'
[E S. DEINIOL'S SERIES
III
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
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IN PREPARATION
THE POLITICAL RELATIONS OF
CHRIST'S MINISTRY: WITH A
STUDY OF THE TEMPTATION. By
STEPHEN LIBERTY, M.A.
MR. GLADSTONE'S PLACE IN
RELIGIOUS THOUGHT. By STEPHEN
LIBERTY, M.A.
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
A STUDY IN EARLY MONASTICISM
BY
E. F. MORISON, B.D.
SUB-WARDEN OF S. DEINIOI/S LIBRARY
LATE SCHOLAR OF LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD
THEODORET, Ep. cxlvi.
HENRY FROWDE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE
AND BOMBAY
IQI2
OXFORD: HORACE HART
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
TO
F. HOMES DUDDEN
THIS BOOK
IS GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED
BY A FORMER PUPIL
I
PREFACE
SOME three years ago I was asked to read the Ascetica
of St. Basil for the Lexicon of Patristic Greek which
is being compiled under the auspices of the Central
Society of Sacred Study. As the contents of these
writings proved to have more than a philological
interest, I have therefore ventured to summarize the
information which they contain with regard to the
theory and practice of Basilian monasticism. And
I have been the more emboldened to do so from the
fact that the subject has received but scant attention
in this country. To foreign scholars I have acknow
ledged my indebtedness in the bibliography appended.
St. Basil himself l admonishes us ' not to pass another's
knowledge for our own, as depraved women their
supposititious children, but to refer it candidly to the
true parent '. And in the same passage he tells us
' not to interrupt a profitable speaker, or to desire
ambitiously to put in a word of one's own '. Hence
my chief endeavour has been that St. Basil may tell
his own tale.
The Ascetica have never yet been translated into
English, and I have therefore used my own rendering
1 Ep. 2. 5.
viii PREFACE
in quotation and in the Appendix. In quoting from
the Letters, I have used, with a few slight changes, the
translations by Newman and Blomfield Jackson.
My best thanks are due to the Rev. T. J. Hardy for
some useful suggestions, and to Dr. Joyce for most
kindly allowing this book to appear in the S. Beimel's
Series.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL i
II. THE RETREAT IN PONTUS .... 9
III. ST. BASIL'S ASCETIC WRITINGS ... 15
IV. THE INSPIRATION OF THE MONASTIC LIFE . 22
V. THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM . . .31
VI. THE COMMUNITY LIFE 39
VII. OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE ... 47
VIII. THE MONK AT PRAYER .... 58
IX. THE MONK AT WORK 79
X. VOCATION AND Vows 86
XI. WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES. . . 96
XII. FOOD AND CLOTHING no
XIII. HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY . . . 120
XIV. CONCLUSION 131
APPENDIX
A. INTRODUCTION TO THE LONGER RULES . 137
B. INTRODUCTION TO THE SHORTER RULES . 145
C. THE DECREES OF THE SYNOD OF GANGRA . 146
I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GARNIER (J.). S. Basilii Opera, editio altera. 3 vols. 1839
MIGNE (J. P.). S. Basilii Opera. 4 vols. 1886
ALLARD (P.). Saint Basile. 1903
Julien I'Apostat. 3 vols. 1900
BAERT (F.). ' Vita S. Basilii,' in Ada Sanctorum, June 14. 1867
BAUMER (S.). Geschichte des Breviers. 1895
BAYLE (M. A.). Saint Basile. 1878
BARDENHEWER (O.). Gesch. der Altkirchlichen Literatur, Bd.
iii. 1912
BESSE (J. M.). Les Moines d' 'Orient anterieurs au Concile de
Chalc£doine. 1900
BUTLER (C.). The Lausiac History of Palladius. 2 vols. 1898
Art. ' Monasticism ' in Cambridge Mediaeval History,
vol. i. 1911
CABROL (F.). Le Livre de la Priere antique. 1900
DE BROGLIE (J. V. A.). L'Eglise et I' Empire Romain au
IVe Siecle, ive ed. 6 vols. 1897
FIALON (E.). Etude litttraire sur Saint Basile. 1861
FORTESCUE (A.). The Orthodox Eastern Church. 1908
GARNIER (J.). ' Vita S. Basilii ' in Op. vol. iii. 1839
GLOVER (T. R.). Life and Letters in the Fourth Century. 1901
HANNAY (J. O.). The Spirit and Origin of Christian Monas
ticism. 1 903
HARNACK (A.). Monasticism, its Ideals and History (trans.). 1901
HODGSON (GERALDINE). Primitive Christian Education. 1906
HOLL (K.). Enthusiasmus und Bussgewalt bei dem griechischen
Monchthum. 1898
HUNTER BLAIR (D. O.). The Rule of St. Benedict. 2nd ed. 1906
JACKSON (B.). St. Basil. Letters and Select Works. 1895
KRANICH (A.). Die Ascetik in ihrer dogmatischen Grundlage
bei Basilius dem Grossen. 1896
LADEUZE (P.). Etude sur le C&nobitisme pakhomien. 1898
LECLERCQ(H.). Art. 'Cenobitisme' inCabrol,Zh'c*. d'Arch.Chr. 1910
LOOPS (P.). Art. ' Eusebius von Sebaste ', in Hauck, Prot.
Realencyclopadie. 1898
MARIN (L'ABBE). Les Moines de Constantinople (330-898). 1897
MEYER (P.). Die Haupturkunden fur die Gesch. der Athos-
kloster. 1894
MORISON (E. F.). ' St. Basil and Monasticism ' in Ch. Quart.
Rev. Oct. 1912. 1912
xii BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEWMAN (J. H.). Historical Sketches, vol. iii. 1873
PARGOIRE (J.). Art. ' Basile de Cesaree (Saint) et Basiliens '
in Cabrol, Diet. d'Arch. Chr. 1907
SCHIWIETZ (S.). Das morgenlandische Monchthum. 1904
SMITH (R. T.). St. Basil the Great (The Fathers for English
Readers). 1879
VASSON (L'ABBE). St. Basile le Grand. 1894
TILLEMONT (L.). Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire eccUsi-
astique, vol. ix. 1732
UHLHORN (G. ). Christian Charity in the A ncient Church (trans. ). 1 88 3
WOODHOUSE (F. C.). Monasticism, Ancient and Modern. 1896
ZOCKLER (O.). Askese und Monchthum. 2. Aufl. 1897
TABLE OF DATES
A.D. 316. Birth of Basil.
325. Council of Nicaea.
328. Athanasius Bishop of Alexandria. Visits Monasteries of
Pachomius.
337. Death of Constantine. Succession of Constantius and his
brothers Constans and Constantine.
346. Death of Pachomius.
350. Constantius sole emperor. Persecution of Catholic party.
351. Basil goes to Athens.
355. Julian at Athens.
356. Basil returns to Caesarea. Athanasius publishes his Life
of Anthony.
357. Baptism of Basil. His ordination as Reader.
358. Basil visits the Monks of Egypt and Syria and retires to
Pontus.
358-361. Monastic Life. Composition of Philocalia, Moralia, and
the Rules.
361-363. Julian emperor. Attempted revival of Paganism.
364. Basil ordained Priest. Accession of Valentinian and
Valens. Persecution of Catholics in the East. Revision
of the Rules.
370. Basil Bishop of Caesarea.
373. Death of Athanasius.
374. Basil writes his treatise on the Holy Spirit.
378. Death of Valens.
379. Death of Basil. Accession of Theodosius.
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL
THERE is but slight apology needed for choosing as
a subject for investigation a chapter in the history of
monasticism. It may seem, no doubt, at first sight,
as if monastic and ascetic ideals could have very little
interest for a time such as ours, which is characterized
in no small degree by a devotion to material well-being
and a prominent display of luxury. But our very
remoteness from such ideals makes us, perhaps, all the
more curious to see what attraction they can have had
for those who lived by them, and to inquire whether
they have any value for the world of to-day. It is
a matter of some interest to see what remedy was
applied by the Christianity of earlier ages to the
disease of materialism with which we are now beset,
and to see how far the remedy was authorized and
adopted by the Church in her struggles, not only with
the world outside, but also with the worldly tendencies
within herself.
The early Church had many difficult questions to
face, of discipline as well as of doctrine. Almost from
the first there had been a tendency among her members
B
2 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
to divide into moderate and rigorist sections. Yet as
long as the Church was a persecuted minority there
was not much danger of a general laxity. But when
persecution waned and conversion to Christianity
became almost conventional, there was great peril of
a lowering of moral standards. Many ardent souls
were tempted to think that there was no salvation
for them within the ranks of a Church which was
so rapidly becoming secularized. The Montanist, the
Novatian, and the Donatist all alike deplored the loss
of primitive rigour in the life and conduct of the
Church, and abandoned her in consequence.
The hermit who left his home for the solitude of
the desert, although he did not expressly renounce the
Church, yet preferred, apparently, to work out his own
salvation apart from the corporate life of the Christian
community. And in the doctrinal controversies of the
fourth century men more than ever began to despair
of rinding real religion within the rank and file of the
ordinary adherents to Christianity.
Were, then, the best and most earnest men to be
lost to the Church, by inclusion in some puritanical
sect, or by seclusion in some distant desert ?
Was not rather this spirit of dissatisfaction with
ordinary Church life a force which, if rightly directed
and controlled, could be used for the lasting benefit
of the Christian Church ? It is to the credit of St. Basil
the Great, Metropolitan of Caesarea in Cappadocia in
the fourth century, that he realized the value of the
monastic movement for the Church.
Monasticism was no new thing in the time of Basil.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL 3
Although it had not as yet received official sanction
or recognition, it was rapidly growing into a factor
with which both Church and State must reckon.1 The
movement, which had at first been largely spasmodic
and local, showed every prospect of becoming both
permanent and universal. The example of the Fathers
of the Desert was inspiring emulation in other lands.
Basil himself tells us how he had seen and admired
the monks, not only of Alexandria and Egypt, but
also of Palestine, Coele Syria, and Mesopotamia. He
says of them : ' I called these men's lives blessed, in
that they did indeed show that they " bear about in
their body the dying of Jesus".2 And I prayed that
I, too, as far as in me lay, might imitate them.'3
The monastic endeavour was also making itself *felt
in Cappadocia, and, on its first appearance, caused
Basil the greatest satisfaction.
It was all-important, however, to see what form
the movement would assume. There were bad, as
well as good, monks in Egypt, and Basil has to
acknowledge that, with regard to Eustathius and
his followers, who first introduced the monastic life
into Asia Minor, he had been misled, and had mistaken
the cowl for the monk. Thus he says : * So when
I beheld certain men in my own country striving to
copy their ways, I felt that I had found a help to my
own salvation, and I took the things seen for proof
of things unseen. And since the secrets in the hearts
1 Cf. the decrees of the Synod of Gangra (given in Appendix C),
and the persecution by Valens of the Egyptian monks, related in
Socrates, Eccl. Hist. iv. 24.
2 2 Cor. iv. 10. 3 Ep. 223. 2.
B 2
4 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
of each of us are unknown, I held lowliness of dress to
be a sufficient indication of lowliness of spirit ; and
there was enough to convince me in the coarse cloak,
the girdle, and the shoes of untanned hide/ l The
monastic movement, then, had no lack of supporters,
but it required regulation and a proper surveillance,
if it was to be of real permanent value to the cause of
Christianity. It was Basil who undertook this task
for Cappadocia, and by so doing eventually became
both ' Uie^MJier-^Qi^aseni MonstiLasm ' 2 Jid
powerful influence upon St. Benedict when he drew
up his rule for the monks of the West.
As we read the details of Basil's life we cannot help
feeling that he was just such a man as the monastic
movement then needed. We can endorse the state
ment of Vasson when he says : ' Dieu suscita un grand
homme, Saint Basile, pour donner a 1'ordre monastique
une constitution definitive.' 3 It is noticeable that
SJ Basil is the only Father of the Eastern Church to whom
• the title ' Great ' has been given. The work that he
did was fTot only of local importance, but of value
for the whole Church of Christ. Theodoret does not
exaggerate when he speaks of ' the great Basil, light 4
of the Cappadocians, or rather of the world ' ; 5 or
again, ' the great Basil, a light4 of the world.' 6 There
are many things, no doubt, which have contributed to
Basil's fame in the Church — his wonderful oratory, his
defence of the faith, and his administrative capacity —
1 Ep. 223. 3.
2 Cf. Adeney, Greek and Eastern Churches, p. 158.
3 St. Basile le Grand, p. 8. * quaariip.
5 Ep. 146. 6 Eccl. Hist. iv.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL 5
but his services to the monastic cause alone constitute
a sufficient claim to greatness.
It is well to consider for a moment what qualifica-
_tipjasJBasJL brought to the great task which he under
took, of giving to monasticism a lawful place within
the thought and practice of the Christian Church.
In the first place, he was essentially a man of distinc
tion, whose word and example must necessarily carry
great weight among his contemporaries. He came of
a good Christian family, whose social position could
command respect in Cappadocia and Pontus. He had
wealth and education, and every prospect of succeeding
in whatever career he might choose to adopt. Thus
when Basil, at the instigation of his sister Macrina,
turned his thoughts to the monastic life, he was
called upon to sacrifice very great worldly blessings.
Riches, honour, family position, and a considerable
reputation for learning, were all unhesitatingly re
nounced. Like a new Moses, says his brother, Gregory
of Nyssa, he preferred the Hebrews to the treasures
of Egypt.1 But such a surrender had a very special
value. This magnificent example of self-denial in
a person of such distinction would inevitably bring
the monastic movement into notice and repute.
The new adherent to the cause could not be set
down as a mere ignorant fanatic, unworthy of serious
consideration. And further, the life thus dedicated
could not be wasted, even in the mountainous wilds
of Pontus.
In fact, as we have said, Basil was the very man that
1 Or. in laud. Bus. i.
6 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
the monastic movement then required. From his own
personal experience, as well as from his travels, he had
a wide knowledge of his subject, his intellect enabled
him to grasp its doctrinal implications, his judgment
kept his enthusiasm from extravagances, while his
authority as a prominent ecclesiastic1 in later days
gave to the principles which he had asserted as
a young lector a most valuable sanction.
Further, if Basil was to help forward the monastic
cause by his adhesion, he could see plainly that the
time warranted some such endeavour. The best men
would naturally feel the evils of the day the most
acutely. Dissatisfaction with the world as it then was
would inevitably lead such men to look for other con
ditions which might provide a fuller scope for the
development of themselves and their religion. There
was little thought of abandoning Christianity, if we
except the meteoric paganism of the Emperor Julian,
but only of seeking some sphere where Christian
principles could more effectively find their proper
application.
The Roman Empire of that day was not such as to
inspire patriotism in the minds of its subjects. The
idea which we derive from Basil's writings of the
condition of the government in the Eastern Empire
at the time is very far from favourable. Basil himself
often evinces a deep love for his country, for Cap-
padocia, or for Pontus, but not for the Empire, and
certainly there can have been little in such govern-
1 On the influential position at this time of the bishops in the
East, cf. Allard, Julien I'Apostat, i. pp. 113 ff.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL 7
ments as those of Constantius and Valens to evoke
anything like an imperial sentiment. The social
condition of the Eastern provinces is painted for us
in very dark colours in Basil's Letters and Homilies.
Bad government had resulted in the direst misery
for the poor, and was responsible for great excess^
of luxury and selfishness among the rich. The monas
tic movement was in a real sense an effort after social
righteousness.
Again, amid the corruptions of society, the morality
of the Church had sunk to a very low level. In Basil's
own diocese, for example, the chorepiscopi were found
to have accepted money for ordinations, and to have
ordained persons whose character had not been
properly investigated.1 Yet Basil never despaired of
the Church, however far her morality might have
fallen, or her unity be destroyed by doctrinal dissen
sions. He endeavoured at once to establish her faith,
to reform her abuses, and to improve the character of
her ministers. His M or alia were written more especially
for the edification of the clergy. Nor was he himself
destined to spend his whole life in monastic retirement.
His sojourn in Pontus seems not to have lasted more
than three years. Butbhe never entirely forsook the
monastic habits which he had there formed, and in
the active life of his episcopate at Caesarea he was able
to put into practice some of the lessons which he had
learnt in the solitude of his retreat. The Episcopate
of St. Basil has been well described as being ' remark
able for its concentrated and accumulated sorrows,
1 Ep. 54-
8 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
and for the nobleness and fervour of spirit which
confronted and endured them '.1
That spirit we may believe was in no small degree
the result of his monastic training. Macrina had con
ferred a lasting benefit upon her brother, and he, in
his turn, wished that the Church at large might profit
by his experience.
1 Bright, The Age of the Fathers, i. 366.
CHAPTER II
THE RETREAT IN PONTUS
BASIL himself has given us an account of his con
version — if we may use the term — to monasticism.
' Much time had I spent in vanity, and had wasted
nearly all my youth in the vain labour which I under
went in acquiring the wisdom made foolish by God.
Then once upon a time, like a man roused from deep
sleep, I turned my eyes to the marvellous light of the
truth of the Gospel, and I perceived the uselessness of
" the wisdom of the princes of this world, that come
to naught "-1 I_wept many tears over my miserable
life,jajid I prayed that guidance might be vouchsafed
me to admit me to the doctrines of true religion.' 2
He then describes how he had travelled in foreign
countries in order that he might come into personal
contact with those who were already leading the
monastic life. On his return to Pontus he resolved to
imitate the example of the men whose continence he
so much admired. His sister Macrina and his mother
Emmelia had taken up their abode by the river Iris,
atjheir ancestral home of Annesi. Basil himself fixed
his residence on the opposite bank of the river. He has
left us a wonderful account of his place of retreat in a
letter to his friend Gregory, whose company he desired.
1 i Cor. ii. 6. a Ep. 223. 2.
io ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
As a true lover of nature he dwells upon the enchanting
beauty of the scene. ' After renouncing with trouble/
he writes, ' the idle hopes which I once had about you,
or rather the dreams (for it is well said that hopes
are waking dreams), I departed into Pontus in quest
of a place to live in. There God has opened on me
a spot exactly answering to my taste, so that I actually
see before my eyes what I have often pictured to my
mind in idle fancy.
' There is a lofty mountain, covered with thick
woods, watered towards the north with cool and trans
parent streams. A plain lies beneath, enriched by
the waters which are ever draining off upon it ; and
skirted by a spontaneous profusion of trees almost
thick enough to be a fence ; so as even to surpass
Calypso's Island, which Homer seems to have con
sidered the most beautiful spot on earth. Indeed, it is
like an island, enclosed as it is on all sides ; for deep
hollows cut it off in two directions ; the river, which
has lately fallen down a precipice, runs all along one
side, and is impassable as a wall ; while the mountain,
extending itself behind, and meeting the hollows in
a crescent, stops up the path at its roots. There is
but one pass, and I am master of it. Behind my abode
there is another gorge, rising to a ledge up above, so
as to command the extent of the plain and the stream
which bounds it, which is not less beautiful to my taste
than the Strymon, as seen from Amphipolis. For while
the latter flows leisurely, and swells into a lake almost,
and is too still to be a river, the former is the most
rapid stream I know, and somewhat turbid, too, by
THE RETREAT IN PONTUS n
reason of the rock which closes on it above ; from which,
shooting down, and eddying in a deep pool, it forms
a most pleasant scene for myself or any one else ; and
is an inexhaustible resource to the country people, in
the countless fish which its depths contain. What
need to tell of the exhalations from the earth, or the
breezes from the river ? Another might admire the
multitude of flowers, and singing birds ; but leisure
I have none for such thoughts. However, the chief
praise of the place is, that being happily disposed for
produce of every kind, it nurtures what to me is the
sweetest produce of all, quietness ; indeed, it is not
only rid of the bustle of the city, but is even unfre
quented by travellers, except a chance hunter. . . . Does
it not strike you what a foolish mistake I was near
making when I was eager to change this spot for your
Tiberina, the very pit of the whole earth/ 1
This description of the beauties of natural scenery
comes to us as a surprise, unless we are familiar with the
author's Hexaemeron. There we find such passages as :
' And God said, Let there be light, and this word was
a work, whence sprang nature, than which human
thought can imagine nothing more delightful or more
enjoyable/ 2 Basil was not the only monastic founder
who has been a lover of nature, and has given evidence
of his love in the site chosen for his monastery.3
Although it was solitude that Basil most desired in
his Pontic retreat, yet he did not live there in isolation
1 Ep. 14 (Newman's translation). 2 Hex. ii. 7.
3 Sir W. M. Ramsay by his careful topographical researches has
made it possible to determine with approximate certainty the site
of Basil's hermitage. Hist. Geogv. of Asia Minor, p. 326.
12 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
from his fellows. There were already in Pont us and
Cappadocia men who were endeavouring to lead the
monastic life. These and others soon assembled round
Basil, and his hermitage very quickly took on the
appearance of a monastery. Gregory, too, in spite of
his first refusal, now joined his friend.
It is interesting to notice that, notwithstanding the
jokes which Gregory had made at the expense of Basil's
rural retreat (out of preference, no doubt, for his own
Tiberina), yet he leaves on record his honest appreciation
of the advantages which that retreat afforded. Thus he
says : ' What I wrote before about our stay in Pontus
was in joke, not in earnest ; what I write now is very
much in earnest. O that one would place me as in the
month of those former days,1 in which I luxuriated
with you in hard living ; since voluntary pain is more
valuable than involuntary delight. O that one would
give me back those psalmodies and vigils and those
sojournings with God in prayer, and that immaterial,
so to speak, and unbodied life. O for the intimacy
and unity of soul in the brethren who were by you
exalted and made divine. O for the contest and
incitement to virtue which we secured by written
Rules and Canons. O for the loving labour in the
Divine Oracles, and the light we found in them by
the guidance of the Holy Ghost.' 2
Basil also, in a long letter to his friend, describes
with some fullness the life of the solitaries by the Iris.
He touches on the blessings of retirement and separation
from the world, which allow the mind to devote itself
1 Job xxxix. 2. * Ep. 6.
THE RETREAT IN PONTUS 13
without interruption or distraction to the things of God.
' Let there be/ he says, ' such a place as ours, separate
from intercourse with men, that the tenor of our exer
cises be not interrupted from without. Pious exercises
nourish the soul with divine thoughts. What state
can be more blessed than to imitate on earth the
choruses of angels ? to begin the day with prayer, and
honour our Maker with hymns and songs ? As the
day brightens, to betake ourselves, with prayer attend
ing on it throughout, to our labours, and to season our
work with hymns, as if with salt ? Soothing hymns
compose the mind to a cheerful and calm state. Quiet,
then, as I have said, is the first step in our sanctifica-
tion ; the tongue purified from the gossip of the world ;
the eyes unexcited by fair colour or comely shape ;
the ears not relaxing the tone of mind by voluptuous
songs, nor by that especial mischief, the talk of light
men and jesters. Thus the mind, saved from dissipation
from without, and not through the senses thrown upon
the world, falls back upon itself, and thereby ascends
to the contemplation of God/1
In this same Letter we have a foretaste of Basil's
later and more complete monastic directions. Besides
insisting upon the necessity of Scripture reading,
prayer, and meditation, he enjoins that the monk
is to be modest, humble, and considerate of others
in even the smallest matters of conduct and conver
sation. The Christian monk, as Newman says,2 is
also to be the true Christian gentleman. We can
imagine that the few years spent in the retreat in
1 Ep. 2. 2. a Historical Sketches, iii. 64.
14 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
Pontus, with the regular round of devotional exer
cises, and the constant necessity of giving counsel
and advice to those under his charge, formed a very
suitable environment for the composition of ascetic
and monastic writings. It remains now to consider
the main features of those writings, and also to decide
what are our authentic sources for an account of
Basil's monastic ideas.
CHAPTER III
ST. BASIL'S ASCETIC WRITINGS
IT can hardly be denied that the ascetic writings
attributed to Basil, and published under his name, are
at first sight somewhat disappointing. The authorship
of more than one of these works is doubtful, the
monastic interest of many of them is very slight, while
the most important of them are almost entirely devoid
of anything resembling orderly arrangement or literary
form. In general they may be said to present a most
bewildering variety both in their character and
contents.
The first place in the Ascetica is occupied by three
treatises on the monastic life. Their order is as
follows : (i) An Introduction to the Ascetic Life, in
which the ascetic is described and addressed under
the figure of the Christian warrior. The army of
Christ includes within its ranks both men and women.
This short treatise can hardly be attributed to Basil,
as both thought and expression are unworthy of him.1
(2) An Ascetic Discourse on the Renunciation of the World,
and on Spiritual Perfection. This is a longer work, and
contains nothing un-Basilian either in matter or
vocabulary, while many of its expressions and senti
ments remind us of Basil's undisputed writings. It is
an exhortation to renounce the various distractions
1 Cf. Batiffol, Anciennes Literatures Chr£tiennes, i. 256 : ' homelie
banale et apocryphe sur la vie Chretienne.'
16 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
of the world, and to ' live the Cross-bearing life of
the monk ', giving also certain details as to the
monk's general behaviour in the life of a community.
(3) A Discourse on Ascetic Discipline : How a Monk
should adorn his Life. This last is a short treatise
which may well belong to Basil. It resembles the
preceding discourse in many of its recommendations,
more especially in its exhortations to humility.1
There can be practically no doubt that the next
three works in the collection, which are closely con
nected with one another, are from Basil's pen, though
they have unfortunately but little monastic interest.
The treatise On the Judgment of God gives an account
of the evil condition of the world at the time, and
insists upon the certainty of God's judgment, which can
only be avoided by such as ' walk in accordance with
the Gospel of our blessed God, Jesus Christ, our Lord '.
The next treatise, Concerning the Faith, is a ' simple
confession and declaration of our health-giving faith ',
with a passing exhortation ' to walk worthily of the
Gospel of Christ, in the hope of eternal life '.
