lamps
shining haphazardly through small holes, were operated
from a switchboard. These represented shell bursts
197
which the cadet was required instantly to locate and
report.
With six weeks' of wireless at the Cadet Wing, the
Supil proceeded to the School of Aeronautics for
irther instruction, and heard lectures on picture
target work and artillery cooperation from experienced
observers. Requirements now demanded eight words
per minute. After examination, his next step was to
the elementary training wing at either Deseronto or
Borden, where he not only carried on ground work, but
also put into actual practice in the air the instruction
already received.
Moving on to North Toronto he reached the
stage of final tuition in this section of his course. At
varying distances from this station, puff targets were
provided to simulate shell bursts, and the embryo pilot
conducted himself as though on active service by
locating the shoot and reporting it with necessary ad-
justments to the battery receiving station. Such was
the value attached to this phase of training, that eighty
er cent, of the observations sent down were required to
e correct before the pupil was considered passed. The
tests included reading ground messages, bomb dropping,
etc., the latter being checked by a camera obscura
hut which was used as the target. In this process it
was necessary that the cadet adjust his bomb sights
both for the speed and altitude of his machine. This
being done, his wireless key was depressed and the
actual position of his machine recorded in the camera
obscura hut at the moment of signalling, which
moment, it was understood, was the instant at which
the bomb would have been dropped were the machine
in actual service. The result recorded infallibly the
amount of judgment which had been used. Some idea
of the extent of this School may be gathered from the
fact that a tour around the batteries involved a 60
mile trip. Bomb-dropping, though having no connec-
tion with artillery observation, was here practised as a
matter of convenience.
198
POPHAM PANNE A U.
POPHAM PAXXEAU.
199
GROUND STRIPS.
200
If it be asked why the pilot does not receive as well
as send wireless messages while in the air, it may be
stated that up to the present the difficulties of receiving
on a trailing aerial have been such that what might be
termed a graphic ground method has proved preferable.
Large ground strips are, on active service, an invitation
for bombardment by the enemy and are being aided by
the Popham Panneau, a method of signalling consisting
of the rapid forming up of small, symmetrical, rec-
tangular figures, by arrangements of white bands cap-
able of rapid variation. In general they are the
combination of the letter "T" with short, symmetrical
additions.
The Aldis lamp, also used, is an improvement on
the heliograph, and reflects the rays of an electric
globe instead of sunlight, but it will be understood that
recent advances in wireless telephoning have revolu-
tionized the above methods.
A word is in place with regard to the Artillery
Cooperation School at Leaside through which all
pilots of necessity must pass. The equipment is the
result of very brilliant work by an R.A.F. officer. The
maps themselves represent two sections of the Western
front, and are reproduced with vivid accuracy from
aerial photographs. Each is 40 feet x 20 feet, and
contains some eighty targets so arranged as to allow
switching from one gun pit to another, thus following
the actual work of destruction by imaginary batteries.
Zone calls are arranged for all targets, these repre-
senting every possible point for bombardment, such
as hostile battery positions, trench points, railroads,
cross roads and fortified positions in enemy towns.
British and German trenches are shown on a scale of
approximately five inches to one hundred yards.
The total number of electric globes used to simulate
bursts is 1,360, and the two balconies where the
observing pilots sit are so equipped that every opera-
tion which must be carried out in doing wireless tests
201
must be completed before signals can be received by
the operator seated below at the imaginary battery.
Space does not permit of a detailed description of the
intricate, electrical work required to complete this
admirable installation. It suffices to say that those
best qualified to judge deem it a very considerable
achievement.
Rotary targets are also used, as by turning them
practically the same condition is created as that which
confronts the pilot when turning his machine in the
air. These, too, represent a reproduction of well-known
sections of the Western front.
A special map was devised for contact patrol work,
presenting three distinct lines of trenches together
with an equal number of groups of headquarters, as
well as machine gun pits, tanks, etc., while wireless
sending was coupled up with Aldis lamp work the
latter requiring to be read at four words per minute.
At the conclusion of instruction of every course it
was demanded that every cadet both receive and send
at a speed of eight words per minute before being
allowed to proceed with aerial tests.
202
WIRELESS IN THE FIELD.
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204
PHOTOGRAPHY.
The Air Force is the eye of the army, and the
camera the recording eye of the airman. It is there-
fore, of prime importance that aerial photography
in all its phases be mastered by the would-be pilot.
Failure cannot be risked. Too much is involved in
sending machines on long photographic reconnais-
sance. Their results should indicate everything from
a narrow path through enemy wire to a camouflaged
German aerodrome.
In order to secure the best type of instruction,
the R.A.F. has availed itself of the services of officers
of experience on all points. Training begins at the
School of Aeronautics. Here ground tuition is given,
including everything from camera mechanism to colour
filters and panchromatic plates, from map making to
mosaics, the relative size of objects and the value of
shadows in estimating heights.
Leaving the School, the cadet takes to the air to
be tested by photographing given points, his
ground instruction still proceeding. In the case of
the observer, the course is the same, and all such work
forms part of a general mapping scheme which aimed
at the compiling of a complete reproduction of the
areas around the several aerodromes.
Bad weather, usually considered a bugbear, is
not allowed to interfere. By the use of a wide shutter
slit and the very best lenses, tests are made in all
weathers, and active service conditions thus paralleled.
That photographic instruction has been faithfully
given and intelligently received, may be seen from the
excellent reproductions of aerial work presented in
this volume.
From the foregoing it might be assumed that the
art is simply acquired, but such is not in any way the
205
case. To use his lens with complete facility, the
pupil must correctly establish his height, his relative
position with the objects to be photographed, and,
generally speaking, be sufficiently at home in the air
to do his flying instinctively and devote his chief
attention to the camera.
206
ATTACHING CAMERA TO FUSELAGE.
BUILDING UP A MOSAIC.
207
RECEIVING.
AUTIU.KUY OMSKKVATIOX HUT.
208
PHOTOGRAPHY.
AERIAL NAVIGATION.
209
210
ARMOUR HEIGHTS SYSTEM.
Training development in England had now reached
a point at which elements already recognized but not
hitherto fully appreciated were proved to be invaluable.
Their use was aimed primarily at the attaining of
instinctive flying by the pupil. The means by which
this was achieved, the consequent effect on the in-
structor, and the reduced fatalities during instruction
are sufficiently notable to call for mention.
The product has been the active-service pilot as
distinguished from the peace pilot two vastly differ-
ent individuals.
The actions and reactions of this system are in
general psychological. They begin with the assump-
tion that since fear is almost invariably of the unknown,
once the latter is eliminated fear should be non-existent.
The approach is, therefore, by way of wiping out
ignorance concerning the air and the machine in which
the pupil and instructor ascend, and illustrating, while
in flight, the simplicity of those laws which are funda-
mental to all good pilots and machines.
This, while seemingly simple enough, involves an
ultimate strain on the instructor. His pupils are, it is
true, limited to six, but into each of these he is expected
to pour the sum of his knowledge and skill. He is
personally responsible for their crashes. At first blush
apparently unjust, this resolves itself into an absolutely
fair deduction from the principles of the system. A
crash by a pupil engine failure and aeroplane failure
being too infrequent to alter the premise is considered
as due to an imperfection of training. At some stage
in the course some indispensable point must have been
slighted or overlooked. Hence the pupil's inability to
meet the emergency.
211
Character that subtle union of temperament and
disposition, the increasing air sense, the delicacy of con-
trol, the spontaneous response, the nameless faculty
by which the pupil becomes, as it were, welded to the
machine which in turn replies to the subconscious
movement of hand and foot the study of all these are
found in the Armour Heights system, which itself is
based on an admirable method originated at Gosport, in
England. The pupil is expected to do the flying, and
even in an emergency the instructor does not assume
control until it is demonstrated that the pupil is liter-
ally out of his depth.
And always by telephone or tube sounds back from
the front seat the guiding voice, encouraging, re-
proving, suggesting and probing the mental process
of the pupil at the moment. Take, for instance, the
spin, that plunge easy to commence and equally easy
to terminate. The machine slows, stalls, dips and dives
earthward. At the second spin comes steadily in the
word of experience -"stick a little forward not too
much right rudder hold her there that's right easy
isn't it ? feel all right ? let's do it again put her in
yourself this time." With such an "entente cordiale"
as this, it is clear why the words "danger" and "nerves"
are barred from the instructor's vocabulary, and
the terms "safe" and "dangerous" give place to "right"
and "wrong." The pupil has obtained the sense of
relationship between himself and his machine.
It is admitted that the art of instruction is difficult
from the lecture platform, but how much more arduous
when weaving circles at 5,000 feet, with an invisible
tyro in control. Confidence is born quickly in these
high altitudes, but since the system looks to the
instructor, rather than to the pupil, the strain on the
former is commensurate with the added advantages
extended to the latter.
Herewith a few excerpts from an admirable syllabus
issued by the Air Ministry in this connection. They
are curt, valuable and saturated with experience:
212
213
214
"Put the pupil in the pilot's seat from the very
beginning.
"Control your pupils in the air entirely by word of
mouth through the speaking tube.
"When a pupil makes a mistake in the air let him
first exhaust his own ideas of how to put things right
if height permits.
"Make it a point of honour to allow pupils full con-
trol, except, of course, in cases of emergency.
"Your greatest duty is to inspire your pupils with
confidence in themselves, in their machines and in you.
"If the weather is too bad for instruction, you should
fly yourself for the sake of the spirit it produces.
"Every time a pupil does something in the air he
has never done before he increases his confidence.
"Instructors are responsible for the crashes of their
own pupils, and the saving of a crash compensates for
any amount of additional dual control.
"Have all your machines rigged properly, and fly
them frequently yourself to see that none get into a
bad condition.
"The time available during training is ample for a
pupil to be made a real pilot, provided he makes up
his mind never to waste time in the air and is taught,
not left, to teach himself."
The progress of instruction is roughly indicated
below, this sequence of manoeuvres having been
developed in Canada to suit local conditions and the
general type of pupil available:
Demonstrate effect of the controls.
