PRESENTED
Bf
tEbc {Trustees
OF
THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2016
https ://arch i ve . o rg/detai Is/b28054933
BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY).
FIRST REPORT
ON
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY
BY
FEED. V. THEOBALD, M.A.,
FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS, WASHINGTON, U.S.A. ;
ZOOLOGIST TO THE SOUTH-EASTERN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE ; ETC.
Author of 11 A Monograph of the Culicidae (Mosquitoes) of the World (Brit. Mus.) ” ;
“A Text-Book of Agricultural Zoology"; “ The Parasitic Diseases of Poultry" ;
“ An Account of British Flies" etc.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.
SOLD BY
Longmans & Co., 39, Paternoster Row, E.C. ; B. Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, W. ;
Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W. ; Kegan Paul, Trench,
Trubner & Co., Charing Cross Road, W.C. ;
AND AT THE
British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W.
1903.
(All rights reserved.)
c-<
LONDON :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, -
DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W
j WELLCOME INSTITUTE
LIBRARY
Coll.
wefIVIOmec
Call
No
GU_
L
L ,
ERRATA.
Page iv. line 16 for moritans read morsitans ,
Page xv. line 30 for morvhuae read morrhua .
Page 5 line 21 for Jcnsenii read Jensen.
Page 6 line 15 for laying read lying.
Page 36 after line 5 add “Dilute with 30 times its bulk
of water before use.”
Page 7 6 line 8 for Jig. 9, c, read Jig. 8, c.
Page 77 line 6 for on read as.
Page 87 line 2 for p. 115, read p. 105.
Page 105 line 28 for soluble read insoluble.
Page 127 line 36 for sulphate read sulphite.
Page 159 line 31 for fatile read fatale.
Page 169 line 20 for occompanying read accompanying .
!
PREFACE.
The present volume consists primarily of a series of Beports to the
Board of Agriculture, of Beports and letters to a variety of unofficial
correspondents, and of Beports to the Foreign Office and to the
Colonial Office, drawn up by Mr. F. V. Theobald during the years
1901-1902. Mr. Theobald has recently been employed by the
Trustees of the British Museum to assist the Director in such work,
especially with a view to furnishing the Board of Agriculture with
scientific information on Economic Zoology, in accordance with a
request made by that Department of his Majesty’s Government.
Mr. Theobald is well known as an authority on Economic Zoology,
and has the advantage, in carrying out his work at the Natural
History Museum, of consulting with the various specialists on the
scientific staff, as well as of making use of the collections and library
of the Museum.
I have added to Mr. Theobald’s Beports an introductory scheme
or outline of the study known as Economic Zoology, in the form of
a classified survey of the various sub-divisions which it is found
convenient to recognise in the treatment of this subject. For this
classification I am responsible, whilst Mr. Theobald has been good
enough to fill in the list of selected examples. I have also added
some correspondence on Tsetse-fly disease, and on the proposed
investigation of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, and on the Marine
Besources of the West Indies, which arose from my being consulted
in my official capacity by his Majesty’s Secretaries of State for
Foreign Affairs and for the Colonies.
The Trustees have ordered the publication of the present Beport,
in order that the valuable information which it contains may be
made easily accessible; and further, in order to make clear the
nature and amount of scientific information on matters of economic
importance which the staff of the Zoological Department is almost
daily called upon and is prepared to furnish to the public service or
to individuals. It must be remembered that the Beports and letters
printed in this volume form only a portion of the work of economic
importance which is carried out by this Museum, in addition to the
iv First Report on Economic Zoology.
far more extensive work in the pure science of Natural History,
which is the primary occupation of its official staff. The Trustees
published in 1901 a descriptive treatise on Mosquitoes in three
volumes, with forty-two plates, which was prepared by Mr. Theobald
in connection with the specimens of Culicidse already in the Museum,
and others specially collected for the work, with a view to assisting
in the study of the relationship of Culicidse to Malaria and other
diseases. A supplementary volume of this work, by Mr. Theobald,
has been completed and published in the present year. Also in the
present year the Trustees have published an illustrated monograph
on the Tsetse-flies, by Mr. Austen, Assistant in the Zoological
Department. Our rapidly increasing knowledge of the activity of
the minute parasites known as Trypanosoma, as the specific causes
of disease both in man and in horses and cattle, renders an accurate
knowledge of the species of Tsetse-flies necessary, since one of these
flies, the Glossincc moritans of Westwood, is the carrier of the
Trypanosoma causing the deadly disease of horses and cattle known
in South Africa as Nagana, and it is possible that other species of
Glossina are concerned, in a similar way, in the distribution of
disease.
It is not, however, only in correspondence and publications, and
in the researches of the naturalists of the staff that this Museum
renders direct assistance to the development of the knowledge and
application of Economic Zoology. The large study collections of the
Museum have, for a long time past, comprised important series from
all parts of the world of carefully named and recorded specimens of
animals having economic importance, either as pests or as sources of
commercial products. In addition to these, several cases are now
exhibited in the North Hall of the Museum, in which the life-history
and activities of animals important to man in one or other of the
relations recognised in the classification adopted in this volume, are
illustrated with a view to the edification of the public, and the
promotion of the public interest in the thorough scientific treatment
of the subject.
I have to thank the Board of Agriculture for permission to
reproduce some of the Reports furnished to the Board.
E. RAY LANKESTER,
Bkitish Museum (Natural History),
London, S.W.
May 15th, 1903.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE iii
INTRODUCTION— The Classification of Animals from the
Point of View of Economic Zoology xi
PART I.
REPORTS ON AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY TO THE BOARD
OF AGRICULTURE.
GROUP E.
Sub-group B.— Section I. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE.
Cereal Pests : Eel- worm disease in oats; The Frit Fly ( Oscinis frit ) on
oats ; Smut in Barley and Insects. Root Crop Pests : SilpjJia ruyosa on
Turnips, and other Silphida? ; Notes on Surface Larvae ; I'he Pigmy
Mangold Beetle (. Atomaria linearis ) ; Black Fly on Mangolds ( Aphis
atriplicis , Linn.) ; Flies ( Bibionidx ) on Mangolds ; Muscid Larvae
attacking roots ; Chafer Larva? (. Melolonthidx ) ; Leather Jackets
(Tipulidx) ; The Green Rose Chafer on Beans and Currant Bushes.
Potato Pests : Myriapoda in Potatoes ; Wire-worm ( Agriotes murinus )
in Potatoes; A new Potato Feeder, the Cinnabar Moth (Euchelia jacobex).
Mustard Pests : Destruction of the Mustard Beetle. Fruit Pests : An
enquiry re Gall Mites in Black-currant bushes ; The Apple-Blossom
Weevil; Strawberry Beetles ; Slug- worms on Fruit trees and Hedgerows ;
Maggots in Apples ; Maggots in Imported Apples ; Infestation of Fruit
trees by Winter Moth caterpillars ; The Pear Midge (. Diplosis pyrivora ) ;
Scale disease and “ false scale ” amongst fruit trees and bushes ; Scale
Insects on Plum Trees ; The Apple Bark-louse or Mussel Scale (Mytilaspis
pomorum ) ; Eggs on Apple trees, and a further remedy for Mussel Scale ;
Aphides (A. mall) on Apple trees ; The Peach Aphis ; A general wash for
Fruit trees; Further Information re Winter Washing of Fruit trees;
Canker fungus ( Nectria ditissima ) on Apple twigs mistaken for insect
work ; Enquiry as to poison for Moles ...... 3-30
Sub-group B.— Section II. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO HORTICUL-
TURE.
Land Bugs on Chrysanthemums ( Lygus pratensis ) ; The destruction of Ants ;
The destruction of subterranean insects and other ground garden pests;
Directions for the employment of the Gas 't reatment under glass ; White
Grubs or Maggots ( Phorbia brassicx) causing great damage amongst
cabbage, carrots and broccoli, and exterminating Cabbage-fly . . 30-36
vi First Report on Economic Zoology.
PAGES
Sub-group B.— Section III. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FORESTRY.
Willow-beetle at Norwich ( Sarperda ccircharias, Linn.); Sirex Flies in
Fir trees (S. juvencus and S. gigas ); The Poplar Saw-fly ( Cladius
viminalis ) ; Saw-fly Larvae on Willows ; Insect Galls on Osier plants ;
The Felted Beech-coccus (Cryptococcus fagi); Chermes corticalis on Pine
trees ............ 36-40
GROUP F.
The Furniture Beetles and Clothes Moths ; Insects and Mites in Furniture ;
the Larder Beetle (Dermestes lardarius ); Weevils amongst stored corn
(Calandra granaria) ......... 41-47
Fungoid disease in Black-currant leaves ( Septoria ribis ); Gooseberry fungus
(Puccinia pringsheimiana) ........ 47-40
Appendix.
Tapeworm in Sheep at Okehampton ; Black Wire-worm in Mangolds ; List of
leaflets prepared and revised for the Board ..... 49-50
PART II.
REPORTS ON ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY SENT IN REPLY TO VARIOUS
CORRESPONDENTS.
A. British.
G R 0 U P B.
Origin and Varieties of Domesticated Geese ...... 53-54
GROUP D.
Dipterous larvae in human excreta ; Correspondence on the Mosquito annoy-
ance at Blackheath ......... 55-50
GROUP E.
Sub-group A.
Horse-worms and the use of Thymol ; Depluming scabies in Fowls. . 60-61
SuB-GROur P.
Section I. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE.
1 nuiT Pests : The Bud Moth (Iledya ocellana) ; The Pith Moth ( Laverna
atm) ; The Pear and Cherry Sawfly ; Notes on Fruit Pests in an Orchard
at Wisbech ; Phyllobius or Leaf Weevils ; Insects on Vines in Jersey;
Contents .
The Pear Leaf Blister Mite ; Big Bud in Currants ; Oribatidx or Beetle
Mites ; Hover Flies or Syrphidx ; The Mussel Scale ( Mytilaspis
pomorum). Hop Pests : Woodlice in Hops. Cereal Pests: Beetles
in Barley affected with Smut. Potato Pests : The Rosy Rustic Moth
(Hydrxcia micacea ) ; Surface larva) attacking Potatoes and Celery ; The
Pigmy Potato Beetle ( Bathyscia ivollastoni ) ; Millepedes attacking
Potatoes ; Notes on the Colorado Beetle in England. Root-crop Pests :
Cabbage Aphis on Turnips ; Tipulidx or Daddy-long-legs
Section II. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO HORTICULTURE.
Jididx destroying plants in the gardens of Downton Castle, Ludlow ; Wood-
lice in Gardens ; A new Phytoptid Disease in Violas ; The Narcissus Fly
( Merodon equestris ); The Marguerite Fly and its Destruction ; The
Carrot-fly and Aphides on Carrots ; Correspondence and Report on
Insects in Orchid Houses ; Fumigation for Mealy Bug
Section III. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FORESTRY.
Goat-Moth larva) attacking Willows ; Insects on Osiers and Willows ; Insects
on Elm and Willow ; Pissodes notatus ravaging Austrian Pines ; The
Spruce Gall Aphis ( Ghermes abietis) ......
GROUP F.
Sub-group A.
Acarine household pests ( Glyciphagus domesticus and G. spinipes ) ;
Anobium tessellatum in St. Alban’s Cathedral ; Earwigs causing
annoyance indoors .........
Sub-group C.
The Cigar Beetle ( Lasioderma testaceum, Duff) ; The Indian Meal Moth
(Plodia interpunctellci) attacking Almonds ; The Larder Beetle
GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Green Matter in Lewes Public Baths ; Short Reports ....
B. Extra-British.
GROUP D.
• •
Vll
PAGES
62-104
105-113
113-119
119-124
125-127
127-129
A poisonous Land Bug in Singapore ; The Screw Worm in St. Lucia
. 130-131
First Report on Economic Zoology .
vm
GROUP E.
Sub-group A.
PAGES
The Screw Worm in Cattle at St. Lucia ; Pony Flies .... 132-133
Sub-group B .
Scale Insects in Monte Video ( Mytilaspis citricola) ; Scale on Pineapples
in Jamaica ( Diaspis bromelise ); Pine Beetle ( Ilylesirtus piniperda );
Damaged Coffee-berries from Uganda and Costa Rica ; Weevils
( Eypomeces squamosus) defoliating rubber ; Insect Pests of West Indies ;
other Reports .......... 133-142
GROUP F.
Sub-group A.
Teredo and Canadian Timber ........ 143-144
Other Short Reports ....... . 144-145
PART III.
REPORTS TO THE FOREIGN (a) AND COLONIAL OFFICES (b).
A. REPORTS TO THE FOREIGN OFFICE.
Tsetse-fly and its Connection with the Buffalo ( Bos caffa ) (Correspondence) ; 147-155
White Ants or Termites in the Sudan (Correspondence and Report) ; 155-163
Locust Plagues in the Sudan (Correspondence and Report) . . 163-169
B. REPORTS TO THE COLONIAL OFFICE.
The Marine Resources of the West Indies; Ceylon Pearl Fisheries .
Appendix.
List of North African Locusts .
List of African Termites .
Index . ... .
169-178
179-184
184-185
186-192
Contents . ix
LIST OF FIGURES.
PAGES
Fig. 1. The Pigmy Mangold Beetle ( Atomaria linearis ) .... 9
Fig. 2. The Green Rose Chafer ( Cetonia aurata ) ..... 14
Fig. 3. False-scale, true scale and Canker-blisters on Fruit Twigs . . 24
Fig. 4. Protection of Cabbage Plants from Root Maggots ... 35
Fig. 5. The Bud Moth {Hedy a ocellana) ...... 65
Fig. 6. Twig with larval cases of Bud Moth and Buds .... 66
Fig. 7. The Pith Moth {Laverna atra ). ...... 70
Fig. 8. Mussel Scale {My til asp is pomorum) . . . . . .75
Fig. 9. The Potato Stem-borer {Hydrxcia micacea ) .... 82
Fig. 10. The Pigmy Potato Beetle {Bathyscia wollastoni). ... 85
Fig. 11. Injurious Tipididx, or Daddy-long-legs ..... 97
Fig. 12. Larva and Pupa of Pissodes notatus . . . . • .116
Fig. 13. The Banded Pine Weevil {Pissodes notatus ) . . . .116
Fig. 14. Pine cone damaged by P. notatus . . . . . .117
Fig. 15 Household Mites {Glyciphagus domesticus and G. spinipes ) . . 121
Fig. 16. Coffee Berries damaged by Arxocerus fasciculatus and Scolyti sp. (?) 137
Fig. 17. Termite protection . . . . . . . . .161
Fig. 18. A Hopper-Dozer . . . . . . . . .166
INTRODUCTION.
A Classification of Animals from the point of view
of Economic Zoology.
Group A. — Animals captured or slaughtered by man for food, or for
the use by him in other ways, of their skin, bone, fat, or
other products.
Examples. — Animals of the chase ; food-fishes ; whales ;
pearl-mussels.
Group B. — Animals bred or cultivated by man for food or for the use of
their products in industry or for their services as living
things.
Examples. — Flocks and herds ; horses ; dogs, poultry ;
gold-fish ; bees ; silkworms and leeches.
Group C. — Animals which directly promote man’s operations as a civilised
being without being killed, captured or trained by him.
Examples. — Scavengers such as vultures ; carrion-feeding
insects ; earthworms and flower-fertilizing insects.
Group D. — Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury, some-
times death, to him, and in other cases disease, often of a
deadly character.
Examples. — Lions ; wolves ; snakes ; stinging and parasitic
insects ; disease germ-carriers, as flies and mosquitoes ;
parasitic worms ; parasitic protozoa.
Group E. — Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury or
disease (both possibly of a deadly character) to (A), his stock
of domesticated animals ; or ( B ), to his vegetable plantations ;
or (6'), to wild animals in the preservation of which he is
interested ; or ( D ), wild plants in the preservation of which
he is interested.
Examples. — Similar to those of Group D, but also insects
and worms which destroy crops, fruit and forest trees, and
pests such as frugivorous birds, rabbits and voles.
xii First Report on Economic Zoology .
Group F. — Animals which concern man as being destructive to his
worked up products of art and industry, such as ( A ) his
various works, buildings, larger constructions and habitations ;
(B) furniture, books, drapery and clothing ; ( C ) his food and
his stores.
Examples. — White ants ; wood-eating larvae ; clothes
moths, weevils, acari and marine borers.
Group G. — Animals which are known as “ beneficials ” on account of
their being destructive to or checking the increase of the
injurious animals classed under Groups D, E and F.
Examples. — Certain carnivorous and insectivorous birds,
reptiles and amphibia ; parasitic and predaceous insects, acari,
myriapoda, etc.
The above is a complete classification of animals in their economic
relation to man, and proceeds from the simpler relations of primitive man
and the animals around him to the more complex relations of civilised
man with his endless arts and industries and circumscribed conditions.
It is, however, convenient in the treatment of the subject, whether in
a Museum Collection or in a Handbook, to deal with the last group
(Group G), the beneficial animals, in immediate connection with the
injurious animals by the destruction of which they render service. The
diseases of injurious animals caused by parasitic plants such as fungi and
bacteria are naturally connected also with this subject of “ beneficials.”
But in the artificial scheme which we have decided for practical reasons
to accept, they are omitted, and the student is referred to the botanist and
pathologist for the treatment of these vegetable organisms.
A similar treatment of Group E, namely, those animals which injure
other animals in the conservation of which man is interested, would be
convenient in some ways. But it is not followed here for two reasons,
firstly, because it is convenient rather to associate this group with the
animals causing disease or death to man, the animals of the two groups
being in many cases identical or closely related, and secondly, because the
zoologist has to take cognizance of a further large and important series of
injurious animals, namely, those which destroy or injure the cultivated or
wild plants in the life of which man is interested.
It is obvious that the subject-matter of Economic Botany could be
set forth in a series of groups exactly parallel to those which we have
employed for reviewing the subject-matter of Economic Zoology ; we
should merely have to substitute the word “plant ” for “ animal” in the
groups given above, and to use the appropriate words in the place of
“ captured ” and “ slaughtered.”
A review of the contents of each of the main Groups A to G is given
below. It is to be noted that the animals of Group G will, as explained
above, be placed in our Museum series (and in any further treatment of
the subject based on this prodromus) alongside of the particular forms of
injurious animals to which they are hostile.
It is also found convenient in a subject which has such definite local
interest and importance as has that of Economic Zoology to sub-divide
every group into a series of sections corresponding to large geographical
areas. For the purposes of the Natural History Museum, and with the
Introduction.
xi 11
space at our disposal for the exhibition of specimens relating to the
subject of Economic Zoology, we find it sufficient to distinguish in each
group or smaller division the “ British ” and the “ Extra-British animals.
An animal once established as an inhabitant of Britain we shall consider
as British, whether it is of foreign importation or long established as an
inhabitant of these islands.
GROUP A.
Animals Captured or Slaughtered by Man for Food, or for the
use by him, in other ways, of their Skin, Bone, Fat, or
other Products.
This group includes those animals having the most primitive and
direct relation to man, those which he hunts and captures or kills.
Perhaps the relation of some (but not all) of those animals which
infest or attack the body of uncivilised man may be regarded as equally
primitive, that is to say, the relations are free from the complicating
circumstances of the civilisation of great communities of mankind.
It is not desirable in a general Museum of Natural History to bring
together a special series of these animals of the chase or fishery. They
are best seen and are fully represented in the general galleries of the
Museum. Here they may be roughly enumerated. According to locality
and circumstance, almost any animal may become the source of food or of
economic products to this or that race of man. In the list given below
those animals only are cited which are regularly and habitually pursued
by man, either for the purposes of procuring them for food or as the
source of economic products.
We divide the group into two sub-groups.
(a) Animals pursued for food.
(b) Animals pursued for their economic products.
Protozoa..
Porifera ..
Ccelentera
Echinoderma
Platyhelmia
Nemertina..
Nematoda ..
Clisetopoda
Survey of Sub-group (a) of Geoup A.
ANIMALS PURSUED FOR FOOD.
None.
None.
Sea anemones (cul de mulet) are to be seen in most
French fish markets and are also eaten in Sicily, Trieste,
and Istria ( Actinia viridis and others).
Echinus (sea urchins), the ovaries of various species in
all parts of the world, especially in the West Indies
and Adriatic Coast.
Holothurians, known as “ beche-de-mer ” or “trepang,”
are dried and cooked by the Chinese, Neapolitans and
others.
Cestodcs (tapeworms) are eaten by the Chinese.
None.
None.
Palolo worms {Eunice) are eaten in the Samoan Islands
in large quantities.
xiv First Report on Economic Zoology.
Crustacea All groups are eaten. Even cirrhipedes ( Pollicipes ) are
sold in the market at Madrid and Balanus psittacus in
South America.
Arachnida Only by uncivilised man.
Hexapoda Locusts in countries where they abound (Greece and
N. S. Wales) ; larvse of aquatic insects and midges are
compressed into cakes in Africa (Kunga cakes) ; bees
(honey) ; the grubs of palm weevils ( Rhynchophorus
palmarum) are eaten by natives of India and Burma.
Manna produced by scale-insects ( Gossyparia mannipara
in Arabia) ; ants eaten in India ; Bugong moths eaten
in Australia; the Chinese eat the chrysalids of the
silk moths. Karens eat cicadas ; Kaffirs and East
Indians cook termites, and also eat them raw.
Chilopoda By South American Indians.
Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Examples of all groups are eaten either raw or cooked by
both civilised and uncivilised people (oysters, Ostrea
cclidis , 0. parasitica ; clams, Mya arcnaria, species of
Mactra and Venus and Razor shells, Ensis Americana ; Ark
shells, Area and .Coclahia in America and West Indies),
i Piddocks ( Pholas ) are eaten in Normandy; snails ( Helix
mpe-rsa) in France; Bulimus ovatus is sold as food in
Rio Janeiro; whelks ( Buccinum ) and limpets (Patella)
in Europe; even sea slugs ( Aplysia ) are eaten in the
South Sea Islands.
Tunicates One species, Cynthia microcosvms , is eaten raw and
cooked by the Adriatic fishermen.
Fishes All kinds are eaten, even in civilised countries. Fish fins
and fish maws eaten by Chinese, and isinglass obtained
from swim-bladders of sturgeons and other fish.
Amphibians Frogs only are eaten both in Europe ( Rana csculenta) and
India (croaking and spangled frogs).
Reptiles Many lizards ( Iguana tubcrculata in West Indies,
I. clelicatissima in S. America, water lizards, Varanus
dracaena , in India, and others) are eaten by civilised
man ; also chelonians, as the green turtle, Chelonc
miclas, and the hawksbill, C. imbricata. Alligators are
eaten by Indians, and crocodiles by Siamese. Snakes
are eaten by Australian aborigines.
Birds All kinds eaten except birds of prey and fish-eating birds.
Eggs of some wild species, as plovers and gulls. Nests
formed by swiftlets ( Collocaliafucipliaga and C.francica)
used for soups by CLiaese.
Mammals All except the carnivora are eaten ; but civilised man is
more selective than uncivilised man, and refuses as a
rule to eat mammals not belonging to the Ruminantia,
excepting the pigs, hares, rabbits, sometimes horse, and
occasionally his dog. The manatee is eaten in West
Indies ; the fox bat ( PteropiLS cclulis ) in Malay ; white
whale ( Dclpliinaptcrus leucas) in Greenland and Siberia.
Various marsupials — the koala ( Pliascolarctus cinercus) ;
wallabies and kangaroos ( Macropus ) ; rabbit-bandicoot
( Pcragale lagotis), etc.
Survey of Sub-group (b) of Group A.
ANIMALS PURSUED FOR THEIR ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.
Protozoa None.
Porifera Sponges (grass sponge, Hippospongia equina; wool sponges,
H. equina , variety gossypina ; Zimocca sponge, S.
zimocca ; yellow sponge, variety corlosia, and others)
are collected in many parts, as West Indies, Florida,
Mediterranean.
Introduction.
xv
Ccelentera Bed coral (Cor allium rubrum) and Isis and Mopsea.
Echinoderma Starfish ( Asterias vulgaris) are collected and used as
manure (five-finger manure) in some parts of Great
Britain.
Platyhelmia to Chsetopoda None.
Crustacea None.
Arachnida None.
Hexapoda Various insects are sought for by man for their products
lac insects (Coccidce)', “cantharides” (= dried beetles,
Cantharides vesicatoria and others) ; oil extracted from
locusts in Algeria ; galls ( Cynips ) for dyes, tanning and
ink ; beetles for their metallic elytra, used as ornaments
for embroidery ( Chrysochus auratus, Buprestis vittata) ;
‘ ground pearl ’ of Bahamas produced by a scale insect,
Margarodes formicarium.
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Many shells are collected for ornamental purposes —
cameos ( Cassis madagascarensis and others) ; Sepia for
cuttle bone and sepia ; pearl oysters ( Aviculidse ) ;
cowries (Cyprsea moneta ) are used as money by some
uncivilised races ; the byssus of Pinna for silk ; pearls
and mother-of-pearl from pearl oysters ( Avicula mar-
garitifera), and purple pearls from Area ; others for dyes,
as Aplysia camclus in Portugal.
Tunicata (Ascidians) None.
Fish Various sharks for their skin (shagreen) ; fish skins are
used to clarify beer, also isinglass. Glue is also made
from fish skins in India. Cod liver oil from the cod
( Gadus morrhuas). Fish bile used chemically in India.
Fish scales, of the bleak ( Leuciscus alburmis) and dace
(L. vulgaris), to make artificial pearls. Fish scales of
the mahasir (Barbus tor) also used in manufacture of
playing cards in India.
Amphibians Frogs for their skin for ornamental book-binding.
Beptiles Many lizards and crocodiles are captured for their skins
for ornamental purposes ; also turtles (hawksbill and
green turtle) for tortoise shell.
Birds The plumage of many wild birds for ornamental purposes
— grebes (Colymtois cristatus), skins used for muffs,
trimmings, etc. ; gulls (Rissa tridactyla and others), for
hats and decoration ; Argus pheasant (Argus giganteiLs) ;
peacock feathers in China ; eagle feathers in N.
America; jays, cockatoos, and parakeets for making
artificial flies ; Eider ducks (Somatcria mollissima ) for
eider down in Greenland, Iceland, and Norway; wild
swans for swan down; bile (fel) of the peacock used
medicinally in India.
Mammals Most groups are sought for for their (i) furs; (ii)
skin and hide ; (iii) bone and horn ; (iv) fats ; and
(v) scents.
(i) For furs — seal, bear, ermine, marten, pine marten,
sable, chinchilla, skunk, mink, neutria, caracal, wol-
verine, marmot, musquash, genet, squirrel, Arctic
fox, moles, etc. Various marsupials — wallabies and
kangaroos ( Macropus ), phalangers ( Tricliosurus ), and
others.
(ii) For skin and hide — the wild pig, white whale
(= porpoise hide) and true porpoises (Phoaena com-
munis) ; buffalo and chamois ; seal for black enamel
leather.
(iii) For bone and horn — elephant and narwhal for
ivory ; oxen, deer, and buffalo for horn ; whales
(Balsena mysticetus) for whalebone.
xvi First Report on Economic Zoology
Mammals — continued (iv) For fat, soaps and oil — whales and porpoises, wild
pigs and bears ; spermaceti from sperm whale.
(v) For scents — musk from a gland in the skin of
abdomen of male musk deer ( Moschus moschiferus ) in
India and used as a stimulant medicinally, and scent
from civets ( Viverra) ; ambergris from sperm whale
( Physcta macroccphalus).
GROUP B.
Animals Bred or Domesticated by Man for Food, or for the
use of their Products in Industry, or for their Services as
living things.
This group is related to the organisation of human society in com-
munities possessing fixed dwellings, fields, stock-yards, etc. The animals
here comprised are captured, bred and reared by man. The purposes of
this domestication by man are diverse, and the group may be broken up
into sub-groups or sections accordingly, but they are of very unequal
size. The chief purposes of man’s domestication of animals are : ( a ) the
provision of food for himself ; (b) the provision of beasts of burden ;
(c) the provision of assistance or companions in the chase (hounds,
ferrets, cheetah, etc.) ; (cl) the provision of guardians for flocks, house
and other property ; (e) the provision of animals which shall amuse and
delight their owner either by brilliant plumage and colour, song (birds),
or by courage and skill in fighting (gamecocks, fighting fish) ; (/) the
provision of hides, wool, fat, bone and other products, such as wax, honey,
silk and cochineal ; (g) the utilisation of the animal as a surgical agent
(the leech).
Survey of Sub-group (a) of Group B.
ANIMALS BRED OR DOMESTICATED FOR THE PROVISION OF FOOD.
Protozoa ....
Porifera
Ccelentera ....
Echinoderma
Platyhelmia .
Nemertina....
Nematoda ....
Chsetopoda....
Crustacea ....
Arachnida ....
Hexapoda ....
Chilopoda ....
Dilopoda ....
Mollusca . . . .
Tunicata
Fish ....
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Lobsters in Newfoundland ; crayfish in France.
None.
Bees (Honey).
None.
None.
Several kinds of molluscs are cultivated, such as oysters
(Ostrea edulis), cockles ( Cardium edule), mussels (My-
tilus edulis), snails in parts of Europe (Helix pomatia).]
None.
Several fish are cultivated and bred for food (and sport) —
salmon (Salmo salar), trout (Salmo fario, S. levenensis),
rainbow trout (Salmo iricleus), land-locked salmon
(S. sebago), whitefish (Coregonus albus and C. clupci-
formis ), the shad (Clupca sapidissima) , carp (Cyprinus
carpio).
Introduction .
xvi 1
Amphibia Frogs are bred and cultivated for food in parts of America
and Europe.
Reptiles None.
Birds Fowls, turkeys, guinea-fowls, ducks and geese, are culti-
vated and bred in most parts of the world.
Mammals Ruminantia, as oxen (Bovidte), sheep ( Ovidse ), and goats,
are bred by man in most parts of the world, even
amongst uncivilised tribes, for food ; Pachyderms, as
the pigs ; and Rodents, as rabbits, also for food. The
llama in parts of S. America, also the alpaca.
Survey of Sub-group ( b ) of Group B.
ANIMALS BRED OR DOMESTICATED FOR THE PROVISION
OF BEASTS OF BURDEN.
Mammalia The mammalia alone form “beasts of burden,” such as
elephants in India; camels in Africa, etc.; oxen in
India and parts of Europe ; the horse and ass, cosmo-
politan ; the reindeer in Lapland ; dogs in Arctic
regions and parts of temperate Europe; at one time
llamas in Peru.
Survey of Sub-group (c) of Group 15.
ANIMALS BRED OR DOMESTICATED FOR THE PROVISION OF
ASSISTANCE OR AS COMPANIONS IN THE CHASE.
Birds and Mammals alone come in this section.
Birds Hawks and falcons are used in various parts of the world
for sporting purposes.
Mammalia Various dogs, such as foxhounds, deerhounds, spaniels,
setters, terriers ; horses ; elephants ; the cheetah and
ferrets.
Survey of Sub-group (d) of Group B.
ANIMALS BRED AND DOMESTICATED FOR THE PROVISION OF
GUARDIANS FOR FLOCKS, HOUSE, AND OTHER PROPERTY.
Reptilia
Birds
Mammalia,
The Corn snake ( Coluber guttatus) is domesticated in
N. America, and keeps off rats and mice. Rat snake in
India ( Zamenis mucosus).
The secretary bird (Gypogeranus serpentarius) is domesti
cated by Cape farmers for killing snakes, etc., bmi
attack their animals.
The animals represented in this sub-group are mainly
dogs. The common cat. Genets are domesticated in the
south of Europe for killing rats and mice. Mungooses
(Herpcstes) are tamed in India, America, and else-
where, and keep snakes, rats, and mice away from
buildings and ships. The hedgehog in Europe for
destroying cockroaches.
b
xviii First Report on Economic Zoology.
Survey of Sub-group (e) of Group B.
ANIMALS BRED AND DOMESTICATED FOR THE AMUSEMENT AND
DELIGHT OF THEIR OWNER, EITHER BY BRILLIANT PLUMAGE
AND COLOUR, SONG, OR BY COURAGE AND SKILL IN FIGHTING.
Hexapoda Mantis flies and some beetles are kept by the Italians
and Chinese for fighting ; also a grasshopper ( CEticus ) ;
and crickets also by Chinese.
Reptilia Horned or Californian toads (Phrynosoma) are kept as
pets in North and Central America. The coral snake
(Tortrix scytale) is used by native women in tropical
America as an adornment round their necks.
Fish '. ... Fighting races of fish (Macropoclus pugnax, var.) are bred
by the Siamese. Goldfish and others for ornamental
purposes.
Birds Fowls (Aseels and Malays) are bred by the Malayans and
other races for fighting, and various game-fowls (Pile
game, black-breasted reds, duckwings) in Europe for the
same purpose. Great varieties of birds are bred for
their brilliant plumage and colour and song — canaries,
bullfinches, silver pheasants ( Gcnnseus nycthemerus) ,
golden pheasants (Chrysolophus picta), and others — and
various ornamental ducks, geese and swans, pea-
fowls.
Mammalia Race-horses, greyhounds, and whippets, bull dogs, pugs
and fancy dogs. Dutch, lop-eared, and other fancy
rabbits. Cavies or guinea pigs. A special race of bulls
is cultivated for fighting purposes in Spain.
Survey of Sub-group (/) of Group B.
ANIMALS BRED AND DOMESTICATED FOR THE PROVISION OF HIDES,
WOOL, FAT, BONE, FEATHERS, AND OTHER PRODUCTS SUCH AS
WAX, HONEY, SILK, AND MEDICAMENTS.
Protozoa ....
Porifera
Ccelentera
Echinoderma
Platyhelmia .
Nemertina ....
Nematoda ...
Chsetopoda .
Crustacea ....
Arachnida ....
Hexapoda ....
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Mollusca
Tunicata
Fish
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Spiders have been kept in some countries with a view
to using their webbing as silk.
Silk moths — Anther sea mylitta (Tusseh silk), Anthersea
pernyi, A. yama-mai, Attacus cynthia (Ailanthus silk),
and Bombyx viori are bred and reared in India, China,
Japan and Europe for the silk formed by the larv®,
also for the “cat-gut” made from the inside of the
silkworms. Bees are kept by all civilised nations for
the production of honey and wax. Cochineal insects
( Coccus cacti) are cultivated for dyes and colours in
Mexico, Peru, Spain, Algiers.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Introduction.
xix
Amphibia
Reptilia ..
Birds
Mammalia
None.
Ostriches are farmed for their feathers in South Africa
and at Nice. Swans also to provide feathers (swans-
down). Albumen prepared from fowls’ eggs.
Tho same as Sub-group (a), i.e. cattle, sheep, goats, pigs,
and others for (i) hide; (ii) wool; (iii) fat; (iv) bone
and horn ; (v) milk ; and (vi) other products.
(i) For hide— oxen ( Bovidas ), ox-hide, cow-hide, calf-skm ;
sheep-skin for chamois and Morocco leather ; lamb-
skin for gloves. Goat-skin used for Morocco leather
and bottle making in the East.
(ii) For wool— sheep, such as Merinos, Lincolns, Leicesters,
Persian Lamb; goats, as Angora, Kashmir or Thibet
and Sudan goats ; camels for hair which is woven into
cloth in Persia ; alpaca and the ilama in Peru and
Bolivia.
(iii) For fat— pigs, sheep, oxen ; prepared suet from
internal fat of sheep ; wool fat (Adeps Icmae ) ; prepared
hog’s lard.
(iv) For bone — oxen, sheep, horses, and all domesticated
animals. Horn — cattle and sheep.
(v) For milk — cows, goats, mares.
(vi) For other products — sugar of milk from whey of cows’
milk ; ‘ fel ’ or purified ox-bile ; pepsina from mucus
membrane of the stomach of sheep, pigs, calves. Modern
medicine makes use of nearly all the glands of domesti-
cated mammalia in order to manufacture “extracts”
of a curative nature.
Survey of Sub-group (g) of Group B.
THE UTILISATION OF THE ANIMAL AS A SURGICAL AGENT.
The chief animals coming in this sub-group are the Medicinal Leeches
Sanguisuga medicinalis and S. officinalis. In Mexico another leech, a
species of Hsementaria , is made use of.
GKO UP C.
Animals which directly promote Man’s operations as a civilised
being, without being killed, captured or trained by him.
This is a remarkable group — remarkable because it is so small. The
fact is that in more primitive conditions of civilisation man would
recognise more clearly than he now does his indebtedness to other
animals, as, for instance, the fisherman looks to the sea-gulls for guidance.
Highly civilised man has almost completely separated himself from the
ancient association with the animal world, excepting where he has seized
and domesticated or more or less trained the useful animal. The
scavenger animals and birds and the earthworms still act freely for man’s
benefit without submitting to his yoke.
b 2
XX
First Report on Economic Zoology.
Protozoa ....
Porifera
Coelentera ....
Echinoderma
Platyhelmia .
Nemertina....
Nematoda ....
Chtetopoda....
Crustacea ....
Arachnida
Chilopoda ....
Diplopoda ....
Hexapoda ....
Mollusca
Tunicata
Pish
Amphibia
Reptilia ..
Birds
Mammals
Survey of Group C.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Various eel-worms ( Anguillulidae ) hasten decay in plants.
The earthworms form surface soil and bury stones on
the surface, and prepare seed beds, etc., for plants.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Many insects act as scavengers in all parts of the world ;
the larvae of flies ( Calliphora ) feed upon and hasten
decay of carrion ; some carrion beetles {Silphidae) ; dung
beetles ( Copridae and Dynasticlae) ; burying beetles
{Nccrophorus') also act as scavengers; humble bees
( Bombi ) fertilise clover, and many other insects act as
fertilisers ( Trigona and Vanilla, Blastophaga and figs).
None.
None.
Fish, especially carp, keep water free from insects and decay-
ing matter, and are used for such purposes in reservoirs.
None.
None.
Vultures, by destroying the flesh of dead animals and man.
Rats feed upon carrion, as well as sound food ; and also
jackals and semi-wild dogs.
GEO UP D.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury, some-
times death, to him, and in other cases disease, often of a
deadly character.
This large group contains representatives in most of the divisions of
the animal kingdom. It may conveniently be divided into two sub-
groups, viz., (a) animals which cause injury, by direct attack, to man,
and (Jj ) animals which cause disease by acting as germ carriers.
In the former section parasitism plays an important role.
Survey of Sub-group ( a ) of Group D.
ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY, BY DIRECT ATTACK, TO MAN.
Protozoa Malarial hoemamcebidre, coccidia, Amccba coli, and
Trypanosoma in the blood.
Porifera None.
Coelentera Jelly-fish, by stinging man when in sea water.
Echinoderma Spines of Echinus may penetrate the skin.
Platyhelmia Numerous tapeworms ( Gcstocla ) are parasitic in the
intestines of man ( Taenia solium, Taenia saqinata),
and in their cystic or hydatid stage in the various
organs and connective tissue ( Echinococcus hominis ).
Flukes ( Trcmatoda ) also occur as parasites in man
(Bilharzia haematobium , Distomum hcpaticum).
Introduction.
xxi
Nemertina
Nematoda ,
Chsetopoda
Crustacea
Arachnida .
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Hexapoda
Mollusca
Tunicata
Fish ....
Amphibia
Reptilia ..
Birds
Mammals
Many species occur as parasites in the alimentary canal
( Ascarids and Ankylostomum), in the blood system and
connective tissues ( Filarix ), and cause disease (Elephan-
tiasis) ; the Guinea worm ( Filaria medinensis) ; Trichina
spiralis.
Land leeches {Hxmadispa ccylonica) attack man m
Ceylon and India and elsewhere.
Crabs and lobsters bite, also land-crabs (Gecarcinidx).
A few spiders ( Mygale ) have poisonous bites; mites ( Sai -
coptidx) produce itch, etc., and the sting of scorpions
is poisonous.
Centipedes ( Scolopcndra gigantea, S. morsitans ) in tropical
climates are poisonous, and produce painful wounds.
None.
Insects of the orders Diptera (flies) and Hemiptera-
Heteroptera (bugs) bite in all parts of the world.
Biting Diptera include: — mosquitoes {Culicidx), sand-
flies ( Simulidx ), gadflies ( Tabanidx ), stinging-flies
(Chrysops, Stomoxys ), tsetse-flies ( Glossina ). Diptera
also live as parasites in their adult stage (jigger-flea) and
in the larval state in man (Dermatobia, Screw-worm).
Bugs of the genera Cimex and Conorhinus.
The bites of some are poisonous ( Conusa aulicus in
Moluccas, G. textilis in South Sea Islands, and most
other Toxiglossa).
None.
Sharks and various poisonous fish, the latter (i) poisonous
as food, Clupea thrissa, C. vcnenosa ; species of Scartts,
Tetrodon, Diodon, Balistcs, Ostracion ; the roes of
barbel, pike and burbot, and (ii) on account of the
poisonous wounds they may produce — weavers (Tra-
chinus), stinging rays ( Trygonidx ), species of Synanceia
and Thalassophrync.
None.
Many snakes are poisonous (rattlesnake, cobra, fer de
lance, blue adder, puff adder, purple and short death
adders) and a single lizard (the Hcloderma). Crocodiles
and alligators may devour man (the gavial, Gavialis
gangeticus, Crococlilus vulgaris).
None.
Most of the large carnivora (lions, tigers, bears, wolves)
may cause bodily injury to man and often devour him.
Any large mammals such as rhinoceros, elephant, deer,
may attack and injure him.
Survey of Sub-group ( b ) of Group D.
ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE DISEASE BY ACTING AS GERM CARRIERS.
Protozoa to Crustacea
Arachnida
Chilopoda and Diplopoda
Hexapoda
None.
Probably ticks ( Ixodulx ) may distribute disease from
animals to man.
None.
All piercing-mouthed insects may either carry disease
direct from man to man or animals to man gadflies
{Tahanidx), Stomoxys and tsetse-fly ( Muscidx ), sand-
flies ( Simulidx ) ; bugs {Cimex and Conorhinus) ; or they
may act as intermediate hosts of parasites (mosquitoes
and malaria and filariasis). Germs may also be carried
to food and drink by dung-feeding flies {Musca, Calli-
phora, Scatophaga) from latrines and foul matter
(typhoid).
xxii First Report on Economic Zoology.
Mollusca Some mollusca may carry germs, as oysters and cockles
carry typhoid.
Tunicata None.
Fish None.
Mammalia The imperfectly cooked flesh of various mammals may
carry disease to man, as the flesh of pigs (cysts of Taenia
solium, and Trichina spiralis, thus producing tapeworm
and trichinosis in man) ; the flesh of oxen (cysts of
tapeworms, Taenia saginata) ; milk of cow and other
animals carries tuberculosis.
GROUP E.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury or disease
(both possibly of a deadly character) to (A) his stock of
Domesticated Animals ; or (B) to his Vegetable Plantations ;
or (C) to Wild Animals; or (D) Wild Plants in the pre-
servation of which he is interested.
The examples coming in this group are somewhat similar to those in
Group D, but in addition must be included also worms and insects, which
destroy crops and fruit, garden produce and forest trees, and such pests as
the frugivorous birds, rabbits and voles. This forms the largest group,
and is directly connected with the cultivation and improvement of land
by tillage and forestry, and the animals used by man in carrying on his
work, and kept for the improvement of the soil and food.
The sub-groups may conveniently be divided into smaller groups or
sections.
Survey of Sub-group A of Group E.
ANIMALS WHICH CONCERN MAN AS CAUSING BODILY INJURY OR
DISEASE (BOTH POSSIBLY OF A DEADLY NATURE) TO HIS STOCK
OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.
This sub-group may be divided into smaller groups or sections as
follows : — Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury and
disease to his stock of domesticated animals, i.e. (a) cattle ; (/3) sheep and
goats ; (y) horses, asses and mules ; (8) the pig ; (e) elephant and camel ;
(£) guinea pig ; ( rj ) dogs and cats ; (6) rabbits, and (i) poultry.
Survey of Section (a) of Sub-grouf A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE TO CATTLE.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa None.
Platyhelmia Tapeworms ( Moniezia pianissimo) and cysts ( Cysticercus
bovis, C. tcnuicollis ) produce disease ; also flukes ( Disto -
mum hcpaticum , D. magna).
Nematoda Numerous thread and round worms ( Ascaris , Triclio-
ccphalus, etc.).
Chsetopoda None.
Introduction.
XXlll
Arachnida..... Ixodulx or ticks (Ixodes) and mange mites ( Sarcoptidx ).
Hexapoda Biting flies ( Tabanus , Haematopota , Simulium), warble
flies ( Hypoderma lineata and H. bovis).
Amphibia None.
Reptilia Poisonous snakes attack cattle — puff adder ; crocodiles
( Crocodilus vulgaris) in African rivers.
Birds None.
Mammals The larger carnivora attack cattle, especially leopards.
II. As germ carriers.
Arachnida Ticks (Ixodidae) distribute various bovine diseases, as
Texas fever.
Hexapoda Probably biting flies, such as Tabanidse, Stomoxys, carry
disease germs (Anthrax) ; tsetse-fly and Nagana.
Mollusca Certain species of water snails (Limnseidx) carry the
germs of flukes.
Survey of Section (0) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE TO SHEEP AND GOATS.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa Protozoa are said to cause a disease in the feet of
sheep in Australia.
Platyhelmia Numerous cestodes ( Moniezia cxpansa, planissima , alba)
in intestines and cysts in the body ( Cysticercus tenui-
collis), and in the brain (Coenurus cerebralis), causing
“ sturdy.” The liver fluke (Distomum liepaticum)
producing “ rot.”
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Numerous filaria in all sheep (lung worms, Eustrongylus
filaria and husk). Strongylus contortus in intestines.
Arachnida Sarcoptidx , producing scab (Psoroptes communis v. ovis) ;
l'xodidx or ticks.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Hexapoda Keds ( Melophagus ovinus), nasal fly ( CEstrus ouis), and
sheep maggots (Lucilia), lice (Mallopliaga) in sheep and
goats.
Reptilia Many poisonous snakes (puff adder, cobra).
Amphibia None.
Birds Some birds of prey (eagles) ; the kaka parrot ( Nestor
meridionalis) attacks sheep in New Zealand.
Mammals Large carnivora abroad and dogs generally.
II. As germ carriers.
Arachnida Ixodidx, and louping ill (Ixodes rcduvius ), and heartwater
( Amblyomma ).
Hexapoda Biting flies (Tabanus, Clirysops) may carry anthrax.
Mollusca Some water snails (Limnaeidse) carry the germs of the
fluke. : — >-7 ‘v „ . . •
Survey of Section (7) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE TO HORSES,
ASSES, AND MULES.
Protozoa to
Platyhelmia
Nemertina..
Nematoda ..
I. By direct injury.
Echinoderma None.
A- few occur in horses (Tamia plicata, and pcrfoliata).
• None.
Many in all parts of the body; armed strongyles (Sclero-
stomum tctracanthum and cquinum) ; thread worms
Filaria) ; maw worms (Oxyuris curvula and mastigoides).
xxiv First Report on Economic Zoology.
Arachnida Acari produce mange and sores ( Sarcoptes , Psoroptes,
Symbiotes).
Hexapoda Biting flies ( Tabanus , Hsematopota ) ; warble flies (Gastro-
phtlus) (“ bots ”) ; forest flies (Hippoboscidse).
Mollusca None.
Fish Electric eel ( Electrophones elect ricus ) attacks horses at
water in Brazil.
Amphibia None.
Reptilia Many poisonous snakes, especially the puff adder, fer de
lance and others, and crocodiles.
Birds None.
Mammalia A few large carnivora, as leopards ; vampire-bats ( Vampyrus
spectrum).
II. As germ carriers.
Hexapoda .. Tsetse flies ( Glossina ) and Nagana; possibly other biting
flies carry disease.
Survey of Section (5) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE IN PIGS.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa Balantidium coli causes ill-health.
Porifera to Echinoderma. None.
Platyhelmia Cysticcrcus cellulose, cyst of human tapeworm (measles
in pigs) ; no sexual tapeworm. Echinococcus frequent
in the liver.
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Ascaris suilla in intestines and others ; Echinorhynchus
gigas; Trichina spiralis ; Strongylidse (S. paradoxus) in
bronchi ; Stephenurus dentatus.
Chsetopoda None.
Arachnida Itch mites ( Sarcoptes scabci) transmittable to man, and
Dcmodex.
Diplopoda and Chilopoda None.
Hexapoda Stomoxys (biting or stinging fly) ; Mallopliaga and
Hxmatopinus (lice).
Amphibia None.
Reptilia Poisonous snakes rarely attack the pig.
Birds None.
Mammals Larger carnivora.
II. As germ carriers.
Protozoa to Birds None known.
Mammalia Rats carry trichinosis ( Trichina spiralis).
Survey of Section (e) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE IN ELEPHANTS
AND CAMELS.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa None.
Porifera and Echinoderma None.
Platyhelmia Amphistomes cause sickness in Indian elephants ; Trerna-
todes in lungs of camel ; also Cysticcrcus tenuicollis in
camels; Echinococcus in liver.
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Strongylus filaria in the bronchi of camels.
Arachnida Pentastomes (Linguatula) in camel ; Ixodes camelinus and
Galcoclcs aranoides, a great camel pest, and Sarcoptidse.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Introduction.
xxv
Hexapoda CEstrus cameli , common in camels, and biting flies
(Tab anus, C hr y sops).
Roptilia None (?).
Amphibia None (?).
Birds None.
Mammals None.
II. As germ carriers.
None known.
Survey op Section (C) op Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE IN GUINEA PIGS.
Protozoa Coccidia and Infusoria ( Monocercomonas cavise) live in the
intestines.
Porifera to Ecliinoderma. None.
Platyhelmia Trematodes or flukes ( Distomum cavise).
Nemertina None.
Nematoda None (?).
Arachnida Pentastomes (Linguatula) occur in the intestines.
Hexapoda None known except fleas (Puliciclse).
Reptilia Various poisonous snakes.
Amphibia None.
Birds Most rapacious birds.
Mammals Most large carnivora.
Survey op Section (77) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE TO DOGS AND CATS.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa Protozoal forms in the blood cause malignant jaundice in
dogs in Africa. Coccidium perforans in intestines of
dog.
Porifera to Echinoderma. None.
Platyhelmia Numerous Cestodes infest dogs (Tsenia csenurus, T. mar-
ginata, T. echinococcus). T. crassicollis in cats.
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Various species in both cat and dog (Ascaris mystax in
cats; Filaria immitis in dogs).
Arachnida Ticks ( Ixodidse ) ; Mange Insects ( Psoroptes , Symbiotes, and
Dcmodccidse), and Pentastomes.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Hexapoda Fleas ( Pulicidse ) and lice ( Mallophaga ) on both dog and
cat.
Reptilia Poisonous snakes, and especially the alligator (Alligator
Mississippicnsis) .
Amphibia None.
Birds None.
Mammals Other large carnivora.
II. As germ carriers.
None.
A Tick (Ixodes sp.) carries germs of malignant jaundice.
Culicidx carry the embryos of Filaria immitis. Lice
(Trichodcctes), the cysts of Taenia canina.
None.
Sheep, rabbits, hares and mice contain hydatids of some
canine and cat tapeworms (Ccenurus cercbralis in
sheep, Cysticercus pisciformis in hares and rabbits).
Protozoa to Crustacea
Arachnida
Hexapoda
Chilopoda to Birds ...
Mammals
XXVI
First Report on Economic Zoology.
Survey of Section (0) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY INJURY AND DISEASE TO RABBITS.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa Coccidia produce disease in the liver (liver-rot).
Porifera to Echinoderma. None.
Platyhelmia Numerous tapeworms in the intestines and cysts in the
organs and tissues ( Taenia pectinata, Cysticercus
pisciformis).
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Strongylidx often cause great mortality (Strongylus
strigosus, Oxyuris ambigua).
Cluetopoda and Crustacea None.
Arachnida Psoroptcs produce scab and itch.
Hexapoda Fleas ( Pulex goniocephalus).
Reptilia Various snakes.
Birds Rapacious birds (hawks, falcons and crows).
Mammals The fox, dogs, cats, weasels, stoats, etc.
II. As germ carriers.
None known.
Survey of Section (l) of Sub-group A.
ANIMALS CAUSING BODILY HARM AND DISEASE TO POULTRY.
I. By direct injury.
Protozoa Cause false coccidiosis of liver ( Amceba meleagris),
diphtheritic roup, epithelioma contagiosum.
Platyhelmia Tape worms often occur in all poultry ( Davainea pro-
glottina , Drepanidotxnia infundibuliformis and others).
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Thread worms ( Hcterakis ) live in the intestines of fowls ;
the gape worm ( Synqamus trachealis, gapes).
Chsetopoda None.
Arachnida Sarcoptidx (depluming scabies, Sarcoptes leevis), scaly leg
( Sarcop>tes mutans ) ; ticks ( Argas ) ; mites ( Dermanyssus
aviuinj on skin and feathers.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Hexapoda Lice ( Mallopliaga ), fleas ( Pulicidx ) and certain flies
( Ornithomyia ) and sand flies ( Simulium ) cause
annoyance.
Mollusca None.
Reptilia Poisonous snakes attack poultry (chicken snake, Coluber
quadrivittatus in N. America and others).
Birds Hawks (sparrow-hawk) and crows take the chicks ;
eagles, kites ; peregrine falcon.
Mammals Many mammals prey on poultry and eggs (fox, polecat,
weasel, rat, Indian civet, leopard cat).
II. As germ carriers.
Chietopoda Earthworms carry the ova and embryos of the gape
worm and are eaten by fowls.
Introduction .
xxv 11
Survey of Sub-group B of Group E.
ANIMALS WHICH CONCERN MAN AS CAUSING INJURY AND
DISEASE TO HIS VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
This group deals with animals which cause loss to farmers, gardeners
and foresters. It may then be divided into three main sections ; (i.)
animals injurious to agriculture ; (ii.) to horticulture ; and (iii.) to
forestry.
Each of these sections may be again conveniently divided up into
smaller groups.
Survey of Section I. of Sub-group B.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE.
This section may be divided up into several headings under the names
of the particular crops grown by man. It is not possible here to enter at
length into this sub-group, owing to its extensive nature. The following
divisions of this section may be employed : — (a) animals injurious to
cereal crops ; (/?) to pulse ; (y) to root crops ; (8) to forage crops and
grass ; (c) to fruit and fruit trees ; (£) to hops ; (rj) to tea ; (0) to coffee ;
(i) to sugar.
Survey of Sub-section (a) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO CEREAL CROPS.
The animal pests of corn crops are very numerous.
Protozoa None.
Platyhelmia None.
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Eelworms ( Anguillulidse ) cause disease, as tulip root in
oats.
Chietopoda Some Enchytraeus apparently cause disease to plants.
Crustacea Land Isopods (woodlice) sometimes do harm (Armadilli-
clium, Oniscus).
Arachnida None (?).
Hexapoda Numerous insects eat leaf (larvae of Nocture), stalks
(Hessian fly, Ceciclomyia destructor, maize aphis, A.
maiis, Cephas pygmxus, Leucanium, etc.), roots (wire-
worm, E later idx), and seed and blossom (wheat midge —
Diplosis tritici).
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda Millepedes ( Julidse ) attack the roots of corn.
Mollusca Many snails ( Helicidse ) and slugs ( Limacidx ) devour the
leaves.
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
■^r<^s Destroy the seed and pull up young plants (rooks, starlings,
wood-pigeons, cranes ( Gruiclx ), wild geese ( Anser
,r . anser in Europe, Plectropterus gambcnsis in Transvaal).
ammals Ruminantia, especially deer, often do harm to standing
corn ; rodents, as voles and mice.
Survey of Sub-section (/ 3 ) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO PULSE.
Protozoa to Nemertina ... None.
Nematoda Eel- worms ( Tylcnchus ).
rus acea Land Isopods (woodlice) attack young plants (Porcellio,
Oniscus).
xxviii First Report on Economic Zoology.