It serves, in its present position,2 as an introduction
to the third treatise, the Moralia, or Gospel Ethics,
a collection of eighty precepts or rules, founded upon
the teaching of the New Testament. 'Whatever, there
fore,' the author says, ' in scattered passages throughout
the New Testament we have found to be forbidden or
approved, this we have, as far as possible, endeavoured
1 On a Latin version of this treatise current in the West in the
fifth century see A» Wilmart, Rev. Bened. xxvii. 226-233.
* It was probably written after the Moralia.
ST. BASIL'S ASCETIC WRITINGS 17
to collect and sum up into rules, that it may be
the more easily understood by any who wish.' l The
Moralia seem to have special reference to the needs
oTthe clergy, and of all those ' to whom the preach
ing of the Gospel has been entrusted *.2 They" are
not ^specifically ascetic in tone, though it is laid
down that ' even in those things which are not
expressly commanded by Scripture a man should be
exhorted to take the better course. . . . "He that is
able to receive it, let him receive it." ' 3 Yet ' no one
is to compel others to do what he fails to do himself '.4
The Moralia are interesting, as showing how Scripture
lies at the root of all Basil's moral theology, ' for
whatsoever is not contained in Holy Scripture, being
not of faith, is sin.' 5
The next two short Ascetic Discourses cannot possibly
be regarded as genuine. Neither style nor diction
is that of Basil. The ascetic life, for example, is
described as ' the life of philosophy ', an expression
nowhere to be found in his authentic works. These
two treatises were probably written at a later date
and included among the Ascetica owing to similarity
of subject-matter.
We come now to the two collections of Rules, which
are universally allowed to have been written by Basil.
Their genuineness is confirmed by strong external
evidence. They are obviously by one and the same
author, and the longer Rules are expressly referred to
1 De Fide, ad fin. * Mor. 70. i.
3 Matt. xix. 12. Mor. 70. 8. * Ibid, chaps. 8, 9.
8 Mor. 80. 22.
C
i8 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
in the shorter. Both are written in the same style,
and employ the same vocabulary.
Further, both sets of Rules are developments of ideas
expressed by Basil in the letter which he wrote to his
friend Gregory, describing the life lived by himself
and his companions in their Pontic retreat.1
The Longer Rules 2 were, no doubt, written during
that retreat, but revised on a subsequent visit to
Pontus when the author was in either priest's or bishop's
orders.3 The principles of the monastic life are set
forth in fifty-five rules or precepts, drawn up in the
form of questions and answers and supported by
quotations from Scripture.
The Shorter Rules 4 are three hundred and thirteen
in number, and their main object is the application of
monastic principles, founded upon Scripture, to the
daily life of the monk, living in a community. They
deal with practically the same subjects as the Longer
Rules, but are generally more detailed in treatment.
They were probably composed during the years of
retirement, but revised and published in their present
form after Basil's ordination.
The other Ascetica attributed to Basil cannot be con
sidered as authentic, and are of no direct value for our
1 Ep. 2.
2 "Opoi Kara TrAaros, Regulae Fusius Tractatae.
3 See Appendix A, p. 146 : 'Woe is unto me, if I preach not the
Gospel.'
* '-'Opoi «ar' tmToprjv, Regulae Brevius Tractatae.
6 See Appendix B, p. 147 : 'We who have been entrusted with
the ministry of the word.' Rufinus in his Latin translation reduced
the two collections to one, containing 203 Regulae. It was in this
form that they were known to St. Benedict.
ST. BASIL'S ASCETIC WRITINGS 19
investigation. The Monastic Constitutions,1 which
obviously cannot have been written by the author
of the Rules, have been assigned to Eustathius of
Sebaste, but were probably composed at a later date
in a country where both anchorites and monastic
communities were to be found in large numbers.2
As sources, then, for Basil's monastic ideas we are
entitled to use the three treatises, On the Judgment
of God, Concerning the Faith, and the M or alia,
together with the two collections of Rules. And
as a matter of fact we find that these five works
alone were considered by Photius to comprise the
Ascetica of Basil. We shall be able to supplement
the information obtained from these writings by the
two treatises On Renunciation and On the Ascetic
Discipline, both of which, as we have seen, may well
belong to Basil. The Letters also (where genuine 3)
supply us incidentally with a certain amount of useful
material for our discussion.
A review of these sources shows us that, while they
leave much to be desired, yet a good deal can be
made of what they give us. We can form a very fair
idea of the life in a Cappadocian monastery of those
days, even though we cannot be said to possess a
definite and detailed Rule of St. Basil. For Basil's
monastic writings everywhere presuppose that the
monastic community is already in existence, while
Ataro^fts npos rovs \v Koivofiia) KOI Karafjiovas affKovvras.
8 The Epitimia, a detailed penitential code, are certainly not
Basil's. Cf. Reg. Brev. 106 on the question of punishments.
3 The authorship of Epp. 42-6, which deal with monastic topics,
is extremely doubtful.
C 2
20 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
details of administration are left very largely to the
discretion of the superior.
The Rules, in particular, are devoid of anything
resembling orderly or systematic arrangement. Though
they have been described as ' Monastic Catechisms',1
yet they have scarcely enough sequence to deserve such
a description. In their form they may not unreason
ably be compared to the ' Answers to Correspondents '
in a modern religious newspaper. It is possible, how
ever, to extract from their somewhat disjointed expres
sions a very good idea of the principles by which their
author was actuated. Although the questions are most
varied in character, the answers one and all reflect the
ardent but eminently practical devotion of their author.
Yet the Rules are very largely impersonal in character.
The author effaces himself, in order to show that the
sole authority for his monastic precepts and instructions
is Holy Scripture. The Bible is to be the foundation
upon which all monastic legislation is to rest. Scrip
ture itself is be the only Rule, and the life of the monk
is to be truly ' evangelical '.
In this connexion the remarks of a modern biographer
of our Saint are worth quoting. ' It will probably
surprise many persons to be told that the key to
St. Basil's asceticism is found in his devoted submission
to the authority of Holy Scripture. He is so far from
claiming any right to go beyond Scripture that he
thinks it necessary to apologize for even using words
which are not found in the Bible. Those, therefore,
who would understand him must divest themselves
1 Cf. Zockler, Askese und Mdnchtum, p. 287.
ST. BASIL'S ASCETIC WRITINGS 21
in the first place of that vague association of the
Fathers with extra-Scriptural tradition which exists
in many minds ; and in the next place of that firm
persuasion which many good Protestants entertain, that
nobody ever loved the Bible or understood its value
before the Reformation/ l
1 R. T. Smith, St. Basil the Great, p. 212.
CHAPTER IV
THE INSPIRATION OF THE MONASTIC LIFE
IN any consideration of monasticism we have to
take into account the influence of two factors, namely,
mysticism, or the craving of the soul for union with
God, and asceticism, or the desire for a purification of
the soul by renunciation and self-denial. The relation
ship of these two factors must very largely determine
the form of any monastic endeavour.
It is therefore of great importance to see what
position each of them respectively occupies in Basil's
recommendations for the monastic life.
As we read his writings it becomes obvious that, for
him at least, asceticism is a means, not an end, and
that the aim of the true Christian is union with God.
For the attainment of such an end asceticism is neces
sary — the eye must be fixed upon the mark, and turned
away from all else. The attention will be so firmly
riveted upon the one idea that even ' the left hand
will not know what the right hand doeth \l But the
degree of asceticism practised must be such as will
further and not hinder the great end in view.2 The
monastic life is valuable, not primarily because of its
renunciation, but because such renunciation allows of
1 Reg. Brev. 197.
a Cf. Reg. Fus. 18-19, 128. Reg. Brev. 139.
INSPIRATION OF MONASTIC LIFE 23
greater concentration upon the attainment of real
blessedness. It is, in fact, the mystical element which
predominates in Basil's treatment of the monastic
ideal. The love of God, involving also the love of our
neighbour, is to be the chief motive of the Christian
life, whether in the cloister or in the world. God as
our Creator and Benefactor demands the love of His
creation. ' We love our Creator because we are made
by Him, in whom we delight, and of whom we must
always think, as children of their mother.' ' The lack
of love is for the soul the most intolerable of all evil.' l
* Wherefore should we not love God, if we receive His
benefits with gratitude and gladness? for He is the
Author of many and great blessings, and there is
already in each healthy soul a disposition to love,
implanted, as it were, by nature, and not by teaching.' 2
' We owe love to God, and we have the faculty to love
God, which was put into us as soon as we came into
being.' 3
Furthermore, God, as being the chief Good, is the
object of all desire.4 God is our Creator, our Goal, and
our End. The recognition of this fact results in
worship, prayer, and the unreserved surrender of man
to God.
Even though man by the fall showed himself to be
unworthy of the supernatural grace and distinction
received from his Creator, yet it is still possible for
him to attain to union with God, through the Cross of
Christ.
1 Reg. Fus. 2. 2. 2 Reg. Brev. 212.
3 Reg. Fus. 2. i. 4 Ibid.
24 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
' After the first man was beguiled by the serpent,
and was counselled in sin, and through sin met death,
and through death misery, God did not forget him. . . .
We are not forgotten by the goodness of God, and
although by our insensibility towards the kindness of
God we have sorely offended our Benefactor, yet we
cannot efface His love for us, but we are again brought
back from death, and again made alive by our Lord
Jesus Christ Himself. . . . Nor did it suffice Him merely
to call us back to life, but He has also granted us the
dignity of His Godhead, and has prepared for us ever
lasting rest, which in greatness of joy far exceeds all
human thought.' l
Jhe ascetic trains himself for heaven. ' I long for
one gift,' says Basil, ' I strive after only one glory,
the glory of the kingdom of heaven.' The doctrine
of the heavenly goal is for Basil at once the point of
departure and the object of attainment for all ascesis.
* Whenever this divine beauty has illuminated any of
the saints, it has left in them an intolerable stimulus
of desire, so that weary of this present life, they cry,
" Woe is me, that my sojourning is prolonged ! When
shall I come to appear before the presence of God ? " ' 2
Basil is not afraid to describe the heavenly blessedness
in the most glowing colours. But the chief joy of
heaven will be the reward of faith, ' the beholding face
to face.' 3 The hope of heaven is to be a spur to our
life here upon earth. ' How long shall we put off our
obedience to Christ, who has called us to His heavenly
1 Reg. Fus. 2. 3. * Pss. cxx. 5 ; xlii. 2. Reg. Fus. 2. i.
8 De Asc. Disc, ad Jin.
INSPIRATION OF MONASTIC LIFE 25
kingdom ? ' ' This is the time of repentance, that of
reward : this of toil and labour, that of receiving
wages : this of patience, that of comfort.' l
On the general subject of the motives from which
men lead a Christian life, Basil has some interesting
remarks, which further emphasize the central position
of the Love of God in his moral theology.
' To sum up,' he says, ' I perceive that there are
three different dispositions which inevitably lead us to
obey. Either through fear of punishment we turn
away from that which is evil, and so are of a slavish
disposition ; or, seeking to make gain by the reward,
we fulfil the commandments for the sake of their
benefits, and for this reason are like men of gain ; or
else we do good for the sake of the good itself, and
from love of Him who gave us the law, rejoicing that
we are thus thought worthy to serve the great and
good God, and so we have the disposition of sons.' 2
Although Basil invokes the fear of God's judgement
as an incentive to virtue, ' that we may be able to
flee from the wrath that is to descend upon the sons
of disobedience,' 3 yet he never assigns to fear the first
place. The expectation of the Coming of the Lord
is a wholesome corrective to procrastination. ' Let us
hearken diligently to that which is spoken, and seek
earnestly to carry out the divine decrees, for we know
not on what day or at what hour our Lord will come.' 4
Wherefore, in view of the shortness of the time, there is
need of a special moral effort.
1 Reg. Fus. Introd. i. * Ibid. chap. 3.
8 De Jud. ad fin. 4 Reg. Fus. Introd. ad fin.
26 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
' Shall we not set before our eyes that great and
terrible Day of the Lord ? ' x As in the New Testa
ment, so also in Basil, eschatology is a strong motive
of asceticism, but not its prime cause.2 Again, the
rewards of heaven are conditional upon a strictly moral
life, ' the careful life of the Gospel.' 3 ' Honours and
crowns are for conquerors. Who would ever crown
him who had not even stripped for the fight ? For it
is necessary not only to conquer, but also to contend
lawfully, according to the words of the apostle ; that
is, not to neglect even the smallest of such things as
have been commanded.' 4
For the true Christian, then, love is to be the domi
nant motive for the life of virtue. ' As a son let him
love God with all his heart, and strength, and mind,
and might.' 5
With the love of God as the centre of all religious
and moral activity, important results must necessarily
follow. In the first place, the love of our neighbour
is inseparably bound up with our love of God. Thus
Basil says, ' It is possible, therefore, through the first
commandment to fulfil the second also, and through
the second to return again to the first ; and so he who
loves the Lord, loves in consequence his neighbour.' 6
Hence, as we shall see, it is in the community life that
the man of God is perfected. For Basil the Christian
1 Reg. Fus. Introd. i ; see Appendix A, p. 138.
2 On the connexion between eschatology and asceticism in the
Gospels see an article in the Expositor, May 1911, by the present
writer.
3 Ibid. TTIV Atcptfaiav rov fvayye\iov. * Ibid. chap. 2.
6 De Asc. Disc. 2. 6 Reg. Fus. 3. 2.
INSPIRATION OF MONASTIC LIFE 27
ascesis involves socijl_activity_as well as individual
moral efiort. Furtfter, on the central position of this
active love of God in the Christian ascetic life Basil also
says, ' It must be known that this is only one virtue,
but that through its efficacy all commandments are ful
filled and included. For " he that loveth Me ", says the
Lord, " will keep My commandments." ' x Finally, we
may summarize Basil's teaching on the motive and
aim of Christian ascesis in his words : ' Since for our
works a goal and a rule is proposed, namely, that we
fulfil the commandments in a way pleasing to God, so
no work can be truly done except when it is fulfilled
according to the will of the commander. Let us
carefully endeavour, then, in every work only to do
the will of God, and so by remembering this we shall
attain to union with God.' 2
The great advantage of the ascetic life of renuncia
tion is that it makes possible the uninterrupted practice
of the presence of God and of the imitation of Christ.
Thus the question is asked, ' How may we do all things
to the glory of God ? ' and is answered, ' If we do all
things according to God and His commandments, and
in nothing look for the praise of men.' 3 The habitual
practice of living in the presence of God results in
a continuous and unbroken devotion to prayer, ' if we
are assured that God is ever before our eyes.' 4 In
attention is best avoided when we remember that God
is ever in our midst, that His Holy Spirit is with us
1 John xiv. 23 ; Reg. Fus. 2. i.
2 Reg. Fus. 5. 3 avvdiTTfaOai TO) 6eo5.
3 Reg. Brev. 195. * Reg. Brev. 201.
28 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
to quicken us with His gifts, and that the holy angels
watch over each one of us.1
Our thoughts will not wander if c we carry about the
holy thought of God as an indelible seal, impressed upon
our heart by a constant and pure memory. ' For thus we
shall be partakers in the love for God which both inspires
us to the fulfilling of the Lord's commandments, and
is itself by them preserved evermore undisturbed.' 2
The imitation of Christ is also very necessary for
those who would lead the ' true life according to the
Gospel of Christ '.3 The virtue of humility is best
learnt from Christ Himself. ' For humility is the
imitation of Christ, and the knowledge of godliness
is the knowledge of humility and meekness.' 4 ' If
the soul,' says Basil, ' wonders at the greatness of the
obedience and humility of Christ, that such and so
great a one obeyed His Father even unto death, for
the sake of our life, I believe that it is led at once
to love God the Father, " Who spared not his own son,
but gave him for us all ; " and also to love His only-
begotten Son, who for the sake of our redemption and
blessedness was obedient unto death.' 5 And in general
Basil exhorts his readers to ' become imitators of Christ,
and not of antichrist, of God, and not of the enemy
of God \6 Again he says, ' This is the goal of Chris
tianity, the imitation of Christ in the measure of His
humanity, as far as the vocation of each man permits.' 7
1 Reg. Brev. 306. 2 Reg. Fus. 5. 2.
3 De Fide, 5. * De Ren. 10.
5 Rom. viii. 32. Reg. Brev. 172. 6 De Ren. ibid.
7 Reg. Fus. 43. This idea is much more prominent in the Monastic
Constitutions.
INSPIRATION OF MONASTIC LIFE 29
We have seen, then, from BasiTs__own words that
the inspiration for the monastic lifejs^ the love of GodL^
It is this which supplies the monk with his enthusiasm.
But we are not thereby justified in emphasizing ' the
points of affinity between Montanism and Monasticism,
by which the latter is seen as a continuation of the
Montanist spirit and purpose '-1 There is no trace of
revivalist fanaticism in Basil's presentation of ' the
careful life of the Gospel '. The monk is primarily / *f^
one who loves God, and desires to imitate Christ. He j
is never represented as ' the pneumatie '. Spiritual
fervour is to be found ' in fulfilling the will of God
from love of Jesus Christ our Lord, as it is written,
He will have great delight in his commandments '.2
Further, the monastic life depends entirely upon the '
teaching of Scripture ; it is the life of the Gospel, and
necessitates no new revelation, no prophet declaring
new truths to his separatist followers. In fact Basil
is able to show that the monastic ideal is in no way
foreign to the true spirit of Christianity, that its life
is no narrow sectarian Puritanism, and that its faith
is the one, true, orthodox faith of Catholic Christendom.
It is, indeed, most noticeable how very careful Basil
always is that the true motive of the monastic life should
be discerned. For him ascetic practice is inevitably
founded upon dogmatic theory, and right conduct
depends upon a right faith. His own training and his
experiences as a champion of the orthodox faith con
vinced him of the necessity of sound doctrine, and he
1 Allen, Christian Institutions) p. 141.
8 Ps. cxii. i. Reg. Brev. 259.
30 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
dreaded lest the monastic movement should be associated
with any of the heresies of the day.1 He wished the
monastery to be a place where the faith was both
accurately believed and carefully put into practice.
It might thus become a valuable bulwark of orthodoxy.
' Faith working through love ' is, according to Basil,
the distinguishing mark of the Christian,2 and it is the
motto of all his ascetic instructions and regulations.
Thus he says, at the end of his treatise On the Judg
ment of God, ' Remembering the words of the Apostle,
" In Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth any
thing, nor uncircumcision ; but faith working through
love," I therefore thought it both fitting and needful
that I should first expound our godly and sound faith,
and then add a discourse on morals.' And in his
treatise On the Faith he remarks in this connexion :
' Wherefore we choose our words carefully and with
discernment, using always such words as may serve
for the protection and edification of the faith — at one
time making strong resistance against those who try
to destroy the faith by the craft of the devil, at another
expounding the faith in a simpler and gentler fashion
to such as would be edified therein. . . . But now our
only task is to make a simple confession and declara
tion of the soundness of our faith.' 3
In conclusion we may say that for Basil ' the soundness
of our faith ' and ' the true manner of life ' are inseparable,
for ' by these two things the man of God is perfected '.4
1 Cf. Reg, Brev. 124. The company of heretics and pagans is to
be avoided.
8 MOY. 80. 22. 3 De Fide, 2.
4 Reg. Brev. Introd. Cf. Ep. 295.
CHAPTER V
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM
WE have already remarked that according to Basil
asceticism is a means, and not an end. The end is
union with God, which may involve, as the means for
its more complete attainment, separation from the
world. The monk is he who concentrates his whole
attention upon the things of God, and allows nothing
to distract him from this all-absorbing purpose. He
is prepared to give up everything, if only he may
obtain the Pearl of great price.
No doubt it is true that every Christian is bound
to strive after the perfection which consists in the love
of God and our neighbour. ' All men, whether they
be monks or whether they be 't married, must give
account of their obedience to the Gospel. . . . For
Christ, when He was proclaiming the commands of
His Father, spoke to those who are in the world ; and
if it happened that He was questioned privately, He
would affirm openly, " What I say unto you, I say
unto all." ' l Yet Basil makes a distinction. There is
to be a class in which perfection is sought by special
means and under special conditions. ' For this cause
God, who loves mankind and ever cares for our
salvation, divided the life of man into two estates,
namely, matrimony and virginity.' 2
1 Mark xiii. 37. De Ren. 2. a Ibid. i.
32 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
The first condition demanded is solitude,1 namely,
seclusion, not from our neighbour, but from the dis
tractions of the world. Basil often enlarges upon the
advantages of such a solitude as he had himself enjoyed
in his retreat by the Iris. Thus in a letter to his friend
Gregory he writes, ' Quiet 2 is the first step towards
the cleansing of the soul.' ' Solitude 3 is of the greatest
use, inasmuch as it stills our passions, and gives room
for principle to cut them out of the soul.5 4 And in
the Longer Rules, while dealing at some length with
this question, he thus describes what he considers are
the chief benefits to be derived from the life of solitude :
' In it we overcome our former manner of life in
which we neglected the commandments of Christ (and
this conflict is not light, for habit, strengthened by
length of time, has acquired the force of nature), and
so we are enabled to eradicate the stains of sin by
earnest prayer and constant attention to the will of
God ; for we cannot possibly apply ourselves to such
contemplation and prayer amid the many things which
distract the mind by leading it to worldly cares.' And
again he says, ' Each one of us must at least know
that we cannot keep any other commandment, nor
even fulfil the love of God and our neighbour, if we
digress in our thoughts, now in one direction, now in
another.' 5
Yet solitude, considered merely as physical separation
from contact with the outer world, is not sufficient.
4 Think not that every one within a cell is saved, whether
1 Cf . Reg. Fus. 6 on dvayKcuov TO
* Ep. 2. 2. 6 Reg. Fus. 6. I.
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM 33
he be good or bad ; for it is not so. Many, indeed,
approach the life of virtue, yet few take up its yoke.' x
Wherefore Basil further shews that those who devote
themselves to the monastic life should adopt another
indispensable practice, namely, Renunciation.2
' He who would follow the Lord truly must free j
himself from the bonds of the passions of this life ; /
and this is done by a complete abandonment and dis- J
regard of the old manner of life.' 3 There are various i
stages in the process of renunciation. ' A beginning
is made with the discarding of all outside belongings,
such as property, empty fame and honour, the social
connexions and ties of this life, which are all unneces
sary and useless things.' 4 But he who renounces must
go further than this. He must practise self-renuncia
tion, self-denial, as well as renunciation of the world.
* Complete renunciation is achieved when a man no longer
loves his life, but has the sentence of death in himself,
so that he does not trust himself.' 5 This demands
that there shall be no shrinking or holding back, but
that every earthly good be cheerfully resigned. For ' if
we keep back some earthly possession, or some tran
sitory good, the soul, since it is, as it were, immersed
in the mud here below, can never rise to the sight of
God, and can never be inspired with a desire for the
heavenly beauty and the blessings that are promised
us, unless a strong and continuous impulse moves us
to desire it, and makes the toil for it light.' 6
Renunciation, then, though all-important, is not an
1 De Ren. g. 2 dirorayri. 3 Reg. Fus. 8.
4 Reg. Fus. 8. i. 8 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 3.
D
34 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
«-\
end in itself. It is rather to be considered as a
necessary condition for the attainment of Christian,
perfection, in that it provides freedom for the soul to
develop that which is its highest faculty, the power
to love God.
The third requisite for the life of Christian perfection
is Continence, or Temperance,1 which may be described
as the development and completion of renunciation. It
keeps the soul free when once it has been liberated
by the act of renunciation. The monk must therefore
form the habit of continence.
In the first place, the continent man will rise superior
Si- to the enticements of passion and desire. ' He who is
above all passion and feels none of the incitements of lust,
or even any treacherous inclination, but behaves himself
with courage and resolution in regard to all sensual and
shameful pleasures, is perfectly continent.' 2 ' Con
tinence is that abstinence from pleasant things which
aims at the conquest of the proud flesh and the attain
ment of the goal of religion/ 3
But continence affects every department of life, and
is not only ' the mother of chastity and the friend of
health ',4 but is productive of all the virtues. Thus,
' He who is continent in respect of the desire for honour,
is also humble ; he who in respect of riches is continent,!
fulfils the Gospel measure of poverty ; he who rules*
his indignation and anger, is kindly. And indeed the:
true observance of continence fixes a measure for the
tongue, a limit for the eyes, and refrains the ears from I
1 f^KpcLTfia. 2 Reg. Fus. 17. i.
3 Reg. Fus. 1 6. 2. 4 Reg. Fus. 18.
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM 35
curious hearsay. But he who does not persevere in all
these things is incontinent and unruly. *y
1 If a man avoids even the greatest sins, but is over
come by one, he is not continent.' 2 Continence is there
fore a central point in the truly moral life. It is the
suppression and negation of all evil, and the affirma
tion of all goodness. ' He who is perfectly continent is
plainly free from all sin.' ' Continence is the main
spring of the spiritual life, and wins for us the blessings
of eternity.' 3
In order to illustrate the place of continence, or
temperance, in the life of virtue Basil employs the
scriptural analogy of the athlete and the soldier. He
quotes St. Paul : ' Every man that striveth in the
games is temperate in all things,' 4 and he addresses the
monk as ' thou that desirest to become a fellow-soldier of
Christ's holy disciples ', while he exhorts him ' to be
instructed by the Scriptures in the art of warfare'.5
It is, indeed, of the utmost importance always to bear
in mind how thoroughly scriptural is Basil's treatment
of asceticism. The ascetic life is described as ' walk
ing in accordance with the Gospel of our blessed God,
Jesus Christ our Lord '.6 The ascetic is one who prac
tises with a view to perfection, and trains himself, byj
means of solitude, renunciation, and continence, forl
the attainment of the one great prize, union with God.
Christian continence is no Stoic apathy,7 and Basil does
Kal aKo\aaTOs. Reg. Fus. 16. 3. 2 Reg. Fus. 17. 2.
3 Ibid. « 2 Tim. ii. 5. Reg. Fus. 16. i, 18. i.
6 De Ren. 2. e De jud 3
7 In Ep. 4, however, Basil playfully describes himself as ' an
admirer of Zeno, Cleanthes, and Diogenes '.
