p F PHI I I IPS
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TRural Science Series
EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
BEEKEEPING
i&ural Science Series
EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
THE SOIL. King.
THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. Lodeman.
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. Wing. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. Roberts.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. Bailey. 20th
Edition, Revised.
BUSH-FRUITS. Card.
FERTILIZERS. Voorhees.
THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. Bailey. 15th Edition,
Revised.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. King.
THE FARMSTEAD. Roberts.
RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. Fairchild.
THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Bailey.
FARM POULTRY. Watso.n. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Jordan.
THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. Roberts.
THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. Mayo.
THE HORSE. Roberts.
How TO CHOOSE A FARM. Hunt.
FORAGE CROPS. Voorhees.
BACTERIA IN RELATION TO COUNTRY LIFE. Lipman.
THS NURSERY-BOOK. Bailey.
PLANT-BREEDING. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised.
THE FORCING-BOOK. Bailey.
THE PRUNING-BOOK. Bailey.
FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID REGIONS. Paddock and Whipple.
RURAL HYGIENE. Ogden.
DRY-FARMING. Widtsoe.
LAW FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER. Green.
FARM BOYS AND GIRLS. McKeever.
THE TRAINING AND BREAKING OF HORSES. Harper.
'SHEEP-FARMING IN NORTH AMERICA. Craig.
COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. Powell.
THE FARM WOODLOT. Cheyney and Wentling.
HOUSEHOLD INSECTS. Herrick.
CITRUS FRUITS. Coit.
PRINCIPLES OF RURAL CREDITS. Morman.
BEEKEEPING. Phillips.
BEEKEEPING
A DISCUSSION OF THE LIFE OF THE HONEYBEE
AND OF THE PRODUCTION
OF HONEY
BY
EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS, PH.D.
IN CHARGE OF BEE CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS, BUREAU
OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPART-
MENT OF AGRICULTURE
Nefo gorfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1920
All rights reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1915,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1915.
J. 8. Cashing Co. Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
M. H. G. P.
PREFACE
THE present book is the result of an effort to present a
logical discussion of the various phases of the complex sub-
ject of beekeeping. It was not planned as a book of rules
to which one may go for directions for each day's work, for
beekeeping cannot be treated correctly in such a way. The
activities of bees vary during the seasons and no two localities
present to the bees and their owners exactly the same environ-
mental conditions, so that the successful beekeeper is one who
has a knowledge of the activities of bees, whereby he can in-
terpret what he sees in the hives from day to day, and who
can mold the instincts of the bees to his convenience and profit.
It has seemed desirable in the early chapters to discuss bees
as they exist without man's interference, thus giving the foun-
dation on which the practice of beekeeping rests. The bee-
keeper is not especially interested in the anatomy of the bee
and, while it is necessary to use illustrations of various organs
and to describe them briefly, an effort has been made to treat
the bee as a living animal and to have the discussion deal with
physiology and especially with activities, in so far as investi-
gations have thrown light on these processes. In the prepara-
tion of the chapters devoted to the management of the apiary,
an effort has been made to present the various systems of
manipulations in such a way that the underlying principles
shall be evident, rather than to attempt to describe each sys-
tem as if it were separate.
The author has been helped by the facilities of the office of
the Bureau of Entomology with which he is connected and is
viii Preface
under obligations to Dr. Jas. A. Nelson and George S. Demuth
for friendly advice and assistance. To F. V. Coville, of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, thanks are due for assistance on
the chapter on the sources of honey and to Dr. C. C. Miller for
counsel on spring management and comb honey, on which sub-
jects he is the highest authority. Especially to his wife, the
author would express his gratitude for most valuable help.
The illustrations with a few exceptions were either drawn
for this book from material gathered from many sources or
have been borrowed from publications prepared in the office
of bee culture investigations of the Bureau of Entomology.
The new drawings are by J. F. Strauss. A few illustrations
copied directly from other sources are credited individually.
In presenting a book to American beekeepers, the author
would express the hope that it may be as helpful to them as
the cordial assistance and cooperation of many of them have
been to him in his work.