Arachnida None (?).
Hexapoda Many insects attack leafage (pea weevils, Sitones), stem
{Aphides), roots (wire-worm or Elate r larvae), seed
(pea moth, Grapholitha pisana).
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Snails {Helix) and slugs ( Limax ).
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
Birds Many of the passerine birds take the seed in the ground ;
also pigeons, rooks and jackdaws.
Mammals Mice take seed in the ground.
Survey of Sub-section (y) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO ROOT CROPS.
Protozoa to Nemertina ... None.
Nematoda None (?).
Crustacea Woodlice {Oniscus, Arinadillidium).
Arachnida None (?).
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda Many Julidse damage roots.
Hexapoda Large numbers of insects attack root crops (flea beetles
(Halticidse) ; surface larvse ( Noctuse ); diamond-back
moth ( Plutclla viaculipennis) ; root weevils {Gcuto-
rhynchus ) and Aphides).
Mollusca Slugs and snails {Limacidse and Helicidse).
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
Birds Many birds eat the seedlings (linnets, sparrows, green-
finches, larks).
Mammalia Rabbits, hares and deer.
Survey of Sub-section (8) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FORAGE CROPS AND GRASS.
Protozoa to Nemertina ... None.
Nematoda Tylcnclius devastatrix causes clover sickness.
Arachnida None.
Hexapoda Large numbers attack roots (chafer larvse, Melolonllia,
Cetonia, leather jackets or larvse of Tipulidse), leaves
(weevils — Apions ), and seeds (thrips, midges — Diplods).
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Slugs and snails attack young forage crops.
Reptilia None.
Amphibia None.
Birds The seed of grass, clover, etc., is eaten by sparrows and
finches.
Mammalia Moles cause annoyance in pastures by throwing up hills ;
gophers in America ; voles and rabbits.
Survey of Sub-section (e) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES.
Protozoa to Chtetopoda ... None.
Crustacea Woodlice damage soft fruits {Oniscus, Ascllus).
Arachnida Various mites (red spider, Tetranychus and Bryobia )
damage the leafage.
Hexapoda Hosts of insects attack fruit — codling moth, woolly aphis,
San Jos6 scale, pear midge, mussel scale, bark beetles,
plum cuculio, fruit flies {Ceratitis) , phylloxera. Leafage,
fruit, stem and roots are all subject to insect ravages in
all parts of the world.
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda Some millepedes ( Julidse ) damage soft fruits.
Mollusca Slugs and snails damage soft fruits on the ground.
Introduction.
xxix
Amphibians and Reptilia None.
Birds Many frugivorous birds, hornbills (Buccrotidaz), trogons
(Trogonoulese), cockatoos and parrots (Plissoloplms
inoluccensis ), depredate whole fields of fruit, in
Moluccas ; ring parrot ( Palxomis torquatus), in Africa
and India, grey parrot ( Psittacus erithacus ) in Africa,
do much harm in fruit plantations ; others do so now
and then; starlings ( Sturnus ), thrushes (Turdidee),
toucans ( Rhamphastidse ) ; other birds damage twigs, etc.
(plant cutters, Phytotomidse).
Mammalia Rabbits and hares damage young trees by biting the
bark : squirrels take nuts and soft fruit, and some fruit
bats ( Pteropus polioccphalus , P. Kcrandrenii), and
others do much harm abroad.
Survey of Sub-section (£) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO HOPS.
Protozoa to Nemertina .. None.
Nematoda Eel- worms (Heterodera), produce disease.
Crustacea Woodlice ( Armadillidium and Ascellus).
Arachnida Red spiders ( Tctranyclius telarius ).
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda Millepedes ( Julidse ) damage the roots.
Hexapoda Many insects attack root, leaves and stem — Aphis , flea
beetle ( Haltica concinna), wire-worm ( Agriotcs linecitus),
hop-dogs ( D . pudibunda), shy-bugs ( Calocoris fulvo-
mac ulatus).
Mollusca Occasionally snails (Helix).
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
Birds Some birds, as linnets, damage the cones.
Mammals Rabbits and hares attack the bine.
Survey of Sub-section (rj) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO TEA.
Protozoa to Chsetopoda ... None.
Crustacea Land crabs in India.
Arachnida Red tea mite ( Tctranychus biaculatus) ; fire-legged tea
mite (Typhlodromus carinatus) ; yellow tea mite ( Acarus
transluceus) ; pink mite (Phytoptus these).
Hexapoda Red borer ( Zeuzera coffac) ; black grub ( Agrotis suffusa) ;
faggot worm (Eumeta carmeri)-, tea scale (Aspuliotus
these) ; tea aphis (Ceylonia thcsecola) ; white ants
( Tcrmcs taprobanes) ; tea mosquito or tea bug ( Hclio -
peltis thcivora), and others.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Snails and slugs do much harm (Hcliocarion salius and
others).
Reptilia and Amphilia ... None.
Birds None.
Mammals Wild elephants do much harm in tea plantations; also
stray cattle, hares and land rats.
Survey of Sub-section (0) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO COFFEE.
Protozoa to Crustacea None.
Arachnida None recorded, but probably several occur on coffee
leaves.
xxx First Report on Economic Zoology.
Hexapoda Coffee scales ( Lecanium caffeas , Aspuliotiis articulatus ) ;
mealy bug ( Dactylobius destructor ) ; coffee moth
(Heliothis armigera ) ; coffee miner ( Gracillaria coffei-
foliella) ; also Oryzia Ccylonica , Zcuzera coffex, and
others.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Probably snails and slugs.
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
Birds None.
Mammals The same as section (tj).
Survey of Sub-section (i) of Section I.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO SUGAR-CANES.
Protozoa to Nemertina ...
Nematoda
Arachnida
Hexapoda
Chilopoda and Diplopoda
Mollusca
Reptilia and Amphibia ...
Mammalia.,
None.
Several damage sugar cane ( Hctcrodera sacchari, Ty-
lenchus saccliari , and others).
Numerous mites damage leafage and stems {Histiostoma
rostroscrratus , Tarsonymus Bancroftii) .
Sugar-cane borers (Diatrxa saccharalis ) ; tropical sugar-
cane borer ( Chilo saccharalis ) ; pin borers ( Xylcborus
piccus and X. perforans ; Sandwich Island borers
iSphcnophorus obscurus) ; white grub of Queensland
(Lcpidiota syuamulata) ; sugar scale ( Aspidiotus sac-
chari).
None.
None.
None.
Rats and stray domestic stock.
Survey of Section II., Sub-group B.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO HORTICULTURE.
The number and variety of plants cultivated in the garden is so great
and so varied that it is not possible to sub-divide them in detail. For our
purpose we may, however, divide them into two sub-sections in connection
with their animal enemies : —
(a) The animals injurious to culinary plants.
Q3) The animals injurious to ornamental plants.
Sub-section (a) of Section II.
animals injurious to culinary plants.
Protozoa to Nemertina ... None.
Nematoda Various eel-worms ( Tylcnclms , Hctcrodera). (Tomato
root disease).
Chsetopoda Enchytrxus and a few others damage roots.
Crustacea Land isopods ( Oniscus , etc.) attack roots and seedlings.
Arachnida Red spiders and various acari damage leaves.
Hexapoda Most groups of insects attack vegetables — onion1' fly
(Phorbia ccpetorum), cut-worms ( Noctiue ), thrips, aphis,
leather jackets ( Tipulidx ).
Chilopoda None.
Diplopoda Millepedes attack various roots ( Julus , Polydesmus , etc.).
Mollusca Snails and slugs attack delicate leaves.
Amphibians None.
Reptiles None.
j$jrcls Several finches, the sparrow, and other small birds, as long-
tailed tits, take seeds, buds, and fruit.
Mammals Mice, rats, voles, skunks, and others do damage in gardens.
Introduction .
XXXI
Sub-section (/3) of Section II.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO ORNAMENTAL PLANTS.
Protozoa to Ncmatoda ...None. , , , .. ,
nhffitonoda . Earthworms often do harm to potted plants.
fimstacea ' "" ..... . Land isopods are destructive, especially under glass.
Arachnida Many acari cause harm ( Tetranychus , Bryobia). ,
Hexanoda Most orders of insects are injurious (carnation maggot,
1 narcissus fly ( Merodon cqucstris) , scales {Clnonasjns rosx,
Lecanium olex), thrips ( Tliripidx ), mealy bug (Dac-
tylobius ), rose sawflies ( Hylotoma rosx , Blennocampa
misilla).
Diplopoda Millepedes (JulicUe) often attack ornamental plants,
especially bulbs.
Mollusca Snails and slugs ( Helicidie and Livicicidx) .
Birc|s Small birds take plant seeds (finches, sparrows), also
damage the blossoms.
Mammals Moles, rabbits, mice, voles, and rats all do harm amongst
ornamental plants.
Survey of Section III., Sub-group B.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FORESTRY.
The animal pests of forestry may be best treated in detail under
smaller sections dealing with allied groups of trees ; i.e., animals injurious
to (A) Pines ; (P>) Oak ; (C) Willows, etc., but for our purpose here no
division need be made.
There are no enemies amongst the lower groups of invertebrates until
we come to the —
Arachnida A few attack the leaves of trees ( Tetranychus ).
Hexapoda Most orders occur on forest trees — wood borers, as wood
wasps (Sirex), goat moth ( Cossus ) ; leaf eaters, gypsy
moth ( Porthcsia ), tent caterpillars (Clissiocampci) ; bark
beetles ( Tomicus , Pissodes).
Chilopoda and Dilopoda... None.
Mollusca None.
Reptilia and Amphibia ... None.
Birds Woodpeckers and others damage the trunks, and others
(crossbills, Loxia ) take cones and seeds. Capercaillzie
and other grouse damage buds and young growths.
Mammals Many mammals do harm by harking trees (deer, rabbits
mice, voles, hares).
Sub-groups C and I) of Group E.
ft is difficult to enumerate the members of these two sub-groups.
Numerous parasitic worms attack wild rabbits, big game, and game birds.
Mange mites and ticks attack the fox and other animals. Birds destroy
the useful earth-worms. The schedules adopted by the International
Conference for the Preservation of Wild Animals in Africa may be referred
to as giving some indications on the subject. In Sub-group D we find
numerous insects damaging such wild plants as rushes, croci, the cranberry,
pepper plants, and familiar forest trees already considered.
XXX11
First Report on Economic Zoology.
GROUP P.
Animals which concern Man as being destructive to his
worked-up Products of Art and Industry, such as (A) his
various Works, Buildings and larger Constructions and
Habitations ; (B) his Furniture and Books, Drapery and
Clothing; (C) Food and Clothes.
The numerous animal pests coming in this group do not all confine
their attacks to one sub-group only, but they will be dealt with under the
heading of that sub-group in which they occasion most damage. A large
number of these pests are cosmopolitan, having been distributed chiefly
by artificial agencies (i.e., Corn Weevils, Cockroaches, Rats). Others
have a wide distribution from natural agencies, such as ocean current*
(Teredo worms).
Survey of Sub-group A of Group F.
ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO MAN’S BUILDINGS AND LARGER
CONSTRUCTIONS AND HABITATIONS.
Protozoa to Cheetopoda ... None.
Crustacea Limnoria terebrans and lignorum, and others do damage
to marine works and shipping.
Arachnida None.
Hexapoda Numerous insects destroy the woodwork of bridges,
telegraph poles, etc., such as Termites or white ants ;
carpenter bees (Xylocopa) ; death watch beetles (Anc-
bium) ; ants ( Formicidse ).
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Teredo worms damage marine works by boring into the
wood ; Dreissena by entering water pipes ; Saxicava
burrow into stone piers.
Tunicata None.
Fishes None.
Birds Birds do damage and cause annoyance by building in
chimney stacks (sparrows, storks) and by destroying
mortar in buildings (pigeons). Woodpeckers damage
telegraph poles in Germany.
Mammals Burrowing animals may undermine man’s buildings and
habitations (rabbits, rats, mice), and dam-fonning
animals (beavers), by causing floods, may damage
bridges ; otters, voles, by burrowing, damage canal and
river banks.
Survey of Sub-group B.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FURNITURE, BOOKS, DRAPERY AND
CLOTHING.
Protozoa to Crustacea None.
Arachnida Acari ( Glyciphagus ) spoil furniture and are obnoxious.
Hexapoda Termites or white ants ; wood-boring beetles ( Xylobium
and Anobium ) ; leaf-cutting bees ( Megachile ) ; clothes
moths (Tinea): Dcrmcstes beetles attack soft goods;
cockroaches (Blattidee) attack boots, also Anobium ;
Introduction .
• • •
XXXI 11
Hexapoda— continued books and papers damaged by book-worms (Atropos
divinatoria ) and by Chelifers or tailless scorpions in
India, also by Lepisma. Clothing also damaged in
India by Anthrenus vorax.
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Tunicata to Birds None.
Mammalia Mice and rats (occasionally).
Survey of Sub-group G.
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO MAN’S FOOD AND OTHER STORES.
Protozoa to Crustacea None.
Acarina A few acari attack food — household mites ( Olyciphagus ) ;
cheese mites ( Tyroglyphus ) ; sugar mites ( Olyciphagus ).
Hexapoda Numerous insects attack man’s food and other stores,
both dry goods and fresh — corn weevils ( Calandra ) ;
bacon beetles (Dermestes) ; cheese fly ( Piophila ) ; blow
flies ( Calliphora ) ; cockroaches ( Blattidse ) ; cigar
beetles ( Lasioderma ) ; drug beetle {Anobium paniceum) ;
death-watch {Atropos divinatoria ) ; silver fish (Lepisma).
Chilopoda and Diplopoda None.
Mollusca Slugs attack corks.
Tunicata to Birds None.
Mammals Rats and Mice.
GROUP G.
Animals which are known as “Beneficials” on account of their
being destructive of or checking the increase of the
injurious Animals classed under Groups D, E, and F.
The animals falling in this group, spoken of as a rule as “ natural
enemies,” are best treated in connection with the pests enumerated in the
groups D, E and F. They may be beneficial, either by (i) being pre-
daceous, or (ii) being parasitic upon the pests of crops, animals, and man.
Survey of Group G.
Protozoa None.
Porifera to Echinoderma None.
Platyhelmia Parasitic cestodes help to keep down certain noxious
birds and mammals (rabbits, sparrows, and others).
Nemertina None.
Nematoda Act the same as Platyhelmia.
Crustacea None?.
Arachnida Spiders by destroying noxious insects ; mites (Der-
manyssus) by being parasitic on destructive birds.
Hexapoda Many insects prey upon other insect pests. Hover flies
( Syrpliidse ) and lace- wing flies ( Hemerobiidse ) feed upon
Aphides ; dragon flies ( Odonata ) upon mosquito larvae,
butterflies, etc. ; carnivorous ground beetles (Carabidee,
etc.), lady birds ( Goccinellidx ) upon Aphides and scales.
C
xxxiv First Report on Economic Zoology .
Chilopoda Most centipedes kill noxious ground insects and molluscs.
Diplopoda None.
Tunicata None.
Fishes Many fish prey upon mosquito larvse — carp, etc.
Amphibia Frogs and toads especially, by devouring insects and slugs.
Reptilia Snakes destroy insects, rats, mice, and other noxious
animals (fer de lance, grass snake, rat or corn snake).
Birds All insectivorous birds and some birds of prey (warblers,
swallows, starlings, rooks, kestrel hawk, owls. Starlings
( Sturnus ) devour ticks on sheep ; Buphaga or ox-
peckers the ticks on oxen in S. Africa*).
Mammals Many mammals are beneficial (moles, skunk, hedgehogs,
fox, shrews, various insect-eating bats ( Vesper tilionidse )
and others).
* The Oxpeckers do some harm as well, for when no ticks are present on the ox
or sheep they will wound the back of the animal, pecking deeply into the flesh.
E. EAY LANKESTER.
PART I.
REPORTS ON ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY
TO THE
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
B
FIRST REPORT ON ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
GROUP E.
Animals which concern Man by causing bodily injury or
disease, both possibly of a deadly character, to (A) his
stock of Domesticated Animals, (B) his Vegetable Planta-
tions, or (C) to Wild Animals in the preservation of which
he is interested, or (D) Wild Plants in the preservation
of which he is interested.
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY AND
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section I.
Animals Injurious to Agriculture.
CEREAL PESTS.
Eel-worm Disease in Oats.
Some oat plants, sent by a correspondent of the Board from South
Tawton, Devon, from a field that was seriously damaged, were found
to be attacked by eel-worms ( Tylenchus devastatrix, Kuhn). The
popular names for the disease these eel-worms cause are “ tulip-root ”
and “ segging.” This disease takes its name from the swollen
appearance of the base of the stem. This swollen basal part is
surrounded in most cases with contorted shoots of a pale unhealthy
hue. The minute eel-worms are found in abundance amongst the
deformed shoots and in the stem (at its base). This species of
eel-wonn attacks chiefly oats, rye, clover, onions, turnips, but also
occurs in wheat, buckwheat, and various wild grasses, as sweet-
4 First Report on Economic Zoology .
scented vernal and annual meadow-grass ; it is also found in daisies,
buttercups, and plantains. Teasels and hyacinths also harbour it,
according to Bitzema Bos. It appears that barley and carrots are
free from its attack.
Part of their life is spent in the soil, and they can then be
successfully treated as mentioned below.
Prevention and Treatment.
1. Deep ploughing in autumn ; the depth should be eighteen
inches. By this treatment the layer of earth that contains the
eel-worms is buried, and so they are put out of the way of the next
crop. Ploughing at a less depth does good if a skim coulter is
attached, but the deeper the land is ploughed the better.
2. On eel-worm land avoid crops in rotation that are attacked,
and use those that are not — i.e. barley. Clover after “ tulip-root ”
must carefully be avoided.
3. Sulphate of potash on a diseased field does good at about the
rate of 1 cwt. to the acre.
There is not the least doubt that by late autumnal deep ploughing,
by judicious rotation, and by the use of certain artificial manures,
the pest can be easily fought with success. It is also said that
stable manure should be avoided.
There was also a single puparium of the Frit Fly {Oscinis frit)
found in one plant from this district.
The Frit Fly on Oats.
(' Oscinis frit , L.)
Oat plants sent to the Board of Agriculture from the sewage farm
of the Croydon Corporation were being destroyed by a small
dipteron, which has done a great deal of damage to the oat and
barley crops in the south of England. This small fly is the so-called
Frit Fly, the Oscinis frit of Linnaeus, the Oscinis vastator of Curtis.
The larvae of the Oscinis feed just inside the crown of the plant,
and in the majority of cases destroy it ; but when they feed between
the outer leaves, as they often seem to do, the crop may survive.
Crops that look irreparably damaged often tiller out and produce
a moderate yield. This year (1902) the pest has been very harm-
ful. The flies were nearly all hatched out by June, but some sent
in the sample of oat plants from Croydon were only just entering
the pupal stage. The second brood probably lays its eggs on the
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 5
developing grain. In Sweden this second attack is often haimful,
producing light shrivelled samples of corn (frits).
Little or nothing can he done when a crop is badly attacked, as
the one reported from Croydon. Moreover, the damage is now (June)
done, and the second brood cannot be materially lessened, even by
ploughing up the crop, as they are hatching out rapidly.
One feature has been noticed in districts where Oscinis frit is
abundant, namely, that early sown crops suffer the least. Oats
sown 29th of March wrere not attacked ; those sown on 29th of April
had over 70 per cent, of the stems attacked.
Where a field is irreparably damaged it is as well to deeply
plough it up at once, so as to bury the puparia of the fly and thus
prevent the second and summer brood, that cannot be so easily
destroyed, from appearing.
When early signs of the crop being attacked are noticed, the loss
may be materially lessened by the timely application of some
stimulating dressing such as nitrate of soda.
Smut in Barley and Insects.
The barley sent by a correspondent of the Board from Brackley,
Northamptonshire, was found to be suffering from the fungoid disease
called Loose Smut ( Ustilago mulct, Jensenii).
Two methods of treatment are knovrn for Smuts : (1) the “ blue-
stone ” treatment and (2) the “ hot water ” treatment. The former
does well for covered smut ( Ustilago jensenii, Rostr.), but has little
effect on Loose Smut.
The “ hot water ” treatment consists of soaking the grain for five
minutes in hot water heated to 126° F.
The grain should be warmed just before by putting it in a sack
and steeping it for a few minutes in water of 120° F. After the
grain has been five minutes in the hot water, 126° F., it should be
taken out and plunged right away into cold water and then spread
out to dry.
Some Clavicorn Beetles of the genus Phalacrus of Faykull were
found in the diseased ears. They apparently feed upon the spores of
the Smut fungus, but at the same time they no doubt help to dis-
tribute this fungoid disease, for they are often seen covered with the
spores, amongst which they crawl during feeding time. The remedy
of this combined attack lies in treatment of the seed ; no steps need be
taken in regard to the insects.
6
First Report on Economic Zoology.
HOOT CROP PESTS.
Silplia rug o set, L., on Turnips, and other Silphidce-.
One of the Carrion Beetles, Silplia rugosa, L., closely related to
the Beet Carrion Beetles ( Silplia opaca and S. cctrata), sent to the
Board, was appearing in great numbers on a turnip crop. Both of
the latter species are injurious to mangolds, the larvae devour the
leaves and stem and often destroy a crop entirely. Silplia rugosa
occurs with them nearly always and is probably the commonest
member of the genus, being found almost everywhere, but there have
been no observations made on this species showing that it does any
harm to crops, such as occurs with the two closely related Carrion
Beetles.
The larvae of the Silpliidae and also the adults are normally
carrion feeders. Numbers of these three species may usually Be
found in June in and under any dead carcase laying about in the
fields, but as previously stated the two species S. opaca and S. atrata
frequently give up their carnivorous habits and attack mangolds and
beetroots. Canon Fowler also records finding the larvae of a member
of this genus on the roots of plants in the Isle of Wight. It is,
therefore, possible that S. rugosa may sometimes become vegetarian
in habit, but no mention has been made of this, nor does the Board
correspondent make any such statement.
The larvae of S. rugosa are moderately broad with the edges of the
thoracic (i.e. first three) segments rounded, those of the remaining
segments projecting. The body ends in two processes called cerci,
which in this species are long, at least three times as long as the
anal process between them ; the head is large and projecting.
When full grown, which is usually by the middle, but sometimes
not until the end, of July, they bury themselves in the soil to a
depth of from three to four inches and turn to pupa?.
After from three to four weeks beetles appear from these pupae,
and these beetles apparently live through the winter.
Miss Ormerod records the Beet Carrion Beetle (S. opaca) on
potato and also as devouring the Spurrey ( Spcrgula arvensis), and
it is thus possible that we may get S. rugosa working in a similar
manner on various plants and not on any one in particular.
As there is a possibility of these carrion beetles becoming
destructive, steps should be taken to have the turnip and other fields
cleared of them and any of their larvae. To do this is a compara-
tively easy matter if we employ natural traps in the form of dead
7
Reports to the Board of Agriculture.
birds or small mammals, scattered over the ground every here and
there. The dead bodies attract the beetles and the larvae, which can
be shaken out into pails of hot lime and so destroyed.
Caterpillars ( Surface larvce ) on Turnips, etc.
The Turnip or Dart Moth (Agrotis segetis) and the
Heart and Dart Moth (A exclamationis).
Some larvae attacking turnips and potatoes, sent by a correspon-
dent of the Board of Agriculture, were the caterpillars of the Heart
and Dart Moth ( Agrotis exclamationis), popularly called Surface
Larvae — Cutworms in Canada and the United States. Two species
occur in abundance, viz., A. exclamationis and A. segetis; the latter
is called the Turnip Moth.
Another correspondent, writing from Dadlington, Nuneaton, states
“that turnips are eaten off and potatoes burrowed into. In this
district acres are spoilt by eating the turnips under the ground.”
These caterpillars were also sent by a correspondent from
Loughborough, where they were attacking mangolds.
There has been a serious outbreak of these pests during the
present year in all parts of England and Wales.
A leaflet (No. 33) has been issued by the Board on these pests
under the title of “ Surface Caterpillars.” To this leaflet the follow-
ing information should be added : —
(a) No dressings can be applied in sufficient strength to kill
these caterpillars as recommended, but the dressings do good in
helping on growth of the plant.
(h) Land after mangolds had best be lightly broken up, not
deeply ploughed ; this would bury, not expose, the larvae, and birds
are the greatest help in keeping them in check.
(c) In land invaded by Cutworms, a crop of mustard ploughed in
has done good.
(d) The long and exhaustive series of experiments, conducted at
the Agricultural Experimental Station of Cornell University, have
shown that by far the most successful way of combating these pests
is the employment of “ poison -baits.” These “poison-baits” have
been employed in the field by soaking clover, lucern, etc., in a
solution of Paris green and throwing little heaps of it about in the
field amongst the roots, etc., or, in the case of garden cultivation, bran
soaked in Paris green may be used.
When clover, etc., is employed the solution of Paris green in
8 First Report on Economic Zoology .
which it is dipped should be one pound of Paris green to fifty
gallons of water.
For bran bait use 1 lb. of Paris green to 25 lbs. of wheat bran,
and mix with just enough water to make a mash.
01 course it should not be placed where poultry go or sheep or
other stock feed.
In mangold fields the clover bait might be tried where the
attack is very bad.
The fresher the clover the better the results would be. The baits
should be placed on the ground late in the afternoon.
The green-stuff might be sprayed with the Paris green before
being cut — so as to save the trouble of dipping it.
The Pigmy Mangold Beetle.
( Atomaria linearis , Stephens.)
Some beetles sent by a correspondent of the Board from Barn-
staple that were destroying his mangolds proved to be the Pigmy
Mangold Beetle (. Atomaria linearis). A similar attack was reported
to Wye College by Mr. Tlios. Powell. In this case the beetles had
destroyed a field of mangolds on the Waldershare estate. Miss
Ormerod has recorded damage to mangolds by an Atomaria which
she identified as linearis, Stephens.
As far as is known, these little beetles (Fig. 1, d) destroy the
sprout of the mangold seed just as it germinates, and later they
attack both root and the leaves.
The leaves are gnawed away and gradually die (Fig. 1, c) ; they
also gnaw away the lower parts of the leaf stalks below the ground
level and so kill the plants. The tap root is attacked, the damaged
part turning black (Fig. 1, b). It thus seems that all parts of the
plants suffer in the young stages and during germination. The
beetles may be found in great numbers on the ground under clods
of earth, on the leaves and in the earth around the roots. They
appear in May and June and seem to decrease in July and August,
those occurring in the last two months apparently being a second
brood. Nothing is known of its life-history, but apparently the
larvae feed below ground, probably on the roots of the plants.
This attack was first observed in 1839 by M. Bazin at Mesnil
St. Firrnin, and later Macquart noticed this pest devouring the fields
of red beet in the environs of Lille to such an extent that whole
crops were ploughed up. It occurs in Great Britain in many districts
in great numbers and does much harm ; it is not noticed on accoun
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 9
of its small size. It seriously injured the mangold crop at Cmen-
cester in 1891 ; it is also recorded as damaging mango ds at Lym
ton, Ashburton (Devon), Weston-super-Mare, Sliifnal (. h ops ),
Denham (Bucks) ; and it has been abundant this year m the neig -
bourhood of Wye, Kent. The beetles may be noticed on the wing
pairing on warm evenings. They probably hibernate in the adult
stage.
a
Fig. 1. — the pigmy beetle (. Atomaria linearis).
A, damaged plant ; b, damaged tap root ; C, holes eaten in leaves ;
D, adult.
The best way of destroying this pest would be to run a
Strawsoniser over the field with ordinary Paris green wash in July,
when the beetles seem to feed mainly on the young seed leaves.
If the crop is destroyed as is the case with this outbreak at
Barnstaple, deep ploughing would be advisable.
In districts on the Continent where this beetle is a serious pest
to sugar-beet, thick sowing of seed is practised and would be worth
io First Report on Economic Zoology.
doing in the case of mangolds in this country in districts where the
beetle occurs in large numbers.
If the land is in good heart maize may be put in in the place
of the mangolds that have been destroyed. The beetles would
probably leave this plant alone, if they are not all destroyed by deep
ploughing.
This is not an uncommon pest, but is not reported very often
on account of the damage being attributed to other causes, such as
ants, etc., the beetles, owing to their small size, being either not
observed or if observed mistaken for ants.
Black Fly on Mangold.
{Aphis atriplicis , Linn.)
Some insects attacking the seed heads of the mangold were sent
to the Board of Agriculture from Childerley Hall, Cambridge ; they
were one of the Aphides known as Aphis atriplicis, Linn. This
species feeds normally on the Chenopodiums in the summer and on
the common Orache {Atriplex patula) in the autumn.
The apterous females are of various colours, green, olive green,
black. Buckton describes four distinct varieties : (1) wholly black,
(2) black with orange tibiae and white patches on the body, (3) body
green with white bands, legs ochreous or whitish, (4) head and
thorax black, abdomen green with white spots. The pupal stage is
black with white patches, thorax and wing cases olive. The winged
female that produces living young is dark olive, the abdomen barred
with black and with lateral spots ; the honey tubes are green at the
base and black at the apex ; the legs are yellowish except the hind
femora and tips of the other femora. The male is wingless and of a
greenish-yellow colour, head black, thorax with black markings ;
the abdomen has three longitudinal rows of black spots forming
almost bands on the apical part. Legs, and cornicles dull grey.
The oviparous female is also apterous and green, the head having
two dark spots.
The Life-history.
Little is known concerning its life-history. The females of the
last generation lay their eggs on the dead rolled up leaves of the
plants upon which they have been feeding, amongst their debris
formed of cast skins, frass, etc. The ova are elongated oval, yellow
at first, and gradually become black. These eggs are laid in the
autumn after the apterous males have appeared and fertilised the
Reports to the Board of Agriculture . 1 1
females. How the winter is passed is not known. In the early
and late summer they feed upon wild Chcnopodiums and mangolds
and in the autumn on A triplex latifolia.
Not only does this aphis cause the leaves to roll up longitudinally,
but they also feed upon the seed heads of the mangold.
Spraying with paraffin emulsion or quassia wash would check
their increase and clear most of them off. This, of course, should not
be done when the sun is out.
Flies ( Bibionidce ) on Mangolds.
Some flies were sent by a correspondent from Billerieay of the
dipterous family — Bibionkhe, species Bibio hortulanus — from a field
of mangolds cleared off in one night.
These flies can have had nothing to do with the two acres of
mangold reported to have been destroyed.
Although their larvae are more or less injurious to roots, the
adult flies do no harm, not having a biting or piercing mouth.
The damage reported seems to point to the small beetle recently
sent to the Board from North Devon — the Pigmy Mangold Beetle
(Atomarict linearis), which is evidently abundant in some parts.
The correspondent was advised to look for these small beetles,
which may be most easily caught by pulling up the young mangolds
and the earth round them, when the beetles fall out of the soil. On
fine days they occur above ground as well (vide page 8).
In any case the flies sent cannot have damaged the mangolds in
the way reported.
Muscid Larvae attacking Roots.
A correspondent of the Board of Agriculture sent from Burley
Beacon, Bing wood, Hants, two different kinds of larvae attacking
roots of plants.
(1) A dipterous maggot changed during transit into the so-called
chrysalis or puparium stage of one of the flies belonging to the
group Anthomyidce. There are several of these diptera which are
root-feeders in their maggot stage. Probably the one sent was
Anthomyia radieum, L.
(2) Three small larvae which were the caterpillars of one of the
Tineae.
The damage was probably all caused by the Anthomyia larvae,
which are often serious root pests.
12
First Report on Economic Zoology.
Treatment.
Soot and lime have been found of some benefit. The chief thing
to do, however, is to treat the land with gas-lime during the autumn
and winter to kill the hibernating insects, then in the puparium
stage in the soil, and so prevent their doing damage another year.
On the Continent some good is said to have been done by
applying superphosphate of lime as a preventative.
Treatment with gas-lime is the only certain way of lessening
these pests on a large scale.
The three small caterpillars were probably non-injurious.
Chafer Larvae.
(. Mclolontlvidcc .)
Several enquiries have been made at the Board of Agriculture
during the past summer concerning Chafer larvae, the so-called
White Grubs. From Ferry side, South Wales, the grubs of the
Garden Chafer or Cock-y-bonddu ( Phyllopertha horticola , L.) were sent
on June 20th. They were reported as Antler Moth caterpillars
( Chctrceas graminis , L.). The Cock-y-bonddu is apparently the common
Welsh chafer, for nearly all the larvae examined have proved to be
this species; the attack seems to have been fairly general in Wales
this year. The Summer Chafer (. Rhizotrogus solslitialis, L.) has also
done much damage in many parts of Great Britain. From Launceston
they were especially reported as damaging pasture land, also from
Wye.
By far the most abundant species, however, has been the Cock-
chafer ( Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.), which has occurred this summer
in large numbers in the following localities : Wetlierby, York,
Chester, Lytliam, Southwell, Pewsey, Boydon, Limpsfield, Croydon,
Tooting, Highgate, St. Leonards, Catford and Wye.
The brood appeared from the first to the third week in J une. The
Summer Chafer {II. solstitialis) has occurred as adults at Wye, the
brood occurring from the third week in July to the end of August.
In districts where these broods are recorded we shall now know
when to expect the next brood of beetles and so be prepared to take
steps to collect them wholesale as soon as they appear. In this way
only can any real good be done in districts where these Chafer larvae
are harmful. Full information regarding these pests is given in
the revised leaflet No. 25 of the Board.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture .
13
Leather- Jackets or Larvae of Tipulidce.
The insects sent to the Board of Agriculture by a correspondent
from Eaton, Norwich, that had been damaging the roots ot grass
proved to be the pupae of one of the Daddy Long Legs ( Tipulidse ).
The larvae of these Tipulidae are known as “leather-jackets,” and are
very destructive to all kinds of roots, especially grass. Pasture land
is often ruined by them.
They were those of the Yellow Spotted Crane Fly ( Pachyvhina
maculosa), whose larvae work in a very similar way to those of the
Common Crane Fly (Tipula oleracea). The pupae of the latter are
larger than those of the former.
(A full report on these pests is given on pages 94 to 104).
PULSE PESTS.
The Green Rose Chafer ( Cetonia aurata, Linn.) on
Beans and Currant Bushes.
The Green Pose Chafer ( Cetonia aurata) was sent to the Board
from Gloucester, with a note that they were appearing in great
quantities and were stripping the beans and currant bushes of their
leaves.
This beetle is generally distributed in the South of England and
occurs in plenty in the Midlands, but becomes rarer in the North.
It is usually very common at Gloucester, so that it is not surprising
that it now and then occurs in such numbers as to become a serious
pest. The beetle attacks all kinds of flowers and also the leaves ; it
is especially injurious to the rose, apple and strawberry. It is also
recorded as damaging turnips for seed. When attacking blossoms
the beetles seem to mainly devour the anthers and thus destroy the
crop. They are very frequently found in Peonies and on the Elder ;
they also destroy Iris blossom at times. These brillant beetles fly
readily in bright sunshine, but become very sluggish during dull,
damp, and cold weather.
Life- history.
The beetles appear from the middle of May on through June.
They lay their eggs in the ground, seeking out some crack or crevice
into which they crawl. Heaps of rich earth such as cucumber beds
and vine borders are favourite places for them to lay their eggs.
These soon give rise to white grubs very like those of the Cockchafer,
14 First Report on Economic Zoology .
but which can easily be told by having a deep reddish-brown spot on
each side of the first thoracic segment ; the legs are also longer than
in the Cockchafer grub, and the whole surface is clothed with
transverse rows ol reddish-brown hairs. The larvae may also be
found amongst rotten and rotting wood, but mainly in rich soil ; their
food consists chiefly of the roots of various plants and probably of
decaying vegetable matter as well. When full grown they attain the
length of an inch and a half, taking from two to three years to reach
maturity. The pupal stage takes place in an earthen cell over an
inch in length formed deep in the ground ; the outer part of the cell is
rough, the inner surface smooth. The pupa is of an ochre colour.
A »
Fig. 2.
THE GREEN ROSE CHAFER ( Cctonici ClUrata).
A, Imago ; B, Larva.
The grubs apparently pupate in the summer, and the beetles appear
from these in the following May and June. Canon Fowler notes that
the little larvie and perfect insects are often found in ants’ nests.
Remedies.
By far the most successful way to cope with these large sluggish
beetles is by “ hand-picking.” This should be done during dull
weather when they are very cpiiet, as on warm days they become
more active and fly about.
Heaps of leaf mould, cucumber beds, and heaps of decaying wood
should be examined when turned over or moved and the grubs hand-
picked. Old tree stumps frecpiently harbour them and should thus
be grubbed up in the winter and burnt. In garden and field
cultivation poultry do much good if turned on to the land when it is
being broken up, for they greedily devour these larvre as well as those
of the Cockchafer.
“ Turf-traps,” i.e. heaps of rotting turf, may be left here and
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 15
there about in the garden to attract any stray beetles to deposit
their eggs ; these heaps can be examined in the winter and all the
grubs burnt.
POTATO PESTS.
Myriapoda in Potatoes.
Numbers of centipedes and some millepedes were sent to the
Board from Honiton with a note to the effect that they (the centi-
pedes) were destroying the potato crop in that neighbourhood.
The Scolopendridse were mostly alive in a small tin box, but
several had been killed by the stronger ones in the box.
These Scolopendrkke are certainly carnivorous and do not seem
to be destructive to roots, although Curtis mentions such a habit,
quoting the following from a correspondent : “ Mr. Hope attributed
the potato disease to the attacks of wire-worms, and also to a small
Scolopendra which was found in myriads infesting diseased potatoes
at Southend.”
In all cases where these myriapods are sent as the culprits
other pests will be found on careful examination. In the box sent
from Honiton were also the remains of some small Julidce which
have undoubtedly been the cause of the trouble. The large centi-
pedes sent had probably been feeding off these Julidse and other
animals in the soil.
With regard to destroying the Julkke, nothing further can be
added to the information given on pages 86 and 105.
Wire-worm ( Lacon murinus , L.) in Potatoes.
An insect sent to the Board in a potato from Barley, near
Burnley, proved to be the larva of one of the Elateridae or Click
Beetles, i.e., a wire- worm — Lacon murinus.
There is unfortunately no remedy when wire-worm get into the
potato crop. The field should be deeply trenched later on and a
crop of mustard grown afterwards. Sometimes wire-worm will leave
potatoes for wurzel and carrot, so that slices of either, if procurable,
might be put here and there along the rows just under the ground
and examined every few days, or rape cake may be spread between
the rows, as this class of larvae are very fond of this as food, and
would probably be drawn away from the plants.
(Mr. Deadman, of Wye, finds that beet-root forms a much
attractive bait than any other root for catching these pests.)
more
1 6 First Report on Economic Zoology.
A New Potato Feeder :
The Cinnabar Moth ( Euchelia jacobece).
During the past year cpiite a number of new potato pests have
appeared. Amongst them may be mentioned the caterpillars of the
Cinnabar Moth (. Euchelia jacobece), sent by a correspondent of the
Board from Alton, Hampshire. This moth is fairly common. The
front wings when expanded measure from an inch and a half to an
inch and three-quarters across ; they are dull black with a narrow red
stripe near the upper margin and two spots on the outer margin of
the same colour ; the hind wings are scarlet red with a narrow dull
black margin. The moth appears in May and June and flies slowly
during the day-time. The caterpillars feed usually on the Ragwort
(Senecio jctcobcecc), and sometimes, as stated by the Board’s correspon-
dent, on the Groundsel. As far as can be found out the potato is
quite a new food-plant. As the larvae are found in companies, they
could easily be cleared out of the potato crop, which should certainly
be done, as they are very ravenous feeders. Ragwort may frequently
be seen quite stripped of its leaves by these black and orange ringed
larvae.
MUSTARD PESTS.
The Mustard Beetle ( Phcedon betulce , Linn.).
The Mustard Beetle ( Phcedon betulce , Linn.) was reported this
year (1902) to the Board as very destructive at Holbeacli, Lincolnshire,
and information was asked for as to the best plans of coping with the
attack. It can be materially lessened by various methods.
The beetles pass the winter in a torpid condition in any shelter
where they have been working in the summer and autumn.
The larvae hatch from eggs laid in the spring upon various plants.
The beetles which deposit these spring eggs have previously passed
the winter in hollow stems of reeds along the dykes and ditches of
the district and also commonly in the hollow mustard stocks left
about in and around the fields and also in the mustard stubble. They
also winter in mustard stacks, cracks and crevices of gates, posts,
fences, rough grass and all manner of places. The larvae when
mature pass into the ground to pupate, in which stage they remain
from two to three weeks ; the beetles coming from these pupae at
once attack the mustard crop. We find the beetle practically all the
summer : it is therefore probable that there is more than one brood
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 17
every year. The eggs laid in the spring are placed on all kinds of
Cruciferae ; the larvae feed upon the leaves ; they are dull, smoky
yellow creatures, slightly hairy and spotted with black, the head and
the six legs are also black ; there is also a distinct caudal foot and a
row of tubercles along each side from which can be protruded curious,
yellow glands ; when mature they reach about three-fourths of an
inch in length. These larvae can be easily seen on the leaves, and
are vulnerable at this stage.
Preventive and Remedial Measures.
All precautions should be taken to destroy as much winter shelter
as possible. After a bad attack it would be advisable to burn the
mustard straw, not at once, but after it has been allowed to stand
some time in heaps in the fields ; the beetles would seek winter shelter
there, and on firing the heaps they would be destroyed.
All hedge trimmings and reedy growths along dykes should be cut
and burnt during the winter.
No experiments on a large scale seem to have been made in
destroying the larvae upon the young plants when it is possible to get
on the land. There is no doubt that the proper time to attack this
pest is in its larval stage when feeding upon the young leaves.
The fields should then be sprayed by means of a horse Strawsonizer
with Paris-green wash ; the time to carry out this operation would
depend upon the time the grubs are noticed on the leaves.
The beetles also attack the young leaves, and would also be
destroyed by the same wash. The beetles may also be collected, when
present in numbers on the young plant, by dragging a long strip of
tarred sacking attached to a light rod over the fields, and also by
special machines. The beetles which attack the crop later on in the
year may be kept in hand by preventing their movements from place
to place. Towards the latter part of the year when so much damage
is reported, the beetles do not seem inclined to use their wings, but
migrate in a body along the ground from field to field. They can
thus be “held up” like locusts by cutting a trench across their line of
march, or by burning damp straw so that the smoke blows on to them.
The employment of a shallow trench about a foot deep is the best
plan to check them, especially it it can be filled or smeared repeatedly
with tar.
It is also important to keep horse-hoeing as long as possible
between the rows ; by this means the pupae are turned out of the
earth and are exposed to the attack of various birds.
c
1 8 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Mustard should always therefore be drilled far apart when grown
ior seed ; more than a foot should be allowed between each row. Not
only can the crop then be easily borse-lioed, but special machines can
be taken across the fields between the rows to catch the beetles.
W ooden scoops, with tar or soft soap smeared over the insides, may
be arranged so as to be pulled through the field, either by hand or
horse-power, and so collect the beetles.
the early spraying with some arsenical wash so as to kill the
larvae and beetles is, however, most to be recommended.
FEU1T TESTS.
An Enquiry re Bud Mites ( Eriophyes ribis , Nalepa) in
Black Currant Bushes.
A correspondent of the Board of Agriculture living at Suckley
sent an enquiry regarding the stacking of diseased black currant
bushes and the subsequent escape of the Bud Mites {Eriophyes ribis).
Information was sent that it is best to burn the cuttings from the
black currant bushes infested with the “ Big Bud ” mite. There are
several points not yet settled in the life-history of this pest, notably
how long the egg stage lasts ; under the circumstances, it is best to
destroy all infested parts, as ova will be found at most times of the
year in the buds.
The probability is, however, that if the black currant faggots were
stacked in the centre of the rick of other wood, that the acari would
die out and the eggs become destroyed ; but, owing to the great
increase and ravages of this pest, it is best to be on the safe side and
to recommend the burning of the infested cuttings, which cannot be
■of much value as wood.
The most complete life-history of this serious pest has recently
appeared in the Journal of the S. E. Agricultural College , by Mr. E. J.
Lewis (No. 11, pp. 55 to 80 (1902)).
The Apple Blossom Weevil.
{Anthonomus pomorum, Linn.)
Some apple blossoms sent by a correspondent of the Board from
Tottenham on July 20th were attacked by the Apple Blossom
Weevil {Anthonomus pomorum). The blossoms all contained the
mature beetles, ready to emerge. These beetles feed upon the leaves
19
Reports to the Board of A gnculture .
to some extent for tlie rest of the year, and hibernate during the
winter under the bark of trees, and amongst rubbish, etc., at the foot
of hedgerows.
It appears from observations made on the specimens sent from
Cottenham that the beetles do not leave the dead blossoms loi
some days.
Much good may be done by collecting, as far as possible, all the
dead blossoms beneath the trees (first seeing that all “ capped blossoms
have fallen ; if not, shake the remainder off the trees) and binning
them. At the same time spray the ground beneath the trees with
strong soft soap and paraffin wash, adding double the amount of paiaffin
usually employed.
At present all we can do in this attack is to destroy the beetles
and so prevent their increase. This can be done in three ways : (i)
by that mentioned above ; (ii) by destruction of winter shelter by
use of caustic alkali wash ; and (iii) by jarring the trees when the
blossom appears in spring so as to shake off the weevils on to sheets
spread beneath the trees, when they can be swept up and destroyed.
Warm days should be chosen for this, preferably with a S.W. wind.
This has been found to do considerable good where properly
carried out.
Stress should be laid on the destruction of fallen diseased blossom.
A few days, or even hours, may be sufficient for the beetles to escape,
and so give them every chance to continue their work next season.
Strawberry Beetles.
A correspondent of the Board sent an enquiry in September
asking for information concerning beetles that had been very
harmful amongst the strawberries in parts of Norfolk. The following
report was sent in return : —
Several species of ground beetles attack strawberries, including
the following : Harpalus ruficornis, Fabr. ; Omccseus vulgaris, Linn. ;
titer opus mandidus, Fabr. ; and Calathus cisteloides, Panzer.
These beetles attack the berries at night, usually just when the
fruit is ripening. The insects remain under the earth, straw, or
grass between the rows during the day, making holes in the soil and
having regular runs opening through the litter. Green fruit is also
attacked, the skin being eaten away, the seeds usually being left
intact. There are nevertheless records of the seeds also being eaten,
the ground being described as “ covered with a powdery deposit,”
caused by the seeds eaten off the berries.
20 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Tlie most destructive species appears to be If. ruficornis, which
is winged, and which evidently migrates in large numbers.
These beetles will feed on other substances, such as live worms,
cooked and uncooked meat, etc. Harpalus ruficornis and others
have been recorded before in Norfolk, namely at Walsingham.
Treatment.
The only successful plan is that adopted by Messrs. Laxton
Bros., namely, to sink small pudding basins in the soil between the
plants every few yards and baiting them with “ lights ” and sugar-
water ; the beetles swarm to this and are unable to crawl back up
the sides of the basins ; similar good results have been gained by
using ordinary jam pots or glass jars. Probably poisoned baits
would act well, but trapping as given above is a well tried and most
successful plan.
Slug-worms on Fruit Trees and Hedgerows.
( Eriocampct limacina, Cameron.)
The larvae of the Pear and Cherry Sawfly ( Eriocampa limacina )
have been received by the Board of Agriculture from Enfield. They
were reported by the correspondent as doing damage to fruit-trees and
to the hedgerows. They are frequently very destructive to pear,
cherry, and other leaves ( vide p. 72).
Another correspondent from Willingham reports them in September
as damaging the leaves of cherry trees there.
The life-history, etc., of this pest is dealt with in the revised
leaflet No. G2. It has not been nearly so abundant as in past
seasons.
Maggots in Apples.
A correspondent from Uttoxeter forwarded to the Board an apple
that had been damaged by the Codling Maggot (Carpoccipsa pomonclla,
Linn.). This pest is dealt with in Leaflet 30.
The correspondent refers to the damage to the apples being clue to
weevils : “ We are suffering in our trees from the effects of a weevil
that has spoiled and lost us most of the fruit.”
Two weevils have been recorded attacking apples, namely, the
Purple Apple Weevil ( Rhynchites bacclius, Linn.) and the Copper
Coloured Weevil (If cuprous , Linn.).
Apples also suffer from another grub which has been very preva-
lent this year, the Apple Sawfly (Hoplocampa tcstudinca , Klug.).
21
Reports to the Board of Agriculture.
Small dipterous maggots have also been recorded — possibly the
lame of the Apple Fruit Fly ( Trypeta pomonella ), an introduced pest.
The larvae of the above can be told as follows : —
(a) Codling Maggot, pink, with six jointed legs in front, four
pairs of prolegs in the middle of the body, and an anal pair.
(b) Weevil Maggots, white, footless, more or less curved, and with
a wrinkled skin.
(c) Sawfly Maggot, white, six jointed legs in front, more than four
pairs of fleshy prolegs.
(cl) Fruit Fly Maggot, white, footless, not curved, small.
Maggots in Imported Apples.
Some larvae sent by a correspondent to the Board of Agriculture
from Smitlifield Market, Manchester, proved to be those of the Codling
Moth ( Carpocapsa 'pomondla).
The correspondent pointed out the danger of constant fresh
importations of this pest from abroad. Some observations have been
privately made which confirm this report.
The Codling Moth has been distributed to countries where it was
formerly unknown in the way described by the correspondent of the
Board. If large numbers occur alive, as recorded, there is undoubtedly
much harm being done, and this may account for the great increase of
this apple pest during recent years, which in some cases during the
past season has completely ruined the apple crop.
As the pest is very abundant in America, and probably the
unsound apples are shipped to the English market, some steps should
be taken, if it proves to be a general rule, to safeguard the apple
growers of this country by similar means to those employed in
Tasmania.
Apple barrels have been examined and numbers of Codling
Maggots have been found. These get distributed over the country,
and cannot but help increase this pest in our orchards.
The maggot in Lisbon apples may prove to be one of the fruit Hies
( Trypeta or Ccratitis).
Infestation of Fruit Trees by Winter Moth
Caterpillars, etc.
Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata , Linn.) caterpillars were
reported destroying the foliage of fruit trees by a correspondent of
the Board of Agriculture at Laceby, near Grimsby. Advice as
22 First Report on Economic Zoology .
regards spraying with Paris green and the importance of “ sticky
banding ” wras called attention to.
Information concerning this pest is given in leaflet No. 4 ; but it
should be pointed out that the use of quassia or soft-soap wash is
now known to be quite useless for these biting-mouthed insects, and
also that when Paris green is used animals may be kept under the trees.
It may also be pointed out that Nyssia zonarict has no importance
as a fruit pest, feeding only on yarrow and dog-rose, nor is Phygalia
pilosarict found on fruit-trees, its food plant being the oak.
The Winter Moth was also reported as damaging the leaves of
apple and pear at Glazebrook, near Manchester.
The same correspondent sent some flies belonging to the Bibionidce .
They have no connection with the caterpillars as supposed. These
dipterous insects belong to the species Bibio marci (St. Mark’s Fly).
The lar vm live in the soil and somewhat resemble small “ leather-
jackets”; usually they occur in masses, and seem to do no little
harm to the roots of grass and other plants. Great numbers of this
species and B. liortulcinus have appeared this year, and have been
sent by numerous other correspondents.
The Pear Midge.
(Diplosis pyrivora, Piley.)
Pear fruitlets sent to the Board from Brackenwaite, Wigton,
Cumberland, were attacked by the Pear Midge (. Diplosis pyrivora).
This same pest was reported from Glazebrook, near Manchester.
It is interesting to note the northern extension of this pest and its
much later period of reaching the mature larval stage in the north.
Drenching the ground under the trees with paraffin emulsion either
when the larvae are falling or as the flies are hatching out is most
beneficial. An unobserved feature in the attack of this pest may
here be mentioned. When the fruitlets are “ struck by the fly,” they
swell much more rapidly than the sound ones, and can thus always
be told on the tree by their being often twice the size of a healthy
fruitlet.
Scale Disease and False Scale amongst Fruit
Trees and Bushes (Apple, Pear, Gooseberry,
Currant, etc.).
Specimens sent to the Board of Agriculture from Hayling Island
of apple, pear, quince, gooseberry and currant, all supposed to be
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 23,
attacked by scale, were in some instances perfectly healthy ; in others,
scale insects (Coccidse) were causing disease.
The attention of growers is drawn to the normal appearance ot
bark and rind of the different fruit trees, as it is not an uncommon
thing to have questions asked regarding the spots present on the
twigs of various fruit trees and bushes, which are otten, as in the
present case, mistaken for scale insects.
The following specimens sent may be taken as examples ol
this : —
A. (Apple ; an exceptionally bad case of Quarrenden apple —
fourth year.)
This specimen was covered with the Apple-bark Louse or Mussel
Scale (Mytilaspis pomorum) (Fig. 3, a).
B. (Bear, presumed to be scale of a different variety, somewhat
like bark blisters.)
This twig was quite clean ; the small grey spots (Fig. 3, b) are
normal bark spots, but might easily be mistaken for the San Jose
Scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus ), or the Japanese Fruit Scale (Diaspis
ctmygdali).
C. (Gooseberry with scale. This scale in most cases has not
been noticed to leave a protruded egg trail. Does it ? See E.)
This specimen contained two specimens of the Brown Currant
Scale {Lecanium ribis) ; no white protruding egg mass, i.e., no white
cottony nest is formed so as to protrude from the scale in this species,
as in the White Woolly Currant Scale ( Piilvinaria ribesii). The
young scales of this species are much flatter than the old and paler
in colour.
D. (Currant with remnants of “ egg trail.”)
Although no scale is attached to the twig of currant sent it
contained a large cottony mass of eggs and wool. This resembles the
cottony cushion seen in Pulvinaria ribesii (vide C).
This scale can easily be told from L. ribis by being raised up off
the rind by a pad of white wool.
E. (Gooseberry with remnant of egg trail, etc.)
This spray of gooseberry had two mature scales of Lecanium ribis
and several smaller ones ; also a mass of white wool with no scale
attached. The scales are the same as C. Possibly the white wool is
due to the same species as D.
F. (Apple Branch, grey spots on bark.)
The grey barnacle-like spots referred to are not scales or anv
insect, but bark spots.
G. (Quince, red spots on bark.)
24 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Fig. 3. — scale, false scale and effect of frost and canker.
a, Mussel scale on apple wood ; s, the scales ; ol, mussel scale enlarged ; «2, its eggs ; b, pear
twig showing grey scale-like spots (normal plant structure) ; c, apple twig blistered
by frost and canker (?), not insect work ; u and c, blistered area.
Reports to the Board of A gri culture. 25
These small red spots are not scales nor the stage of any insect,
the quince having red bark spots.
It is important to notice whether we have scale on the tree or
whether the markings are normal plant structures. Scales are often
very harmful in this country and should be checked before they get
the upper hand of the tree and sap its vitality.
Three washes may be used for scale insects : —
1. Paraffin emulsion.
2. Ptesin wash.
3. Caustic alkali wash.
The first (paraffin emulsion) is chiefly of use when the young
scale insects are emerging from beneath the scales ; observations
personally by the grower must be made, as the times of hatching vary
very much.
Caustic alkali wash is the most beneficial to use (vide article in
the September number of the Board “ Journal”).
Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas is the best scale remedy,
but is difficult to apply to large trees. Should this be employed, full
information will always be sent from this Department.
Winter washing with caustic alkali wash is strongly advised.
Life-history of Scales (Coccidac.)
The eggs of the Coccidse are found under the scales ; the young
scales are minute, active, six-legged insects with projecting antennae
(“ horns ”) and often hair-like processes. They can only be seen
with a strong magnifying power. Scales (Coccidae) are provided
with a long piercing mouth, which the larvae thrust into the bark,
leaf or fruit. The larvae then degenerate, and by degrees form over the
body a scaly covering — beneath which you find the mature female,
which is legless ; the male scale insect is rare, and unlike the female
is active, having a pair of wings. Scale insects on trees in the open
pass the winter in Great Britain mostly in the egg stage beneath the
scales, a few as immature females.