D 2
36 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
not speak of the ascetic life as the ' life of philosophy \l
Further, monastic morality is in no sense Manichaean.
Matter is not in itself evil, and Basil has a Homily
to the effect that 'God is not the Author of Evil'.2
Elsewhere he says, ' Nothing, if it were bad in itself,
would have been created by God. " For every creature
of God is good, and nothing is to be rejected, if it be
received with thanksgiving." So also the command
ment of the Lord does not teach us to avoid or cast
away possessions as things evil in themselves, but to
dispense them rightly.' 3
The degree of asceticism to be practised is to be
such as will not unfit the monk for his work. The
question is asked, 'Whether he who would practise
continence beyond his strength, so that he is prevented
from fulfilling that which is commanded him, should
be encouraged '. To this the reply is as follows : ' This
question does not seem to me to be rightly propounded.
For continence does not consist in mere abstention
from food, which results in the " severity to the body "
condemned by the apostle, but in the perfect abandon
ment of our own private wishes.' 4 Thus Basil lays
down that with regard both to fasting and work the
universal rule holds good, ' Do all to the glory of
God.' 5
The ' competitive ' asceticism, as we may call it, of the
Egyptian hermits had resulted in a considerable degree
of spiritual pride. Hence it is that Basil so often
1 As does the author of the Monastic Constitutions.
2 Horn. 9.
3 Reg. Brev. 92 ; Reg. Fus. 18 ; i Tim. iv. 4.
* Col. ii. 23 ; Reg. Brev. 128. 5 Reg. Brev. 139 ; i Cor. x. 31.
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM 37
insists upon the necessity of humility. One of the
greatest advantages of the community life is that it
provides opportunity for the practice of this virtue.
We even get the stipulation made in Basil's Rules that
there is to be no scramble for the last place at table.1
Humility itself may breed contention, if it be not
regulated.
Fialon has not inaptly remarked of Basil's asceticism,
'Cetait la rigueur de 1'ascetisme oriental qui se pliait
a P indulgence grecque.' 2 Continence indeed was the
avoidance of all excess, whether of indulgence or absti
nence. The asceticism which Basil required aimed at
bodily training, not bodily extinction, at a discipline,
and not an abnegation of the will. And, as we have
seen, the mystical element, the craving for union with
God, was never submerged in the ascetic desire for
purification by self-denial.
It is interesting in this connexion to notice the
remarks of a modern writer on the question of the
place and motive of asceticism :
'The adjective "ascetic" is applied to conduct
originating on diverse psychological levels, which I
might as well begin by distinguishing from one another,
(i) Asceticism may be a mere expression of organic
hardihood, disgusted with too much ease ; (2) temper
ance in meat and drink, simplicity of apparel, chastity,
and non-pampering of the body generally, may be
fruits of the love of purity, shocked by whatever
1 Reg. Fus. 21.
2 Etude litUvaive sur Saint Basile, p. 178. Cf. Basil, Ep. 207. 2,
' We, in comparison with the perfect (i. e. the monks of Egypt),
are children.'
38 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
savours of the sensual ; (3) they may be also fruits
of love, that is, they may appeal to the subject in the
light of sacrifices which he is happy in making to
the Deity whom he acknowledges.' l
In the case of Basil the ascetic practices which he
recommended were essentially c fruits of love '.
1 William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, pp. 296 f.
CHAPTER VI
THE COMMUNITY LIFE
IT remains now to consider how Basil put his
monastic principles into practice. Monasticism had
already found many forms of expression. The first
endeavours seem to have been entirely eremitical in
character, but it was not long before the individual
ascetics were brought together into communities. In
Egypt monasticism developed along two lines, the
Antonian and the Pachomian. When Anthony with
drew to the desert and lived a life of complete seclusion,
many serious Christians, inspired by his example, came
and settled near his retreat. After twenty years of
life as a hermit, Anthony was induced to come forth
and undertake the direction and organization of the
numbers of monks who were now living around him.
But such organization would seem to have been very
loose and almost entirely voluntary. Thus Palladius
tells us with regard to the monks of Nitria, ' In Mount
Nitria there are five thousand monks following different
manners of life, each according to his power and desire ;
so that any one may live alone, or with another, or with
several companions.' He also says, ' They assemble at
the church only on Saturday and Sunday.'
Although the eremitical form of monasticism tended
to die out, yet the Antonian monk still had much of
40 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
the hermit's independent solitude, and his life may not
incorrectly be called semi-eremitical.
But about this same time Pachomius, a young monk
who had been trained by the hermit Palaemon, founded
his first monastery at Tabennesi, near Denderah, by
the Nile. Palladius visited a Pachomian monastery
at Panopolis, and has left us a very vivid picture of )
the life in that community. It appears to have been \
a life of the most varied activity. There was a fixed \?J
routine of Church services, Bible reading, and manual
labour. All kinds of trades and occupations were
pursued for the general good of the monastery and
the benefit of the poor. Each monk had his own
special task allotted to him and a place of residence
according to his particular occupation. A minimum
of ascetic practice was enjoined, but individual efforts
after severer self-denial were encouraged. ' The funda
mental idea of St. Pachomius' Rule was to establish
a moderate level of observance which might be obli
gatory upon all ; and then leave it open to each —
and indeed to encourage each — to go beyond the
fixed minimum, according as he was prompted by his
strength, his courage, and his zeal.' Thus some of the
monks, Palladius tells us, ate only every second day,
others only every third day, and some every fifth day.
As in the Antonian system, there was a large element
of voluntariness, of individual effort, while as yet there
was no full and proper idea of a corporate monastic
life.1
We have seen how for Basil monastic regulation
1 See Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius, i. pp. 233 ff.
THE COMMUNITY LIFE 41
invariably depends upon dogmatic considerations.
Hence we are not surprised that he gives at some
length the principles — illustrated as always by scrip
tural quotations — which led him to prefer the coeno-
bitical form of monasticism. ' I have learned/ he says,
' that a life lived in common with others is more useful
for many purposes. In the first place, even in the
matter of bodily needs, no man is sufficient to himself,
but we require each other's aid in the provision of such
things as are necessary to life. ... In the solitary life
what we have is useless to any one else, and what we
ourselves want cannot be supplied. . . . And further,
the law of the love of Christ does not permit each one
of us to regard his own things alone. For "Charity
seeketh not her own ",1 The life of complete seclu
sion has only one aim, that each may serve his own
needs. But this is plainly opposed to the law of charity
which the Apostle fulfilled, who sought not his own
profit, but the profit of many, that they might be
saved.
' Moreover, it is not easy for one who lives alone to
discover his own faults, since he has no one to reprove
him, or correct him in gentle and kindly fashion. For
the reproof even of an enemy will oftentimes implant
a desire for amendment in a man of good sense, but
a fault is only properly amended by one who loves
sincerely. For ' ' He that lo veth instructeth diligently ".2
And in solitude, when a man has no companionship
in his life, it is impossible to find such an adviser.
Wherefore it happens to him as it is written, " Woe
1 i Cor. xiii. 5. a Prov. xiii. 24.
42 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
to him that is alone, for if he falleth, there is none to
raise him up."1
' Again, there are many commandments which can
easily be performed by many gathered together, but
not by one man alone, for in performing one we are
hindered from fulfilling the rest. Thus the visitation
of the sick will hinder a man from receiving guests,
and the dispensing and distribution of the necessaries
of life (especially when much time is spent upon such
service), will hinder him from a zealous attention to
his customary work, and so a great and salutary com
mandment is broken, since neither is the hungry fed
nor the naked clothed. Who, then, would choose to
live this inactive and unfruitful life rather than that
which is fruitful and in accordance with our Lord's
commandment ?
' And if all who are called in one hope of their calling
are one body in Christ, have Him for their head, and
are members one of another, how can we be so, except
through union in one body by the Holy Spirit ? . . .
' Further, since no one man is sufficient in himself
to receive the gifts of the Spirit, but according to the
measure of each man's faith the Spirit is granted to
him,2 in the common life each man's gift becomes the
common property of his fellows. . . .
' But there are other dangers in the solitary life
besides those we have already described. The first and
greatest danger is that of self-complacency.3 For if
a man has no one to examine his actions, he will think
that he has already achieved the perfect fulfilment of
1 Eccles. iv. 10. 8 Rom. xii. 6. 3 avrapfffKcia.
THE COMMUNITY LIFE 43
the commandments, and, since his conduct is never
tested, he neither notices his shortcomings, nor per
ceives any progress which he may have made, for the
very reason that he has deprived himself of all oppor
tunity for fulfilling the commandments.
' For how will he practise the virtue of humility, if
there is no one to whom he may show himself humble ?
How will he show pity, if he is cut off from the society
of others ? Or how will he show forbearance, if there
is no one to oppose his wishes ? But if some one say
that instruction in the Holy Scriptures is sufficient for
right conduct, he is like one who learns how to weave,
but never weaves anything, or is taught the smith's
art, but never deigns to put into practice what he has
learnt. To such a man the Apostle would say, " Not
the hearers of a law are just before God, but the doers
of a law shall be justified/' * For we see that our Lord
Himself, from His exceeding great kindness, did not rest
content with words or precepts, but expressly set before
us an example of humility in the perfection of His
love. For indeed He girded Himself and washed His
disciples' feet. Whose feet will you wash ? To whom
will you be a servant ? Among whom will you be the
last of all, if you live alone by yourself ? How can
that good and joyful thing, the dwelling together of
the brethren, which is likened by the Holy Spirit to the
precious ointment that ran down from the high-priest's
head, be accomplished in the life of the solitary ?
' The dwelling together of the brethren is indeed a field
for the contest of athletes, a noble path of progress,
1 Rom. ii. 13.
44 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
a continual training, and a constant meditation upon
the commandments of the Lord. It has for its one
aim and end the glory of God, according to the com
mandment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who says, "Let
your light so shine before men that they may see your
good works, and glorify your Father which is in
heaven." l Such a life bears the same stamp as that of
the saints of whom we read in the Acts, " And all that
believed were together, and had all things common." 2
And again : "And the multitude of them that believed
were of one heart and soul : and not one of them said
that aught of the things which he possessed was his
own : but they had all things common." ' 3
These remarks upon the theoretical and practical
superiority of the community life have been quoted
at length with a view to showing how careful Basil
always is that his monastic scheme shall be at once
scriptural in principle and practicable in application.
Life in common is declared to be a following of the life
of the Apostles, and the best realization of the corporate
fellowship described by St. Paul under the simile of
the body and its members. The love of God and
neighbour can find its fullest expression in the monastic
congregation, where all co-operate in their endeavour
after perfection.
In this connexion it is interesting to read a letter
addressed by Basil to a community of monks. He
thus writes : ' I do not think that I need further
commend you to God's grace, after the words that
1 Matt. v. 1 6. 2 Acts ii. 44.
8 Acts iv. 32 ; Reg. Fus. 7.
THE COMMUNITY LIFE 45
I addressed to you in person. I then bade you adopt_
the life in common, after the manner of living of the
Apostles. This you accepted as wholesome instruction,
and gave God thanks for it. Thus your conduct was
due, not so much to the word I spoke, as to my instruc
tions to put them into practice, conducive at once to
your advantage who accepted, to my comfort who
gave you the advice, and to the glory and praise of
Christ, by whose name we are called. For this reason
I have sent to you our well-beloved brother, that he may
rouse you from your sloth, and may bring report to me
of opposition . For great is my desire to see you all united
in one body, and to hear that you are not content to
live a life without witness ; but have undertaken to
be both watchful of each other's diligence, and wit
nesses of each other's success. Thus will each of you
receive a reward in full, not only on his own behalf,
but also for his brother's progress. And, as is fitting,
you will be a source of mutual profit to one another
in both word and deed, as the result of constant
intercourse and exhortation.' x
This enthusiasm of Basil for the common life induced
him not only to recommend solitary ascetics to come
together and form communities, but led him also to
construct cells in the neighbourhood of his monasteries
for such as persisted in the solitary life. Gregory
Nazianzen, in his Panegyric on Basil, thus speaks of
his friend's activity in this direction : ' He reconciled
and united most excellently the solitary and the com
munity life. These had been in many respects at
Ep. 295.
46 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
variance and dissension, while neither of them was in
absolute and unalloyed possession of goo'd or evil ; the
one being more calm and settled, tending to union
with God, yet not free from pride, inasmuch as its
virtue lies beyond the means of testing or comparison ;
the other, which is of more practical service, being not
free from the tendency to turbulence.1 He founded
cells for ascetics and hermits, but at no great distance
from his coenobitic communities, and, instead of dis
tinguishing and separating the one from the other, as
if by some intervening wall, he brought them together
and united them, in order that the contemplative spirit
might not be cut off from society, nor the active life
be uninfluenced by the contemplative, but that, like
sea and land, by an interchange of their several gifts,
they might unite in promoting the one object, the
glory of God.' 2 Yet in spite of this reconciliation of
which Gregory speaks with such admiration, Basil
himself in his own writings leaves us in no doubt as
to his preference for the community life as the best
means for the attainment of Christian perfection. In
later days we find that the life of the monk was often
considered as being merely preparatory to the life of the
hermit, but there is no suggestion of any such idea in
Basil's monastic scheme. He asserts plainly and with
out qualification ' that the solitary life is both difficult
and dangerous '.3
1 TO 6opv@a>8€s ov <pevyovros. 2 Orat. 43. 62.
3 Reg. Fus. 7, ad init. on 5vffKo\ov o/*ov Kal cntKivdwov T
CHAPTER VII
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE
IN the community life the virtues of humility and
obedience acquired a new meaning. We have already
remarked how the life of the hermit tended to spiritual
arrogance. The Christian athlete who had merely
himself to consider was bent on ' making records ' in
ascetic austerities. Such men often took great pride
in their performances, while they also became objects
of popular admiration. Pilgrimages were made to the
abodes of many of the most famous ascetics. Men
visited them, however, not merely from curiosity, but
for counsel and advice. A notable hermit might
thus exercise a great and far-reaching influence for
good. Being independent of all worldly considerations,
he was able to speak with the utmost freedom and
courage. Yet such publicity might, in many cases, only
further increase the egotism which a life of solitude had
produced.
Again, one of the crying needs of the day was a
respect for authority, whether ecclesiastical or civil.
As we read Basil's letters we can see that the imperial
government was not such as to inspire feelings of a
loyal and ready obedience. The sons of Constantine,
by their vices and their weakness, had lost the esteem
and affection of their people. There were, no doubt,
48 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
individual governors of whom Basil could speak in
friendly terms, but they seem to have been the excep
tion rather than the rule, and we cannot always tell how
far he is merely using the language of diplomacy. In the
Church also doctrinal dissensions and moral laxity had
done much to bring her rulers into disrespect. Men
sought ordination who had no vocation for the Christian
ministry — in many cases to avoid military service.
The ranks of the episcopate were not infrequently
recruited from the lowest of the people. More than
once Basil complains, ' They have brought shame upon
the poor name of bishop.' He even goes so far as to
say, ' Exalted office is now publicly known as the reward
of impiety. The result is that the worse a man blas
phemes, the fitter the people think him to be a bishop.
Clerical dignity is a thing of the past/ l
Of the want of discipline and obedience in the Church
of his day Basil speaks very forcibly in his treatise,
On the Judgment of God. He there says : ' And when
I had spent long time in diligently seeking for the
cause of these evils, I remembered the Book of Judges,
which tell how each man did that which was right in
his own eyes, and gives the reason in these words,
" In those days there was no king in Israel/' And as
I remembered this, I determined that it was true of
the present state of things, even though such an
assertion may seem both strange and horrible. For,
indeed, it would appear as if the great disagreement
and strife which now prevails within the Church is
due to the rejection of the one, great, true, and only
i Epp.-92, 239.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE 49
universal King and God. For each man deserts the
teaching of our Lord Jesus Christ, and of his own
authority sets up his own opinions and interpretations,
choosing rather to rule in opposition to Christ, than
to be ruled by Christ Himself. ... If, therefore, order
and concord is only to be found among those who all
answer to one summons and obey one king, it follows
that discord and dissension is a proof that a ruler is
wanting. And so, by the same reasoning, the dissension
which is now to be found among us, the disputes with
ourselves and with the commands of the Lord, are all
a convincing proof that the true King has left us/ 1
There must have been many good Christian men and
women who, tired of the doctrinal strife, and feeling the
need of some central and definite authority 2 which they
could respect, welcomed gladly the regular and ordered
life of the monastic community, which provided strict
discipline and necessitated the most implicit obedience.
We have already seen how, according to Basil,
f Humility is the imitation of Christ/ 3 and it is notice
able that the duty of obedience is also grounded by
trim upon Christ's example. In answer to the question
as to the limits of obedience, Basil asserts, ' The
Apostle has shown us, by setting before us the obedience
of the Lord, " who became obedient unto death, yea,
the death of the cross/' As also he says before, " Let
this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus "/ 4
Obedience consists in the submission of our ownwis hes
1 De Jud. 2.
2 Ci.De'BrogMetL'^gliseet I' Empire Romain,v. 166: 'c'est la fatigue
de dissensions, le besoin de la soumission, 1'instinct de 1'autorite.'
J De Ren. 10 ; cf. supra, p. 20. * Phil. ii. 5,8; Reg. Brev. 1 16.
E
50 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
and desires to the will of God, after the pattern of Jesus
Christ . ' For since our Lord has said, ' ' I came down from
heaven, not to do mine own will, but the will of him
that sent me," every judgment of our own wills is
dangerous. And this David well knew when he said,
" I have sworn, and am steadfastly purposed to keep
thy righteous judgements," — not my own wishes.' l
But obedience is also a social virtue, and is a proof of
love towards our neighbour, no less than of our love
towards God. ' Even as the Apostle says, " Through
the love of the Spirit be ye servants one to another." ' 2
Further, the monk is not to be ashamed of accepting
obedience from his brother. He is to receive such
ministrations ' as a servant from his master, with the
humility which the Apostle Peter showed, when the
Lord ministered to him : from whom also we learn
the danger of refusing such service '. ' We are fully
convinced that God is the author and perfecter of
every blessing, and we receive these benefits as from
the minister of God's goodness.' 3
But while this mutual obedience is to be practised
by all the members of the community, yet there is
also to be one fixed centre of authority, one fountain-
head from which all order and discipline proceed.
Though there may be great variety of activity in the
community life, there must at the same time be unity
of administration. The ' tendency to turbulence ',
which Gregory Nazianzen notes as one of the dangers
to which the coenobitical form of monachism is most
1 John vi. 38 ; Ps. cxix. 106 ; Reg. Brev. 137.
2 Gal. v. 13 ; Reg. Brev. 115. 3 Ibid. 161 ; Reg. Fus. 31.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE 51
prone, is to be carefully eliminated. As there is one aim
for all the members of the brotherhood, so also there
must be one source of authority, namely, the Superior.1
The high position of this official in Basil's scheme
calls for some remark. It seems as if the great
Saint, who by his own personal example had done so
much to further the monastic cause, can never say
enough about the importance for the community of
a good superior. Basil knew how many had been led
to embrace a life of asceticism through the personal
influence of some great ascetic. The hermits of Egypt
often had companions and disciples who came to them
to be trained in the life of perfection. But such
disciples, though they might be bound to their masters
by the very closest ties of affection, could only profess
a voluntary obedience. A hermit and his disciple might
separate at a moment's notice, sometimes as the result
of some trivial altercation. It was only in the com
munity life, in the brotherhood presided over by its
superior, that compulsory discipline and obedience
could be possible.
Pachomius, in one of his visions, had seen the angels
assisting the superiors of his monasteries. The most
implicit obedience was required from all his monks.
The insubordinate, if they persisted, were sent to the
infirmary until they should repent of their obstinacy.
No doubt it was often difficult to persuade those who had
been accustomed to the free and independent life of the
hermit to submit to the quasi-military regulations of a
community administered by an all-powerful superior.
1 6
E 2
52 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
In Basil's recommendations for the conduct of the
monastic life we find, as we have said, that the superior
occupies a most important place. But it is essential
to notice at the outset that although the superior is the
supreme head of the monastery, yet, owing apparently^
to the moderate dimensions of the community under
his charge, he never loses contact with each of the
brethren. All the secrets of the heart are to be dis
closed to him.1 He is to be ' an ensample to them that
believe ',2 and to love his brethren ' even as a nurse
cherisheth her own children '.3 He is also to be a
physician of the soul, who will have the proper remedy
at hand for each man's malady.4
Basil lays down as a duty for all who enter upon the
monastic life, that they should attach themselves to
some man of stern and inflexible morality, to whom
they must render entire and unquestioning obedience.
' Seek out ', he says, ' with much care and thought
a man who will be a safe guide to thee in thy manner
of life, who knows well how to lead such as are journey
ing towards God, who is rich in virtues, showing forth
by his works his love for God, and being wise in the
Holy Scriptures. ... If thou canst find such a man,
give thyself to him. Spurn and cast aside every wish
of thine own, that thou mayest be found as a clean
vessel, keeping ever pure to the praise and glory of
God the virtues that are put in thee. . . . And if thou
thus give thyself to a man of many virtues, thou shalt
1 Reg. Fus. 26. 2 i Tim. iv. 12 ; Reg. Fus. 43.
3 i Thess. ii. 7 ; Reg. Brev. 98 ; Reg. Fus. 25.
* Reg. Fus. 52.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE 53
become heir to the goodness that is in him, and shalt
be blessed above others in the sight of God and man.
But if, to spare thy body, thou shouldst seek a master
who will condescend, or rather degrade himself, to
thy passions, then thou hast endured the conflict of
renunciation all in vain. ... If, therefore, by the grace
of God thou canst find a teacher of good works, keep
him ever by thee, and do nothing without his counsel.
For all that is done apart from him is but as theft
and sacrilege, leading to destruction and not to use
fulness, even though it appear to thee to be good.'1
We see from this exhortation what an important place
is given to personal influence in Basil's representation
of the monastic life. In fact, we may safely say that
the whole welfare of the monastery depended upon the
man in charge.
The superior was to be elected by the senior brethren
of the community.2 A man with the necessary qualifi
cations being difficult to find, it is better, says Basil,
to have only one community and one superior in each
village. In this way all rivalry and partisanship will be
avoided. Yet elsewhere he expresses the wish that
the various communities and their superiors should co
operate with one another ' in the unity of the Spirit and
the bond of peace'.3 If the superior should be guilty
of wrong-doing, he is to be admonished by the senior
brethren of the community. ' And thus if there be
anything in him that require amendment, we shall
be of use to our brother, and through him to ourselves,
by leading back into the right way him who, as being
1 De Ren. 2-4. 2 Reg. Fus. 43. 3 Reg. Fus. 35.
54 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
himself the rule of our life, should by his virtues
correct our perversity/ l But the rule of the superior
is in every respect monarchical, and there is no hint
of an aristocratic government by a senate of elders
such as was to be found among some of the monks of
the desert.2 It is interesting also to notice that in the
absence of the superior a second-in-command is to be
chosen ' lest a democratic state of things prevail in the
brotherhood '.3
But although this one man is to have the supreme
control of the brotherhood, he must not in the exercise
of his autocratic powers forget his responsibility. ' The
superior must not be unduly exalted by his office, lest he
fail to obtain the blessing that is promised to the humble,
or by his pride fall into the condemnation of the Devil ;
but rather let him be assured that the charge of the
many is the service of the many.' 4
It is interesting to observe how often in the Rules
the superior is compared to a physician. We know
that Basil himself, owing partly to his constant ill-
health, had made some study of medicine. Hence
the simile would come naturally to him. Thus, in
answer to the question ' How are the faults of sinners
to be corrected ? ' he lays down the rule : ' Correc
tion should be applied to the wrong-doer after the
manner of the physician, who is not angry with
his patient, but fights against the disease. Thus
the vice must be attacked, and the infirmity of the!
1 Reg. Fus. 27 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 103. 2 Cf. Reg. Brev. 104.
3 Reg. Fus. 45. i. Certain functions, e. g. the distribution of food
and clothing, may be delegated. Reg. Brev. 148.
4 Reg. Fus. 30. Cf. Benedict, Regula, ii.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE 55
soul corrected, if necessary, by a somewhat severe,
regimen. For example, pride will be corrected by
ordering the practice of humility : foolish talking
by silence : immoderate sleep by wakefulness in
prayer : slothfulness by work : greediness by absti
nence from food : discontent by separation from the
rest of the brethren.' 1 The punishments inflicted by*
the superior are to be considered as remedial, and
endured without murmuring. ' As then we have
determined that the superior is to apply remedies
without flinching to those who are ailing : so also
those who are thus treated should not receive their
punishments in enmity, or consider as a tyranny the
kindly care which is directed to the salvation of their
souls/ 2
The superior, if he neglect to remind the sinner of
his faults, will be liable to severe condemnation. ' He
who is entrusted with the charge of all must remember
that he is to give an account of each. For if one of the
brethren fall into sin, and is not told by the superior of
God's judgment, or if he persist in his error, and is not
instructed in the way of amendment by him, his blood
will be required of him.'3 The principles by which
the superior is to be guided in the performance of
his office are thus summed up by Basil in one of the
Shorter Rules : ' Before God he will be as a minister
of Christ, and a steward of the mysteries of God,
fearing always lest he should say or do anything
1 Reg. Fus. 51.
2 Reg. Fus. 52. No curiosity concerning the reasons for his com
mands is to be shown : Reg. Fus. 48. 8 Reg. Fus. 25.
56 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
contrary to the will of God, and so be found a false
witness of God, or be guilty of sacrilege either by
introducing that which is against the teaching of the
Lord, or by omitting that which is pleasing to God.
In his dealings with the brethren, " even as a nurse
cherisheth her own children," so he will be eager to
give to each one not only the Gospel of God, but even
his own life, that thereby God may be pleased and the
whole community benefited, according to the com
mandment of our Lord and God, Jesus Christ, who
said : "A new commandment I give unto you, that
ye love one another, even as I have loved you."
" Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay
down his life for his friends." ' 1
Punishments, which, as we have seen, are to be
remedial, and proportionate to the crime, will be
administered in the same spirit of love. Persistent
disobedience, however, is to be punished with separa
tion from the society of the brethren. Thus Basil
lays down that, ' He who fails in his obedience to the
commandments of the Lord is at first to be treated
by all with compassion as an ailing member, and
the superior by his own exhortations will endeavour
to restore him to health. But if he persist in his
disobedience, and refuse correction, he must be more
severely rebuked before the whole brotherhood, and
every remedy of exhortation must be applied. And if,
after much reproof, he still remains obdurate, and does
not amend either himself or his ways, being, in the words
of the proverb, " his own ruin," it will be necessary, with
1 John xiii. 34 ; xv. 13 ; Reg. Brev. 98.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE 57
much grief and sorrow, to regard him as a decayed
and useless limb, and to cut him off from the rest of
the body/ x Disobedience is not merely an offence
against the discipline of the community, but a sign of
grave moral defects. ' Insubordination and defiance
are the proofs of a multitude of sins, of tainted faith,
of doubtful hope, of proud and overweening conduct/ 2
We have thus seen, from Basil's own words, how
the community life with its common rule of discipline
and its one centre of authority was to be a field for
the cultivation of what was then a much-needed virtue,
obedience.
1 Reg. Fus. 28. i. On the various degrees of punishment cf. Reg.
Brev. 44 and 122, which mention (a) deprivation of blessing, fv\oytav
1$ \a0etv, (b) deprivation of food, aairia, (c) separation,
2 Reg. Fus. 28. 2.
CHAPTER VIII
THE MONK AT PRAYER
As we might naturally expect, Basil very strongly
insists upon the necessity of prayer for the true Chris- '
tian, and more especially for the monastic community.
Prayer, however, is not to be merely a spasmodic effort
or an occasional expedient. It is to be constant and ;
continuous, and for the devout Christian prayerfulness
must become a natural and spontaneous habit of mind.
There is a passage of great beauty on this subject in
one of Basil's Homilies.1
' Ought we to pray without ceasing ? Is it possible
to obey such a command ? These are questions which
I see you are ready to ask. I will endeavour, to the
best of my ability, to prove my case. Prayer is
a petition for good addressed by the pious to God.
But we do not rigidly confine our petition to words.
Nor yet do we imagine that God requires to be reminded
by speech. He knows our needs even though we do
not ask Him.
' What do I say then ? I say that we must not think
that our prayer consists only in syllables. The strength
of prayer lies rather in the purpose of our soul, and in
deeds of virtue affecting every part and moment of our
1 Horn, in Marty tent Julittam, 3-4.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 59
life. " Whether ye eat," it is said, " or drink, or whatever
ye do, do all to the glory of God." 1 As thou takest thy
seat at table, pray. As thou liftest the loaf, offer thanks
to the Giver. When thou sustainest thy bodily
weakness with wine, remember Him who supplies thee
with this gift, to make thy heart glad and comfort thy
infirmity. Has thy need for food passed away ? Let
not the thought of thy merciful Benefactor pass away
too. As thou art putting on thy tunic, thank Him
who gave it thee. As thou wrappest thy cloak about
thee, feel yet greater love to God, who alike in summer
and winter has given us clothing convenient for us,
both to cover what is unseemly and to preserve our life.
Is the day over ? Thank Him who has given us the
sun for the service of our daily work, and has provided
us with fire to brighten the night, and to serve for
the other needs of life.
' Let night also afford other suggestions of prayer.
When thou lookest up to heaven, and seest the beauty
of the stars, pray to the Lord of all things visible, the
great Artist of the universe, who " in wisdom hath made
them all".2 And when thou seest all nature sunk in
sleep, then again worship Him who even against our
will releases us from the continuous strain of toil,
and by a short respite restores us once again to
the vigour of our strength. Let not night herself
be altogether the special property of sleep. Let not
half thy life be useless in the dull torpor of slumber,
but divide the time of night between sleep and prayer.
And let thy very slumbers be exercises of piety ; for
1 i Cor. x. 31. 2 Ps. civ, 24.
6o ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
the dreams of our sleep are wont to be for the most
part the reflections of our thoughts by day.1 As have
been our conduct and pursuits, so will of necessity
be our dreams. Thus mayest thou pray without
ceasing, not in words, but by the whole conduct of
thy life, so uniting thyself to God that thy life is one
long, unceasing prayer.'
It was perhaps the greatest advantage of the
monastery that there, if anywhere, continuity in
prayer was possible. ' The undistracted life ' 2 provided
ample opportunity for a close communion with God
in prayer and worship. In the quiet life of solitude
' we overcome our former manner of life in which we
neglected the commandments of Christ, and so have
power to eradicate the stains of sin by ceaseless
prayer and constant attention to the will of God ; for
we cannot hope to apply ourselves to such con
templation and prayer amid the many things which
distract the mind by leading it to worldly cares '.3
Basil tells us that it is possible for the monk with his
constant round of prayer and meditation ' to imitate
on earth the choruses of the angels '.4
Assiduity in prayer is achieved through the practice
of the presence of God, ' by being fully certain that
God is before our eyes. For if when we see a prince
or ruler, and converse with him, we keep our eyes
fixed upon him, how much more shall he who prays
to God keep his mind fixed upon Him who searcheth
1 Cf. Reg. Brev. 32.
2 6 ourcpiairaaTos /3tos. Cf. Reg. Brev. 34, De Ren. I.
3 Reg. Fus. 6. i. * Ep. 2. 2.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 61
the heart and reins, and so fulfil the Scripture, " Lifting
up holy hands without fear and doubting." ' l
It is perhaps surprising that Basil does not in his
instructions make some mention of the duty of inter
cession. In modern times we have come to think of
intercessory prayer as one of the chief functions which
the monastic community is able to fulfil. We can only
suppose that Basil treated this subject in the ' unwritten
rules ' 2 which he is said to have delivered by word of
mouth to his monks. In his Letters he frequently
asks his friends to remember him in their prayers,
both in private and public. There is one Letter
which is of special interest in this connexion, where
Basil asks an assessor of taxes to exempt some monks
from the general taxation. He pleads their poverty,
and also adds, ' Men living such lives you will, I know,
regard with special reverence ; nay you will wish to
secure their intervention, since by their life in the
Gospel they are able to prevail with God.' 3
Another passage is perhaps worth quoting : 'Be"'
mindful therefore of God,' he writes. ' Keep the fear
of Him in your heart and enlist all men to join with
you in your prayers, for great is the aid of them that
are able to move God by their importunity.' 4
Among the hermits of the Desert this desire for
continuous prayer had led to strange excesses. The
task was indeed beyond the limits of human capacity.
The individual worshipper, however great might be
1 i Tim. ii. 8 ; Reg. Brev. 201.
2 Cf. Greg. Naz. Orat. 43, 34 vojjioOcoiai novaarlav Zyypcupoi TC KOI
aypa<f>oi.
3 Ep. 284; cf. Praev. Inst. Asc. i. * Ep. 174, To a widow.
62 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
his devotion, could not entirely disregard the needs
of his physical nature. Accordingly we find that when
monastic communities were formed various schemes
were devised by means of which some such laus
perennis should be practicable. Gregory of Nyssa
tells us that in the convent over which Macrina
presided there was a perpetual sequence of prayer
and praise.1 But this perpetuity was by no means
a general rule. The Pachomian monks, for example,
had their fixed hours of common prayer, though
each individual was left free to continue his private
devotions at his own discretion.
Basil also, while encouraging and indeed demanding
private prayer, orders that there shall be certain defi
nite times at which the community will assemble for
Divine service. No doubt it is true that ' for prayer
and praise all times are fitting', and that even 'in the
midst of our work we can fulfil the duties of prayer ',2
yet none the less ' we must not neglect the appointed
times of prayer which we have chosen for the brethren'.3
Further, the services are to be varied as much as
possible so as to avoid inattention.
We are told very little as to the actual form of
these services, though we can infer that they con
sisted of psalms, prayers, and readings4 from Scripture.
Suitable persons are to be chosen to lead both the
singing and the prayers.5 Each service is to have its
own peculiar significance and associations.
1 Vita S. Macrinae, Op. iii. 970.
2 Reg. Fus. 37. 2. 3 Ibid. 3.
4 Cf . Horn, in Ps. lix rd 0€ia \uyia . . . KaQ' ticaarov avA\oyov vwava-
5 Reg. Brev. 307.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 63
Basil's account of the times of prayer which the
monasteries are to observe is of no small interest, and
is well worth translation.
1. ' Each hour of prayer brings its own special
remembrance of God's benefits to us. We must pray
in the early morning, in order that the first motions
of the soul and mind may be dedicated to God, and
that we may take nothing in hand until we have been
gladdened by the contemplation of God, as the Scrip
ture says, " I remembered God and was glad," 1
nor apply ourselves to any work until we have done
that which is written, " Unto thee will I make my
prayer, O Lord. My voice shalt thou hear betimes.
Early in the morning will I direct my prayer unto
thee, and will look up." 2
2. 'Again at the third hour prayer is to be made
and the brethren assembled, even though they be
already dispersed to their various tasks. For, remem
bering the gift of the Holy Spirit which was given
to the Apostles at the third hour, we must all
worship together with one accord, in order that we
too may be worthy to receive His sanctification. And
we must also ask for His direction and instruction
according to our needs, as the Psalmist says, " Make
me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit
within me. Cast me not away from thy presence, and
take not thy holy Spirit from me. O give me the com
fort of thy help again, and stablish me with thy free 3
Spirit." 4 Or again, " Let thy loving Spirit lead me
1 Ps. Ixxvii. 3 (LXX). 2,.Ps. v. 4-5.
3 LXX, Trvevfjiari rjyffjioviKw. 4 Ps. li. 12, 13.
64 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
forth into the land of righteousness." 1 We shall then
return to our labours.
'And even though some few of the brethren be
absent owing to work, or their distance from home,
they must nevertheless perform without shrinking the
obligations of the community. " For where two or
three are gathered together in my name, there am I
in the midst of them." 2
3. '.At the sixth hour also we have decided that
prayer must be made, following the example of
the saints, as it is written, " In the evening, and
morning, and at noonday will I tell and proclaim;
and he shall hear my voice." 3 And that we may
be delivered from calamity and from the demon of
the noonday, let the ninetieth4 Psalm be recited at
this hour.
4. ' The ninth hour, too, is a fitting time of
prayer, as we learn from the Apostles in the Acts,
where it is said that Peter and John went up to
the temple " at the hour of prayer, being the ninth
hour ".5
5. ' Moreover, when the day is finished there must be
a thanksgiving for benefits received and good deeds
done during the day, and also a confession of sins.
And whether the fault be voluntary or involuntary, or
secret and forgotten, whether it be by word, or deed,
or in the thoughts of the heart, we must seek to appease
God for them all by our prayers. For an examination
of our past misdeeds is of great help to prevent us
1 Ps. cxliii. 10. 2 Matt, xviii. 20 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 143.
3 Ps. Iv. 1 8. * E. V. xci. 6 Actsiii. i.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 65
from falling once again into the same faults. Wherefore
it is said, " For what ye say in your hearts, feel com
punction upon your beds." 1
6. ' And again, as night begins, we must pray that
our rest may be blameless, and free from fantasies,
while at this hour also we repeat the ninetieth Psalm.2
7. ' That midnight also is a fitting time of prayer
is proved by the example of Paul and Silas, as is recorded
in the Acts, when it is said, " But at midnight Paul
and Silas were praising God." 3 And the Psalmist says,
" At midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee,
because of thy righteous judgements." 4
8. ' Again it is right to prevent the dawn by rising to
prayer, lest the break of day find us asleep in our beds,
as it is written, " Mine eyes prevented the dawn, that
I might meditate upon thy sayings." 5
' None of these times of prayer are to be neglected
by those who are resolved diligently to live for the
glory of God and His Christ. And I am of opinion that
diversity and variety in the prayers and psalms of the
appointed hours are useful, and for this reason, that
a want of variety often produces slothfulness in the
mind, so that it becomes inattentive,6 while by changing
and varying the psalms and the reading 7 at each office
our fervour may be rekindled and our attention
renewed.' 8
No less than eight separate services are mentioned as
being obligatory for the monk under all circumstances.
1 Ps. iv. 4 (LXX). 2 E.V. xci. 3 Acts xvi. 25, ad sens.
* Ps. cxix. 62. 5 Ps. cxix. 148.
6 dffi?5{? fj fax?) «at dironfTcupi^erai. 7 rov ircpl tKaarrjs upas \6yov*
8 Reg. Fus. 37. 3-5.
66 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
We shall see that, in the order in which they are
presented, they correspond to Prime, Terce, Sext,
None, Vespers, Compline, Nocturns and Lauds. It
is something of a surprise to find such explicit
mention of the Canonical Hours at this early date,
and Basil's account of these services calls for careful
investigation, as being of great value for the history
of the Divine Office.
1. In the first place we have what apparently is
a reference to Prime. This has been much disputed,
and some would see in Basil's words merely a description
of Lauds. Further, Cassian claims that he himself
was the first to introduce the service of Prime.1 But
in that case it is hard to see why we should here have
two separate accounts of one and the same meeting
for morning prayers. It is more probable that Lauds
was an adjunct of the night office, and that the monks
were allowed a few hours rest after it. But in order that
they should not sleep on until Terce, another service,
namely Prime, was inserted. We cannot argue from
Basil's quotations that Pss. v and Ixxvii were recited
at this office.
2. The express reference to the Holy Spirit in the
account given of Terce is to be noted. It was more
usual to associate the Passion of Christ with this hour.2
But Basil prefers to mention that at this hour the
Holy Spirit was given to the Apostles,3 and so all are
1 De Inst. Coen. iii. 4 ' hanc matutinam . . . canonicam functionem
nostro tempore in nostroque monasterio primitus institutam. '
2 Cf. Canons of Hippolytus, 27 ' quia illo tempore Sal vat or
voluntarie crucifixus est.' Baumer, Gesch. des Breviers, p. 52.
3 Cf . also Cyprian, De Or. Dom. 34 ' super discipulos hora tertia
descendit Spiritus sanctus.'
THE MONK AT PRAYER 67
to worship together with one accord, that they may
be found worthy of the Spirit's sanctification. As the
great defender of the Godhead of the Holy Spirit, he
is the more insistent upon this point. Any service in
which special honour was paid to the Third Person of
the Trinity would be of special value in those days
of controversy.
3. With regard to the sixth hour, or Sext, we have
again to observe that there is no reference to the Cruci
fixion,1 but the Psalms are quoted in support of the
practice of noonday prayer. It is interesting to note
that Basil makes use of the reference to the ' demon
of the noonday ' in the ninety-first Psalm, which he
orders to be recited both at this hour and at Compline.
4. At the ninth hour, or None, the example of the
Apostles Peter and John is quoted to prove the ancient
observance of this hour as a time of prayer. Again we
miss the association with the Death of Christ.2 It is
noticeable that Basil has three Day-hours. Others
made four, by dividing the midday office, and so com
pleted the Seven Hours.3
5. In the case of the evening prayers, or Vespers, we
have a much fuller notice. The service being of very
early origin needed no justification, and so Basil merely
gives us some idea of its actual contents. There is
1 Cf. Can. Hippol. ibid. ' quia ilia hora universa creatura pertur-
bata est propter facinus scelestum a ludaeis perpetratum.' Cf. also
(Pseud. Bas) Serm. Asc. i. 4 rj 5£ \vvo.rr] rov SeairoriKov iraOovs karl
3 Can. Hippol. ibid, 'quia ilia hora Christus oravit et tradidit
spiritum in manus Patris sui.'
8 Cf. Serm Asc. I. 5 eiretSfi <prjaiv 6 AajQi'S, cm 'ETTT&KIS . . . r
F 2
68 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
to be both thanksgiving and confession. The latter is
described in some detail, and it is perhaps possible to
detect the words of a formal confession-prayer.1
In the treatise on the Holy Spirit we have a further
reference to this service of Vespers. ' It seemed ', he
says, ' fitting to our fathers not to receive the gift of
the light at eventide in silence, but, on its appearing,
immediately to give thanks. Who was the author of
these words of thanksgiving at the lighting of the lamps,
we are not able to say. ' The people, however, utter
the ancient form, and no one has ever reckoned
guilty of impiety those who say ' ' We praise Father,
Son, and God's Holy Spirit 'V 2 Basil here shows
that in his day a hymn of some antiquity, men
tioning the Holy Spirit as Divine, was sung at the
service of Vespers. The practice of the Church thus
bears out the statement which was inserted into the
Creed that the Holy Ghost ' together with the Father
and the Son is worshipped and glorified'.
6. We now come to a much-discussed passage in
which Basil apparently refers to a service resembling
Compline and recited before retiring for the night. It
used to be asserted that until the time of Benedict the
office of Compline was unknown.3 But it is hard not
to see in this passage a description of some such
service, even though it may not have been in a very
highly developed form.4 It is quite probable that
1 ciTf fftovffiov, fire attovaiov, fire irov KOI \av0avov KT\.
1 De Spiv. Sanct. 73.
3 e.g. Batiffol, Hist, of the Roman Breviary, p. 36. Baumer, op. cit.,
p. 178.
4 Cf. Pargoire, Rev. d'histoire et de literature religieuse (1898)'
THE MONK AT PRAYER 69
Basil was the first to introduce this office,1 and that
Benedict in later days gave it a formal liturgical
character and arrangement. It is not unlikely that
the office of Compline originated from the primitive
custom of reciting a prayer before sleep.
We note that Basil orders the recitation of the
ninety-first Psalm, which is also included by Benedict
in his service of Compline. The petition for deliverance
' from fantasies ' is to be found in the hymn used at
this service in later days.2
7. Basil next mentions the midnight prayers, or
Nocturns, quoting the example of Paul and Silas, and
giving a reference to Psalm cxix. 148.
On the general subject of night prayers he thus
writes in a letter to Gregory : ' What dawn is to some,
midnight is to athletes of piety ; then the silence of
night gives leisure to their soul ; no noxious sounds
or sights intrude upon their hearts ; the mind is alone
with itself and God, correcting itself by the remembrance
of its sins, recalling holy precepts as a help against evil,
and imploring aid from God for the fulfilment of its
yearnings.' 3 But he gives us no information as to
the actual composition of the midnight service. In
another letter,4 however, written in the year 375 to
the clergy of Neocaesarea, he gives an account in
some detail of the way in which his own people of
in. 281-88, 456-67. Vandepitte, ' Saint Basile et 1'origine de com
plies,' Rev. Augustinienne (1903), n. 258-64.
1 It cannot be proved that Pachomius ordered it in his Rule ;
cf. however, Besse, op. cit. p. 345.
' Procul recedant somnia et noctium phantasmata. '
3 Ep. 2. 6. * Ep. 207. 3.
70 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
Caesarea under his direction conducted their vigils.1
c Now as to the charge (i. e. of innovation) relating
to the singing of psalms, whereby my calumniators scare
more especially the simpler folk, my reply is this. The
customs which here obtain are agreeable to those of all
the Churches of God. Among us the people go at night
to the house of prayer, and in distress, affliction, and
continual tears, making confession to God, at last rise
from their prayers and begin to sing psalms. And now,
divided into two parts, they sing antiphonally with
one another, thus at once confirming their study of
the Gospels, and at the same time producing for
themselves a heedful temper and a heart free from
distraction.2 Afterwards they again commit the prelude
of the strain to one, and the rest take it up ; and so,
after passing the night in various psalmody, praying
at intervals as the day begins to dawn, all together, as
with one heart and voice, raise the psalm of confession 3
to the Lord, each forming for himself his own 4 expres
sions of penitence.'
The midnight office of the monks would doubtless
be modelled upon the practices of the Vigil thus
portrayed.
But it is easy to see that in Basil's writings we have
clear signs of the emergence of the three Night-hours,
Vespers, Nocturns, and Lauds, from the primitive
all-night Vigil. Otherwise we should not have had
separate mention of the meetings for prayer to be
1 Cf. also Horn, in Ps. cxiv. for an account of a night spent in
prayer by the people. 2 TO aptrtupiOTov.
3 Ps. li. 4 No set formula, contr. Vespers.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 71
held respectively at evening, midnight, and early
morning.
8. In the account of Lauds there is little that
requires comment, except that special attention seems
to be called to the very early hour at which the service
was held. Prime is the morning service which inaugu
rates the work of the day, whereas Lauds is to be said at
a time when the day has not yet dawned. It is possible
also to see in one of Basil's Letters a reference to these
two services. He there writes : 'What state can be more
blessed than to imitate on earth the choruses of angels ?
to begin the day1 with prayer, and to honour our Maker
with hymns and songs ? Then, as the day brightens,2
to betake ourselves, with the constant accompaniment
of prayer, to our labours, and to season our work with
hymns, as though with salt ? ' 3
We can now leave the discussion of Basil's treatment
of monastic prayers. It could be wished that he had
left us more definite information on this subject, though
he has given us enough to see the influence which
monastic requirements exercised upon the formation
of the Divine Office.
It is hardly necessary to state that for Basil prayer
is not confined to petition. Thus he frequently asserts
the need for meditation, ' in which the mind ascends
to the contemplation of God.' 4 The private reading
of Scripture is recommended as a devotional exercise.
' The study of Holy Scripture is the chief way of
1 cvOvs fjifv apxofjifvrjs rj/J-epas (is
2 flra fj\iov xaQapus Sia\&f^avTOs.
3 Ep. 2. 2. * Ibid.
72 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
finding our duty, for in it we find not only instruction
as to right conduct, but also the lives of the blessed
saints which are set before us as breathing images of
godly living, that we may imitate their good works.
Hence, in whatever respect each one feels himself
to be deficient, by devoting himself to the imitation
of such men, he finds, as from some dispensary, the
due medicine for his ailment.' l It was for this
purpose, no doubt, that the M or alia, or Gospel Ethics
were composed. We learn also that the novice was
required not merely to read Scripture, but to learn
passages from it by heart, ' that he may have full
assurance in his piety, and may not form his conduct
according to the traditions of men.' 2
We are not told by Basil whether the monks had any
other reading. It is very doubtful, indeed, whether
he would have addressed his Homily Ad adolescentes ,
delegendis libris Gentilium, to his monks, even though
he there makes the remark, with regard to Socrates,
' Where conduct, as in this case, is so much on a level
with Christian conduct, I maintain that it is well worth
our while to copy these great men.' 3 While it is
quite possible that the monks had their appointed
times of sacred study, yet the idea that the monas
tery should ' promote divine learning ' is nowhere
made prominent in Basil's ascetic writings. Scrip
ture is regarded as providing a practical rule of life,
and is to be obeyed rather than investigated.4 Yet
it is important to remember that Basil and his
1 Ep. 3. 2 Reg. Brev. 95. 3 Chap. 5.
4 Cf. Reg. Brev. 235 d avptytpti iro\\d tKnavOavtiv c
THE MONK AT PRAYER 73
friend Gregory in their monastic retreat composed the
Philocalia, or selection from the writings of Origen,
a work requiring a high degree of learned and careful
study.1
Besides meditation frequent reference is made to
the duty of thanksgiving, and we know that it
formed a considerable element in the prayers and
praises of the monastic offices. Basil has also a Homily
on the subject,2 while in his M or alia he gives reasons
from Scripture to prove that ' we should not keep
silence as to God's benefits, but should give thanks for
them '.3 In his Longer Rules he affirms that the
Apostolic command ' to give thanks in everything '
is proved by both reason and experience, and that
the various hours of prayer are so many occasions
of thanksgiving.4
But joined together with the duty of thanksgiving
is the need for frequent confession of sin. A general
acknowledgement of transgressions was made, as we
have already seen, both in the morning and evening.
But such confession was by no means adequate for
all cases. Thus Basil lays down that ' the monk is not
to conceal his sins from his brother or from himself.
' Every sin must be made known to the superior,5
either by the sinner himself, or by those who know of
1 Cf. R. T. Smith, p. 24 : ' Origen was the most suggestive
writer upon Bible subjects then accessible ; certainly not the author
who would have been chosen if the friends had been losing their
intellectual vigour or spirit of free inquiry in a dull asceticism.'
2 De Gvatiavum Actione, Op, ii. 4.
3 Mor. 55. 2.
* Reg. Fus. 37. 3. 6
74 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
/it, if they cannot themselves apply a remedy, accord-
jing to the commandment of the Lord. For the evil
• that is kept secret is like some hidden sickness in the
soul. As then we should not consider it a kindness if
some one were to fasten up a deadly disease in our
body, but rather be grateful to any one who would,
even at the cost of a painful operation, expose the
disease, and so either expel it by an emetic, or
discover some other means of remedy. In the
same way to conceal a sin, is to help the sinner to
his death. For it is written, " The sting of death
is sin." 1 And " Better is open rebuke than secret
love." 2 Wherefore, a man should neither hide his
sin from his neighbour, lest he become his brother's
murderer instead of being his friend, nor indeed from
himself. ' For he who doth not amend his ways is
brother to him that destroy eth him.' 3
Confession, however, is not to be made to any one at
random, and great care must be exercised in the choice
of a confessor.4 ' For just as men do not expose their
diseases to every one, but only to those who are skilled at
applying remedies, so also confession of sins should be
made to those who can give a remedy, as it is written,
"Ye that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the
weak," that is, to remove them by your diligent care.'5
Elsewhere in the Rules it is laid down that ' sins are
to be confessed to those who have been entrusted with
1 i Cor. xv. 56. 2 Prov. xxvii. 5.
3 Prov. xviii. 9 (LXX).
4 When the sisters make their confessions an elder sister is always
to be present. Reg. Brev. no.