E. F. PHILLIPS.
WASHINGTON, D.C.,
March, 1916.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
BEEKEEPING AS AN OCCUPATION
PAGES
Two classes of beekeepers Extent of beekeeping in the
United States and Canada The relation of apparatus to
the development of beekeeping Who should be a bee-
keeper ? Beekeeping for women Advantages in exten-
sive beekeeping Where bees may be kept Results to
be expected 1-21
CHAPTER II
APPARATUS
Relative importance of equipment and skill Apiary
house Hive stands Hives and hive parts Equipment
for handling bees Other equipment 22-33
CHAPTER III
THE COLONY AND ITS ORGANIZATION
The point of view Danger from poor work Advan-
tage of experience in behavior investigation Zoological
position of the honeybee Bees not domestic animals
Necessity of colonial life Size of the colony Types of
individuals in a colony Queen Workers Drones
Brood Natural nest Contents of the cells Arrange-
ment of the nest Color of the combs Protection of the
nest Comparison with stingless bees .... 34-63
ix
Contents
CHAPTER IV
THE CYCLE OF THE YEAR
Brood-rearing Brood-rearing during the season Tem-
perature of the hive Swarming Preparation for swarm-
ing Issuing of the swarm Stimulus to leave the hive
Behavior of issuing swarm Clustering Supposed aids to
clustering Scouts Entering the new home Parent col-
ony Mating flight After-swarms Activity of swarms
Swarming conditions induced artificially Peculiarities
of bees in swarming Causes of swarming Swarming-
out Gathering of nectar and storing of honey Collec-
tion of other materials Killing of the drones End of
brood-rearing Winter cluster Movements in winter
Responses to outside temperature Conservation of heat
Source of heat Effect of accumulation of feces . . 54-92
CHAPTER V
THE LIFE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN RELATION
TO THE COLONY
Developmental stages Cellular structure of tissues
Egg Early embryonic develppment Later embryonic
development Segmentation Fate of parts of the embryo
Larval development Metamorphosis Length of devel-
opmental stages Cycle of duties of the adult worker bee
Division of labor The labor within the hive Comb
building Feeding of larvae Composition of larval food
Feeding of queen and drones Other inside work The
guarding of the colony The labor outside the hive Divi-
sion of labor in gathering Pollen gathering Propolis col-
lection The collection of water Duration of life Work
determines length of life Practical applications Possible
determining factors 93-131
\
CHAPTER VI
THE LIFE PROCESSES OF THE INDIVIDUAL
General plan of the body of the bee Head Thorax
Abdomen Digestion Circulation Metabolism Res-
piration Excretion Locomotion Protective apparatus 132-161
Contents
XI
CHAPTER VII
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SENSES
Nervous system Sense organs Sight Smell An-
tennal sense organs Taste Touch Hearing Temper-
ature sense Finding of the flowers Finding of the hive
Memory Nature of bee activities
162-180
CHAPTER VIII
THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES AND PAR-
THENOGENESIS
Origin of the eggs Origin of the male sex cells Par-
thenogenesis Sex determination Practical applications
Hermaphrodite bees Eggs which fail to hatch
181-191
CHAPTER IX
RACES OF BEES
Types of social bees Species of the genus Apis Vari-
eties of the species mellifica Egyptian Syrian Cyprian
Grecian Caucasian Italian German Carniolan
African races Asiatic races Chinese-Japanese Best
race of bees .
192-204
CHAPTER X
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE
UNITED STATES
Variation in intensity of honey-flows Variation in the
value of plants Beekeeping regions General regions
The white clover "region The alfalfa region The south-
eastern region The semi-arid region of the southwest
The sage region Restricted regions Buckwheat Su-
mac Spanish needle Willo wherb Sweet clover Blue
thistle Raspberry Beans Heartsease Variation
within a region Distribution of bees in the United States
Migratory beekeeping Overstocking Dadant out-
apiaries .
205-221
Xll
Contents
CHAPTER XI
THE FIRST STEPS IN BEEKEEPING
Purchase of colonies Purchase of bees to be shipped
from a distance Requirements in purchased colonies
How to learn beekeeping Value of reading Merits of
beekeeping courses Beginner's outfit ....