Scale Insects on Plum Trees.
Plum trees sometimes suffer from scales. The Oyster-Shell
Lark Louse ( A.sjpidiotus ostrecef or mis, Curtis) is found on plum. A
biown Lecanium lias also been found, but was not identified.
The Japanese Fruit Scale ( Diaspis amygdcdi ) also occurs on plum,
and thus care should be taken to examine all Japanese cherries that
26 First Report on Economic Zoology.
may be bought. Numbers of these fruit trees are introduced and the
scales may be also brought over with the plants. If the scale is-
seen the plants should be fumigated or destroyed.
The Brown Currant Scale ( Lecanium ribis ) has also been found
on plum trees, especially in gardens when the trees are grown
against walls.
Sprayers.
For bush-fruit the best sprayers are the “Knapsack sprayers/'
the “Eclair,” the “ Notus,” the “Anti-pest,” and others.
Ordinary syringes are of no use in washing plants. The
insecticide must be sent out in the finest possible spray.
Paraffin emulsion should be used first in April for currant scale
and repeatedly every two weeks for at least two months ; for
mussel scale in May, and likewise onwards.
It is advisable to try caustic alkali wash alone for the first year.
This need not be put on by a “ mistifier,” as the object is to saturate
the tree, not to spread a fine even layer of the wash over it as when
Paris green or emulsions are used.
The Apple Bark Louse or Mussel Scale.
( Mytilaspis pomorum, Linn.)
Several correspondents of the Board of Agriculture have reported
damages to apple trees by the mussel scale, namely, from liomsey,
Tarporley, Hayling Island, and other places previously mentioned.
One correspondent thought the scale connected with thrips and
canker fungus.
The best way to destroy this scale is to use the caustic alkali
wash in winter, and spray in the spring and early summer with
paraffin emulsion.
A full account of this pest is given on page 75.
Eggs on Apple Trees and a further Remedy
for Mussel Scale.
(i) Apple shoots sent to the Board of Agriculture from South
Norwood were covered with the eggs of (1) the Red Spider ( Bryobia-
'pruni ), (2) the Apple Sucker ( Psylla mail). The former are red
globular eggs, the latter are elongated oval and white. Two only of
the Psylla eggs could be detected. The majority of the Bryobia eggs
27
Reports to the Board of Agriculture.
were shrivelled and killed, as also were the two Bsylla eggs ; some of
the former, however, had hatched out. Psylla mali has been most
destructive during the past season, both in Worcestershire and
Herefordshire, and has been more or less troublesome in Kent.
For these two pests a combined wash of paraffin emulsion and
sulphur should be used. Ordinary paraffin emulsion may be made
by mixing equal portions of boiling soft soap solution and paraffin
together, and then churning them up by means of a force pump until
a creamy emulsion is produced. When required for use, this may be
mixed with twenty-live times its bulk of warm water.
To every three gallons of this dilute emulsion, add one ounce of
liver of sulphur and well mix. Spray in a fine spray, so that every
part of the tree is wetted.
(ii) The only thing to do after the buds have burst to destroy
mussel scale is to wash with paraffin emulsion two or three times
during the late spring and early summer. Commence at end of
April — if possible a look out should be kept — and as soon as any
signs of the young active scale insects are noticed crawling about
the trees washing should be carried out ; the corroding effect of
paraffin emulsion is not great on the mature scales, but it soon
destroys the immature forms.
The wash recommended for the two former insects will do also-
for this scale.
Aphides (A, mali , Fabr.) on Apple Trees.
Some insects sent by a correspondent of the Board from Chesham
proved to be the Apple Aphis {Aphis mali), which has been doing an
enormous amount of damage this season (1902) in the South of
England — many orchards being covered by them. Steps should be
taken as soon as the plant lice are seen to destroy them. This can
easily be done if the leaves are not too far curled up, but even then
some good can be done by spraying.
The best wash to advise for this Aphis is soft soap and quassia, but
if the operator has proper sprayers, paraffin emulsion. It should be
pointed out that the wash must go on the under surface of the leaves.
Tv o washings, at a few days interval, are usually necessary for this
pest.
This pest was also reported as doing considerable damage at
Tunbridge Wells, and also from Glazebrook, near Manchester.
28
First Report on Economic Zoology.
The Peach Aphis.
{Aphis amygdali, Fonsc.)
Amongst a number of Aphides sent by a correspondent from
Tunbridge Wells were specimens of the Peach Aphis ( Aphis amygdali).
The Peach Aphis also attacks nectarines and causes the leaves to
•curl up and to fall, often leaving the branches quite bare. It also
feeds on the sloe and tobacco plant. Another species, Hyalopterus
pruni, Fabr., also attacks the peach, but from the remains sent the
.species in question here is A. amygdali. These Aphides have
nothing to do with the curled fleshy leaves seen on peach trees
caused by the fungus Exogesius deformans.
It is advisable to use quassia wash only on peach, as paraffin
•emulsion might damage the foliage and the young fruit, the peach
being much tenderer than the apple or plum.
A General Wash for Fruit Trees.
A general insect wash required by a Gloucestershire correspondent
•of the Board of Agriculture may be made as follows : —
A. (1) Dissolve 1 oz. of arsenate of soda in soft water and add to
16 gallons of soft water.
(2) Then dissolve 3 ozs. of acetate of lead in soft water and add to
above and stir well ( = Arsenate of lead wash).
B. Dissolve 1 quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling soft
water. Then remove from the fire and while still boiling hot add
1 pint of paraffin and churn the whole together for ten minutes with
a small hand syringe. (For use alone dilute with ten times its
volume of soft water ( = Paraffin emulsion.)
For mixing with A, add about two pints of the concentrated
•emulsion (B) and mix well. The combined wash will then destroy
both biting or mandibulate and sucking or haustellate insects.
By far the most successful wash for “Apple Sucker” is Quassia
wash as used in the Kent hop gardens.
Further Information re Winter Washing of
Fruit Trees.
In answer to an enquiry of a correspondent of the Board of Agri-
•culture, re winter washing of fruit trees, it was pointed out that
“ washing ” and “ spraying ” of fruit and other trees are merely
Reports to the Board of Agriculture . 29
different terms for the same treatment. Hop growers call the process
“ washing,” fruit growers both “ washing ” and " spraying.” . In all
insecticides it is well to put the wash on the foliage or fruit in as
fine a mist as possible, but with the Caustic Alkali wash this is not
essential. The wash may be syringed over the trees thickly, but it
is advisable to use a proper sprayer or washer such as the Strawson
“ Anti-pest.” After spraying with this wash the machine should be
well cleaned out with cold water. No care is necessary regarding
the buds as long as they have not commenced to burst.
Three quarters of a pound of soft soap for the ten gallons of wash
may be used in place of the treacle previously advised. India rubber
gloves are sometimes worn by the sprayer, but are not necessary. It
is far better to fix a circular disc pointing downwards on the spraying
tube so that any wash that runs down will fall clear of the hands.
Another Board correspondent was informed that ordinary treacle
may be substituted for coarse agricultural treacle in this wash.
Certain gardening papers have raised an objection to the use of
treacle or soft soap in this wash, but it is certainly a beneficial
ingredient.
Canker Fungus ( Nectria clitissimd) on Apple Twigs
mistaken for Insect Work.
The effect of “ canker ” is often mistaken for insect work. Apple
twigs were sent to the Board of Agriculture from Bournemouth with
brown blister-like patches over them ; these were attacked by the
canker fungus Nectricc ditissima (fig. 3). The shoots had been
probably damaged by frost early in the season ; canker becomes more
prominent lower down the tree. Another correspondent from Rugby
also sent twigs with the typical canker of apple ; the small scarlet
fruit or perithecia of the fungus were present on most of the twigs
sent. There was a lot of this disease showing these blister-like
patches this year (1902).
MAMMALIA.
Enquiry as to Poison for Moles.
Several enquiries have been made regarding Moles. One cor-
respondent wrote asking the best way to poison these animals.
This Department knows of no poison of any use in destroying
moles, but probably bisulphide of carbon would be as successful in
killing these animals as it is in destroying the Canadian Pouched Rat
30 First Report on Economic Zoology .
or Gopher. This latter animal is most harmful in America, but the
mole is not with us and its destruction should not be advocated. If
they are very numerous, as on the land of the Board’s correspondent
they should be trapped alive and spread over the country.
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY AND
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section II.
Animals Injurious to Horticulture.
Land Bugs on Chrysanthemums.
( By (jus pratensis, Eabr.)
The insects sent to the Board of Agriculture by a correspondent
from South Norwood, S.E., are Hemiptera-Heteroptera (Bugs) and
belong to the species known as Lygus pratensis, the L. campestris of
Linnaeus. This is a very common and widely distributed British
species and is sometimes harmful to various garden plants. There is,
however, no record of their attacking chrysanthemums.
Several other species of land bugs are injurious to garden plants,
including the so-called potato bugs, Pliytocoris yabulinus, L. and
Lygus contarninatus, Fallen.
These bugs injure the plants by sucking out the juices, puncturing
stem, leaf and blossom.
The life-history of Lygus pratensis is not known, but it may be
mentioned that the eggs are usually laid on the plants upon which
the insects feed — these eggs give rise to the larval or louse stage —
a creature much like the adult, but wingless ; the next stage, the
pupal stage, differs in having two bud-like processes on each side of
the body, the wing buds.
These plant bugs are injurious in all three stages. Some winter
as eggs, others hibernate amongst rubbish in hedgerows, etc.
Treatment.
The only remedies of any avail against these creatures are
(i) collecting them by jarring the plants over tarred boards held on
each side and (ii) treatment by washing.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 3 1
In a similar attack in hops by a species known as Cctlocoris
fulvomaculatus of I)e Geer jarring over boards cleared the invaded
gardens.
The only washes found of any use are soft soap washes, especially
paraffin emulsion with an extra 3 lb. of soft soap to the 100 gallons.
To be of much service the wash must be used when the insects
are in the larval or pupal stage. A look-out should be kept in the
garden to see where this chrysanthemum pest passes the winter ; if
the winter quarters are discovered steps should be taken to destroy
the insect before spring, if it hibernates in the adult stage. If the
species passes the winter in the egg stage on the chrysanthemums,
the plants should be sprayed with paraffin emulsion as soon as the
young larvcC are seen to appear.
The Destruction of Ants.
The following information was sent to a correspondent of the
Board of Agriculture at Ivingston-on-Thames concerning the method
of destroying ants damaging grass and clover.
First find out the ants’ nest. This may be under the ground, in
which case it can only be detected by following the ants and so
finding the opening in the soil down which they descend ; nests may
also be formed under dome-shaped masses of earth, etc., above ground
or they may be under stones and rotting wood, according to the
species of ant concerned.
Having located the nests, make a hole in each one about eight
inches in depth and then pour into each hole from 1 to 2 ozs.
of bisulphide of carbon, according to the size of the nest, and fill
up the hole at once with earth. If the ground is regularly under-
mined with ants’ nests and tunnels, treat the soil with the same,
making holes every three feet apart, and pour into each hole 2 ozs. of
the bisulphide of carbon. This is as a rule not necessary for ants, the
nests only needing treatment. Evening is the best time to attack
them. Care must be taken not to put a light near the bisulphide of
carbon or to let it come in contact with hot metal, as it is highly
inflammable. This is the only plan by which ants can be cleared
out of the soil and has so far always met with success.
There are very few parasitic enemies of ants. A genus of
Ichneumon flies, Elasmosoma, is one of the few parasites that attack
them, whilst a brilliant Chalcid, Euclmris myrmecice, is known to prey
on the large Australian Myrmccia, A small fly, Phora formicarum,
Verrall, lays its eggs on ants, inside which the larvm live. Ants
3 2 First Report on Economic Zoology.
are also attacked by mites. Numerous birds, of course, prey upon
them.
The Destruction of Subterranean Insects and
other Ground Garden Pests.
A box containing the following creatures was sent by a corres-
pondent of the Board of Agriculture from Glasgow, with a request
for information as to how to clear them out of his garden.
i. Wire-worm — The larval stage of the click beetles ( ElcUeridce ).
These are hard, shiny and bright yellow.
ii. Julidae, including :
a. Two species of Julies.
b. A species of Polydesmus.
iii. S colopcndridce, including GeopMlus longicornis.
The wire- worms are, of course, very injurious, and so also are the
Julidce. A small white Julus sent was an immature form, but a
different species to the large dark snake millepede {Julus terrestris,
Linn.).
The Polydesmus can easily be told by the sides of the body being
notched and by its more or less flattened form. It was too damaged
to identify, but was probably Polydesmus complanatus, Linn. It is
also injurious to plant life. ' Geopliilus longicornis, the long snake-like
yellow species with one pair of legs to each segment, is a centipede
and is beneficial, probably feeding upon the young Julida?. The
pests may be destroyed in the following way : —
Treatment.
Peat moss manure is always attractive to Myriapoda and other
pests and should be avoided. Lime if applied in proper quantity
always seems to check the increase of millepedes, but has no effect
on the wire-worm. Both wireworms and millepedes are prominent
garden pests and can only be treated in two ways, viz :
(i) By fumigation.
(ii) By trapping.
(i) Fumigation for subterranean insects and other animal pests
is best carried out by using bisulphide of carbon. Proceed as follows :
Make a small hole in the flower bed or border every two yards and
pour in J oz. of the bisulphide of carbon and close up each hole as
soon as the carbon is poured in. This must be done so that the
bisulphide of carbon does not touch the roots of a plant, that is, it
Reports to the Board of Agriculture . 33
must be put in the earth between the plants. Care must be taken,
as it is of an inflammable nature and the fumes are also poisonous.
(ii) Trapping largely employed for wire-worm consists of placing-
pieces of carrot, mangel, beetroot or turnips in the ground, and taking
them up every few days and collecting the wire-worm that are
feeding upon the “bait.” Millepedes may also be caught in this
way, but for them large hollow, more or less rotten, roots form the
best trap. It has also been found that the small millepedes ( Julus
pulchellus) may be caught in numbers by placing cabbage leaves
soaked in a solution (1 oz. to the gallon of water) of Paris green
on the ground. The millepedes come to the surface at night and
feed upon the leaf and are so poisoned.
Bisulphide of carbon treatment is best ; failing that, some good
may be done by trapping by means of ground bait.
Directions for the Employment of the Gas
Treatment under Glass.
Several enquiries have been received concerning the destruction
of greenhouse pests.
Various methods of fumigating plants under glass are employed,
such as sulphur fumes and tobacco smoke. Neither of these are as
good as the employment of hydrocyanic acid gas. For Aphides,
Red Spider, and Wood Lice the following quantities are necessary :
2 ozs. of cyanide, 4 ozs. sulphuric acid, 7 ozs. of water per 1000
cubic feet of space. Proceed as follows : Pour the water into a jar,
then add the acid to the water. Wrap up the cyanide in a piece of
blotting-paper and drop it into the jar of acid and water from outside
the house. This can be done by tying the cyanide bag on to a stick
with a longisli piece of string, then close the door or window. Leave
the house shut up for at least three-quarters of an hour, then open all
doors and windows to ventilate freely ; be careful not to enter the
house for at least an hour after the doors and windows have been
thrown open. Fumigate at dusk and when the foliage is dry. The
temperature must not be above 60° F. The best temperature is
50° F. ; above 60° F. the foliage gets scorched, as it also does if you
fumigate in bright light. If the house is more than 10,000 cubic
feet two jars would be necessary, but up to that size one is ample.
The result of one experiment may be quoted here. Greenhouse,
2,000 cubic feet, containing Chrysanthemums in full bloom, severely
infested with Green Fly. Cyanide 3^ ozs., acid 5 ozs., water 9 ozs.
Temperature 50° F. Time 25 minutes. 1 hour after sunset.
D
34 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Besult. Every Aphis killed, also slugs, flies, wasps and butter-
flies. Not a petal or leaf injured. Cost 5 d. Journal S. E. Agric.
College.
The quantities given first are, however, now found most successful.
White Grubs or Maggots ( Phorbia brassicce , Bouche)
causing great damage amongst Cabbages,
Carrots and Broccoli.
The larvae and puparia of the Cabbage Boot Fly ( Pliorbia brassicce)
were reported to the Board of Agriculture from Castle Croft, near
Wolverhampton, as doing considerable harm. Several other corre-
spondents reported the same pest. The different reports sent out
are here united. This fly is a great pest in most cabbage-growing
districts in Great Britain, and also causes endless harm in North
America.
The only publication of value on this pest is by Professor Slinger-
land, of Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. (“ The
Cabbage Boot Maggot, etc.,” Bull. 78, Cornell Univ. Exp. Station,
Nov., 1894.)
The flies, which are very like the house-fly, appear all the
summer in successive broods. Maggots may be found as late as
November. These latter pupate in the soil, but apparently some of
the adults also hibernate and come out and lay their eggs in the
spring. Generally there are three broods in Great Britain, and
undoubtedly the majority pass the winter in the puparium stage
either in the ground or in the heaps of cabbage stumps and roots one
sees so frequently on the farm.
Prevention and Treatment.
The results obtained from a long series of experiments conducted
by Professor Slingerland seem to show that only two things can be
done to mitigate the evil caused by the Boot Maggot. As a pre-
ventive the only effective device is to apply around each plant,
when it is set out, a disc made of tarred paper or card. These can be
cut out by machinery in large numbers, and as placing them around
each plant before it is set takes so little time the plan has been
adopted on a large scale by many American growers.
A plan of the card disc invented by Mr. Goff is given on page 35.
This disc (A) must lie flat on the surface of the soil to stop the
flies from crawling beneath.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 35
The only other plan found to be successful is the use of bisul-
phide of carbon or carbolic acid, the former injected into the ground.
This treatment on a large scale would be costly in Great Britain
and need not be referred to here.
Gas-lime has been found of benefit, but to be so it has to be put
on strong and may damage the next year’s crop to some extent ; at
other times it is a complete failure. Gas-lime to be of use must be
put on so strong that the land often requires a year’s rest.
All cabbage stumps and other roots after an attack should be
burnt.
A dressing of superphosphate of lime has been found beneficial
on the Continent.
Broad-casting soot and lime around the plants soon after planting
Fig.
Stem of plant passing through card disc
lying close on the ground.
A, Star-shaped slit so as to allow stem
to pass through card ; B, Slit to push
stem up to A.
out has also met with success in preventing the fly from laying eggs,
but is by no means certain in action.
By far the best plan is to give up growing cabbage for two years
on the land and plough deeply, or if hand cultivation dig two spits
deep.
If it is necessary to continue to grow cabbage again and again on
land, attention should be paid to the method of discing the plants
when being set. A small amount of soot and lime may also be put
in at dibbling time with the young plants.
Carbolic acid in soft soap and water as follows was found the
next best remedy and preventative after the tarred discs in a large
series of experiments in America.
D 2
36 First Report on Economic Zoology .
The mixture used was made as follows : —
1 lb. hard soap.
1 qt. soap dissolved in
1 gal. of boiling water, and
1 pt. of crude carbolic mixed with the above.
Pour round the roots of each plant.
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY AND
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section III.
Animals Injurious to Forestry.
Willow Beetle at Norwich.
(. Savper da carcharicis, Linn.)
A beetle received by the Board from a correspondent at Thorpe,
Norwich, proved to be one of the longicorn beetles — the largest
British species — Sctrperda carchctrias, Linn. It is found chiefly in
the Fen districts, and was at one time very common there, but
appears to be now more local. It is found in and about old willows.
The larvae burrow into the wood of willow, aspen, and poplar; they
do considerable damage to a tree, but are seldom sufficiently abundant
to call for any remedial measures.
Sirex Flies in Fir Trees.
(Sir ex juvencus, Linn, and S. gigccs, Linn.)
Fir trees in the neighbourhood of Bath have been reported to the
Board of Agriculture as being seriously attacked by the two common
British Wood Wasps ( Sirex juvencus and Sirex gigas), the former
popularly called the Steel Blue Sirex, the latter the Giant Sirex.
T1 ie larva} of these two insects, which burrow into the wood, remain
and pupate in the timber and may be found there during the winter.
Infested trees should be cut down and burnt. They should not
be cut up into post and rails, as is often done, as many of the larvae
and pupae will hatch out after the wood has even been creosoted.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 37
The trees should be cut down and burnt in the wintei when the
larvae and pup* are safely housed in the wood. There are no
remedies for the Sirex Flies, but all damaged and diseased timbei
should be cleared out so as to check their increase. Damaged or
unhealthy trees are mainly attacked.
The Poplar Sawfly.
( Cladius viminalis.)
Some larvae sent to the Board ot Agriculture from Brondesbury
attacking poplars were those of the Poplar Saw-fly ( Cladius
viminalis).
The eggs are laid on the leaf-stalk of the poplar, which becomes
swollen and bends over on each side so as to cover the eggs.
The young larvae are green with black heads ; at the second
moult they become orange and green with twelve large black marks
on each side, etc. When full fed they are entirely orange with the
black marks very prominent.
The double cocoon is usually spun beneath loose bark or may be
between the leaves. They feed in companies and eat the epidermis
usually on the under side of the leaf.
These is one brood which occurs in August and September.
The insect is very common and the larvae sometimes do some
harm to the leafage of young trees.
They also occur on the willow and osier.
Sawfly Larvae on Willows.
Some Sawfly larvae, sent by a correspondent from Beading,
belonging to the genus Nematus, were reported as attacking willows.
A great number of Saw flies feed on the willow and osier, and several
of this genus Nematus have larvae very similar to the two sent. It
was not possible to say for certain what the species was unless the
perfect insects were bred, but it was probably the species known as
Nematus conjugatus, Dbm. ; but at the same time there were slight
differences seen in the larvae sent and the description of those of that
species given by Cameron. Another species has similar green and
orange larvae, N. croccus , Fall., but the black markings in those from
Beading did not agree.
Nematus pavidus, Lep., does most harm to osiers in this country ;
but they were not that species, as the orange marks are larger, and
there were certain black dots which are not seen in N. pavidus.
38 First Report on Economic Zoology .
Insect Galls on Osier Plants.
Diseased osier-shoots were sent to the Board of Agriculture by a
correspondent, infested with the larvae of one of the Gall Midges
( Cecidomyidce ). The material sent was not sufficient to say definitely
the species of Cecid doing the damage, but probably it was Cecidomyia
salicina , Schrk.
The following Cecid Willow Galls, formed on stems and twigs,
may occur in abundance in any part of Great Britain : —
Those that form true leaf galls are not mentioned in this report.
(1.) Cecidomyia heterobia, Lw. The larvae live in the male flowers
and in rosettes on the leaves of salix, especially S. amygdalina. These
larvae pupate in the galls.
(2.) C. salicina , Schrk. The larvae live in the withered tips of
the young shoots of salix — in the terminal leaflets of the shoots
which wither away and form a bud-shaped nidus. Three to eight
larvae inhabit each gall.
(3.) C. terminalis , Lw. The larvae are yellowisli-red and live in
bloated galls on the shoots of salix; 20-30 ova are deposited at a
time. When the larvae leave the shoots, many scars appear between
the healthy and galled parts. They pupate in the ground.
(4.) C. rosciria , Lw. The larvae form rose- shaped galls at the ends
of the boughs. They pupate in the rosette.
(5.) C. saliciperda, Duf. Orange larvae found, from July to
August, in the wood of young willows under the bark, where they
form short irregular passages with gall-shaped swellings, and cause
the bark to crack and become scabby.
(6.) C. salicis , Schrk. The larvae form large woody galls on the
boughs, many in each gall, and pupate in the swellings they form.
On making a careful examination of the material sent, one gall
was found to contain four orange-yellow Cecid larvae. Probably (as
most of the galls were empty) they pupate in the earth, and thus
some good might be done by a heavy dressing of soot in the spring, or
sand sprinkled with paraffin and spread over the stocks or stools.
But until the life-history is known little can be done to eradicate
the pest.
The Felted Beech Coccus.
( Cryptococcus fagi , Barensprung.)
Very few scale insects are sufficiently abundant on forest trees in
this country to do much harm. One of the worst is the Felted Beech
Scale ( Cryptococcus fagi) of Barensprung. This insect has been
Reports to the Board of A griculture. 39
reported from Castle Eden, Durham, by Mr. It. Burdon, of the Castle,
and a request sent to the Board of Agriculture for information. Mr.
Burdon, writing later to me at the British Museum, says : “ I have
now noticed a large number of trees attacked more or less in the same
way. It looks like a regular epidemic, as it certainly has not appeared
in the same way for the last few years. My forester tells me that
they had the same sort of epidemic on the Tyne, or in Northumber-
land, some fifty years ago (I think) and lost a lot of fine beeches.” It
has also been reported to the British Museum from Longwillow Hall,
Morpeth, from whence the following note was sent : “ At a distance
the tree looks as if it had been whitewashed ; when it is scraped off,
the yellow eggs or insects are to be seen. Two trees are covered on
the E. side of their stems. I remember a beech — not an old tree — in
Gloucester which was affected in the same way, and died after a
time. It smells something like the larva of a Goat Moth.”
This scale insect chiefly attacks the trunk, but may ascend into
the boughs. The females give rise to larvae in September, and they
envelop themselves in a white cottony secretion, and then cast off
their antennae and legs and remain for the rest of their lives devoid of
such appendages. The adult female is a small orange-yellow sac,
surrounded by a white mass ; these white patches often unite and
form large felted masses, beneath which the larvae burrow and develop.
These scale insects suck out the sap very greedily, and often do much
harm when present in large numbers. In time they cause the bark
to peel off the tree and then decay and death may ensue. Large
numbers of trees are attacked in parts of Surrey ; it is also common
in Cheshire, Huntingdonshire, and probably occurs in small numbers
wherever the beech grows in Europe.
The trees should be sprayed in the summer with strong paraffin
emulsion twice at an interval of two days. In the winter they should
be sprayed with caustic alkali wash.
The method of scrubbing the tree trunks is too laborious if the
attack is on a large scale, and thorough spraying with warm paraffin
emulsion is quite effective.
Mr. Burbidge, of the Botanic Gardens, Dublin, has informed Mr.
Newstead that the weeping beech, of which there are two kinds,
grafted on common beech stocks is not affected by this coccus. The
stock may thus be attacked, but the weeping scion is not.
This insect is not attacked by birds and very rarely by insect
parasites, according to Mr. Newstead.
Should the trees be cut down they should be burnt at once.
40
First Report on Economic Zoology.
Cliermes corticalis, Kalt, on Pine Trees.
Conifer shoots and bark, sent by a correspondent of the Board of
Agriculture from Holmleigh, Matfield, Paddock Wood, Kent, covered
with a plant louse which belonged to the genus Chermes, several of
which attack conifers. It is known as Chermes corticalis, Kalt.
The apterous female is small, oval and yellowish-brown in colour,
the abdomen exuding a large quantity of white, flocculent silky matte
mixed with white meal ; beneath this the insect conceals itself. It is
rather firmly fixed to the bark by its short rostrum with long flexible
setae. The pupal stage is oblong and has transverse brown bars on
the abdomen, the wing cases, antennae and legs also deep brown.
These give rise to the winged viviparous female, which has a black,
shiny thorax, and abdomen ringed and covered with masses of white
wool ; the legs are black, and the fuscous wings have coarse brown
veins.
The insects are very harmful when present in large numbers ;
the trees should be sprayed with paraffin emulsion, especially when
the larva? are hatching out, and the disease in consequence rapidly
spreading. The larvae were very active when the specimen arrived
in June.
This species is often destructive to the Scotch pine ( Finns
sylvestris ) and Weymouth pine ( Pinas strobus ), both on the twigs and
trunk. The white flocculent matter is seen in June around the base
of the needles. There the wingless female produces her yellow eggs,
which gradually become brown.
Numerous natural enemies occur in this species ; the ova are
preyed upon, according to Buckton, by the larvae of Scymnvs dis-
coideus , and by the Land Bug ( Anthocoris fuscci , Kalt), and by the
larvae of Agromyza chermivora, Kalt.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture .
4i
GROUP F.
Animals which concern Man as being- injurious to his
worked-up Products of Art and Industry, such as (A) his
various Buildings and larger Constructions, Habitations,
(B) Furniture and Books, Drapery and Clothing, (C) Food
and Stores, i
SUB-GROUP B.
Furniture Beetles and Clothes Moths.
I. Furniture Beetles.
Several enquiries have been received from correspondents of the
Board concerning Furniture Beetles and Clothes Moths.
The so-called Furniture Beetles are usually known as “ Death
Watches ” ; they are beetles belonging to the genera Anobium and
Xestobium. The group of beetles to which they belong, the Anobiina,
are mostly found in old wood ; several are found in houses, the two
commonest being the Anobium domesticum, Foure, and Xestobium
tessellatum, F. Eleven species of Anobiina are found in Great
Britain ; the two previously mentioned and A. paniceum, L., and
Ernobius mollis, L., are the domestic forms. Furniture and wood-
work are chiefly damaged by A. domesticum and X. tessellatum. The
species A. paniceum attacks all kinds of stored goods, such as flour,
bread, biscuits, medicinal stores, skins, etc., and has been introduced
into most of our towns, hut appears not to be common in Scotland.
Anobium domesticum is a most destructive furniture pest, the
larvae eating galleries into the solid wood, and often so completely
riddling it that it falls to pieces ; tables, chairs, and furniture may
become so honey-combed by these pests that they suddenly collapse.
The exits to these galleries are seen as small round holes in the
wood-work. In soft woods they soon cause complete destruction.
Xestobium tessellatum is also generally distributed, and occurs in
old trees, such as oaks and willows, but especially in old wood in
churches and houses. It is also rare in Scotland.
Both these species make a curious ticking noise, which has given
rise to their popular name of “ Death Watch.” This noise is made
42 First Report on Economic Zoology.
cliiefly during the pairing season, and is produced by the beetles
striking their heads upon the wood on which they are standing so as
to attract their mates, who make a similar noise in reply. This noise
is made during the day as well as at night, but is not so noticeable at
that time. Several species make this ticking noise, but those most
often heard in houses are A. domesticum and X. tessellatum. It is
said that the larva also can produce this sound, but it is not
definitely known to do so.
The larvse make quite long galleries into the wood, and when
mature pupate in little chambers from which the beetles escape by
eating their way out.
Treatment.
Where furniture or woodwork is attacked by these beetles and
their larvae, steps should be taken at once to destroy them, as they
return generation after generation to lay their eggs on the same object
until it crumbles right away. Amongst the best ways of treating
attacked furniture are the following : —
(a) Painting with a brush with corrosive sublimate ; this poison
kills the beetles as they make their exit.
( b ) Fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas ; where small objects,
such as chairs, are invaded they may be put in some closed cupboard
and left in the fumes for some days. (This gas, one must remember,
is a deadly poison, as well as the cyanide of potassium used in its
manufacture.)
(c) Benzine may also be applied to polished furniture, but it is
best used mixed with carbolic acid ; furniture so treated has, of course,
the polish taken off and will require repolishing.
(d) Rooms in which these pests are present should be fumigated
every week during July, either with sulphur or hydrocyanic acid gas,
and then well washed down with carbolic. Of course, during fumi-
gation all windows should have the crevices, etc. papered up and the
doors tightly closed If hydrocyanic gas is used it must be used
with care, and should only be employed in certain cases ; it could
not be used in high attics, as the windows should be opened from
the outside so as to allow the fumes to escape from the room before
anyone enters. In the case of attics, where windows cannot be opened
from the outside, sulphur had best be used. In the hands of an
expert a whole house may be treated with the gas.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 43
II. Clothes Moths.
Three species of small motlis attack clothes, woollen articles,
carpets, etc. These all belong to the group Tineince, and have now
become almost cosmopolitan ; in origin they are probably Old World
species.
The three species are the following : —
i. The Case-making Clothes Moth (Tinea pellionella, L.).
ii. The Webbing Clothes Moth ( Tineola Uselliella, Hum.).
iii. The Tapestry Moth ( Tinea tapetzella, L.).
They are all common and very destructive in this country, both in
private houses and in stores.
1. The Case-making Clothes Moth, Tinea pellionella, L., is a small
moth with wing expanse of nearly half an inch, the fore wings are
yellowish-grey with three indistinct brownish spots, the hind wings
grey, and the wing-fringes grey. The larvae feed on all woollen
goods, carpets, furs, and feathers. The moth appears in February,
and may continue in successive broods until ISTovember. In America
there appears to be only one brood in the north, the moths appearing
from June to August, but in the south there are two or more broods,
the moths appearing from January to October.
The eggs are very small and are usually laid on the food material.
The larvae are small dull white caterpillars, the head reddish-brown,
and the second segment with a dark brown plate behind. They form
a tubular, slightly flattish case in which they pass the whole of their
existence, the head and first few segments and legs being protruded
when the caterpillars move from place to place. This case has fre-
quently to be enlarged as the larva grows ; this is done by the insect
making a slit half-way down the tube and then inserting a patch of
new material, and then a similar slit is made and. filled in on the
opposite side, and then the same is done at the opposite half of the
case, the larva having previously turned round inside the tube ; when
the tube wants lengthening, additions are simply made at each end of
the tube. These larval cases are made from the material upon which
the insects are feeding, change of food thus changing the colour of the
case ; sometimes when feeding on variously coloured fabrics the cases
are thus multi-coloured. Inside each case is lined by a fine white
silk spun by the larva. When mature these “ houses ” are either spun
to the substance upon which the larvae have been feeding, or more
often the larvae wander to the walls and ceilings and then fasten the
44 First Report on Economic Zoology.
tubes firmly to the surface with silk. The pupal stage takes place
inside the case and lasts from two to three weeks.
2. The Webbing Clothes Moth, the Tincola biselliella of Hummel,
is about the same size as the preceding species, and has the front
wings pale ochreous, and more or less shining, without any spots ; the
hind wings are whitish and the head reddish-yellow. The larva
feeds on a great variety of substances, such as woollen goods, furs,
feathers, the linings of chairs and sofas, and has been found feeding
on cobwebs. The moth appears from March to October and produces
two broods in the year. The larva is dirty white, and spins a silken
webbing as it progresses over its food material ; no true case is
formed as in the preceding species ; but when mature it spins a
cocoon of pieces of hair or wool of irregular outline and pupates
within it.
3. The Tapestry moth, the Tinea tapetzella of Linnaeus, is also
known as Trichophaga tajpctzclla ; its fore wings are black from the
base to the middle, then white clouded with grey towards the tip, the
hind wings are pale grey and the head is white ; the wing expanse is
about three-fourths of an inch. It appears during June and July.
The larva forms galleries in the cloth or other substance it attacks,
these galleries being lined with silk. It affects carpets, horse cloths,
upholsterings, especially in carriages, also furs and skins. The pupal
stage takes place inside the galleries. Heavy and coarse materials
are attacked mainly by this species, which damages by its actual
burrowing into the material upon which it feeds.
Treatment for Clothes Moths.
Frecpient removal, beating and shaking of clothes, etc., will do
much to prevent the harm caused by these three pests. Materials
which are liable to be attacked should be put away in boxes and
cupboards with pieces of naphthalene in muslin bags placed here and
there. Exposure to sunlight and plenty of air in May and June will
do much to prevent clothes being spoiled by them. Benzine has a
very deleterious effect on these pests and any valuable materials
might be treated now and then with this substance.
In the case of cloth-covered furniture spraying with benzine is
the most successful way of treatment.
Large dealers of carpets and furs could always keep their stock
free from attack by adopting cold storage. A temperature of 40° E.
is protective.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 45
Insects and Mites in Furniture.
Some furniture and household pests sent by a correspondent of
the Board from Whitchurch, Glamorganshire, proved to be two species.
They were (i) the so-called “ Death Watch ” (. Atropos divinatoria) —
the same name is given to certain furniture beetles, Anobium tessel-
lation, etc. — and (ii) Mites belonging to the genus Glyciphagus, and
were G. domestieus, De Geer, the Glyciphagus cursor, Gerv. Speci-
mens have been sent to A. Michael, Esq. for identification. They
are both best destroyed by fumigation. Sulphur is usually employed,
but if both the pests are particularly abundant the rooms should be
fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas as well. Rooms should be
well brushed down and the floors washed with soft-soap and water.
Books, etc., which harbour the Atropos should be subjected to the
fumes of benzine in closed boxes. Fumigation with sulphur answers
best for the mites, but is not so effective upon the Atropos, hence
hydrocyanic gas is mentioned. (A full report on household mites
is given on page 120.)
SUB-GROUP C. FOOD.
I. The Larder Beetle.
{Dermestes lardarius, L.)
Some insects sent by Mr. Edgar J. Lewis to the Board of
Agriculture, and which had been attacking and causing damage
to winter-cured bacon, proved to be the Larder beetle ( Dermestes
lardarius). This insect is common to North America, Europe, and
Asia. It attacks not only bacon and hams, but cheese, horns,
skins, feathers, hair, silk and other dry goods. Fresh hams and
bacon are not so liable to be attacked as those that are slightly
tainted, improperly cured or injured in any way. The beetles are
very disposed to lay their eggs in any crevice, and have probably
done so in this case where the muslin bags are sewn up. The larvae
are very minute when first hatched and can easily penetrate muslin
unless it is very fine. The larvae as they mature bury themselves in
the bacon, but at first they feed on the exterior.
Treatment.
Bacon is best hung as is sometimes done in America, in thin
paper bags, care being taken that all crevices are closed, or else the
46 First Report on Economic Zoology .
minute larvae coming from the eggs laid on the paper may manage
to work their way through.
When the larvae and beetles are found in the bacon the attacked
part should be cut away fairly deep, and well washed with a strong
solution of salicylate of soda or salicylic acid. After a bad attack the
store room should be well white-washed and then fumigated with
hydrocyanic acid gas, bisulphide of carbon or with sulphur to
destroy the beetles — the first for preference, as it is safer to use than
the bisulphide and more effective than sulphur.
The use of bisulphide of carbon to destroy the beetles and larvse
amongst the bacon lias been suggested and would be quite successful
if we had only to deal with those two stages and the pupal stage, but
unfortunately the beetles also lay their eggs in and around the
attacked parts, and I have not at present obtained any satisfactory
results of the action of bisulphide of carbon or hydrocyanic acid gas
on insect and mite ova. In all cases experimented with so far the
ova have not been harmed to any appreciable extent. The infected
bacon or ham had thus best have the attacked parts where many of
the eggs appear to be laid cleansed with salicylic acid. A second
fumigation fourteen days after the first is the safest plan to follow.
Weevils amongst Stored Corn.
( Calandra granaria , L.)
Corn Weevils ( Calandra granaria) were sent by a correspondent
of the Board of Agriculture which had been attacking some oats
stored in a barn. This beetle, and a closely related one, the Bice
Weevil ( C . oryzce, L.), which has also been forwarded by another cor-
respondent, from damaged Indian corn, are the most destructive corn
pests in granaries, stores, ships and barns, that are known. Not
only do they attack stored corn, but also all cereals in transit.
Whole cargoes of wheat, etc., are often destroyed in transit from
India, Australia, etc.
One or two instances are known of field attack near mills in
Great Britain.
The beetles lay their eggs in the corn, the maggots feed inside the
grain and there pupate. They breed fairly rapidly in this country
and may attack other stored goods than cereals.
Beproduction may go on all the year in mills, but chiefly takes
place in the spring and summer. The warmer the temperature the
more rapidly do they breed. In Great Britain we mainly suffer from
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 47
the Corn Weevil, the climate not being warm enough for C. or y zee to
flourish to any extent.
Treatment.
1. Well clean out the barn or other building in which the
beetles have been at work ; walls, ceiling and floors should be
cleaned, washed with whitewash and soft soap and all refuse burnt.
2. Keep grain in bulk and constantly stir.
3. Keep well ventilated with cold air and plenty of light. In a
warm climate ventilation would do no good, but cold air soon checks
their reproductive powers.
4. If the store house or barn is fairly air-tight, close up all
openings where possible and then fumigate with bisulphide of carbon.
Evaporate 1 lb. of the bisulphide of carbon to every 1000 cubic feet
of space (about). Put the carbon about the surface of the grain in
flat saucers — the heavy fumes penetrate through the grain and kill
all forms of life, but do not harm the grain — leave closed for
twenty-four hours and then well ventilate and move the grain over.
If the grain could be treated in closed bins so much the better —
1 lb. of the bisulphide to every 100 bushels of grain is sufficient,
leaving for twenty-four hours.
A caution must be given that this substance is : —
1. Inflammable.
2. Both the fumes and liquid poisons.
A detailed report on this pest is given in the Journal of the S. E.
Agricultural College, No. 5, pp. 11-21, 1897.
The infested grain given to poultry would do no harm — the birds
would devour the insects as well.
FUNGOID DISEASES.
Fungoid Disease in Black Currant Leaves.
(Septoria ribis.)
The currant leaves sent to the Board of Agriculture from Wickham
Market, Suffolk, are invaded by a fungus which produces so-called
Currant Bust or Leaf Spot. The fungus is apparently Septoria ribis.
This disease attacks all kinds of currants, and appears, as a rule,
about the beginning of July.
It is first noticeable as small brown spots. Dull whitish spots
also appear, but these may be due to another fungus. Both may be
treated, however, as one, so far as remedies go.
O
48 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Treatment.
The bushes should be sprayed with cupram and Bordeaux mixture
some time before and after harvesting ; the first application should be
about two weeks before the rust spots usually appear.
Bordeaux mixture may stain the fruit, so that for an early washing
before the fruit is picked cupram had best be used, and Bordeaux
mixture after harvesting.
Neither should be used for three weeks before the fruit is gathered
as they are to a certain extent poisonous.
Preparation of Cupram.
Measure out J pint of strong ammonia (avoid the fumes), and
add it to 2 quarts of water. Weigh out 1 oz. of carbonate of copper,
wrap it up in a piece of copper gauze and suspend it by a copper wire
in the ammonia liquor. Let it remain all night. When required for
use dilute the blue fluid with 12 gallons of water. This is the best
fungicide for all ripening fruit.
Bordeaux Mixture.
Copper sulphate
Lime .....
Treacle .....
Water .....
1 lb.
1 lb.
1 lb.
10 gallons.
Dissolve the copper in 10 gallons of water, boil the lime and
treacle with a quart of water for half an hour. When dissolved, mix
them together and stir them up well. The mixture is then ready
for use.
Gooseberry Fungus.
(. Puccinia pringsheimiana, Kleb.)
The gooseberries and leaves sent are attacked by a fungus. This
fungus is the secidium stage of Puccinia pringsheimiana of Klebahn.
The cluster cups or aecidia occur on the gooseberry, both on the
leaf and fruit ; the other stages affect certain species of Carex (sedges).
It is generally seen in damp places, but is rarely in sufficient
abundance to do any practical harm. As in the present case it is doing
considerable damage, any further notes will be gladly received.
Reports to the Board of Agriculture. 49
Treatment.
All that can be done is to wash as soon as the fruit is gathered
with Bordeaux mixture; the best wash is the “Wye Bordeaux
mixture,” prepared as follows : —
Copper sulphate (bluestone) . . 1 lb.
Lime . . • • • . 1 lb.
Agricultural treacle . . . . 1 lb.
Water 10 gallons.
Dissolve the bluestone in 10 gallons of water, and boil the lime
and treacle with a quart of water for half an hour. When the blue-
stone is all dissolved and the lime and treacle liquid fairly cool, pour
the latter into the bluestone liquid and stir well. It is then ready
for use and will keep any time.
The soil should be well limed in the autumn, and the bushes
sprayed again early next year, about the first week in May.
APPENDIX.
Amongst other enquiries made to the Board of Agriculture, of
which short letters only were sent, may be mentioned the following : —
i. Tapeworms in Sheep at Okehampton.
A correspondent of the Board sought information concerning
Cestodes in sheep.
The writer was referred to an article dealing with this subject in
the “ Agricultural Gazette ” for Jan. 20, 1902, p. 40. The chief British
ovine tapeworm is Moniezia expansa, which is very destructive to
lambs in many parts of the country. Its life-history is not known.
2. Black Wire-worm in Mangolds.
A correspondent wrote for information concerning Black Wire-
worm attacking his mangolds.
No specimen being sent and nothing being known of any creature
having this popular name, no information could be given. Further
information on this subject will be gladly received.
E
First Report on Economic Zoology.
LIST OF LEAFLETS PREPARED AND REVISED FOR THE
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Prepared.
No. 68. Currant Aphides.
No. 69. Tent Caterpillars.
No. 70. Winter Washing of Fruit Trees.
No. 71. The Colorado Beetle.
Revised and Enlarged.
No. 1. The Currant Bud Mite.
No. 2. Weevils.
No. 12. The Gooseberry Saw Fly.
No. 14. The Raspberry Moth.
No. 15. The Apple Blossom Weevil.
No. 16. The Apple Sucker.
No. 20. The Magpie Moth.
No. 22. The Diamond Back Moth.
No. 28. Cockchafers.
No. 30. The Codling Moth.
No. 33. Surface Caterpillars.
No. 34. The Woolly Aphis or American Blight.
No. 35. The Celery Fly.
No. 38. The Carrot Fly.
No. 46. The Stem Eel-worm.
No. 47. The Asparagus Beetle.
No. 48. The Pea and other Thrips.
No. 49. The Fruit Tree Beetle.
No. 53. The Pear Midge.
No. 62. The Pear and Cherry Saw Fly
No. 40. The Kestrel or Windhover.
No. 42. The Short-eared Owl.
No. 43. Titmice.
No. 44. The Common Lapwing or Peewit.
No. 45. The Starling.
No. 51. The White or Bam Owl.
No. 54. The Spotted Flycatcher.
No. 55. The Swallow.
No. 6. The Field Vole.
No. 57. The External Parasites of Poultry
No. 58. The Internal Parasites of Poultry.
PAKT II.
REPORTS ON ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY
SENT IN
REPLY TO VARIOUS CORRESPONDENTS.
53
GROUP B.
(A) BRITISH.
Animals bred or domesticated by Man for Food or for the
use of their products in industry or for their Services
as living things.
SUB-GROUP a. ANIMALS BRED AND CULTIVATED FOR
THE PROVISION OE ROOD.
Origin and Varieties of Domesticated Geese.
An enquiry as to the origin, etc., of Domesticated Geese was
received from the Hon. Florence Amherst. No information could
be gathered in regard to Pomeranian Goose and little concerning
the Strasburg Goose. The latter is a white goose with blue eyes
and thus probably of Embden origin.
There seem to be five well-marked varieties of Domesticated
Geese : (1) Toulouse ; (2) Embden ; (3) African or Indian ; (4)
Brown China ; and (5) White China.
The main characters of these may be summed up as follows : —
Neck-feathers curled or twisted; no knob to bill.
1. Toulouse. — Adult grey ; bill reddish, nail white or flesh-
coloured. Eye brown or hazel, rim colour of bill. Abdominal pouch
well developed. Gosling greenish-yellow.
2. Embden or Bremen. — Adult white ; bill yellow to orange ; nail
white. Eye blue, rim orange. Abdominal pouch small. Gosling
yellowish. Legs orange, claws white.
54 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Bill knobbed, note much harsher than in 1 and 2.
3. African or Indian. — Adult with back, wings and tail dark
grey ; bill and knob black. Eye hazel or brown. Legs orange
Dewlap under bill.
4. Brown China. — Plumage much as in African ; bill and knob
dark brown to black. Eye hazel. Legs dark with greenish tinge.
Dewlap under bill.
5. White China. — Plumage white ; knob orange. Eye blue.
Bill orange with white nail. Legs orange with white claws.
There is no doubt that the European Geese are descended from
the Grey Lag (Anser ferus), which has not only a wide European
distribution, but is also Asiatic.
The blue eye of the Embden has a similar parallel in the Blue-
eyed White Chinese Goose.
The presence of the twisted or curled neck feathers of the
Toulouse, Embden and other Europeans is characteristic of the Grey
Lag, and both will revert much to the Grey Lag in appearance.
The two Chinese varieties are evidently clearly descended from
the Anser cygnoides ; the blue- eyed white variety having been
obtained from the wild form by selection. Thus we get two parallel
cases of blue-eyed white varieties produced from different parent
stock.
The African or Indian Goose is due to crossing between the
Grey Lag and Chinese (White).
Dipterous Larvce in Human Excreta. 55
GROUP D.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury, some-
times death, to him, and in other cases disease, often of
a deadly character.
Live Dipterous Larvae in Human Excreta and
Notes on Species producing Myiasis.
Mr. J. W. Bridge, of the University, Birmingham, sent two larvae
from the excreta of a woman with the following letter, dated
Dec. 4th, 1901 : —
I ask you to identify the specimens which I am sending here-
with. They were sent to me by a doctor at Shrewsbury who states that
they were passed per rectum by a patient suffering from cancer. If you
can give me any clue to their identification I shall be grateful.
To this the following reply was sent : —
The larvae you send from the excreta of the woman suffering
from cancer are those of one of the Anthomyiidae and of the genus
Homalomyia. Certain species of these diptera are responsible for authentic
cases of internal Myiasis. They are taken in with vegetable food and
retain their vitality and are sometimes passed in the fmces alive. They are
in no way connected with cancer.
Most of the cases of human Myiasis are due to the larvae
of Compsomyia, Calliphora, Sarcophila,, Homcdomyict, Ochromyia,
Dermatobia and Auchmeroyia. Myiasis may be either (i) cutaneous
or (ii) internal.
Homalomyia canicularis, Linn., has been reported by Hagen
(Proc. Bost. Soc., N.H. xx. 107) as living in the larval stage in the
urethra of a patient. Probably, says ISTuttall, a case of pseudo-
parasitism.
The following other dipterous larvae have been known to cause
external or cutaneous myiasis.
Sarcophila magnified, Schiner, which deposits its eggs in wounds
on man and animals.
56 First Report on Economic Zoology .
Lucilicc ccesar , Linn., also lays its eggs on wounds ; probably the
sheep-fly, L. sericcctcc, Meig., does the same.
The Senegal or Cay or Fly ( Ochromyia antliropophaga, Blanchard).
The larvae or Cayor worms develop beneath the skins of man and
animals and often produce serious Myiasis in Senegal. Derrnatobia
noxialis, Goudot, also lives beneath the skin of man as well as
animals, occurring from Mexico to Brazil. It is known under a
variety of names, such as the Macaw worm in Cayenne, the Ura in
Brazil, the Torcel at Costa Rica, the Mozoquil worm in Mexico.
The Maggot Fly of Natal ( Auchmeroyia (B eng alia) deprcssa,
Walker), also produces serious cutaneous Myiasis ; this pest is one of
the Sarcophagidte. It is not restricted to Natal, but occurs further
up the coast, having been recorded from Delagoa Bay. The range of
this serious cutaneous parasite seems to be limited to the coast and
no further inland than 1000 feet elevation. It is common from the
Tugela downwards (vide Agri. Journal, Natal Dept. Agri. and Mines,
vol. iv. p. 606, 1901. C. Fuller). Vide also note on Screw Worm
(p. 131).
Correspondence on the Mosquito Annoyance at
Blackheath.
The following letter was received on November the 6th, 1901,
from the Public Health Department, Borough of Greenwich : —
Dear Sir, — Complaints have been made to my Committee respecting
the inconvenience caused to the inhabitants in this neighbourhood bv the
bite or sting of insects found in the neighbourhood of Greenwich Park and
Blackheath, popularly supposed to be mosquitoes. I shall esteem it a
favour if you can give me any information you may have respecting this
class of insect found in that immediate neighbourhood.
I am, etc.,
Ernest George Annis, M.R.C.S., etc., etc.,
Medical Officer of Health.
To F. V. Theobald, Esq.,
Natural History Museum.
To Dr. Ernest George Annis, M.R.C.S., etc.,
Medical Officer of Health, Greenwich.
Dear Sir, — It is somewhat difficult to answer the questions in your
letter re the annoyance caused by biting insects reported to your Com-
mittee without seeing actual specimens of the pests.
Mosquito Annoyance at BlackJieath. 57
I know of no records of mosquitoes from either Greenwich Park or
Blackheath. Two species occur in abundance in some of the docks
(London and Albert), namely, Cidex pipiens, L., and Culex dorsalis, Meigen,
and from the latter dock I have received Culex pidcritarsis, of Rondani.
Cidex dorsalis is a vicious biter, and I believe occurs all down the river.
Culex pipiens also bites severely at times, the bites being followed by large
red oedematous patches. I am afraid without investigation on the spot I
cannot possibly help you further.
I am, etc.,
Feed. V. Theobald.
Borough of Greenwich
Public Health Department,
Town Hall, Greenwich Road, S.E.,
12 th November , 1901.
Dear Sir, — Please accept my best thanks for the information you
have so kindly supplied to me, and I will endeavour to obtain a few
specimens of the insects referred to and submit them to you if you are
agreeable.
I am, etc.,
E. G. Annis.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
21s£ November , 1901.
To Dr. E. G. Annis, M.R.C.S., etc.,
Medical Officer of Health, Greenwich.
Dear Sir, — I shall be pleased to examine the noxious flies that are
causing annoyance in your district whenever you care to send them here.
Yours, etc.,
Fred. Y. Theobald.
Borough of Greenwich
Public Health Department,
m T'l TT m -n 26M November, 1901.
do F. Y. Theobald, Esq.,
British Museum (Nat. Hist.)
Dear Sir, Yours of the 21st to hand, for which I thank you, and
1 am endeavouring to obtain specimens of the insects referred to, but they
do not seem to be so prevalent in the colder weather.
I shall, however, be pleased to avail myself of your kind offer when I
am in a position to do so.
I am, etc., Yours,
E. G. Annis.
58 First Report on Economic Zoology .
Further correspondence on this subject was received from Coun-
cillor Walter Dannatt, of Blackheath, who, writing on April 1st, 1902,
states that : —
We have been much troubled with gnats and mosquitoes in this
neighbourhood, the last two summers especially, and I thought something
might be done to abate the nuisance. ... I proposed to have a solution
of petroleum put in the ponds on Blackheath and the neighbourhood to
destroy the larvae, and I thought if all householders who have rain-water
tanks and tubs were to put some petroleum into their receptacles that
many of the Culex would then be destroyed. Will you kindly inform me
when the breeding season of these insects is ? I may say that these pests
have been so troublesome in this neighbourhood that most people dare not
sit in their gardens of an evening in the summer. Many people have been
laid up by bites from these insects.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
4 th April, 1902.
To Councillor Walter Dannatt, Blackheath.
Dear Sir, — Your letter regarding the above subject has reached me.
In November of last year I had some correspondence from the Public Depart-
ment of Health of the Borough of Greenwich on this same subject. I wrote
to Dr. Annis, the Medical Officer of Health, saying I could not give any
definite advice, as I did not know what the biting insects were. Much
depends on the species of Culex or Anopheles. Do you know, or can you give
me any idea of the character of the Culex. C. dorsalis and C. pipiens occur
along the Thames. The former is a very vicious biter, and I have known it
cause much annoyance in the docks and at Rochester. C. pipiens also bites
at times, but may never do so in some districts. The two Anopheles
breed in different ways. A. bifur catus is in the larval stage in the winter,
A. maculipennis in the spring and summer, but the former occurs again in
the summer in larval stage. C. pipiens larvae occur from May onwards in
tubs, cisterns, etc., mostly in June, July and September. Culex dorsalis
I have found in small artificial collections of water in July, but it probably
also occurs in May. I am afraid only a careful examination will help you.
I should paraffin the ponds for Anopheles (1) in winter ; (2) in May and
June ; for Culex (1) May and (2) July and September ; much depends on
local circumstances. For instance, Anopheles larvae occur in ponds, ditches,
rivers and canals, in stone troughs and in rain-water barrels. So much
ground has to be covered, but I fully expect the pests you have are Culex ,
probably both C. dorsalis and C. pipiens , which will be much easier to get rid
of. I have some exact data of larval appearance at home, and I will look
this up and send you. I expect you know all about the way of treating
the water to kill the larvae ; if not, I shall be pleased to help you.