Flying straight, level and climbing.
Turns.
Misuse of controls in turns.
Difference in control with the engine off.
215
Glide.
Stalling.
Slow flying.
Gliding turns.
Taking-off into wind.
Landing into wind.
Approach.
Spinning, etc.
The pupil now goes solo.
Steeper turns, with and without engine.
Climbing turns.
Flatter glide.
Side-slipping.
Taking-off and landing across wind.
Landing on a mark.
Forced landings.
Higher manoeuvring.
From the moment of introduction of the Armour
Heights system, a modification of the training of in-
structors became necessary. The psychological phase of
the new method demanded recognition, and steps were
taken forthwith to analyze and increase the personnel
of aerial tuition at all units. The School of Special
Flying resolved itself into a station of five products,
as indicated by the graph given herewith. The value
of each class to the Royal Air Force, Can., has been
inestimable.
The crashes resulting in fatalities showed, under
the new Armour Heights system, a notable decrease as
evidenced by the chart on page 218. To realize the full
significance of this chart, it is necessary to remember
that the pilot who is an "Armour Heights graduate"
has performed in the air every manoeuvre of which
his machine is capable. He has solved all aerial prob-
lems. Whatever protective agencies human skill and
experience could formulate were put into operation,
and the record in respect of fatalities is so low as to
be a tribute to the ceaseless care exercised.
216
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And if it should be asked why those phases of the
system which may be termed its humanities are of so
recent development, the answer lies in the fact that
what is termed "air sense" called for an investigation
of personal phenomena in respect of which science had
not a single landmark. Men watched the bird curving
its wings to invisible gales, and hazarded numberless
theories. Early machines were tricky compared to
their successors. They lacked present efficiency, re-
liability and simplicity. The sum total of the powers
of the pilot were busy meeting mechanical difficulties,
and there was little opportunity for excursions into the
psychology of the new art. The honour of service is
equal, but the pilots sent overseas by the R.A.F.,
Can., in 1918, have in comparison with the pilots of
1914 a vastly superior technical and mental training.
They have advanced step by step with the world's
knowledge of the air.
To reduce it to a sentence, the system of to-day
turns out a pilot who is subdivided, so to speak, into
two sections. One is subjective and does the flying.
The other is objective, free for retreat or pursuit, de-
fence or attack or any of the countless situations of
aerial warfare which call for swift and fearless action.
219
SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING.
The Armour Heights special course for instructors
commenced on or about April 1st, 1918, with one
squadron detailed for duty. As will be inferred, this
was the direct outcome of the adoption and further
development by the R.A.F., Canada, of the method of
tuition known as the Gosport system, then in use in
Great Britain.
It might be well to explain that the Armour Heights
course differs in important respects from the instruc-
tion given in England. Up till the present, it was
not considered that the JN4 machine, as used, was
capable of performing all higher manoeuvres, such as
rolling, looping, etc. It had therefore been, so to speak,
set aside by the British authorities for what might
be called lower training. The higher and more
difficult evolutions had been reserved until the pilot
went overseas and was trained in the use of fast,
service machines. With the Canadian JN4, however,
all the higher manoeuvres were now performed by
speed and not by engine power. This naturally neces-
sitated considerable dexterity of manipulation.
By the first of July, ninety-five instructors were
passed out of the School. On this date a second
squadron was absorbed for the purpose of tuition and
the School of Special Flying came into existence,
with thirty-six machines and an average of twelve
instructors.
At the beginning of October an output of sixty for
the month was counted on. This was lowered to
forty-two, owing to the severe epidemic of influenza
then prevalent, which considerably reduced the number
of serviceable instructors.
The primary aim of the tuition has been to obtain
smooth and correct work and a light-handed method of
220
OFFICERS AND STAFF SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING.
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flying, as it was found that when pilots used perforce
only JN4 machines they were apt to develop a
somewhat heavy touch, unless extreme care was exer-
cised. Stunting and contour chasing were particularly
encouraged amongst instructors and others with suffi-
cient air experience, and since the duty of the School
was to instruct instructors, the personality of the
latter was always considered a determining factor
entirely apart from ability as a pilot.
An important duty performed by the School, was
the calling in of most of the instructors then in the
brigade, in order to thoroughly acquaint them with the
new methods involved in tuition as given in the Armour
Heights course. This proved entirely justified.
It was found, also, that even in the case of most
experienced pilots, who had been flying fast machines
overseas, great advantage was secured by taking the
course, since it was required that they depend to a
much greater extent upon correct flying, far more skill
being required to do higher manoeuvres on a low-
powered machine.
The dual time put in by instructors who passed out
for wing duty was reduced from fourteen hours to
eight hours in the course of four or five months, as
a result of better instruction at the wings, this being
indirectly due to the fact that the instructors under
whom they had flown in each squadron had them-
selves been through the Armour Heights course. It
was found that three hours' solo to one hour of dual
instruction was most advantageous.
The above notes give very baldly an outline of the
purpose of the School, and it will be found necessary
to take them in conjunction with the chapter on the
Armour Heights system in order that the essential
elements of this tuition may be fully realized.
223
FLYING ACCIDENTS.
The "crash" diagram is, after all, the most definite
and conclusive record of the success or failure of any
system of flying instruction. Its facts are incon-
trovertible.
During the earlier period of the history of the
Corps in Canada, there was, of course, in use a con-
stantly broadening system whereby the details of all
aerial accidents were instantly forwarded to head-
quarters. It was not, however, until the Armour Heights
method had been in definite operation for some months
that it became possible to re-analyse the then existing
proceedure in the light of new knowledge, and evolve
a form of records which completely reflected all the
various instrumentalities which required diagnosis.
This statement carries no reflection on either the
instructors or the methods of instruction pertaining
to the first year's operation of the unit. As in all
its other activities, out of experience came knowledge,
the application of which was instantly undertaken.
We find, then, that during the summer of 1918 not
only were the salient features of the crash carefully
investigated, but also all those possibly contributory
causes in some one of which will almost certainly
be found some vitally important feature.
The first procedure was to classify the crash.
The method adopted will be seen in the index of the
graph on page 229. Prior, however, to this classifica-
tion, which of course is only established by means of
close technical examination of the damaged machine,
the unit to which the machine belonged sent to
headquarters by telegraph or telephone, whichever
was the faster, the following information:
224
(1) Regimental number, rank and name of
personnel concerned, stating which is pilot
and which is passenger.
(2) Injuries sustained and by whom.
(3) Precis of accident.
(4) Time and date.
(5) Type and number of machine.
(6) Number of hours solo and dual flown by
casualty.
(7) Whether next-of-kin has been notified.
(8) Whether Canadian press (if necessary) has
been notified.
(9) Whether court of enquiry is being held.
The next procedure was to further analyze the
accident by establishing as quickly as possible all
facts which might tend to elucidate information.
Under the nine succeeding headings come also certain
crashes from one or more contributory causes the
latter to be further classified in relative proportion,
whether primary or secondary.
i. Aeroplane defect
(a) Breakage.
(b) Engine failure.
(c) Faulty rigging,
ii. Error of judgment
(a) Not due to poor instruction.
(b) Probably due to poor instruction,
iii. Loss of head.
iv. Brain fatigue.
v. Fear.
vi. Physical illness,
vii. Unavoidable.
viii. Disobeying
(a) Rules of the air.
(b) Instructions for that flight.
(c) Standing orders.
ix. Weather (wing visibility, temperature effects).
225
As some accidents will have one or more contribu-
tory causes, they will be shown under two headings:
Primary cause.
Secondary or contributory cause.
It will be seen at a glance that the bringing forth
of this information involved reference to records
already in existence, and which had been maintained
with particular care in order they might be fully
available when thus crucially needed. There was sent,
furthermore, specified information with regard to
certain possible contributory causes, such as "loss of
head," "brain fatigue" or "fear." Under "loss of head,"
for instance, it is pointed out that the pupil in his
new occupation of flying, especially for the first time,
has every mental faculty on the alert at extremely high
tension, and that the sense of danger, although not
asserting itself, is also subconsciously present. It
follows, therefore, that under the strain of an emergency
the power of synchronized decision and act may lapse
this lapse resulting in what is known as "loss of head."
When there is added to this the fact that in flying, not
only seconds, but parts of a second count enormously,
it will be clear that after an actual loss of head there
is seldom time to correct an error.
"Brain fatigue" and "fear" are allied to "loss of
head;" when the pupil reaches the stage in which he
has neither the power to reason, decide or act. Then
supervenes a state of mental inertia due to the swiftly
repeated stream of impulses received in rapid suc-
cession by his brain. He begins to feel alone, and
unable to assume control. Errors occur, and he becomes
overwhelmed with the enormousness of the whole
thing. Follows a state of brain fatigue and stupor,
during which he awaits events and takes little part
in the control of his machine. After such an accident,
the pupil has generally no recollection of what has
happened. His memory seems to be partially stunned.
Under these circumstances, it seldom occurs that
226
TYPES OF CRASHES.
227
A TEXAS CRASH
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he resumes flying his temperament as a general
thing proving to be unsuitable.
It is important that " brain fatigue" should be
sharply separated from "fear." The latter is rarely
experienced in the air on the first few solo flights, the
pilot's mind being far too much concerned with the
details of flying, watching the various instruments,
and in checking his position and direction in the air
relative to the ground. Many confess to a lurking
sense of danger, but all say that it rarely if ever asserts
itself.
Turning again to the graph on page 218, and now
keeping in mind the classification of crashes, it is
interesting to note that, owing to the introduction
of the Armour Heights system, crashes in which the
machine is totally wrecked were reduced from 53 in the
month of June to 21 in part of the month of November.
"B" and "C" crashes in which longerons are broken,
were reduced from 43 in June to 12 in November.