222-227
CHAPTER XII
THE APIARY SITE
Apiary grounds Exposure to the sun Care of the api-
ary grounds Arrangement of hives Number of colonies
in one apiary Out-apiaries Conveniences less essential
in out-apiaries
CHAPTER XIII
228-233
THE MANIPULATION OF BEES
Disturbance to be reduced to a minimum Equipment
for manipulation When to handle bees Opening a hive
Remedies for stings Removing frames Handling
frames Desirability of straight combs in manipulations
Closing the hive Occasional manipulations Feeding
What to feed Feeders Uniting Influence of hive odor
Learning the new location Transferring The best
time to transfer colonies Methods Transferring from
walls of houses Transferring from hollow trees Prevent-
ing robbing in the apiary Moving bees Elimination of
non-essential manipulations Two essentials Increase in
efficiency through system ....... 234-254
CHAPTER XIV
SPRING MANAGEMENT
Object of spring manipulations Prevention of drifting
Spring protection First examinations Cleaning the
hives Equalizing the colonies Clipping queens Sum-
mary of favorable spring conditions Questionable manipu-
latiqns Stimulative feeding Spreading the brood
Substitutes for pollen 255-264
Contents
Xlll
CHAPTER XV
SWARM CONTROL AND INCREASE
Loss from division of the working force Variation in
swarming Variation in colonies in respect to swarming
preparations Direction of the beekeeper's efforts Pre-
ventive measures Breeding Mechanical devices Pre-
ventive manipulations Miller's methods Remedial meas-
ures Control of natural swarms Automatic hivers
Location for the swarm Disposition of the brood after
swarming What to use in the brood chamber in hiving
swarms Remedial manipulations Unbalanced condition
of swarming colonies Break in the emergence of brood
Requeening combined with dequeening Removal of brood
Mechanical appliances Increase . .. ....
CHAPTER XVI
THE PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY
Increase in the production of extracted-honey Advan-
tages of extracted-honey Disadvantages of extracted-honey
Extracted-honey hives Choice of storage combs Use
of extracting combs smaller than brood combs Number
of supers Manipulation of supers Need of abundance of
drawn combs System in producing extracted-honey Re-
moving honey from the bees House for extracting
Portable extracting outfits Uncapping Cans for cappings
Capping melters Types of extractors Extracting
Straining the honey Storage tanks Reduction of the
lifting of honey Returning combs to the hives .
CHAPTER XVII
THE PRODUCTION OF COMB-HONEY
Purity of comb-honey The "Wiley lie " Decrease
in comb-honey production Demand for fancy comb-honey
Advantages of comb-honey Disadvantages of comb-
honey Restrictions in comb-honey production Honey-
house The best hive for comb-honey The early devel-
opment of the section Types of sections Types of supers
Other equipment Preparation of the sections Manip-
265-285
286-300
XIV
Contents
ulation of the bees Keeping bees in proper condition
Manipulation of supers Removal of supers Caring for
the crop Preparation of bait sections Storage in supers
Bulk comb-honey Bulk comb-honey for home use
Cut comb-honey for market .