Without knowing the district and local conditions I cannot help you as
I should wish. I think I said this to the Officer of Public Health.
Any further information I can give you I shall be very pleased to do.
I am, etc.,
Fred. Y. Theobald.
Mosquito Annoyance at Blackheath . 59
Donnington, Vanbrugh Road,
Blackheath, S.E.,
8th April , 1902.
To F. V. Theobald, Esq., M.A.
Dear Sir,— Many thanks for your kind and interesting letter. I
am writing the London County Council on the matter ol treating the
ponds at Blackheath. I shall be greatly obliged if you will favour me
with the modus operandi of using the petroleum, and if any particular kind
is used, and where obtained. I presume it will destroy any fish that are in
the pond ? -.it
There are some Culices about now, but whether they bite or what, i
know not. My opinion is, that the species that troubles us most in the
summer are rather small, and I have noticed them settle but never
appear to crawl ; whether that will prove what species they are I do not
know. Thanks, I shall be very glad of the data you refer to of larval
appearances.
I suppose the enclosed large one is a Culex ; there are plenty in out-
houses now. My opinion is, that the summer species is smaller. I have
found a couple which were killed against the wall last summer. Are they
Anopheles ?
I am, etc.,
Walter Dannatt, F.E.S.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.
To Walter Dannatt, Esq., F.E.S., Blackheath.
Dear Sir, — As far as I can judge, the two remains of the Culicidae
you send are those of Culex pip iens, the perfect one certainly is. No doubt
the smaller one is Culex dorsalis , a very vicious biter.
The usual times Anopheles maculipennis and different Culex larvm are
found is in June, July, August and September. This would be the time
to destroy the larvae, I fancy. A. bifurcatus, as I mentioned in a previous
letter, occurs in the larval stage in winter also. They breed in rain
barrels, small puddles, etc., so the work must be done very thoroughly.
I should advise a look-out to be kept for the larvae before the paraffin
treatment is started.
The paraffin is best applied by dipping a bundle of rag tied on the end
of a stick into the paraffin and then dabbing the pool over in many places,
so as to get the whole surface covered with a thin film. I do not think
fish would be hurt by the treatment, and doubt if you can get a better
substitute at present for paraffin. I will find out from Dr. Daniels, who
has bred Culex dorsalis , where they live. The only ones I have found
were in a small puddle near a tap at Rochester.
The paraffin treatment, I think, should be done two or three times at
a week’s interval soon after the larvae are first noticed.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) Fred. V. Theobald.
6o
First Report on Economic Zoology.
G E 0 U P E.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury or
disease, both possibly of a deadly character, to (A) his
stock of Domesticated Animals, or (B) his Vegetable
Plantations, or (C) to Wild Animals in the preservation
of which he is interested, or (D) Plants in the preserva-
tion of which he is interested.
SUB-GEOUP A. ANIMALS WHICH CONCERN MAN BY
CAUSING BODILY INJURY OE DISEASE TO HIS
STOCK OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.
Horse Worms and the Use of Thymol.
The following enquiry was received from a correspondent at Fort
Camden, Crosshaven, Co. Cork, regarding horse worms and their
treatment : —
“ Seeing several articles lately in the Field about the use of
Thymol for the eradication of worms in horses, and on the 5th a
letter from the Hon. Miss Dillon mentioning your name as having
had a large experience in the use of Thymol for that purpose, I
would be obliged to you if you would give me information on the
following points: — The amount required for a mare 15*2, five years
old ; the worms are about one inch long, small white ones. The
mare has been out on grass all the summer till about a month ago.
Should the mare be kept on bran mashes for a day or two before
giving Thymol.”
The following reply was sent : —
“ From your description I imagine the worms in your mare are
the Maw Worm ( Oxyuris curvula). Thymol has been found of great
benefit for these nematodes, as well as for the armed strongyles
(, Sclerostomum equinum, S. tetracanthum, and S. rubrum). The best
plan is to give bran mashes the day before and then give the
Thymol in sweet milk. Fifteen grains have been found sufficient
early in the morning and again in the afternoon for all horses.
Depluming Scabies in Fowls. 61
Up to three drams may be given, but in all cases I have known,
fifteen grain doses are sufficient, and more simply produce collapse.
This can of course always be counteracted by administering
stimulants.” *
The importance of Thymol as a nematocide is now well-known,
it being especially valuable for the armed sclerostomes that cause
often fatal epizootics in studs in this country.
Depluming Scabies ( Sarcoptes Icevis ) in Fowls.
Amongst the enquiries regarding animal parasitic diseases was
one from Mr. K. J. J. Mackensie, Lecturer on Poultry-keeping to the
Suffolk County Council, regarding Depluming Scabies in Fowls.
Feathers were sent from birds suffering from an ailment with symp-
toms pointing to this disease. An examination of the feathers sent
did not reveal any Sarcoptes Icevis. This mite, which produces the
acariasis, ending in loss of feathers, lives at the base of the quills
amongst a white powdery substance. The feathers sent had broken
off close to their roots, and any powdery substance attached would
have gone. As far as one can say without definite proof (i.e. the
actual presence of mites) the feathers looked as if the parasite had
been at work. To be sure of this it would be necessary to send
feathers pulled out from the diseased bird that do not seem diseased,
and also scrapings of the skin from the invaded areas ; such material
must be fresh or sent in dilute spirit. This disease was found by
Piailliet in 1886 in a poultry-yard in Normandy, and since in many
fresh areas. In this country there is a general idea that “ feather-
pulling” or eating is due solely to vicious habits, whereas it is nearly
always due to the minute Sarcopt mite which lives around and at
the base of the feathers. This acarus is most abundant in spring
and summer; males, females, and larvae are all found together
around the bases of the feathers on any part of the body. A dozen
or more mites may often be found in close proximity, causing the
irritation which leads to the birds plucking at the feathers.
* Alcohol must not be used as a stimulant after Thymol.
62
First Report on Economic Zoology .
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY OR
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section I.
Animals Injurious to Agriculture.
ERUIT PESTS.
The Bud Moth.
{Hedy a ocellana, Eab.)
Numerous enquires have been made during the past summer
concerning- the larvae of a small Tortricid Moth which damages the
buds of various fruit trees when they are bursting and for some time
after. These larvae which are prevalent to a greater or less extent
every year are mostly those of the Bud Moth {Hedy a ocellana , Fab.).
This fruit pest has long been known in Europe, Kollar having
described its ravages as far back as 1857. Since that date little
has been added to our knowledge in Europe, but in 1896 Slingerland
published a detailed account of its life-history. The accounts of
Kollar and Slingerland differ in some essential points, but the insect
they write about is undoubtedly the same. It is quite probable
that both observers are light, the insect living in two ways, as we
see may occur in the case of the Colorado Beetle {vide p. 87). The
Bud Moth not only occurs in Europe, but also on the North American
Continent, both in Canada and the LTnited States. The south of
England has been most affected by its presence, but it occurs in the
western and eastern counties. It has been especially recorded from
Bournemouth. Most fruit trees are subject to its ravages, but cherry
and apple suffer to the greatest extent. The “ Bud Moth ” has been
described under a great variety of names, some of which are given
below : —
Hedya ocellana, Fab.
Penthina ocellana , Tr.
Spilonota ocellana.
Py ralis luscana, Fab.
Tortrix comitana, Hb.
Tmetocera ocellana, Schiff.
Penthina oculana, Harris.
Penthina pyrifoliana, Clem.
The Bud Moth. 63
The following references have been kindly supplied by Mr. John
Hartley Durrant : —
TMETOCERA (Ld.)
Tmetocera ocellana , Sch iff.
« Ocellana, Schiff.
= luscana , F. ; = comitana , Hb. ; = pyrifoliana, Clem. ; = oculana, Harris ;
= oculina , Pack.
Tortrix ocellana , Schiff, Syst. Yerz. Schm. Eur., 130, No. 7 (1776).
Pyralis ocellana, F., Mant. Ins. II., 228.
Pyrcdis luscana, F., Syst. Ent. (1787); III. (2), 255, (1793).
Tortrix comitana , Hb., Sml. Schm. Ent. (1800).
Grapholita ( Tmetocera ) ocellana, Schiff.
= lariciana, Z. Stett. Ent. Ztg., XXXIV., 129-130 (1873).
Zellerana, Borgmann, Forst. N.W. Ztschr. (Tubeuf), IV., 171.
Tmetocera ocellana 4- lariciana, Stgr. and Ebl., Cat. Lep. Pal., IT., 128,
No. 2255, 9 (1901). M. Europe.
LITERATURE.
Penthina pyrifoliana, Clem., Pr. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., 1860, 357 (1860).
Penthina oculana, Harris, Inj. Ins., 482 (1862).
Penthina oculana, Pack., Rp. Mass. Bd. Agr. (1869); Am. Ent., I., 251.
Grapholitha oculana, Sndrs., Can. Ent., III., 13, fig. 9 (1871).
Grapholitha oculina, Pack, Mass. Agr. Rpt. (1870).
Grapholitha oculina, Pack, Am. Nat., IV., 684 (1871).
Tmetocera ocellana, Z., Beitr., 61 (1875).
Tmetocera ocellana, Fern., Tr. Am. Ent. Soc., X., 48, No. 349 (1882).
Tmetocera ocellana, Fletch., Rept. Dep. Agri. Can. (1885).
Tmetocera ocellana, Harvey, Ann. Rp. Marine Exp. Stn. (1888).
Tmetocera ocellana, Tern, Hatch. Exp. Stn. Rp., 1888, 11-12 (1889).
Tmetocera ocellana, Cook, Ann. Rep. Mich. Agri. Exp. Stn., IV. (1891).
Tortrix comitana, Hw., Lp. Br., 434 (1811).
Tortrix luscana, Trol., Enum. Tortr. Wiirt., No. 106 (1828).
Penthina luscana, Dp., H.N. Lp. Fr., IX., 203, pi. 245, 10 (1834), and
Supp. IV., pi. 84, 2.
Penthina ocellana, Tr., Schm. Eur., VIII., 40 (1830).
Penthina ocellana, Tr., Schm. Eur., X. (3), 51.
Penthina comitana, Wd., Ind. Ent. (1833-9).
Penthina ocellana, Tr., Treat. Ins. Kollar, 234 (1837).
Tortrix {Penthina) ocellana, HS. and SB., Schm. Eur., IV., 233 (1849).
Hedya ocellana, Wilk., Br. Tortr., 118 (1859).
Tmetocera ocellana, Ld., Wien Ent., Ill , 367-8 (1859).
Grapholitha {Tmetocera) ocellana, Hein., Schm. Deutscli. Tortr., 206 (1863).
Tmetocera ocellana, Stgr., Cat. Lp. Eur., 260, No. 1210 (1871).
Grapholitha {Paedisca) ocellana, Snell, Vlind. Ned. Micr., 325-6 (1882).
Tmetocera ocellana, MP. and FT., Nat. Sc., VIII., 188 (1889); Meyr.
H. B., Br. Lp., 476 (1895).
Tmetocera ocellana, Stgr. and Rbl., Cat. Lp. Pal., II.. 125, No. 2255 (1901).,
ITedya ocellana, Theob., Agri. Gaz., 7. 7, and 14. 7 (1902).
64 First Report on Economic Zoology.
/3. Ocellana, Schiff. ; + Lariciana, Hein.
= zellerana , Brgmn.
lariciana, Hein, Schm. Deutsch. Tortr., 206, No. 371 (1863).
Spilonota lariciana , Knaggs, Ent. Ann., 1866, 166 (1865).
lledya lariciana , Brit. Ent. Mo. Mag., X., 66 (1873).
Tmetocerci ocellana , Tern, Mass. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull., 12 (1891).
Tmetocera ocellana, Ltnr., Can. Ent., XXIII., 231-2 (1891); Kept. N.Y.
VII. (1891).
Tmetocera ocellana , Fletcher, Rp. Dp. Agr. Can., 1891, 195 (1891).
Tmetocera ocellana , Slingerland, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn., Ent. Div.,
Bull. 50, 3-29, figs. 1-8, III. (1893).
Tmetocera ocellana , Slingerland, Cornell Univ. Agri. Exp. Stn., Div. Ent.,
Bull. 107, 57-66, figs. 32-39 (1896).
Tmetocera ocellana , Ltnr, U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent. (n.s.), Bull. 6, 54,
N.Y. (1896).
Tmetocera ocellana , Sndrs., U.S. Dept. Agri., Div. Ent. (n.s.) Bull. 26, 69
(1900).
How the Pest may be Detected.
The presence of this fruit pest may be detected by the early
destruction of the developing buds, which on partly opening are seen
to be eaten and shrivelled and which soon turn brown ; these buds
will be found to contain a small reddish-brown caterpillar, the cause
of the injury. Later the damage is still more noticeable, the opening
leaf and blossom being spun together, for both leaf and blossom buds
are attacked. There may frequently be noticed a gummy appearance
of the opening leaflets. The larva enters the bud, if it has not
already burst, by eating down between the bracts, and there, as
described by Kollar, a drop of sap forms which tends to hold the bud
intact and to stop it from bursting ; in any case if it does open the
young leaves soon shrivel and turn brown. During the past summer,
trees, especially cherry, have been quite ruined in this way. More
usually, many of the buds fully open, leaf and blossom appearing as
usual, the caterpillars later spinning the bunches of leaves and
blossoms into a mass with silk. These leaf nests frequently die right
away and turn brown in a very characteristic manner. Slingerland
states that in America the larvse also sometimes “ burrow down the
stalk for two or three inches, causing it to die.” This habit lias not
so far been observed in England ; in all cases the larva boring down
the top shoots of apple and pear has proved to be that of the Pith
Moth ( Laverna atra) {vide p. 68). When nearly mature the Bud
Moth larva forms more or less of a tube by rolling up a leaf and
roughly lines it with loose silk. The caterpillar at first only uses
this tube as a shelter from which it emerges to feed, gradually
drawing the neighbouring leaves together by silken cords. From
The Bud Moth. 65
observations made during the last few years it seems that the cater-
pillars chiefly feed at night.
Life-history.
The Bud Moth (Fig. 5, d) is one of the Tortricidce. It varies in
length from lialf-an-inch to two-thirds across the expanded wings.
The front wings are dark grey with a broad greyish-white band across
the middle with gnjy spots and streaks ; near the anal angle of the
wing is a triangular blackish spot and towards the tip a leaden-grey
eye-like spot with several black dots. The hind wings are grey. The
Fig. 5. — the bud moth ( H . ocellana).
a, The lava ; b, the pupa ; c, leaf eaten by larvae in autumn ; d, imago ; e, egg (after Slingerland).
fore wings are subject to considerable variation ; in some specimens
the median greyish-white hand is distinctly dull slaty-grey.
This moth appears in June and July when it may be seen flying
about in orchards, gardens, and lanes at dusk. During the day they
rest amongst the leaves of the trees and upon the trunks, their
coloration rendering them most inconspicuous, especially when
resting on an old moss or lichen grown tree.
The female lays her eggs at night ; they may he deposited singly
or in clusters, usually upon the upper sides of the leaves. Kollar
states, however, that they are placed at the base of leaf and fruit buds
and that they remain as ova during the whole of the winter. Both
F
66
First Report on Economic Zoology.
Fletcher and Slingerland have found that the eggs hatch in late
summer and early autumn and that winter is passed in the larval
stage. This is undoubtedly the usual case, but that some hibernate
in the egg condition I think very probable, as I have found young
larvae in the early spring not more than one-twelfth of an inch long,
whilst those that hibernate are considerably larger.
The eggs (Fig. 5, e) are flat, round or oval, the centre being
slightly elevated, they are very transparent and look like little drops
of gum on the leaf. When several are laid together they overlap
one another like flsh scales. In general appearance they resemble
the ova of the Codling Moth ; the outer edge is marked with a well
defined reticulate sculpturing ; the central part of the egg is usually
green, the colour being due to the developing larva within showing
through.
The egg stage lasts from seven to ten days. The young larvae on
coming from the egg at once commence to feed upon the lower layers
of the leaf, forming for themselves a little tube of silk open at each
end and- attached to the leaf, usually at the mid-rib. When feeding
off the leaf the larvae form a slight silken web
which serves as a protection for them. In this
manner the larvae go on feeding until about the
middle of September, by which time they are
about half grown. Professors Slingerland and
Fletcher were the first to show that these small
larvae pass the winter in small silken cases on the
trees, as inconspicuous objects covered with dirt
and not more than one-eiglitli of an inch long.
These winter houses (Fig. 6) are found at the
base of a bud or under a dead leaf or bud scale.
When cpiite young the larvae are green, and
this is the colour most usually found when
they are in their “ houses.” When the buds
commence to swell they crawl out and enter
them and become dull reddish-brown with black
Twig with larval cases (a) of head and black first segment; when nearly
Bud Moth and buds (b). l lv i
mature they become a more pronounced reddish-
brown, the dark head, first segment and legs showing up pro-
minently. When quite mature they reach half-an-inch in length.
During the latter part of their life they feed amongst the leaves,
which they spin together, and pupate in a tube of dead leaves
as previously described. The pupa is bright brown, with two lows
of backwTirdly projecting spines on each segment.
The Bud Moth.
67
One brood only occurs in Great Britain. The moth is very
common all over the South ol England, but becomes rarer in the
North.
Food Plants.
All fruit trees are attacked by this pest, but it is especially
cherry and apple that sutler in this country. It also occurs on the
sloe and plum, and has been recorded from the blackbeny, whilst in
North America it attacks the peach and quince also.
Natural Enemies.
Five species of Ichneumon flies prey upon the caterpillars ot this
moth in Europe, but none have been noticed in Great Britain. In
North America they also are preyed upon by three species of
Ichneumons. Amongst birds we find the blue and great tits (Parus
cceruleus and P. major) picking the larvae out of the buds and leaf
nests. The sparrow also has been observed feeding upon them. A
large sand-wasp, Odynerus catsldllensis, stores its nests with these
caterpillars in North America. None of these natural enemies,
unless it be the Paridse or Tits, do much good in keeping down this
Bud Moth.
Methods of Preventing the Bavages of Bud Moth Larvae.
Now that we know that the larvae feed upon the leafage in the
late summer we can to a large extent check the ravages of this pest
by arsenical spraying. Larvae are always more easily destroyed
when young, and there is not the least doubt that spraying in the
autumn will kill them. There should also be a second washing in
the spring when the caterpillars are to some extent exposed just
when the buds are bursting, and this followed by a third dressing to
kill those that escape when they are in their leaf and blossom nests.
Hand-picking may be resorted to in gardens and nurseries and where
single low trees are invaded, the leaf nests being easily seen and
picked off by hand before the moths have emerged from the pupal
stage.
Washing with caustic alkali wash does not seem to check this
pest, for trees so treated last winter (1902) suffered severely from
the Bud Moth and also Pith Moth. Probably the larval cases were
hidden under the bud-bracts and in such places that the wash does
not reach, the larval cases also protecting the caterpillars within from
the burning action of the wash.
F 2
68
First Report on Economic Zoology .
The Allied Bud Motii.
(Antithesia variegana, Hb.)
Another Tortrix lives in a very similar way to the Bud Moth,
namely, Antithesia variegana or A. cynosbatella. This moth is
about two-thirds of an inch in width of expanded wings ; the fore
wings have the basal two-thirds brownisli-black, the apical third is
white clouded with grey towards the hind margin ; there are also
two or three black spots projecting from the edge of the central band.
The moth appears in June, and lays her eggs on the leaf. The larvae
are thick and dark green with black spots ; the head and first
segment also being black. They may be found in the early spring
on hawthorn and sloe growing in the hedgerows and also in most
apple and pear orchards. The winter is passed, according to Mr.
Newstead, much in the same way as the Bud Moth.
Penthina pruniana, a closely related species, also probably lives
in the same way.
The Pith Moth.
( Laverna atra, Haw. ; putripenella, Zell.)
Numerous inquiries were made during the past year concerning
the iarva of a small moth — the Pith Moth ( Laverna atra). This
attack has been known to fruit-growers and gardeners for a long
time. It is noticed every year, but in 1902 it was abnormally
abundant, and a vast amount of damage was done by it over Great
Britain. The moth is not often seen, and probably but few people
are acquainted with it. It occurs over a large area of England
up to Newcastle.
The damage done by the larvae is particularly noticeable in
nursery stock. They burrow up the terminal shoots and kill them,
the result being deformed and stumpy trees. The attacked shoots
flag and then die and turn brown, the dead masses varying from two
to four inches in length. These dead shoots may remain some time
on the tree, or they may fall to the ground naturally, or be beaten off
by heavy rain. The attack may readily be told from that of the Bud
Moth by the absence of leaves spun together, and the absence of
damaged buds and blossom ; but the whole shoot dies away. Apple
trees are chiefly attacked, but reports of its ravaging pears have
also been received. The larvae are also found on hawthorn and other
wild Bosaceae.
Although it is a wide-spread pest, the following localities may be
The Pith Moth.
69
mentioned as having been particularly troubled with it : W orcester ;
Herefordshire (Boss) ; Gloucester ; Cambridgeshire (Wisbech) ;
Bournemouth ; Sussex (especially at Eolegate) ; Surrey and Kent
generally.
Life-history.
This moth belongs to the group of small moths known as Tineinw
and to the genus Lavevnct. Its wing expanse is a little less than
half an inch when fully expanded ; the front wings are almost
entirely black, but may be mottled with black, dark brown and
rusty brown ; the inner margin of the fore wings is white to beyond
the middle, where an irregular oblique white bar proceeds to the tip
of the wing, and two branches from this intersect the black apical
portion ; the posterior wings are grey and, like all Tineince, have
long fringes ; the head is almost entirely white. It is subject to
much variation. Some specimens are almost black ; these Stainton
considers a distinct variety. The moth appears in June according
to Stainton, but all those that have been bred or observed appeared
in July. Some received in 1898 hatched on July 5th, others not
until the 21st. Difference of locality is sure to account for a
difference in the time of their appearance.
The eggs are apparently laid on the leaves ; no definite observa-
tions have been made, however. In July I found several small
batches of eggs on an apple tree previously badly attacked by Pith
Moth, but I am not certain if they were those of the Laverna. They
occurred in small batches from one-fiftli to one-fourth of an inch
long ; in form they resembled those of the Bud Moth, viz., flat and
scale-like and almost transparent. One batch was composed of
twenty eggs overlapping one another like fish scales. The whole
surface of the egg is covered with a well-defined reticulate sculptur-
ing, not the outer part only, as in those of the Bud Moth or Codling
Moth. Penthina variegccna was seen near this tree, so that it may
be the eggs were of that insect.
In any case the eggs, whatever they may be like, give rise to the
larvae the same summer, and the young larvae feed first on the leaves.
As winter approaches, the larvae, which are still quite small, bore
just under the bark of a twig or into the apex of a shoot and remain
there most of the winter. During January and February the larvae
tunnel right into a young .slioot and work up the pith (Fig. 8, e).
In this tunnel the caterpillar lives until June ; its presence does
not stop the leaves and blossom from unfolding, although later they
flag, turn brown, and die right off (Fig. 7, b). These dead shoots
First Report on Economic Zoology .
A
Fig. 7. — the pith moth ( Lavcrna atra).
A, Imago ; B, attacked apple-shoot, the upper portion shrivelling up and dying away ;
C, processes on pupa ; D, pupa (enlarged) in situ ; E, showing position of larva
(natural size) in situ; F enlarged larva in broken open bud ; G, larva (enlarged).
The Pith Moth . 71
if broken off will be found to contain the Pith Moth caterpillar or
pupa, usually situated near the apex of a shoot.
The larva (g) is dull reddish-brown with a deep brown head and
first segment ; the other segments show more or less traces of pale
brown spots four in a row on the second and third segments and
four placed in a quadrangle on the remaining segments. The two
anterior segments have two lateral spots and the remainder a single
lateral spot. The apex is deep brown. When mature they reach one-
third of an inch in length and then pupate near the apex of the shoot
they have tunnelled. They reach their full-fed stage during the last
two weeks in June. If the dead shoots are picked off, the moth can
be easily bred.
The pupa (d) is of an ochraceous hue ; the head and front of the
thorax and tip of the body mahogany red. It is cylindrical in form
and about one-fourth of an inch long. On the ventral surface of the
penultimate segment are two blunt processes separate and diverging
outwards, hairy at their apices (Fig. 7, c) ; the eyes are black and the
wing cases and legs long, the former pointed. This stage lasts from
two to three weeks, the moths emerging from the end of June into
July. The pup® may sometimes be seen projecting from the dead
shoot. Stainton says the larvae also occur in hawthorn berries in
September and that the black variety only is found in apple shoots
in February and March.
Preventive Measures.
It is quite obvious that there can be no remedy for this pest, but
we can do much in the way of prevention by hand-picking the dead
shoots before the moths emerge in June. This can only be done, of
course, where small trees are attacked, and it usually happens that it
is only on such trees that the attack takes place.
Late spraying with Paris green would probably prove beneficial,
as it would kill the young larvae, which seem to feed first of all on
the leaves. Of course, care must be taken in regard to the fruit.
The trees should be washed not less than four weeks before the fruit is
gathered, but as soon as it is harvested a heavy spraying may be given.
The time to spray therefore must depend on the variety of apple
concerned. This is certainly worth giving a fair trial, as beyond
hand-picking we can do nothing to check the increase of this pest, so
noticeable during the past few years.
72
First Report on Economic Zoology.
The Pear and Cherry Sawfly or Slugworm.
{Eriocampa limacina, Cameron.)
A few enquiries were received during the past year regarding the
Pear and Cherry Sawfly ( Eriocampa limacina). This fruit tree pest
has not been so abundant as usual during the past summer and
autumn. In some districts where it is usually harmful it has
scarcely been noticed. One correspondent writing from Sitting-
bourne, Kent, asked for information concerning these pests, “ found
in numbers on and destroying his plum and cherry trees,” and for the
best means of preventing and destroying them. Their normal food
plants are cherry, pear and sometimes hawthorn. It has not been
notified before as injurious to plum, although Miss Ormerod mentions
plum, and sometimes peach, as being occasional food plants, and on
one occasion it is recorded on the quince. Cameron, in his work on
“ British Phytophagous Hymenoptera ” (vol. i. p. 225), mentions
other food plants, as Rubies, Amygdalus , Quercus and Betula.
There is no doubt that this insect is very susceptible to damp
weather and thus has not been nearly so harmful during the past
year.
Considerable relief from this pest has been reported by adopting
the plan of removing and burning the surface soil during the winter
months from beneath trees that had been attacked.
Notes on Fruit Pests in Orchards at Wisbech.
Some interesting notes on the ravages of insect pests were sent,
together with an enquiry as to the cause of the damage, from
Mr. B. W. Gatherwood, of Wisbech. In this letter he states that —
Plum blossom was cut off by frost, but apple trees mixed with the
above were comparatively all right, except for a few caterpillars, of what I
took to be the Winter Moth, on the 24th of May, the trees showing every
sign of a plentiful crop of apples. I may say in the last week of April
and the first week in May we syringed twice with Paris green (1 in 200).
When I returned home on the 7th of June my apple trees and some of
the plum presented an appearance as if a hot blast of air had passed over
the whole garden, withering all shoots, leaves, and flowers ; the few leaves
left were all riddled with holes, leaving only the ribs of the leaf. I could
find no insects then or since except a few green caterpillars. I am quite
at a loss to know the cause of this wholesale destruction. I should be
glad to have a reply from you on the subject, and you would be con-
ferring on the district a great boon if you would suggest a remedy.
I firmly believe if we had kept dressing the trees with the solution
mentioned until the apple blossom had gone we should have had a crop.
73
Phyllobius and Insects on Vines.
To this the following reply was sent : —
From the fact that you sprayed twice with Paris green, and the
description you give of the withering shoots, leaves, and flowers in your
orchards, I feel pretty certain you have been suffering from the combined
attack of two of the prominent apple and pear pests this season, viz., the
Pith Moth ( Laverna atrci) and the Bud Moth {Hedy a ocellana). The
former is most abundant generally, but I have had many reports of the
damage done by the latter.
The Pith Moth is in the pupal stage in the dead shoots still and will
soon hatch out. On a small scale these should be hand-picked, but I
doubt if it could be done in large orchards. But judging from the
recorded facts in the life-history of these two moths, I am strongly
inclined to believe we can cope with them on a large scale by autumn
and late summer spraying, for the eggs hatch out in July and the
larvrn (small) feed until the winter, when they hibernate. Arsenical
spraying then, say in August (depending on the fruit), and again as soon
as the crop is harvested would give relief, for at no other time can we get
at the Pith Moth, and not at the Bud Moth until it has done the damage.
The green caterpillars you refer to, if they are not “ loopers,” are probably
Penthina variegana , one of the Tortrices related to the Bud Moth.*
Phyllobius or Leaf Weevils.
A single instance only of the attack of Leaf Weevils has been
reported. In districts where they are usually very abundant they
have only occurred in small numbers during the past summer.
Messrs. James Carter & Co. sent specimens of the species Phyllobius
viridccris on the 19th of June, stating that they were overrunning the
garden of a client, and asked for information how to eradicate the
pest. This particular leaf weevil is common on elm hedges as a rule.
The following reply was sent : —
With regard to eradicating this pest, the only treatment is as follows : —
1. Spraying with Paris green wherever the foliage can be so treated
now (i.e. on apple, plum, pear, and nut).
2. Beating down the beetles on to tarred sacks in early morning has
been found to clear a garden speedily of this pest.
But probably spraying will be the least costly treatment if on a lar<m
scale.
Insects on Vines in Jersey.
Three kinds of Arthropods have been sent by Col. Sanderson,
fiom Jersey, attacking the vines, with enquiries regarding them
They were the following •_
o ■
* Since this report was sent, I have found the
apple trees of the young larva*.
treatment advised has cleared
74 First Report on Economic Zoology.
(i.) Two small larval mealy Bugs ( Dactyl-ohms citri).
(ii.) A single mite ( Tetr any elms telarius).
(iii.) Several specimens in larval, pupal, and adult winged stages
of one of the Pseado-Neuroptera belonging to the family Psocidce.
The following note was sent to Col. Sanderson : —
The life-history of the Psocidce is roughly as follows : The females
lay their eggs in patches on leaves, bark, etc., of trees and plants and
other objects, many on dead and decaying matter and preserved
objects. The females cover the eggs with a web. Larvse and pupae
are much alike ; wing-buds gradually appear on the larva and so the
pupal stage is assumed. Dry vegetable matters and lichens form the
food of one section ( Phocina ) ; the food of the other section ( Atropina )
is dried insects, plants, books, papers, etc. One of the latter, Atropos
divinatoria, is sometimes called the Death Watch. A beetle, Ano-
bium tessellatum , is also called the Death Watch. The Psocidae do
much harm to papers, books, and insect collections. The Phocina
live more or less in societies on tree trunks, palings, and amongst
rough herbage and on trees, especially on Conifers ; both sexes can
spin a web of silk. Some species do harm to living plants, but the
majority do not. The Psocidae sent belong to the genus Ccecilius.
With regard to the male “ Mealy Bugs ” which you enquire
after, they can soon be told, for they have one pair of wings as in all
other Coccidae, and thus differ from the winged Psocids.
The common “ Mealy Bug ” is known as Dactylobius citri , Bois-
duval, and is the same as D. destructor of Comstock. It is a world-
wide species. The males are not so very rare ; they are of a dull
reddish colour and have two long white thread-like processes at the
end of the body ; the single pair of wings are dark iridescent blue,
and when the insects are settled these wings overlap and hide the
abdomen. They are very different in appearance from the sedentary
females.
Two other “ Mealy Bugs ” occur in Great Britain, namely the
Long-fringed Mealy Bug {D. lonyipinus) and the native Laburnum
and Corse Mealy Bug ( Pscudococcus ulicis). The former can be told
by the long margined processes. The latter is really non-injurious.
The other forms you sent with the winged Ccecilius were its
larval and pupal stages. Many of the Psockke remain very like the
larval stage you send, i.e. in an apterous condition.
The Mussel Scale.
75
The Mussel Scale or Oyster-Shell Back Louse.
( Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouclie.)
Numerous enquiries are constantly being made by fruit-growers
and gardeners concerning the Mussel Scale (. Mytilaspis pomorum).
There being no leaflets issued or other ready information for fruit-
growers, the following notes have been prepared with a view to
meeting this want.
The Mussel Scale is found chiefly on apple, but also on pear,
currant, plum and wild Crataegus, such as the Hawthorn. I have
also found it abundantly on Blackthorn in Devonshire. This
Fig 8. — mussel scale (Mytilaspis pomorum).
a, Upper ; b, lower surface of 9 scale ; c, cf scale. (Greatly enlarged.)
pest, the worst scale insect we have in Great Britain, is found in
North America, and also in Australia, New Zealand, and South
Africa, having been imported on nursery stock. In this latter way
it is also largely distributed in this country. The necessity of
fumigating young stock before planting is thus rendered essential
and should be done by all nurserymen before their stock is sent out.
A few scales may easily escape detection and so set up a large
colony, to the detriment and even death of the tree. I know of no
district in England where this pest does not occur in greater or less
abundance. Old trees and neglected orchards chiefly encourage it,
but young stock suffer far more than old.
This scale insect is frequently taken for growths on the bark.
The scale is the product of a minute insect belonging to the
76 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Coccidcc ; the male and female scales differ in appearance and size ;
the male scales are seldom observed.
The female scale (Fig 8, a and b) is about one-eiglith of an inch
long ; in form the scales are rounded behind, but taper to a point at
one end — the head end ; they may be straight or curved, and even much
contorted. In colour they vary from deep brown to almost grey. The
male scale is much smaller than the female and of the form shown
in fig. 9, c. They damage the trees by sucking out the sap by means
of long, flexible mouths which they insert into the plant tissues. This
scale not only occurs on the trunk and boughs of the trees, but also on
the leaf and fruit. Foreign apples are frequently imported covered
with this and other scale pests. The scale, as in all Coccidce , is a
product formed by the insect which lives beneath it, partly by
excretions from its body, partly by the cast skins of the insect, the
so-called exuvice.
Life-history.
The eggs (Fig. 3, a2), are laid by the sedentary female under the
scale. They resemble to the naked eye small whitish dust. As many
as eighty may be counted under a single scale, but the number varies
considerably. The eggs give rise in the early summer to very small
active six-legged larvae, which crawl from beneath the scales and
may be distributed from tree to tree by the wind, by birds, and by
predatory insects, such as lady-birds. They are about one-hundredth
of an inch long. In a short time they fix themselves to the plant by
their short proboscis and draw away the sap ; the scale then commences
to form by the excretion of a few waxy threads and gradually grows
to the form shown in Fig. 8. During this period the larva loses its
legs and becomes converted into a fleshy legless creature ; the female
remains feeding beneath the scale and is provided with a long flexible
proboscis, which is inserted into the tissues of the plant. Towards
the end of the summer she deposits her eggs and dies, her shrivelled
skin remaining beneath the scale.
If the larva is going to become a male, not only is a different
scale produced (most often upon the leaves), but a totally different
mature insect. The male undergoes a kind of pupal stage and
escapes from the scale as a small winged insect, provided with two
rather large wings and a pointed process at the end of the abdomen,
which it can insert under the female scale and so carry out
fertilisation. The males are very rare, most of the females reproducing
asexually. A single brood normally exists in this country.
Mussel Scale and Beetle Mites.
77
Natural Enemies.
Scales have many natural enemies, but this species and those
that attack the currant in this country are not materially lessened
by them. Anyone trusting to parasites to help the farmer in this
respect evidently is not acquainted with these pests in our orchards.
Amongst the natural enemies birds alone do any good. The Paridac
or Tits feed upon this scale, and a few other birds on the Tree-
creeper and Wryneck. Lady-birds and their larvae eat scale, but
none seem very partial to the Mussel scale in Great Britain.
Minute hymenoptera — Chalcididae — also live as parasites upon
them, but seldom do any appreciable good; in the first instance
they occur too late in the attack to prevent the damage, and never
are sufficiently abundant to check the pest for the following year.
Sound advice to fruit growers is to go on washing and ignore the
infinitesimal help given by these minute parasites. Also encourage
those useful birds the Tits in orchard and garden.
Treatment.
The trunks, etc., of all trees must be kept clean, i.e., free from
rough bark, moss and lichens. This can be done by washing in
winter with caustic alkali wash, which at the same time corrodes
and loosens the scales from the trees. Trees badly infested should
also be sprayed in the early summer about the middle of June with
paraffin emulsion, two or three times, at intervals of a few days.
This kills numbers of the young and corrodes away to some extent
any remaining scales. Whitewashing the trunks of the trees as far
as the forks of the boughs does some good and keeps the wood in a
healthy state. All young stock should be treated to destroy the
scale before being planted or soon after. The best method is fumi-
gation with hydrocyanic acid gas, the most valuable scale remedy.
Oribatidae or Beetle Mites on Forest and Fruit
Trees.
The Beetle Mites are frequently sent by fruit-growers with
enquiries as to their economy. The records of them on forest trees
are few.
Specimens have been sent from the Director, Eoyal Botanic
Gardens, and received by him from Mr. A. S. Birknell, of Barcombe,
Sussex, which are recorded by him as damaging chestnut (horse) and
78 First Report on Economic Zoology.
lime trees. There are a number of species of Oribata ; one, 0. globata,
is often present in swarms on fruit trees, especially the plum.
Instead of finding them injurious, they appear to be either beneficial
or non-obnoxious. They have been seen feeding off the spores of the
canker fungus and various green vegetal matters on fruit trees. But
in one or two instances fruit-growers have noticed that they have
done some harm to the leaves. They often swarm in the forks of
the boughs and axils of the twigs and buds. The species sent by
Mr. Birknell has been identified by Albert Michael as Oribata
orbicularis , which also occurs on various fruit trees in Kent.
This species has been dealt with in the Journal of the South-
Eastern Agricultural College (No. 6, p. 11 (1897)). Albert Michael, the
chief authority on Mites, agrees that these Oribatkke do no practical
harm. Several fruit-growers have informed me that they cause the
leaves of the plum to die off, however. It is possible this may have
been due to other causes. All cases personally investigated have
shown no damage to the trees, although thousands of these shiny mites
were present.
Treatment.
Soft soap wash as suggested by a correspondent would be quite
useless. The Oribatidse have very hard chitinous skins, and probably
no wash that could be used in the summer would affect them. Late
in the autumn caustic alkali wash might be tried and might prove
beneficial.
The method of preparing and using the alkali wash will be found
in Leaflet 70 of the Board of Agriculture.
The Pear-Leaf Blister Mite.
( Eriophycs pyri, Sell.)
Several enquiries were made concerning the Pear-Leaf Blister
Mite during 1902. Information was sent that these little acari
enter the leaf by the stomata and live in the soft internal tissues,
where they soon commence to form a galled patch. They move from
leaf to leaf, but spread very slowly. Often one tree in an orchard
will be attacked for years before any neighbouring ones show signs of
having contracted the disease. Frequently we see a single branch of
a tree diseased year after year and yet the rest of the tree remains
clean. In nearly all cases I have seen, the fruit becomes hard and
gritty and is usually deformed. All we can do is to hand-pick the
79
Big Bud Mite and Hover Flies.
diseased leaves in July, not later, and wash the trees frequently in
early spring and autumn with liver oi sulphur wash that is paraffin
emulsion and liver of sulphur. Dr. Nalepa informs me the mites
winter in the buds.
The “Big Bud” Mite.
(Eriophyes ribis , Nalepa.)
A correspondent from near Tewkesbury wrote as follows : “A
dealer has offered me 6,000 black currants (Baldwin’s), but they
contained a lot of swollen buds like the enclosed. I want to know
if they are infested with Gall Mites, if so whether it would be safe
to plant them.” The following reply was sent : “ The black currant
buds you send are badly infested with the Currant Bud Mite
( Eriophyes (. Phytoptus ) ribis). This mite is perhaps more prevalent
in the Baldwin currant than in any other variety, but the only kind
I have never seen attacked is the old cottage-garden one, that is so
prevalent in Kent, a light cropper, however.”
“It is most unwise to have any infested plants, however cheap.
It is really quite useless attempting black currant growing with the
‘ big bud ’ pest in the plantations, as at present there is no known
remedy for it. It is most essential to be successful to start on land
new to black currants and with clean stock.”
Hover Flies ( Syrplddce : Aphis Feeders).
A number of enquiries have been made this season (1902) con-
cerning the leecli-like larvae of the Hover Flies (Syrphidce). The
following note was sent to Mr. Bear, of Hailsham, in answer to an
enquiry as to the nature of these larvae : —
The three larvae you send feeding on the Apple Aphis are those of one
of the Hover Flies ( Syrphidce ) Catabomba pyrastri , Linn. They are most
beneficial, being ravenous Aphis feeders attacking all kinds of “ Dolphins.”
There are a good many species, sufficiently abundant to do a great deal
in keeping Aphis in check, but unfortunately they come rather late and
much harm is often done by the Aphides before they make their presence
felt. Syrphus ribesii, Linn., and S. grossulariae, Meig., seem to be the
most abundant after the one you send.
These three species were sent from widely different localities.
8o
First Report on Economic Zoology .
ANIMAL PESTS OF HOPS.
Woodlice in Hops.
Specimens of the so-called Monkey-peas were forwarded on the
2nd of June from Macknade, Faversham, by Mr. F. Neame, with the
following note : —
I noticed the other day in one of the hop gardens large numbers of the
insect commonly known as “ Monkey-pea.” Are they likely to damage
the bine at all by biting it ? If you could inform me on this point, I
should be much obliged.
The following reply was sent : —
The so-called “ Monkey-peas ” or woodlice are omnivorous feeders.
They sometimes do considerable harm out of doors as well as in green-
houses, especially to soft fruits. I have never heard of them damaging
hops in any way, but it is quite probable that they would do so if present
in sufficient numbers. They are more likely to eat away on the surface of
the ground than upon the bine. Strawberries are often gnawed away
around the crown by them. Woodlice can easily be trapped by putting
old baskets full of damp moss upside down, beneath which the woodlice
congregate and can easily be collected.
CEPEAL PESTS.
Beetles on Barley affected with Smut.
Specimens of barley affected with “ Smut ” and small beetles
found with the fungus were received on 26th June (1901) from
Mr. Neame, of Faversham. Mr. Neame stated that he found them
in a field of barley badly affected with smut ; they were of a glistening
black colour, and seemed to be only on the ears affected by smut, and
occurred on almost every foul ear that had recently speared. Where
the smut had begun to blow away he could not find them. They
seemed to be eating through the skin of the ears. The following
answer was sent to his letter of enquiry : —
The Beetles you send are known as Phalacrus corruscus, Paykull. They
are common and generally distributed throughout the London and Southern
districts, rather common in the Midlands, rarer further North. I do not
know anything of the economy of the five British species, but they are
certainly not injurious. Two N. American species, P. politus, L., and
p. penicillatus , Say, have been noticed to feed upon the spores of the
Smut-fungus on wheat. There is no doubt, I think, that those you notice
in your barley are there, as you say, to feed off the fungus attacking the
crop, and that they may therefore be looked upon as beneficial creatures ;
but at the same time it is very probable they carry the spores about with
them and so help spread this serious cereal malady.
The Rosy Rustic.
81
POTATO PESTS.
The Rosy Rustic ( Ilydrcecia micaceci) attacking
Potatoes.
Amongst the numerous enemies from which the potato crop
suffered during 1902 were the larvse of one of the noctuid moths
known as the Rosy Rustic ( Hydrcccia micaceci). This attack was
reported to the Board of Agriculture from two localities, namely from
Winton, Manchester, and from near Wigan, Lancashire, and was also
observed personally. The two notes sent with these larvae were as
follows : —
(1) Enclosed are grubs that have attacked and are destroying a large
patch of potatoes ; will you kindly say what they are and what remedy I
can take.
(2) I herewith send two insects that I have found amongst my
potatoes. They were looking well to about a week ago. Any information
about them will be thankfully received.
In both cases the caterpillars were found to be working in a
similar way, namely, by tunnelling up the stalks of the potatoes,
completely hollowing them out and so killing the haulm. Should
this pest become very numerous it would be a serious matter, as
remedies are quite out of the question save hand-picking the
attacked haulm. These caterpillars are recorded as feeding in the
stems of equisetums, docks, valerian, but probably attack a variety
of other plants.
The larva when mature varies from an inch and a quarter to an
inch and a half in length. The back and sides are dull purplish-
brown, paler on the first three segments and where the segments
join, the sides and venter are of a dull flesh colour, the legs pale and
the head yellowish-brown ; on the second segment is a brown semi-
circular plate broadly margined in front with blackish-brown and a
shiny yellowish-brown patch on the anal segment with a posterior
border of small dark warts ; on the segments are small dark -brown
tubercular warts each with a fine terminal hair ; the spiracles are
deep brown and the prolegs pale with black extremities.
Before pupation the larva becomes a paler dull smoky flesh
colour all over, with a dusky median dorsal line. The full-fed stage
is reached from the beginning to the end of July. During the whole
of its life the larva burrows up the haulm and emits a great quantity
of green frass ; a round exit hole is made in the stem, the frass being
G
82 First Report on Economic Zoology.
emitted through, this. Buckler quotes a letter from the Hon. T. de
Grey as follows : — “ I first observed the larva by pulling up, on the
14th May, a sickly -looking plant of Equisetum arvense. It appeared
to be feeding on the root and stem below the surface of the ground,.
c
Fig. 9. — the potato stem-borer (Hydrcecia micacca ).
a, Imago ; b and d, larva ; c, pupa ; e, hole in potato haulm caused by larva.
(Natural size).
but when placed in a bottle with a supply of the food plant, it
immediately entered a stem, and fed upon the inner substance,
hollowing it completely out, and ejecting the frass at the lower end.”
This describes the way it has been observed working in potato haulm.
They work with great rapidity, eight inches being tunnelled in an
83
Rosy Rustic and Surface Larvce.
hour by one specimen under observation. The damage caused by
a small number in a plot of potatoes will be seen to be very great.
The larvae have been reported as early as May 10th in dock. Stainton
says it feeds on the roots of various Cyperacea. The pupal stage is
found in the ground in an earthen excavation. It is light yellowish-
brown in colour, about three-fourths of an inch long, ending in an
anal spike and some short stout bristles, pointing backwards, on the
last two segments. The imago appears in August and September, a
few stragglers even in October. It is particularly found in gardens
and lanes and by hedgerows, also along the borders of ditches,
marshes and fens. It flies at night and readily comes to light. The
fore wings are pale brown with a rosy tinge, a dark broad patch
below the upper border between the inner line and the elbowed line.
The hind wings are wliitish-grey with a darker central line. The wing
expanse varies from one and a quarter to one and a half inches.
An almost identical attack is recorded from America * by two
species, Hydrcecia nitela and 11. nebris, Guen. The former is known
as the Potato Stalkborer and has been recorded doing injury to
potatoes in Western Maine, the damage being due to the larvse
boring up the stalk and causing it to wilt. It also attacks wheat
and carnations in Ohio (Webster). It also injures tomato, spinach,
cauliflower, dahlia, aster, lily, spiraea, salvia, thistle and other plants,
and has been noticed in currant, apple, peach and blackberry twigs,
and wheat and other corn. No doubt our species has a similar
varied diet. I do not know the egg stage of this moth, nor where
the eggs are deposited in this country.
Pkevention.
All we can do is to hand-pick the haulm in gardens and fields
where it is seen to wilt and then destroy the larvse inside; by so
doing a great deal of damage will be saved. Poultry should be
turned on potato fields, when the crop has been lifted, to devour the
pupae, and the men should be instructed to kill all pupae they turn
up in digging.
Surface Larvae attacking Celery and Potatoes.
The Heart and Dart Moth (A. exclamationis, Linn.) larvae,
commonly called Surface Larvae or Cutworms, were reported by
Messrs. Carter and Co. as seriously attacking one of their clients’
. * “ SomTe, In^cfcs injurious to Vegetable Crops,” F. H. Chittenden, U.S. Dent
Agn., Div. Ent., Bull. 33, 1902. 1
G 2
84 First Report on Economic Zoology.
celery and potatoes. They have been very abundant this year in
many parts of the country, and have caused a great deal of harm to
all kinds of roots.
Various remedies have been suggested and used with varied results.
Soot and lime broadcasted over the soil and worked in with a prong-
hoe in an attack on turnip has been successful. Bran soaked in
Paris green and placed in heaps just under or on the soil has been
known to destroy them ; hundreds being poisoned by eating the
arsenic on the bran. Ivainit, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the acre, has
also been successful. In regard to the attack on potatoes, it is
difficult to do any good, but with the celery, soot and lime broad-
casted on each side of the rows would prove beneficial.
One grower has recommended watering with paraffin emulsion.
If the plants are young this would no doubt be an excellent remedy.
The Pigmy Potato Beetle.
(Bcithyscia ivollastoni , Jans.)
Early in June, Mr. Stains, gardener to F. Monins, Escp, of Ring-
would, near Dover, sent some potatoes badly damaged and full of
small Snake Millepedes (vide pp. 15, 32, and 86) (Julus pulchellus).
These often serious pests had undoubtedly done most of the damage.
At the same time, either by accident or by intent, there were sent
with the potatoes a few small brown beetles. These were identified
by Mr. Waterhouse as Batliyscia wollastoni.
Canon Fowler, in his “ British Coleoptera” (Vol. III., p. 71), says
that this species is “ found in rotting seed potatoes.” Mr. Stains was
so informed, and the subject of these little beetles dropped. But
early in July they appeared upon the scene again. I noticed
some “Up-to-Date” potatoes in my garden with the haulm badly
damaged ; there were no signs of any larvae to be seen either by day
or at night. My gardener said the damage was due to small “ brown
bugs” in the soil, and on digging up some tubers I found them
covered with this small beetle. Bather more than two-thirds of the
crop proved unsound, some from “ rot,” but the majority owing to the
ravages of this beetle.
Not only is the sound \ seed potato eaten, but the tubers themselves.
The beetles work first of all along the surface of the potato, eating
surface galleries, and then tunnel little round holes into the tubers ;
these tunnels and channels soon decay and turn brown, and so the
tuber rots away. An attacked potato cut in two looks as if riddled
with fine shot. The seed potatoes seem to be hollowed out ; whether
Pigmy Potato Beetle . 85
this is due to the beetles or subsequent decay I could not say for
certain, but I believe from the latter.
On July 14th, I wrote to this effect to Mr. Staines, to which be
replied that he had also come to the conclusion that these beetles
were causing much harm.
Not content with damaging potatoes, they spread into an onion
B
A
Fig. 10. — the pigmy potato beetle (Bathyscia ivollastoni, Jans.)
A, Section of damaged potato (c, holes eaten by the beetle, D) ; B, damaged
outer surface.
bed and ruined quite half the crop. Just as in the potato crop, so
with the onion, they work underground. The rootlets of the onions
were eaten off, so that the plants fell down ; the beetles also nibbled
at the lower part of the onions and so caused them to split and become
worthless. I tried them with numerous other food plants experi-
mentally, and found parsnips the only one they would touch ; but if
a parsnip, an onion, and a potato were put in the same box, they
86 First Report on Economic Zoology .
invariably sought the potato, and when that was gone the onion. I
have not had sufficient time to trace the life-history of this beetle,
which can only be looked upon as a serious potato pest in East Kent
and probably elsewhere, its small size and peculiar habits rendering
it very inconspicuous. From enquiries I have made, it seems to be
commonly distributed over that part of the county, and has been
connected with the diseased state of potatoes by many local men.
The beetles (Fig. 10r>) are very small, never more than 2 mm.
long ; oval and convex, of a dull, reddish-brown colour, with fine dull
yellowish hairs and the surface with minute punctures ; the thorax
a little broader than the elytra, rounded at the sides and contracted
in front ; the elytra are narrow behind and rounded at the apex ; legs
long and slender, and the tibiae, especially the middle ones, spinose.
Canon Fowler records it from Finchley and Hammersmith ; all the
other records are from Kent.
They are extremely active, both when on the potato and in the
ground, running with great rapidity and falling from the tuber at the
least shock. Evidently they hibernate as adults, for when going to
press (December) they are still alive.
Millepedes attacking Potatoes.
Mr. F. Towers forwarded some potatoes from Great Staugliton,
badly attacked by small Snake Millepedes (Julies pulchdlus) ; but two
other species were present, one belonging to the genus Julus and the
third to the genus Polydesmus. These animals breed in the soil and
often cause considerable loss ; they are probably primarily attracted
by the decaying seed.
Another correspondent, Mr. Staines, writing from Eingwould, near
Dover, says : —
I am sending you two potatoes which are attacked by some pest, a
small, thin, worm-like pest, enclosed with the tubers. As you will see, they
attack the old set, also the young tuber. When it attacks the old set, it
entirely destroys the crop, the haulm ceases to grow, and eventually
disappears. In my opinion, it is quite as bad a pest as Phytliophora
infestaus. If you can give me any information regarding the pest I
should be extremely obliged. Last year when planting I dusted round
each tuber soot and lime, with good results. This year I did not, use
soot and lime, and am very much troubled with it.
Liming the soil is the only treatment of practical use on a large
scale. There is no doubt Mr. Staines’s plan of dusting soot and lime
around each tuber when set is a good plan— lime being the great
specific against Millepedes. A plan that has met with success where
Colorado Beetle . 87
gardens are troubled with these animals is given in the Report on
p. 115.
The small beetles also sent were Batliyscia wollastoni , an abundant
potato pest in East Kent (vide p. 84).
Notes on the Colorado Beetle in England.
The appearance of the Colorado Beetle in England in 1901 was
not surprising. Ships from American ports may very easily bring
over specimens that have flown on board whilst in harbour on the
other side. A single pregnant female would be enough to start a
colony. It is probably in this way that the colony established in
1901 in Tilbury Docks originated. It has been surmised that the pest
may have come over in American potatoes ; that is scarcely likely, for
the only American potatoes that are sent to this country are seed
potatoes, which are particularly clean. At present there is no infesta-
tion of the Colorado Beetle in Europe, so that it can only have been
derived from an American source. Two previous outbreaks have
been known in Europe, both in Germany.
The outbreak of this beetle in 1901 was reported to the Board of
Agriculture during August. The beetles were then very vigorous,
eggs and larvrn of all sizes being found.
The colony was evidently well established, and looked as if it had
been in existence some little time. It was situated inside Tilbury
Dock on some potatoes on the workmen’s allotments ; they extended
for about fifty yards, and had materially defoliated the potatoes in
some places.
The adults did not readily seem to take wing, but crawled about
with great energy. Later on in the year, those taken away for
breeding purposes, however, showed a strong disposition to fly ; they
were constantly flying with great force in the breeding-cage in which
I kept them, and beautiful objects they are, too, when their brilliant
rose-coloured under wings are expanded. By keeping some .specimens
in warmth, I succeeded in getting through a complete life-cycle by
October, but those kept out-of-doors did not deposit any eggs after I
brought them away from Tilbury.
The land where this beetle had taken up its abode was cleared of
all potato haulm, and the haulm burnt with paraffin at night on the
ground under the superintendence of the Board of Agriculture
officials ; the ground was also soaked with paraffin, ploughed ten
inches deep, and then dressed with gas lime at the rate of 60 tons
per acre. Potatoes were planted on and around parts of the area to
88 First Report on Economic Zoology.
serve as baits for any fresh beetles that might appear in the spring of
the following year. In spite of the heavy dressing of gas lime,
volunteer potatoes and weeds germinated freely, showing how
uncertain gas lime is in its action.
The length of the different stages of the beetle in England, as far
as my observations go, are as follows : The egg stage, ten days ; the
larval stage, from three weeks to a month or five weeks ; and the
pupal stage, from a week to ten days in the summer. The eggs are
usually laid on the under surface of the leaves in clusters of from
nine to forty, but Mr. Craigie has observed the beetles at Tilbury to
deposit a few on the upper surface as well. They are very conspicuous
elongated oval orange bodies attached to the leaves, after the manner
of those of the Lady-birds. The eggs were found at Tilbury also on
the leaves of the Sow-thistle ( Sonchus ). There is some variation in
their colour : some are deep orange, others pale orange, according to
their age.