"D" crashes, which are those affecting only the under-
carriage or planes, and are usually due to rough ground
being insufficiently allowed for, or too late a pull back
on the control ere the machine comes into contact
with the earth, fell from 107 to 16. While the general
reduction is most gratifying, the improvement in the
acquirement of a delicate control necessary to make
workmenlike landings is remarkable.
It will be observed that although training was con-
tinually being intensified, fatalities decreased from 1
in 1,760 hours' flying in July, 1918, to 1 in 5,300
hours' flying in October, 1918, and this in spite of the
fact that pilots were doing all aerial manoeuvres.
Official data from other training centres, where work
was done on varying types of machines, show 1
fatality for 1,170 hours' flying.
230
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LAKE WORTH.
PART OF BENBROOK.
232
THE R.F.C. IN TEXAS.
The entry of the United States into the war
affected almost immediately the programme of the
R.F.C. in Canada. There was now next door, instead
of a neutral if friendly nation, a vast organization
associated with us in the greatest of all undertakings,
and when in April the O.C. was authorized to visit
the War Department in Washington and discuss a
reciprocal scheme for training pilots, he found the
U.S. authorities animated by the keenest possible
spirit. The idea of cooperation was attractive to
both services. It would not only stimulate a most
desirable comradeship between the two, but would be
of direct assistance to the U.S. Signal Corps in training
their tremendous reserves of admirable recruits, as
well as possibly obviate the necessity of the R.F.C.
forming a fourth wing in British Columbia, where the
preparation of aerodromes was already under way.
The move was preceded by formal communications
between the two governments, but the details of
organization, equipment and training, on behalf of
the British, rested with the O.C., R.F.C., Canada.
Briefly they were as follows:
(1) The R.F.C. was to train ten squadrons for the
U.S. Signal Corps, comprising 300 pilots, 144 other
flying officers, some 20 administrative and equipment
officers and approximately 2,000 mechanics. This
training was to be commenced immediately in Canada,
and completed at Fort Worth, Texas. All training
equipment, aerodromes, etc., in Canada to be pro-
vided by the R.F.C.
(2) The Aviation Section, United States Signal
Corps was to provide in Texas, and equip with all the
necessary buildings, water supply, etc., two aerodromes
capable of accommodating 10 squadrons, and part of
233
a third for the Aerial Gunnery School; these areas to
be occupied and under the control of the R.F.C.
(3) The Aviation Section, United States Signal
Corps was to provide in Texas all aeroplanes, spares,
running supplies (oil, gasoline, etc.), office and barrack
fixtures and other camp equipment. The R.F.C. to
supply gunnery, wireless and all other ground instruc-
tional equipment.
(4) Each service would provide its own pay,
clothing and transportation, and draw rations on re-
payment during their stay in each other's country.
(5) The R.F.C. to supply all medical services in
Canada, and vice versa.
This general arrangement was found to be mutually
acceptable, and it was agreed, in addition, that the
invaluable assistance of the I.M.B. in Canada, should
be continued in Texas by the establishment there of
a section of their purchasing staff.
Such was the proposal noted on the back of an
envelope by the chiefs of each service, and it was
carried out by both to the letter.
The brigade was already acquainted with the
splendid pilot material available in the U.S., as many
had enlisted in Canada, hoping to reach France at the
earliest possible moment. Their record lives, and some
of the success of the Corps is due to the admirable
progress they made in training. They came -
studied hard, and got into the air at every opportun-
ity, breathless to join those forerunners whose names
were already written large.
Commencing early in July, 1917, the brigade re-
ceived for training from the U.S.S.C., about 1,400
enlisted men and cadets. A colonel of the
Signal Corps describes them as under-officered, un-
organized, unpaid, without records, and though one
234
\
CANADIAN WEATHER IN TEXAS.
TOWED TARGET FOR AERIAL GUNNERY.
235
EVERMAN. TEXAS.
PORTION OF HICKS, TEXAS.
hestitates practically without uniforms. The im-
mediate result for the R.F.C. was administrative
chaos, but, in due course, matters were smoothed out,
and when they returned south in the fall, they were
already assuming a semblance of entity as United
States Aero Squadrons.
On September 24th, 1917, the advance party left
for Texas, composed of 4 U.S. officers and 50 men
and 4 R.F.C. officers and 34 men, constituting a wing
headquarters and a fatigue party, who, arriving in
Fort Worth on September 26th, immediately proceeded
to then- headquarters in that city. They found there
were three fields located north, south and west of Fort
Worth, named, locally, Hicks, Benbrook and Ever-
man, but grouped under the Signal Corps title of Camp
Taliaferro, Fields Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Construction
had been delayed through various causes. Barracks
and aerodromes were incomplete. At one field build-
ing had been barely started. Water and light supply
and sewage disposal had not been finished. Thus,
although every effort was made to complete construc-
tion, it was nearly three months before this was
accomplished, entailing much delay, inconvenience and
some hardship on the squadrons occupying camps and
quarters not ready for them.
The first to arrive from Canada was the 17th
Aero Squadron, U.S.S.C., which marched in to Hicks
Field on October 17th. From that time on one
squadron arrived weekly until November 17th when
the 42nd and 43rd Wings R.F.C. and the balance of
the Americans detrained, preceded only by a few days
by advanced headquarters staff.
There were now in Texas two R.F.C. Wings, the
42nd at Everman and 43rd at Benbrook, the 17th, 22nd,
27th, 28th Aero Squadrons and the School of Aerial
Gunnery at Hicks, advanced headquarters, R.F.C.,
headquarters U.S.S.C., Camp Taliaferro and the
purchasing section of the I.M.B. in Fort Worth.
237
Transportation arrangements for these units from
Canada to Texas were exceptionally good. The
42nd and 43rd Wings ceased flying on 14th November
and recommenced in Texas on 17th November, a loss
of only three days occasioned by a journey of approxi-
mately 1,600 miles.
It would not be amiss to mention the enormous
amount of work thrown on A.O., A.E., and Q.M.
branches through the novel situation that now existed.
The U.S. owned the buildings, but the R.F.C. used and
were responsible for those they occupied. There were
R.F.C. squadrons and, beside them, American squad-
rons being trained by the R.F.C. but administered
by their own authorities. Aeroplanes, engines, oil,
gasoline, etc., were supplied by the U.S., but the R.F.C.
directed flying, and repaired and rebuilt machines and
engines, drawing the necessary spares from U.S. stores.
The Aviation Department of the I.M.R. transacted
R.F.C. affairs as though in Canada, and with equal
facility. Cadets and men were being received con-
tinually for training, and as continually trained and
returned to their own organizations. American rail-
roads honoured transportation warrants redeemable in
Ottawa. The R.F.C. medical officers quarantined the
R.F.C., in which there were hundreds of Americans,
against U.S. camps a few miles away. Weekly train-
loads of Canadian-made engines and aeroplanes arrived,
came under U.S. control and were immediately used
by the R.F.C.
The situation was, in short, as though an area in
Texas had been temporarily acquired by the Rritish
Empire, and in it members of an Imperial force con-
ducted their affairs with the utmost freedom. There
was friction of course for no two great military systems
can work together with all their national traditions,
usages, procedures and regulations, without many
minor and some major adjustments being necessary.
It was, however, the friction of two keen and rival organ-
izations pressing toward the same object. Difficulties
238
X
J
239
A DIVE AT "HUNGRY LIZZIE.'
SALVAGE.
240
THE LOOP.
THE LOOP.
CLASS INSTRUCTION
GUNNERY IN TEXAS.
242
arose only to be met and overcome by the spontaneous
goodwill and friendship of both services.
Before moving to Texas many American cadets
had nearly finished their training. Their first flights
in their own country were over aerodromes situated
amid open territory with no timber and comparatively
flat. Excellent material these men, the best the
U.S. could supply, most of them fresh from great
American universities, young, keen and quick to learn.
There were very few who did not turn out excellent
pilots. The supply of machines was satisfactory, the
standard of flying was good, and daily acrobatics took
place. Formation flying was popular. On one occas-
ion a formation of six machines, all piloted by newly
graduated cadets, were seen to loop several times con-
secutively, retaining their formation, a most unusual
performance at that time at any aerodrome in the
United States.
A summing up of the work in Texas shows a total
of 67,000 flying hours between November 17th and
April 12th, spent in turning out 1,960 pilots trained and
partly trained, both U.S. and R.F.C. Besides these,
69 non-flying officers and 4,150 men were trained in their
respective duties. The flying fatalities were 1.88% of
pilots trained an excellent record. The medical per-
centage is equally good, showing 3% incapacitated from
all causes.
Flying conditions were found to differ somewhat
from those in Canada. The atmosphere was much
dryer and less buoyant. Calm air was the exception,
despite the comparatively flat country. The tempera-
ture range was much wider, and on the arrival of a
"norther," the air became chilled with extraordinary
rapidity, the thermometer dropping from 70 to 20
degrees Fah. in a couple of hours. This sudden drop
was more trying to many than the colder but steadier
temperature of higher latitudes. Texas, though pre-
sumed a dry state, departed this winter from its
243
custom, and suffered heavy rainfalls and even snow,
which reduced the aerodromes at times to a drab
plain surfaced with a sticky blanket of mud, from which
undercarriages and propellers suffered grievously at
times. No less than 40 propellers were broken in one
morning, and the average for one month was 10 per
day. So troublesome was the mud that finally the
brigade was forced to adopt the use of wire mesh
mud guards. No provision had been made for sub-
draining any of the fields. These periods, however,
were but occasional. For the rest, the winter was one
of favorable weather with high, clear skies, dotted from
daylight till dark with innumerable machines.
Much admirable work was done by the personnel
of both services, of which perforce no record can be
given. In one instance an American squadron allotted
to Hicks Field marched into new and unfinished bar-
racks. There was no camp equipment, no water or
sewerage. The hangars were congested with machines
in packing cases, and there were no tools, yet within
eight days the packing cases had disappeared and all
machines were serviceable and ready to fly. A remark-
able performance for a unit of partially -trained men.