5 Rom. xv. i ; Reg. Brev. 229; cf. Reg. Fus. 26.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 75
the dispensation of the mysteries of God.1 For so those
who were repentant are found to have confessed their
sins to John the Baptist ; and in the Acts, to the
Apostles, by whom they had all been baptized.' 2 It
has been remarked that ' this passage is noteworthy as
being the most explicit evidence in favour of sacramental
confession preserved for us in the monuments of primi
tive monastic tradition.' 3 There can be no reasonable
doubt that Basil expected such confession to be made
to priests. The reference to * the dispensation of the
mysteries ' and to the sacrament of baptism would
seem to be quite conclusive. The prevailing practice
of the Church in his day was that when confession \
was made to an individual it should be made to either
a bishop or a priest. That the clergy who were to hear
confessions should be chosen with extreme care is only
what we should expect. On the other hand there is
some evidence to show that in certain quarters confession
to other than priests had been allowed and encouraged.
Clement of Alexandria, for example, does not confine
the power of hearing confessions to the priesthood,
but to the 'gnostic', or 'pneumatic'.4 Origen also
insists very strongly upon the necessity of ~a ' skilled
physician' for the healing of the soul, though his
testimony in this matter is far from conclusive.5 And
it does not follow that Basil would care to imitate the
precedent set by Clement.
1 Cf. i Cor. iv. i. 2 Reg. Brev. 286. 3 Besse, op. cit., p. 209.
* Cf. Quis dives salvetur, c. 41 ; Strom. 6. 13, &c.
6 Cf. Horn. ii. in Ps. xxxvii ' eruditum medicum ' and ' satis
perito medici illius consilio ' ; but contr. Horn. ii. in Lev. c. 4
' cum non erubescit sacerdoti Domini indicare peccatum suum.'
76 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
Nor was there any reason why the monks of Cappa-
docia should copy this peculiarity of the Christian
gnostics of Alexandria. We have already shown that
monasticism, as adopted for the Church by Basil, was
not, as had been the case with Montanism, a ' pneumatic '
movement.1
The existence of a charismatic ministry, entitled
to hear confessions and pronounce absolution, in
the Basilian monastery, requires further evidence than
has yet been brought forward.2 The common prac
tice of the Church favoured sacerdotal absolution,
and the monks would be most unwilling to incur
a reputation for irregularity in their administration
of the sacrament of penance.3 The practice which
arose in the Eastern Church in later times that monks,
whether in priests' orders or not, might hear the con
fessions of the people was due to an exaggerated
reverence for the monastic order, and does not prove
anything as to the practices observed by the monks
of Basil's day within their monasteries.4
There must have been some few priests available,
1 v.s., p. 2g.
2 Holl, in his Enthusiasmus und Bussgewalt beim griech. Mdnch-
thum, pp. 264 f ., argues for the existence of such lay-confessors. But
his arguments are not convincing and are vitiated by his erroneous
conception of Basilian monasticism. Although the Monastic Con
stitutions more than once speak of ' the spiritual brotherhood ',
rj TrvfVfjLciTiK}) dSeX^oTT/s, Kotvuvia, or avvcupfia, yet such expressions never
occur in Basil's authentic works.
3 Jerome says plainly that the power of the keys distinguishes
the priest from the monk. Ep. 14.
4 Marin, Les Moines de Constantinople, p. 96, shows that in early
days the superiors were almost invariably priests. It is probable that
Basil intended his superiors to be in priests' orders, for he ordained
his brother Peter and set him over the community by the Iris.
THE MONK AT PRAYER 77
not only for sacramental confession, but also for the
celebration of the Eucharist. There are not many
references to the Eucharist in the Rules, but there
is enough evidence to show that the monks did not
neglect the sacrament. Thus Basil discusses the question
' With what fear, or with what assurance, or in what
frame of mind ought we to partake of the Body and
Blood of Christ.' 1 He also lays down the rule that there
is to be no celebration in private houses.2
But elsewhere he speaks more definitely of the value
and necessity of the Eucharist for the Christian life.
In the Moralia he is at some pains to collect the pas
sages from the New Testament which bear upon this
question.3 And in one of his Letters 4 he shows plainly
with what great reverence he regarded the sacrament,
and how much he valued frequent participation. The
Letter is also valuable as showing us the custom of
the Egyptian solitaries in this matter. Basil writes
as follows : ' It is good and beneficial to communicate
every day, and to partake of the holy body and blood
of Christ. For He distinctly says, " He that eateth my
flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life."5 And
who doubts that to share frequently in life, is the same
thing as to have manifold life. I, indeed, communicate
four times a week, on the Lord's day, on Wednesday,
on Friday,6 and on the Sabbath,7 and on the other
1 Reg. Brev. 172 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 309.
2 Reg. Brev. 310 ct XP% tisKowbv olnov -npoffKOfj.i5^v ( = dva(j)opa.v}'yiv€aOai.
3 Mor. 21. * Ep. 93. 6 John vi. 34.
6 The ' Station days ' ; cf. Tertull. De Oratione, 14.
7 Cf . Apost. Constit. vii. 27, &c. Duchesne remarks that the Synaxis
of Saturday was peculiar to the East. Cf. Christian Worship, p. 232.
The Pachomian monks received communion on Saturdays, v.s., p. 39.
78 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
days if there is a commemoration of any Saint. It is
needless to point out that for any one in times of
persecution to be compelled to take the communion
in his own hand without the presence of a priest or
minister is not a serious offence, as experience and
long custom sanction such conduct. All the solitaries
in the desert, where there is no priest, keep the com
munion at home and there partake of it themselves.
And at Alexandria and in Egypt, each one of the laity,
for the most part, keeps the communion at his own
house, and partakes of it when he wishes/
Thus we see that, though the monk was a mystic in
the sense that his one great desire was for union with
God, yet his mysticism did not lead him to neglect
the ordinary means of grace as used by the Church
at large. In the monastic scheme both prayer and
sacrament 1 could find their rightful place.
1 With regard to the Liturgy of St. Basil it is difficult to decide
in what exact measure it is the work of Basil himself, and the ques
tion does not concern a discussion of his Ascetica. Brightman, in
his Eastern Liturgies, pp. 522, 525, gives some interesting parallels
between the Liturgy and Reg. Fus. ii. 3-4, a passage on the reasons
for our love of God.
CHAPTER IX
THE MONK AT WORK
IDLENESS is a charge that has very frequently been
brought against the monk. It is therefore important
to notice that the duty of work is most strongly
insisted upon by Basil in his monastic instructions and
recommendations. Although, as we have seen, the
life of the monk is to be quiet and without distraction
from the outside world, yet it will demand a certain
degree of strenuous activity. It is not the aim of the N
Christian athlete to live a life of ease and repose, but
of vigorous training and toilsome exercise. Thus Basil
says, ' All excuse of idleness is excuse of sin : for we
must manifest our zeal, as also our endurance, even
unto death. And it is plain from our Lord's own
words that the slothful man is convicted of wickedness,
as well as sloth, for He says, " Thou wicked and sloth
ful servant ".' l
' We have no need to speak of the great evil of
idleness, for the Apostle plainly asserts that " he who
does not work, neither shall he eat ". As then each of
us requires his daily sustenance, so also he must work
according to his strength.' 2
The hejrnit Q£ the desert had been inclined to
7 1 Matt. xxv. 26 ; Reg. Brev. 69.
2 2 Thess. iii. 10 ; Reg. Fus. 37. 2.
80 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
consider work as either a mortification of the flesh, or
a necessity imposed upon him solely by his own bodily
requirements. In either case it was merely a self-
regarding obligation. Anthony, however, had set the
example of work undertaken from other and higher
motives— the duty of providing hospitality for visitors,
and above all of ministering to the poor. Basil also
adopts a similar attitude towards work.
' Work,' he says, ' is to be undertaken, not merely
for the sake of keeping the body under subjection, but
from love of our neighbour, in order that through us
God may provide a sufficiency for those of the brethren
who are in want, after the manner set forth by the
Apostle in the Acts, when he says, ' ' In all things
I gave you an example, how that so labouring ye
ought to help the weak." ' x
Further, although the Gospel bids us take no
thought for the necessaries of life, we are not on that
account to desist from all work. ' For both our Lord's
words and those of the Apostle teach us that we are
not to take thought for ourselves, or to work merely
for ourselves : but by our Lord's own command it is
right and fitting to take thought for the wants of our
neighbour, and so to work with greater diligence.' 2
' For thus we shall not be accused of self-love, but shall
obtain the blessing of the Lord, who says, " Inasmuch
as ye did it unto one of these my brethren, even these
least, ye did it unto me." ' 3
The demands made upon the monk's time by prayer
and devotion are to be fully satisfied, but not at the
1 Reg. Fus. 37. i. 2 Reg. Brev. 207. 3 Reg. Fus. 42. i.
THE MONK AT WORK 81
expense of work. The day is to be so ordered that both
work and prayer may have their proper place. They
are not, however, prohibitive of each other.
' Since under pretext of prayer or praise men are
wont to avoid their work, it must be known that,
although with regard to certain matters the saying of
the Preacher, " To everything there is a season," l is
true, yet for prayer and praise, as for many other
things, all times are fitting. For while our hands are
engaged in work, we may with our voices, if it be
possible, or rather if it serve to the edification of the
faith, sing praises to God ; or if not, we may praise
Him in our hearts with " psalms and hymns and
spiritual songs ",2 and thus in the midst of our work
fulfil our duties of prayer.' 3
But granted the necessity and the desirability of
work, the next question to be asked is, what kinds
of work, what trades and professions, are most suitable
for the monk. The general rule is laid down that only
those occupations are to be allowed which do not
interfere with or distract the ordered quietude of the
monastic life. Their materials must be easily procur
able, and their products such as may be sold without
undue trouble, so that it will not be necessary for the
monk to come into frequent or harmful contact with
either men or women in the outside world.4
The labour of the Basilian monk was to be ' pro
ductive ', in the sense that it was to minister to the
wants of the community or the needs of the poor, and
1 Eccles. iii. i. 2 Col. iii. 6.
3 Reg. Fus. 37. 2. 4 Reg. Fus. 38.
82 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
not to the luxuries of the individual. In every kind
of work the same rule of simplicity, utility, and cheap
ness must hold good. Thus we find that weaving and
shoe-making are only to be pursued for the sake of
providing such apparel as is absolutely essential.
Building, carpentering, smith's work, and agriculture
are spoken of with favour, as being necessary to the
conduct of life, and are not to be rejected except when
they are the cause of disturbances among the brethren,
or interfere with the regular life of the community, by
keeping them from their prayers and other religious
exercises. Agriculture is specially recommended in
that it provides the necessaries of life, and does not
involve long journeys from one place to another.1
Basil and Gregory, when in Pontus they first em
braced the monastic life, gave themselves to manual
labour, and in particular to agriculture. Gregory recalls
to his friend's mind their struggles with c the garden
which was no garden and had no vegetables ', and
complains that his neck and hands still bear the traces
of their labours which they endured in drawing ' that
mountainous wagon'.2 But as numbers increased and
a regular monastery was established by the bank of
the Iris, it would become necessary to arrange a proper
system of work for the members of the brotherhood.
We can gather what were the main principles of that
system from incidental references in the Rules.
It is interesting to notice that Pachomius also at first
gave himself to gardening and other forms of manual
labour, in order that the monks under his charge might
1 Reg. Fus. 38. 2 rfiv yfdu\o(pov cifjia£av, Greg. Naz. Ep. 5.
THE MONK AT WORK 83
keep their time entirely free for spiritual things. But as
his followers became more numerous he too was obliged
to organize the work of his communities. Thus we find
that there were various houses arranged according to
trades and presided over by masters who were respon
sible to the superior of the whole monastery.
The Pachomian community was thus a kind of labour
colony in which every variety of work was carried on.
But in these very large establishments it is possible
that the ' tendency to turbulence ' to which we have
already referred was in some degree a result of their busy
industrial life. Hence it is that Basil so strongly and
emphatically asserts that the labour of the monks
shall not be such as will endanger the devotional life
of the monastery. ' We must give the preference to
those occupations which do not disturb us, or pre
vent us from " attending upon the Lord without
distraction ".' l
In his choice of work the monk was not to be left
to the mere caprice of his own wishes. The virtue
of obedience, says Basil, is to be shown by a cheerful
acceptance of the allotted task. Even if a man be
specially skilled in some one craft, he is to put obedience
before all else and do the work that is assigned to him
by the superior.2 He is also commanded to keep care
fully any tools or implements which may be entrusted
to him, and to remember that although he has the use of
them, yet they are the common property of the brother
hood, and are consecrated to the service of God.3
1 i Cor. vii. 35 ; Reg. Fus. 38.
2 Reg. Fits. 41 ; Reg. Brev. 123, 142. 3 Reg. Brev. 143, 144.
G 2
84 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
So, too, with regard to women's work, the wool
which is used for weaving is to be regarded as a sacred
trust and impartially distributed to the sisters by their
superior.1
It is obvious that since work was obligatory upon
all, production must often have exceeded the simple
requirements of the community. The monks did
not consume all the fruits of their assiduous labour.
It became necessary, therefore, after due allowance
had been made for the claims of chanty and hospi
tality, to dispose of the surplus by sale. This would
naturally involve occasional contact with the outside
world. In the coenobitic life, however, the individual
member was relieved from this responsibility, inasmuch
as certain persons were officially appointed for the
purpose. Basil is very careful that all commerce shall
be under proper supervision. All goods are to be sold,
if possible, within the confines of the monastic settle
ment, even at the risk of some pecuniary loss. But
if it should be necessary to go outside, both customers
and markets are to be carefully selected. Those who
are chosen to sell the products of the community are
to lodge together and not to separate from one another,
that so they may be protected from association with
undesirable company, and may join together both by
night and day in their regular devotional exercises,
in spite of their absence from the monastery.2 The
fairs and markets which are held at the shrines of
the martyrs are to be avoided, and the monks are
not to assist in perpetuating such abuses, for our Lord
1 Reg. Brev. 153. 2 Reg. Pus. 39.
THE MONK AT WORK 85
Himself in great indignation cleansed the temple of its
traffic.1
In the conduct of the community life there was
opportunity for other labour besides that of the field
or the workshop. There was the obligation of service,
of domestic duties within the monastery, which would
afford occupation for a number of persons. The work
of the kitchen, of attendance at table, and other such
menial tasks, seem to have been undertaken by all the
brethren in course. Thus we read : ' In thy turn of
service, both by thy bodily toil and thy words of
comfort show thy love for those upon whom thou
waitest, that thy service may be acceptable, as being
seasoned with salt. Suffer not another to perform thy
task, that thy reward be not taken from thee and
given to another, and he boast himself in thy riches,
while thou art humbled. Perform all the duties of thy
service with carefulness and decency, as serving Christ.
For " Cursed be he that doeth the work of the Lord
negligently".2 And avoid, as if God Himself were
thine overseer, the careless neglect which proceeds from
arrogance and disdain, even though the task before
thee be but of small account. For serving is a noble
work, and will procure for thee the kingdom of heaven.
It is like a net, full of all the virtues, and containing
within itself every precept of God.' 3
Thus in the Basilian community work was essential
and obligatory, regulated and organized, dignified, and,
above all, unselfish.
1 Reg. Fits. 40 : cf. Reg. Brev. 152. - Jcrem. xlviii. 10.
3 DC Ren. 9.
CHAPTER X
VOCATION AND VOWS
IN any consideration of the monastic life we must
necessarily concern ourselves with such questions
as those of admission, profession, novitiate, and vows.
When once the rule of life and conduct has been
formulated, and a practical scheme of administration
and discipline evolved, the problem which next presents
itself is, on what terms may applicants be received,
and is such reception irrevocable, as involving
a lifelong obligation on the part of the individual
contracting. It must first be remarked that no one,
however fervent might be his desire to enter upon the
monastic life, was allowed to take such a step simply
and solely on his own responsibility. He was free to
become a hermit or solitary, whenever he wished, and
wherever conditions were favourable for such an
existence. But to become a monk, he must enter
a community, become a member of a body, and it
rested with the other members of that body to decide
whether he should be admitted or refused.
And so we find that Basil in his Shorter Rules pre
scribes that all the brethren are to be present at the
reception of the postulant. The superior has no
power to receive him without the knowledge and consent
of the community.1 But admission was a gradual
1 Reg. ttrcv. 112.
VOCATION AND VOWS 87
process, and required time for its completion. The
applicant had to be examined and to undergo a period
of probation before he could be admitted to full
membership in the brotherhood. In this preliminary
period there was much to be done : the novice must
become familiar with the routine of prayer and work.
He must also learn the full meaning of the renunciation
which he had made, and of the obligations which he
had undertaken in his adoption of the religious life.
In any early monastic endeavour such as that of Basil,
we shall be disappointed if we look for precise and
elaborate rules as to the character and duration of the
novitiate. Monasticism was still, to some extent, in
its experimental stage, and detailed regulations could
not as yet be formulated. Experience, however, had
decided that there should be a very strict investigation
followed by a considerable time of testing and pro
bation. Pachomius, for example, made it a rule that
all applicants must wait seven days as suppliants at
the door of the monastery, and endure a probation of
no less than three years. Basil tells us very little as
to the actual regulations for novices in the monasteries
of Cappadocia. He gives directions that applicants
are gladly to be welcomed. ' Since our Saviour Jesus
Christ has said, Come unto me, all ye that labour and
are heavy laden, and I will give you rest,1 it is dangerous
to reject those who desire by means of us to draw near
unto the Lord, and to take upon themselves His easy
yoke and the burden of His commandments which raises
us to heaven.' 2 But yet they are to submit to careful
1 Matt. xi. 28. 3 Reg. Fus. 10.
88 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
examination and a time of rigorous probation before
they can be received into the ranks of the brethren.
Inquiry must be made into their past life ; they are to
make full confession of their sins, and their vocation is
to be very carefully tested. If a man who has acquired
some distinction in the outside world desires to be
admitted to the monastery, he is to be given the most
menial tasks, in order that he may give full proof of
his humility. Only when he has passed all the tests
applied by such as are skilled in these matters is he
' to be included in the number of those who have
dedicated themselves to the Lord '.1
Basil lays down, as we have already seen, that the
novice is to learn by heart passages from the Holy
Scriptures, as a means of education and training.2 He
is also to keep silence,3 and only to do such work as the
superior approves.4 In this connexion it is interesting
to read what Basil advises in one of his letters,5 written
from Caesarea during his presbyterate :
' A certain man, as he alleges, on condemning the
vanity of this life, and perceiving that its joys are ended
here, since they only provide material for the eternal
fire and then quickly pass away, has come to me with
the desire of separating from the life of misery and
wickedness, being resolved to abandon the pleasures
of the flesh, and for the future to tread the road which
leads to the mansions of the Lord. Now if he is
firm and sincere in this truly blessed purpose, and has in
1 Reg. Fus. 10 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 107.
2 Reg. Brev. 95 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 235-6.
3 Reg. Fus. 13. 4 Reg. Brev. 105.
8 Ep. 23, entitled HapaOeriKr) npus p.ova^ovra.
VOCATION AND VOWS 89
his soul this glorious and laudable passion, loving the
Lord his God with all his heart, with all his strength,
and with all his mind, it is necessary for your reverence
to show him the hardships and distresses of the
straight and narrow way, and to establish him in the
hope of the good things which are as yet unseen, but
are laid up in promise for all that are worthy of the Lord.
I therefore write to entreat your incomparable perfection
in Christ, if possible yourself to mould his character,
so that, without any help from me, you may bring about
his renunciation as may be pleasing to God.
' See too that he receive elementary instruction 1 in
accordance with what has been decided by the Holy
Fathers, and set forth by them in writing. You will
take care also that all such things as are essential for
true discipline may be put before him, that so he may
be admitted to the ascetic life, having already of his own
free will entered upon the contests of piety. For thus,
having subjected himself to the easy yoke of the Lord,
and by his conduct imitating Him who " for our sakes
became poor " 2 and took flesh, he may run without
fail to the goal of his calling, and receive the approbation
of the Lord. Though he is anxious to receive here in
this place the crown of his love for God, yet I have
put him off, because I wish in conjunction with your
reverence, to train him 3 for such contests, and to
appoint over him as trainer4 him whom he may
select from among you. For such a man will exercise
him well,5 and by his constant and blessed care make
2 2 Cor. viii. 9. 3 dAeffeu avruv
° KO.\&S
90 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
him a tried wrestler, who will wound and overthrow
the prince of the darkness of this world, and the
spiritual powers of wickedness, with whom, as the
blessed Apostle says, " is our wrestling." l What I had
wished to do in conjunction with you, let your love in
Christ do without me/
This Letter is important, as showing the great pains
which Basil took that the vocation of each applicant
should be tried and tested, and that he should be
carefully grounded by some elder monk 2 in the duties
and requirements of the monastic life. Nor is this by
any means the only place where the need of training
for the novice is mentioned. In one of the Shorter
Rules, for example, Basil describes ' How those who
have laboured long in the work of God may help those
who have but recently entered upon it '.3 And in
his treatise On Renunciation he has a long passage
addressed to the novice, in which he says, ' If thou thus
give thyself to a man of many virtues, thou shalt be
come heir to the goodness that is in him, and thou shalt
be blessed above all others in the sight of God and man/4
On the termination of his novitiate the postulant
was to be admitted to the brotherhood after a formal
profession, and Basil gives orders that this profession
is to be made in the presence of reputable witnesses.5
The reception of the new brother is to be an occasion
for joyous thanksgiving and fervent prayer.6 When
the youth who has been educated in the monastery
1 Eph. vi. 12.
3 The choice is left to the applicant himself.
3 Reg. Brev. 200. 4 DC Ren. 2-4.
0 Reg. Fus. 15. 4. 6 Reg. Brev. 212.
VOCATION AND VOWS 91
makes his profession Basil requires that among the
witnesses of his reception there shall be certain ' chiefs
of the Church '.*• Are we to suppose, then, that the
clergy played a part at this solemn function ? It is
quite possible that Basil wished to have the official
sanction of the Church conferred upon the act of
profession through which the novice was said to
' dedicate himself as an offering to God '.2 It would
seem that the ceremony began with a series of questions
which were put to the novice, after which he made his
profession in set terms by word of mouth.3 Hence it is
probable that a definite formula was used.
In reply to the question, ' What kind of profession
should those who wish to live together the Godlike
life demand from one another ? ' the answer is thus
given : ' That which the Lord has appointed for all
them that would draw near to Him, saying, " If
any man would come after me, let him deny himself,
and take up his cross, and follow me." ' 4 These words
may very well have constituted the actual formula of
reception to which the novice was required to give
his assent.
We have now to consider the character and implica
tions of the monastic vow. Did Basil intend it to be
merely a temporary engagement, revocable at the
wish of him who made it, or was it not rather to be an
irrevocable and lifelong obligation ? His opinion on
the subject is clear enough. In his Longer Rules we can
1 TOW? irpotffTuras TWV tKK\rjffioaf. Reg. Fus. 15. 4. a Ibid.
3 Ep. 199. Can. 19. 6fio\oyiav evapyf].
4 Matt. xvi. 24. Keg. Brcv. 2.
92 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
read his decision ' Concerning those who have devoted
themselves to God, and then try to set aside their
profession '. ' Any one/ he says, ' who has been
received into the brotherhood, and then sets aside his
profession, must be regarded as sinning against God
Himself, before whom and to whom he has made his
vows in profession ; even as it is said, But if a man
sin against the Lord, who shall entreat for him ? 1 For
he who has given himself as an offering to God, and
then betakes himself to another kind of life, is guilty
of sacrilege, by stealing away himself, and so robbing
God of His offering. On such a man the brothers will
do right to close their doors, even if he return for
shelter after only a short absence. For the rule of the
Apostle is plain, which bids us separate ourselves from
him that is disorderly, and have no company with
him, that he may be ashamed.' 2
It is often asserted that Basil introduced the practice
of irrevocable vows into the monastic life.3 It would
certainly seem that he did his utmost to render the
obligation contracted by the monk or nun as binding as
possible, and that he is conscious of introducing a new
rigour into the practice of the Church in this matter.
We have only to read his Canonical Letters together
with the passage above quoted to be convinced that
this is so. Whatever earlier Fathers of the Church
may have decreed from kindness and compassion, the
1 i Sam. ii. 25. 2 Reg. Fus. 14.
3 So De Broglie, Helyot, Bulteau, and Montalembert. R. T.
Smith, op. cit.y p. 223, takes the same view. Blomfield Jackson,
however, doubts whether ' Basil's rule included formal vows of
perpetual obligation in the more modern sense ', St. Basil, p. lii.
VOCATION AND VOWS 93
virgin, says Basil, ' is to be regarded as the bride of
Christ, and a chosen vessel dedicated to the Lord.'
If, therefore, she breaks her vow, she is to be punished
as though convicted of adultery.1 This principle is ex
tended to men also.2 In the early days of monasticism,
however, before the intervention of the State, it would
be difficult to enforce such vows. But yet every
thing is done to impress upon the monk the fact that
before God his vow is inviolable. He is bound by the
laws and enactments of the Church, by the force of
public opinion, and by his own conscience, even though
the arm of the law cannot reach him. And indeed so
far as the monastery itself was concerned, the vows made
by the monk at his profession could not be recalled.3
As we have already seen, inclusion in the monastic
order involved renunciation, continence, and sub-
\ mission to authority. It is true, then, to say that it
\\ necessitated poverty, chastity, and obedience.
A certain degree of ' stability ' was also required
\ of the monk. Basil lays down that he is not to leave
the community into which he has been received, except
for some very good reason. If, for example, the evil
conduct of the brothers in the monastery renders the
practice of virtue impossible, he has the right to go
elsewhere. But before he does so, he is to open the
eyes of the guilty brethren, and more particularly of
the superior, to the peril of their case. In the event
of such warning being of no avail, he leaves the society,
' not of brethren, but of strangers.' 4
1 Ep. 199. 18. 2 Ibid. 19. 3 Reg. Fus. 14.
4 Reg. Fus. 36; cf. Matin, op. cit. pp. 126-7.
94 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
When once the monastery has been entered, the monk
is kept closely confined within its precincts. Egress is
only possible with the express permission of the
superior,1 and only those monks are to be allowed
to leave the monastery whose character is above all
suspicion. They are to travel in companies, that they
may the better avoid the temptations of the outer
world. As they journey, they are to recite the psalms
and prayers prescribed by their rule.1 On their return,
they are to be closely questioned by the superior as to
the experiences they have met with on their travels.