All the beetles I brought away from Tilbury in the autumn of
1901 went to earth by the middle of October and remained under
ground all the time, except during a few warm days in November,
when two appeared on the surface of the earth. They made their
appearance above ground in April, but did not all come up until
May 4th. They were kept until May 20th, when they commenced
egg laying. These “ check ” specimens were then destroyed.
At this date no beetles had made their appearance at Tilbury, so
that the probability is that the drastic measures taken last autumn
cleared off all those in the adult stage.
According to Ililey, the beetle passes the winter only in the adult
stage, and thus it was hoped that the measures taken had exterminated
the pest in this country.
But in May, 1902, beetles commenced to appear again at Tilbury.
Those that I saw alive were certainly not hibernated specimens, so
easily told by their dingy appearance. The specimens appearing at
this time were without doubt freshly-hatched ones, the elytra being
quite pale compared witli those that hibernated. It thus seems that
the Colorado Beetle passes the winter also in the pupal stage in the
soil. This will account for this second outbreak at Tilbury. There
is no doubt that some larvae had already buried themselves deep
in the soil previous to the plot being treated, and no doubt many
of these were below the ten inches ploughed up, and so escaped the
effects of the gas lime and paraffin.
Professor Howard informs me that this is known to happen in
America as well ; Professor Smith having observed the beetle to
Colorado Beetle. 89
pass the winter in the pupal stage, which, however, is apparently
exceptional.
This secondary method of passing the winter makes the insect
more difficult to cope with when it makes its appearance in a new
country, and should be borne in mind in the destruction of any future
colony that is found.
The number of beetles that appeared this year (1902) was not
large, but sufficient to show that they can well survive our winter,
even under such unfavourable circumstances as existed on the plots
at Tilbury.
From specimens in the National collection it seems that there are
three closely-related species of Doryphora, namely, D. undecemlineata ,
Stal ; D. juncta , Germ. ; and D. melanothorax, Stal. The first-named
has black legs, but otherwise resembles the Colorado Beetle.
I). melanothorax has an entirely dark thorax, not yellow with black
spots and central mark, as seen in the Colorado Beetle. D. juncta ,
known as the Bogus Colorado Beetle, has two of the black lines on
the wing cases very closely united, forming almost one broad single
line.
There is a fourth species in the collection, D. multitceniata,
Stal, but there seems to be no difference between it and D. undecem-
lineata.
The only species likely to be confounded with the potato pest is
D. juncta in its larval stage ; but it can easily be told when young by
being much paler than decemlineata, and when adult by having a pale
head instead of a black one ; its eggs also differ, being white instead
of orange.
The Beports sent to the Board of Agriculture on visits paid to the
infested plots are appended.
First Report on Colorado Beetle Outbreak at Tilbury.
The potato plots in the allotments in Tilbury Dockyard were visited on
August 22nd, 1901.
The Colorado Beetle ( Doryphora 10 -lineata) was found to be present.
The beetles were not at all numerous, not more than two dozen being
observed.
They were, however, very active, and breeding was going on. Larvae
n all stages were found and three batches of ova.
The beetles seemed to be limited to about fifty yards of the allotments,
the end nearest the station being quite free from the pest. A single
specimen vas also found on the Nightshade. None were detected in the
rough herbage surrounding the plots, a likely place to harbour hibernators
during the winter.
The beetles showed great vitality, but the damage, although noticeable
go First Report on Economic Zoology.
on the crop, was not as great as one would expect. Amongst the potatoes
mentioned were several of the large Ladybird ( Coccinella septemp unciata) ,
which were feeding on the eggs of the beetle. It would be advisable to
have all surrounding plots examined, especially those on the other side of
the high fence separating the dockyard from the railway. As the beetles
occur on poppies and tomatoes both these plants should be searched.
Report of Second Visit to Tilbury re Colorado Beetle.
On September 17th, 1001, I visited Tilbury with Mr. Craigie to make
further examination of the allotments upon which the Colorado Beetle had
been found breeding.
No signs of any fresh beetles had been noticed by the foreman who
had charge of the plot of land. None could be found under boards,
sacking, etc., places where they might hibernate. It is extremely
improbable that any could live in the ground covered with the gas lime
in the way it has been treated. No signs of any damage could be detected
on the potatoes, not yet dug, on the railway bordering the infested patches
in the docks.
There is a possibility that a few stray individuals might live in amongst
the rough grasses near the plots, which although treated with gas lime,
still offer many tempting spots for wintering where the lime has not
fallen.
It would be well to plant a few batches of early potatoes about, as
traps for any that may have escaped ; this would probably stop any
stragglers in the spring from straying away.
The specimens taken away at my first visit have now all gone to earth.
On placing them amongst fresh leaves and on the soil, even in the sun, they
refuse to remain above ground. These will be kept as checks, and as soon
as they commence to appear in the spring from the soil, information will
be sent to the Board, when a sharp look-out may be kept at Tilbury. For
the present nothing further can be done.
Report on the Colorado Beetle at Tilbury (1902).
I have visited the plot of land in Tilbury Dock upon which the
Colorado Beetle bred last summer, and found that the beetles were
appearing in small numbers and that they had already commenced to lay
their eggs (June 2nd). As stated by Mr. Brown, the beetles were coming
out of the ground that had been treated with gas lime and paraffin during
August, 1901.
The beetles seen by me were quite fresh specimens and presented a
much brighter shiny appearance than those I kept alive during the winter
at Wye ; one specimen found during my visit on June 2nd was certainly
immature. It thus seems that these beetles that are now appearing have
passed the winter in the pupal stage. The larvae had no doubt gone to
earth before the land was treated last autumn. A number may well have
gone deeper than 10 inches,* so that they would escape the action of the
gas lime and paraffin, and thus the appearance of the beetles this year can
be accounted for.
* The land was only ploughed to this depth.
Colorado Beetle.
9i
It is probable that they may go on appearing for another two weeks,
but I think it well to have a watch kept over the plot for at least a
month. That a brood may appear over some time we may judge from the
fact that eggs and larvae in all stages were found last August at the same
time, although it is probable that the first brood would hatch out about
the same time.
Recommendations.
1. Constant supervision and hand-picking adults and ova on infested
plot in the docks for one month.
2. Very careful examination of the potato plots along the railway line
just outside the dock property.
3. Clearing off the rough herbage in close proximity to the infested
plot. (It would be as well not to burn this near ; smoke very often makes
insects fly when they otherwise would be sedentary.)
4. A11 examination of all potato fields and plots within a three-mile
radius of the dockyard plot. This had best be made twice ; once as soon
as possible, and again about the 21st of June.
A visit ought to be paid now as well as later, because some of the
beetles may have flown away last year and hibernated, and like those kept
at Wye, have appeared during the early part of May and commenced to
breed. If this has happened the larvae should be quite large.
5. It would be well to have the leaflet on this pest sent to all potato
growers on both sides of the river to distribute to their men.
COLORADO BEETLE ENQUIRY.
(Board of Agriculture.)
Insects sent as Colorado Beetles.
A number of insects were sent to the Board of Agriculture as
Colorado Beetles from different localities ; it is a matter of interest to
note the great variety of creatures sent— none being the pest in
question. The specimens are as follows : —
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3. ) The Cockchafer ( Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.).
No. 4.
No. 5. /
No. 6. Chrysomela mctrginalis, Duft.
No. 7. Bibio hortulanus, Linn, (a fly).
Ro. 8. Larvae of one of the Chrysomelidcc (Colorado Beetle family)
of the genus Timarchcc.
No. 9. Burying Beetle ( Necrophorus sp.).
No. 10. The Cockchafer (Af. vulgaris, Fabr.).
92 First Report on Economic Zoology.
No. 6 is never in sufficient numbers to do much harm. No. 8
feeds chiefly on rank grasses and low herbs, and does no harm.
No. 9 is beneficial, the beetles and their larvse acting as scavengers.
No. 7 is to some extent injurious in the larval stage ; the larvae
occur in large masses in the soil and attack the roots of various
plants, especially grass ; great numbers have appeared in some
districts this spring.
No. 11.)
No. 12. J
Melolonthct vulgaris, Fabr.
No. 13. Pyrochroa serraticornis, Scop.
This latter is a very common beetle, which passes its larval and
pupal stages in rotten oak, birch, beech, willow, and other wood.
Neither beetle nor larva are in the least destructive.
No. 14. Telephones rusticus, Fall.
No. 15. Telephones bicolor, F.
No. 16. Melolonthct vulgaris, Fabr.
Nos. 14 and 15 are popularly known as “ Soldiers and Sailors/'
They are most voracious, the females even devouring their mates ;
the larvae are also carnivorous, feeding on insect grubs, earthworms,
slugs, etc., so that these beetles should be protected.
No. 17. Clytus arietis, Linn.
No. 18. Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.
No. 19. Crioceris asparagi, Linn.
No. 20. Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.
No. 19 is the Asparagus Beetle.
No. 17 is of little importance.
Nos. 18 and 20 are the large Cockchafer.
No. 21. Bibio liortulanus, Linn.
No. 22. Larvm of Chryomelid Beetle ( Timarclia ).
No. 23. Steropus mandidus, Linn.
No. 24
No. 25
:}
Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.
No. 26. Pterostichus vulgaris, Linn.
No. 23 attacks mangolds and strawberries, eating the fruit ot the
latter plant.
No. 24 also attacks strawberry ; both are somewhat abundant
this season.
No. 25.
No. 30. i The Eosy Fustic (Hydrcecia micacea).
No. 31.)
The pupa sent to the Board of Agriculture, numbered 32, is the
pupa of the 7-spotted Lady-bird ( Coccinella septempunctata).
Cabbage Aphis.
93
Reported Colorado Beetle at Hockley .
Some pupie sent from Hockley were those of the 7-spotted Lady-
bird (C. septempunctata).
There are no records of any of the true Lady-birds, except a
single species of Subcoccinella, S. vigintiquatuor punctata, Linn., doing
any harm to foliage in this country, but many of the large genus
Epilachna, which does not occur here, do considerable harm, and are
all herbivorous and not carnivorous. It is extremely improbable
that the potato leaves sent by Mr. Craigie, which appear to be
devoured to some considerable extent, have been attacked by the
Coccinellids sent. It is much more likely that “ Surface Larvm,”
which are nocturnal feeders, were the cause of the damage, or slugs.
At the same time, it is of course not impossible for carnivorous
insects to develop herbivorous habits. Search should be made on the
potatoes for Plant Lice, the normal Lady-bird food ; if none occur,
then there would be more reason to think that the larval Coccinellids
had become herbivorous.
Supposed Colorado Beetle at South Benfieet.
Pupae sent from South Benfieet as Colorado beetles were those
of the 7-spotted Lady-bird (C. septempunctata).
Suspected Colorado Beetle at North fleet.
Pupae also sent from Northfleet were those of the 7-spotted Lady-
bird ( C. . septempunctata), and not any stage of the Colorado Beetle.
Hothing was found in the tube resembling Fig. 2 of the pamphlet,
but the pupae are those figured at No. 7.
There was also sent a small adult Lady-bird (. Hippodamia
vccriegata).
BOOT CHOP PESTS.
The Cabbage Aphis on Turnips.
A correspondent forwarded in September some turnip leaves
seriously damaged by aphides from the Isle of Thanet. The leaves
v ere attacked by the Cabbage Aphis ( Aphis brassicce, Linn.) Nothing
can, of course, be done as late as this ; as a rule the Ichneumon flies
parasitise them in enormous numbers in September. It is not
known for certain how they pass the winter — but probably in the
egg-stage on wild Cruciferte. This species does not usually attack
94 First Report on Economic Zoology.
turnips or any other root-crop leaves, but Curtis evidently observed
it on the steins of turnip leaves. Its normal food plants are the
various Brassicce, upon which it may occur in great numbers, causing
large crinkled folds and swellings on the leaves, which turn white.
The Aphides are covered with a white mealy coat.
Unless one has a field Strawsoniser one can do nothing in such
attacks.
Injurious Tipulidae of Great Britain.
Their Life-history and Treatment.
Several enquiries have been received during 1902 concerning
Leather- Jackets.
The so-called Leather-Jackets, or the larvae of the Daddy Long-
legs, or Crane Elies, that do most harm to crops, belong to five
species, namely, the common Crane Ely (Tipulcc olerctcea ); the Marsh
Crane Ely ( Tipulcc pcduclosa) ; the Striped-abdomen Crane Ely
(T. lateralis , Meig.) ; the Yellow-Spotted Crane Fly (Pachyrrhincc
maculosa), and an allied species, P. quadrifaria. Some years it is one
species that does most harm, in other years another, or all may be
equally abundant. During the year 1902 the Yellow-Spotted Crane
Ely (P. maculosa) was most abundant generally. The larvae of all
species work in a very similar way, the grubs feeding upon roots of all
kinds of plants, often working into the interior of large roots just below
the surface of the ground. In such plants as the dahlias, carnations
and hops, they often cannot be detected, as they work so far into the
roots. They not only attack plants below ground, but they frequently
appear on the surface, and have been noticed to eat through straw-
berry runners. Their appearance on the surface is chiefly at night.
I have frequently noticed those of olcracca and mcicidosa feeding in
large numbers above ground on damp summer nights. Eitzema Bos
has not only observed the larvae of maadosa feeding above ground at
night, but also “ by day in dark, damp weather,” and watched them
at work on the growing field crop. This habit of coming above
ground at night to feed is one we must pay especial attention to
from an economic point of view. All these larvae are particularly
prevalent in grass land and clover lay, where they find congenial
surroundings amongst the tangled growth of roots and in turnip
fields ; but at the same time we get them in rich, clean garden soil,
causing havoc amongst lettuce, cabbage, and tender flowering plants.
During the past season (1902) the larvae of P. maculosa were
observed working into the stems of cornflowers just below and above
Injurious Tipulidce. 95
ground, and caused complete destruction of beds of quite large size.
It is mainly in undisturbed ground that these insects propagate,
especially when there is moisture, as in damp meadows, marshes,
and amongst the vegetation along dykes and ditches. The smaller
larvae of P. maculosa occur most abundantly on light soils, but not
by any means entirely, for I have seen them in swarms during the
past year on clay land. They occur in hilly districts just as
abundantly as in low-lying marshy land, in light and heavy soil ; in
fact, they have as wide a distribution as the common Crane Fly.
The larvae of all these and other injurious species live throughout
the winter, feeding all the time, except when the ground is frozen ;
they then pass deeper into the earth to escape the cold. Some seem
to reach maturity sooner than others of each species, for it is not
infrequent to find adults of some of the species occurring over several
months, but the main brood occurs about the same time; others
have two or more broods in the year. Grass land and root crops
perhaps suffer more than anything else from the ravages of the
Leather- Jackets. The following instances may here be recorded.
In 1813, according to Kirby and Spence (“ Introduction to Ento-
mology”), hundreds of acres of grass land were destroyed by
Leather-Jackets. In 1842 the marsh lands by the side of the
Thames in the Isle of Grain were so completely destroyed by these
grubs that the ground was bare. This occurred again in 1894 in the
same area. The larvae, of course, differ in certain features in each
species. In general form they are cylindrical, without any feet, with
a distinct horny head, retractile, i.e., it can easily be drawn into the
succeeding segments ; the posterior end is truncated and ends in a
number of fleshy projections, so-called papillae, which vary in the
different species. There are two respiratory orifices on the last
segment. The mandibles are dentate and work transversely, not upon
one another, but upon two other fixed pieces. They are not only
found living in roots, but also in rotting wood and even in water,
both salt and fresh. The pupae of these insects can easily be dis-
tinguished by their having two horn-like projections from the head ;
the segments of the abdomen are encircled more or less with spines,
especially beneath, and, like most of the nematocera, are naked, that
is they are not enshrouded in a puparial case. This stage in the
root-feeding Tipulidce is always found in the ground where the larvae
have been feeding, generally at some little distance: from the surface.
Just before the imago is ready to emerge they wriggle partly out
of the ground, the abdominal spines being used for this purpose;
usually about hall the pupa projects above the level of the earth!
g6 First Report on Economic Zoology.
The imagines then escape. It is a very common sight to see hundreds
of these empty pupal cases sticking up amongst a few square feet of
pasture. They are especially noticeable, projecting from the edges
of lawns along gravel paths. These insects do endless mischief to
lawns, but never to the same extent that they do to permanent
pasture, because the mowing and rolling, especially if carried on late
into the autumn, kills so many of the adults, and destroys the eggs,
besides compressing the ground so firmly that the Leather- Jackets
can move but slowly from root to root.
Very frequently the damage done to grass land by their larvae is
attributed to other causes. Miss Ormerod gives the following
instance : — “ On May 24th Mr. W. Gray, writing from Langholm,
Dumfriesshire, N.B., sent me some quite young caterpillars of
the Antler Moth of various sizes, from very small up to as much
as a third or half-grown. He mentioned at the same time the
injured appearance of the grass, but that on searching for the cater-
pillars there seemed very little sign of them, which he ascribed to
their being still so small that they escaped observation. However,
about a month later the true cause of the damage was found.” The
maggots proved to be the larvae of P. maculosa (Eeport XIX.,
p. 33, 1896).
The five chief injurious species may have their characteristics
summarised as follows : —
I. The Common Crane-Fly.
{Ti'pula olerctcea).
This species (Fig. 11, 1) is widely distributed over Great Britain, its
larvae and those of the next species being the common forms of large
Leather Jackets so destructive to all crops. The adults appear from
May to September, the majority being seen during August and
September, but they may occur even into October in considerable
numbers. They can stand a fair amount of frost, for I have seen
them alive after the night temperature has been as low as 28° F.
The adult is silvery-grey ; the thorax striped ; the metathorax
silvery -white ; the abdomen slaty -grey ; the segments becoming
testaceous towards their edges, and there is a dark lateral line
between the upper part and the testaceous sides ; the apex is also
testaceous. The long, slender legs are testaceous ; the tarsi dark
brown. The wings are longer than the body, greyish; the costa
brown, and sharply contrasted from the rest of the wing, and beneath
it there is a greyish , limpid streak in both g and 9 •
The larvae when full grown reach an inch in length and about the
97
Inju rious Tipu l idee.
thickness of a goose-quill. The skin is quite tough when they are
mature, much wrinkled, and ot an earthy coloi. The blunt tai
Fig. 11. — injurious Tipulidx or daddy-long-legs.
1, Tipula oleracea ; 2, T. lateralis-, 3, Pachyrhina maculosa; 4 and 5, pupa and larva of T.
oltracea ; 6 and 7, pupa and larva of P. maculosa ; 8, eggs of T. oleracea ; 9, of maculosa ;
10, basal cell and veins near, in Pachyrhina ; 11, in Tipula.
end is furnished with four large tubercles on the edge with tw
below, and in the centre the two respiratory openings.
li
98 First Report on Economic Zoology .
They pupate in July, August and September. The pupa is about
as long as the larva, but not quite so thick, and in colour varies from
dirty brown to brown ; the ventral spines are large, and there are
small ones on the dorsal parts of the segments ; the tail-end is spiny
and acuminate.
The larvae of this large Tipulid feed on all manner of roots, but
are especially prevalent in grass land.
II. The Allied or Marsh Crane-Fly.
( Tvpula 'paludosct).
This species is nearly as common as the former, which it closely
resembles. It appears, however, a little later as a rule, and may he
at once distinguished by the wings of the female being shorter than
the body and by the absence of the pale streak under the costa in the
female; this pale streak, however, occurs in the male, but the
genitalia differ from those of oleracea. The legs are also much
stouter than in oleracea. The body, especially in the female, is of a
general ferruginous colour, with the dorsal stripe weakly developed.
The palpi are also stouter than in the common crane-fly. Its larvae
feed in similar situations to the former. I am not acquainted with
its structural differences.
III. The Striped-Abdomen Crane-Fly.
( Ti'pula lateralis , Meigen.)
This is a very abundant species which sometimes appears in
swarms. I have frequently had the larvae sent me as damaging
grass lands from different parts of England. I have noticed it to be
particularly abundant along the grassy roadsides in Huntingdonshire
some years, notably in 1.890 and 1900, when great numbers of the
maggots were attacking the grass in neighbouring fields. Grass roots
seem to be the main food of the larvae. There are no records of it
attacking garden produce or other crops, but it doubtless does so. . It
occurs in the adult stage in June and July and again in September.
In the latter month I found the flies swarming in the fields around
Sidmouth in 1889.
The thorax of this species (Fig. 11, 2) has three brown stripes and
is margined with deep brown ; the middle line is broadest anteriorly
and has a dark central line in front. The abdomen has chestnut-
brown side lines, and each segment has the posterior border with a
99
Injurious Tipulidce.
fine pale line. Tlie legs are reddish-brown, the tips of the joints dark
brown. The wings are tinged with brown and there is an oblique pale
mark by the stigma. The cross-veins are clouded with dark brown
and the marginal cell yellowish-brown. Its length varies from half
to two-thirds of an inch. The larva varies from three quarters of an
inch to nearly an inch in length ; it is thick skinned, of a dirty
brownish yellow line, often with a coating of earth when it assumes
a brownish appearance, and has three dark stripes running down the
body on the back interrupted by the segments ; there are a few dark
short hairs ; the anal end with four short thick papillae above, all
much the same length, but the two middle ones closer together and
a little smaller than the outer pair, and two short, coarse ones on the
lower edge. The pupa is nearly an inch in length, of a dirty whitish
colour at first, becoming blackish-brown. On the ventral surface of
the fifth to the eighth segments is an unequal sized transverse row
of bristles near each posterior border ; there are also spines on the
front parts of the ventral segments ; the last segment is surrounde
by ten spines, four above, four below, and two on each side.
The larvre are especially fond of damp, wet, muddy earth.
The other two recorded injurious species belong to the genus
Pachyrhinus of Macquart. The members of this genus can be told
by their more fragile form and black and yellow colouring, and they
have the three veins from the discal cell, generally starting from
separate bases (Fig. 11, 10).
IV. The Spotted Crane-Fly.
(Pccchyrhina maculosa, Meigen.)
This is a most abundant species in Great Britain in fields, road-
sides, and especially in gardens. It appears in June and July and
again in September. After the two large Crane Flies this is the
most harmful species, some years it being far more destructive in its
larval stage than they are. Its life-history was first worked out by
the greatest economic entomologist England has seen — John Curtis.
During the season of 1902 it appeared in enormous numbers in
some districts, such as Kent and Huntingdonshire, and has been
reported in great abundance elsewhere. I also found it swarming in
parts of Devonshire in 1888.
Curtis speaks of it as swarming on the sea coast, and mentions
“ seeing myriads on sand banks in the Isle of Portland, also at the
back of the Isle of Wight, and at Lowestoft in Suffolk.”
h 2
ioo First Report on Economic Zoology .
Most of the small “leather-jackets” infesting gardens are of this
species ; they especially attack lettuce, peas, young brassicae, and
garden flowering plants.
There are two broods during the year, and in some seasons
possibly a third. Curtis records them as early as May. I have
taken it in numbers as late as August.
The adult (Fig. 11, 3) is yellow, the abdomen having a broad
interrupted dorsal line ; the head has a dark triangular patch behind ;
the thorax three black stripes, the lateral pair curved outwards at the
front end ; and the sides (pleurae) before the lialteres blackish-brown
on three sides. The wings are transparent with a pale brown stigma.
The thin delicate legs are testaceous, dusky towards the tips. In
length this species varies from a little under to half an inch.
The eggs of P. maculosa are oval and jet black. The larvae when
mature are never more than three-quarters of an inch long. In
colour they are earthy and the skin is wrinkled, but not tough as in
the Tipulce. They are cylindrical, somewhat attenuated at each end ;
the alimentary canal shows through the skin, above and below, as a
broad dark stripe. Each segment has a transverse row of four stiff
bristles, the inner ones of each row the shorter ; laterally are short,
stiff, black hairs. They can at once be told from the large leather-
jackets when the latter are immature, i.e., about the size of mature
maculosa grubs, by the anal processes ; in this species the truncated
tail has two hooks or papilke, and two short ones between them, with
two blunt tubercles below and two fleshy protuberances capable of
dilatation and contraction ; there are also two central spiracles ;
between each stigma and the ventral papilloe a transverse row of
three small dark brown spots. They reach maturity in the spring
and pupate in the soil. The pupae are brown to golden brown in
colour, slightly narrower than the larva?, and have the two straight
cephalic horns ; the abdominal segments have each a row of minute
spines above and six large ones beneath, and on either side an
elevated spiny line, the penultimate segment has six long spines and
two small ones, and there is a large conical process at the tail with a
shorter one beneath it. Curtis describes them as not only eating
roots, but also eating off trusses of the strawberry flowers close to the
crown. He also found them in May at the roots of lilacs and
amongst the roots of grass ; they also destroyed carrots, raspberry and
strawberry roots, lettuces and various flowers. Miss Ormerod, as
previously noted, gives records of its damage in the Scottish uplands,
where its working was mistaken for that of the larva of the Antler
Moth (Charccas graminis).
Inju rions T ipu li dee.
IOI
V. The Allied Spotted Crane-Fly.
( Pachyrhina quadrifaria, Meigen.)
This is a closely related species to the preceding, and like it is
generally distributed over England, but does not seem to occur in
such swarms, nor do its larvae seem to occasion as much harm, it,
however, has been sent to me from various parts of Surrey and I
have observed its larvce in great numbers ravaging flower and
vegetable plants at Kingston-on-Thames in 1884 and 1886 ; in the
latter year it was especially abundant in the south of England.
The adult appears in June and July.
The female is yellow, the abdomen with a black dorsal stripe ; the
head with a triangular black spot behind. The thorax has three
broad black stripes, the lateral pair including two yellow spots, and
the metathorax has three black stripes. In the $ the abdominal
stripe is interrupted on the anterior border of each segment, in the 9
the dorsal stripe is dilated on the hind border of each segment. The
wing is transparent, with the stigma brown, and the hind cross-vein
and the last piece of the vein below it infuscated. Legs testaceous ;
tips of the femora and tibiae black, and the tarsi dusky. Length,
half an inch.
The deep brown stigma will at once separate it from the
preceding species.
The larva is seldom more than half an inch long, of a greyish-
yellow colour, with thick skin, and very like that of P. maculosa ;
four dorsal papillae, the two inner ones much shorter than the two
outer ones ; the two ventral papillae short, also brown stripes beneath
the stigmas. The pupa is about as long as the larva, brownish-yellow,
with sharply indented segments ; two short, thin, rather spatulate
cephalic horns ; each segment with six or seven dorsal spines ;
ventral surfaces with five teeth-like spines.
Natural Enemies of Tipulidhl
The Tipulidae are preyed upon by a number of natural enemies
which, however, are not sufficiently potent to stop them doing much
harm and causing great loss both to the agriculturist and horticul-
turist. The subject of natural enemies is one to which, special
attention should be paid, but it is quite useless to expect very great
benefit to accrue from any except the birds. People who are
acquainted more with the laboratory than the field talk of the use of
parasitic hymenoptera ( Ichneumonidcc and Clialcididce ) and of
102 First Report on Economic Zoology.
predaceous insects as it they would do all that is required to check
an insect pest. In a few cases predaceous insects have done
enormous good, under abnormal conditions, but in a state of nature
they never appear in sufficient numbers to make any impression
until the pest in question has increased to such an extent that the
harm is all done. The introduction of new predaceous forms is,
•however, always worth trying, as now and again good has resulted,
as seen in the case of the leery a scale and Vedalict cardincdis.
When people commence to talk of stopping spraying for Aphides
or scales because the beneficial parasites are killed also, it is sufficient
evidence they know little of fruit-growing or the fruit grower’s
troubles.
In the Tipulkke we find scarcely any record of insects that
destroy either larvte or adults. Curtis mentions Ichneumons as
attacking the larvae, but says no more. Although I have bred large
numbers from different parts of Britain I have never come across a
parasite, with the exception of a single ? Tcichina, sp. (?) that appeared
in a cage of T. olcracea. Numerous birds, however, feed very largely on
these insects, not only upon the larva3, but also upon the adult flies.
Amongst those birds which are great “ leather-jacket ” destroyers
are the following : the Book, the Starling, the Peewit, various Gulls,
the Pheasant, and, to a lesser extent, all the Turdidce, or Thrushes,
and Blackbirds. Enormous numbers of these larvie are devoured in
autumn, winter, and spring by the three former birds, and the
pheasant’s crop may frequently be found full of them. The decrease
ia the number of Peewits has been marked by a corresponding
increase in this pest as well as in the Wire-worm. All these birds
should be encouraged, not only because of their destroying “ leather-
jackets,” but other pests as well.
The adults are devoured by the Spotted and other Fly-catchers,
by the Swallow, and even by the Sparrow. The Book also devours
large numbers as they are ovipositing in the fields. Poultry also do
much good, for they feed whenever opportunity occurs upon both
larvse and adults. These birds all do good because they are always
present and are constantly feeding. They are often attracted in greater
numbers when hosts of insects appear, but even when normally present,
by devouring these and other pests before many of them have done
harm, they do inestimable good, whilst on the other hand parasitic
and predaceous insects come too late.
Moles also feed off leather-jackets, and do far more good than
harm even in pasture land, where their “ heaps ” cause some
inconvenience.
In furious T ipulidce.
103
Preventive and Remedial Measures.
Although there is no known remedy for “leather-jackets” in the
field there is much we can do to lessen the amount of harm
caused by them and to prevent their undue increase. In garden
cultivation, on the other hand, we can destroy them even in the soil,
if it is considered worth the while.
In the first place, we can do some good in preventing egg laying.
This we may do in three ways; firstly, by keeping down all long
herbage during the autumn, long rank growths at the headlands and
along hedgerows ; secondly, by bush-harrowing pasture land or
heavily rolling the same when the swarms of flies are noticed in the
fields, hundreds will thus be killed and so prevented from laying
their eggs, and the eggs in many cases themselves will be destroyed ;
thirdly, late mowing and rolling of lawns, croquet grounds, etc., will
not only kill large numbers of the adults, but eggs as well. There
is no doubt that for preference the flies will go to damp areas to
deposit their eggs, and thus drainage will do good. This has been
carried out on many occasions and has always been attended with
good results. Pasture land and clover lay should be broken up
when possible early in the autumn, so that the flies can find no
shelter amongst which to lay their eggs. The land may first be
dressed with gas lime, spread over it at once and allowed to remain
on the surface for a few days. The smell would deter the flies from
laying their eggs and would probably affect any small larvae present.
The effect of gas lime is very variable, however, and it is doubtful
from recent experience if it has much effect upon large subterranean
insects.
The old plan of “ paring and burning ” the stubble or grass on
breaking up pasture is perhaps the best method of clearing out this
and other ground pests. It of course has its disadvantages and is
now seldom practised, but there is not the least doubt that it is the
only way to lessen these pests in the soil.
Rolling with a cross-kill or Cambridge ring roller does some good
by compressing the soil, and so preventing the “ leather-jackets ”
from free movement in the ground. This is especially advantageous
where they are attacking wheat or barley. In dealing with their
life-history it was pointed out that the grubs come to the surface at
night ; a heavy ring-roller, of course, would kill any number of their
larvae if passed over them, and could not fail to do much good,
104 First Report on Economic Zoology .
especially where as in grass land we have absolutely no means of
controlling them. The extra cost of night work would be amply
repaid. It is recorded by Miss Ormerod “ that the grubs may be
collected by a top dressing of rape-cake and the roller passed over
the ground in the morning with good results ” ; this does not always
seem to have the desired effect, however.
Traps may be employed in gardens in the form of heaps of turf,
partly buried in the soil ; the flies lay their eggs there and the larvae
seem to be attracted to it and can then be collected and killed.
Hotting turf-manure and leaf-mould heaps should be kept free from
surface weeds and top dressed with gas lime, or else they will form
breeding grounds for these Tipulidae, and the larvae will be carried
to field and garden, and so contaminate the soil. Grass-borders in
gardens are favourite breeding grounds, and from these the larvae
spread to the bedding plants. In garden borders and beds they can
be easily destroyed by injecting bisulphide of carbon into the soil at
the rate of half an ounce to every square yard. This should be done
in late autumn or early spring. When crops are attacked various
stimulating manures should be employed ; they do not kill the larvae,
but they hasten on the growth of the plant and repair some of the
damage that the grubs have done. Nitrate of soda has the greatest
effect upon leather-jackets, but is not permanent in its action. It,
however, causes a cachectic condition in these pests, from which they
do not recover for some days, if its application at the rate of 2^ cwt. to
the acre is followed by rain. Miss Ormerod records an experiment
in which at the rate of 2 cwt. to the acre they had not recovered
from its ill effects after eight days. The effect of this artificial
manure on insects is so extremely variable that one must not rely on
it too much. At the same time it must be borne in mind that if it
has not the desired effect on the grub, it is still of value as a
stimulant to the plant. Hand and horse hoeing have also been
recommended and largely followed, but the good done is scarcely
sufficient for the outlay.
IVoo cilice in Gardens .
105
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY OR
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section II.
Animals Injurious to Horticulture.
Julidae destroying Plants in the Gardens of
Downton Castle, Ludlow.
In answer to a communication received from Mr. C. Boughton
Knight, of Downton Castle, regarding the damage and annoyance
caused by Myricvpoda, the following report was sent : —
The Millepedes that are damaging strawberry and other plants in
the gardens at Downton Castle are the small Snake Millepede ( [Julies
pulchellus).
These animals live both on healthy and diseased plants. The eggs are
laid in the ground ; the young Juli have but few legs at first. I have
found them breeding at all times of the year, but especially in spring and
early summer. Julies pulchellus is particularly prevalent in damp localities
and where decaying vegetation is left about. Heaps of leaf mould harbour
it especially. Lilies are particularly subjected to the ravages of this pest,
but all roots seem to be liable to its attack.
I have made one or two experiments with the ones sent me from
Ludlow, and I find that poisoned bait is very satisfactory. I simply dipped
the pieces of mangold and potato in a strong solution of Paris green and
covered the baits with a cabbage leaf. This morning all the Millepedes
were dead, those not so treated all alive and well.
I think I should adopt this plan to clear them out in preference to
any other. The baits should be larger than the pieces sent with the pests
and should be left to soak in the Paris green for an hour ; of course the
poison, which is soluble in water, must be kept stirred up every now
and then.
Put the baits down wet and cover over with a green leaf, the best
time to start them would be at night (dusk).
Heaps of leaf mould, etc., should have a good dressing of gas lime
mixed with them if the creatures are observed there.
There were also a few P olydesmns complanatus with the Julus ; they
also are easily poisoned.
Woodlice in Gardens.
In answer to a letter sent by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, from
Mr. Thomas A. Lance, of Sydenham, Surrey, the following reply was
sent concerning Woodlice : —
The scientific name of the woodlouse most commonly found in Great
Britain is Porcellio scaber , Linn. There are two other common species
106 First Report on Economic Zoology.
that do harm, viz., Oniscus asellus, Linn., and Armadillidium vulgare ,
Lat. Oniscus asellus is omnivorous, but does much harm in hot-houses
and to soft wall-fruit ; it also eats away at strawberry roots. This species
rolls itself up into a ball and can be told from the Armadillidium and
Porcellio by having eight-jointed antennm, the two latter having seven-
jointed ones.
Armadillidium vulgare is larger and of a uniform slaty blue and rolls
itself up very readily.
Porcellio scaler is brown, much variegated in colour, with a rough
shell and two long spines behind.
Probably they have been spread in the manure from the heap you
refer to.
You might cover the manure heap with lime — gas lime (hot) in
preference — but it must be left on the heap for some four weeks before it is
put on the land. I should put a layer an inch thick of gas lime over the
heap and let it stand for some time.
Woodlice may easily be trapped along borders by putting here and
there pots filled with moss and horse dung. They can be collected in the
day-time and so destroyed.
Many plants are harmed by these pests ; as a rule the harder the leaf
the more the plant escapes.
There are some twenty species of Woodlice found in Great Britain.
These land isopoda are included in twelve genera. They may mostly
be found under moss, decaying wood, and leaves, both out-of-doors and in
greenhouses. Some few, such as Ligia oceanica, Linnsnus, and Philoscia
Couchii, Kinahan, seem to be partial to the neighbourhood of the sea.
A New Phytoptid Disease in Violas.
Quite a new disease in violas lias been reported by Mr. Charles J.
Gleed, of Cliveden Gardens, Maidenhead. The specimens sent had
most of the leaves curled tightly over at each side and were quite
hopelessly deformed.
Mr. Gleed wrote that he “ thought it was the cold weather ; but
the attack is not general, two or three plants here and there, about
30 per cent, of the plants and both young stuff struck this spring,
and old plants off which cuttings have been taken, are attacked
indiscriminately.”
At first sight one would say the damage was due to Diplosis
violicolct — the Violet Gall-Midge described by Mr. Chittenden * and
excellently figured — but an examination soon revealed the real cause
of the disease. There were found in all the leaves examined a
number of short, thick green phytopti which seemed especially to
congregate towards the apex of the leaves. As many as fifty of this
large species were counted in one leaf. It is larger than the Currant
* “ Some Insects injurious to the Violet, Pose, and other Ornamental Plants,”
Bull. 27 (n.s.), U.S. Dep. of Agriculture, 1901, p. 47.
io7
The Narcissus Fly.
Gall Mite, and can easily be seen with a hand lens. Specimens were
sent to Dr. Nalepa, who informs me it is a new species which he is
going to describe. f
Information was sent to Mr. Gleed to destroy the plants that were
attacked and all cuttings taken from them, and to burn the earth in
which they were growing.
If allowed to spread, this mite would probably form a serious
source of loss to nurserymen.
The Narcissus Fly.
(. Mcrodon equcstris , Fabr.)
A correspondent, Mr. T. J. Leney, sent the larvse of the Nar-
cissus Fly, from Chertsey, with the following note : “ They play
havoc with the narcissus bulbs and are evidently the maggot of some
fly. They commence boring from the base of the bulb upwards,
eating out the centre. I cannot quite understand their beginning
operations at the base of the bulb ; one would have thought the eggs
would be deposited at the top and the maggots work down the bulb,
whereas the point of entrance is in nearly all cases as shown by the
dot in the drawing.”
The larvse were of the dipterous genus Mcrodon, several of which
are known to feed upon the bulbs of the narcissus, etc., in Europe.
One species only is so far recorded from Great Britain, namely,
Mcrodon equcstris, Fabr., according to Mr. Verrall, but Walker in his
work on “ British Diptera ” also gives Mcrodon clcivipcs, Meigen,
probably in error. There are three varieties of Mcrodon equcstris, viz.,
var. narcissi, F., var. validus, Meig., and var. transver satis, Meig.
These three were at one time treated as distinct species. Which
variety the larvse sent belong to it is not possible yet to say.
This Narcissus Fly has frequently attacked the bulbs in Corn-
wall, and I have had it reported to me from Ham, in Surrey.
The fly appears in May, and may be seen flying over daffodils and
other similar plants. The fly resembles to some extent a bee in
form ; it is three-fourths of an inch long ; the body is deep bluish-
black with transverse bands of golden yellow ; the wings grey,
fringed with dull yellow ; legs black, short and stout.
The female probably lays her eggs near or upon the bulb. The
larvse, however, always seem to enter from the lower part of the
f This is described under the name Eriophyes violae, n. sp. (Sitzung der
mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe vom 11. Dec. 1902, Kaisedliche
Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien).
108 First Report on Economic Zoology.
bulb as you describe. Those I have kept attacked as many as ten
bulbs before becoming mature. When one bulb is destroyed they
crawl through the soil and enter the next one at its base. The grubs
seem to reach maturity during November, but some kept under
observation lived until January. When full fed they form a cell in
the earth near the last bulb attacked and line this cell with silk,
forming a perceptible cocoon. The puparium is dark brown, oval in
form, and has two projecting processes in front.
It is probable that this pest is constantly being imported from
the Continent.
It is very desirable to lift all bulbs in a bed that is invaded
before October ends, even if it is not the year for their removal. All
bulbs should be examined and any showing decay destroyed, or the
fly will go on increasing and may do endless harm. Where beds
have been invaded and the bulbs lifted, the ground should be deeply
dug and the top spit buried so as to prevent the flies emerging next
year. Mr. Leney informs me that on lifting the bulbs to have
them examined and to kill the larvae no more than two full-grown
larvae occurred in each bulb, but more frequently only one in a bulb ;
when, however, the larvae are in a younger stage and about half the
size of those sent (fully mature) he invariably found from seven to
eight in a single bulb.
The Marguerite Fly and its Destruction.
Specimens of Marguerite leaves tunnelled and generally damaged
were received from Great Staughton, near St. Neots, on the 4th of
June. The following reply was sent in answer to a request for
information in regard to destroying the culprits : —
The white daisies that are attacked are being tunnelled by the little
grubs of a small fly, the Marguerite Fly (. Napomyza lateralis , Fall.). The
only thing one can do is to pick off all the diseased leaves, and if they
are very bad destroy (bum) the whole plant. There is no remedy, and if
left alone they go on spreading very rapidly. When the plants are young
spraying with paraffin emulsion will keep the fly away, but when it has
once laid its eggs on the leaf you can do nothing for it.
The Carrot Fly ( Psila rosce , Fabr.) and Aphides
on Carrots.
The Carrot Fly ( Psila rosce) was very destructive during the
summer of 1902. One correspondent, Mr. Hammond, writing from
Canterbury, states as follows: “I have since looked at my neigh-
Insects in Orchid Houses. 109
hour’s carrot-bed ; every carrot lias been ruined ; his bed is utterly
ruined.” Together with the work of the Carrot Fly in this neigh-
bourhood was a bad attack of Aphis. “ People about here, writes
Mr. Hammond, “ are complaining that their carrots are very much
infested with Aphides at the roots.” This was early in October.
By the 20th Mr. Hammond found that they had nearly all dis-
appeared. They are to be found generally on the crown of the
carrot ; they do not cause the cracks, but shelter in them. These
Aphides were too shrivelled to identify when they arrived ; they
were probably Schizoneura fodiens.
Correspondence and Report on Insects in Orchid
Houses.
Gatton Park, Surrey,
8th July, 190%
To Professor E. Ray Lankester, M.A., etc.,
Natural History Museum, South Kensington, S.W.
My Dear Sir, — I am a collector of orchids and somewhat largely
interested in their hybridization, but our efforts are materially interfered
with by a little fly or its grub (specimens of which I enclose), and whose
ravages we have found no means of preventing. It is no uncommon
thing for them to clear off the whole of the contents of a pot of seed as
soon as it is sown and germinates. We have made the following observa-
tions in regard to it : —
They seem to frequent and thrive most where they have damp moss to
dwell in, which unfortunately is an essential feature of successful orchid
growing.
Being often found on plants that have no seed on them, they of course
have other food, but apparently they have largely increased in my houses,
which, however, may be due rather to the amount of moist moss about than
to the amount of orchid seed which they have to feed on. They are
equally troublesome in what we know as the “ Cool House ” (50° to (>0° F.)
as in the hot ones (65° to 85° F.). They devour the seed immediately it
commences to germinate, and if not devoured in this stage they attack
the small bulblet as soon as it is formed, eating it from the base and
leaving the shell only. They are harmless to plants after the early stages
and so are not troublesome to orchid growers generally.
Careful search has failed to discover a grub. Hence it is assumed
(possibly erroneously) that it is the fly which does the mischief. Further,
the winged one (? male) is rarely found on the pots, which leads to the
assumption that it is the wingless one which does the mischief. If we are
wrong in the assumption that the male only has wings our observation
would lead to the suggestion that the fly is harmful only before it develops
its wings. The body of the wingless one on the pots is much larger than
the one found with wings. AVhen the seed is sown on a flat surface
without harbour we are not troubled ; but directly the seed is removed,
which it has to be soon after germination, it becomes liable to attack.
iio First Report on Economic Zoology.
Various methods have been unsuccessfully tried, particularly the
following : —
Fumigation, either with tobacco or a compound known as “X.L. All”
(this is supposed to contain nicotine, camphor, methylated spirits, etc.),
but neither has any material effect. Quassia affects them only for a short
time, as they leave the pots and return in a few days. The pots have been
placed under water for hours, but upon being taken out the flies are equally
as lively as before. Fly-paper and strings similarly covered are of no avail.
(N.B. — The houses are regularly fumigated for pests, in general about
every ten days.)
I should be very glad to know if there is any method of ridding
ourselves of the pest by destruction or of making it harmless to the
germinating seed and bulblet by driving it from the pot or otherwise.
Any information as to its known habits might help us to work out its
destruction if no remedy is known. It is of course important that any
remedy shall be harmless to the orchid seedlings themselves. They are
extremely delicate and porous and have to be kept in a constant state of
moisture.
I must apologise for having troubled you with so long a letter, but the
ravages of this insect are most annoying and often rob us of results which
have promised to be of great interest in the horticultural world, and I
should feel much indebted if you could let me know of a remedy or of any
one who would be likely to advise me should you personally be not
acquainted with one.
I beg to remain, etc.,
(Signed) Jeremiah Colman.
Report on Insects in Orchid Houses.
The insects sent by Mr. Colman, of Gatton Park, Surrey, causing
harm to orchids, are in too broken a condition to identify accurately. The
small flies are Sciarince and belong to the genus Zygonema , of which only
one species occurs in Britain — Z. sciarina (Meigen), found in summer and
autumn in underwoods and moss — but without seeing fresh and perfect
specimens it is not possible to be certain of the species. The life-history
is not known, but probably they breed in the damp moss. The larvae do
not seem to have been observed ; they would possibly be in the form of
small white footless grubs.
The flies can do no harm — it would be the larvae — but there is no
doubt that the damage is done to the orchids by the wingless creatures
sent at the same time. There is no connection between the wingless
insects and the Sciarinae. The wingless forms are Cotlembola , or Spring-
tails. Some of these are certainly very injurious, but little is known of
them, however. The young of these Spring-tails resemble very closely the
adult, and live and grow in similar situations and under similar conditions
and are injurious during the whole of their existence. Preparations have
been made of this Collembola, and attempts will be made at its
identification.
The majority of species live under damp moss and stones and are no
doubt encouraged by the methods necessary in orchid cultivation. All
that can be suggested is that Mr. Colman experiments on a small scale
Insects in Orchid Houses .
1 1 1
with some common orchids and hydrocyanic acid gas. This gas can be
used for such delicate plants as maidenhair fern without injury and is
fatal to all forms of animal life, but its effect on orchids has not been
observed. If there is much moisture oil the plants this gas loses much
of its potency, and the air during fumigation should be dry. Its effects
in an orchid house might not therefore be as successful as under other
circumstances. It is certainly wTorth trying, however, as fumigation with
tobacco, etc., would have little effect on these creatures that are causing
the annoyance.
Great care should be exercised in the use of hydrocyanic acid gas, as it
is a most dangerous poison to man.
Should Mr. Colman think it advisable to experiment with this
insecticide, information as to procedure can be sent him.
There does not seem to be any other way in which these pests can be
eradicated under the conditions necessary for orchid cultivation.
Fred. Y. Theobald.
Gatton Park, Surrey,
29th July , 1902.
To Professor Lankester,
British Museum (Nat. Hist.)
Cromwell Road, S.W.
Dear Sir, — In further reply to the interesting report of Mr.
Theobald of the 21st, I have had an opportunity of a careful discussion
of the points raised with my gardener.
I understand the report to throw considerable doubt upon the
probability of the larvrn of the Sciarinse being harmful. Under the
circumstances, and as it seems certain that the Collembola or Spring-tails
are, I suggest that we ignore the former, especially as we have not been able
to observe them and have no actual evidence of their causing mischief.
There will be no difficulty in adopting the suggestion that the effect
of hydrocyanic acid gas upon orchids shall be ascertained by experiments.
It is believed, however, that, used in moderation, it will not be harmful to
them. It is certainly unfortunate that its effect is likely to be minimised
by moisture. The moisture on the moss, etc., can be reduced, but it is
such an essential feature in the early stages of orchid growing that it
would have to be done with great care and not for any length of time.
Should it be the young Spring-tails which are most largely responsible for
the mischief, material relief from these pests might be secured by an
application of the gas before the seed is sown or before the germinating
plants are transferred thereto and when the compost is in a perfectly dry
state. A good deal depends upon their habits, but I am writing on the
assumption that the young may not develop very quickly or be able to
reach the pots before the plants are sufficiently strong to take care of
themselves. It seems difficult to place the pots in such a position as to be
out of reach of the adult Spring-tails, but we will gladly experiment if any
suggestion can be made. We have now placed some of the pots on a zinc
tray on stands, which seems to have minimised the mischief somewhat.
Although the more orthodox way of raising the seed seems to be to sow it
1 12 First Report on Economic Zoology.
upon the moss surrounding growing orchids, it is quite possible to raise
it and transfer it to very small pots, so that if we have the means of
preventing the depredations of these Spring-tails over a small area a great
deal would be accomplished.
Apologising for troubling you, etc.,
(Signed) Jeremiah Colman.
Fumigation under Glass for Mealy Bug and
other Pests.
Frequent enquiries have been made as to the use of hydrocyanic
acid gas under glass for the destruction of Mealy Bug. This treat-
ment will be found to far surpass the old methods of fumigating with
tobacco and various patent compounds.
The method of fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas (HCN) for
Mealy Bug, Scale, etc., under glass, is as follows : —
For every 1,000 cubic feet of space use 5 ozs. sulphuric acid, 8 ozs.
water, 3 ozs. cyanide of potassium.
The water should be put into a jar and then the acid added to it ;
remember to always add the acid to the water, and not the water to
the acid ; the cyanide should be in small lumps and wrapped up in
blotting-paper ; the cyanide is then dropped into the jar of water and
acid and the fumes allowed to generate for an hour. It, of course,
has to be done quickly and with care, owing to the poisonous fumes
being so deadly to all forms of animal life. The cyanide should be
dropped into the acid and water from outside the house ; this can
easily be done by putting the jar close to the door or window, so that
it can be shut as soon as the packet of cyanide touches the mixture.
When yvrapped in blotting-paper, some seconds elapse before the
fumes generate.
If the glass-house is more than 10,000 cubic feet another jar will
be required, and for every additional 10,000 feet.
The foliage of all plants to be treated should be as nearly dry as
possible.
The temperature never more than 60°Falir. 50° Fahr. is the best
temperature. At heat over 50° Fahr. there is a risk of harming the
foliage.
Do not fumigate in a strong light, as foliage may then be
damaged ; fumigate always after sunset.
Do not fumigate vines when in bloom or just before the grapes
have commenced to ripen.
Goat Moth Larva attacking l Vi l lows. 113
The times to fumigate for Mealy Bug are (a) betore the vines
bloom ; (b) after the crop has been gathered.
The house should be well ventilated lor at least one hour alter
fumigation before anyone should go into it, the windows being
arranged so as to open from the outside, and also the door.
The cost comes to about 4 cl. per 1,000 cubic feet. This treatment
has been found not to damage even maiden-hair ferns if carried out
properly, and there is no danger if proper precautions are taken. It
is not advisable to leave the treatment to ignorant people, as the
fumes and the cyanide are of course deadly poisons.
SUB-GROUP B. ANIMALS WHICH CAUSE INJURY OR
DISEASE TO MAN’S VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section III.
Animals Injurious to Forestry.
Goat Moth Larvae attacking Willows.
Mr. W. S. Mockett, of Ramsgate, wrote in September regarding
the damage to willows by the larvae of the Goat Moth. Several other
correspondents have also applied for information both in regard to
their life-history and ways of destroying the larvae. Ash, oak, elm,
as well as fruit trees, are attacked by these large larvae, and they
frequently kill the trees outright.
If there are not many Goat Moth larvae in a tree it is quite
possible to destroy them. This may be done in several ways ; the
old plan was to insert a wire into the opening of the tunnel to find
out which way the tunnel goes, and if downwards use a fluid, if
upwards a gas.
The best fluid is paraffin emulsion, with a little Paris-green
injected by means of a syringe, the nozzle being forced into the hole
and surrounded by clay until the injection is over. If a gas or fume
is used, sulphur acts well ; use bee-bellows and blow the fumes in,
fixing the nozzle as before with clay.
About June, smear the trunk of the tree with cow-dung and clay,
mixed with paraffin, as far up as holes are found ; this prevents egg-
laying. By far the best plan lias recently been found in the use of
cyanide of potassium. Place a small piece of stick cyanide in each
hole and then close up with clay. The fumes soon kill the larvee
within tlieh tunnels.
1
1 14 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Insects on Osiers and Willows.
In answer to a request for names of insects observed by Mr.
Marsh, of Milford School, near Godaiming, who gives instruction in
Basket-work, and who is growing the different varieties of Willows
and Osiers with a view of comparing them, and also finding out
something about their culture and what insects affect them, the
following reply was sent : —
As far as one can say from your descriptions of the insects attacking
your willows and osiers, they are as follows : —
(1) The Minor Shoulder Knot Moth (Epunda viminalis'). The
moth appears in July and August, the larva in May ; the pupa is
subterranean. All the larvae of this genus live exposed and extended
along the stems of plants.
(2) The larvae of Syrphidae or Hover Flies ; they are not injurious,
but beneficial, being Aphis feeders.
(3) A green Aphis, undoubtedly Siphocoryne capmc, Fabricius. It is
found on all willows and occurs from April to July. It is fairly common
round Guildford, Godaiming and that part of Surrey.
(I) This Aphis is called Melanocanthus salicis, Linn. It is
especially found on Salix viminalis. The wingless forms appear in April,
the winged females from the end of June throughout July. It is recorded
from your district (Guildford) and I have found it in abundance on osiers
at Wye ; it is also recorded from Kentish Town.
(5) This Aphis is Ghaitophorus salicivorus , Walker. It varies much
in hue. They are often seen brick red in colour.
The osier has a great number of insect pests, especially amongst
the sawflies, cecids or gall midges, moths and beetles.
A list of the more important is being prepared.
Insects on Elm and Willow.
(Schizoneura lanuginosa , Hartig., and Laclinus viminalis , Fonsc..)
Specimens of Aphides attacking elm and willow were received
in October, 1901, from Miss J. Burroughs Norgate, from Enfield.
One, a large gall on the elm, proved to be the work of an Aphis of
the same genus as the White Woolly Aphis or American Blight. It
is known as Schizoneura lanuginosa. The Willow Aphides Laclinus
viminalis, Fonsc. The correspondent stated that her attention
was called to this aphis by the number of wasps hovering over a
lilac bush beneath the willows. They were feeding off the gummy
honey-dew. The large masses of aphides were then discovered on
the willow in their typical position. William Curtis noticed that
Insects on Elm and IV illow.
1 15
wasps feed readily off the honey-dew excreted by this species of
aphis, and also that bees totally disregarded it. The flow of honey-
dew produced by this species is very copious and does much damage
to the trees and those beneath. It is not at all unusual for willows
and osiers to be killed outright by it.
The effect of the punctures of these plant lice is to leave distinct
brown scars in stripes. This plant louse is also known as the
Aphis saligna, Walker, other synonyms being Aphis salicis, Curtis,
Aphis viminalis, Boyer de Fonscolombe, and Lachnus vimincilis,
Passerine. The wingless viviparous female is dark yellowisli-brown
to greyish-brown ; the antennie red at the base, black at the tips,
and there are two dark spots on the thorax. The abdomen is much
rounded and in the centre is a curious horn -like projection ; the
cornicles are large and short and there are five to six rows of large
black spots on it. The legs are deep brown, rather long and hairy.
In length they are about 0*16 of an inch. The pupa is much like
the larva, but rather longer and with bright brown wing cases, and
the dorsal tubercle is very large.
The winged female is quite a large insect, 4 to 5 mm. in length, of
a dull brown colour with darker marks, the abdomen being spotted
with black, one large spot placed centrally ; this spot apparently is
the representative of the tubercle seen in the wingless female ; the
short cornicles are almost conical. The long wings always seem to
be carried horizontally when the insect is at rest ; the stigma is long,
narrow and black ; the insertion and cubitus orange-yellow. The
legs are long, the tibiae yellowish-red, the two-jointed tarsi deep
brown.