No account of the Texas experience would be com-
plete without some record of the spontaneous hospital-
ity and goodwill shown by the citizens of Fort Worth
and the community in general. During Christmas
time, pneumonia was rampant at Camp Bowie, some
six miles from Fort Worth, where there were no less
than 35,000 Texans, composing the Panther Division.
As a result the Canadians were quarantined. This
made no difference, however, to the all-hospitable
Texan, who extended to officers, cadets and mechanics
so many and lavish invitations that at the year's end
there was not a man who had not personally experienced
the goodwill of the South. The interest created by the
first arrival of the brigade in strange uniforms and
caps seemed to continue throughout the winter. No
244
*' ' THE ROLL* ' HALF-OVER.
THE "ROLL."
245
246
Flying Corps man was allowed to walk, when every
privately owned motor car was at his service. Liaison
duties were most admirably discharged by the Ameri-
can officer who made it not only his particular duty
but pleasure to see that all newcomers were welcomed
under his kindly roof, and had every opportunity of
meeting brother officers under the most delightful
circumstances.
Fort Worth citizens subscribed the sum of $75,000
to provide funds for the local branch of the American
War Service Board, and rented a large club room and
dancing hall in the centre of the city, where com-
fortable accommodation was found for men of both the
American and British services. This organization was
under the management of a "Big Brother," who
seemed born to the work. Canteen and dancing halls
were supervised by an organization, the Federated
Ladies' Clubs of Fort Worth, in which each of the
latter endeavoured to excel in hospitality, and it fell
on one memorable night that the Canadians were
entertained by the daughter of the President of the
United States.
The Country Club was at the disposal of visiting
officers, who will long remember the evenings spent
in the best of fellowship. The ever-present Y.M.C.A.
saw to it that commodious huts and writing rooms w^ere
furnished in all Canadian flying camps. It is im-
possible, in short, to imagine any source of pleasure,
interest or entertainment which was not provided
during these notable months in the history of the
brigade.
On the evening before the departure of the R.F.C.
a smoking concert was given by U.S. officers to their
comrades, an entertainment which was eloquent of the
comradeship born of strenuous times of mutual work,
and prophetic of that still closer brotherhood which
would follow in the days of active service.
247
The appended copy of a letter from Major-General
Kenly reveals his generous appreciation of the effort of
the R.F.C. personnel:
"WAR DEPARTMENT.
"OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER,
"WASHINGTON.
"Air Service Division "May 17, 1918.
Training Section.
"FROM: Chief of Air Service.
"To: General Officer Commanding, Royal Air Force,
Toronto, Canada.
"SUBJECT: Reciprocal Agreement.
"1. The reciprocal agreement made last autumn by yourself and the
Chief Signal Officer of the Army having successfully accomplished its
purpose, I desire to express to you my appreciation of the manner in
which the Royal Air Force, under your directions, has fulfilled its part
of the arrangement.
"2. By its faithful and efficient work in the training of our cadets
and enlisted personnel, the Royal Air Forces has conferred a great and
practical benefit on the United States Air Service.
"3. Equally important is the imponderable but undoubted benefit
which has accrued to our men from instruction by and association with
officers and men who have had practical experience, at the front, with
the conditions which we are preparing to meet. This contact, so desired
by all our forces and so particularly influential in the training of a wholly
new arm of the service, would, but for your assistance, have been denied
to all the men training for the Air Service in this country.
"4. The following is quoted from the report of our Commanding
Officer, Taliaferro Fields. 'I am of the opinion that the reciprocal
agreement between the Chief Signal Officer of the Army and the General
Officer Commanding, Royal Flying Corps, has proven an entire success,
and that outside of the training actually given at the fields here, the
influence of the Royal Flying Corps in Texas and our association with
that Corps in Canada has had a far-reaching and decidedly beneficial
effect on our flying fields, throughout the United States.' With the
sentiment herein expressed I am in complete accord, and can wish no
better for the United States Air Service than that it may duplicate the
high endeavor and equally high accomplishment which has distinguished
the Royal Flying Corps, and now distinguishes, in no less abundant
measure, the Royal Air Force.
"W. L. KENLY,
"Major-General N.A.,
"Chief of the Air Service."
248
249
OFFICERS AND STAFF ENGINE REPAIR PARK.
250
ENGINE REPAIR PARK.
To the Engine Repair Park the brigade has looked
for the main portion of that mechanical work on
which so much has depended, and it has not looked
in vain. The necessity for the establishment of this
unit was apparent from the first, it being put into
action about the time when flying might be said to
have reached a permanent status. Some three months
later, in August, 1917, the unit was enlarged by provision
for aeroplane repair, and work of both types was done
under one command. With the rapidly increasing
flying hours put in by the Corps, there again appeared
the necessity for still further enlargement, and the
unit was finally subdivided into Engine and Aeroplane
Repair. This system remained till the close of
hostilities.
It is quite obvious that the mechanical condition
of the power plant of an aeroplane is of paramount
importance, and, in consequence, no expense or
trouble was spared to put the Engine Repair Park
on the best possible basis. The equipment, which in
the winter of 1917, promised to be ample, soon proved
insufficient, and in September, 1918, the Park
moved into large and most completely fitted shops
in rented premises on King Street. In this building
four floors presented a scene of extreme activity,
the work being so arranged as to be progres-
sive, finishing with the final tests before shipment.
During its life of some nineteen months, this Park
completely overhauled no less than 1,325 engines, of
which all but thirty-five were of the Curtiss 8-cylinder
type. Records show that for a complete overhaul,
such as was given, an average of 300 hours' work was
required. The total strength of the unit in November,
1918, was 125.
251
It is of interest to note that obligations covered the
complete dissembling and assembling of engines, the
repair sections, situated at the various wings, doing
only a top overhaul, for which they were suitably
equipped.
During 1918, it became apparent that considerable
saving could be effected by carrying the work of the
unit into the manufacture of engines as well as their
repair, and, in consequence, much time and thought
was given to the turning out of those integral parts
which, assembled, made up the complete engine.
To such a pitch was this carried that the point was
reached at which only about twenty individual parts
out of several hundred were purchased, the balance
being the product of the Repair Park itself. It is
estimated that in this way some $30,000 was saved on
the manufacture of Curtiss engines, and some $20,000
additional when this economical system was applied
to the manufacture of machine gun parts. These
estimates of saving are probably low, owing to the fact
that 50c. an hour was allowed for bench work and $1.00
an hour for machine work.
The rarity of any serious engine trouble reported
by the flying wings, is a tribute not only to the admirably
simple design of the Curtiss engine, but also to the
excellent work done by the Engine Repair Park.
252
ENGINES MOUNTED FOR TEST.
THE STARTING END.
(NOTE PROTECTIVE SCREEN).
253
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AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK.
This unit commenced operations as a separate
organization on the 23rd February, 1918, prior to which
time both engine and aeroplane repairs were made
under the same administration. The work consisted
of not only rebuilding every machine which crashed,
but also dismantling and reassembling every aeroplane
which had completed its flying time at the various
wings. The fact that 400 hours in the air was con-
sidered to necessitate complete rebuilding, will indicate
the extreme care taken to ensure that no instructor or
cadet took to the air in an aeroplane which was not in
perfect mechanical condition.
Entire dismantling was accomplished in every case,
and after every individual fitting and part had under-
gone various stages of repair and inspection, it was
sent forthwith to the technical stores, whence it was
reissued as required for construction of new machines.
By this means it was found feasible to salve and re-use
not less than sixty per cent, of the members and
fittings of every machine received by the unit.
In the early summer of 1918, the output of the
Aeroplane Repair Park (the quality of this output being
always entirely satisfactory) reached such a point that
the brigade found it unnecessary to continue the
practice of buying complete machines from the Can-
adian Aeroplanes Limited, and the latter undertook
to supply only such individual parts as the Repair Park
was not equipped to make for itself. Thus this organiza-
tion proved its constantly increasing importance.
A glance at the exterior of a machine gives no
idea whatever of the number of integral parts which
go to make up a structure seemingly so simple, and the
fact that the parts are so numerous threw additional
256
work on the stores section, which was required at all
times to keep in stock an ample supply of members
and fittings.
In addition to the work of salvaging machines, the
unit had other duties to perform, such as the repair
of instruments, tires, inner-tubes, radiators, metal
fittings, wings, etc. The aeroplane when dismantled
presents a vastly different appearance to that of the
complete machine ready to take the air.
In all construction the progressive system was
worked out, by which machines, commencing at the
first stage, moved on from section to section, receiving
at each point the necessary additional touches, till at
the end they emerged mechanically complete. The work
was, in fact exactly like that at the Canadian Aero-
planes Limited, with the exception that in addition to
new construction this unit shouldered as well the system
of salvaging, by which great economies were without
question effected. Over and above this, there went out
from the Repair Park a constantly increasing flow of
wooden members, which were absorbed by various
flying units in repairs made on wings and ailerons at
these stations.
Two graphs, given herewith, show the fluctuation in
the quantity of work done, this fluctuation corres-
ponding with demands made. These will be found to
synchronize closely with other data giving the record
of crashes, etc.
In a retrospection of the general operations of the
brigade it has been impossible to find a scene of
operations better organized than this Repair Park, or
one of which the output was more uniformly depend-
able and mechanically satisfactory.
257
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OFFICERS AND STAFF AEROPLANE REPAI1
259
OFFICERS AND STAFF STORES DEPOT.
260
STORES DEPOT.
Stores Depot has been the general receiving, dis-
tributing and clearing house for all supplies and
equipment used by the brigade, and it is estimated that
between 20,000 and 30,000 different types of articles and
appliances have been carried in its spacious premises.
Provision of this organization was recognized as
an imperative necessity at the very inception of the
Corps. Its procedure has been from the start greatly
assisted by the fact that the Aviation Department of
the Imperial Munitions Board has acted as purchasing
agent, and has always placed its unique facilities at the
service of the R.A.F. and secured for the latter the
very best possible terms and deliveries procurable. In
order to reduce as far as possible the labor imposed
upon the Imperial Munitions Board, the requirements
of each unit for a definite length of time were
estimated, grouped and submitted as one request. It
will be understood that these requirements covered all
needs from socks to propellers. This procedure is
termed "provisioning."