The example of the Apostle Peter, and of Paul and
Barnabas, who gave the Church of Jerusalem an
account of their doings, is quoted in justification of
this requirement.2
Thus the monk is to have as little contact as pos
sible with the world and its affairs. Even his own
parents and relations are not to be allowed to visit
him.3 No one is to converse with the brethren, ' unless
we are assured that his conversation is for the edifica
tion and perfection of the soul/ He is only to be
answered by those monks who are specially chosen for
the purpose.4
The impression produced by these stringent regula
tions, as also by the irrevocable ' intention ' of profession,
is that Basil wished it to be understood by the monk
himself, by the Church, and by the world at large,
that the adoption of the monastic life was a matter
of the utmost conceivable seriousness.
1 Reg. Brev. 120. 2 Reg. Fust 39; Reg. Brev. 311.
3 Reg. Fus. 32. i. 4 Ibid. 2.
VOCATION AND VOWS 95
In fact the monk was to be a man who would ' take
seriously ' both his religion and his vocation. Rome,
it has been written, ' died laughing.' *• But early
monasticism was so deeply impressed with the wide
prevalence of sin and misery in the world that it was
compelled to take a very solemn view of life. Thus Basil,
who himself possessed a very keen sense of humour,
gives the order : ' Seeing that our Lord has condemned
them that laugh, it is quite plain that for the faithful
no occasions of laughter are permissible, more especially
since there is such a multitude of those who through
their transgression of the law dishonour God, and by
their sins give themselves over to death. For such
men we should mourn and lament/ And elsewhere
he reminds us that although our Lord Himself was,
as very Man, susceptible to all human emotions, yet
we are nowhere told that He ever laughed. Joy, but
not laughter, is the characteristic of the Christian. In
accordance with this idea the Eastern monks in later
days are often spoken of as ' penitents '.2 Monasticism,
indeed, was an attempt to re-awaken a proper serious
ness and sense of responsibility in human life and
conduct.
1 Salvian, De Gubernatione Dei, vii. 24 ' populus Romanus moritur
et ridet.'
2 (AtravoovvTes. Cf . Benedict, Regula, xlix ' omni tempore vita
monachi Quadragesimae debeat observationem habere ', ' the life of
a monk ought at all times to have about it a Lenten character.'
CHAPTER XI
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES
IT is needless to say that monasticism was never
thought of as being a matter which concerned men
only, but rather as including women, and, in some
degree, children within its scope. Christianity had
done much for both women and children, and the
monastic movement could not leave them out of account.
In fact Gibbon, when he wishes to sneer at monasticism,
says that its influence ' acted most forcibly on the
infirm minds of children and females'. But in the
same paragraph he mentions that the movement was
recruited from ' millions, of either sex, of every age,
and of every rank ', so that his criticism is not really
worth considering.1 The fact is that the monastic
ideal was independent of sex, and, to a large extent,
of age as well.
And so we find that Basil's monastic regulations
and admonitions apply equally well to both men and
women. In the Longer Rules we have also some
mention of the relations which are to exist between
the two sexes in their separate endeavours to lead the
religious life, while reference is made to the opportunities
provided by the monastic community for the education of
children. Some of the Shorter Rules are concerned with
1 Decline and Fall, chap, xxxvii.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 97
women only, but their recommendations are not in
any way contrary to the regulations for men.
Basil, it is to be remembered, was induced to adopt
the religious life by a woman, his sister Macrina, so that
he was not likely to underestimate the monastic value
of womankind. And in some sense it can be main
tained that woman was first in the field with regard to
the celibate and definitely religious life. Before the
custom of addicting themselves for religious purposes
to an unmarried life had made much progress in the
Christian Church among men, it was already in
vogue amongst women. In the first three centuries
we find frequent mention of virgins in the Church,
though they did not form a distinct ' order ' until
early in the fourth century. The order of virgins
was singled out for special attack by the Emperor
Julian in his persecution of the Christian Church.
His assault, however, did not permanently affect the
popularity of the institution ; for in Basil's second
Canonical Letter we read that ' by God's grace the
Church grows mightier as she advances, and the order
of virgins is becoming more numerous '.l It seems, how
ever, that there were still many such women who lived
amongst their families and friends without any other
obligations than that of chastity, though there was
a gradual tendency towards incorporation into com
munities. The life of the monastic sisterhood offered a
more complete seclusion than was possible amid a secular
environment. Hence we find that there were many com
munities of women in Egypt. The sister of St. Anthony
1 Ep. 219. 19.
H
g8 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
presided over one of them, and Pachomius, at Taben-
nisi, allowed his sister Maria to establish a convent
of nuns on the opposite bank of the Nile. Discipline
was sometimes a serious difficulty amongst these
sisterhoods. Palladius tells us how Dorotheus, the
superintendent of a convent, used to sit at an upper
window from whence he could see the inmates and stop
their quarrellings.1 The female followers of Eustathius,
Bishop of Sebaste, gave great offence to the Church
by their behaviour, while what we may call the ' Strange
Case of Glycerius and his Virgins ', of which we read in
Basil's Letters, is not by any means an edifying story.
A very different picture is presented by the convent
which Macrina, Basil's sister, had founded at Annesi.
St. Gregory of Nyssa has left us a very glowing account
of Macrina and her nuns. Her community included
her widowed mother, Emmelia,2 the family servants,
and many women from the best families in Cappadocia
and Pontus. Her young brother, Peter, the future
Bishop of Sebaste, was brought up in the solitude of
this retreat.3
It was Macrina also who persuaded Basil to found his
monastery on the opposite bank of the Iris, and the two
separate but adjacent communities became the model
for his monastic regulations. He had no intention of
instituting any form of ' double monastery ', and he is
most careful that, in their relations with the monks, the
1 Laus. Hist., chap. 32.
2 It is to be noted that the convents of women were recruited
both from virgins and widows. Even married women might be
admitted with the consent of their husbands. Reg. Fus. 12.
3 Vita S. Macrinae, Op. iii. 971.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 99
sisters should be under very strict supervision. But
yet the women are not to be deprived of the advantages
afforded by the spiritual ministrations of men. Pacho-
mius had been no less careful in this matter of sex,
and had ordered that the waters of the Nile must flow
between his monastery and Maria's convent. Basil
too_was separated from his sister by the river Iris, but
his directions are in some respects less stringent than
those of Pachomius. He gives orders, however, that "
the monks are not to converse singly with the sisters.
There must never be less than two persons on either side,
nor more than three.1 'All occasion of offence must"-
be avoided, and the concourse must be such as serves
to the edification of faith. Reason itself tells us that
it is not fitting for one person to converse singly with j
another. For it is written, " Two are better than one," 2
and indeed more trustworthy. " And woe to him that
is alone ; for if he falleth, there is none to raise him
up.'"3
It was sometimes necessary to entrust certain monks
with the temporal interests of the nuns. This task, how
ever, was only to be given to men of advanced years,
of tried character, and of grave aspect, who could
' dispense their words with judgement '.4
The superior himself must always exercise the greatest
discretion. He must never on any account enter into
any conversation, however edifying, with a nun with
out the presence of her own superior.5 His interviews
1 Reg. Fus. 33. 2 Eccles. iv. 9.
3 Ibid. v. 10 ; Reg. Brev. 220.
* 2teg. Fus. 33. Cf. Reg. Brev. 154. • Reg. Brev. 108.
H 2
ioo ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
with the superior of the convent are to be as short and
infrequent as possible.1 He is not to override her
authority by his directions. If he does so, she has
every right to complain.2 The great care which Basil
took that the relations between the monastery and the
convent should be above all suspicion is exemplified
in his enactment that when a sister makes her confession
one of the elder sisters must be present.3 That there
was need for such caution is obvious, especially when
we consider that monasticism was still on its trial,
and must be most careful of its reputation with both
Church and world. But yet Basil insists that the
monastic vocation is open to women no less than men,
and that the adoption of the monastic life by certain
of the women of his country is a matter for deep thank
fulness. In a Letter to the Clergy of Neocaesarea he
thus writes :
' And if women also have chosen to live the life of
the Gospel, preferring virginity to marriage, leading
captive the lust of the flesh, and living in the mourn
ing which is pronounced blessed, they are blessed
in their choice, in whatsoever part of the world they
may be found.
' We, however, have few instances of this to show,
for with us people are still in an elementary stage
and are being gradually brought to piety. If any
charges of disorderliness are brought against the life
of our women, I do not undertake to defend them.
One thing, however, I do plainly assert, and that is,
1 Reg. Brev. 109. 2 Reg. Brev. in.
8 Reg. Brev. no.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 101
that these men, with their shameless minds and
unbridled tongues, are ever in their fearless audacity
uttering what Satan, the father of lies, has never yet
dared to say. But I would have you know that we
rejoice to have assemblies of both men and women,
"whose conversation is in heaven," "who have crucified
the flesh with the affections and lusts thereof." They
take no thought for food or raiment, but ever remain
undisturbed beside their Lord, continuing night and
day in prayer. Their lips speak not of the deeds of
men, but they sing hymns to God without ceasing,
working with their own hands, that they may have
to distribute to them that need.' 1
It would be difficult to find a more eloquent eulogy
of the monastic life, as it applies both to men and
women, than is here set forth.
With regard to children and their education it will
be best to give Basil's own words on the subject, and
then add any comments which may be necessary.
In the Longer Rules the question is raised as to the
age at which professions should be received, and inci
dentally a good deal of information is given us about
the educational work of the monastery : ' Sinte our
Lord has said, " Suffer the little children to come unto
me," 2 and the Apostle praises him who from a babe
had learned the sacred writings,3 and orders us to
bring up our children " in the nurture and admonition
of the Lord",4 we are of opinion that every age, even
the very earliest, is suitable for their admission. And
1 Phil. iii. 20; Gal. v. 24 ; Ep. 207. 2. z Mark x. 14.
3 2 Tim. iii. 15. * Eph. vi. 4.
102 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
thus such children as have lost their parents we adopt
of our own free will, being desirous, after the example
of Job, to become fathers to the orphans. But those
who are under the authority of their parents we admit
in the presence of many witnesses, so as not to give
occasion to those that seek an occasion against us, but
rather to stop the mouth of them who speak evil of us.
And they are to be admitted in the following manner.
They will not be received at once into the membership
of the brotherhood, lest they fail in their purpose and
so bring reproach upon the life of piety. We shall train
them rather in all godliness, as the common children of
the brotherhood, assigning them, whether they be boys
or girls, separate lodging and a separate table. In this
way they will not show undue boldness or assurance
before their elders, but rather, by not often meeting
with them, will preserve a due respect for them. Nor
when the elder members of the brotherhood are punished
for the neglect of their duties, as may sometimes happen,
will the juniors be the more prompted to sin, or feel
that secret pride in their hearts which may very likely
come from seeing elder men fail where they themselves
have succeeded. For he that is young in mind is no
different from him that is young in age. And so it is
not to be wondered at if the same sins are often to be
found in both old and young. Nor is it right that those
things which older men may do with propriety should
prematurely and improperly be attempted by the young,
as the result of too frequent intercourse with their elders.
' And indeed, for this reason, as well as for the preserva
tion of the general discipline, it is advisable that the chil-
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 103
dren and the regular monks should be housed separately.
For so the monastery will suffer no disturbance from
such sounds as may arise from the training and
teaching of the young. But the prayers which we have
appointed to be said by day will be common to both
children and elders. For children often feel compunction
when they see the zeal of their elders and betters,
while these may receive no slight help in their prayers
from little children. But in matters of sleep, vigils,
times of meals, quantity and quality of food, it is
fitting that the children should have their own rules
and customs. And let a monk, well advanced in years,
and of greater experience than the rest, who has given
proof of his powers of patience, be set over them, so
that he may by his fatherly kindness and instructive
discourse correct the faults of his young pupils, applying
to each offence its proper remedy ; for thus the fault
will be duly punished, while at the same time the soul
will be trained in habits of obedience. ' Examples of such
punishments, made to meet the crime, are then described.
Basil next proceeds to give an outline of the course
of studies to be pursued : ' The study of letters must
also be such as befits the end in view. The children
will become familiar with the words of Scripture, and
instead of fables, they will be told true stories of mar
vellous deeds, and be instructed in the wise sayings
of the Book of Proverbs.1 Prizes will be offered for
1 Cf . Miss Hodgson, Primitive Christian Education, p. 20 : ' Mr.
Quick once called the Book of Proverbs an " early treatise on
education " ; and unusual though the view may be, there is much
in that wonderful collection of wise sayings to recommend the
remark as just and justifiable '.
104 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
those who can best remember both words and subjects,
that our end may be attained with ease and pleasure
to the children, and without any pain or unpleasantness.
' Those who are educated in this way will soon become
attentive, and acquire habits of concentration, if they
are constantly asked by their teachers where their
attention is, and what they are thinking about. For
youth, by reason of its simplicity and innocence, and
of its incapacity for falsehood, will readily confess the
innermost secrets of the heart. And thus, in order
to avoid frequent detection in wrongdoing, the child
will refrain from foolish thoughts and will constantly
recall his attention from them, because he fears the
shame of public reprimand.' l
The discussion upon education here ends, and the
further question of profession is introduced. When
the children have attained to years of discretion,2 they
are to decide whether they wish to embrace the monastic
life. They are to be under no compulsion in the matter,
but are to make their own decision. If they wish to be
professed, their profession must be made in the presence
of creditable witnesses. At the same ceremony also those
who have no desire for the monastic life will be solemnly
dismissed.3
On the general subject of education Basil was well
entitled to give an opinion. According to his friend
Gregory, he was a most learned and accomplished
scholar. ' His galleon was laden with all the learning
1 Reg. Fus. 15. 1-3.
2 In the case of girls, at the age of sixteen or seventeen, Ep.igg.i8.
3 Reg. Fus. 15. 4.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 105
attainable by the nature of man.' l His earliest educa
tion had been undertaken by his grandmother Macrina.
He had then gone to school at Caesarea, and had passed
from thence to the University of Athens. He was
afterwards invited by the people of Neocaesarea to
take charge of the education of their young, and he
tells us himself how he refused their eager solicitations.2
It is therefore a fact of great significance that such
a man should have seen in the monastic community a
powerful medium of Christian education.
It is to be remembered that the Church was not the
only educational force in the time of Basil. Of the
Roman Empire of that day the remark is true that
' Grammar schools were to be found everywhere, and
every township of any importance possessed also
teachers of rhetoric \3 Julian, in his propaganda
against Christianity, drew attention to the fact that
Christians did not always receive a specifically Christian
education. He passed an edict forbidding Christians
to teach ancient literature, unless they first proved
their honesty and piety by sacrificing to the gods.4
' This edict was to produce one or both of two results,
either young Christians must grow up without classical
education, which was not likely to be their choice, or
they must go to the schools of the heathen, who would,
if they did their duty, give them a bias towards
Hellenism/ 5 It would seem that Basil was quite
content that the youth in his monasteries should be
1 Orat. 43. 24. 2 Ep. 210. 2.
3 Bigg, The Church's Task under the Roman Empire, p. 4.
4 Julian, Ep. 42.
5 Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century, p. 69.
io6 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
brought up without any kind of classical education.1
x Their instruction was to be moral and scriptural,
but no mention is made of the ancient Greek literature.
This is the more surprising when we remember the
tone of his Homily on pagan literature,2 and his own
exceptional proficiency in classical learning. We can
only say that, in his ardent devotion to the monastic
cause, he seems to have set himself in complete revolt
against both the education and morals of the day. And
we have also to remember that the scholars in his
monastery schools were either orphans whose education
was undertaken from motives of charity,3 or in many
cases children who had been admitted in order that they
might be trained with a view to the monastic life.
In the latter case it was perhaps natural that pagan
learning was omitted from the curriculum. It is,
however, a matter for deep regret that the education
advocated by Basil should have been so severely
and exclusively scriptural. Some years later we find
St. Chrysostom writing to a Christian father as to
the relative advantages of the public school and the
monastery as places of education. He acknowledges
that a classical training is of some value, and that both
philosophy and rhetoric may be put to good use, while
he also admits that for the Christian scholar the society
of his equals in rank and fortune may often prove highly
beneficial. But at the same time he most strongly insists
that there are other and more important questions to be
considered. The true father is he who cares for his son's
1 Cf. Reg. Brev. 292 ef XP') ^ aScA^or^Tt iraiStcov PIQJTIKWV civai
Si5daKa\ov. 2 Op. ii. 22.
3 It was a free education ; cf. Reg. Brev. 304.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 107
soul. Though parents are right in desiring that their
sons should excel in intellectual attainments, yet they
are not worthy of the name of parent unless they also pro
vide for the moral education of their children. ' We may
choose one of two alternatives, the public school and
proficiency in worldly knowledge, or the solitude of the
monastery and the edification of the soul. If the two
things could be united, I should much prefer it, but
as this cannot be, let us see that we choose the more
precious.' 1 It was the fear of the bad moral influence of
pagan literature which tended to alienate the minds
of serious Christians from such studies, and the Fathers
of the Church were more anxious for the purity of faith
and morals than for the cultivation of literature.
As to the pedagogic methods which Basil recom
mends, there is little that calls for comment. It is
interesting, however, to note that great stress is laid
upon the need of attentiveness 2 in the pupils, just as
inattention was also to be carefully guarded against
in the devotions of the monk.3 Further, it is possible
that the insistence upon proportionate punishment4
and the offering of prizes as a stimulus to industry are
a reflection upon the harsh punishments in vogue in
the public schools of the day.5
Whatever was the educational value of the monastic
school at this time, there can be but little doubt that it
1 Adv. Oppugnatores Vitae Monast. iii. 12-13.
- 6 TOV /jir) fjUTeupifccrOai eOiff^s.
3 Reg. Brev. 201-2 TO ap.erf(i)piarov.
4 Cf. Reg. Fus. 53 and the similar system of punishment for monks
in Reg. Fus. 51 and Reg. Brev. 81. v.s., p. 55.
5 Cf. Ausonius, Ep. 22, and Chrysostom, Horn, in i Tim. vi.
io8 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
must have formed an important recruiting-ground for
the monastic movement. Many of the children who had
been thus educated in the monasteries would be attracted
by the quiet devotional life of the monks, and would
desire to be professed.
We have now seen how monasticism included both
women and children within its scope. But besides
being independent of sex and also, very largely, of age,
it showed itself to be superior to all class distinctions.
Both ' bond and free ' 1 were to be admitted to the
monastic life. Yet the reception of slaves must often
have raised questions of great difficulty. In his treat
ment of the problem Basil adopts the same line as
St. Paul had taken with regard to the slave Onesimus.
Thus if a runaway slave presents himself at the
monastery gates, he is to be admonished and sent
back to his master with a recommendation to mercy.
As a general rule slaves are not to be admitted without
their masters' consent.
But there may arise occasions when the obligations
of morality and the service of Christ take prece
dence of duty towards an earthly master. ' If the
master is a bad man, and gives an order which is
contrary to law, and so compels the slave to break
the commandments of his true Master, our Lord
Jesus Christ, we must endeavour that the name of
God be not blasphemed through the performance by
the slave of some action which is displeasing to God.
And we shall do this either by encouraging the slave
to bear patiently whatever punishment may fall to
1 Col. iii. ii.
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES 109
him for ' obeying God rather than man ' ,l or by
assuring those who have received him that the trials
which they may endure because of him are well-
pleasing to God/ 2 The monastic movement, while it
allowed the slave, under certain conditions,3 to avail
himself of the religious life, must also have helped to
lighten the lot of such slaves as were compelled to remain
with their masters. It is probable that the monastic
life, with its insistence upon the universal duty of
manual labour, did much to raise the position both of
the working man and the slave. And we can feel sure
that Basil felt the same horror for the institution of
slavery which is expressed in the words of his brother 1
Gregory, ' How can any one buy and sell him who has
been made in the image of God ? ' 4 When the Eastern 1
monk showed himself to be the friend of the slave he
was acting according to the true spirit of Christianity.5
1 Acts v. 29. 2 Reg, Fus. u.
3 Mutual consent was also required in the case of married persons.
Reg. Fus. 12.
4 Greg. Nyss. Horn, in Eccles. ii. 7.
5 The Eastern monasteries, unlike those of the West, never
themselves owned slaves ; cf. Theodor. Cantuar. Poenitentiale,
viii. : 'Graecorum monachi servos non habent, Romani habent.'
CHAPTER XII
FOOD AND CLOTHING
THOUGH the monk, as a true Christian, was not to
be over-anxious as to food or raiment, we find that
a good deal of attention is paid to these subjects in
most ascetic and monastic writings. And indeed the
question was one of no small importance. If any degree
of asceticism was to be attempted, it was necessary that
both the quantity and quality of food and clothing
should be carefully regulated in accordance with ascetic
principles. Hence we find that in Basil's Rules there is
frequent mention of these matters. But his directions
are one and all actuated by his ideas as to the place
and value of ascetic practices in the monastic life. In
Basil's scheme the monk did not live to abstain, but
abstained to live. He subordinated the physical to
exalt the spiritual. In other words, asceticism, as we
have already had frequent occasion to affirm, was a
means, not, an end.
With regard both to food and clothing it is ordered
that the monks must be guided by the principles of
necessity, utility, and simplicity.1 Both self-indulgence
and ostentation are to be avoided, and the mean is
carefully to be observed. While excessive abstention,
1 Cf. Reg. Brev. 70 TTJS xP'n0*0** T" Utrpov T) airapairrjTos dvayrcrj rrjs
FOOD AND CLOTHING in
such as was often practised by the Fathers of the Desert,
is deprecated, an austere frugality is recommended.
Yet Basil's directions in these matters, as in all others,
are characterized by great breadth of outlook. Fasting, I
for example, is not to be a matter of private enterprise,
encouraging competition, but an observance to be \
regulated by authority as best befits the welfare of the
whole community.1 In its purpose and meaning it is
to be regarded as an exercise of continence or a proof
of penitence, and not as a mere test of physical
endurance, or an attempt to gain merit.
If fasting be carried to such extremes as to make a
man unfit for the regular work of the monastery it
is to be condemned as being nothing better than
selfishness.2 In all questions of abstinence individual
circumstances are to be taken into account. ' There is
no one rule to include all who practise piety.' 3 Age,
health, work, must all be considered. The superior
is to see that each has his due share, and is to make
special regulations where necessary. Sickness and the
fatigue occasioned by overwork or long journeys
must be treated with leniency. Each is to receive with
thankfulness the food assigned to him.4
In response to the question ' Whether all such things
as are set before us are to be tasted ', the answer is
given : ' We must insist that for those who strive
after piety, continence, (or temperance), is indispensable
for the complete subjection of the body. For " Every
man that striveth in the games is temperate in all
1 Reg. Brev. 129, 138. 2 Reg. Brev. 128.
3 Reg. Fits. 19. * Reg. Fus. 19.
H2 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
things ".1 But that we may not be included amongst
the enemies of God, whose conscience is seared with
a hot iron, so that they abstain from meats, which
God hath created to be received with thanks by the
faithful, all things, as occasion offers, are to be tasted
by us. Thus all who see us will know that " unto the
pure all things are pure " 2 and that " every creature
of God is good, and nothing is to be refused, if it be
received with thanksgiving. For it is sanctified by the
word of God and prayer ".3 And the aim of continence
is best secured when we use the cheaper kinds of food,
and such as are necessary to sustain life, and so avoid
both the sin of gluttony and of eating for pleasure. . . .
Continence shows us the man who has died with
Christ, and has mortified his members which are upon
the earth. We know also that continence is the mother
of chastity, the friend of health, and the great conqueror
of all that hinders us from showing forth the fruit of
good works in Christ.' 4
We gather from the foregoing that eating is to be
regarded as a necessity and not as a pleasure, and that
food is to be sustaining but inexpensive. Elsewhere
we are told that those foods are to be preferred which
may be found close at hand, and can easily be prepared.
The example of our Lord is quoted, who fed the multi
tudes from such small supplies as the disciples could
procure ' in the desert place '.5
The object of food is to make us better workmen for
God.6 Excessive eating, no less than excessive absti-
1 i Cor. ix. 25. a Tit. i. 15. 3 i Tim. iv. 4-5.
* Reg. 1'us. 1 8. 6 Reg. Fus. 19. 2. b Reg. Brcv. 196.
FOOD AND CLOTHING 113
nence, will render the monk unfit for his work, and that
which was intended to sustain the body will prove to
be its destruction.1 In his Letters Basil gives us some
interesting details as to monastic fare. ' For a man in
good health bread will suffice, and water will quench
thirst ; such dishes of vegetables may be added as
best serve to strengthen the body for the exercise of
its functions.' 2 Grace is to be said before and after
meat. There must be a fixed hour for the repast when
all will assemble. One meal a day was apparently the
rule. Thus Basil writes : ' Let there be one fixed hour
for taking food, always the same in regular course,
that of all the four-and-twenty hours of the day and
night barely this one may be spent upon the body.' 3
At meals there was to be reading, which ' must be
listened to with greater pleasure than that with which
we eat and drink, so that our mind may seem in no
way to be distracted by bodily pleasure, but rather
to rejoice in the words of the Lord, even as he who
found them ' sweeter than honey and the honeycomb.' 4
Voracious eating is condemned, as being both an
offence to the brethren and also a transgression of the
Apostle's command, ' Whether, therefore ye eat, or
drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God.' 5
Though in his requirements Basil does not show the
same rigour as some of his predecessors, yet his ruling
in these matters cannot be described as lenient. No
doubt he was conscious that his practice was much
1 Reg. Fus. 19. 2. 2 Ep. 2. 6.
3 Ibid.; cf. Reg. Brev. 136. * Ps. xviii. n ; Reg. Brev. 180.
5 i Cor. x. 31 ; Reg. Brev. 72.
I
U4 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
less austere than that of the Egyptian or Palestinian
monks. ' In comparison with the perfect,1 he says,
' we are but children/ x Yet, when all allowances are
made, it cannot be said that his regulations are other
than severe.