As this is certainly a very harmful species steps should be taken
to destroy them by washing the willows with paraffin emulsion.
This species is very common in some districts on willows and
osiers. They congregate in masses often half a foot in length and an
inch or more wide ; they are usually grouped side by side with their
heads pointing downwards. When disturbed these sedentary insects
become most active, yet do not leave their abode ; they throw their
long hind legs up and wave them about in an erratic manner, with
the probable intention of frightening off the enemy, especially hymen -
opterous parasites. The effect of this species on the trees is very
strange. Some osiers observed this year were killed by them, whilst
others close to only presented a yellow-leafed appearance ; some shed
their leaves, others recovered in a few weeks. Cameron records a case
where this Lachnus swarmed in such numbers at Carshalton that
trees thirty to forty feet high had been killed by their poisonous
1 2
ii6 First Report on Economic Zoology.
influence. It is in osier cultivation that it proves most dangerous
and it should be destroyed when noticed by hand-picking or
spraying.
Pissodes notatus, Fabr., ravaging Austrian Pines.
Damage to Austrian Pines by the Banded Pine Weevil ( Pissodes
notatus , Fabr.) has been reported by Mr. H. Hyne and others during
the past year.
According to the reports of Continental foresters, Pissodes notatus
almost exclusively follows the Pine Weevil ( Hylobius abietis, Fabr.).
It is usually found on trees rendered unhealthy by the Hylobius and
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Larva (c) and pupa ( b ) of
Pissodes notatus.
The Banded Pine Weevi
( Pissodes notatus').
finishes the damage begun by that beetle. Pissodes notatus occurs in
all manner of places, in wood split for fuel, in young living stems, in
pine cones and in the bark at the base of old trees. The chief
damage it does is where it attacks young unhealthy trees. Planted
pines suffer more than those self-sown, (1) because the planting
often throws them back, (2) on account of the crowding in the nurseries
which makes the young trees sickly. The Pissodes chiefly feeds then
on trees attacked by the Hylobius and those grown on unkindly soil and
thus more or less unhealthy. If the supply of unhealthy trees fails
then these beetles will attack sound ones.
The beetle (Fig. 13) is about one- third of an inch long and of a
reddish-brown colour, irregularly covered with bright hairs ; the pro-
thorax has eight yellowish spots ; the elytra with two broad pale bands
running transversely across them. The beetles appear in April and
The Banded Pine IVeeviL
1 17
May and again in August and September. There seems to be one
brood only in the year.
The female beetle lays her eggs singly, daily or at intervals of
a few days, egg-laying lasting over a period of several weeks up to
two months. The eggs are generally
laid just above the root up to as much
as six feet above the ground. Egg-
laying commences early in April and in
May and may occur again in the autumn,
but usually the females oviposit in the
spring. This beetle prefers four to eight
year old plants, but may attack those
of much greater age. The larvse eat
their way between the wood and the
bark, forming slightly winding passages Fig. 14.
Which increase in size as the lai'Vce Pine cone damaged by Pissodes
_iri , notatus.
grow. When mature they construct
oval fibrous cocoons composed of wood fibres in which they pupate.
The larvae also live inside pine cones, which they turn yellowish-
grey. As many as three larvae may occur in a single cone. Attacked
plants may be told by small drops of turpentine on the bark and by
the premature death of the needles. The winter is passed in the
beetle stage and also in the larval and pupal stages. The beetles
hibernate in the chinks of the bark, as near the inner bark as
possible, mostly where the root and trunk join, generally above
ground, but sometimes below.
Pef.vention and Teeatment.
As there is no doubt that the Hylobius is often followed by this
Pissodes, and that the latter does not often occur without the former,
steps should be taken to destroy the Hylobius if it occurs ; then the
Pissodes will cease to increase.
The causes of Hylobius attack are (1) leaving old stumps in the
ground and dead felled timber about ; (2) the presence of sickly
trees from either (a) bad planting, (b) unkindly soil, or (c) growing
the trees too close together.
Destruction of all diseased timber (roots and all) when larvie and
pupa? are in the tree in May and June should always be carefully
attended to.
Laying newly cut stems of pine in open parts in April and May
1 1 8 First Report on Economic Zoology.
forms an excellent trap ; in a few hours, says Kollar, they will be
found covered with beetles, particularly so when the stem (of each
trap) has been pressed into the earth.
These decoys must not be laid too late and must all be burnt
before the brood escapes. This plan has frequently been known to
clear a forest of Hylobius pest.
Billets of unbarked fire-wood laid about will attract the beetles
to lay their eggs. These should be destroyed from the end of June
to the middle of July.
Smearing the lower parts of the trunks with a mixture of mud
and lime early in April would probably check egg-laying or perhaps
it would be better still carried out in March.
Young trees containing Pissodes larvae should be pulled up and
burned in June and July.
All cones attacked should be collected and burned ; they may
easily be told by the exuding turpentine. Wood-peckers ( Picadce )
should be encouraged.
The Spruce Gall Aphis.
( Chermes abietis, Linn.)
Deformed growths on Spruce were sent by Mr. J. Saunders, of
49, Rothesay Road, Luton. These proved to be caused by the Spruce
Gall Aphis ( Chermes abietis, Linn.). These galls are at first bright
green and rosy and shaped like a small pine-cone. The “ mother ”
Chermes is oval, wingless, and woolly, green and purple in hue with
blackish legs. This form is found in the spring and inserts her
proboscis into the tissue of the plant just below a bud. This causes
the irritation which commences the diseased growth.
The female lays her eggs amongst a woolly secretion on the gall ;
the young larvae coming from the same stick their proboscides into
the gall which still further swells and grows up more or less around
each larva. The larvae are really enclosed by the unnatural swollen
leaves of the bud overlapping them. Later these galls harden,
become brown, the chambers split open, and the Chermes make
their exit. These soon turn to pupae, and then yellowish-green
winged females, which fly from spruce to spruce and deposit about
twenty eggs each. These eggs give rise to larvae which grow into
the “ mother-queen ” in the spring. The male is a small apterous
louse found in the galls, very sedentary in habits.
Earwigs causing Annoyance .
1 19
Treatment.
It is most important that all gall-bearing trees in young spruce
plantations should be felled and the galled boughs burnt in the
summer. In fresh planted areas the trees should be gone over in the
summer and the galls carefully picked off and burnt.*
They are always most abundant where the trees are too thickly
planted and on cold clay soils ; both thick growth and clay soil
should be avoided for spruce plantations.
GROUP F.
Animals which concern Man as being injurious to his worked-
up Products of Art and Industry, such as (A) his Buildings
and larger Constructions and Habitations, (B) Furniture,
Books, Drapery and Clothing, (C) Food and Stores.
SUB-GROUP A.
Earwigs causing Annoyance Indoors.
Mr. F. W. Carter, of the Board of Agriculture, writes that his
house at Boxmoor is infested with Earwigs (31.vii.02), which come
into the house each night in large quantities ; they appeared to be
living in the crevices between the window-frames and the brickwork,
and also they seemed to be in the soil.
What I am anxious to know, writes Mr. Carter, is what they feed
upon, their habits, etc., and also what, if any, chemicals could safely be
employed to eradicate them from the window frames. I have tried
syringing with paraffin and water, but no use. I have also tried spreading
unslacked lime under the window sills to prevent them creeping into the
house, but of no use. Can you suggest any means of eradicating them,
etc.
The following reply was sent : —
“Judging from the description you give of the Earwig nuisance, I
should say the species is the large Earwig ( Forficida auricularia ), which
i2o First Report on Economic Zoology .
seldom flies. A smaller species, Labia minor , uses its wings mucli more
freely. The food of earwigs is very varied, they are both carnivorous
and herbivorous ; hops, fruit, snails, slugs, flowers, leaves, etc., form
their bill of fare as a rule.
“ They are mostly nocturnal in habits, hiding away during the day
in crevices in walls, woodwork, etc., under the bark of trees, under
clods of earth, and any shelter upon the ground. They lay their eggs
in a hole in the ground, about twenty to thirty yellowish ova being
placed together. Some authorities say the female * looks after these
eggs and the young for some time. They take from two to four
weeks to incubate. The young are at first very pallid and wingless,
but after several moults they reach the mature winged form. The
winter is passed in the adult stage, the insects hibernating under the
bark of trees, beneath rubbish, etc. They become noticeable in the
latter part of the summer, especially in August, but may be found
much sooner. The small Earwig {Labia minor) flies in the day-time
as well as at night.
“ With regard to their destruction, ‘trapping’ is the most successful
method. Place some baskets filled with straw or dry moss under the
windows and some flower pots filled with moss on the window sills.
These should be examined in the day-time and the insects collected
and destroyed. I do not think you could employ any chemical, as
they get into so many places of a day-time ; but by ‘ trapping ’ you
will get rid of the nuisance, especially if you put a plum or other
fruit in each pot.”
SUB-GEOUP B.
Acarine Household Pests.
(Glyciphagus domesticus and G. spinipes).
Several instances of acarine pests have been reported. Mr.
White writes from Birmingham, “ This mite is a veritable plague in
my house.” It proved to be the Glyciphagus domesticus, I)e Geer
(the G. cursor of Gervais).
Another correspondent wrote from Walthamstow as follows : —
“ I have upholstered a suite for my firm which has been sent into
the country, and since it has been in the customer’s possession it has
developed a small insect as sample sent on enclosed piece of banding
. . . my firm seem to think I have been using dirty material, but it
is nothing of the kind.”
The mites sent were identified by Albert Michael, Esq., as
Furniture Pests.
I 2 I
Glyciphagus spinipes of Kocli, and G. domesticus, De Geer. G. spinipes
is an abundant and widely distributed mite, and feeds chiefly on
dried animal and vegetable matter. It is found abundantly in straw
and hay, also in flour, meal, cantharides, horsehair, etc. G. domesticus
is also an abundant acarus in houses, sheds, stables, etc., and feeds
on hay, straw, bran, on dried fruits, dead insects, cork, tobacco, and
unclean horsehair. It is frequently found in furniture. Oudemans
found it “ literally covering the furniture of the whole house, and
states that they fed on the animal fat which adhered to the not
thoroughly cleaned horsehair with which the furniture was stuffed.
Fig. 15. — household mites.
A. Glyciphagus domesticus (De Geer). B. G. spinipes (Koch).
(After Albert Michael.)
It is thus likely they often originate from the stuffing used, but it
is not possible to say.
Nine species of this genus of mites occcur in Great Britain.
Three species ( G . dispar , Michael ; G. crameri, Michael ; and G. pla-
tygaster , Michael) live in moles’ nests ; one ( G . sciurus, Haller), in
squirrel nests; the others ( G . palmifer, Bobt. Finn.; G. canestrini,
Armanelli ; and G. plumiger , Koch), commonly in stable fodder and
in dust and sawdust.
Life-history.
These minute acari deposit their eggs amongst the substances
upon which they feed. The eggs are comparatively large, oval and
smooth-shelled, of a dull grey or white, the outer covering being
3 22 First Report on Economic Zoology.
more or less soft, not a hard, rigid shell. The egg gives rise to the
■so-called larval stage, which resembles the adult, except that it has
six instead of eight legs, and they are usually colourless and semi-
transparent. This larval stage does not last long, a single ecdysis
bringing it to the third or nymph condition.
The nymph resembles the adult when nearing maturity, but when
young it has the appearance of the larva. This is the period when
the mite grows, and it assumes its fourth pair of legs. The nymph
casts its skin twice. Another curious stage exists in these acari,
namely, the hypopial stage, in which the mite assumes a different
appearance — a stage in which it can more easily be distributed from
place to place by becoming attached to flying insects, etc., but in the
two furniture pests this stage is rudimentary ; in G. domesticus it
never emerges from the young nymphal skin, and in G. spinrpes it
seldom does so. This “ skin-like ” case protects the mite and so
enables it to withstand heat, moisture, etc., and in this stage it may
very easily be distributed from place to place by the wind. The
wind may also spread these minute creatures in other stages as well.
The “ feather-bristle ” mites, or Glyciphagi , may often be noticed
in houses suffering from dry rot. They do not seem to do any
material damage in a house except to stored goods, unless it is by
carrying the spores of dry rot fungus about. Mr. White stated in
one of his communications, athe white insects give considerable
trouble on my furniture ; perfectly harmless, but unpleasant.” They
may also be noticed in abundance in furniture attacked by the furni-
ture pest — the Death Watch ( Anobium iessallatum ) — living amongst
the dust and debris these pests produce.
Treatment.
Washing well all likely corners where they may shelter with a
.strong solution of “ Chinosol ” was recommended. Failing this,
fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas or disulphide of carbon might
be tried. These, of course, are poisonous, also the fumes, and bisul-
phide of carbon is also inflammable, so must be used with care
{vide p. 126).
A further letter regarding fumigation for this pest was received
from Mr. Howard White, to which the following answer was sent : —
Your letter has not been answered because I was waiting the result
of some experiments Prof. Hall was making for me re bisulphide of
carbon. He finds it will not hurt gold picture frames, etc., unless there
are impurities in the gold. Nor will it hurt furniture, foods or draperies
Furniture Pests. 1 23
if well aired afterwards ; but as it is highly explosive he advises the use of
hydrocyanic acid gas as used for destroying insects under glass, etc.
The cyanide treatment is deadly to all insect life and does not harm
food or anything ; but care has to be taken that the poison is not eaten or
the fumes inhaled by any person.
You could only use the Chinosol for floors and crevices.
Directions for using Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Indoors.
The following are instructions sent to Mr. White with regard to
the gas treatment.
The proportions for hydrocyanic acid gas treatment are as follows :
2 ozs. of cyanide of potassium.
4 ozs. of sulphuric acid.
7 ozs. of water,
for 1,000 cubic feet of space.
Proceed as follows : Add the 4 ozs. of acicl to the 7 ozs. water in a
deep saucer or jam-pot ; then roll up the small lumps of cyanide in
blotting-paper and drop into the acid and water. Leave for a couple
of hours ; then freely ventilate the room ; do not enter it for an hour
after ventilation, as, of course, you must not breathe the fumes, as they
are deadly, and so is the cyanide. It would be safest to bury the
residue, but it is innocuous. You can easily manage windows for
ventilation, so as not to have to enter the room to do so. I should
put the saucer just inside the door, so the arm can reach it, and
drop the cyanide in blotting-paper into the saucer, shutting the door
immediately. Of course, do not let people stand about outside the
door, as some fumes may come through crevices, etc. Get the room
as air-tight as possible.
The proportions I give have been found sufficient in greenhouses
to kill Pied Spider, Woodlice, Slugs, Aphis, and Caterpillars.
The employment of this gas for Bud Mite in Currants (Eriophycs
ribis) has not proved it to be successful. Sulphur in some form alone
seems to affect acari. It is thus interesting to learn that fumigation
with hydrocyanic acid gas did not affect this household pest, but Mr.
White tells me he cleared it out by sulphur fumigation.
Anobium tessellatum in St. Alban’s Cathedral.
An insect, sent by Mr. Nathaniel Hicks, in oak from the roof of
St. Alban’s Cathedral, proved to be one of the common Wood-boring
Beetles — a serious furniture pest — known as the “ Death Watch ”
(. Anobium tessellatum).
124 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Judging from tlie destructive habits of this pest and the great
difficulty in ridding furniture of it when once it gets well into the
wood, it is extremely dangerous to use such wood unless it is treated
to destroy all the pests in it first.
For treatment : corrosive sublimate alone seems of any avail.
Paraffin has been found practically useless.
SUB-GROUP C.
The Indian Meal Moth ( Plodia inter punctella, Huebn.)
attacking Almonds.
Almonds sent to the Museum from stores in the Docks, proved
to be attacked by one of the Meal Moths ( Plodia interpunctella,
Huebn.), popularly called the Indian Meal Moth.
The Indian Meal Moth caterpillar often spins a mass of silk such
as sent with the attacked almonds. It is recorded as attacking beans,
peas, peanuts, walnuts, dried fruits, almonds, and various other dried
products, including cinnamon-bark, dried dandelion roots, etc.
The moth is about three-fourths of an inch across the expanded
wings ; some specimens, however, only reach half an inch. The outer
two-thirds of the front wings are dull reddish-brown ; the basal part
and all the hind wings dull grey. The moth deposits her eggs over
the articles destined for larval food, and also on boards, on walls, and
on floors ; these white ova are laid both singly and in groups of from
three to twelve. In a few days, variously estimated at from three to
seven, they hatch. The larva varies from dull white to pale reddish
or dull yellow, with brown head, and is more or less hairy. When
mature it reaches half an inch in length, and then spins a loose
cocoon in which it changes to a pale brown pupa. The whole life-
cycle takes four or five weeks ; so that a number of broods may appear
under favourable conditions.
Fumigating with bisulphide of carbon, or hydrocyanic acid gas,
is the only treatment.
Notes and instructions on fumigation with bisulphide of carbon
and hydrocyanic acid gas are appended ; neither harm food if freely
ventilated afterwards (vide p. 126).
Cigar Beetle and Larder Beetle.
125
The Cigar Beetle.
(. Lasioclerma testcccea, Duf.)
Dr. Christy, of St. James Place, forwarded some Indian cigars, a
case of which were being seriously damaged by a small beetle. The
pest is known as the Cigar Beetle ( Lasioclerma testcicea , Duf.), and
is closely related to the American, West Indian, and almost cosmopo-
litan Cigarette Beetle ( Lasioclerma serricorne). It is recorded from
India as attacking cheroots, rice, saffron, the leaf coverings of opium
balls, etc.
They have been noticed largely in Burmah cheroots, and are
frequently found in Manilla cigars and cheroots. It is almost cosmo-
politan, and attacks most dry vegetable substances. I do not
remember having seen it in Havana cigars. The egg stage lasts from
eight to sixteen days. The grub stage normally takes six weeks, but
under unfavourable conditions it may last for a year or more. The
pupal stage lasts about eight days.
The beetles may live for two months. The development of the
larvre is hastened and retarded by heat and cold. Both larvae and
beetles do the damage ; a single tunnel into the cigar, as a rule, stops
it drawing, so that the damage done by a comparatively small number
of beetles and their larvae in a case may often be considerable. This
pest, when a case is opened and found to be infested, may easily
be checked by bisulphide fumigation.
The Larder Beetle.
(Dermestes lard arms, Linn.)
The Larder Beetle previously mentioned (p. 45) was sent with
various enquiries by a correspondent from Wantage.
This beetle is also known as the Bacon Beetle. As far as
personal observations go it lays its eggs first in May and on through
the year in successive broods, under favourable conditions.
No observations have been made on the length of egg-life. The
lame that I have kept under observation took nearly five weeks to
reach maturity, but I believe they may do so in four weeks.
Hams and bacon affected by this pest should have the parts
invaded by the insects cut away and washed with a strong solution
of salicylate of soda. Store rooms in which this pest has occurred
should be well swept out and either fumigated with bisulphide of
carbon or hydrocyanic acid gas.
126 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Instructions for the Fumigation of Stores with Bisulphide of Carbon.
1. Obtain the best bisulphide of carbon.
2. Bemember that it is both poisonous and highly inflammable ;
no light of any kind should go near it, nor should it be used where
electric wires run.
3. Dried goods are best placed in a large air-tight bin, and then
the bisulphide placed in saucers on the substance to be fumigated.
The bin should be closed and kept shut for four or five hours ; the
treated commodities should then be freely ventilated.
4. The quantity to use is 1 lb. to every 1000 cubic feet of space.
If you are much troubled with insects in stores it would be well
worth having large bins (air-tight) made for the treatment. The
vapour given off is heavier than air, and hence penetrates into the
stuff below.
As there may be eggs (which I do not think are affected), a second
fumigation two weeks later would be advisable.
You want to pour the bisulphide out rapidly, so as not to inhale
much of the fumes ; a small quantity breathed in will not affect one,
but it is well to be very careful.
Treatment in bins is far safer and better than fumigating the
whole room, which may be well cleaned out by scrubbing with hot
soft-soap and water.
Hydrocyanic Acid Gas.
The fumes of this gas are also deadly poisonous to all animal life,
with the exception, it seems, of Mites or Acari. It is safer in one way
to use than the former, owing to its not being inflammable.
It is formed by the mixture of (1) cyanide of potassium ; (2)
sulphuric acid ; and (3) water.
The fumes do not harm substances for food ; but in applying this
remedy you must be careful the men do not breathe the fumes.
Booms can be fumigated, and the stores in bulk, in bins, as before.
The following rules should be remembered : —
(1) Cyanide of potassium (a) and the fumes when mixed with
sulphuric acid (b) are very poisonous. Therefore do not breathe the
latter.
(2) Use the following proportions : —
2 ozs. of cyanide,
4 ozs. of sulphuric acid,
7 ozs. of water,
for every 1,000 cubic feet to be fumigated.
127
General Subjects .
(3) Work as follows: Acid the 4 ozs. of acid to the 7 ozs. of
water in a saucer (never add the water to the acid) ; then put the
2 ozs. of cyanide in small lumps wrapped up in blotting-paper into
the saucer and close the bin up cpiickly ; the fumes do not come oil
for a few seconds, so there need be no danger of inhaling them. If
fumigating a room, put the saucer close to a door and drop the cyanide
into it and shut the door rapidly ; manage so that you need only put
your arm into the room.
Leave the stores in the fumes for two hours at least, and then
open the windows from outside ; do not go into the room for at least
an hour after the doors and windows have been thrown open. Night-
time is the best time to fumigate ; a man should keep guard to stop
people going near when either method is employed, if many people
are about and used to entering the room.
If you can put the stores in bins, I should use bisulphide ; if to
fumigate a room or store, the hydrocyanic gas. With reasonable care
there is no danger in the use of either.
GE NEPAL SUBJECTS.
Green Matter in Lewes Public Bath.
To an enquiry received by the Director from the Lewes Town
Council regarding the inconvenience caused by quantities of green
matter appearing in the Public Baths, the following report was sent : —
The green matter sent from the public bath at Lewes is mainly
composed of algm — -the majority are Desmids and Diatoms — but the
slime masses are formed by a Leuconostoc. There are no traces of any of
these in the sample of water sent taken direct from the pump.
The bottom and sides of the bath are probably covered with these
organisms, which increase with great rapidity ; the slime masses formed by
the Leuconostoc forming on the floor and sides of the bath, and when
disturbed by swimmers float to the surface. The green colour is due to
certain of the “ blue green ” algas contained with the Desmids and
Diatoms in the slime. A few protozoa and dipterous larvae and seeds of
elm, etc., were also present, but the cause of the green floating masses is
undoubtedly the slime-forming algae referred to.
The remedy found successful in cases of a similar nature is the
employment of sulphate of lime. The bath should be well cleansed and
washed out a few times with a strong solution of the above, the sides as
well as the floor.
128 First Report on Economic Zoology.
OTHER SHORT REPORTS SENT ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS.
Group F.
The Death Watch ( Anobium domesticum ), which were reported as appearing in
large numbers on the walls of a room that had been shut up for a year full
of boxes, at Eastbourne. (Miss E. Branscombe.)
The Clothes Moth ( Tineola biselliella ), also reported by the same observer, with a
note that “ They do not fly about as ordinary moths, but sit on the walls and
ceilings with folded wings, waiting for me to kill them. Sometimes I kill
ten in a room, then find none for a day or two ; then eight or ten make their
appearance in a room which is shut up and no window opened. I am
thinking of shutting up the house, so it is important for me to know
what to do.” ( Vide Report, p. 43.)
Method of destroying insects (sp. (?) ) in Acacia wood. (T. Christy & Co.,
London.) Letter containing a note that “ they always submit drugs with
weevils and insects in them to a process of baking.” We have therefore
made arrangements for them to receive the whole of our parcel (of acacia
wood) to treat it in the ordinary way.
Group E.
Sub-Group A. Animals Injurious to Domesticated Animals.
Filariasis in Lambs. (W. H. Hammond, Esq., Canterbury.)
A Parasite in Fowls’ Eggs. (Dr. Humphrys, Marycliurch, Torquay.)
Group E.
Sub-Group B. (Section I.) Agriculture: Fruit.
The Wood Leopard (Zeuzera xsculi ) attacking Apple Trees at Hailsham.
The Pith Moth (Lavern a atra ) attacking Apple Shoots at Hailsham. (Mr. Bear) ; at
Swanley. (Mr. Cecil Hooper.)
The Bud Moth (Eedya ocellana ) attacking Apple and Cherry at Hailsham and
Swanley.
Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata') from Swanley. (Mr. Cecil Hooper.)
Red Plum Maggot (Opadia funebrana ) in fruit in Kent. (Mr. W. H. Hammond.)
Apple Sawfly (Eoplocampa testudinea ) at Guestling, Sussex. (Rev. E. N.
Bloomfield.)
Pear Midge (Diplosis pyrivora ) attacking Pears at Guestling. (Rev. E. N.
Bloomfield) ; at Swanley (Wilkinson); at Ross (Getting).
General. 1 29
Scale Insects on Currants (P. ribesix , and L. ribis). (G. B. King, Lawrence)
Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
Regarding Pulvinaria , ribesix Professor King writes as follows: — “The
Pulvinaria is what I believe to be P. vitis, L. ; in fact, it is identical
with what I have written of (MS.) a species common on grapes in
Germany.”
Information re Currant Scale and caustic alkali wash, advising use of same to b
continued. Good results reported by correspondent, J. Riley, Esq., Putley
Court, Ledbury.
Winter Moth and Grease Banding. Information sent to Mr. R. Amos, Perry
Court, Wye, as to date, etc., for keeping bands on the trees.
Sub- Group B. ( Section II.) Horticulture.
Acari attacking Roots of Flowers ( Tetranychus ). (James Nimms, 17, Great
Tower St.)
Leaf-Cutting Bee ( Megachile willoughbiella) tunnelling Apple wood. (Sir Joseph
Hooker, per the Director, and Mr. Towns-Smith, Yalding, Kent.)
Thysanoptera : Correspondence regarding Haliday’s types. (Mr. Froggatt, Gov.
Ent., N. S. Wales.)
Leaf Miners ( Phytomyza , sp. (?)) in Melons. (Mr. Staines, Ringwould, Dover.)
Sub-Group B. ( Section III.) Forestry.
Cecidomyia salicis, on Willows near Canterbury. (Mr. W. H. Hammond.) Goat
Moth attacking elm. (Brondesbury.)
Group B.
Sericulture, list of works on. (H. A. Kelly, Casale Litta, Lombardy.)
General.
List of books, e*c., useful for the Herefordshire Fruitgrowers’ Association. (S. E.
Agri. College.)
K
130 First Report on Economic Zoology.
GROUP D .
(B) EXTRA-BRITISH.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury, some-
times death, to him, and in other cases disease, often
of a deadly character.
A Poisonous Land Bug from Singapore.
A large land bug received by Dr. Cantlie from Singapore proved
to be one of the Hemiptera heteroptera, known as Conorhinus
rubrofascicttus , De Geer. It is neotropical and oriental in dis-
tribution.
Some of the foreign bugs are very poisonous. The note sent to
Dr. Cantlie is of considerable interest. It is as follows : — -
{From “The Journal of Tropical Medicine,” November 1, 1901).
INSECT BITE.
To the Editor of“ The Journal of Tropical Medicine.”
Dear Sir, — I beg to forward you an insect which I shall be
glad if you will kindly get identified. It inflicts a very nasty sting, which
is done by a huge proboscis capable of being folded up beneath the maxilla
and neck. Acute pain and inflammation follow in a few minutes. In one
case the whole leg became swollen.
Yours, &c.,
Lim Boon Keng, M.B., C.M.Edin.
Singapore.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE INSECT REFERRED TO BY
DR. LIM BOON KENG.
To the Editor of 11 The Journal of Tropical Medicine.”
Dear Sir, — The insect you send from Singapore is one of the
Hemiptera-heteroptera known as Conorhinus rubrofascicttus, De Geer. It
is neotropical and oriental in distribution.
Yours, etc.,
Fred. Y. Theobald.
British Museum (Natural History).
Screw IVorms in Human Beings.
131
A full account of Hemiptera-keteroptera obnoxious to man lias
recently been compiled by Raphael Blanchard entitled, “ Sur la
Piqure de quelques Hemipteres.” Archives de Parasitologie, V. No. 1,
p. 139 (1902).
Screw Worms in Human Beings.
A note regarding the Screw Worm ( Compsomyia macellaria) in
human beings was sent by Dr. St. George Gray. Screw Worms were
taken from the mouth and nose of a female patient dying of phthisis
in the Victoria Hospital. “ I am not at all sure that they are the
larvae of Compsomyia macellaria , which is very common in some
parts of this island and which attacks cattle, for I have never seen a
single specimen of the adult fly in the vicinity of the hospital, but
there are innumerable flies of other species about. I am trying to
breed out a few of these in a jar of earth, so that I may be absolutely
certain of the fly. I may mention one fact about them which may
be of interest. Out of four patients who were attacked by Screw
Worms two occupied the same bed, one after the other, and a third
the next bed to it. The other case was in a more remote part of the
hospital.”
About a month after, specimens of the fly and its puparia arrived
with the following interesting notes by Dr. St. George Gray : “ I
notice that those bred from the larvae have a more decided bluish
colour than those caught in the open. This may be due to the
fact that the former had never fed. During life the eyes are of a
brick-red colour, but this changes after death.” The larvae of
C. macellaria have frequently been known to attack human beings,
entering the external orifices.
k 2
132 First Report on Economic Zoology.
GROUP E.
Animals which concern Man as causing bodily injury or
disease, both possibly of a deadly character, to (A) his
stock of Domesticated Animals, or (B) to his Vegetable
Plantations, or (C) to Wild Animals in the preservation
of which he is interested, or (D) Plants in the preservation
of which he is interested.
SUB-GROUP A. ANIMALS WHICH CONCERN MAN BY
CAUSING BODILY INJURY OR DISEASE TO HIS
STOCK OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.
The Screw Worm in Cattle in St, Lucia.
Two diptera sent by the Director of the Imperial Department of
Agriculture of the West Indies that are injurious to cattle in St. Lucia
proved to be the well known “ Screw Worm ” Fly. The scientific
name of the fly is Compsomyia macellaria, of Fabricius. There is
any amount of literature on this pest, its life-history being well
known.
The fly is common from the Argentine to Canada. It especially
attacks the natural openings of animals, notably the “ sheaths ” of
horses and the navel of newly -born animals; but the fly will lay its
egg upon any abraded surface of the .skin. Where ticks, etc., have
been killed on an animal is a favourite place for the fly to deposit
her eggs, the fly being attracted by the blood. Abrasions from
contact with barbed wire form favourite localities. Human beings
are also subject to its ravages, especially in the nose and ear ( vide
“ Psyche ” iv., pp. 27-30, 1883, and page 131). Amongst the
many excellent accounts issued by American stations is the
following : —
Bulletin of the Agricultural Station of Louisiana, No. 2, second
series. “The Texas Screw Worm,” by Prof. H. A. Morgan, 1890.
All animals seem to be attacked by it.
Pony Flies and Scale Insect.
133
Pony Flies.
(Lyperosia, sp. ?;
Mr. E. E. Green forwarded some small flies that were causing
annoyance in the pony-breeding establishments in Ceylon. They
were examined by Mr. Austen and found to belong to the family
Muscidse and to the genus Lyperosia, sp. (?). The species is probably
new.
SUB-GBOUP B. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO MAN’S
VEGETABLE PLANTATIONS.
Section I.
Animals Injurious to Agriculture.
Scale Insect ( Mytilaspis citricola, Packard) on Orange
Trees in Monte Video.
Dr. E. S. Miller, E.N., sent from Monte Video a scale insect
affecting the orange trees there and asking for information as to
destroying it. This scale proved to be Mytilaspis citricola, Packard.
It occurs in the United States, West Indies, China, Brazil, Southern
Europe, Ceylon, Fiji, etc. It has been recently introduced into South
Africa. Fruit from Southern Europe, Canary and Madeira is usually
infested.
Its food plants are all citrus fruits and probably all Rosacese. In
Jamaica, Cockerell records it on the Murraya. Its original home was
probably the West Indies or South America. It occurs on leaf, fruit,
stems and twigs.
This scale is about Jth of an inch long, and is about three times
as long as it is wide, and like the Apple Mussel scale in outline, the
anterior end being narrow and the posterior broad and rounded, the
whole scale somewhat curved.
The colour is variable, some are dull purplish, others almost
brown. Beneath the scale is white ; this lower white portion coming
away with the scale retains the insect or eggs within.
The male scale is almost straight and y'^tli of an inch long.
The eggs, which vary from twenty-five to seventy under each
scale, are white. All the specimens examined from Monte Video had
eggs within them.
134 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Three or four broods may occur in tropical climates. It is known
under a variety of popular names, such as the Purple Scale and the
Orange Mussel Scale.
Treatment of Affected Trees.
There are two ways of treating scale-insect attack : —
I. Spraying, with either paraffin emulsion or resin wash.
II. The gas treatment.
1. Spraying for scale attack.
A. Paraffin emulsion. This is used to kill the larval scale
insects when they are crawling from beneath the scales and to
corrode the scales away. The time of migration of the larvae should
be noticed when this wash is used, and the wash applied when they
are crawling about, to do most good. But it has been found more or
less satisfactory at any time if applied on several occasions during
the year, best at intervals of two weeks.
Paraffin emulsion is made as follows : — Mix equal portions of
soft soap dissolved in boiling water and paraffin, and then churn
them up by means of a force pump until a creamy emulsion is
produced. When required for use mix with twenty times its bulk
of water.
B. Resin wash. There are many recipes for this — the following
is a good one : — dissolve 1 lb. of caustic soda in 1 J gallons of soft
water, then dissolve 2 lbs. of resin and 1 lb. of tallow by moderate
heat, and as it is cooking stir in gradually 1 quart of the dissolved
caustic soda solution, and then add water until you have 22 pints of
liquid. This forms a thick brown soap which is sufficient for 44
gallons of wash ; it being added to the water and well stirred ; warm
water, if possible, should be employed. This should be applied before
the blossom bursts, but in bad attacks it may be used later as
it is well to clear out the scale, even at the loss of all that year’s
crop, through destroying the blossom.
2. Gas treatment. This is largely employed for scale in the
United States, the Cape of Good Hope, etc. The trees have to be
covered with a tent of gas-proof canvas ; the hydrocyanic acid gas is
generated by putting water and sulphuric acid in a saucer or jar
and then putting lumps of 60 per cent, grade cyanide of potassium
into the mixture. The fumes may be allowed to ascend for an
hour or more — evening or dull days are the best times to fumigate.
The slower the gas generates the better ; the greater the quantity of
Scale on Pineapples and Pine Beetle. 135
water and the larger the lumps of cyanide used the slower the gas
comes off.
Experiments conducted by Mr. Cousins in England show that the
following quantities are required per cubic foot of space — 3 ozs. of
cyanide, 5 ozs. of acid, 8 ozs. of water per 1000 cubic feet. Both the
cyanide and the gas generated are poisons.
If eras treatment cannot be carried out owing to lack of material
o o
or apparatus, then spraying should be employed.
Scale on Pineapples.
{Diaspis bromelice , Kerner.)
Pineapples are frequently damaged by a scale insect, which now
and then causes the fruit to rot. Specimens have been sent by Mr.
Hammond, of Kingston, Jamaica, for identification and information
concerning it. This scale is the Pineapple Scale {Diaspis bromelice ,
Kerner). The scale is thin, circular and pure white — the females
yellow or orange. Like most Diaspids, they burrow beneath the
epidermis of the plants and become almost entirely hidden.
It chiefly attacks the leaves, but now and then the fruit.
It should be destroyed as soon as the fruit is cut.
SUB-GROUP B.
Section III.
Animals Injurious to Forestry.
The Pine Beetle.
( Hylesinus piniperda , Linn.)
Some pine wood sent by R. E. Haslam, Esq., from Monico, was
found to be attacked by the Pine Beetle {Hylesinus piniperda , Linn.)
It had killed an old tree and two young ones. This insect chiefly
attacks diseased and damaged timber ; but if no unhealthy trees are
about it will attack healthy ones. As a rule one sees this pest
working in plantations of about thirty years standing.
Scotch and Weymouth Pines are chiefly attacked, but cluster and
other species of pines are frequently recorded as being damaged by
this pest.
This insect does harm in three ways ; (i) the beetles and larvae
attack bark and bast, the former making longitudinal galleries with
136 First Report on Economic Zoology.
one to three air holes— the larvae eat out secondary galleries in the
bast which branch out at right angles to the primary gallery ; (ii) the
beetles in August and September bore into the pith of young pine
shoots at a distance of from one to three inches from their extremities,
eating out a tunnel up to the terminal bud. The holes where the
entrance is made are surrounded by a ring of opaque resin ; (iii) the
beetles bore into the sap wood of the root-stock of quite sound trees
to hibernate, and thus trees may become sickly that were formerly
quite sound, and so attract beetles during the following year.
The beetles appear in April and May, and again in June and
July. The larvse hatch in April and May, and pupate in June or
July and even August.
Those that hatch in June may produce a second brood in August,
and this second brood attacks the terminal shoots and branches. The
whole life cycle lasts from sixty to eighty days.
It should be remembered that the beetles hibernate in the adult
stage in the root stocks and roots of standing trees, also in old
stumps.
Schlich * gives the following protective and remedial measures : —
i. Timely and frequent thinnings of woods and quick removal of
all sickly wood.
ii. Clearance of felling areas by the middle of April.
iii. Uprooting of stumps and broken trees or barking the same.
iv. Pine woods if damaged by fire should be felled.
v. Insect-eating mammals and birds should be protected.
vi. All standing trees containing larvae and pupae should be felled
and barked and the bark burned.
vii. Trap trees should be felled from February to September, so as
to supply trees which are not too dry for the beetles to breed in.
These should be barked at the middle of May, and others at intervals
of four to six weeks, and the bark burnt.
Of these rules the most important are ; (A) the destruction of
attacked trees at the proper time; and (B) using certain unhealthy
trees as “trap” trees. If there are no unhealthy trees in the
plantation, certain of them should be made into “trap” trees by
ringing the worst trees. This is done by cutting strips of bark round
the trees in the early spring so as to produce an unhealthy state, and
so attract the beetles to lay their eggs and thus keep them away
from the surrounding ones.
These “ trap ” trees should be burnt later, before the larvae and
pupse have matured.
* 14 Manual of Forestry,” Vol. IV., p. 242.
Insects Injurious to Coffee.
137
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COFFEE, etc.
Beetles Damaging Coffee-Berries.
Two samples of coffee-berries damaged by small beetles have been
received during the past year. One was sent by a correspondent in
London with the following information : “ I enclose a small sample
of coffee taken from a bag recently in, from Costa Rica, and shall
be glad if you can tell me the life-history of the creatures with the
coffee, and whether they are likely to spread to other goods in the
warehouse, either coffee or cocoa or goods of a kindred nature.” On
examination the sample was found to contain a number of live
beetles, and most of the berries were greatly damaged.
C A B
Fig. 16.
B, Coffee damaged by (A), Arseoccrus fasciculatus, De Geer (cf and ?) ; C, by Scolyti, sp. (?)
The beetles sent are known as Arceocerus fasciculatus, De Geer
(Fig. 16, a). Their life-history is well known. They are cosmo-
politan and abundant in the Old and New Worlds.
The larvae live in coffee-berries, and will attack cocoa, ginger and
other commodities, as also will the adult beetles.
It is well known in Central America, in India and the Cape of
Good Hope, but does not seem abundant in Europe. It lias also
been found on Tamctriscus gallicus and in and on packages of
Tcgcnaria. The larva is short and cylindrical, with distinct legs and
about one-fourth of an inch long ; its movements are slow. It has
138 First Report on Economic Zoology.
been observed in branches of a kind of ginger from China, eating the
woody parts, making long galleries deep into the branches, which
become full of dust (frass). When they are ready to pupate they
make a large nest or cell near the bark, so that the beetle can escape
easily. The pupal stage lasts from ten to fifteen days. The beetles
are very agile, jumping often nearly an inch ; they also fly readily,
so that they might soon spread themselves over a storehouse. They
also feign death when touched. They were breeding in the coffee
berries sent as well as having damaged them by eating them. If
such a consignment is not destroyed, it should be treated at once to
kill the beetles. This may be done either by heat (if possible in
this case) or by fumigating the mass with hydrocyanic acid gas in
closed receptacles.
The life-history of this pest has been fully described by
M. E. Lucas in the Annales of the Entomological Society of France
(tom. 1, 4tli se., p. 399, 1861).
The other sample of coffee berries (Fig. 16, c) was received at
Kew from Uganda and sent on to the British Museum. The follow-
ing note was sent back to Kew regarding the cause of damage : —
“ Some coffee berries from Uganda have been handed to me by Sir
George Hampson. They have been damaged by Scolytidce. Mr.
Waterhouse says it is most probably a new species. As only a few
fragments of the beetle could be found, it is not possible to refer to
it in detail. Could you obtain fresh specimens of the beetle and
have them sent here ? I can find no record of any similar pest
attacking the berries.
“ A Ehyncota — Stachia geometrica, Motsch (MS.) — attacks young
coffee berries in Ceylon and does some harm.”
These berries were eaten into, many hollowed right out, the outer
shell often perforated in two or three places.
Weevils ( Hypomeces squamosus , Fabr.) Defoliating
Rubber.
Some Weevils sent by the Curator of Selangor Museum that
were reported to him as defoliating Para Bubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
proved to be the Hypomeces squamosus of Fabricius.
139
Insect Pests of the IVest Indies.
Insect Pests of the West Indies.
In answer to Mr. Hammond, the following list of West Indian
insect pests lias been forwarded. The Orange Pests are not given
in this list. Probably the Museum of the Jamaican Institute has
records, as they have published catalogues under the title of Museum
Notes. This list is further augmented by the identification of
specimens sent over by the Imperial Department of Agriculture of
the West Indies. The names of these species and their food plants
are given in the following pages.
A. Insects injurious to Sugar Cane.
1. Large Sugar Cane Borer ( Diatroea saccharalis). (“Ins. Life,” Vol. iv.
pp. 95, 103.)
2. Sugar Xyleborus or Pin Borer ( Xyleborus perforans). (“ Ins. Life,” Vol.
v. p. 31.)
3. Sugar Cane Pin Borer ( Xyleborus putescens ). Barbados, Trinidad,
St. Vincent.
4. Boring Weevil ( Sphenophorus ).
5. Tropical Sugar Cane Borer ( Chilo saccharalis).
6. Scale (in Jamaica) ( Aspidiotus sacchari , Ckll .).
7. Mites, vide ( Histiostoma rostroserratus (decaying plants).
Bull. 40, Royal J Immature Gamasids (predacious).
Kew Gardens. J Damacus or Motaspis, sp. Tarsonymus hancrofti ,
April, 1890. I Miller, does damage to canes.
B. Cotton.
1. Dactylobius virgatus , Ckll. = Mealy Bug on under side of leaves. Jamaica.
2. Cotton Stainer ( Dysdercus andrex ), attacks bolls. Jamaica.
C. Coffee.
1. Scale ( Aspidiotus articulalus). Jamaica. Leaves.
D. Allspice.
1. Pimento Borer (Cyrtomerus pilicornis), bores into twigs. Jamaica.
E. Banana.
1. Aspidiotus articulatus,
2. Ceroplastes floridensis.
3. Aspidiotus personatus.
4. Aspidiotus ficus.
F. Congo Pea Pests.
Vide No. 54, Inst. Jamaica Mus. Notes.
G. Cocoa Plant.
1. Cocoa Bug ( Membracidse ). Leaf-hopper found in Trinidad.
2. Leaf-cutting Ant ( Alta pedeus , L.). Trinidad.
3. Longhorn Beetle ( Sterastoma depressum), on young plants.
4. Palm Weevil ( Rhynchophorus palmarum).
rare.
J amalca.
140 First Report on Economic Zoology.
5. Diaspis boisduvalii. Trinidad.
6. Fiorinia gallucida , Sig.
7. Mytilcispis buxi , Sig.
= M. pandani, Cou. Abundant on leaves in Jamaica.
H. Cocoanut Palm.
1. Autocarpis boisduvalii. Jamaica.
2. Aspidiotus pumicx , Ckll. Jamaica.
3. Dactylopius longifilis. Jamaica.
4. Dactylopius virgatus , on leaves. Jamaica.
5. Diaspis vandalicus, Galvoz. Jamaica, abundant ; and Santiago de Cuba.
6. Rufous Scale {Aspidiotus articulatus), Morgan. Jamaica. (“Ins. Life,”
iv. 380.)
7. Aspidiotus minutus, Ckll.
8. Aspidiotus rapax v. palmx , Ckll.
9. Fiorina camellix, Cou.
I. Chincona Pests.
1. Diaspis pelargonii , Ckll. Jamaica.
2. Lecanium decidrophthorx , Ckll. Jamaica.
J. Mango.
1. Ceroplcistes floridensis , leaves.
2. Vindonia stellifera.
3. Aspidiotus personatus.
4. Aspidiotus articulatus.
5. Lecanium olex, )
6. Lecanium mangiferae, )
7. Dadylobius longifilis , Cou.
8. Aspndiotus , sp. (?), pale patches on fruit.
9. Planchonia pustulans, Ckll. Montserrat.
K. Pomegranate.
1. Ceroplastes fioridensis , on leaves.
2. Aspidiotus pumicx, Ckll. Jamaica.
L. Peach.
1. Bermuda Peach Maggot ( Ceratitis , sp. (?)), attacks fruit
M. Pineapple.
1. Pineapple Scale (Diaspis bromelia ).
N. Orange.
1. Aspidiotus citricola. Bermuda.
2. Chionaspis citri. Bermuda.
leaves.
0. Animal Pests.
1. The Screw- worm Fly ( Compsomyia macellarid). St. Lucia.
Insect Pests of the JVest Indies . 141
NAMES OF ECONOMIC INSECTS SENT BY THE IMPERIAL
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF THE WEST INDIES.
Note. — (A.) Aptera ; (C.) Coleoptera ; (B.) Blattidai ; (L.) Lepidoptera ;
(H.) Hymenoptera; (He.) Hemiptera.
Sugar Cane.
Myochronus armatus, B. On leaves. Barbados. (C.)
Arrowroot.
Calpodes ethlius, Cram. Barbados. (L.)
Megachile flavitarsata , Smith. Barbados, St. Vincent. (II.)
Megachile martindali , Ashmead. Barbados. (H.)
An dir a, sp.
Cleogonus ruhetra , F. Grenada and Trinidad. (C.)
Diorymerus, sp. (?)
Banana.
Tomarus hituberculatus, Beard. St. Lucia. (C.)
Cassava.
Dilophonota ello , Linn. Montserrat. (L.)
Cocoa.
Cryphalus, sp. (?) Grenada. (0.)
Cowpeas.
Bruchus chinensis , Linn. Barbados. (C.)
Corn weal.
Carpophilus dimidiatus , Fabr. Barbados. (C.)
Castillva elastica.
Txniotes scalaris, Fabr. Grenada. (C.)
Divi-divi ( Cxsalpinia coriaria ).
Bruchus , sp. (to fruit). Antigua. (C.)
Ficus.
Phryneta verrucosa. Barbados. (C.)
Leucophcea surinamensis. Barbados. (B.)
Fiddle-wood.
Pyraustra mellinalis, Hubn. Barbados. (L.)
Grasses.
Remigia repanda, Fabr. Trinidad. (L.)
Guinea Corn.
Calandra oryzx, Linn. Antigua. (C.)
Grandilla.
Lactica pallens, Fabr. Montserrat. (C.)
Indian Corn.
Trogosita mauritanica. Antigua. (C.)
Aphis maiclis , Fitch. Montserrat. (He.)
8 podoptera frugiperda. Barbados. (L.)
142 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Lime Tree ( Citrus acida).
Naupractus, sp. (?) Ant'gua. (C.)
Mango.
Platypus parallel us, Fabr. Grenada. (C.)
Malpighia.
Podagrica amcenissima , Chen. MS. Antigua. (C.)
Orange.
Lagochirus arauciformis, L. Grenada. (C.)
Pigeon Pea Bush.
Phyparobia maderee, F. Barbados.
Pigeon Peas (Dried).
Bruchus 4-maculatus, F. Antigua.
Palm Seeds.
Coccotrypes dadyloperda, Fabr. Trini lad. (C.) - *
Sweet Potatoes.
Cryptorhynckus batatus, G. Waterh. To tubers. Barbados. (C.)
Coptocycha trisignata, Bohem, var. bistripundata, B. To leaves. Antigua.
(C.)
Chsetocnema amazona , Baty. Eats leaves. Barbados.
SOLANUM MELONGENA.
Epitrix parvula , Fabr. On leaves. Barbados.
Corythaica monacha , St&l. On leaves. Barbados.
Tamarind.
Cathartus cassize, Reich. To ] ods. Barbados. (C.)
Cryphalus, sp. To pods. Barbados. (C.)
Tannia.
Tomarus bituber culatus, Beard. St. Lucia. (C.)
Woolly Pyrol.
Thermesia (jemmatalis, Hubn. Barbados. (L.)
Wood (Dry).
Tribolium ferrugineum. Barbados. (C.)
Platypus , spp. Barbados. (C.)
Stored Goods, etc.
Lepisma, sp. Starch, Gum, etc. Barbados. (A.)
Calandra oryzas , Linn., var. pallida. To macaroni. Barbados. (C.)
Tribolium ferrugineum. To corn-flour. Barbados. (C.)
Lasioderma serricorne , F. (C.)
Periplaneta americana , L. (B.)
Bees.
Galleria mellonella , Linn. To honeycomb. Antigua. (L.)
Beneficial Insects.
Megilla maculata, var. De Geer. Eats various insects.
Scymnus ochroderus , Mulsant. Feeds on Aphis maidis. Montserrat and
Barbados. (C.)
Exochomus nitidulus , Fab. Feeds on Coceida). Barbados. (C.)
Chrysopa, sp. Feeds on various insects in Barbados. (N.)
M3
GROUP F.
Animals which concern Man as being destructive to his
worked-up Products of Art and Industry, such as his
various (A) Buildings and larger Constructions and
Habitations, (B) Furniture and Books, Drapery and
Clothing, (C) Food and Stores.
SUB-GROUP A.
Teredos and Canadian Timber.
A communication was received on 23rd November, 1901, from
the Imperial Institute in regard to the wood-boring Teredos and
Canadian timber {Abies canadensis). In this communication the
following was stated : — “ This Department has supplied full infor-
mation with reference to the general characteristics of the wood and
its mechanical properties. It appears, howover, that other wood so
employed in South Africa is liable to be attacked by the Teredo
worm. The Canadian wood is known not to be readily attacked by
worms or insects of any description in Canada, but the question is,
does this particular worm occur in Canada ? ” The following
replies were sent to the Institute : —
(1.) The Teredo worm, one of the mollusca, attacks all manner of
wood. Canadian fir, judging from the specimens so frequently
washed up on the shores of England, Norway, etc., seems very liable
to the attack of Teredo. One species, Teredo megotara , Hanley,
found in England, both on fixed, floating and drift timber (especially
in Canadian fir), occurs in America. Stimpson described it as
{T. dilatatcc) infesting fixed wood and harbour buoys at Lynn, New
England. Tryon states that this species extends from Massachusetts
to South Carolina — it also occurs in Greenland and Iceland — so has
a very wide range, as one would expect, being transported on floating
wood, aided by the Gulf Stream.
I do not know any exact localities to give for Teredo in Canada,
but the one I mention and others occur there.
It is surprising to find that Abies canadensis is not subject to
boring mollusca in Canada, as drift wood of that fir appears particularly
prone to the attack of the pest.
144 First Report on Economic Zoology.
(2.) Since I last wrote you re Teredo and Canadian pine I find
the following species occur in Canada : Tereda dorsalis (the commonest
species), Xylophaga fimbriata, and X. bipinnata on the West Coast,
and Teredo megotara on the East Coast.
The species occurrlhg on the United States coast (Massachusetts)
are T. navalis, T. norvegica, T. dilatata, T. chlorotica and X. fimbriata.
T. norvegica occurs in oak, fir, and birch, and is found in Europe
as well. T. navalis in fir, elm, etc. ; also in Europe. T. megotara in
any wood ; also European. X. bipinnata occurs in Europe, West
Indies, etc., in almost any wood. X. fimbriata has also occurred in
teak in Europe.
The only Teredo quoted from South Africa is T. (Hyperotus)
nucivora of Spengler, which bores into floating cocoa-nuts. This
species Mr. Edgar Smith says he believes to be only tropical and
sub-tropical. Teredos which bore into wood, floating or otherwise,
may be found anywhere, and doubtless have a very wide range.
They may be carried very great distances by ocean currents.
Other Short Eeports sent.
The Rat Elea (l7. musculi) ; Information concerning it, and its
connection with Plague. (Dr. Cantlie.)
Tapeworms in the Bile Duct of Sheep in Transvaal (Dr. Theiler).
A new species under investigation.
Hippo and other Flies ( Tabanus dorsovitta. Lucilia marginalia ,
and Lucilia , sp. (?)) from Zambesi. (L. Lloyd Prichard, M.R.C.P.,
etc., Jersey.)
Ticks (. Ixodidce ) on Toads in Para, and their connection with
Drepanidium found in Toads. (Dr. Durham.)
Tsetse- fly in Gambia ( Glossina longipalpis , Wied., var. tachinoides,
Westwood). (Dr. Dutton.)
The Swift Tick, intermediate host of Filaria cypscli. (Dr. Dutton.)
A new species of Mallophaga.
Melolonthid Larvae (. Apogonia rauca) attacking Coco Palms in
Ceylon. (E. E. Green.)
PART III
EEPOETS
TO
(A) — THE FOREIGN OFFICE
AND
(B) — THE COLONIAL OFFICE.
i47
A. — REPORTS TO THE FOREIGN OFFICE.
1. TSETSE-FLY AND BUFFALO
CORRESPONDENCE.
Foreign Office,
16th June , 1901.
Sir, — I am directed by the Marquess of Lansdowne to transmit to
you the accompanying copy of a letter from the Colonial Office on the
subject of the Tsetse-fly, forwarding a copy of a letter from a Mr. Yal
Gielgud to the British South Africa Company remarking on the special
virulence of this fly in districts where Buffalo are principally to be found,
and I am to request that you will favour His Lordship with your observa-
tions on the subject.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Clement Ll. Hill.
Professor E. Pay Lankester,
British Museum (Nat. Hist.)
South Kensington, S.W.
Downing Street,
1D7i June, 1901.
The Under Secretary of State for the Colonies presents his compli-
ments to the Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and is directed by the
Secretary of State to transmit, for the information of the Marquess of
Lansdowne, a copy of the letter noted in the subjoined schedule on the
subject of the Tsetse-fly and Buffalo.
Mwenga R.,
“ Hook of the Kafue,”
N.E. Rhodesia,
24th February, 1901.
Mr. Val Gielgud to the British South African Co aip any.
Sir, — I see from the papers that the international conference for
the preservation of big game has decided to recommend that buffalo be
l 2
148 First Report on Economic Zoology.
placed on the list of game to be absolutely protected. I, therefore, wish
to bring to your notice my observations on the Tsetse-fly and the Buffalo,
the correctness of which are, I believe, borne out by the experience of
Mr. George Gray when travelling through a fly country in 1899 and also
by information obtained from native sources.
The Tsetse-fly has always abounded in districts where Buffalo were
numerous, and since the almost total destruction of Buffalo by rinderpest
these flies have not disappeared, although, perhaps, not so numerous as
formerly. The bite of the insect, however, appears to have become much
less deadly to domestic animals, and stock and dogs not only survive the
bites for a much longer period than formerly, but in many cases suffer no
ill at all.
This has been my personal experience, and I think I am correct in
saying Mr. Gray’s is similar.