Purchased material, being received at Stores Depot,
is subject to a minute inspection, and no payments are
made by the Munitions Board until notification has
been received from the inspection department that
the articles received are in classification and quantity
exactly what has been ordered. If this centralizing of
receiving work should be considered in any way unne-
cessary, it has only be to pointed out that the receipt
of purchased material is thereby enormously simplified,
and the duty of inspection is unified in one specially
qualified organization.
It is easily seen that without extreme care Stores
Depot might have accumulated an enormous quantity
of innumerable articles, quantities far beyond actual
requirements of the various units for whom they were
261
purchased. In consequence, the practice has invariably
been to compile a schedule covering the needs for six
months of each branch of the service, and confine the
stocks carried to these amounts.
The amount of work discharged by Stores Depot
has been probably not thoroughly appreciated, even
by the various branches of the brigade. Records show
an average receipt per week for the last year of some
250 shipments, or between thirty or forty a day.
These shipments range from one case to seventy or
eighty cases each, while from the commencement of
Stores to November, 1918, there have been placed with
the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions
Board some 9,000 requisitions, each of which represents
an average of ten different types of articles, each
requisition in turn has been covered by from one to
ten orders placed by the Munitions Board, while every
order has been covered by from one up to as high as
one hundred invoices.
The responsibility of Stores Depot has involved
not only receipt and distribution of all supplies required
by the brigade, but also the maintenance of a form of
record which will enable the government auditors to
trace the entire history of any article which has passed
through this organization, from the date of the order
given for its purchase up to the point at which it has
reached the end of its serviceable life and been
written off.
It will, of course, be understood that supplies have
been sent to the various wings only upon a request being
made by the latter, and it is furthermore necessary
that the type and amount of the equipment which is
being asked for coincide with the provision Stores Depot
are authorized to make, and the rate of consumption
which is laid down as being proper for the particular
service involved. If, on the other hand, any purchase
is necessary of articles not carried as standard, special
authority is required to be granted before action is
taken.
262
264
The move to Texas of a section of the Corps in
October, 1917, and the return of that section to Canada
in April, 1918, threw additional responsibility on Stores
Depot organization, and shipments which involved
as many as twenty carloads per day were frequently
sent out, the total value of articles thus forwarded
being over $2,000,000. It was also of extreme import-
ance that on the return of the Aerial Gunnery School
to its permanent quarters at Beamsville, this unit
should find itself equipped with the involved and often
highly technical scheduled supplies required for its
special duty, and it is to be recorded that this provision
was admirably foreseen and supplied.
In the Stores Depot, as well as in all other units,
excellent service has been rendered by lady civilian
subordinates, and in October no less than 184 were on
the strength of this unit. There was required, of
course, the special training of those hitherto unskilled
in these particular duties, but the result has amply
justified the trouble taken. Over and above the
civilian subordinates, there were on the strength 17
officers and 217 other ranks. All have contributed
to a notable degree to the success of the work of other
units, which without a constant dependable supply of
necessary equipment would have been soon rendered
ineffective.
265
THE PAY OFFICE.
The Pay Officer arrived in Canada on the llth
February, 1917, with four non-commissioned officers
of the Imperial Army Pay Corps and eight boxes of
army books and forms, the latter, however, being
practically useless. Canadian conditions were vastly
different from those in England.
A suitable office was located at 20 Victoria Street.
The Pay Officer then immediately notified the press
of his arrival and address, and work began on February
17th, necessary funds being drawn from the War
Office through the British Remount Commission in
Montreal.
Owing to values in Canada varying widely from
those prevailing in England, it was essential to tread
very warily regarding the fixing of rates of pay and
allowances and innumerable other points known only
to those who have experience in an Army Pay Office.
Once in the swing, and after numerous conferences
and interviews with Imperial and Canadian authorities,
the department became a hive of industry. Its extra-
ordinary growth may be seen from the following table:
Total Cash Total Cash No. of No. of
Month expended on issued to Sub- cheques
all services Sub-accountants accountants issued
February, 1917. $ 2,000.00 $ 1,500.00 2 26
July, 1917 236,572.90 152,812.14 19 1354
January, 1918. . . 588,610.97 375,164.47 19 2926
July, 1918 782,383.76 469,291.57 18 4036
The number of claims for separation allowance to
wives' of cadets, warrant officers and other ranks paid
in February, 1917, was fifteen. At present 1,579
claims are issued every month. Similarly the pay-
266
PAY OFFICE STAFF
267
268
ments to dependents have increased during the same
period from 2 to 1,684. The expenditure incurred
for the above services to the end of November, 1918,
is approximately $1,200,000.
The total number of cadets, warrant officers, non-
commissioned officers and airmen who have been dealt
with through the Department has reached the total
of 18,232.
The total expenditure by the Pay Officer on all
services from February, 1917, to December 31, 1918,
has been $12,555,000.
For the reader's further information, all units
hold sub-accounts with the Pay Officer for the pay-
ment of their personnel, each sub-accountant rendering
a monthly statement, properly vouched, to show how
the money advanced has been disposed of.
The Pay Officer's further duties involve also the
keeping of each man's account on a ledger sheet, show-
ing clearly by monthly periods the credits due and the
debits made against each account. In addition, a
ledger account is kept of the amounts due and paid
to the wives and dependents of airmen. The Pay
Office also assumes the payment and examination of
all railway warrants, and all rations in kind issued to
all ranks. This includes the adjustment between the
Imperial and U.S. Governments for rations and
supplies issued in Canada and Texas under the recipro-
cal training agreement. The examination and pay-
ment of all accounts from civilian authorities for damage
to private property on account of crashes and break-
downs of aircraft and mechanical transport falls to
this department.
The Victory Loan of 1917, was by arrangement with
the Pay Officer, inasfar as the R.A.F. was concerned,
paid for by instalments through allotment from the
men's accounts. The total of $350,000 was subscribed
in this manner.
269
As to the staff, one officer and four non-commis-
sioned officers were responsible for the training of an
ever-increasing personnel, and the effort was made to
utilize each man's civilian experience to the utmost.
Bank clerks and accountants who enlisted into the
R.A.F. were, upon request, usually allotted for duty
with this department, thus ensuring efficient ground
work. Each was thoroughly schooled, promotion by
merit being the incentive. This practice has always
been adhered to, and has been found most satisfactory.
The total of men clerks is now 38, in charge of a
flight clerk. There are but two officers.
The female subordinates were mostly obtained from
the public schools and colleges, and, after training,
their work has been as duly recognized as that of the
men. Most have been with the department for more
than twelve months. This speaks well for their work
and efficiency. The female staff numbers 41, with one
lady superintendent in charge.
It is desired in conclusion to point out that the
demobilization of the Force in Canada has seriously
taxed the efforts of this office, but, taking past experi-
ence as a guide, no trouble is being experienced in
disposing of the tremendous detail involved in returning
the corps to civil life.
270
TOP OVERHAUL.
TOP OVERHAUL.
271
273
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MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION.
274
MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION.
This organization came into official existence on
March, 17th, 1917, with a strength of one officer, fifteen
non-commissioned officers and airmen, and some fifteen
vehicles which had been brought out from England by
the advance party of the wing.
By October, 1918, the number of vehicles had
grown to about 400 (exclusive of side cars) these being
looked after by a staff of some two hundred and thirty
non-commissioned officers and airmen, thirty lady
drivers, and a clerical staff of thirty-six. The vehicles
were distributed throughout the various sections of the
brigade, all major sections being so organized as to
make their own repairs without reference to the central
establishment in Toronto.
Housed at first in rented premises in the Wolseley
Garage, Toronto, the headquarters establishment was
moved early in August, 1917, to its new building in
Dupont Street. This structure was approximately
180 ft. x 150 ft., being laid out in bays, and so arranged
as to afford both the maximum storage space and the
best possible accommodation for repair work. The
latter in turn was subdivided into branches, each taking
over its special duty as applied to various features
of repair work, thus ensuring that a car which came
in for overhaul moved constantly forward until, on
completion, it had passed through the hands of every
section concerned. Arrangements were so perfected
that a complete overhaul could be completed by noon
on the third day from commencement, and three days
later the vehicle, completely painted and varnished,
stood ready for either storage or reissue.
The salvage of spare or worn parts proved, of course,
to be a point demanding special attention, inasmuch
as a great portion of the expense connected with
overhaul is invariably to be found in such replacements.
275
Under the arrangements made, all worn parts were
classified and, wherever possible, repaired and stored
so as to be ready for re-issue when needed. It is re-
ported by the officer in charge of this section that the
average repair output per week was some nineteen
vehicles of all descriptions, heavy and light, this work
being accomplished in addition to maintenance, wash-
ing, etc., of all the other vehicles in the headquarters
section.
The transport purchased locally proved most effi-
cient, and in the Toronto section 1,200-miles-run was
averaged per day. Every vehicle carried a log book,
in which its duty was carefully detailed, and all
vehicles were completely rebuilt twice a year.
In October, 1918, the section, again expanding,
occupied large premises on Avenue Road, reserving
the former building for repair work only. The duties
of various units of the brigade called for transpor-
tation work of a widely varying nature, so it came
that the fleet of official vehicles presented an extreme
variety, ranging from Packard ambulances admirable
vehicles specially constructed for hospital work at
high speed over rough ground to repair lorries and
motorcycles. Gasoline tanks for service on aerodromes
proved invaluable, and fire protection was distinctly
aided by the purchase of chemical trucks which were
stationed at various units.
The work of the section was extended to the carry-
ing of local mails between the various units in Toronto.
This proved to be most advantageous. No record of
the section would, furthermore, be complete without
some reference to the duties performed by the lady
drivers who patriotically volunteered for this service.