A frugal meal once a day would seem to satisfy all
the demands of a rigorous asceticism. Experience
showed that such abstinence was for some of the
monks a great hardship. Although in the case of
Egypt it is not unreasonable to urge that the warm
climate made it possible to exist on very little food,
yet the Cappadocian winter can never have given much
encouragement to ascetic practices. Nor can it be
said that the native of Cappadocia or Pontus did not
know what comfort was, and so could easily dispense
with it. Basil's Homilies reveal a very different state
of things. Some of the monks and nuns were drawn
from the leisured classes, and the change from a life
of luxurious ease and plenty to the austerity and
extreme frugality of the monastery would often prove
to be a matter of some difficulty.
In this connexion it is interesting to read the long
diatribe against gluttony which occurs in the treatise
On Renunciation. From Adam onwards ' the cunning
snare of food ' has been the Devil's chief stratagem.
The man who eats secretly,2 and is addicted to
' snacks ' 3 is singled out for special reprobation. ' I
have seen many who were rescued from the power of
sin and restored to health, but not one of them was
a secret eater or a glutton. These either deserted the
1 Ep. 207. 2. * o \a0po(f>dyos. 8 fuitpq. ycvatt.
FOOD AND CLOTHING 115
life of continence, or endeavoured to remain undetected
amongst their brethren, where by their indulgence they
proved themselves to be the fellow-soldiers of the
Devil.' *
We learn from the Rules that the supply and dis
tribution of food was presided over by an official
specially appointed for the purpose. Though the
superior was the ultimate source of authority in all
other matters, yet in this department he delegated his
powers to the cellarer, or steward.2 Mention is made
more than once of this official, whose task was of no
small importance, inasmuch as he was responsible,
not only for the physical comfort, but also for the
temporal prosperity of the community. Directions are
given that he is not to exercise his powers arbitrarily,
but to do his work with a loving consideration for the
brethren, attending equally to the wants of all without
any suspicion of partiality.3 He is to be given an assis
tant who will take his place, should need arise.4 The
duties of the cellarer are not to be undertaken by the
monks in turn, as was the case with certain tasks of
less responsibility.5 Basil's description of the cellarer
is very closely followed by Benedict in his Rule.6
The office must have required a man who could
combine a high degree of business capacity with a
kindly and impartial sympathy for those under his
care. Such men, if they did their duty, would form
1 De Ren. 6.
2 6 7re/>t T& epyov rov Kf\\apiov. Reg. Brev. 147. 6 oiKovopwv Reg.
Brev. 149.
3 Reg. Fus. 34. 2. « Reg. Brev. 156.
5 Ibid. 6 chap. xxxi.
I 2
7
n6 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
at once an admirable example for the Church,1 and an
agreeable contrast to the officials of the imperial
government.
On the subject of clothing it is first to be noticed that
Basil decides in favour of a distinctive dress for the
monk. In doing so he could not claim to be original,
since some form of monastic habit would seem to be
as old as monasticism itself. And in Asia Minor the
monks of Eustathius were distinguished by ' the
coarse cloak, the girdle, and the shoes of untanned
hide ', as Basil himself tells us.2 In writing to his
friend Gregory he also gives us a description in some
detail of what he considers to be the proper clothing
for the monk. ' From the humble and submissive
spirit comes an eye sorrowful and downcast, appear
ance neglected, hair rough, dress dirty ; so that the
demeanour which mourners are at pains to assume may
seem to be our natural condition. The tunic should be
fastened to the body by a girdle, the belt 3 not going
high above the waist, like a woman's, nor left slack, so
that the tunic flows loose, like an idler's. The one aim
of dress is that it should be a sufficient covering alike
in summer and winter. As to colour, avoid brightness,
and in material, that which is soft and delicate. To aim
at bright colours in dress is to be like those women
who try to beautify themselves by giving their cheeks
and hair an unnatural hue. The tunic ought to be
thick enough not to want other help to keep the body
1 At the Council of Chalcedon it was ordered that every bishop
should appoint a steward for the management of Church property.
Can. 26.
2 Ep. 223. 3 Cf. Reg. Fus. 23 Uepl rrjs
FOOD AND CLOTHING 117
warm. The shoes should be cheap but serviceable. In
a word, what one has to regard in dress as in food is the
necessary/ 1 This agrees with what is said in the Rules,
though they are somewhat more moderate in tone,
possibly as the result of some years of experience. In
answer to the question, ' What is the modest apparel
prescribed by the Apostle ? ' Basil replies as follows :
' That which best and most properly answers to the needs
of each, and takes into account season, locality, persons,
and circumstances. For reason itself demands that
there should be different clothing in summer and winter,
and that the workman should not wear the same kind
of clothes as he who is not working, or the server as he
who is served, or the soldier as the civilian, or the man
as the woman/ 2
The monk is not allowed to have one garb for work
and another for show. The same clothing will serve
both for night and day. Since all the brethren
have one end in view, namely, the religious life, uni
formity in dress is desirable.3 In each monastery
there is to be an official whose special duty it will be
to dispense clothing to the members of the community.4
He is entitled to give out warm clothing if the rigours
of the winter so require. No member is allowed to
dispose with his old garments on his own authority.5
Clothing which is made of hair is only to be worn as
a penance.6 Basil makes the subject of misfits an
occasion for a short exhortation. ' If the garment is
1 Ep. 2. 6. 2 Reg. Brev. 210.
3 Reg. Fus. 22. 1-2. * Reg. Brev. 87.
6 Ibid. « Reg. Brev. go.
nS ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
too small or too large for the wearer, let him make
known his wants with becoming modesty. But if
his complaint be that it is too poor, or not new enough,
let him remember the words of the Lord, " The
workman " — and not every man — " is worthy of his
sustenance." l And let him ask himself whether he has
done any work which is worthy of the commandments
of the Lord, or of His promises, and then he will not ask
for other clothing, but will be anxious lest he is receiving
that which is beyond his deserts. For what has already
been said with regard to food must be regarded as
a rule in all things that concern our bodily needs.' 2
Elsewhere it is ordered that the monk is not to aim at
a becoming simplicity in his apparel.3
The picture of the monk with his ragged and dirty
habit, worn both by night and day, is very far from
attractive to the modern reader. But we have to
remember that this very unattractiveness had its uses.
It testified to the sincerity of the monk who was
content to discard all ornament and dispense with
every comfort as a protest against the luxurious habits
of the day.
We are told that the Emperor Julian by ' the affected
filthiness of his personal appearance ' wished to show
his admiration for the old philosophers.4 So too by his
dress and demeanour the monk was to be a living
advertisement for the Christian ' philosophic life '.
Thus Basil remarks in his directions as to the monastic
1 Matt. x. 10. 2 Reg. Brev. 168.
3 TO (VT(\f?) Iva. irpeirri aura).
* Pullan, Church of the Fathers, p. 266.
FOOD AND CLOTHING 119
\\
habit : t{ This peculiarity of dress is of great use, inas
much as it proclaims the wearer, and testifies to his
profession of the Godlike life. For indeed, those we
meet will require from us such behaviour as is congruous
with our habit. For improper or unseemly conduct is
not so noticeable in an ordinary individual as in one
who makes great pretensions. Thus when some common
or quite unknown person engages in street brawls, or
gives vent to bad language, or passes his time in
taverns, or misbehaves himself in some such way, no
one takes much notice, but regards these things as
merely the natural events of everyday life. But suppose
that a man who has undertaken the life of perfection
commits some small blunder, all notice it at once,
and reproach him with it, as it is written, " they will
turn again and rend you." l In this way the special
habit of the professed is in itself a means of education 2
for the weaker brother, since it keeps him from mischief
even against his will. And just as the soldier, the
senator, and others each have their own particular
uniform from which we can tell their rank, so also the
.^.Christian ought to have his own special dress/j It
would seem, then, that although the cowl could not
make the monk,4 it might help to keep him constant
to his ideal.
1 Matt. vii. 9. a ircuSaycafia TK Ian.
3 Reg. Fus. 22. 3. * v.s. p. 3.
CHAPTER XIII
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY
IN his material requirements the monk had not only
himself to consider. It was natural that from time
to time he should have visitors, while the poor would
be sure to come to him for help in their necessities.
Hence we find that hospitality and charity are ques
tions to which early monastic writers gave considerable
attention.
To the Oriental hospitality was not so much a virtue as
an instinct. To the Christian it was a duty sanctioned
both by the practice and precept of Holy Scripture,
being illustrated by the Old Testament, and directly
commanded in the New. To the monk it was an
obligation faithfully to be observed, but at the same
time regulated and controlled in accordance with
the monastic ideal of undistracted devotion to God.
Basil, as we might expect, attaches great importance
to a proper practice of hospitality. In the Moralia he
gives the Scriptural reasons why we should ' receive
guests with frugality and without disturbance '. Our
Lord used only five loaves and two small fishes when
He fed the multitudes, while He rebuked Martha for
her ' much serving '.* In the Rules he treats the
subject at some length. It is only necessary to give
1 Mor. 38.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY 121
the substance of his remarks. It must be noticed that
he is always most anxious for the reputation of his
monasteries. Visitors, for example, are not to go away
with an impression that the monks live in luxury.1 If a
guest does not care for the entertainment provided, he
need not come again. ' Suppose that a stranger comes to
us. If he is a brother, and leads the same life, he will not
object to having the same table. For he will only find
what he has left at home. . . . But if he is of the world,
he will learn from our deeds that which words could not
teach him, and will see a practical example of frugality
with contentment. He will go away with a recollection
of true Christian fare, and of poverty endured without
shame for Christ's sake. If, however, he is not thus
impressed, but is disposed to ridicule our doings, he
will not trouble us a second time.' 2
The entertainment of guests is the affair of the
community, and not of the individual. It is, therefore, -
necessary that the superior himself shall receive them.
In his absence another monk is to be chosen to fulfil
this duty. The superior will conduct the conversations
with the visitors, and will answer any questions that
they may ask. No brother is to be allowed to correct
the superior in his answers, but may make suggestions
to him in private.3 The arrival of a visitor is not to
interrupt the work or devotions of the monastery,
except in cases of the most urgent necessity.4 All
guests, whether monks or laymen, are to be invited
to share in the prayers of the community. The
1 Reg. Fus. 20. 1-2. 2 Ibid.
* Reg. Fus. 45. * Reg. Brev. 313.
122 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
only stipulation made is that they shall be c friends
of God '.l Monastic hospitality may not always have
been entirely disinterested, and the reception of
visitors would often prove an effective method of
propaganda. Thus in the Shorter Rules the question
is discussed ' Whether anyone who wishes to avail
himself of the monastery only for a short time, is to
be allowed admission ? ' Basil's decision is as follows :
'It is right to give him admission, even though the
result may be doubtful. For perhaps he will be
benefited by his short stay, as not infrequently
happens, and become completely enamoured of our
life, when he has made full proof of our discipline, and
has found it to be very different from what he had
suspected.' 2 In all ages the invitation to ' come and
see ' may often prove the most satisfactory refutation
of the opponents of monasticism.
Our Lord Himself has shown us that the highest
form of hospitality is to 'bid the poor, the maimed,
the lame, the blind '.3 From the very first the monk
recognized the duty of such care for the poor. He
claimed to lead the ' Apostolic life ', and both the teach
ing and example of the Apostles encouraged him in
his charitable intentions. It might of course be urged
that one who had vowed himself to poverty had
nothing to give, but the great object of his renunciation
had been that it might enable him to ' give to the
poor '.4 The needs of the brotherhood and its various
communities had, of course, to be considered, but they
1 Reg. Brev. 312. a Reg. Brev. 97.
3 Luke xiv. 13. * Mark x. 21.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY 123
were not the only consideration. We have already
noticed, in our discussion on monastic labour,1 that
Basil requires the monk to work, not merely as a cure
for idleness, but also ' that he may have whereof to give
to him that hath need '.2 The monk was not to escape
the ordinary obligation of the Christian to deeds of
charity, but rather to make his love of the poor a proof
of his great devotion to God. The Church had already
set him a grand example in her practice of almsgiving,
and the poor were still, no doubt, the ' Altar of the
Church '.3 But yet we find in Basil's Homilies many
signs of a tendency in certain quarters to neglect
this duty. He complains of the rich that ' they cover
the bareness of their walls with tapestries, and do
not clothe the nakedness of men. They adorn their
horses with rich and costly trappings, and despise their
brothers who are in rags/ 4 In fact his denunciations
are so severe that he has been claimed as a Socialist
who denied all rights of property.5 Though such a
claim is made quite wrongly,6 yet Basil's forcible
language does show that a strong reminder of the
duty of charity was needed. The monastery might
well seek to remedy the shortcomings of ordinary
Churchmen in this matter.
Further, the economic conditions of life under the
imperial administration always left a large scope for
private charity. And it would seem that in Basil's ^\
1 v.s. p. 59. a Eph. iv. 28 ; Reg. Fus. 37. i.
8 Polycarp, Ep. ad Phil. 4, of the widows supported by the Church.
4 Horn, in Divites, 4. 6 So Nitti, Catholic Socialism, p. 67.
6 Cf . Reg. Brev. 92 ; where he points out it is not the mere posses
sion of goods which is wrong but their abuse.
124 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
time there was more than ordinary necessity to come
to the help of the poor. Though free labour was largely
on the increase and there was a corresponding shrinkage
in the number of slaves, yet the condition of the working
classes was very far from prosperous. Taxation and
usury both sent their victims to swell the ranks of the
destitute. There was need of some exceptional effort
to remedy this state of things. The Emperor Julian
endeavoured to relieve the prevailing distress by means
of legislation, and converted Church custom into civil
law, complaining that humanity and philanthropy
were only to be found amongst Christians. Valens
also attacked the difficult question of taxation, but
the problem was beyond his powers. As bishop, Basil
had to undertake the care of the poor in his diocese,
and we frequently find him intervening in cases of
excessive taxation. In time of famine also he came
to the rescue of the distressed, so that Gregory calls
him ' a second Joseph \l But the ordinary diocesan
administration of relief was probably insufficient for
the mass of poverty which was everywhere to be found.
Hence it was to the monks, with their vows of poverty
and their obligation to charity, that men looked for some
help in the solution of this problem. The monastery did
r indeed offer one way out of the difficulty. To the rich
man who embraced the monastic life it gave an escape
from * the deceitfulness of riches ', while his money and
possessions could be devoted to a worthy cause. It is
probable that the insecurity of property at this time
would in some cases make the renunciation of worldly
1 Or. 43. 36.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY 125
goods less irksome. A man of business also might
welcome the peace and rest of a monastery after the
bustle and uncertainty of industrial life.1 To the
struggling working classes the monastery offered a
secure and quiet life such as they could not enjoy
elsewhere. To the slave, on the other hand, it could
give the opportunity for free labour, in addition to
the blessings of independence and social equality. But
all this presupposes the definite profession of the
monastic life. It may, therefore, be objected that the
monastic movement attempted to cure economic evils
by running away from them, and that the monk's
cell provided a last refuge for those who had ' despaired
of the state '. This is very far from the case. The
monastic movement, besides being in itself a social
experiment on strictly communistic lines, made an
honest endeavour to correct in the world at large the
results of an economic system which it could not alter.
The monasteries became recognized centres for the
distribution of relief. Nor was it always necessary to
embrace the monastic life in order to help on this social
work. The gifts and bequests of the faithful would be
welcomed gladly by the monasteries, who could dis
tribute them to those who were in real need. The
bishop 2 had hitherto been the official guardian of the
poor, but the monks were better able to give time and
1 Cf. Ep. 2. 2, on the trials of men in the world with their ' mis
fortunes in trade, quarrels with neighbours, lawsuits, the risks of
the merchant, the toil of the farmer. Each day as it comes darkens
the soul in its own way '.
2 The bishop's methods were too often those of the imperial
largesse.
126 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
care to the matter. We find that Basil lays down certain
definite principles which are to guide the monks in their
administration of charity. The individual monk was
not to be allowed to give anything to the poor on his
own responsibility. A special official was to be appointed
to preside over the distribution. There was to be
no indiscriminate giving, but carefully ' organized '
charity.1 Basil's words on this subject are worth
quoting, ' Since our Lord has declared that "it is not
good to take the children's bread, and cast it to the
dogs ", and yet has also approved the saying " even the
dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their master's
table ",2 the brother who has been appointed for the
purpose will distribute only after careful investigation.
And let any one who does anything contrary to his
decision be punished as disturbing the discipline of
the community/ 3
We can also gather what was Basil's teaching on
this matter from the letter of a friend, in which
4 the very godly bishop ' is described as uttering
the following sentiments : ' Experience is needed in
order to distinguish between cases of genuine need
and those of mere greedy begging. For whoever gives
to the afflicted gives to the Lord, and from Him shall
have his reward ; but he who gives to every vagabond
casts to a dog, a nuisance indeed from his importunity,
but deserving no pity for his plea of poverty.' 4
But besides the relief of the poor there was another
sphere in which Basil wished the monastery to show its
1 Reg. Brev. 101. 298. 2 Matt. xv. 26-27. 3 Reg. Brev. 100.
4 Bas. Ep. 1 50 : entitled ' 'A/-i</>tA.ox<V &s napa 'Hpaic\ci5ov.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY 127
usefulness, namely, the care of the sick. Basil himself,
as a chronic invalid, would have great sympathy with
such a work. In his youth he had acquired some
proficiency in medical science, and would so be able
to take a professional interest in the matter. In
his Longer Rules he is at some pains to prove that
4 the practice of medicine is in accordance with the aim
of piety '.1 Various arts and sciences, he declares,
have been given to man by God out of sympathy for
his weakness. Agriculture, for example, was granted
him to supply his bodily needs after the Fall. So too,
medicine was given to lighten the effects of his curse.
But medical treatment must be as simple as possible,
and only used when need so requires. We are not to
put our whole trust in medicine. Christ Himself some
times healed immediately, at other times mediately ;
so we also may be healed sometimes ' suddenly and
invisibly ', but at other times by material means.
Disease may be either a punishment or a temptation
at Satan's request. St. Paul was afflicted to prevent
him from being more than human, as is shown by the
incident of the Lycaonians.2 We must not think that
medicine is the prime cause of restored health, but
rather the goodness of God. But just as we use agri
culture, though it is God who ' gives the increase ',
so also though it is only God Himself who can heal,
we may still make use of the science of medicine.
We are not here concerned with the origin of hospitals
as charitable institutions for the reception of the sick
or infirm. It would seem that by the time of Julian
1 Reg. Fus. 55 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 140. * Acts xiv. 12.
128 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
the Christian Church was well known for her activities
in this direction, and the restored paganism was to
imitate ' the impious Galileans ' by the erection of
numerous hospitals.1 We possess a good deal of
information as to the hospital which Basil as bishop
built for his people at Caesarea. Gregory describes it
as ' the new city ' ,2 while Sozomen speaks of ' the
Basileias, that most celebrated hospice for the poor,
founded by Basil from whom it received the name which
it still bears '.3 We are also told by Gregory that Basil
himself frequently visited his hospital, and that there
were many lepers among its inmates.4 He received much
assistance from the monks who came to the support
of their bishop in this great charitable work. It would
seem that there were other such hospitals in his
diocese,5 and we know also that Eustathius had a
similar institution at Sebaste, presided over by Aerius,
the famous heretic.6 It is probable that from the very
first the monastery and the hospital were very closely
connected — no doubt to their mutual advantage. In
one of the Shorter Rules reference is made to the
care which was taken of the sick by the monks. Some
of the patients, it appears, were men of doubtful
character and inclined to be unruly. Thus the question
is asked, ' Since we who minister to the sick in the
1 Cf. Sozomen, EccL Hist. v. 16. Julian, Ep. 49.
2 Or. 43. 63. Ramsay, The Church and the Roman Empire, p. 264,
says that ' the new city caused the gradual concentration of the
entire population of Caesarea round the ecclesiastical centre, and
the abandonment of the old city '.
3 Eccl. Hist. vii. 34. * Or. 43 ; ibid.
5 Presided over by Chorepiscopi, Epp. 142, 143.
8 Epiphanius, Adv. Haer. 75.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY 129
hospital are taught to treat them as brethren of
the Lord, how ought we to treat one who is not
of such a character '. Basil briefly answers ' that
he is to be admonished by the Superior, and if he
persists in his evil conduct he is to be expelled from
the hospital '.1
From this short review of the charitable activities
of the Basilian monks we are justified in maintaining
that Basil did not mean the monastic life to be one of
devout selfishness. It cannot be said that the monk
was not intended to ' make himself either agreeable
or useful in this world \2 He was to be not only
the Christian gentleman,3 but also the Christian
philanthropist.
Finally, it is to be noticed that in the midst of such
zealous care for the material welfare of the sick and
poor, their spiritual needs were not forgotten. ' The
poor ' had ' the Gospel preached unto them ' 4 in this
re-awakening of Christian energies. The monk by his
freedom from worldly cares was well equipped for such
' apostleship '. Basil himself set an admirable example
in the matter, for we read that through his missionary
efforts ' in a short space of time the face of the
whole province was changed'.5 In fact the monastic
1 Reg. Brev. 155 ; cf. also Reg. Brev. 286, as to ' whether a sick
monk is to be received into hospital (tis £€vo8ox*iov) '. The Hospital
at Caesarea is spoken of as TO TTTojxorpo^fiov, with its jwvj^"?, cr chapel.
Epp. 150, 176.
2 Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap, xv, of the Early Christians.
3 v. s., p. 4. * Matt. xi. 5.
5 Rufinus, Eccl. Hist. ii. 9 ' Basilius Ponti urbes et rura circumiens
. . . ita brevi permutata est totius provinciae facies, ut in arido
campo videretur seges fecunda, ac laeta vinea surrexisse. '
K
130 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
movement was provided with every possible method
of evangelization. The education of children, the
exercise of hospitality, the relief of the poor, the care of
the sick, were all so many outlets through which the
quickening of the devotional life might make a lasting
impression upon the world at large.
CHAPTER XIV
CONCLUSION
WE have now briefly to consider the results of our
investigation. The first observation to be made is that
what seems to be the most striking characteristic of
Basil's scheme is its comprehensiveness. The monastic
ideal is set before us in all its fullness, and with all its
implications. Basil would have us see that the subject
is neither unimportant nor uninteresting. He himself
realized that the appearance of the monastic movement
was a matter of great moment for the Christian Church.
Hence in his writings he examines the whole question
of monastic theory and practice with great care. He
investigates the doctrinal basis of the monastic ideal,
and finds it to be scriptural both in origin and intention.
He fixes the centre of the monastic life in the religious
instinct, in the love of man for God, and the desire for
union with Him. The method for the attainment of
such union is the ascetic way of renunciation and
self-denial, involving also discipline and obedience,
work and prayer. The best environment for the
purpose is that of the community. The scope of
the monastic life includes all classes, both sexes, and,
in some degree, all ages. Its great obligations are not
to be undertaken without a most sure conviction of
vocation, while its principles extend to every depart -
K 2
132 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
ment of life and conduct, even to small details of food
and clothing. Further, the monastic ideal is social
in implication, and involves the exercise of both
hospitality and charity. We cannot but acknowledge
that this is a grand picture of the religious life in all its
varied activities which Basil sets before us. We have,
however, to ask the question, has it ever been realized ? /
The evidence. of history is ..at j&rst^ight. unsatisfactory.
Though Eastern monasticism is everywhere Basilian
in name and form, so that there are no separate
monastic orders in the East, and the modern Orthodox
monasteries are very little different from those of
the fourth century, yet in spirit it is, in most cases, very
far from the Basilian ideal. The Eastern monk would
seem to have reverted to the monasticism of the Fathers
of the Desert.1 There is much prayer and recitation of
immoderately long offices, and also much fasting, but
the claims of both industry and charity have been
neglected. Though monasticism holds a very important
place in the Orthodox Church, since all the higher
clergy are recruited from its ranks, yet it appears to be
stagnant and ineffective. The Eastern monk claims
that, like the great Father, he leads the Gospel life,2
but none the less he is not the power for righteousness
that Basil intended him to be. The fact is that the
monks of the East, while they have throughout
their history professed Basilian principles, and have
everywhere adopted, amplified, and interpreted his
1 Cf. Fortescue, The Orthodox Eastern Church, p. 354.
2 Ibid. p. 355 : ' They all follow the rule of St. Basil, but they
are indignant if one calls them Basilians. They do not belong to
St. Basil's order, they explain, but St. Basil belonged to theirs.'
CONCLUSION 133
Rule,1 have not been true to the whole of his teaching.
They have forgotten his warnings against laziness and
selfishness, and have failed to see with their master
that the monastic ideal is social as well as devotional,
practical as well as contemplative. It is lawful to
conjecture that, had they been more truly Basilian,
they would have done more for their Church, though it
would be difficult to maintain that she would have been
better without them.
But both West and East have felt the influence of
Basil. Benedict advises his monks to read ' the Rule
of our holy Father Basil ', and includes it amongst
' the instruments whereby well-living and obedient
monks may attain to virtue/ 2 And as we read Benedict
we see how much he owed to his predecessor in the
composition of his Rule. It was through him that Basil
proved to be ' a light ', not only of Cappadocia and the
East but also ' of the whole world '.3 And in a sense
it was the monks of the West who most fully carried
out Basil's ideals. Monasticism, like Christianity
itself, has had its origins in the East and its finest
developments in the West. The Western monks had
to apply Basilian principles to the conversion of new
nations. This saved them from a stagnation such as
befell their Eastern brethren. It was thus in the struggle
with the pagan barbarism of the West that the spirit
of Basil found its truest expression.
This is not the place to discuss at any length the
general question of the value of the monastic life, with
1 e.g. the Constitutiones of Theodore, and the Novellae of Justinian.