The natives say that now the Buffalo are dead the Tsetse-fly no longer
kills stock, but of course natives are notoriously careless and loose in their
statements. It is a fact also that in many places where Buffalo have
become extinct the Tsetse-fly has also vanished ; this is the case in parts of
Sebungwi and Zankie districts. As there are large fly districts in northern
Rhodesia I call your attention to these facts, as it appears to me that the
protection of the Buffalo and the Tsetse-fly are identical, and I would
doubt if the benefit accruing from the preservation of the former will
compensate for the disadvantages arising from the existence of the latter.
I am, etc.,
Val Gielgud.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, London, S.W.,
QA-tli iTuiip 1 Q01
To Sir Clement Ll. Hill, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Sir, — I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter
of the 15th instant, enclosing a copy of a letter from Mr. Val Gielgud
with reference to Tsetse-fly and Buffalo.
In accordance with your request that I should furnish the Marquess of
Lansdowne with some observations on the subject I would wish, first of
all, to draw your attention to the powers given by Article IV. of the
“ dispositions ” adopted by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the
preservation of African wild animals, May 1st, 1900. The final clause of
that article was inserted on my suggestion with a view to such a case as
that reported by Mr. Gielgud, and gives power to dispense with the
principles agreed upon “ dans un interet superieur d’administration.”
It is, therefore, within the provisions of the agreement signed by the
Plenipotentiaries for the Government to authorise the British South Africa
Company to destroy Buffalo, in order to protect domesticated cattle from
disease.
A question, however, of a very serious nature arises as to whether there
is sufficient ground for concluding that the parasite of the blood, which
is introduced by the bite of the Tsetse-fly into domesticated animals, is
specially and ahunclanlly harboured in the blood of the wild Buffalo.
The theory is held that the parasite ( Herpetomonas nayanaS) of the
blood is comparatively harmless to wild indigenous forms, such as Buffalo,
Reports to the Foreign Office. 149
Antelope, etc., although multiplying in their blood, but that it is deadly to
introduced domesticated animals. Hence, it is supposed, it flourishes in
the wild game and is more abundant among them than it would be if its
presence caused death. I am inclined to believe this theory correct, but it
has not been properly tested.
Before the destruction of Buffalo in the vicinity of herds of domesti-
cated cattle is authorised, it ought to be dearly shown by experiment and
observation of competent medical men that the Buffalo harbours the
parasite, or at any rate that it can harbour it without being killed off as
are domesticated animals. It would be a matter of small expense, in
comparison with the enormous pecuniary interests involved, for the
British South Africa Company to employ a medical authority to experi-
ment on wild Buffalo, captured and kept in a paddock for the purpose of
settling the question.
And it seems to me that authority to destroy the Buffalo should not be
granted to the Company until they have furnished satisfactory scientific
evidence of the harbouring of the Nagana parasite by the Buffalo.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
(Signed) E. Ray Lankester.
Foreign Office,
Ibtli October , 1901.
Sir, — With reference to your letter of the 24th June, I am directed
by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to transmit to you for your
information the accompanying copy of a despatch from His Majesty’s
Commissioner in the East Africa Protectorate relative to the connexion
between Tsetse-fly and the Buffalo.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
(Signed) Martin Gosselin.
Professor E. Ray Lankester.
Mombasa,
6th September, 1901.
To the Marquess of Lansdowne, K.G., etc., etc.
My Lord, — In reply to Your Lordship’s despatch, No. 259 of
July 20th, respecting the connection between the Tsetse-fly and the
Buffalo, I have the honour to transmit letters from Messrs. Stordy and
MacClellan and Doctor Radford.
After reading this correspondence and discussing the question with
other persons, my own opinion is that where there are Buffaloes, Tsetse-flies
are usually (but not always) found, but that the flies also occur in districts
where there are no Buffaloes. Hence it would appear that the Buffalo
cannot be the only host of the parasite which the Tsetse-fly introduces into
the blood of domestic animals with fatal results.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) C. Eliot.
15° First Report on Economic Zoology.
Nairobi,
East Africa Protectorate,
3rd September , 1901.
To Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B.,
His Majesty’s Commissioner and Consul General, Mombasa.
Sir, — I beg to acknowledge receipt of a copy of the correspondence
re Tsetse-fly and the preservation of the Buffalo which you forwarded to
me for my opinion, and I have the honour to transmit to you herewith my
observations on the subject.
The Tsetse-fly belt of British East Africa, exclusive of Jubaland, may
be said to extend from Mtoto Andes to Simlia, a distance of roughly ninety
miles ; it is situated in a densely wooded, low-lying part of the country,
about 3000 feet to 3f00 feet above sea level.
Driajani, an old camping ground, within this area, was considered by
the late Captain Haslam and myself to be the most dangerous place for fly,
on the old transport route, but strange to say it was practically devoid of
game of any kind.
In my opinion, Buffalo and other big game are not the only factors in
the Tsetse-fly theory, and we must first consider the question of climate
and humidity before we condemn the Bos caffci as the true and only source
of the Tsetse-fly and Tsetse-fly disease.
I believe that the distribution of the fly is entirely influenced by the
physical aspects of the country and that for its existence it must have a
humid, low-lying position.
Major Bruce in his excellent report says (see p. 20. Further report
on Tsetse-fly disease in Zululand, 1896), “ That the presence of wild
animals in the vicinity of horses and oxen is not the only factor in the
problem is shown by the fact that in the old days when big game was
numerous and roamed over the whole country, hunters and travellers
never complained of fly until they encountered the disease in low-lying
tracts of country or along the large river valleys.”
As in the Hermansdorp district of Cape Colony herds of Buffalo are
still to be found, yet Tsetse-fly with its concomitant disease is unknown,
so in the high altitude of the Kedong (6000 feet), in this Protectorate,
herds of Buffalo are to be met with, greatly reduced in numbers by rinder-
pest within recent years it is true, yet neither Tsetse-fly nor Tsetse-fly
disease have ever been known to occur, nor has the fly or its disease been
heard of in the Baringo district of the Uganda Protectorate, where herds
of Buffalo and other big game exist.
When studying the causes which rendered the Island of Mombasa
uninhabitable for horses, I ascertained that an organism, the morphology
of which was identical with that found in animals suffering from Tsetse-fly
disease, was found in donkeys which had never left the island.
I expressed an opinion then ( vide Preliminary Report as to the causes
which rendered the Island of Mombasa uninhabitable for horses in 1899)
with regard to African Nagana and Indian Surra being one and the same
disease, and as the occurrence of Surra cannot be attributed to the presence
of wild animals or Tsetse-fly, we must explain, ere we destroy the buffalo
in an attempt to stamp out Nagana, why a disease identical with that
Reports to the Foreign Office. 1 5 1
caused by the bite of the Glossina morsitcms occurs in places such as
Mombasa, where Tsetse-fly and Buffalo are non-existent.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) Robert J. Stordy, M.R.C.V.S. (Vety. Officer, E.A.P.).
Nairobi,
East Africa Protectorate,
3rd September , 1901.
To R. Stordy, Esq., M.R.C.V.S.
Dear Mr. Stordy, — Many thanks for sending me the communi-
cations you have received from Sir Charles Eliot, re the Buffalo and
Tsetse-fly.
That the two should be associated is not extraordinary when one
remembers that both inhabit densely-wooded, damp, secluded districts,
but the arguments advanced to prove that the Bos Caffa alone is the
host of the Tsetse, and that the extermination of the former leads to the
disappearance of the latter do not appear to me to be convincing. From
my own observation I am inclined to the opinion that hosts other than the
one species mentioned (or some other factors) are necessary for the
propagation of the fly, and that the htematozoon is in all probability to
be found in many species of diptera.
During my residence in Jubaland, East Africa Protectorate, which
extended over two years, I had ample opportunity of studying the habits
and distribution of the Tsetse-fly and the effect it produced on domestic
animals.
Speaking generally, the fly belt is confined to two distinct areas in
that province.
(1) The valley of the Juba River within the forest belt. Here tiv
abounds for a distance of upwards of 400 miles — in fact, so general
is it in places that it is a source of annoyance to Europeans and natives.
Yet within the whole of that great tract of country Buffalo are few and
far between. The late Mr. Jenner and I came across them in one place
only (Lake Daley and district). Within this belt is the district of Gosha,
80 to 100 miles in length, where the fly is peculiarly abundant, yet Buffalo
are not found ; notwithstanding this, the hacmatozoon is very virulent,
and on the occasion of the late Mr. Jenner’s expedition to Lugh in 1890,
he lost every camel and pack-ox that went through (vide my report,
May 16th, 1899, forwarded to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
No. 53, May 31st, 1899).
(2) The region of Lake Kumbi to the north-east of Desek Waina
(Lake Hardinge), where the distribution of the fly is restricted to the
dense forest belt in the neighbourhood ; yet Buffalo are not known to
frequent this district. It appears to me reasonable to assume that where
fly is abundantly found extending over a large tract of country that its
natural host (if one only) should be in large numbers also ; or else the fly
must be possessed of extraordinary migratory powers.
If that host be the Buffalo, it is strange that it is particularly
conspicuous by its absence in the extensive districts mentioned, while
waterbuck and bushbuck are common in most parts, and yet again in
152 First Report on Economic Zoology .
others no animals of any sort are found save monkeys and rodents.
Amongst other pests that affect camels very seriously in Jubaland is a
species of gadfly which is restricted in its distribution to the open plains
and sparsely-bushed country in the districts of Desek Wama and Derib,
This fly, unlike the Tsetse, attacks animals during the day at all hours,
and the symptoms produced by it (in camels) are identical in every
particular with those produced by Tsetse, but I was unable at the time to
substantiate this theory microscopically owing to lack of the necessary-
materials, etc., for carrying on investigations.
Yours truly,
William S. Radford,
Medical Officer, East Africa Protectorate _
Nairobi,
4 tli September , 1901.
Sir, — Referring to our conversation on the subject of Tsetse-fly in
the Jubaland Province, I would state that along the Juba River where
low-lying forest exists (my observations cover a distance of some hundred
and twenty miles from Bulbula to Gele) Tsetse-fly abounds. The worst
places are damp, dark, and low-lying, shaded chiefly by the Ndorna Palm.
In many such localities there is little or no game and certainly no
Buffalo.
On the other hand, from Mtudo northwards buffalo are found,
especially in rainy weather and in the heat of the day frequent the
thickest depth of the forest ; here, too, Tsetse-fly is found in large numbers,
as also in the dry lake beds adjacent to the river. At the same time half
a mile or so away from the river and lake beds in the dense dry bush,
where Buffalo feed in the early mornings and evenings, the fly does
not appear. In many places the areas in which fly exist are quite small,
possibly only a few hundred yards in extent, and I have seen a watering
place made entirely free of fly for the time being by cutting down forest
and undergrowth and burning the grass in the immediate vicinity.
Again, at Lake Hardinge (now dry), where little or no forest exists,
where buffalo are frequently seen, and always large herds of waterbuck,
and Somalis graze their cattle at all times of the year without ill effects.
Passing on, however, some thirty miles to the Rumbi forest on the
Affmadu road, Tsetse-fly abounds, especially in wet weather.
My opinion, therefore, is that Tsetse-fly is to be found in certain dark,
damp, low-lying localities, irrespective of big game of any kind.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) J. W. P. McClellan.
Foreign Office,
20 tli November , 1901.
Sir, — With reference to my letter of October 15th last, I am
directed by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to transmit to you
for your information the accompanying copy of a despatch from His
Reports to the Foreign Office. 153
Majesty’s Commissioner in the British Central Africa Protectorate
respecting the supposed connexion between Tsetse-fly and Buffalo.
I am, etc.,
Clement Ll. Hill.
To The Director,
Natural History Museum.
The Residency, Zomba,
British Central Africa Protectorate,
80 th September , 1901.
To His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs.
My Lord, — With reference to your Lordship’s despatches Nos.
141 and 155, enclosing copies of correspondence on the subject of the
connection between the existence of Tsetse-fly and the preservation of
Buffalo, I have the honour to append a few notes which give my own
experience during the past fourteen years in Africa on this subject.
(1) Tsetse-fly would appear to depend upon wild game for their
existence, as I have never found Tsetse in any locality where game was
totally non-existent.
(2) Tsetse does not appear to be in any way specially dependent upon
buffalo. On the plains at the north end of Nyassa, before rinderpest
made its appearance, there were vast herds of Buffalo, but no Tsetse.
The natives at the north end at that time owned large quantities of cattle
which could be seen grazing in close proximity to Buffalo. When
rinderpest came it killed practically all the cattle and all the Buffalo.
In other districts of British Central Africa Tsetse are found in large
quantities where Buffalo, at the present date, at any rate, do not exist.
(3) Tsetse are not found (in British Central Africa) in open plains,
although such plains may have large quantities of game on them, and
in spite of the fact that at the edges of the plains, where forest abounds
Tsetse are found.
It would appear, therefore, that what regulates the presence of Tsetse-
fly is the description of the country almost as much as the abundance or
scarcity of game.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) Alfred Sharpe,
His Majesty's Commissioner and Consul-General.
Foreign Office,
27th November, 1901.
To The Director, Natural History Museum.
Sir, — With reference to my letter of the 20th instant, I am directed
by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to transmit to you for your
information a copy of a despatch which has been received from the acting
British Commissioner in Uganda, respecting the supposed connection
between Tsetse-fly and Buffalo.
I am, etc.,
Clement Ll. Hill.
154 First Report on Economic Zoology.
To The Marquess of Lansdowne, K.G.
Entebbe, Uganda,
2Wi September , 1901.
My Lord, — I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
Lordship’s despatch No. 190 of July 20th, with enclosures regarding the
question of the existence of the Tsetse-fly in connection with the preser-
vation of the Buffalo, and in reply to submit the following remarks, in so
far as my own experience has taught me, on this vexed question.
I may say at once that I am firmly of the opinion that in East Africa
the existence of the Tsetse-fly was never in any way connected with the
presence of the Buffalo more than any other species of game.
I first met with the true Tsetse, in any great numbers, and consequently
suffered much from their needle-like bite, in German East Africa, about
eighty miles inland from Saadani, in February, 1886.
At that time impala, hartebeest, zebras, and warthogs were found in
large numbers, also a few sable antelopes, but there were no Buffaloes
anywhere in the vicinity of my shooting grounds.
In 1887 I again found this fly in great numbers in a small patch of
thick bush, about a mile and a half long and three quarters of a mile wide,
about ten miles west of Taveita.
In this bush which projected from the forest I certainly found buffaloes
occasionally, but as a rule they preferred to lie up for the day in the thick
and cooler forest, in which there were no Tsetse-flies.
The bush in question was a favourite resort of impalas, and a small
dik-dik (Modoqua), the latter in great numbers, and also a few bush-bucks
and waterbuck. At that time (1887) Buffaloes may be said to have swarmed
in the vicinity of Tareita, but I never saw a Tsetse-fly in this one
particular patch of bush.
Later on, in 1888-89 and 1890, the fly was met with, also in great
numbers, along the old caravan road from about two miles south of the
Tsavo river, as far as Kibwezi. Between these two points there were practi-
cally no Buffalo, but a great number of dik-dik and a few impala. The
flies and the small game are still there, but there are certainly no Buffaloes.
In 1891-2, after rinderpest had carried off nearly all the Buffaloes (at
least 90 per cent.) throughout East Africa, Mr. Rogers, the present sub-
commissioner of the Tunaland province, and myself found the Tsetse-fly
existing in considerable numbers in a narrow belt of forest, not more than
a mile wide, between Mkonumbi and Witu, and we were told by the natives
that the G alias, when driving cattle to Larnu for sale, always drove them
through the forest by night, and that the herdsmen carried smoking
firebrands to keep the flies off.
With the exception of a few bushbuck and duykers, there was no game
in the vicinity of this belt of forest.
These four places are the only areas, the first and third ones only
being of any considerable extent, in which I have myself met with the
true Tsetse-fly, and yet, until they were decimated by rinderpest, Buffaloes
were more or less common throughout East Africa, and perhaps in no
part of the Continent were they ever more plentiful than the Masai
country between Kilimanjaro and Lake Baringo, Mau Plateau, and
Turkwell. Throughout the whole of this vast area the Tsetse was, and is,
non-existent.
Reports to the Foreign Office. 1 55
I may add that there is a species of Tsetse-fly found along the wooded
portion of the lake shore here at Entebbe.
A specimen of this fly I gave to Sir Harry Johnston, and I believe he
sent it home. It is plentiful in the botanical gardens. In these gardens,
with the exception of a few monkeys and squirrels, and certain small
nocturnal beasts, such as the ichneumons, etc., and an occasional
hippopotamus, there are no mammals, and if, as is supposed, the fly is
necessarily dependent on the presence of suitable mammals on which to
feed, the blood of these animals, and occasionally man, must necessarily
form its food supply. In conclusion I may add that I have ventured to
hold the opinion that the Tsetse is like the mosquito, only a bloodsucker
by predilection, and, in support of this view, I may state that on my return
to Kibwezi in April, 1892, at a time when the whole of the fly “belt” was
parched and dried up — there being no water between Msongoleni and the
Tsavo river, a distance of fifty miles ; and consequently there was no game
of any kind — the Tsetse was more plentiful than at any other time, before
or since, I have passed through that area.
Between Mtoto-Ndai and Kinani I caught on my own person thirteen
of these flies, and my half-naked porters suffered even more than I did
from their bites.
I can, therefore, not readily believe that all these flies could exist in
such a dried-up and at that time intensely hot locality if solely dependent
on the blood of a very infrequent passer-by or a stray dik-dik.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) F. J. Jackson.
2. WHITE ANTS OE TEEMITES IN THE SUDAN.
COEEESPONDENCE AND EEPOET PEEPAEED FOE THE
FOEEIGN OFFICE.
Sudan Govebnment,
Civil Secretary’s Office, Cairo,
Itli August , 1901.
To the British Agent and Consul-General, Cairo.
Sir, — We are much troubled in the Sudan by White Ants. They
destroy not only wooden telegraph poles, boxes, furniture, timber, etc.,
but in the Khartoum district green and growing plants.
This is in our experience an unusual procedure for the Sudanese White
Ants (who mostly confine themselves to wood), and shows that there must
be several varieties of the pest. This particular form of White Ant has
its nest about the size of a small melon, 4 or 5 feet under ground ; but it
is very difficult to extirpate him completely without digging up and
spoiling a great deal of ground.
156 First Report on Economic Zoology.
As Lower Egypt is not troubled by these insects, I have applied in vain
to the School of Agriculture at Cairo for information as to the best method
of getting rid of them. I may add that we have planted a good number
of Casuarina trees, which are supposed to be proof against the attacks of
White Ants ; but they eat the trees with the greatest impartiality.
I have the honour, therefore, to suggest that you will have the kindness
to forward a copy of this letter to the proper quarters with a request that
I may be supplied with any information there may be on the subject, or
that I may be referred to any books or papers on the same.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) Gleichen, Major,
Assistant Civil Secretary for Governor- General.
Cairo, Oth August, 1901.
To The Marquess of Landsdowne, K.G., etc., etc.
My Lord, — I have the honour to transmit to your Lordship
herewith copies of a note which I have received from the Civil Secretary
to the Soudan Government, asking for assistance in procuring information
as to the best means for combating the ravages of the White Ant, which is
extremely destructive in the Soudan.
I am informed that, in certain parts of America, the White Ant is very
prevalent, and that considerable attention has been directed to this subject
by the Department of Agriculture in the United States. It is probable
also that the Colonial Office are in possession of valuable information, and
more might perhaps be obtained from the Horticultural Gardens at Ivew.
I should be most grateful if your Lordship would render me any
assistance which is possible, in obtaining such information as may be
available, for the use of the Soudan Government.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) Rennell Rood.
Foreign Office,
22 nd August, 1901.
To the Director of the Royal Gardens, Ivew.
Sir, — I am directed by the Marquess of Landsdowne to transmit to
you the accompanying copy of a despatch from His Majesty’s Acting Agent
and Consul-General in Egypt, relative to the ravages committed in the
Sudan by the White Ant.
I am to enquire whether the Director of the Royal Gardens can furnish
any information on the best means of combating the ravages of these
insects.
I am, etc.,
T. H. Sanderson.
i57
Reports to the Foreign Office.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
23rd! August , 1901.
To Sir T. H. Sanderson, G.C.B., K.C.M.G.,
Foreign Office, Downing Street.
Sir, — I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter
of yesterday’s date enclosing a copy of a dispatch from His Majesty’s
Acting Agent and Consul-General in Egypt relative to the ravages
committed in the Sudan by the AVhite Ant.
In reply I have to state that Kew is not in possession of anything but
the most general information on the subject and is therefore unable to
furnish any advice which would be of any practical utility to Sir Rennell
Rodd. I have forwarded the correspondence to the Director of the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington, and requested him to examine
the question and communicate with you.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) W. T. Thiselton-Dyer.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
1th September, 1901.
To Sir T. H. Sanderson, G.C.B.,
Foreign Office, S.AV.
Sir, — I am directed by Professor Ray Lankester to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 22nd ult. addressed to the Director of the
Royal Gardens, Kew, enclosing copy of a despatch. from His Majesty’s Acting
Agent and Consul-General in Egypt, relative to the ravages committed in
the Sudan by the AVhite Ant.
I am to state, for the information of the Marquess of Lansdowne, that
Professor Ray Lankester is giving his attention to the question, and that
he will further communicate with you in regard to the matter.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) C. E. Fagan.
To Sir T. H. Sanderson, G.C.B.,
Foreign Office, S.AV.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
5th November, 1901.
Sir, — Referring to your letter of 22nd August last to the Director
of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and to my acknowledgment of the 7th of
September, relative to a despatch from His Majesty’s Acting Agent and
Consul-General in Egypt on the subject of the ravages committed in the
Sudan by the AVhite Ant, I have the honour to enclose herewith, for the
information of the Marquess of Lansdowne, a report prepared by Mr. F. V.
Theobald, of this Department, on the Termites or AVhite Ants, dealing
generally with their prevention and destruction.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) E. Ray Lankester.
158 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Report on Termites or White Ants, and methods
of checking the ravages of the same, prepared
at the request of the Sudan Government.
Without having specimens of the White Ants or Termites that are
causing havoc in the Sudan not only to wood-work, telegraph poles, etc.,
but also to green crops in the vicinity of Khartoum, it is not possible to
give a satisfactory account of any methods for combating the pests.
Investigation to be of any practical use must be made on the spot.
Information has been, however, collected from all sources concerning any
measures that have been taken in various parts of the world with a view
of checking the serious damage these insects do. This information is
embodied in this report. The various African Termites are also enume-
rated— their various ways of working pointed out and detailed methods of
destroying them given. A number of suggestions for preserving articles
from their attack and possible new remedies are also given.
African Termites.*
The following Termites are common in Africa ; the species found in
Central and Northern Africa being separately tabulated at the end of the
list.
1. Calotermes flavicollis , T., Ent. Sjst. Fabr., 11, 15, p. 91.
2. Hodotermes ochraceus , Burm.
= Termes ochraceus , Bamb., Egyp. Neurop., pi. 2, fig. 21, Ramb.
3. Ilodotermes mossambicus, Hagen, Linn. Ent., 12, p. 94.
4. Termes bellicosus, Smeathman, Phil. Trans., Vol, 71, p. 141.
5. Termes angustatus, Ramb., Neuropt, p. 306, No. 11.
6. Termes capensis, De Geer, Memoirs, VII., p. 47, tab. 38, fig. 7.
7. Termes destructor , Smeathman, Phil. Trans., Vol. 71, p. 141, No. 4, tab. 10.
8. Termes lucifugus, Rossi, Mant. Etr., 1, p. 107.
9. Termes ( Eutermes ) atrox, Smeathman, Phil. Trans., Vol. 71.
10. Termes ( Eutermes ) lateralis, Walker, Lin. Ent., 12, p. 216.
11. Termes ( Eutermes ) trinervius, Ramb., Nt-uroph, p. 308.
12. Termes ( Eutermes ) mordax, Smeathman, Phil. Trans., Vol. 71, p. 141.
13. Termes viator, Lat., Hist. Nat., XIII., p. 51, 8.
14. Termes ( Eutermes ) arborum, Smeathman, Phil. Trans., Vol. 71, p. 141.
15. Termes incertus , Hagen., Linn. Ent., 12, p. 230.
Species found in N. Africa, Egypt, Sudan, etc., down to the Equator.
The following species occur in North and Central Africa and along
the seaboard : —
C. flavicollis
C. lucif ugus
T. trinervius, Tripoli
C. flavicollis
T. atrox
T. lucifugus
IT. ochraceus
Algeria.
Egypt.
* A complete list of African Termites is given in the Appendix (p. 184).
1 59
Reports to the Foreign Office.
j Dongola, Darfur, Kordofan,
( Sennaar, and Abyssinia.
destructor , Kordofan.
viarum
bellicosus
destructor
mordax
atrox
arbor urn
trinervius
lateralis
fatale , Arabia.
T. bellicosus
T.
H.
T.
T.
T.
T.
T.
T.
T.
T.
> Sierra Leone and Gambia.
Damage caused by Termites.
The usual way of working is to destroy wood-work of all kinds. In
all instances Termites work in the dark ; they enter wood-work from the
ground, working up inside the wood from where the poles, supports and
timbers are placed in the soil. Furniture, books and papers are attacked
and destroyed, the wood-work being completely hollowed out, nothing
but a thin papery outer shell left, which naturally can stand no pressure
and so, soon collapses.
Damage to living substances and crops is by no means unusual. The
American T. ftavipes has been recorded destroying turnip roots, by
gradually eating out the interior.* In Florida they damage living trees
by eating away the bark about the collar and root, but growing wood is
only attacked by them under exceptional circumstances when there is no
dead wood or when they wish to escape from the heated soil.f This
species also attacks potatoes growing in rich soil or where there is a
considerable quantity of decaying vegetable matter. The insects form
scars or pits covering the surface, often over-hung by the dead and dying
skin.
Termes futile is very destructive to trees in Arabia.! In Ceylon tea
and coffee plants are attacked by them, the stems being gnawed through
just below the ground.
Termes australis , according to French (“ Handbook of Injurious Insects
of Victoria,” pp. 11, 187, 1893), attacks vines and fruit trees in Victoria.
Damage to living plants is therefore not unusual.
Varieties of Nests ( Termitaria ).
Termites or White Ants form variously-shaped nests. The ways of
destroying Termites differ according to the type of Termitaria. The
following types of nests seem to occur (1) large mound-nests, often six to
ten feet high ( T . bellicosus ), (2) small dome-shaped nests over tree stumps,
seldom more than two feet high ( Eutermes sp.), (3) Arboreal nests, on
live and dead trees, approached by a covered tunnel up the tree trunk
{Eutermes arborum and Eutermes sp.), (4) Small round nests in the soil
mentioned by Major Count Gleichen in his letter of inquiry (sp. ?).
* “ Insect Life,” II. 283. f “ Insect Life,” I. 341.
X “ History of Arabia, Ancient and Modern,” A. Crichton, 1833.
i6o First Report on Economic Zoology.
Termitaria of the arboreal species are also found on the roofs of houses,
stables, etc. The nests occur both above and below ground. Methods
of extermination must therefore depend on the species causing destruction.
Methods of Prevention and Remedies.
As the White Ants nearly always work under cover, the damage they
do is often not detected until too late. It is therefore necessary to protect
objects from being attacked. This can be done (1) by making ground
wood-work either obnoxious, poisonous or inaccessible to the Ants ; (2) by
lessening the number of Termites by poisoning and destruction of their
nests.
Making Ground Wood-work Obnoxious and Poisonous
to Termites.
Steeping posts, poles, timbers of houses, etc., in various smelling
substances has met with more or less success.
Use of Creosote. — In India creosote was used by the Government for
treating all the railway sleepers before they were laid.
In the outskirts of Columbia great damage has been done by White
Ants ( T . flavipes') to board fences : “ The chief damage is done where the
boards meet on the posts. It is particularly noticeable where a batten is
nailed on at a joint. Professor Atkinson states that tar poured on
between the posts and the boards soon after building the fence will act as
a preventive.” *
Experiments conducted with wood-boring insects and creosote-soaked
posts has not invariably met with success with Termites or other insects
after the wood has been “ planted ” some time. It cannot therefore be
recommended for telegraph poles, etc., that are being destroyed in the
Sudan.
Use of Arsenious Soda. — Of more lasting effect is steeping the parts of
poles, etc., that are placed below ground in arsenious soda dissolved in
mineral oil.
Protection of Telegraph Poles and Buildings. — Telegraph poles might
easily be protected by having the part buried either embedded in cement
or encased in zinc or tin. The metal should be painted with non-corrosive
paint. Cement casing would be best, as the tin would probably corrode
rapidly unless carefully painted, and the least hole would let the pests into
the wood. Zinc casing has been employed for foundation wood-work in
buildings with success, the zinc passing up the timbers out of the ground
and then bent over (Fig. 17, 2) so as to prevent the ants crawling upwards.
Complete dryness in buildings is also essential in regard to checking some
species of White Ants. All floors of houses in the districts where White
Ants are destructive should be made of concrete (or raised well above
ground, as shown in Fig. 17, 3). No furniture should be allowed to
stand against a wall. Where wooden floors are essential, the furniture
may be protected by standing the legs in small tins with paraffin oil in
them.
* “Insect Life,” I. 353.
CL
C
1
7
« -
x
— — 1 —
I xj
/
\
CL
t \
Fig. 17.
1. Base of telegraph pole protected from Termites ; a, pole; b, cement ; c, sand.
2. Another method of protecting poles; b, metal casing; c, ledge ; d, sand.
3. House with Termite protection : a, metal guards ; b, brick or cement
corners ; d, floor separated by space e from ground c.
M
1 62 First Report on Economic Zoology.
Destruction of Termites and their Nests.
When the nests can be located much good can be done by destroying
the nests and inmates. This may be done by pouring kerosene oil or
carbolic into the nests. The action is temporary, however, for it only
drives many of the ants away to form fresh nests.
Use of Arsenic Poisons for the Insects.
A far better plan is to put arsenic and syrup into the openings of
their tunnels or into the nests. The arsenic may be mixed up with
sugar into a thick syrup. Paris green would probably answer well. The
insects will feed off this and soon die, and it has been found that the
dead Termites are devoured by other Termites which themselves become
poisoned, and so great numbers are destroyed. Experiments should be
made in this direction and if successful should be carried out on a large
scale. Where this plan has been tried in isolated nests it has met with
marked success.
Clearing! White Ants from Wood-work.
When present in wood-work of a house or other building, Riley *
suggests injecting steam or hot water or kerosene wherever an opening
seems to lead into their burrows in timber.
Destruction and Prevention where damaging! living Trees.
When the Termites attack trees by eating away the bark about the
collar and root, the earth should be removed from the infected parts
and the ground should be exposed to the depth of several inches, and
the dead wood and bark cut off with a knife. A liberal supply of hot
water will destroy those that cannot be reached with a knife. Pyrethrum
and kerosene emulsion in extreme dilute solution can be applied with
success, but the latter should be used with great caution. Trees which
have been girdled may be saved by inserting scions between the root
below and the stalk above, thus re-establishing the connection between
the two. A poultice of mud and cow-dung applied to the affected part
will protect it and assist in the formation of new bark.f
Woods not attacked by White Ants.
From a report concerning the ravages of the White Ant in St. Helena
it is gathered that certain woods resist the attack of these pests better
than others. The wood of Myrtacm and teak were found to be the last
attacked and to resist their ravages. A correspondent in West Africa
informs me that they will not touch pitch-pine as much as other woods.
Californian red wood also appears to be free from attack.!
* “ Insect Life,” II. 253.
f Riley, “ Insect Life,” I. 341.
X Bull. 30 (n.s.), Dept. Agric., U.S.A.
Reports to the Foreign Office. 163
Conclusion.
Beyond these points nothing is known regarding the destruction
and prevention of Termites. It is certainly (1) advisable to set all foun-
dations of wood-work in cement so as to prevent the entry of the ants ;
(2) to adopt the precaution of steeping wood-work for the ground in
arsenious soda, and (3) to employ arsenic as a poison in the nests near
all habitations, works and railways. The probability is that by such pre-
cautions the ravages of these pests in the Sudan would be greatly lessened.
(Signed) Fred. V. Theobald.
To The Civil Secretary,
Sudan Government, Cairo.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.
15th November , 1901.
Dear Sir, — Referring to my letter of the 17th ultimo, I have to
inform you that a full report on AVhite Ants, dealing generally with their
prevention and destruction, was forwarded to the Foreign Office on the
5th inst. to be transmitted to His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General
in Cairo.
I shall be glad to learn that it has reached you.
I remain, etc.,
(Signed) C. E. Fagan.
Sudan Government,
Civil Secretary’s Office, Cairo,
21th November , 1901.
Dear Sir, — I have the honour to acknowledge your letter of the
15th instant and to thank you for the “ Report on AVhite Ants,” which
was received through H. B. M.’s Agency here.
This report will eventually be of the greatest use as a guidance in
fighting these pests.
I remain, etc.,
E. G. Blunt, Lieut -Colonel.
The Civil Secretary and Sudan Agent, Cairo.
1 64 First Report on Economic Zoology.
3. LOCUST PLAGUES IN THE SUDAN.
CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORT PREPARED FOR THE
FOREIGN OFFICE.
Sudan Government,
Civil Secretary’s Office, Cairo,
27i(Z October , 1901.
To The Director,
Natural History Museum,
Cromwell Road, S.W.
Dear Sir, — I wrote to you in August last asking for suck infor-
mation as you could kindly give me about the different species of locusts,
the means of distinguishing them, and their habits. I am sending you by
this mail a proof copy of the instructions that have been drawn up for the
use of officers in the administration of the Sudan, in whicli it is proposed
to include your notes.
Any remarks you might think fit to make would be of great interest,
as the instructions will not be printed until your notes have been received
and included.
These notes are being published with the shortest possible delay, and I
should like if possible to have them circulated by the beginning of next
month. I should, therefore, be very much obliged to you if you could let
me have your notes and remarks as soon as possible.
I must apologise for the trouble I am giving you, but the question of
the destruction of locusts is so important in the Sudan that I feel it my
duty to collect as much information as I possibly can before publishing
the notes.
I remain, etc.,
(Signed) Gleichen,
Assistant Civil Secretary and Sudan Agent , Cairo.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
12tli October , 1901.
To The Civil Secretary,
Sudan Government, Cairo.
Sir, — I am desired by the Director to acknowledge receipt of Count
Gleiehen’s letter of the 2nd inst., enclosing proof of printed instructions for
the use of officers in the administration of the Sudan, with regard to the
destruction of locusts.
A full reply thereto will be sent as soon as possible.
I have the honour to he, etc.,
(Signed) C. E. Fagan, Assistant Secretary.
Reports to the Foreign Office. 165
To The Civil Secretary,
Sudan Government, Cairo, Egypt.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.
Dear Sir, — Referring to Count Gleichen’s letter of the 2nd inst.
(No. C.S.S. 4/1259), I am desired by the Director to send you herewith a
report on the subject of locust plagues in the Sudan, with notes and
suggestions for the destruction of the locusts.
I am to point out that while Count Gleichen’s letter of the 2nd inst.
refers to locusts, his letter of the 7th August is on the subject of White
Ants. A separate report will be forwarded to you in due course in regard
to this last question, which is forming the subject of investigation by the
Museum.
I remain, etc.,
(Signed) C. E. Fagan.
Report on Locust Plagues in the Sudan.
At the request of the Foreign Office, the following information
regarding the Locust Plagues in the Sudan lias been despatched for
the use of the Sudan Government.
Particular attention is called to sections B. 2, 3, and 4 in the Report.
Experiments should certainly be tried in connection with the African
Locust fungus and the use of “ poison-baits.”
Prevention and Remedies for Locust Plagues.
A. Destruction by capture in, 1, trenches ; 2, traps ; 3, by burning.
This was fully dealt with in the proof of a paper sent from Egypt.
B. 1. Destruction of the eggs.
2. Collection of “hoppers” by special machines.
3. “ Poison-baits.”
4. Fungoid disease.
5. Plants poisonous to locusts.
G. Natural enemies.
Appendix (p. 179).
Various locusts, North African.
B. 1. Destruction of Eggs.
(a) By cultivation.
The eggs are usually laid in firm ground to guard them against natural
enemies.
By turning up and loosening the soil to a depth of three inches, the
eggs can be exposed, and numbers are destroyed by birds, parasitic
insects, etc.
1 66 First Report on Economic Zoology.
( b ) By collecting.
Egg masses may be collected where plenty of native labour can be
obtained.
The authorities in Cyprus in 1881 had 1300 tons of eggs collected by
natives at so much per pound.
A look-out should be kept to see where the females deposit their eggs,
and those particular parts of the district should be searched soon after.
B. 2. Machines for Catching Locusts (“ Hopper Dozers ”).
These machines of various patterns resemble a shallow earth scoop or
long tray. They are largely employed in America in Locust plagues.
A “ hopper-dozer ” is usually a flat iron or zinc tray, containing tar or
paraffin. This tray is dragged or pushed along by a horse or man against
the wind — the young locusts jumping out of the way get blown in, and are
thus killed.
ikj't
Fig. 18. — a hopper-dozer used for collecting locusts.
( After S. J. Hunter, Kansas).
One machine mentioned in “Insect Life” is 15 feet long, 2 feet deep,
and 4 to 5 feet wide ; this box is divided into sixteen compartments filled
with lime water. .
A plan of one of the most recent and most successful machines used m
America is here appended. This machine was used by the Hon. Thos.
H. Ford, of Syracuse, U.S.A., and cost ready for use five dollars.
The pans should be 2 feet wide, 4 inches deep, and 8 inches at the
167
Reports to the Foreign Office.
back ; they are laid on 1 X 4 boards, previously nailed to runners ; the
height of the pans above the ground varies with the height of the crop
over which the “ hopper dozer ” will be taken.
The pan should be partly filled with paraffin and water and taken across
the infected crops until full, when fresh oil and water must be added.
These machines can be made of any size.
B. 3. Mineral Poisons.
Arsenical poisons can be employed to advantage where animals are not
likely to touch them. I11 America poisoned bran is successfully employed.
Mr. Coquillett (U.S. Dept. Agriculture) has found the following formula
the best : 1 lb. arsenic, 1 lb. sugar, G lbs. bran. Add water to make an
ordinary mash.
This is prepared as follows : Mix the dry bran and arsenic in a tub,
dissolve the sugar in warm water, and mix with the arsenic and bran.
Place this mixture about in little heaps ; its action is not rapid, but always
fatal in about twenty-four hours.
B. 4. The African Locust Fungus (Empusa grylli).
(Destruction by Fungoid Disease.)
A fungus known as Empusa grylli found on grasshoppers and locusts
has been used as a remedy with more or less success. Its introduction into
Egypt might probably be very beneficial, and certainly should be tried.
It has been imported into America from Natal, and has destroyed
injurious swarms of locusts in Colorado and Mississippi.
Dr. Lounsbury (Cape of Good Hope Kept., 189G) refers to this disease
and its employment, and says it causes destruction to the swarms when
proper conditions of moisture are present.
It has been introduced into Australia and has met with some success
there also.
The method of employment adopted by Mr. Froggatt, Government
Entomologist to New South Wales, is here appended.
The fungus must be cultivated in a laboratory on gelatine and sent out
to operators in test tubes.
The operator proceeds as follows : — The fungus should be sent out in
definite quantities, enough of the culture to make a tumbler full of liquid
being a useful proportion. The operator should boil sufficient water and
let it cool down to luke-warm. The contents of the tube are then extracted
and mashed up with two teaspoonfuls of sugar and well stirred up in the
water with several bits of cork, which have been previously placed in the
glass as indicators. Cover the tumbler with a sheet of paper and then
place it in a warm room and leave for twenty-four hours. When examined,
if fit for use, the cork indicators should show mycelium growing on them.
This culture is taken to the infested land. Then proceed to catch some
locusts by means of a net. The culture placed in a tin is spread over the
locusts and they are released, when they carry infection to others and so
destroy myriads of the pests.
Mr. Froggatt, Government Entomologist of New South Wales, states
that one tumbler full of liquid is sufficient for 1000 locusts.
1 68 First Report on Economic Zoology.
'■ 'The most favourable time to treat them is in the evening — damp
weather if possible being chosen — as the increase of the fungus is doubtful
unless the air is moist.
Further experiments should be conducted, however, before this is
definitely considered satisfactory.
B. 5. Plants Poisonous to Locusts.
1 . Common Garden Larkspur ( Delphinium ).
2. Castor Oil Plant (. Ricinus communis).
These might be employed around gardens, orchards, etc., as a barrier
to the advance of locust armies.
It should be pointed out, however, that stock will eat Larkspur and are
thereby poisoned {vide Dr. E. V. Wilcox’s Rept., Bull. 15, Montana Exper.
Station, 1897, on “ Larkspur Poisoning of Sheep ”).
B. G. Natural Enemies.
Locusts suffer from many natural enemies, both vertebrate and inver-
tebrate. Amongst the former may be mentioned fowls and turkeys.
Droves of the latter clear off locusts very rapidly, as many as fifty being
found at once in a turkey’s crop. Encouragement of these birds should
be’ given in all districts where locusts abound. Numerous wild birds also
feed off locusts.
Amongst insect enemies are numerous diptera or flies, especially
Tachina Flies ( Tachinidce ), and Flesh Flies (Sarcophayidce), whose larvae
or maggots live inside and destroy the young locusts.
Many carnivorous flies, such as the Asilidae, or “ Wolf Flies,” feed off
the young “ hoppers.”
Predacious beetles and their larvae devour locusts in different parts of
the world, especially the locusts’ eggs.
In North America a species of mite, /. locustarum , Riley, is the most
effective enemy of the various locusts. These mites feed off the eggs and
also the winged adults.
No natural enemies are able to cope with locusts, however, unless it be
the Locust Fungus ( Empusa gryllii) ( vide B. 4).
(Signed) Fred. Y. Theobald.
Sudan Government,
Civil Secretary’s Office, Cairo,
3rd November, 1901.
To C. E. Fagan, Esq., Assisi ant Secretary,
Natural History Department, British Museum.
Dear Sir, — I beg to thank you for your letter of the 17th October
enclosing some very valuable suggestions for the destruction of locusts.
They should eventually prove of the greatest use, though as yet the Sudan
is too new and too thinly populated to permit of operations being carried
out very effectively.
169
Reports to the Colonial Office.
My first letter on locusts, dated 28th August (copy enclosed) addressed
to you, must have been lost iu the post, as it was carefully sent to your
address.
I note that a separate report re White Ants will be forwarded to me
later. I have received a copy of the “ Bulletin” for July, 189(>, of the
Botanical Department of Trinidad through the Colonial Office ; but the
“ Bulletin ” deals with the West Indian White Ants only, which present
no resemblance whatever to the Sudan White Ants.
I am anxiously awaiting the result of the investigations kindly under-
taken by the Museum before taking any further steps.
I remain, etc.,
(Signed) Gleichex.
B. — REPORTS TO THE COLONIAL OFFICE.
1. THE MARINE RESOURCES OE THE WEST INDIES.
Colonial Office,
Downing Street, S.W.,
29 th April, 1901.
To Professor E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir, — I am directed by Mr. Secretary Chamberlain to transmit to
you the occompanying copy of a letter which he has received from
Dr. Morris, the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies,
relating to a paper, of which a copy is also enclosed, on the Marine
Resources of the West Indies, by Dr. J. E. Duerden, Curator of the
Museum of the Institute of Jamaica, together with the copy of a despatch
on the same subject from the Governor of Jamaica.
2. Mr. Chamberlain would be glad if you would be so good as to take
these papers into your consideration and favour him with your opinions
upon the subject.
3. I11 accordance with Dr. Morris’s request, copies of these papers have
also been referred to Professor Howes.
I am, etc,
(Signed) H. Bertram Cox.
Imperial Department of Agriculture for
the West Indies,
Barbados,
lith 'March, 1901.
To The Under Secretary of State,
Colonial Office.
Sir, — I have the honour to forward, herewith, a copy of a paper on
“ The Marine Resources of the West Indies.” read before the late West
Indian Agricultural Conference by Dr. J. E. Duerden, Curator of the
Museum of the Institute of Jamaica.
170 First Report on Economic Zoology.
2. Owing to the special interest attached to the subject, the paper has
been issued as an extra number of the “West Indian Bulletin.” It will
also appear amongst the Conference papers to be published in the second
volume of the Bulletin now in the press.
3. Although the British West Indian Islands are surrounded by wide
seas, inhabited by large numbers of edible fish of excellent quality, the
methods employed in capture are somewhat primitive, and in no instance is
advantage taken of modern improvements. At present a considerable trade
in salt fish is carried on between these islands and British North America,
the annual value of which is estimated at £234,000.
4. Dr. Duerden, so far as I am aware, is the first to draw attention
from the scientific point of view to the potentialities of the marine
resources of these islands. It would, in my opinion, be most valuable if
the subject could be taken up as a part of the research work entrusted to
this Department. This would be in harmony with what has been done
with considerable advantage at Cape Colony and in connection with the
recently created Board of Agriculture in Ireland. I estimate that the cost
of adding a Fishery Branch to this Department would be about £800 to
£1000 per annum.
5. I commend for special consideration the resume given at the close
of Dr. Duerden’s paper (pp. 18 and 19). He rightly points out that the
West Indian Fisheries and the men associated with them have been wholly
neglected by the agencies devoted to the improvement and extension of
the industrial resources of these Islands,” and he concludes as follows :
“ The directions along which development and investigation in fishery
matters are most needed at present within the West Indies may finally be
summarised : — (1) The best methods of capturing and curing tropical fish ;
(2) Knowledge of the life-history and habits of the edible and migratory
fish ; (3) Encouragement of enterprise in fisheries generally ; (4) The
best means of shipping live turtle. Artificial hatching and rearing of the
green turtle and the hawksbill ; (5) Restocking of the exhausted grounds
around Barbados with artificially reared sea-eggs ; (6) Oyster, sponge, and
lobster culture. One of the great endeavours of to-day in the West Indies
is to supplement in as many directions as possible the old industries of
sugar and rum by the introduction and encouragement of other products ;
and in the undeveloped resources of the sea the Colonies have a possession
which, if rightly used, will constitute a valuable adjunct to the many
agricultural efforts.”
(*>. In order that the subject may be placed before the Secretary of State
in a complete form I suggest that a copy of this letter and of Mr. Duerden’s
paper be referred for their opinion as Zoological Experts to Professor Ray
Lankester, F.R.S., Director of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.), and to Pro-
fessor Howes, F.R.S., of the Royal College of Science, South Kensington.
7. In the meantime copies of Dr. Duerden’s paper have been communi-
cated to the Governors and to all the leading officials and residents in
these Colonies.
8. I forward, under separate cover, five extra copies of the Report for
the use of the Colonial office.
I have, etc.
(Signed) D. Morris,
Commissi oner of Agriculture for the West Indies.
Reports to the Colonial Office.
King’s House, Jamaica,
8th March , 1901.
To The Right Hon. J. Chamberlain, M.P., etc.
Sir, — I lmve the honour to transmit to you a copy of a pamphlet
by Dr. J. E. Duerden on the subject of Fisheries in the West Indies and
to commend it to your consideration.
2. I understand from Dr. Duerden that Dr. Morris has expressed
himself very favourably with regard to the suggestions contained in the
paper, and that it is possible he may recommend that experiments for
giving effect to them should be carried our in connection with, and under
the auspices of, the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West
Indies.
3. Were the financial circumstances of Jamaica different to what they
are, I should consider it desirable that efforts should be made by the
Colonial Government to improve and develop the fisheries of the island.
Any such efforts are, however, for the present, at all events, “ beyond the
range of practical politics.”
4. I feel, however, that it would be of great benefit to the Colony if
experiments in the directions suggested by Dr. Duerden, particularly with
regard to the artificial breeding and culture of turtles, could be carried
out, and I shall be very glad to learn that you have found yourself able to
sanction any recommendation which Dr. Morris may make for the matter
being taken in hand by the Imperial Department of Agriculture.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) Augustus W. L. Hemming,
Governor.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
3rd May, 1901.
To H. Bertram Cox, Esq.,
Colonial Office, Downing St., S.W.
Sir, — In accordance with Mr. Secretary Chamberlain’s request,
conveyed in your letter of April 29th, I have considered the letter of
Dr. Morris and Dr. Duerden’s Report on the Marine Resources of the
West Indies, of which you were good enough to send me copies.
The matter referred to has been for some time under my consideration,
and I find myself in entire agreement with Dr. Morris. I think it would
be a most valuable step in the public interest were the Marine Resources
of the West Indian Islands taken up as a part of the research work
entrusted to the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies.
The paper by Dr. Duerden on “ The Marine Resources of the West
Indies ” is a valuable one. The various sources of wealth in the seas of
the West Indies are each carefully sketched. By the references made to
marine investigations carried on elsewhere, Dr. Duerden shows that he is
well informed in the subject, whilst his observations and suggestions and
general handling of the subject show originality and full competence.
Dr. Duerden has had a thoroughly sound training as a scientific biologist.
His original papers, as well as the present report on the Marine Resources
of the West Indies, prove him to be a trustworthy scientific adviser, who
172 hirst Report on Economic Zoology.
would be regarded with respect and confidence by scientific men in this
country were he further employed in connection with this subject.
I am of the opinion that the carrying out of the investigations
suggested by Dr. Duerden’s Report, under the auspices of the Imperial
Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, would lead to economic
results of practical value and justify the expenditure of public funds in
that direction.
I have, etc.,
(Signed) E. Ray Lankester.
Abstract of Dr. Duerden’s Report on the Marine
Resources of the West Indies.
In an extra number of the West Indian Bulletin issued in 1901, Dr.
J. E. Duerden reviews the chief marine resources of the British West
Indies. I11 this he gives an account of the fisheries of the W est Indies,
and points out that in a few instances only are the marine products of any
export value to the Colonies, whilst 011 the other hand there is an enormous
import trade in dried and preserved fish.
The principal marine resources are as follows : Turtles, Jamaica being
the chief centre of the West Indian turtle trade, the exports for 1900
being about £10,000. The industry is concerned with the two well-known
species, the Green Turtle ( Chelone midas) and the Hawksbill ( Clielone
imbricata). The supply is chiefly obtained from around the Cays and
Moscpiito coast of Central America. The Report shows that there is an
evident diminution in the supply, merchants never being able to obtain
sufficient to meet the export demands. The two subjects dwelt upon
concerning turtles of great importance are their artificial rearing so as to
produce them in greater numbers to meet the demand and the best method
of shipping them. The mortality from capture to landing in England
varies from as much as 25 to 50 per cent. !
Under the heading of “fishing” is given a general account of the
industry, and stress is laid on the primitive methods adopted by the
fishermen : “ fishing as adopted elsewhere is comparatively neglected and
undeveloped.” The amount of coral prevents trawling, and moreover
there are evidently not enough flat fish to make this method pay. The
use of seine and other nets along the shore and shallow banks is very
profitable ; but unfortunately the habits of the schools of migratory fish,
such as June fish, herring, sea mullet, etc., are not known, nor the best
means of catching them, nor of preserving them when caught. The fishing
industry appears to be mainly in the hands of natives. Amongst the chief
fish of good quality are various species of Snappers ( Mesoprion ), Yellow
Tail ( Ocyurus chrysurus), Grunts ( Hcemidon ), Silks ( Tropidiurus dentatns ),
King and June fish, river and marine mullet and Calipcrus ( Mugd ), and
Snook ( Gentropomus ). They occur around Jamaica, where the average
price of fish is 6d. a pound. Barbados is celebrated for its large flying-
fish industry. The Flying-Fish ( Exoccetus roberti) is estimated to yield
annually £13,000. Snappers and Brines ( Gentropristes ocidatus ) are also
taken in numbers by line fishing around Barbados.
i73
Reports to the Colonial Office.
Under the heading Oysters we find that the West Indies have an
oyster in abundance, Ostrea parasitica, Gmelin, which grows on the roots
of mangrove trees. There is no system of cultivation at present. They
are much appreciated and find a ready sale. Many other edible mollusca
occur, including the Mussel (. Mytilus exustus, Linn., the Scallop ( Pecten
ziyzay, Chemn.), various “ ark ” shells, Area spp. ? and Codakia tiyerina.
Lobsters, shrimps and crabs are also amongst the marine resources, the
most abundant lobster being Palimirus ary as, Latr. They and other
species are caught in fish-pots from amongst the coral. It is pointed out
that successful cultivation of lobsters might be carried out just as in
Newfoundland and Canada.
Sea-eyys. Barbados occupies an almost unique position in having an
important industry founded on the marine forms of life called sea-urchins,
or sea-eggs. Its annual value is estimated at nearly £4,000. The roe or
reproductive organs, are the part used as food. There is unfortunately a
great decrease in the number of these Echinoderms. The chief species is
known as Hipponoe esculenta, Leske. They form a staple food for a few
months along the coast. Before any remedial measures can be adopted, it
is necessary to know the life-history of this sea-egg.
Hototliurians , Beche-de-Mer , Trepany , etc. Great numbers of these
echinoderms occur on the floors of the seas in the "West Indies. The
species have not been identified, but the Jamaican ones are of the genera
Holothuria and Sticophus. Experimental shipments of Beche-de-Mer were
carried out a few years ago at the Caicos Islands with the object of
supplying the American Chinese with their favourite article of diet. To
show the importance of this marine animal, the report mentions that the
annual export value to Queensland is about £23,000.
Sponges.
The West Indies and Florida, along with the Mediterranean, are the
principal sponge producing areas of the world ; but fine bath sponges also
come from Australia.
The shores around the Bahamas are the best known sponge grounds in
the West Indies. They form the greatest industry of that Colony.
Dredging and diving for them have been prohibited. They are gathered
by means of two-pronged forks attached to staves 25 feet in length. The
sponge exchange is at Nassau. The annual value is nearly £100,000.
The United States Government has undertaken the investigation of the
Florida sponge grounds with a view to the better development of the
industry. Successful experiments in the artificial propagation of sponges
by transplanting and by cuttings have been carried out in the Mediterranean
and in Florida.
Amongst other industries mentioned in the report are the whale oil
industry, still carried out in a small degree around some of the islands of
the Lesser Antilles. Ambergris is occasionally found on the coasts of the
Bahama Islands.
Companies of dolphins are often seen traversing the length of
Kingston Harbour, but no attempt is ever made to secure them. The
Manatee is also sometimes caught and the flesh sold, but they breed too
slowly to become of much economic importance.
174 First Report on Economic Zoology.
The resume is given in Dr. Morris’s letter, p. 188. The report has three
appendices : —
(1) The Fisheries of Barbados, where we learn the approximate income
is £19,500.
(2) The Jamaican Fisheries ; an account of the operations in Jamaica
of the Caribbean Sea Fisheries Development Syndicate, Limited, which
does not appear to have been financially successful.
(3) A Report on the Sea-egg Industry of Barbados.
2. CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES.
Colonial Office,
Downing Street,
1th August, 1900.
To The Director of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).
Sir, — I am directed by Mr. Secretary Chamberlain to enclose for
your consideration copies of a special Report on the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries
and of the last report on the inspection of the pearl banks, which have
been received from the Governor of that Colony.
Mr. Chamberlain would be much obliged if you would be good enough
to advise him on the subject generally, but I am to state that he doubts
whether the Colonial Government would be well advised to incur any
considerable expense in the matter, unless it is considered to be of great
scientific interest, as the local conditions seem to be well known for
practical purposes.
The Governor of Ceylon has suggested that the opinions of the Royal
Society, British Association, and Zoological Society should be invited as
to whether it is desirable that these fisheries should be inspected by a
scientific expert, and also that Dr. Herdman, F.R.S., should be consulted,
but no application has yet been made to these Societies or to Dr. Herdman,
pending an expression of your opinion.
I am to add that various prints relating to Pearl Fisheries in Ceylon
can be seen in the Library of this Office.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) C. P. Lucas.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.),
Cromwell Road, S.W.,
IWi A'ugust, 1900.