Then* history is one of entire success, both as to the
duty performed collectively and individually, and
also having in view the all-important fact that by the
acceptance of service so finely offered the brigade was
able to release many men for other and imperative
work in all sections of its operations.
276
IN FORMATION.
A SNAPSHOT.
277
,,
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ASSISTANT PROVOST-MARSHAL, OFFICERS AND STAFF
278
THE ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL
An Assistant Provost Marshal was appointed on
February 1st, 1918. This was deemed advisable
owing to the large number of men enlisted in the
Royal Air Force, Canada. It further relieved the
Canadian Military Police Corps of the extra work of
supervising airmen in the streets of Toronto.
On the formation of this office there were approxi-
mately thirty enlisted men to carry out the duties of
Royal Air Force policemen. The number has since
been increased to fifty, whose duties consist of patrolling
the streets of Toronto, and generally supervising the
discipline and movements of airmen when on leave
in the city. They have also carried out all necessary
escort duties in bringing absentees back to their
units.
A city guard room was opened in April, 1918,
situated at the corner of Church and Wellington
Streets, and later moved to the basement of the
Records building, at the corner of Duke and George
Streets.
In July, 1918, the Royal Ah- Force detention rooms
and police barracks were opened at 1322 Dufferin
Street, for the dual purpose of receiving airmen sen-
tenced to undergo detention and to accommodate the
personnel of the Assistant Provost Marshal's staff.
These barracks are under the supervision of an officer
specially detailed for the duty.
Since July of 1918, three men have been con-
tinually on duty in New York City, under the direction
of an officer of the Royal Air Force, to supervise the
discipline of airmen when on leave in that city.
In the above connection it will be seen that consider-
ing the many thousands of men on the strength of the
brigade, the staff of the A.P.M. was extremely small.
No better evidence could be given of the excellent dis-
cipline and behavior of the Force.
279
ROYAL ENGINEERS 1 SECTION.
Early in 1917 two engineer officers were appointed
to the staff of the Officer Commanding, R.F.C., Canada,
for technical duty in the selection of aerodrome sites
and construction work generally. The former occupied
the initial period of their service, but with the enlarge-
ment of the Corps came the necessity of a Royal
Engineers section to deal with affairs of maintenance
and repair. It was considered that the best results
would be secured by posting detachments of this unit
to various stations, etc., to which, under an R.E. non-
commissioned officer, they were attached for discipline,
pay, rations, etc.
Under these arrangements, the R.E. section carried
out its obligations until the end of August, 1918, when
on account of the shortage of men who were both of
military age and of required trades, it was decided that
the maintenance work performed up to this time by
the various subdivisions of the R.E. section, should
be taken over by the construction section of the
Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board.
The method of carrying out maintenance work was
thus changed, but the responsibility for inspection and
general supervision still devolved upon the headquar-
ters branch of the R.E. section. The strength of the
latter was reduced from an authorized establishment'of
135 to a staff of four officers, four or five draughtsmen
and a sufficient number of clerks. The duty performed
by the unit still covered, as before, the general design of
all buildings whether technical, instructional or bar-
racks, cooperation with the construction section of the
Munitions Board in the securing of service of water,
power, light, etc., and, in general, such responsibilities
as fall upon a firm of consulting engineers. To these
must be added the fact that this section was responsible
280
281
282
to the General Officer Commanding, and acted as
technical go-between and adviser between him and
the Munitions Board in all constructional and in many
technical matters.
In retrospect it appears that the arrangement
worked exceedingly well. The cooperation of the Muni-
tions Board relieved the unit of all except very minor
construction. During the period of this cooperation,
some 400 buildings were specially erected by the former,
some 40 other existing buildings altered and fitted,
together with the provision of innumerable services
of varied nature. Records show the completion of
six aerodromes with accommodation for 22 squadrons,
and the establishment of an Armament School at
Hamilton and a Cadet Wing at Long Branch. The
average cost for barrack accommodation was approxi-
mately $235 per man. In this connection it is interest-
ing to note that at a time when men were becoming
extremely scarce owing to the annulment of transfer
from R.F.C. to the R.A.F., the employment and
accommodation of women on a fairly large scale was
discussed. Analysis of building costs showed that
barrack accommodation would in this case cost some
$430 per head, owing to the necessity of special pro-
vision. The scheme was not unnaturally abandoned.
283
CAMP BORDEN.
This camp, the summer home of the 44th Wing
for the year 1918, represented the first structural
activities of the unit in Canada. By most energetic
methods it was transformed from a sandy desert, and
became probably the finest flying camp in North
America, the Department of Militia and Defence
having put at the disposition of the unit approxi-
mately 1,000 acres adjoining the C.E.F. camp of a
similar name. The work of construction, which began
at the end of January, 1917, progressed so fast that
flying began early in April.
Never probably in the history of Canadian con-
struction has a scene of greater activity been presented
than was observed at Borden during this period under
the direction of the late Colonel Low, backed up by an
R. E. officer lent by the Department of Militia and
Defence. Work progressed unceasingly in a temper-
ature often 20 to 30 below zero. Buildings sprang
up at night under the glare of arc lamps, and physical
difficulties one after the other were met only to be
conquered. Within two weeks 1,700 men and 200
teams had been transported and were at work.
Hundreds of acres of sandy soil were sown with
grass seed, thousands of stumps were uprooted and
numberless hillocks levelled. An excellent road system,
a first rate water supply and electrical system were all
provided, together with special telephone communi-
cation to Toronto and neighboring towns.
The type of building adopted was retained for all
subsequent construction, and has proved to give a
maximum of comfort with a minimum of expense.
At the close of hostilities, Camp Borden had accom-
modation for 122 officers, 500 cadets, 120 warrant
officers and sergeants, and 900 rank and file. A few
284
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.
285
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OFFICERS, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.
286
illustrations of typical buildings are given, together
with photographs of the strength at the cessation of
hostilities.
The surrounding country is level, and affords many
opportunities for landing. To the north stretches the
great expanse of Lake Huron, to the east lies Lake
Simcoe, and 50 miles to the south is the shore of Lake
Ontario. To those who visited Borden when the air
was full of machines, there has always been something
peculiarily fascinating in the wide, clear skies and
unquestionable atmosphere of space and height which
is noticeable.
During its occupancy, the 44th Wing did much to
improve the camp, and the energetic measures taken by
the officer commanding for the comfort and enjoyment
of his unit will long be remembered. A large concrete
swimming pool, 100 feet by 40 feet was built, a cement
tennis court of exceptional excellence was constructed,
and a golf course of 9 holes laid down by first rate pro-
fessionals, arrangements being made whereby, for the
expenditure of a few cents, all could enjoy this most
inviting of sports. Games, football and all types of
physical exercise were indulged in, and it was impossible
to find within the boundaries of the corps a more
complete programme of physical relaxation.
The chart on page 291 shows the number of cadets
passed through this wing. It should be remembered,
however, that until the formation of the School of
Aerial Gunnery in April, 1918, at Beamsville, the
44th Wing assumed this instruction. The unit
occupied Camps Leaside and Armour Heights during
the summer and winter of 1917, but for the rest of its
active history its home has been at Camp Borden.
287
LONG BRANCH.
At first the scene of the initial flying activity of the
brigade, i.e., that of "X" and "Y" Squadrons, Long
Branch subsequently became the home of the Cadet
Wing. The area covers approximately 100 acres, its
use being kindly granted by the Department of Militia
and Defence.
During the summer of 1917, cadets were housed
under canvas. When autumn came, the unit was
split between camps Mohawk and Borden, then
vacated by units proceeding to Texas, and returned
in April to a larger tented city on the former ground.
During the summer of 1918 it was decided that per-
manent accommodation be provided, this being due
to the fact that it was not contemplated that the brigade
should again visit Texas. By the autumn most
excellent provision had been made for 30 officers,
1,200 cadets, 68 warrant officers and sergeants and 1,200
rank and file.
The camp is excellently laid out, supplied with power
and light from the transmission lines of the Hydro-
Electric Power Commission, and was complete with
every provision for the instruction, comfort and amuse-
ment of the large number of cadets on the strength.
Hospital accommodation at this unit was especially
centralized, and arrangements provided that technical
instruction be given to patients so far as their condition
permitted. The Cadet Wing was always prominent
in sports, and during the summer of 1918 several
racing shells were purchased and afforded much
enjoyment along the shores of Lake Ontario, which
lies immediately on the south boundary of the camp.
Here also constant interest was occasioned by the
passage of machines en route to the School of Aerial
Fighting at Beamsville.
288
DESERONTO.
The Town of Deseronto is on the north shore of
Lake Ontario, some 130 miles east of Toronto. Between
it and the main body of the lake, lies the island county
of Prince Edward. Here, at points three miles west and
one and a half miles north, were selected the two
aerodromes of camps Mohawk and Rathbun, the
former being part of an Indian reserve, the use of
which was secured through the agency of the Depart-
ment of Indian Affairs at Ottawa, the latter being
a level farm owned by a prominent family in the town
of Deseronto. Work commenced during April, 1917,
and was sufficiently far advanced to enable machines to
take the air in the following month.
The technical equipment at Mohawk ultimately
consisted of twelve flight sheds (four squadrons) , with
complete provision for aeroplane repair and ground
instruction, the engine repair work being done in
rented sheds in the town of Deseronto. The aerodrome
itself was unusually level and the surrounding country
fairly open. A large amount of flying took place,
of course, over water. Within easy reach to the
eastward lies that exquisite expanse of the St. Law-
rence River which encircles the Thousand Islands.
The camp buildings, centrally heated, crowned an
eminence lying between the aerodrome and the water's
edge, a beautiful site which commanded an excellent
view of the adjacent country. Mohawk, with the
neighboring camp of Rathbun, was occupied during the
early summer of 1917 by the 43rd Wing, headquarters
administration being housed in the Town of Deseronto,
from which both camps could easily be reached.
The development of training, confined at first to
aerial work, was carried to the point of giving ground
and gunnery instruction, and an excellent range was
289
constructed near the barrack buildings. Water was
drawn from the lake nearby and chlorinated for use,
while ample electrical facilities were secured from the
transmission circuits of the Provincial Hydro-Electric
system.