301-319
CHAPTER XVIII
MARKETING THE HONEY CROP
Preparation of extracted-honey for market Wholesale
packages Retail packages for local markets High-class
retail packages Blending Argument for blending
Heating honey Preparation of comb-honey for market
Cleaning the sections of propolis Grading Shipping
cases Glazed sections Use of cartons Shipping comb-
honey Preparation of bulk comb-honey for market Prep-
aration of granulated honey for market Wording of labels
Development of the home market Co-operative selling
320-333
CHAPTER XIX
THE PRODUCTION AND CARE OF BEESWAX
Rendering the wax Wax presses The residue Re-
moving wax by dissolving Cleaning wax Granulation
of wax Bleaching wax Adulteration of wax Prepara-
tion of wax for market Special production of wax Uses
of beeswax
334-342
CHAPTER XX
THE CARE OF BEES JN WINTER
Losses in winter Object of winter protection Require-
ments of successful wintering Winter stores Cause and
effects of humidity in the hive Effects of ventilation
Source of heat and effects of changes of temperature Dis-
turbance Methods of wintering bees Outdoor wintering
Cellar wintering Effects of confinement Spring dwin-
dling 343-358
Contents
xv
CHAPTER XXI
THE SOURCES OF NECTAR AND POLLEN
Reasons for knowledge of nectar sources Difficulties of
identification Study of neighboring locations Function
of nectar Variations in nectar Variations in secretion
Effects of climatic conditions on secretion Advantages
of swamp sources Cultivation of plants for nectar Value
of the minor sources Gathering of pollen Value of bees
in cross-pollination Damaging effects of incorrect spray-
ing Bees do not puncture ripe fruit Supposedly poison-
ous honeys Plant honey-dews Insect honey-dew
Annotated list of honey-plants
359-396
CHAPTER XXII
BEE DISEASES AND ENEMIES
Brood diseases American foul brood European foul
brood Sacbrood or pickled brood Methods of spread
Treatment Shaking treatment Fall treatment Addi-
tional treatment for European foul brood Diseases of
adult bees Dysentery Nosema disease Paralysis
Spring dwindling Enemies of bees The wax-moth ( Gal-
leria mellonella) The lesser wax-moth (Achroia grissella}
Remedies Other enemies
397-416
CHAPTER XXIII
THE REARING OF QUEENS
Commercial queen-rearing Systematic requeening
Conditions under which queens are reared Saving natural
queen cells Having natural cells built Miller method
Alley method Hopkins method Queen cells on
artificial bases Transferring larvae Swarm box
Having cells built out Nursery cages Mating hives
Classification of queens Mailing cages Introducing
queens Improvement of stock Study of breeding needed
Selection of drones Desirability of pure races
Danger from inbreeding .......
417-429
xvi Contents
CHAPTER XXIV
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
PAGES
Literature on bees and beekeeping Organizations of
beekeepers Laws Supplies for beekeepers The uses of
honey Honey crop reports Educational work in bee-
keeping The Bureau of Entomology 430-437
\
APPENDIX
Explanation of Symbols used in Anatomical Illustrations 439-448
ILLUSTRATIONS
NOTE. Illustrations marked by asterisk are from Farmers' Bulletins
Nos. 442 and 447 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Other illustra-
tions are credited by authors individually.
Apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, Drummond, Md. . Frontispiece
PIG. PAGE
1. A primitive box-hive ......... 1
2. A bee and apple blossoms 5
8. Mud hives in Palestine. (From photograph by Metcalf) . . 6
4. Group of Caucasian hives 6
5. An old Greek hive. (From Wheler, 1682) .... 6
6. Gravenhorst hive, a combination of skep and frame-hive . . 7
7. German hive, opening at the rear ...... 7
8. Bee-house in Carniola, Austria 8
9. Carniolan hive 9
10. Bee-house mentioned in " The Hoosier School Boy " . . 9
11. W. B. C. hive of England . . . 10
12. C. D. B. hive of Ireland 11
13. Frame of C. D. B. hive . . . . . . . .11
14. A woman beekeeper . . . . . . . . .15
15. Roof apiaiy in lower New York City. (Drawn from photograph
by Root) 18
16. Apiary on shed roof, to economize space 19
17. Tropical apiary, San Sabastian, Porto Rico . . .19
18. Honey-house door 24
19. Porter bee escape * 24