To The Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain.
Sir, — I have read the Special Report on the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries
forwarded to me by Mr. Lucas at your request. I am of opinion that the
recommendations made by Sir W. Twynam are well based and should, so
far as I am able to judge, be carried into effect.
The questions connected with the proper management and fishing of
pearl oyster banks and other similar submarine sources of wealth are
of great scientific interest, and should, in my opinion, be continually
investigated and dealt with in the interest of the community. Results
Reports to the Colonial Office. 175
obtained in Ceylon may be found to be of value from a commercial point
of view in Queensland or again in the West Indies (Sponge fisheries).
I am decidedly of the opinion that the expenditure of a certain
proportion of the revenue derived from the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries,
upon thorough and authoritative study of the questions raised in Sir W.
Twynam’s report by the best scientific naturalists whose services can be
obtained must in the course of time — if persisted in and sufficiently
supported by money needed for experiments and investigation — produce
a valuable return to the State in the form of increase in commercial
results.
A brief inspection of the banks by a capable scientific naturalist or the
employment of a second-rate man of no real scientific knowledge or
training would, in my judgment, be a waste of public money.
I should myself like to see Professor Herdman, of Liverpool, entrusted
with a two or three years’ mission in connection with the Ceylon Pearl
Fisheries. He has given special attention to oysters and oyster fisheries,
and is a man of genuine knowledge and also possessed of energy and
initiative. It would be possible for him to give three or four months in
each year to his professional work in England and to spend the rest of the
year (at the proper season) in Ceylon.
I think that Sir W. Twynam’s report might very well be submitted to
Professor Herdman for his opinion, and that before taking a definite step
it might be well to submit his proposals to the Council of the Royal
Society for their advice. But I should not recommend that either the
Zoological Society or the British Association be consulted.
It is evident from Sir W. Twynam’s report there are many matters
connected with the pearl banks upon which a competent naturalist versed
in marine biology could at once clear up doubt. For instance, the
mysterious enemy of the oysters mentioned in the report, which drills a
small round hole in their shells. Every marine biologist knows at once
that this must be one of the whelk -like gastropods, which preys upon the
pearl oyster as do its congeners in European seas prey upon European
oysters and comb-shells.
Were a competent naturalist, such as Professor Herdman, entrusted
with a thorough study of the Ceylon pearl banks, and provided with a
well-fitted steam cruiser for dredging, sounding, diving, etc., there can be
no doubt that, in the first place, zoological results of great general interest
would be obtained, as well as collections of value to the national Museum,
and new facts of the most varied kind tending to advance our knowledge
of marine life.
I believe, moreover, that in the second place such knowledge of the
facts would be definitely gained as would enable the Ceylon Government
to improve the pearl fisheries and to manage them in the best possible way
with a view to getting the proper commercial return from them.
It is impossible to foretell what results a clever naturalist might
obtain. The artificial rearing of the spat of the pearl oyster and the
nursing and transference of the young oysters as carried out in regard to
European oysters might be found possible and of immense commercial
value. Finally the artificial production of pearls is always, as far as
zoological science enables us to form an opinion, a possibility. Perhaps
I may, in conclusion, be allowed to point out that, some thirty-five years
176 First Report on Economic Zoology.
ago, an experimental inquiry into the pearl fisheries of Ceylon, which was
initiated by Government, ended in failure and disappointment, owing to
the fact that the matter was entrusted to a gentleman who, though
acquainted with sea-fishing as a sportsman, had no scientific knowledge
or training.
During the past thirty-five years our knowledge of the treatment of
oysters and similar questions has vastly increased.
If a naturalist who is really worthy of trust and conversant with the
subject is sent to Ceylon to study the pearl banks, it is, in my opinion,
highly probable that the expenditure involved will be amply repaid by the
results. Such a man could not be obtained for a less payment than one
thousand pounds a year, exclusive of all expenses ; and it would be
necessary to employ him for three years at least.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) E. Ray Lankester.
Colonial Office,
Downing Street,
23 rd August , 1900.
To The Director, British Museum (Nat. Hist.).
Sir, — I am directed by Mr. Secretary Chamberlain to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 13th instant and to thank you for your
advice on the subject of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon.
2. Mr. Chamberlain will communicate with Dr. Herdman and subse-
quently with the Royal Society, as you suggest.
3. I am to ask that you will be so good as to return the Reports
enclosed in the letter from this Department of the 7th instant, as there
are no other copies of these prints available. The Governor of Ceylon
has been asked to send further copies, which will be forwarded to you as
soon as they are received.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) C. P. Lucas.
Abstract of Report on the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries.
By Sir W. C. Twynam, K.C.M.G. (Colombo, 1899).
In this long report of sixty-six pages, Sir W. C. Twynam first points
out the injurious nature of currents and foul water to the pearl oyster.
For some years the real spat of the pearl oyster does not seem to have
been known, the spat of other Avicuho being taken for young pearl
oysters.
The enemies of the oyster are given, amongst them the following :
shellfish, the chank of commerce ( Turbimlla pyrum ), the horse and
elephant chanks ( Pyrula cam aria and Murex regius).
A small mussel (. Modiola ) known as the Suran spreads a kind of blanket
over the oysters and suffocates them ; this is, however, rare in the Ceylon
177
Reports to the Colonial Office.
beds. The crab is also said to be injurious, cutting the byssus of the
oyster. A note is given on page 6 regarding an enemy that makes a
round hole in the oyster shell ; this mysterious enemy is one of the
carnivorous whelks.
Evidently, from the report, numerous small mollusca prey on the pearl
oysters. Two fish, the Trigger Fish ( Batistes mitis ) and skates ( Trygon
warnalc), also do much harm. On page 5 it is stated that “ the numerous
rock fish which abound on the Arippu banks feed on oysters . . . the quan-
tity devoured by these voracious fish must be considerable.” Later, it is
stated to be useful, as it preys on the injurious Suran or mussel. Skates of
several unknown species are referred to as very destructive. Divers, both
European and native, give various tales as to the damage done by sea
snakes, but nothing authentic is given.
Floods of fresh, muddy water are stated to be most injurious.
Little definite seems to be recorded as to the age of pearl oysters, but
it is stated “ that oysters may be profitably fished at the age of four years,
and that they are in their prime at five years, and may be kept till that
age if circumstances permit of it, but if they are kept until the sixth y ea
they are almost certain to be found dead.” The best time to fish then:
however, does not appear to be settled.
The advisability of retaining native divers is entered into at some
length, their superiority over the European at this work being clearly
pointed out. Their reward is now raised to one-third of the oysters
collected. Recommendations to start a chank fishery in the neighbour-
hood of the pearl banks are given. One fishery exists north of Manaar
Islands, about 2,000,000 chanks being exported from Jaffna to Calcutta.
The chanks are used as ornaments by the Hindus.
The main body of the report (39 pages) is taken up by eight appendices.
The first dealing with spat, true and false ; enemies of the oyster ; chank
fishery ; age of the pearl oyster and artificial culture ; being extracts from
the report of Mr. Thomas, Madras Civil Service, to the Government of
Madras, on the Pearl Banks and Fisheries of Tuticorin.
The most important part in this report regarding the true spat is here
reproduced : —
“ The challenged spat in the largest shell which I have seen is
4| sixteenths of an inch from hinge to contour rectangularly at its
widest point, and the largest drawing in Sir J. Emerson Tennent’s
work is no more ; it is, therefore, so small as to need very close
examination. Looked at under a hand lens and under a low power
microscope, I made it out to differ from the shell of the pearl oyster
in being much more convex, more oblique ; in having the ear on the
short side, not produced in an almost straight line, but rounded off
and turned up instead of being flat ; in having the right valve fitting
deeply into the left valve, with the edge of the right valve turned back at
about an angle of 45° for the whole contour in some, for others only from
the sinal ear to half way round the contour, instead of the two valves
meeting each other nearly ffaf, as in the pearl oyster ; in having none of the
spines with which the pearl oyster is covered, and distinctly different
flanges ; in having no algce adhering to it ; in having the umbones more
anterior or advanced beyond the hinge line ; in adhering to weed, said to
be Saragossum vulgare, instead of to rock and such-like hard substances
N
178 First Report on Economic Zoology.
in being differently coloured, the dark lines of colour radiating as in the
drawing from the convexity to the contour. Again, it is only the concave
part of the shell that is coated with glistening nacre, the broad deflected
margin being dull. It is not so in the pearl oyster, in which the nacre
comes close to the margin. In the aviculce, of which our pearl oyster
Avicula (. Meleagrina ) margaritifera is one, the prolonged hinge line, straight
at the hinge, is brought in below with a curve that gives it a similitude to
the wing of a bird, and the sinal ear, though shorter, is also slightly curved
in below. In some aviculcz this formation is more expressed than in
others, so that they are divided into two sections of the long-winged and
short-winged aviculce. Avicula macroptera is the type of the former, and
Avicula heteroptera and A. crocea are illustrations of it ; of the latter
A. margaritifera is the type, but still has the peculiarity distinctly present.
In the challenged spat it is wholly absent. At the same time, however,
that it is said in Reeve’s “ Conchologia Iconica ” that this feature is
always present in the aviculce , it is not shown in the small shell of
A. vexillum, figured magnified in this work, which, as far as the drawing
goes, has a general similitude to the challenged spat and has against it the
remark “ Habitat, Ceylon (in deep water), Gardner,” but beyond this the
text description, though very brief, hardly tallies, and there are to my
thinking three, if not four, forms among the challenged spat, all of which
show under the microscope “the prismatic cellular structure of shell
found in most of the aviculce ” (Carpenter). My belief is that they have
been so long sailing under the false colours of being the pearl oyster spat,
that they are unnamed and seemingly mature aviculce , but 1 am not
concerned to name them ; all my contention for the purposes of this report
is that they are not pearl oysters.*
This is pointed out as having an important bearing on the supposed
disappearance of young pearl oysters from certain beds.
* The figures given in Tennent’s 1 Natural History of Ceylon ’ are therefore
wrong. — F.V.T.
179
APPENDIX.
■
I. LIST OF NORTH AFRICAN LOCUSTS.
(After Mr. W. F. Kirby’s forthcoming “Catalogue of Orthoptera.”)
phasgonurida;.
STENOPELMATID.E.
Lezinci, Walk.
concolor, W. Egypt.
Magrettia, Brunn.
abominata, Brunn. Suakim, Don-
gola.
obscurcc, Burr. Somali.
HeTRODIDjE.
Gymnoproctus, Karsch.
Maurelii , Luc. Senegal, Soudan.
abortiva, Serv. S. and W. Africa.
Anepisceptus, Fieb.
horridus, Burm. Egypt, Syria,
Arabia.
Servillei , Reiche, Abyssinia, Somali.
Revoilii , Luc. Somali.
Eippolyti , Kb. ( Servillei , Luc.).
Abyssinia.
Ruspolii , Schulth. Somali.
Suakimensis , Kb. Suakim.
Robeckii, Schulth. Somali.
Eugaster , Serv.
spinulosus , L. Morocco.
Woodii, Kb. Somali.
Powysi, Kb. Morocco.
Guyoni, Luc. Algeria.
Lucasii, Kb. Tunis.
inornata, Krauss. Oran.
Mcidiga, Kb.
abermns, Schulth. Somali.
Bradyopistliius, Karsch.
paradoxurus, Karsch.
Epiiippigeridje.
Uromenus, Bol. S. France, Corsica,
Sardinia, Algeria.
rugosicollis, Serv. S. France, Cor-
sica, Sardinia, Algeria.
costaticollis, Luc. Algeria.
laticollis , Luc. Algeria.
Finoti, Br. Algeria.
agarena, Bol. Ceuta.
latipennis, Fisch. Algeria.
Ephippigera, Latr.
transfuga , Brunn. Algeria.
nigromarginata, Luc. Morocco,
Algeria.
compressicollis, Fisch. Algeria.
antennata, Brunn. Algeria.
innocentii, Fin. Tunis.
oudryanus, Bonn. Tunis.
vosseleri, Krauss. Algeria.
trilineata, De Haan. Tripoli.
Vaucheriana, Sauss. Morocco.
N 2
Appendix.
180
Mauretanica , Sauss. Morocco.
maroccana , Sauss. Morocco.
lobata, Sauss. Algeria.
txniata, Sauss. Morocco.
hastata, Sauss. Morocco.
Steropleurus, Bol.
selliger, Charp. Spain, Portugal,
N. Africa (?)
Liicctsi, Brunn. Algeria.
Algericci , Brunn. Algeria.
Platystolus, Bol.
pachygaster , Luc. Algeria.
Pycnogaster , Graells.
Finoti, Bol. Algeria.
Decticid.e.
Drymadusa, Stein.
fallaciosa, Fin. Algeria.
Pterolepis , Ramb.
Oessardi, Bonn. Tunis.
indigena , Fin. Algeria.
Bhacocleis, Fieb.
maura, Borm. Tunis.
Ariagona, Krauss.
Margarita s, Kr. Teneriffe.
Ctenodecticus, Bol.
Bolivari , Targ. Sardinia, Oran.
Vasorensis, Fin. N. Africa.
Pholidoptera, Wesm.
punctifrons, Bunn. Egypt, Syria.
Decticus, Serv.
griseus, L. Europe, Madeira.
laticauda, Brunn. Sicily, Algeria.
tessettata, Charp. Europe, Algeria.
senix, Fin. N. Africa.
Kabyla , Fin. N. Africa.
Tettigonia, Linn.
atbifrons, Fabr. Europe, Madeira.
PlIASGONURID/E.
Phasgonura , Westw. Europe, N. A frica.
viridissima, L. N. and W. Africa.
Savignyi, Luc. Algeria.
marginifera , Walk. Africa.
maroccana , Bol. Tangier.
algerica, Bol. Algeria.
Eumenymus , Piet.
Vaucherianus , Piet. Morocco.
Ccdliphona, Krauss.
Konigi , Kr. Canaries.
Atluaudi, Kr. Canaries.
Sagidje.
/Sa^a, Charp.
ornata , Bunn. Egypt.
CONOCEPHALIDiE.
Puspolia , Schulth.
pygmxa, Sch. Somali.
Conocephalus, Thunb.
nitidulus, Scop. S. Europe, Afric a
Algeria, Canaries, etc.
Xiphidium , Serv.
concolor, Burrn. Hungary, Egypt..
stramineum, He Haan. Egypt.
lugubre, Redt. Egypt.
somali, Burr. Somali.
conocephalus, L. N., W. and EL
Africa, Madagascar.
MECOPODIDiE.
Pachysmopoda, Karsch.
abbreviata , Tasch. Sokotra.
Euthyplilebia , Schulth.
parallela, Sch. Somali.
MECONEMID.E.
Oroplvila, Krauss.
nubigena, Kr. Teneriffe.
Pjianeropterid.e.
Odontura, Ramb.
spinulicauda , Ramb. S. Europe,
Algeria.
Borrei, Bol. Algeria.
algerica, Brunn. Algeria.
quadridentata, Krauss. Algeria.
terniensis, Fin. Algeria.
Pseudisotima, Brum.
punctata, Br. Somali.
Peropyrrhicia, Brunn.
Massaice, De Borm. Abyssinia.
maculata, Schulth. Somali.
Leptophyes , Fieb.
Antinorii, He Bonn. Shire.
Appendix. 1 8 1
Epiphlebus, Karsch.
crypterius, Karsch. Somali.
Ruspolii , Schulth. Somali.
Peronura, Sclmlth.
Somali, Sch. Sojnali.
Rivas, Sch. Somali.
Rhegmatopoda, Brunn.
Peeli, Burr. Somali.
Acrometopa, Fieh.
Servillei,\ Brulle. S. Europe,
Egypt.
Conchotopoda, Karsch.
Ruspolii, Schulth. Somali.
Euthyphltbia, Schulth.
parallela, Sch. Somali.
Myrmeocophana , Brunn.
fallax, Br. Soudan.
Gonatoxia, Karsch.
maculata, Karsch. Somali.
Phaneroptera , Serv.
falcata, Scop. S. Europe, N. Africa,
W. and Central Asia, Madeira.
nana, Charp. S. Europe, E., W.
and S. Africa (can hardly fail to
occur in N. Africa).
minima, Brunn. Egypt.
punctata, Burr. Somali.
Milititsa, Burr.
Somaliensis, Burr. Somali.
Diogena, Brunn.
Fausta, Bunn. Nubia, Aden.
Tylopsis, Fieb.
lilifolia, Fabr. Mediterranean
Region, Egypt, etc.
perpulchra, Burr. Somali.
Karschiana, Schulth. Somali.
Debrona, Walk.
angustipennis, Burr. Somali.
LOCUST1DZE.
* AcRIDIIDiE.
Acrydium, Geoff.
Nobrei, Bol. Portugal, Morocco (?)
bipunctatum, L. Europe, Algeria.
ceperoi, Bol. Cadiz, Tangier.
depressa, Bris. Europe, Zanzibar
(certainly all N. Africa).
Paratettix, Bol.
meridionalis, Ramb. S. Europe,
Egypt, Nubia.
Coptotettix, Bol.
rufipes , Bol. Somali.
TRYXALIDiE.
Tryxalis, Bol.
turritus, L. S. Europe, Asia,
Africa (Egypt, Nubia, Algeria,
etc.).
giganteus, Fuessly. S. Europe,
Egypt.
lineatus, Thunb. Morocco.
bicolor, Th. Egypt, Arabia.
[N. G. (near last, but h. w. rudi-
mentary).]
tereticornis, Brulle. Canaries.
Acrida, Linn.
Pharaonis, Klug. Upper Egypt,
Baghdad.
ensis, Burr. Sokotra.
nasutus, Linn. Morocco (?), Somali.
miniata, Klug. Upper Egypt.
annidata , Thunb. Algeria.
variabilis, Klug. Egypt, Syria.
nebulosa, Thunb. ( = unguiculata,
Ramb.). Arabia, Old World,
Algeria, Egypt, etc.
grandis, Klug. Egypt, Nubia,
Quetta.
scalaris, Klug. Africa, W. Asia,
Egypt, Canaries, etc.
Oxycoryphus, Fisch.
compressicornis, Latr. S. Europe,
W. Asia, Egypt, Algeria, Senegal.
venustus, Walk. Cairo.
Duronia, Stal.
fracta, Ivrauss. Egypt.
lucasi, Bol. Algeria.
laurss , Bonn. Tunis.
savignyi , Krauss. Egypt.
Chirista, Karsch.
flexuosa, Schulth. Somali.
Paracinema, Fisch.
tricolor, Thunb. S. Europe, Africa,
Algeria.
sylvestris, Thunb. Algeria.
Ochrilidia , Stal.
tibialis, Fieb. S. Europe, Egypt,
Syria.
1 82 Appendix.
Brachycrotaphus, Krauss.
tryxalicera, Fab.
Arcyptera , Serv.
hispanica , Ramb. S. France, Spain,
Algeria.
Stenobothrus , Fisch.
pulvinatus , Fisch. S. Europe,
Algeria.
Ixtus , Walk. Cairo.
Bonneti, Bol. Tunis.
amcena , Bris. Algeria.
Lucasi , Bris. Algeria.
Simonyi, Krauss. Canaries.
Stauronotus , Fisch.
cruciatus , Pall. S. Europe, Morocco,
Egypt, Algeria.
Genei, Ocsk. S. Europe, W. Asia,
Algeria, Egypt.
Epacromia, Fisch.
strepens, Lat. S. Europe, Algeria,
Asia Minor, Canaries.
thalassina, Fabr. Europe, Egypt,
Madeira.
lucasi , Brunn. Algeria.
Locustid,®.
Chlcebora, Sauss.
Kollari, Schulth. Somali.
gracilis, Schulth. Somali.
Quiroguesia, Pant.
notabilis, Walk. Canaries, Spain,
S.W. Asia.
Blanchardiana , Sauss. Somali, etc.
( Edaleus , Fieb.
flavus, Linn. Europe, Asia, Africa,
(Algeria, etc.).
Locusta, Linn.
inornatus, Schulth. Somali.
danica, Linn., Old World (all W.
Africa, Egypt, etc.), Canaries,
Madeira, and Azores.
migrator oides, Reiche. Africa
(Abyssinia, etc.).
ffeteropternis, St&l.
Savignyi, Krauss. Egypt.
Pycnodictya, St&l.
Galinieri, Reiche. Abyssinia.
Forbesi , Burr. Sokotra.
( Edipoda , Latr.
gratiosa, Serv. S. Europe, Asia,
Egypt, Canaries.
cxrulescens, Linn. Europe, W.
Asia, Africa, Zanzibar.
fuscocincta , Luc. Sicily, Algeria,
Canaries, Tunis.
canariensis , Krauss. Canaries.
Mauretania, Luc. Algeria.
Thalpomena, Sauss.
Algeriana , Luc. Algeria.
Maderse, Serv. Madeira.
Picteti , Krauss. Tenerilfe.
Aerotylus, Fieb.
insubricus, Scop. Mediterranean
Region, W. Asia, Canaries,
Algeria, Egypt.
patruelis , Sturm. S. Europe, Africa,
Algeria, Egypt.
longipes , Charp. S. Europe, W
Asia, E. Africa, Abyssinia,
Algeria, Canaries, Sokotra.
errabundus, Fin. Algeria.
Egncitius , St&l.
coerulans, Krauss. Algeria.
Leptoscirtus, Sauss.
aviculus, Sauss. Egypt.
Savig7iyi, Sauss. Egypt.
Sphingonotus, Fieb.
coerulans, Linn. Europe, W. Asia,
Egypt, Madeira.
azurescens, Ramb. Spain, Egypt,
Algeria, Abyssinia.
Clausii, Kitt. S. Russia, Egypt.
callosus, Fieb. S. Europe, Algeria,
Syria.
asperus, Brulle. Canaries.
granulatus, Brulle. Canaries, Al-
geria.
Se/rx, Fin. Algeria.
Savignyi , Sauss. Egypt, Nubia.
Canariensis, Sauss. Canaries,
etc.
arenarius, Luc. Algeria.
niloticus, Sauss. Egypt.
latifasciatus, Walk. Egypt, Arabia.
tricinctus, W. Egypt, Arabia.
octofasciatus , Serv. Egypt.
variegatus, Walk. Egypt.
Appendix.
Leptopternis, Sauss.
Bhamses, Sauss. Egypt.
canescens, Sauss. Egypt.
Ilelioscirtus, Sauss.
capitanus , Bonn. Tunis.
Finotianus, Sauss. Algeria.
EREMOBIIDAi:.
Eremobici, Serv.
cisti, Fabr. S.W. Europe, Algeria.
Glavelli , Luc. Syria, Tunis.
pulchripennis, Serv. Egypt.
continuaia , Serv. Cairo.
Erernochoris, Sauss.
insignis, Luc. Algeria.
PyRGOMORPHIDAS.
Chrotogonus, Serv.
Borman s-i, Bol. Shoa.
angustatus, Blanch. Egypt.
Savignyi, Bl. Egypt.
Blanchardi, Ivrauss. Egypt.
bomolodema , Bl. Sennaar.
lugubris , Bl. Egypt.
Pyrgomorpha, Serv.
conica, Oliv. S. Europe, Algeria,
Egypt.
debilis , Fin. Algeria.
Parasphena, Bol.
picta, Bol. Massowa.
Pcecilocera, Serv.
hieroglyphica, Klug. Dongola.
vittata, Kl. Dongola.
bufonia, Klug. Egypt, Syria.
vidcanus, Serv. Egypt.
vignaudii, Guer. Abyssinia.
Phymateus , Serv.
IHldebrandli,Po\. Somali, Zanzibar.
Maura, St&l.
apicalis , Bol. Massowa.
Dictyophorus, Thunb.
'griseus, Beiche. Abyssinia.
Pamphagodes , Bol.
Biffensis, Bol. Morocco.
PAMPHAGIDiE.
Prionosthenus , Bol.
galericidatus, St&l. Egypt.
Eumigus , Bol.
monticohis. Eamb.
183
Finotia, Bonn.
spinicollis, Bonn. Tunis.
Ocnerodes, Brunn.
Durieui , Bol. Morocco.
microptera, Bris. Algeria.
nigropunctatus, Luc. Algeria.
Volxemi, Bol. Algeria.
longicornis, Bol. Algeria.
Acinipe, Ramb.
hispanica, Ramb. Spain, Algeria.
Saharas , Piet. Biskra.
Muelleri , Krauss. Algeria.
Foreli, Piet. Gabes.
Algerica, Brunn. Algeria.
expansa, Brunn. Gibraltar, Algeria.
Mauritania , Bol. Morocco.
Eunapius, Stal.
Brunn eri, St. Algeria.
sitifense , Bris. Algeria.
Numidte, Sauss. Tunis.
Maroccanus , Sauss. Morocco.
granosus, St&l. Algeria.
quadridentata , Bris. Algeria.
Vaucherianus, Sauss. Morocco.
Pamphagus, Thunb.
elephas, Linn. Algeria.
Xiphocera, Latr.
Brunneriana, Sauss. Somali,
Abyssinia.
Cyrtacanthacrid^:.
Dericorys, Serv.
acutispina, St&l. Egypt.
albidula, Serv. Egypt.
Millierii, Borm. Tunis.
Platypliyma, Fisch.
rufipe s, Brunn. Algeria.
Armindia, Krauss.
Brunneri, Kr. Teneriffe.
Xenippa, St&l.
aridula , St. Khartum.
( N.G . = Acridium (auct. nec Geoffr.).)
AEgyptium, Linn. S. Europe,
N. Africa (Egypt, Algeria, etc.).
Schistocerca, Stal.
peregrina , Oliv. S. Europe, W.
Asia, N. Africa (Egypt, Algeria,
etc.).
Cyrtacanthacris, Walk.
compta, Walk. Suakim.
Appendix.
184
liobecJcici, Schulth.
obesa, Schulth. Somali.
Sphodromerus, Still.
decoloratus , Fin. Algeria.
inconspicuus, Schulth. Somali.'
serapis, Serv. Egypt, Sinai.
Calliptamus, Serv.
italicus , Linn. S. Europe, W.
Asia, N. Africa (Algeria, Tunis),
Madeira, Massowa, Sokotra.
ictericus , Serv. Spain, Algeria.
vulcanites , Krauss. Canaries.
cliscoidalis , Walk. Egypt.
mutator, Walk. Egypt, Arabia.
similis , Brunn. Egypt, Syria.
turbiclus , Walk. Egypt.
ccdcaratus , Stal. Massowa.
orientalis, Schulth. Somali.
signatu •«, Walk. Suakim.
Heteraris, Walk.
Somali , Schulth. Somali.
Tylotropidius , Stal.
Somalicus , Schulth. Somali.
Thisoicetrus , Brunn.
littoralis, Ramb. S. Europe, Egypt,
Nubia, Algeria, Arabia, etc.
cxrulescens, StM. Massowa.
grossus, Schulth. Somali.
Euprepocnemis, Fieb.
plorans , Charp. S. Europe, Africa,
Asia, Egypt, Algeria.
cinerea, Blanch. Teneriffe.
morbosus , Serv. Egypt, Arabia.
II. LIST OF AFRICAN TERMITES.
(Compiled, from Sjostedt’s “ Monograph ” (Svenska Ak. Handlingar,
34 (4) (1900), by Mr. W. F. Kirby.)
TIodotermes , Hag.
mossambicus, Hag. Damara, Cape,
Caffraria, Natal, Mozambique,
German E. Africa.
ochraceus , Burm. Egypt, Tunis,
Morocco, Persian Gulf.
viator , Latr. Cape (Hex River, etc.).
Wasmanni, Sjost. N. Africa
(Wady M‘bellem).
Ilavilandi , Sharp. ( = mossambicus :
see Sjostedt).
viarum , Smeathm. Phil. Trans, lxxi
p. 189 (1781). Sierra Leone.
Aurivillii, Sjostedt. Cape (Darling).
Calotermes, Hag.
flavicollis, Fabr. Palaearctic Region ;
Mediterranean ; Algeria, Egypt.
Camerunensis , Sj. ( = robustus , Sj.).
Cameroons.
Madagascar iensis, Wasm. Nossi
Be, Durban ( = Durbanensis ,
Hav. : sec. Sj.).
Ilavilandi , Sj. Cameroons, Fer-
nando Po, Congo.
Ilowa, Wasm. Madagascar.
cryptops, Sj. Ugalla (Ituri-Fahro)
[? Uganda].
pallidus , Ramb. Mauritius.
Voeltzhowi , Wasm. Madagascar.
Rhinotermes, Hag.
putorius , Sj. Cameroons, Fernando
Po, Gaboon, Congo.
Acanthotermes, Sj. 1
acanthothorax, Sj. Cameroons.
militaris , Hag. Togo, Congo,
Angelo.
spiniger , Sj. Congo.
Termes, Linn.
niger , Sj. Cameroons.
gratus , Sj. Togo.
vitrialatus, Sj. Congo.
Goliath, Sj. Kilimanjaro, Masai
Land, Dar-es-Salaam, British Cen-
tral Africa.
Natalensis , Hav. (= termiticola,
Sj.). Liberia, Gold Coast, Togo,
Congo, Soudan, Angola, Caffra,
Natal, N. Transvaal.
bellicosus, Smeathm. (cf. infra),
crucifer, Sj. Sierra Leone, Togo,
Cameroons, Congo.
cavithorax, Sj. Cameroons.
lucifugus, Rossi. Mediterranean,
Algeria, Egypt.
A ppendix .
destructor , Smeathm. ( = jlavicullis,
Walk.). Senegal, Sierra Leone,
Natal (?), Kordofan, Bahr-el-
Abiad.
Caffrarix, Sj. Caffraria, Natal.
latericius , Hav. Natal, Mozam-
bique.
aquations, Sj. Togo, Cameroons.
microps, Sj. Usambara.
latialatus, Sj. Congo.
capensis, De Geer. Gambia (?)
Cape, Caffraria.
Buchholzi, Sj. Liberia, Fernando
Po, Gaboon.
angustipennis, Sj. Congo.
vulgaris, Hav. Natal.
angustatus, Ramb. Cape, Natal,
Caffraria.
Lilljeborgi, Sj. Cameroons.
amplus, Sj. Congo.
Gabonensis, Sj. (= Mulleri, Sj.).
Gaboon.
nobilis, Sj. Cameroons.
badius, Hav. Natal.
simplicidens, Sj. Cameroons.
basidens, Sj. Togo.
unidentatus, Wasm. Gold Coast,
Zanzibar.
incertus, Hag. Mozambique, Natal.
monodon, Gerst. Mozambique,
Usegabn, Usagara, Transvaal.
aquaticus, Sj. Togo, Cameroons.
(bellicosus ; synonyms : var. Mos-
sarabica. Hag; subsp. Sansi-
barica , W asm. ; fatale, Fabr. ;
capensis, Latr.j; subhyalinus,
Rainb.; viator, Walk. ; falciger,
Gerst.)
bellicosus ; localities : Senegal,
Kerry Coast, Sierra Leone, Gold
Coast, Togo, Cameroons, Congo,
Angola, Natal, N. Transvaal,
Delagoa Bay, Mozambique, Use-
gaba, Usambara, Zanzibar, Tan-
185
ganyika, Tangier, Sennaar, Kordo-
fan, Abyssinia.
Eutermes, Hav.
fungifaber , Sj. S. Leone, Cameroons.
bilobatus, Hav. Natal.
atrox, Smeathm. S. .Leone, Cape.
macrotliorax, Sj. Gold Coast,
Cameroons.
longiceps , Sj. Cameroons.
albotarsalis, Sj. Cameroons, Congo.
Aurivillii, Sj. Cameroons.
lateralis, Walk. Sierra Leone,
Cameroons.
truncatus , Wasm. Madagascar.
arboricola, Sj. Cameroons.
mordax, Smeathm. Sierra Leone.
pallidipes, Sj. S. Leone, Cameroons.
Camerunensis, Sj. Cameroons.
Sikorx, Wasm. Madagascar.
fuscotibialis, Sj. Cameroons, Gaboon.
subtil is, Wasm. Aldabra, Mauri-
tius.
parvus, Hav. Gold Coast, Natal.
heterodon, Sj. Cameroons.
rectangular is, Sj. Cameroons.
hastatus, Hav. Cape.
socialis, Sj. Gold Coast, Cameroons.
capricornis, Wasm. Madagascar.
baculi, Sj. Cameroons.
hospes, Sj. Cameroons.
trinervius , Ramb. Pal. Region,
Sierra Leone, Congo, Damara,
Cape, Natal.
mauricianus, Ramb. Mauritius.
togoensis, Sj. Togo.
geminatus, Wasm. Gold Coast.
arborum, Smeathm. Senegambia
Cameroons, Cape.
laticeps, Wasm. Madagascar.
latifrons, Sj. Togo, Cameroons,
Fernando Po.
chrysopleura , Sj. Cameroons.
canaliculatus, Wasm. Madagascar.
nigrita, Wasm. Madagascar.
1 86
INDEX.
A.
Acacia Wood, method of destroying
insects in, 128
Acari at roots of flowers, 129
Agromyza chermivora , 40
Agrotis exclamationis , 7, 83
Agrotis segetis , 7
Allied Bud Moth, 68
Allied Spotted Crane Fly, 101
Allspice, Pimento Borer in West Indies,
139
Almonds, attacked by Indian Meal
Moth, 124
Andira, insect pests of, 141
Anobium domesticum , 41, 128
Anobium paniceum, 41, 45
Anobium tessellatum, 41 ; in St. Alban’s
Cathedral, 122, 123
Anthocoris fusca, 40
Anthomyia radicum , 11
Anthomyidae, 11
Anthonomus pomor-um , 18
Antipest sprayer, 26
Antithesia variegana, 68
Ants, destruction of, 31
Aphides, on apple trees, 27 ; on carrots,
27 ; on osiers and willows, 114
Aphis amygdali, 28
Aphis atriplicis, 10
Aphis brassicx, 93
Aphis mali, 27
Apogonia rauca , 144
Apple Blossom Weevil, 18 ; Sucker, 26 ;
Aphis, 27 ; Fruit Fly, 21
Apples, maggots in, 20; maggots in
imported apples, 21 ; Lisbon, 21 ;
Scale on, 22, 29 ; Bark Louse, 26 ; eggs !
on apple trees, 26 ; Aphides on apple
trees, 27 ; Sawfly, 20, 128
Area, 173
Arxocerus fasciculatus, attacking coffee- i
berries, 137
Ark Shells, edible, in West Indies, 173
Armadillidium vulgar e, 106
Armed Strongyles, 60
Arrowroot pests of West Indies, 141
Arsenate of lead wash, 28
Aspidiotus ostrexformis, 25
Aspidiotus perniciosus, 23
Atomaria linearis, 8, 11
Atropos divinatoria , 45, 74
Auchmeroyia, 55
Auchmeroyia depressa, 56
Austrian pine, Pissodes notatus on, 116
Aviculae, 176
Avicula crocea, 178
Avicula heteroptera, 178
Avicula macroptera, 178
Avicula margaritifera, 178
Avicula vexillum, 178
B.
Balistes mitis, 177
Banana, insects on, in West Indies, 141,
144
Banded Pine Weevil, 116 ; prevention
and treatment, 117
Bark spots, 23
Barley, affected with smut and beetles,
80
Barley, smut and insects in, 5, 80
Bathyscia ivollastoni, 84, 87
Beclie-de-Mer in West Indies, 173
Beech Coccus, 38
Beet Carrion Beetle, 6
Beetle Mites, 77
Benzine, use of, for furniture pests, 42 ;
for clothes pests, 44
Bibio hortulanus, 11, 22, 91
Bibio marci, 22
Bibionidx, on mangolds, 11; on fruit,
22
Bisulphide of carbon, use of, 126
BDck Fly on mangold, 10
Black Wire worm, 49
Bordeaux Mixture, 48
Brown Curiant Scale, 26
Index.
187
Bryobia pruni, 2G
Bud Mites in Black Currant, 18, 78
Bud Moth, 62 ; literature on, 63 ; life-
history of, 65; at Wisbech, 73; at
Hailsham and Swanley, 128
C.
Cabbage Aphis on Turnips, 93
Cabbage Boot Fly, 31
Cxcilius, 74
Caitophorus salicivorus, 114
Calandra grcinaria, 46
Calandra or y zee, 46
Calathus cisteloides, 19
Caliper us, 172
Calliphora, 55
Calocoris fulvomaculatus , 31
Canker fungus mistaken for insect work,
29
Carpocapsa pomonella, 20
Carrion Beetles, 6
Carrot Fly, 108
Carrots, Aphides on, 108
Case-making Clothes Moth, 43
Cassava, insects on, in W. Indies, 141
Cattle, Screw Worm in, 132
Caustic Alkali wash, 25
Cayor Fly, 56
Cecidomyia, 38
Cecidomyia heterobia, 38 ; rosaria , 38 ;
salicis, 38, 129 ; saliciperda, 38 ;
salicina, 38 ; terminalis, 38
Cecidomyidae, 37
Centropomus, 172
Centropristes oculatus , 172
Ceratitis in apples, 21
Cereal Pests, 3, 80
Cetonia aurata, 13
Ceylon, Pearl Fisheries, 174 ; abstract
of Beport on, 176
Chafer, Green Bose, 13; garden and
summer, 12
Chafer Larvae, 12
Chafers, 12
Chanks of commerce, 176
Cheimatdbia brumata, 21
Chelone imbricata, 172
Chelone midas, 172
Chermes abietis, 18
Chermes corticalis, 39
Cherry Sawfly, 21, 72
Chincona pests, 140
Chi nosol, use of, 123
Chrysanthemum, land bugs on, 30
Chrysomela marginalis, 91
Cigar Beetle, 125
Cinnabar Moth, 15
Cladius viminalis, 37
Clothes Moths, 43, 128; treatment for,
44, 126
Clytus arietis, 92
Coccidae, 29; life-history of, 25
Coccinella septem-punctata, 92
Cocoanut Palm, insects on, in West
Indies, 140 ; Melolonthid larvae on,
in Ceylon, 144
Cocoa Plant, insects on, in West Indies,
139
Codling Moth, 20
Coffee berries, damaged by Beetles, 137
Collembola in orchid houses, 110
Colorado Beetle, notes on, in England,
87 ; First Beport on outbreak at
Tilbury, 89 ; Beport of second visit to
Tilbury re, 90 ; Beport on, 1902, 90 ;
insects sent as, 91 ; reported at
Hockley, 93 ; at South Benfleet and
Northfleet, 93
Common Crane Fly, 96
Compsomyia, 55, 131
Compsomyia macellaria in man, 131 ;
in cattle in St. Lucia, 132
Conorliinus rubrofasciatus, 130
Cornweal, insect pest in, 141
Corn Weevil, 46
Corrosive sublimate, use of, 42
Cotton, insect pests of, in West Indies,
139
Cowpeas, insect pest in, 141
Crabs in West Indies, 173
Crane Flies, 94
Crioceris asparagi, 92
Cryptococcus fagi , 38
Cupram, preparation of, 48
Currant Scale, brown, 26 ; white woolly,
23, 129
Cutworms, 7, 83
D.
Dactyl obius citri, 74
Dactylobius destructor, 74
Ductylobius longipinus, 74
Dart Moth, 7
Death Watch, 41, 45, 122, 128
Depluming Scabies, in fowls, 61
Dermatobia, 55
Dermestes lardarius, 45, 125
Diaspis amygdali , 23 ; on plum, 25
Diaspis bromeliae, 135
Diplosis pyrivora, 22, 128
Diplosis violicola, 106
Dipterous larvae in human excreta, 55
Doryphora decemlineata, 89
Doryphora juncta, 89
Doryphora melanothorax, 89
Doryphora un decemlineata, 89
Index.
1 88
E.
Earwigs, causing annoyance indoors, 119
“ Eclair ” sprayer, 26
Eel-worm disease in oats, 3
Eggs on apple trees, 26
Elasmosoma , 31
Elephant Chanks, 176
Epilachna, 98
Epunda viminalis , 114
Eriocamja limacina , 21, 72
Eriophyes pyri, 78
Eriophyes ribis, 18, 79
Eriophyes violas, 107
Ernobius mollis , 41
Eucharis Myrmeciae , 31
Euchelia jacobex, 16
Exocast us roberti , 172
F.
Felted Beech Coccus, 38
Ficus, insects pests of, in West Indies,
141
Fiddlewood, insect on, 141
Filariasis in lambs, 128
Fish and fishing in West Indies, 172
Flying Fish in West Indies, 172
Foreign Office, Reports to, 145
Forficida auricularia , 119
Fowl’s eggs, a parasite in, 128
Frit Fly in oats, 4
Fruit pests, 18; Bud Mites in black
currant bushes, 18; Apple Blossom
Weevil, 18 ; Strawberry Beetles, 19 ;
Slug Worms, 21 ; Maggots in apples,
20 ; Pear Midge, 22 ; Scale and False
Scale, 22 ; Apple Bark Louse, 26 ; in
orchards at Wisbech, 73
Fruit trees, infestation of, by Winter
Moth, 21; a general wash for, 28;
winter washing of, 28
Fumigation, with hydrocyanic acid gas,
33 ; for subterranean pests, 32 ; for
Mealy Bug under glass, 112 ; with
bisulphide of carbon, 126.
Fungoid disease in black currant leaves,
47
Furniture Beetles, 41 ; treatment of, 42
Furniture Insects, 45
Furniture Mites, 45
G.
Galls on osier plants, 37
Garden Chafer, 12
Gas treatment, under glass, 33 ; for
scale, 134
Geese, African, etc., 54
Geese, domesticated, origin and varieties
of, 53
General wash for fruit trees, 28
Geophilus longicornis, 32
Glossina longipalpis , v. tachinoides, in
Gambia, 144
Glyciphagus canestrini , 121
Glyciphagus crameri, 121
Glyciphagus cursor , 45, 120
Glyciphagus dispar , 121
Glyciphagus domesticus, 45, 120
Glyciphagus palmifer, 121
Glyciphagus platygaster, 121
Glyciphagus plumiger , 121
Glyciphagus sciurus, 121
Glyciphagus spinipes , 121
Goat Moth attacking willows, 113
Gooseberry Fungus, 48
Grandilla, insect pest on, 141
Grasses, insect pest of, 141
Grease-banding and Winter Moth, 129
Green Turtle, 172
Ground garden pests, 32 ; treatment of,
32
Grunts, 172
Guinea Corn, insect pest of, 141
IT.
Hasmulon , 172
IJarpalus ruficornis , 19
Hawksbill ’hurtle, 172
Heart and Dart Moth, 7, 83
Hedya ocellana, 62, 73, 128
Hippodamia variegata, 93
Hippo Flies, 144
Hipponoe esculenta in Barbados, 173
Holothurians in West Indies, 173
Homalomyia, 55
Hoplocampa testudinea, 20, 108
Hops, pests of, 81
Horse Chanks, 176
Horse Worms, 60
Household Pests, Acarine, 120
Hover Flies, 79, 114
Hydrascia micacea on potatoes, 81, 92
Ilyd rascia nebris , 83
Hydrascia nitela, 83
Hydrocyanic acid gas, fumigation with,
indoors, 123 ; under glass, 33 ; for
Household Mites, 123 ; for Larder
Beetle, 126; under glass for Mealy
Bug, 112
Hylesmus piniperda, 135; treatment of,
136
Hylobius, 116
Ilylobius abietis, 116
Hypomeces squamosus, 138
Index.
189
I.
Indian Corn, pests of, in West Indies,
141
Indian Meal Moth, 124
Insect Pests of West Indies, 139
Ixodidx on Toads in Para, 144
J.
Japanese Fruit Scale, 23; on plum, 25
Jersey, insects on vines in, 73
Julidx in potatoes, 15; destroying
plants at Downton Castle, 105
J ulus pulchellus, 33, 84, 86, 105
K.
“ Knapsack ” Sprayer, 26
L.
Labia minor, 119
Lachnus viminalis, 114
Lacon murinus, 15
Lady-bird, 7-spotted, 92
Lambs, Fdariasis in, 128
Land Bug, on chrysanthemums, 30 ;
poisonous, 130
Larder Beetle, 45, 125
Lasioderma testacea, 126
Laverna atra, 64 ; at Wisbech, 68 ; at
Hailsbam and Swanley, 128
Leaf-Cutting Bee, 129
Leaflets, prepared, for Board of Agri-
culture, 50; revised and enlarged, 50
Leaf Miners in melons, 129
Leaf Weevils, 73
Leather Jackets, 13
Lecanium ribis, 23, 129 ; on plum, 26
Leuconostoc, 127
Ligia oceanica, 106
Lime tree, insect pest of, in West Indies,
142
Lobsters, in West Indies, 173
Locusts, African, 184; machines for
catching, 166 ; fungus attacking, 167 ;
plants poisonous to, 168 ; natural
enemies of, 168
Locust Plagues, in Sudan, Report on,
164
Lucilia cxsar, 56
Lucilia sericea, 56
Lygus contaminatus, 30
Lygus pratensis , on chrysanthemums,
30 ; treatment of, 30
Lyperosia, 133
M.
Macaw Worm, 56
Maggot Fly, of Natal, 56
Malpighia, insect on, in Antigua, 142
Mammalia, 29
Mango, insects on, in West Indies, 140,
142
Mangold, Pigmy Beetle on, 8; Black
Fly on, 10 ; Flies ( Bibionidx ) on,
11 ; Black Wire Worm in, 49
Marguerite Fly, 108
Marine resources, of West Indies, 169 ;
Dr. Duerden’s Report on, 172
Marsh Crane Fly, 94, 98
Maw Worm, 60
Mealy Bug, 74 ; fumigation for, under
glass, 112
Megachile WillougJibiella , 129
Melanocanthus salicis, 114
Melolontha vulgaris, 12, 92
Melolonthidx, 12
Melons, Leaf-miners in, 129
Merodon clavipes, 107
Merodon equestris, 107
Mesoprion, 172
Millepedes, 87, 105
Minor Shoulder Knob Moth, 114
Modiola, 176
Moles, poison for, 29
Moniezia expansa, 49
Monkey-peas, 80
Mosquito annoyance at Blackheath, 56
Mugil, 172
Mur ex regius, 176
Muscid larvae, attacking roots, 34
Mussel, edible, in West Indies, 173
Mussel Scale, 23, 26, 75 ; further remedy
for, 26 ; life-history of, 75 ; natural
enemies of, 77 ; treatment of, 77
Mustard Beetle, 16
Mustard pests, 16
Myiasis, human, 55
Myriapoda, 15, 105
Mytilaspis citricola, at Monte Video,
133
Mytilaspis pomorum, 23, 26, 75
Mytilus exuktus, 173
N.
Napomyza lateralis, 108
Narcissus Fly, 107
Nectria ditissima, 29
Nematus conjugatus, 37
Nematus pavidus, 37
Nyssa zonaria, 21
Index.
190
O.
Oats, eelworm in, 3
Oats, Frit Fly on, 4
Ochromyia, 55
Ochromyia anthropophaga , 56
Ocyurus chrysurus, 172
Omaseus vulgaris , 19
Oniscus asellus, 106
Orange pests, West Indies, 140, 142
Orange trees in Monte Video, attacked
by scale, 133 ; pests in Grenada, 142
Orchid houses, insects in, 109
Oribatidx, 77
Oribata globata, 77
Oribata orbicularis , 77
Oscinis frit, 4
Oscinis vcistator, 4
Osier plants, insect galls on, 37 ; insects
on, 114
Ostrea parasitica, 173
Oyster-shell Bark Louse, 25, 75
Oysters in AVest Indies, 173 ; pearl in
Ceylon, 176
Oxyuris curvula, 60
P.
Pachyrrhina maculosa, 13, 99
Pachyrrhina quadrifarsa, 13, 101
Palm seeds, pest on, 142
Paraffin emulsion, 25, 27, 28, 134
Paris Green, 7
Peach Aphis, 28
Peach pest, in AVest Indies, 140
Pear Midge, 22; at Guestling/etc., 128
Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 79
Pear Sawfly, 21, 72
Pearl Fisheries, Ceylon, 174; abstract
of Report on, 176
Pecten ziczag, 173
Penthina pruniana, 68
Phaedon betulae, 16
Phalacrus, 5, 80
Plialacrus corruscus, 80
Phalacrus penicillatus , 80
Phalacrus politus , 80
Philoscia Couchii, 106
Phora formicarum, 31
Phorbia brassicx, 34
Phygalia pilosaria, 21
Phyllobius, 73
Phyllobius viridaris, 73
Phyllopertha horticola, 12
Phytochoris pabulinus , 30
Phytomyza, 129
Phytoptid disease, new, in ATiolas, 106
Pigeon pea bush, pest on, in A\rest Indies,
142
Pigeon peas (dried), pest in, 142
Pigmy Mangold Beetle, 8, 11
Pigmy Potato Beetle, 84
Pineapples, scale on, 135
Pine Beetle, 135; treatment for, 136
Pissodes notatus, 116
Pith Moth, 68; at Wisbech, 73; at
Hailsham and Swanley, 128 ; preven-
tive measures, 71
Plodia interpunctella , 124
Plum Maggot, Red, 128
Poison Baits, 7
Polydesmus complanatus, 32, 105
Pomegranate Pests, of AVest Indies, 140
Pony Flies, 133
Poplar Sawfly, 37
Porcellio sealer, 105
Potatoes, Myriapoda in, 15, 87 ; AVire
Worm in, 15 ; A new potato feeder
( Euchelia jacobex), 16 ; The Rosy
Rustic ( Hydrxcia micacea), 81 ; Sur-
face Larvge, 83 ; Pigmy Potato Beetle,
84 ; Millepedes, attacking, 87
Potato pests, 15, 81
Psila rosx, 108
Psocidfe, on vines, 74
Psylla mali, 26
Pterostichus vulgaris, 92
Puccinia pringsheimiana, 48
Pulvinaria rilesii, 33, 129
Purple Apple AA^eevil, 20
Pyrochroa serraticornis, 92
Pyrulla carnarici , 176
R.
Rat Flea and connection with plague,
144
Red Plum Maggot, 128
Red Spider, killed by gas treatment, 33
Resin AArasli, 25, 134
Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 12
Rhynchites baccus, 20
Rhynchites cupreus, 20
Rice AVeevil, 46
Root Crop Pests, 6, 93
Rose Chafer, 13
Rosy Rustic, attacking potatoes, 81, 92
S.
St. Alban’s Cathedral, Anobium in, 123
San Jose Scale, 23
Sarcophagus magnifica, 55
Sarcophila, 55
Sarcoptes lx vis, 61
Sarperda carcharias, 36
Sawfly, on poplar, 37 ; on willows, 37
Index.
191
Scale Disease and False Scale amongst
fruit trees, 22 ; treatment of affected
trees, 134
Scale Insects, on plum trees, 25 ; on
orange trees at Monte Video, 133 ; on
pineapples, 135 ; washes for, 25
Schizoneura fodiens, 109
Schizoneura lanuginosa, on elm, 114
Sclerostomum equinum, 60
Sclerostomum rubrum , 60
Sclerostomum tetracanthum, 60
Scolopendridx, 15, 32
Scolytidx, attacking coffee berries, 138
Screw Worms, in human beings, 131 ;
in cattle in St. Lucia, 132
Scymnus discoideus, 40
Sea Eggs in Barbados, 173
“ Segging,” 3
Senegal Fly, 56
Septaria ribis, 47
Sericulture, Works on, 129
Sheep, Tapeworms in, 49, 144
Shrimps in West Indies, 173
Silks, 172
Silpha atrata, 6
Silpha opaca, 6
Silpha rugosa on turnips, 6
Siphidx , 6
Siphocoryne caprex , 114
Si rex Flies in fir trees, 36
Sirex gigas, 36
Sir ex juvencus, 36
Slug Worms, 21
Smut in barley, 5
Snappers, 172
Snook, 172
Solanum melongena, pests on, in West
Indies, 142
“ Soldiers and Sailors,” 92
Sponges, in West Indies, etc., 179
Spotted Crane Fly, 99
Sprayers, 26
Springtails, 110
Spruce Gall Aphis, 118
Stachia geometrica on coffee berries, 138
Steropus mandidus, 19, 92
Stichophus , 173
Stored goods, pests on, in West Indies,
142
Strawberry Beetles, 19
Stripeh-abdomen Crane Fly, 94, 98
Subcoccinella, 93
Subcoccinella vigintiquatuorpundata, 93
Subterranean Insects, destruction of, 32
Sudan, Termites in, 158 ; Locust plagues
in, 164
Sugar cane, insects injurious to, in West
Indies, 139, 141
Summer Chafer, 12
“ Suran” pearl-oyster pest, 176
Surface larvae, on turnips, 7, 83
Syrphidx , 79, 114
Syrphus grossularix, 79
Syrphus ribesii, 79
Sweet potatoes, pests on, in West Indies,
142
T.
Tamarind, pests on, in West Indies, 142
Tannia, pest on, in West Indies, 142
Tapestry Moth, 43
Tapeworms, in sheep, 49 ; in bile duct
of sheep in Transvaal, 144
Telephones bicolor, 92
Telephorus rusticus, 92
Teredo chlorotica, 144
Teredo dilatata, 143
Teredo dorsalis, 144
Teredo megotara, 143
Teredo navalis, 144
Teredo norvegica, 144
Teredo nucivora, 144
Teredos and Canadian timber, 143
Termites, in Sudan, 155; Report on, to
Foreign Office, 158; damage caused
by, 159 ; methods of prevention and
remedies, 160
Tetranychus telarius , 74
Thymol, use of, for Horse Worms, 60
Thysanoptera (Haliday’s types), 129
Ticks on toads in Para, 144; on swifts,
144
Tinea pellionella, 43
Tinea trapetzella, 43
Tincola biselliella, 43, 128
Tipula lateralis, 94, 98
Tipula oleracea, 13, 94, 96
Tipula paludosa, 94, 98
Tipulidaj, injurious, 13, 94; natural
enemies of, 101 ; preventive and
remedial measures for, 103
Trapping, for Wire Worm, 33
Trepang, in West Indies, 173
Trichophaga tapetzella , 43
Trigger Fish, 177
Tropidiurus dentatus, 172
Trygon warnalc, 177
Trypeba pomoneVa, 21
Tsetse-fly in Gambia, 144 ; and Buffalo,
correspondence, 147
Tulip root, in oats, 3
Turbinella pyrum, 176
Turnip Moth ( Agrotis segetis ), 7
Turnips, Silpha rugosa on, 6 ; cater-
pillars on, 7 ; Cabbage Aphis on, 93
Turtles in West Indies, trade of, 172
Tylenchus devastatrix, 3
192
Index.
u.
Vstilago nudci, 5
Ustilayo jensenii, 5
y.
Vines, insects on, in Jersey, 73
W.
Washes, for scale insects, 25 ; general
wash for fruit trees, 28
Webbing Clothes Moth, 43
Weevils amongst stored corn, 46 ; treat-
ment of, 47 ; defoliating rubber, 138 ;
Leaf, 73
West Indies, insect pests of, 139
White Ants in Sudan, 155
White Grubs in cabbage, 34 ; prevention
and treatment of, 34
Willow Aphides, 114
Willow Beetle, 36
Winter Moth, 21 ; at Swanley, 128
Willows, attacked by Goat Moth, 113 ;
Sawfly lame on, 37 ; insects on, 114
Winter washing of fruit trees, 28
Wire Worm in potatoes, 15
Wood Leopard Moth, 128
Wood Lice, killed by gas treatment, 33
in hops, 80 ; in gardens, 105
Woodpeckers, 123
Wood, pests on, in West Indies, 142
Wood Wasps 36
Woolly Pyrol, insect pest on, at Barba
dos, 142
X.
Xestobium tessellatum, 41
Xylophaga fimbriata, 144
Xylophaga bipinnata , 144
Y.
Yellow Spotted Crane Fly, 13, 99
Yellow-tail Fish, 172
Z.
Zeuzera xsculi , 128
Zygoneura , 110
Zygoneurci sciarina, 110
LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11