By November, 1918, the accommodation of this
unit was sufficient for 71 officers, 320 cadets, 69 warrant
officers and sergeants, and 450 rank and file.
Camp Rathbun, one and a half miles north of
Deseronto, was topographically very similar to Mohawk,
but comprised a lesser acreage. During the autumn of
1918, the accommodation there was also increased, and
a central heating plant erected in order to keep all
buildings thoroughly comfortable during the winter
months. There was provision for 53 officers, 246
cadets, and 330 other ranks. Water was chlorinated
and drawn through the municipal system of the town
of Deseronto, and electrical energy secured as at
Mohawk.
Both the above camps were occupied by the 43rd
Wing during the summer of 1917, and by the 42nd
Wing during the summer of 1918. In the intervening
winter, Camp Mohawk afforded accommodation for
one half of the Cadet Wing held in Canada in training
during that particular period.
Wing headquarters have always been in Deseronto,
and there also, during the summer of 1918, permanent
housing was erected for that section of the occupying
wing engaged in repair, motor transport and similar
work. Here too was housed the headquarters staff.
Women civilian subordinates were largely employed
at Deseronto, making their temporary homes in the
town, and radiating out to the two flying camps. In
spite of apparent scanty accommodation the arrange-
ment worked here, as elsewhere, to the definite ad-
vantage of the Corps.
290
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292
Telephone communication connected all units, and
a private wire was secured between wing headquarters
and headquarters in Toronto. The Canadian Northern
Railway immediately serves the town, and the Grand
Trunk Railway Company's lines pass within the
short distance of seven miles, and were very frequently
used. The roads in the camps' vicinity have been con-
siderably improved by the Corps. A noticeable increase
in the commercial life of the community has taken
place since this section of the brigade took up its
residence.
293
SPORTS.
The instructions of the Air Ministry that sports
should be encouraged in all possible forms, met with
the keenest approval from all members of the Force,
and as a result great advantage was secured in keeping
the physical condition of all ranks at the highest possible
point. During its first year's history the Corps was in
the throes of organization, and with the exception of
individual sports meetings held at various stations, there
was no possibility of organizing any general system. A
representative football team was, however, formed in
March of 1917, which, playing in the Ontario Provin-
cial League, had by the end of the season won a silver
trophy known as the Shamrock Cup, together with a
gold medal for each player, and, as a finale, journeyed
to Montreal and defeated the well known Grand Trunk
Railway Team by 3 goals to 0, after a hard fought
game.
Hockey presented too much of a problem to be
faced during the first winter, owing to the fact that
there were not at the disposal of the various units
sufficient rinks of the required dimensions. On the
removal of part of the unit to Texas, however, the
question of sports was definitely taken up, and the
general sports committee, then appointed, arranged
at once for inter-wing matches which proved a con-
stant source of interest and rivalry. At the end of the
season, the 42nd Wing led in soccer football, with a
record of 26 goals as against 11 secured by opponents
in 5 matches. This wing won every game it played.
It was quite natural that with such an excellent
reputation, the R.A.F. should be invited to send its
representatives to play in the North Texas Soccer
Football League. Here, too, a very successful pro-
gramme was carried out. No game was lost out of
five played, and, as a result, the Spalding Trophy,
294
TILTING.
' ' THE LONG AND SHORT OF IT !
295
CAMP BORDEN REPRESENTATIVE TEAM.
296
presented each year to the champion team of the League,
became the property of the R.F.C. As a token of
appreciation of the services rendered by Mr. Frank
Morris, a prominent sportsman of Fort Worth, the
R.F.C. sports committee presented a shield for
competition among the school teams of the Fort Worth
League.
Sports led, in natural sequence, to entertainment,
and while it is impossible in this history to give the
details of the various concerts and entertainments
provided by talent of the R.F.C. , it must in fairness be
stated that these occasions brought out an astonishing
and varied amount of talent, which was keenly appre-
ciated by innumerable Texan friends and the unit at
large. On one such occasion nearly $1,200 remained
as net profit, and on another some $800, these two sums
being divided between various funds.
On the return of this section of the Force to Canada
in April, no time was lost in opening a new and wider
field of operation. A representative R.F.C. team was
enrolled in the Ontario Provincial Football League, and
inter-unit teams were also selected. A very successful
eleven was entered in the local Church and Mercantile
Cricket League, and the year 1918 saw great activity
in all sports, in spite of the difficulty in securing the
necessary time and place for training. The record of
the football team showed that out of 12 games played,
7 were won, 3 lost and 2 drawn, with 33 goals scored
as against 18 by opponents.
In the final match for the championship, the R.A.F.
players lost, owing largely to sickness then prevalent.
The inter-unit football league was led at the end
of the season by the 43rd Wing.
Baseball was, for a time, followed closely, and some
excellent talent discovered, especially in the junior
units, but it was found to interfere somewhat with
other games, and was therefore temporarily suspended.
297
Boxing took always a prominent part in the
athletics of the Corps, and representatives included
the feather-weight champion of Canada, the middle-
weight champion of America, the 115 Ibs. champion of
Canada and the welter-weight champion of the West.
At Borden, aquatic sports were prominent, owing
to the fact that an admirable swimming tank had been
constructed at this unit. In an aquatic contest the
plunge for distance was won, not unnaturally, by a
pearl diver from Jamaica, who plunged fifty feet.
Cricket, although a continual source of pleasure
and interest was, so far as concerns the brigade, under
a handicap, owing to lack of practice and the impossi-
bility of analyzing the merits of individual players.
There was discovered, however, a valuable acquisition
in an ex-Kent County colt, who was a first-rate class
bowler, and was backed up by an extremely steady
sergeant-major. Both achieved many successes during
the year.
Outstanding in the history of R.A.F. sports
are three events. The first was the first annual
Sports Day held on August 17th, 1918, at the Island
Stadium, Toronto. The second the joint C.E.F. and
R.A.F. Sports at Exhibition Camp on September 7th,
and third the National Championship Meet at the
Great Lakes Training Centre, Chicago, from 20th to
23rd of September, 1918. The first meet, at the
Island Stadium was a great success, and will be long
remembered by those who participated. The day was
perfect, the entries numerous (these of course having
been subject to prior elimination tests at the various
units) and an excellent track was available. The
456 entries received for various events were reduced
to a suitable number, and some 12,000 people filled the
great tiers of benches which surround the ground.
Both in point of records made, and in the keen sports-
manlike spirit in which the whole affair was carried
out, this meet will long remain as representative of a
298
299
WELL OVER!
THE CHAMPION.
300
contest exhibiting the very best desirable quality.
A Beamsville cadet carried off the championship cup
for the greatest number of points, a remarkable athlete
from Dartmouth College. This contestant won no
less than five firsts.
The joint C.E.F. and R.A.F. meet took place on
September 7th. The latter maintained its reputation
for sportsmanship, and succeeded in winning the ma-
jority of the contests.
The last large Meet in which the brigade partici-
pated was at the Great Lakes Training Station near
Chicago. The Corps was somewhat handicapped by
having limited time for preliminary training, but,
in spite of this, captured four firsts, these being
won by the same cadet who had previously covered
himself with laurels at the Island Stadium. Such was
the success of the R.A.F. on this occasion, that special
congratulations were received from the Secretary of
State through the Director of Training at the Air
Ministry. London. With the coming of winter in 1918
came also orders for demobilization and, in consequence,
the large programme of the sports committee was
perforce abandoned.
In retrospect it appears that the athletics practised
have been of the greatest possible value, not only in
the maintenance of first-rate physical condition, but
also in the fostering of all those principles of sports-
manship and good fellowship without which a military
unit can never realize its highest character and
efficiency.
301
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
It is desired to give official and universal thanks
of the brigade for the great services rendered by many
organizations and individuals during its two years'
work in Canada. From the first it was recognized
that while military training was the object of the
Corps, there were other phases of the life of the person-
nel that were of primary importance. That the work
of training has been successful is due in no small degree
to the fact that all ranks have benefited both temper-
amentally and socially by the generous thoughtfulness
so continually extended.
No sooner had the wing been formed than the
late Colonel Hamilton Merritt and Mrs. Merritt, of
Toronto, presented two training machines as an indi-
cation of their keen interest in the progress of the
flying arm of the Imperial services. Later the City
of Toronto followed this example with three machines,
Mr. James Carruthers with a similar gift, and the
Province of Ontario provided two more.
Colonel Merritt's donation commemorated the
battles of Queenston and Lundy's Lane, in October,
1812, and July, 1814, respectively; while Mr. Car-
ruther's machines were named after three cities in
which the donor's interests were principally centred.
The Department of Education of the Ontario Gov-
ernment was most generous in providing splendid
libraries, made up of thousands of specially selected
books. These were sent, free of cost, to the various
units, and proved of the greatest possible interest and
value.
To the Young Men's Christian Association, The
Young Women's Christian Association, The Aero Club,
originators of the Aviation Fund, to those warm-
302
303
304
305
30G
hearted ladies under whose energy Longwood Con-
valescent Home did such splendid work for the brigade,
to those who were responsible for the King Street
Hostess House, and to many others, most grateful
acknowledgments are made.
To the omnipresent Y.M.C.A., the members of
the brigade owe many and sincere thanks. Animated
by the admirable spirit which has always Character-
ized its activities, it seems to have made a special effort
to be of service particularly to the cadets and rank
and file on the strength of the Canadian Corps. At
Camp Borden, the "Y" erected a very large building,
splendidly equipped for various purposes, a building
of such size as to flout the name of hut, by which
it is officially termed. At Long Branch, another
was approaching completion just as this unit demobi-
lized. In Toronto, the "Y" doors have invariably
been thrown open to all men in uniform, and member-
ship accorded without any fee whatever. At the
Central building on College Street, special provision
was made to meet the desires of the soldiers in their
leisure hours, and the splendid swimming pool, one
of the finest on the continent, was at the disposal
of all soldiers of the King. To such an extent was this
kindness appreciated, that members of the Royal
Air Force were in the majority among those who
took advantage of these privileges.