2 Regula LXXIII.
134 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
its mystical aim and ascetic practice. But it is necessary
in any treatment of a subject which concerns asceticism
to remember that what is not of value for all may yet
•J be of value for some. The Gospel theory of asceticism,
which Basil followed, was that the special renunciation
^/of the ascetic life is for him only ' who can receive it >.1
It is manifestly unfair to condemn the ascetic ideal
off-hand, merely because it is not capable of universal
J application.2 It need hardly be said that, if the race
of men is to continue, all cannot be monks or nuns.
But to argue, therefore, that no one ought ever to
embrace the monastic life is illogical and absurd.
y To regard monasticism as the only serious form of
Christianity is entirely foreign to the true Christian
spirit, and the attempt to force the ascetic ideal upon
^ the whole clergy of the Church was not only a failure
but a disaster. Yet we cannot on that account refuse
the monastic life a place within the Church. It is true,
indeed, that all real Christianity involves in some
degree the practice of asceticism, for the Gospel
teaches us that self-realization is achieved only through
self-denial and self-sacrifice.3 But that is not all. There
may be some who feel called to devote themselves
to the service of God, and find that such service is
only possible for them in the monastic life. There must
always be ' men of violence ' 4 who will take the Kingdom
of God by storm, when other methods are of but
1 Matt. xix. 12.
2 Cf. H. Black, Culture and Restraint, chap, viii, ' The Failure of
the Ascetic Ideal.'
3 Mark viii. 35 : ' Whosoever shall lose his life for my sake and
the gospel's, the same shall save it.' * Matt. xi. 12 (R.V.).
CONCLUSION 135
little avail. That there have been many such men and
women in the past, the history of monasticism plainly
shows. They have been saints whose example and
influence has leavened the whole Church. And we
cannot maintain that the need for them has passed
away. It is doubtful, indeed, whether any Church in
any age can dispense with the services of the monk.
Monasticism would seem to be a permanent element
in Catholic Christianity. The Church of England, in
particular, has been reproached with a cultivation of
the ' gentilities ' to the neglect of a deeper spirituality
and devotion. But the revival in this country of the
community-life has done much already to increase
devotion and to help on the work of evangelization.
There are some who tell us that the true salvation
of our Church lies in a proper concentration of her
energies, and that revival and reinvigoration can be
brought about only by such means.1 Monasticism
may then come to the aid of the Church, not merely
as an ascetic reaction against luxury and worldliness,
but rather as a serious attempt to provide certain
definite centres of enthusiastic devotion from which
the true Christian spirit of love and self-denial may
permeate both Church and nation. But by whatever
me:ns revival may come, if we are not once again to
close the doors upon enthusiasm, we shall need another
Basil to secure for it a welcome and a home within
our Church.
1 Cf. Hobhouse, The Church and the World in Idea and History,
pp. 15, 310, 340.
APPENDIX
A
Introduction to the Longer Rules.
i. BY the grace of God, in the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ, we who have set before ourselves one and the self
same end, namely, the life of piety, are met together in
one place. And while you indeed are plainly desirous
to learn somewhat of the things that pertain to salvation,
I for my part must proclaim the judgements of God,
remembering night and day the words of the Apostle,
' By the space of three years I ceased not to admonish
every one night and day with tears '.* And the present
time is most convenient for us, and this place provides quiet
and a release from the tumult of the outside world.
Wherefore, let us pray together one with another, both
that we may give to our fellow-servants their due measure
of seed, and that you who receive the word may, like the
good ground, bring forth the perfect and manifold fruit
of righteousness, even as it is written.2
I beseech you, therefore, through the love of our Lord
Jesus Christ, who gave Himself for our sins, that we now
take thought for our souls, that we lament the vanity of
our past life, and that we strive for the future to the glory
of God, and of His Christ, and of the holy and adorable
Spirit. Let us not remain in this careless ease, ever neglecting
through our slothfulness the present, and putting off to the
morrow or the far future the first beginning of our works,
lest, being found all unready with good works by Him
who demands of us our souls, we be cast forth from the joy
of the bride-chamber, weeping uselessly and in vain, and
1 Acts xx. 31. 2 Matt. xiii. 23.
138 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
lamenting our ill-spent life, when repentance can no longer
avail. ' Now is the acceptable time/ says the Apostle, ' now
is the day of salvation.' 1 This is the time of repentance,
that of reward : this of toil and labour, that of receiving
wages : this of patience, that of comfort. Now God is the
helper of such as turn from the evil way ; then He will be
the terrible examiner of all men's thoughts, words, and
actions. Now we enjoy His long-suffering ; then we shall
know His justice, when we shall rise again, some to eternal
punishment, others to eternal life, and each one of us
receive according to his works. How long shall we put off
our obedience to Christ, who has called us to His heavenly
kingdom ? Shall we not rouse ourselves ? Shall we not
recall ourselves from our accustomed manner of life to
the careful life of the Gospel ? Shall we not set before our
eyes that great and terrible day of the Lord, on which
those who by their good works have drawn near to the Lord
shall be received into the kingdom of heaven, but those who
by their lack of good works have been set on the left hand
shall be enveloped in the fire of Gehenna and everlasting
darkness ? ' There,' as it is said, ' shall be the weeping and
gnashing of teeth.' 2
2. Although we profess to desire the kingdom of heaven,
yet we have no care for those things by which it may be
gained. And though we undertake no labour which the
Lord commands yet we imagine in the folly of our heart
that we shall receive equal honours with those who have
resisted against sin even unto death. Who has ever at
the time of sowing remained at home idle or asleep, and
then, when harvest has come, filled his bosom with sheaves ?
Who has ever gathered grapes from vine that he has not
planted and cared for ? Those who have laboured receive
the fruits : honours and crowns are for conquerors. Who
would ever crown him who had not even stripped for the
1 2 Cor. vi. 2. a Matt. xxv. 30.
APPENDIX, A 139
fight ? For it is necessary not only to conquer, but also
to contend lawfully, according to the words of the Apostle ; 1
that is, not to neglect even the smallest of such things as
are commanded, but rather to perform each thing as we have
been ordered. For it is said, ' Blessed is that servant, whom
his Lord when he cometh shall find,' 2 not doing anywise, but
' so doing'. And ' If thou hast offered aright, but hast not
divided aright, thou hast sinned.' 3
But we, thinking perhaps that we have fulfilled one
commandment, — nor indeed should I say fulfilled, for all
the commandments are joined one to another according
to the sound and proper meaning of Scripture, so that if
one be broken, the others are of necessity also broken, — do
not expect the wrath of God for those which we have
transgressed, while for the keeping of one commandment
we dare to look for honours and rewards.
He who from the ten talents entrusted to him has retained
one or two, and has restored the others, is not declared to
be honest, because he has restored the greater part, but is
shown to be both wicked and covetous because he has
kept back the rest. Why do I say ' kept back ' ? For he
that was entrusted with one talent, and gave it back whole
and unharmed as he had received it, was nevertheless
condemned because he had not added anything to that
which was given him. He that has honoured his father
for ten years, and then strikes him but one blow, is not
honoured as a benefactor, but is condemned as a parricide.
' Go ye/ said the Lord, ' and make disciples of all the nations
teaching them ' not to observe some things, and neglect
others, but ' to observe all things whatsoever I command
you.' 4 And the Apostle writes in like manner, ' Giving
no occasion of stumbling in anything, that our ministration
be not blamed ; but in everything commending ourselves
1 2. Tim. ii. 5. 2 Luke xii. 43.
3 Gen. iv. 7 (LXX). * Matt, xxviii. 19-20.
140 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
as ministers of God/1 For if all these things had not
been necessary for the attainment of our salvation, all
the commandments would not have been written : nor
would they all have been declared necessary for our
observance.
What do my other virtues profit me, if, through calling
my brother a fool, I am to be condemned to Gehenna ?
For what profit has he who is free from the multitude of
sins, if he by one single sin be brought into slavery ?
For it is said, ' Every one that committeth sin is the bond
servant of sin '.2 And what gain has he who is free from
many diseases, if his body be afflicted with some sore
disease ?
3. So, then, some one will say, is it not folly for the
multitude of Christians who keep not all the commandments
to keep any of them ? And, therefore, it is good to remember
the blessed Peter, who, though he had done so many good
deeds, and had received such great blessings, yet for his
one fault was told, ' If I wash thee not, thou hast no
part with me '.3 And I need not say that he had shown no
sign of negligence or contempt, but had rather given proof
of his reverence and devotion.
And yet some one may say that it is written, ' whosoever
shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved,'4 as
though the very calling upon the name of the Lord was
enough to save him that called. Let him rather hearken to
the Apostle who says, ' How shall they call upon him in
whom they have not believed ? ' 5 And even if thou
believest, hear our Lord who says, ' Not every one that
saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of
heaven ; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is
in heaven '.6 For indeed he who does the will of God,
1 2. Cor. vi. 3-4. 2 John viii. 34.
8 John xiii. 8. * Joel ii. 32.
6 Rom. x. 14. 6 Matt. vii. 2.
APPENDIX, A 141
but not as God wills, nor from the love which he has
towards God, his zeal for good works is fruitless, according to
the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, who says, ' This they do
that they may be seen of men : verily I say unto you, They
have received their reward f .*• Wherefore Paul was taught
to say, ' And if I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and
if I give my body to be burned, but have not love, it
profiteth me nothing'.2 And, to sum up, I perceive that
there are three different dispositions which inevitably lead
us to obey. Either through fear of punishment we turn
away from that which is evil, and so are of a slavish
disposition ; or, seeking to make gain by the reward, we
fulfil the commandments for the sake of their benefits, and
for this reason are like men of gain ; or else we do good for
the sake of the good itself, and from love of Him Who
gave us the law, rejoicing that we are thus thought worthy
to serve the great and good God, and so we have the
disposition of sons. Nor will he who keeps the command
ments from fear, and is always expecting the penalty of
sloth, obey some orders, and neglect others, but he will
have always the same dread of the judgement which comes
upon all disobedience.
And, therefore, he is pronounced blessed who fears always
with reverence. And he stands firm in the truth, for he
can say, ' I have set God always before me, for he is on my
right hand, therefore I shall not fall/ 3 as never choosing
to neglect anything that is right. And, ' Blessed is the
man that feareth the Lord '. For what reason ? Because
' he hath great delight in his commandments '.4 Wherefore
it is not possible for those who fear to neglect any of God's
orders, or to perform them carelessly.
Nor, indeed, will the man of gain choose to neglect or
transgress any of the commandments. For how will he
1 Matt. vi. 5. 2 i Cor. xiii. 3.
3 Ps. xvi. 8. « Ps. cxii. i. '
142 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
win the reward of his labour in the vineyard, if he does not
fulfil that to which he agreed ? For if he come short in
even one thing that is needful, he makes himself useless to
his master. And who will pay a reward to him that has
done wrong ?
The third service is that of love. Who, then, that seeks
to please the Father, and in great things wins His favour,
will choose to grieve Him in that which is least ? But let
him much more remember the Apostle, who says, ' Grieve
not the Holy Spirit of God, in whom ye were sealed '.1
4. Where, then, shall we put those who transgress most
of the commandments ? They neither worship God as
Father, nor believe in Him as the Promiser of great things,
nor serve him as Master. ' If, then, I be a father/ He says,
1 where is mine honour ? and if I be a master, where is my
fear ? ' 2 For ' He that feareth the Lord hath great delight
in his commandments \8 But ' by thy transgression thou
dishonourest God '.* And how, if we prefer the life of
pleasure to the life of obedience to the commandments,
can we expect for ourselves a life of blessedness, fellow-
citizenship with the saints, and joy among the angels in
the presence of Christ ? Truly these are the imaginations
of a foolish mind. For how shall I be with Job, if I have
not received even light affliction with thankfulness ? Or
how shall I be with David, if I have not shown myself
patient with my enemies ? Or how with Daniel, if I have
not sought after God with constant abstinence and careful
prayer ? Or how with any of the saints, if I have not
followed in their steps ? Who is so unjust an arbiter of
the games as to judge him who has never even contended
to be worthy of the same crown as the victor ? What
general ever gives an equal portion of the spoils to those
who have been victorious and to those who have never even
1 Eph. iv. 30. * Mai. i. 6.
3 Ps. cxii. i. * Rom. ii. 23.
APPENDIX, A 143
appeared in the battle ? God is good, but He is also just.
And it is the nature of the just to recompense worthily, as
it is written, ' Do well, O Lord, unto those that are good
and true of heart. As for those such as turn back unto their
own wickedness, the Lord shall lead them forth with the
evildoers '* He is merciful, but He is also a Judge. For
He says, ' The Lord loveth mercy and judgment '.2 And,
therefore, it is said, ' I will sing of mercy and judgment
unto thee, O Lord '.3 And we have learnt who it is that
receive mercy, for He says, ' Blessed are the merciful, for
they shall obtain mercy '.4 Thou canst see with what dis
cernment He uses mercy. He is neither unjustly merciful,
nor mercilessly unjust. For God is both merciful and just.
Let us not then half know God, nor make His kindness
an occasion of sloth. For this cause are His thunders
and lightnings, that His goodness may not be despised.
He that maketh the sun to rise, also punishes with blindness.
He that giveth the rain, also rains fire. Those show His
goodness, these His severity. Let us then either love Him
for those, or fear Him for these, that it be not said to
us, ' Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and for
bearance and longsuffering, not knowing that the goodness
of God leadeth thee to repentance ? but after thy hardness
and impenitent heart treasurest up for thyself wrath in the
day of wrath '.5 Since then neither can they be saved, who
do not those works which are according to the will of God,
nor is it without danger to neglect any precept — for it is
the height of arrogance to make ourselves the judges of
our Lawgiver, and to approve some of His laws and reject
others — we who endure the conflict of piety and lead the
life of calm and rest, regarding such a life with honour, as
being our fellow worker in the keeping of the Gospel decrees,
must one and all take careful heed that no command-
1 Ps. cxxv. 4-5. • Ps. xxxiii. 5. 3 Ps. ci. i.
* Matt. v. 7. 5 Rom. ii. 4-5.
144 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
ment escape us. For if the man of God must be perfect —
as it is written, and as our words have already shown — it
is before all things necessary that he be made clean and
perfect in every commandment, according to ' the measure
of the stature of the fulness of Christ ' ; 1 for by the Divine
law even the clean beast, if he had any blemish, was not
accepted as a sacrifice to God.
If, therefore, any one think that he be lacking in any
thing, let him bring it forth that all may examine it in
common. For it is easier through the careful scrutiny
of the many to find out that which is hidden, seeing that
God allows us to find that for which we seek, by means of
the teaching and guidance of the Holy Spirit. Since, then,
' necessity is laid upon me, and woe is unto me, if I preach
not the Gospel ',2 so also there is equal danger for you, if you
are slothful in your search, or if you show yourselves careless
and negligent in the keeping of tradition, or in fulfilling
it by good works. Wherefore the Lord says, ' The word
that I spake, the same shall judge him in the last day'.3
And, ' That servant which knew not his Lord's will, and did
things worthy of stripes, shall be beaten with few stripes ;
but he that knew, and did not, neither made himself ready
according to his will, shall be beaten with many stripes '.4
Let us pray then that I may blamelessly dispense the
word, and that the teaching may bear fruit in you. And
since then we know that the words of Divine Scripture will
rise up before us at the judgement-seat of Christ — ' For I
will reprove thee,' He says, 'and set before thee thy sins' 5 —
let us hearken diligently to that which is spoken, and seek
earnestly to carry out the Divine decrees ; for we know not
on what day or at what hour the Lord will come.
1 Eph. iv. 13. 2 i Cor. ix. 16. 3 John xii. 48.
4 Luke xii. 47-48. 5 Ps. 1. 21.
APPENDIX
B
Introduction to the Shorter Rules
THE good God, ' that teacheth man knowledge/ 1 gives
command by his Apostle to those who are entrusted with
the gift of teaching that they should continue in their
teaching.2 And those who desire the edification of holy
doctrine He exhorts by Moses, saying, ' Ask thy father,
and he will show thee ; thy elders, and they will tell thee.' 3
Wherefore it behoves us who have been entrusted with the
ministry of the word, always to be zealous for the perfecting
of your souls. But though sometimes we must needs bear
witness publicly before the whole Church, yet often we must
allow ourselves to be consulted privately by any one who
may come to question us concerning that which belongs to
sound faith and right conduct according to the Gospel of
our Lord Jesus Christ ; for by means of these two things
the man of God is perfected. And you too must allow
nothing to pass fruitless and unheeded, but besides that
which you hear in public, must also ask privately concerning
those things that are convenient, and so order aright all the
quiet hours of your life. Seeing, then, that God has
brought us here together, and that we have much freedom
from the troubles that are without, let us not turn aside
to any other work, or give ourselves again to sleep, but
rather pass the hours of the night which remain in careful
thought and in searching out that which is needful, fulfilling
the words of the blessed David, ' In the law of the Lord
will he meditate day and night.' 4
1 Ps. xciv. 10. 2 2 Tim. iv. 2.
8 Deut. xxxi. 7. * Ps. i. 2.
APPENDIX
Decrees of the Synod of Gangra, 340 A.D.
THE Synodal Letter of Gangra, written to the Bishops
of Armenia, gives the following reason for the calling of
the council : ' The most sacred Synod of the Bishops has
assembled on account of certain necessities of the Church,
and for investigation of the affair of Eustathius ; and
having found that many improprieties have been com
mitted by his followers, it has, therefore, determined to
remove the evils which Eustathius has brought about.'
The causes of complaint are first enumerated and the
text of the decrees then follows :
Canon i. ' If any one despises wedlock, abhorring and
blaming the woman who sleeps with her husband, even
if she is a believer and devout, as if she could not enter
the kingdom of God, let him be anathema.'
Canon 2. ' If any one condemns him who eats meat,
though he abstains from blood, things offered to idols,
and things strangled, and is faithful and devout, as though
by his partaking he has no hope of salvation, let him be
anathema/
Canon 3. 'If any one teaches a slave, under pretext of
piety, to despise his master, to forsake his service, and not
to serve him with goodwill and all respect, let him be
anathema.'
Canon 4. ' If any one maintains that when a married
priest offers the sacrifice, no one should take part in the
service, let him be anathema.'
Canon 5, ' If any one teaches that the house of God is
APPENDIX, C 147
to be despised, and likewise the assemblies l there held,
let him be anathema.'
Canon 6. ' If any one, avoiding the churches, holds
private meetings, and in contempt of the Church performs
that which belongs to her alone, without the presence
of a priest with authority from the bishop, let him be
anathema.'
Canon 7. ' If any one appropriates to himself the tithes
of produce which belong to the Church,2 or distributes
them outside the Church, without the consent of the bishop,
or of one appointed by him, and will not act according to
the bishop's wishes, let him be anathema.'
Canon 8. 'If any one gives or receives such offerings
without the will of the bishop, or of one appointed by him
for the administration of it, both giver and receiver shall
be anathema.'
Canon 9. ' If any one lives unmarried or practises
continence, avoiding marriage with abhorrence, and not
because of the beauty and holiness of virginity, let him be
anathema.'
Canon 10. ' If any one of those who for the Lord's sake
remain unmarried exalts himself above those who have
married, let him be anathema.'
Canon n. 'If any one despise those who in faith observe
the agape, and for the honour of the Lord invite their
brethren, and refuses to take part in these invitations because
he lightly esteems the matter, let him be anathema.'
Canon 12. ' If any one from pretended asceticism 3
wears the philosopher's cloak,4 and as if he were thereby
made righteous, despises those who wear ordinary coats 5
and make use of other such clothing as is everywhere
customary, let him be anathema.'
6 TOVS ftrjpovs <[>opovvTwv.
L 2,
148 ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
Canon 13. ' If a woman from pretended asceticism alters
her dress, and instead of the customary female dress
assumes male attire, let her be anathema.'
Canon 14. ' If a woman leaves her husband and would
separate herself through abhorrence of marriage, let her be
anathema.'
Canon 15. 'If any one forsakes his children, and does
not educate them, and, as far as he can, train them in
fitting habits of piety, but neglects them under pretext of
asceticism, let him be anathema.'
Canon 16. ' If children, especially those of the faithful,
forsake their parents under pretext of piety, and do not
shew them due honour, on the plea of esteeming piety as
the higher duty, let them be anathema.'
Canon 17. ' If a woman from supposed asceticism cuts
off her hair, which has been given her by God to remind
her of her subjection, and thus renounces the command
of subjection, let her be anathema.'
Canon 18. 'If any one from supposed asceticism fasts
on Sunday, let him be anathema.'
Canon 19. ' If an ascetic without bodily necessity but
from pride neglects the fasts which are observed by the
whole Church, as though he possessed full understanding,1
let him be anathema.'
Canon 20. ' If any one out of pride regards with abhor
rence the assemblies 2 of the martyrs and the services 3
there held, or the commemorations of the martyrs, let him
be anathema.'
See Mansi II, 418-421, and Hefele, History of the Church
Councils, II, pp. 326-339, whose translation, with some
slight changes, is here used.
1 airottvpovvTos \v avrca T€\etou Xoyia^iov, 'perfecta in eo residente
ratione. '
8 TO.S ffvva£eis. 3 \firovpyias.
INDEX
Aerius, 128.
Agriculture, 82 f., 127.
Allen, A. V., 29.
Annesi, 9.
Anthony, 39, 80, 97.
Antiphonal chanting, 70.
Apostolic life, 44 f., 122.
Athens, University of, 105.
Athlete, Christian, 35, 43, 47.
Authority, desire for, 49.
Basileias, the, 128.
Benedict, 4, 18, 115, 133.
Besse, 75.
Bigg, 105.
Bright, 8 f.
Butler, 40.
Cassian, 66.
Cellarer, 1 1 5 f .
Chrysostom, John, 106 f.
Church, condition of, 7, 48 f.
Clement of Alexandria, 75.
Clergy, 7, 17, 48, 76.
Coenobitical monachism, 40-6.
Communion, frequency of, 77.
Communism, 44, 125.
Compline, 68.
Confession, 52, 73-6.
Contemplation, 13, 46.
Continence, 34 f., 114, 147.
Domestic duties, 85.
Donatism, 2.
Dorotheus, 98.
' Double monastery,' 98.
Dreams, 60, 69.
Education, 102-8.
Egypt, Monks of, 2, 3, 36, 47,
61, 77, 97, in, H4, 132.
Emmelia, 9, 98.
Eschatology, 25 f., 138, 144.
Eucharist, 77, 147.
Eustathius, 3, 19, 98, 116, 128,
146.
Evangelization, 129 f.
Fairs, to be avoided, 84.
Fall, the, 23.
Fasting, in, 148.
Fialon, 37.
Gangra, Synod of, 3, 146.
Gentleman, Christian, 13, 129.
Gibbon, 96, 129.
Glover, 105.
Gluttony, 112, H4f.
Glycerins, 98.
Grammar Schools, 105.
Gregory of Nazianzen, 9, 12, 18,
32, 45 f., 50, 82, 104, 128.
Gregory of Nyssa, 5, 62, 98, 109.
Habit, monastic, 119.
Heaven, 24.
Hexaemeron, n.
Hodgson, 103.
Holl, 76.
Holy Spirit, 66 f., 68.
Hospitals, 127-9.
Humility, 28 f., 43, 49.
Idleness, 79.
Imitation of Christ, 27 f.
Inattention, 28, 62, 65, 104, 107.
Intercession, 61.
James, W., quoted, 37 f.
Julian, 97, 105, 118, 124, 127 f.
Kitchen work, 85.
Lauds, 71.
Laughter, 95.
Laus perennis, 62.
Liturgy of St. Basil, 78.
Love of God, 23, 25, 27, 38, 44,
78, 131, 141 f.
Love of neighbour, 26 f., 42, 44.
150
Macrina, 5, 8, 9, 98, 99-
Marin, 76.
Marriage, 31, 146, 148.
Materialism, i, 135.
Meals, 1 1 3 f .
Medicine, 54, 127.
Monastic Constitutions, 28, 36, 76.
Montanism, 2, 29, 76.
M or alia, 17 f., 72, 120.
Mysticism, 3, 22, 37, 78, 134.
Nature, beauty of, iof., 59.
Newman, 13.
Nitria, 39.
Nocturns, 69.
None, 67.
Novatianism, 2.
Novice, 72, 88-91.
Order, Basilian, 132 f.
Organization of Charity, 124-6.
Origen, 73, 75.
Orphans, 102.
Orthodoxy, 29 f .
Pachomius, 39, 40, 51, 62, 69,
82 f., 87, 98 f.
Pagan learning, 72, 105-7.
Palladius, 39 f., 98.
Pedagogy, 107.
' Penitents,' monks as, 95.
Peter of Sebaste, 98.
INDEX
Quiet, 13, 32.
Philocalia, 73.
r, L:
147
Philosophy, Life of, 17, 36, n8,
Photius, 19.
Poor, 123 f., 129.
Postulants, 86 f.
Presence of God, 27, 60.
Prime, 66.
Profession, 90 f., 101.
Property, 1 24 f .
Proverbs, Book of, 103.
Punishment, 54, 56 f., 107.
Ramsay, n, 98, 128.
Renunciation, 5, 33 f.
Riches, 5, 33, 123.
Roman Empire, 6 f., 48, 95,
123 f-
Rufinus, 18, 129.
Rule, Basilian, 19 f-> I32-
Saturday, 39, 77-
Scripture, 13, 17, 18, 20 f., 35,
40, 44, 88, 106, 131.
Self-complacency, 42.
Self-denial, 33.
Sext, 67.
Sick, care of, 127 f.
Slavery, 108-9, 146.
Smith, R. T., 20 f., 73.
Socialism, 123.
Soldier, Christian, 15, 35.
Solitude, u, 32.
Stability, 93-
' Station Days,' 39, 77-
Stoicism, 35.
Superior, the, 50-6.
Taxation, 124.
Temperance, 34 f., 37, in f.
Terce, 66.
Thanksgiving, 73.
Theodoret, 4.
Tiberina, u, 12.
Valens, 3, 7.
Vasson, 4.
Vespers, 67 f.
Vigil, 70.
Virginity, 31.
Virgins, 97-
Vows, 91-3.
Western Monasticism, 4, 16, 133.
MORISON
St. Basil and his rule
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