The inner man was especially remembered, and the
"Y" cafeteria proved immensely popular. On Vic-
toria Street was a much frequented building for the
exclusive use of men in uniform, and the Red Triangle
Club soon became the recognized meeting place for
rank and file in the city. In consequence, accommo-
dation was constantly on the increase. Here the
dining hall service was doubly attractive, being made
possible by the voluntary labor of a number of Toronto
ladies. It was a club in every sense except one, in
that membership is extended only to those who had
signified their readiness to serve their country.
307
The Y.M.C.A. furnished and managed Hostess
Houses at Beamsville, Long Branch, Deseronto, Leaside
and Camp Borden. This proved a delightful variation
from camp routine, and excellent light lunches were
provided at most reasonable prices, the latter being
especially enjoyed by the girls employed by the
R.A.F. This organization also secured for the sum-
mer months of 1918, a large residence on St. George
Street adjoining the School of Military Aeronautics,
which will long be remembered by countless cadets
who availed themselves of its hospitality.
The Longwood Convalescent Home, the use of
which was kindly donated by Mrs. Charles Beatty
through the Canadian Aviation Aid Club, has proved
absolutely invaluable in nursing convalescents back
to health and strength. It is charmingly situated in
some ten acres of grounds about five miles north of
Toronto, and being on the main road is accessible both
by motor and electric tram.
The upkeep of Longwood has always been a
matter of pride and pleasure to the Force. It was
formally opened on July 30th, 1917, by Major-General
W. A. Logie, C.B., C.F.A. since Justice Logie who
was at that time General Officer Commanding, Mili-
tary District No. 2. The furniture, which was of a
most comfortable and complete description, includ-
ing everything imaginable for the amusement of the
patients, together with all linen and men's wear, were
provided by the Aviation Club, which body has
been since its inception a continual source of comfort
and help to the brigade.
In the spring of 1918, Longwood Annex was opened,
a commodious house standing in the same grounds,
and which had a capacity for an additional 24 patients,
making 48 in all; but so popular was Longwood that,
during this last summer, tents and marquees were
pitched on part of the large lawn, accommodating
not less than 50 additional patients. It will be thus
308
309
INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF, * ' X '* ' SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH
FIRST BATCH OF CADETS, "x" SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH
310
seen that about 100 men at a time have been the
recipients of most thoughtful care and attention at
this Home. Its actual administration was carried out
by the Canadian Army Medical Corps through the
Base Hospital, and by two excellent nursing sisters who
were continually in charge. Nothing was more satis-
factory than a visit to this delightful spot, in which,
surrounded by garden and orchard, so many healing
days were passed by the men of the Force, while above
them continually soared the machines of Armour
Heights, only a short mile away.
The cost of alterations, repairs and various addi-
tions which completed the attractive charm of Long-
wood was borne by the strength of the R.A.F., $9,800
being raised in voluntary subscriptions from all ranks,
and by the sale of waste paper from the various units.
Altogether over 850 men have been privileged to
convalesce in this admirable institution, and not
once has there been any slackening of effort in the
valuable service rendered by Mrs. Beatty and the
ladies of the Canadian Aviation Aid Club.
Other work of the Club covered an extension of
branch organization in most towns and cities in
Canada, where appeals for donations were sent out and
met with a generous response in comforts and money.
Since the Club was affiliated with the R.A.F. Air
Committee in London, England, a special effort was
made to aid its endeavors, and a sum of nearly $7,000
had been forwarded to parent headquarters in Eng-
land by the middle of August, 1918. This was sub-
divided between the R.A.F. Hospital, the Prisoner's
Fund and the Comfort Fund.
The King Street Hostess House, organized by
private individuals, was a down-town rallying point
for men in both American and Imperial services, and
the cadets and airmen of the brigade comprised a
great majority of the visitors.
311
Mrs. Chester Martin and Mrs. Martin Jones, the
wife and daughter of the American Consul at Toronto,
and Mrs. Ransom, associated with themselves a
number of ladies whose voluntary duty it was to make
the place exceptionally attractive, and to minister to
practically all the needs of uniformed visitors.
The Aero Club of Canada, originated with the
visit to the Dominion of the late Colonel C. J. Burke,
D.S.O., R.F.C., in 1915, and a recommendation made by
him that an organization be formed to control the
granting of aeronautical certificates.
In July, 1915, the late Colonel William Hamilton
Merritt had an audience with the Dominion Govern-
ment at Ottawa and was then assured that every
official facility would be given to any organization
which might aid the Naval and Military authorities
in Canada in securing trained pilots. From this
interview developed the formation of the Aviation
Fund, and later arose the Aero Club of Canada. It
was incorporated in December, 1916, and the by-laws
adopted at its first meeting provided that all flying
officers of the Allies in Canada be made honorary
members if they so desired. The first annual meeting
took place on March 14th, 1918.
Recruiting for the R.F.C. was given special
attention by the Club from its inception, a
committee being formed to assist in the obtaining of
cadets. The official report of this committee states
that thirty local organizations had been formed to
obtain candidates throughout Ontario, and that some
3,000 lawyers and clergymen were circularized, as
also all college and university students in the Province.
The press was used very largely to forward this
work. Six thousand application enlistment forms
for R.F.C. cadets were distributed in Ontario, and
this work carried on till October 12th, 1917, when
the Royal Flying Corps took over the local offices
and shouldered all its own recruiting.
312
All cadets of the R.F.C. are honorary members
of the Aero Club of Canada. The flying personnel
of the Corps found the club and reading rooms (estab-
lished by the courtesy of the Canadian Military
Institute) most valuable in their leisure hours.
As at present constituted, the Club is affiliated
with the Royal Aero Club of London, England.
Its membership is comprised, amongst others, of
some 3,000 members of the R.F.C. personnel, and it
has of late been authorized to issue international
aeronautical certificates to pilots who have qualified
in training.
An irreparable loss was suffered by the death of
Colonel Hamilton Merritt, in November, 1918, whose
energy, generosity and unfailing enthusiasm had
from the first been the chief factor in a most success-
ful history of progress.
To the Aero Club falls the credit for the inaugura-
tion of the first Canadian aerial mail. A request
was made that the Royal Air Force undertake trans-
portation, ah 1 other arrangements being carried out
by the Aero Club. The first mail, via the air route,
left Toronto for Montreal on June 30th, 1918. This
machine, the C-203, piloted by Capt. B. A. Peck
with Corporal E. W. Mathers as passenger, arrived
at Deseronto, the first stage, in 120 minutes. The
following day Montreal was reached in 150 minutes.
Leaving on the 24th on the return journey, the pilot
made Camp Leaside in six hours' actual flying.
The second mail was carried from Toronto to
Ottawa. It left Leaside in C-280, piloted by Lieut.
T. Longman on August 15th, returning on August
17th. The easterly flight took 280 minutes and the
return trip 220 minutes.
On August 26th, Lieut. A. Dunstan in machine
C-282 again carried the mail to the Capital, taking
220 minutes in each direction. Lieut. H. Burton in
313
the same machine repeated this flight in similar time
on September 4th, the latter officer making the round
trip in a single day.
The Aero Club, for the purpose, arranged with the
Dominion Government for the use of a special stamp,
of the design illustrated. Thus was inaugurated a
service which should in the near future develop
enormously in this country of great distances.
The above acknowledgments are perforce frag-
mentary, as it is impossible to extend to each and all
in any other form the thanks which the brigade desires
to offer. It is hoped, therefore, that those to whom
individual reference is not here made will accept this
assurance of the great value the unit has placed upon
services so generously offered and so gratefully received.
314
OFFICERS' QUARTERS, LEASIDE.
TYPICAL HANGAR.
CORNER IN OFFICERS' MESS, LEASIDE.
315
316
317
INDEX TO PORTRAITS AND GROUPS
The following list indicates the Squadrons and Groups of
which it has been possible to reproduce photographs. Every
effort was made to secure a complete record, but this has not
been entirely achieved.
PAGE
SIR JOSEPH FLAVELLE, CHAIRMAN IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD . 21
G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E., DIRECTOR OF AVIATION 21
SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E., PRESIDENT CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED 2 1
OFFICERS, AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD . . 27
OFFICIALS AND EXECUTIVE STAFF, CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED . 45
OFFICERS, S!ST SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN 59
HEADQUARTERS, OFFICERS AND STAFF 60
HEADQUARTERS STAFF 63
80TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN, OFFICERS AND MECHANICS ... (> I
8?TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN 73
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE . 91
GROUND INSTRUCTIONAL SECTION, CAMP MOHAWK 92
92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN, OFFICERS AND MECHANICS ... 96
SOTH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK 101
MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO 109
RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF 133
RECRUITS DEPOT, JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO .... 134
89TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK 153
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 43RD WING, LEASIDE 157
STAFF OF SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS 163
OFFICERS AND STAFF, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON 171
82ND SQUADRON 196
88TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN '. 21 1
OFFICERS AND STAFF, SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING 221
OFFICERS AND STAFF, ENGINE REPAIR PARK 250
OFFICERS AND STAFF, AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK 259
OFFICERS AND STAFF, STORES DEPOT 260
PAY OFFICE STAFF 267
90TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN 268
MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION 274
ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL, OFFICERS AND STAFF 278
OFFICERS AND STAFF, ROYAL ENGINEERS' SECTION 281
OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN 285
OFFICERS, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN 286
REPAIR SECTION, CAMP MOHAWK 292
CAMP BORDEN REPRESENTATIVE TEAM 296
R.A.F. REPRESENTATIVE SOCCER TEAM, 1916 292
SOTH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK 305
8iTH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK 309
INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF, X SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH 310
FIRST BATCH OF CADETS, X SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH 310
79TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN 316
OFFICERS AND NURSES, SCHOOL OK. AKRIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE . 317
318
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