20. Ten-frame Langstroth hive with queen excluder, comb-honey
super and telescope cover * 26
21. Diagram showing spacing of frame and rabbet in Langstroth hive 27
22. Spacing of Hoffman frames 28
23. Spur wire-imbedder* . . 29
24. Smoker* 29
25. German beekeeper's pipe . ....... 30
26. Cotton netting veil with silk tulle front * 31
27. Hive tools* 31
28. German bee brush * 31
xviii Illustrations
FIG. PAGE
29. Tool-box seat 32
30. Alley queen and drone trap *....,.. 32
31. Bee escape board* ......... 32
32. Comb-foundation cutter ........ 33
33. Van Deusen hive clamp . . . . ... 33
34. The honeybee : worker, queen and drone * .... 40
35. The honeybee : egg, young larva, old larva and pupa * . . 40
36. Structure of comb * 47
37. Piece of new comb showing transition cells * .... 48
38. Queen cell 49
39. Cappings of brood ......... 50
40. Capping of honey Facing page 51
41. Colony in the open air ...... Facing page 51
42. Eggs in cells of the comb ...... Facing page 55
43. Larvae in cells of the comb, almost full grown . . Facing page 55
44. Concentric arrangement of the brood . . . . . .57
45. Group of queen cells * 62
46. A swarm cluster Facing page 65
47. Swarm catcher Facing page 67
48. Capturing a swarm . Facing page 65
49. Swarm entering a hive ...... Facing page 68
50. Group of tissue cells from skin of young salamander. (From
Nelson) 95
51. Three stages in the development of the embryo. (From Nelson) 97
52. Diagram of a longitudinal median section of a bee larva. (From
Nelson) 100
53. Ventral plates of the abdomen of a worker bee. (From Casteel) 108
54. Inner surface of the left hind leg of a worker bee showing a wax-
scale. (From Casteel) ....... 108
55. Ventral view of worker removing wax-scale. (From Casteel) . 109
56. Side view of worker removing wax-scale. (From Casteel ) . 109
57. Ventral view of worker passing wax-scale forward. (From
Casteel) 110
58. Side view of worker passing wax-scale forward. (From Casteel). 110
59. Median longitudinal section of head of worker, showing the
glands. (From Snodgrass) . . . . . . .111
60. Alimentary canal of worker, showing glands. (From Snod-
grass) 112
61. Longitudinal median section of base of oasophagus. (From
Snodgrass) 118
Illustrations xix
FIG. PAGE
62. Lizard encased in propolis 117
63. Outer surface of the left hind leg of a worker. (From Casteel) 124
64. Flying bee, showing movements of legs in pollen collecting.
(From Casteel) 124
65. Flying bee patting pollen on the pollen basket. (From
Casteel) 124
66. Inner surface of the left hind leg of worker. (From Casteel) . 125
67. Flying bee loading the pollen baskets. (From Casteel) . . 125
68. Front and back views of head of worker bee. (From Snod-
grass) 134
69. Anterior views of head of worker, queen and drone. (From
Snodgrass) 135
70. Right mandibles of worker and drone. (From Snodgrass) . 136
71. Internal mandibular gland of worker. (From Snodgrass) . 136
72. Mouth parts of the worker. (From Snodgrass) . . . 137
73. Dorsal view of ventral wall and internal skeleton of worker.
(From Snodgrass) 139
74. Thorax of worker. (From Snodgrass) . . . . ' . 140
75. Lateral view of abdomen of worker. (From Snodgrass) . . 140
76. Tip of abdomen of worker with left side removed. (From
Snodgrass) 141
77. Histological details of alimentary canal. (From Snodgrass) . 145
78. Longitudinal median vertical section of body of worker. (From
Snodgrass) 149
79. Tracheal system of worker. (From Snodgrass) . . ' . 152
80. Fore and hind wings. (From Snodgrass) ..... 155
81. Legs of worker, queen and drone. (From Snodgrass) . . 156
82. Claws. (From Snodgrass) 157
83. Ventral view of sting of worker and accessory parts. (From
Snodgrass) 159
84. Nervous system of worker. (From Snodgrass) .... 163
85. Brain and suboasophageal ganglion of worker. (From Snod-
grass) 164
86. Section of compound eye and optic lobe 166
87. Section of entire ommatidium 167
88. Location of groups of olfactory pores dorsal view. (From
Mclndoo) 170
89. Location of groups of olfactory pores ventral view. (From
Mclndoo) ... 171
90. Cross-section of typical olfactory pore. (From Mclndoo) . . 172
xx Illustrations
91. Antennal organs. (Copied from Mclndoo, after Schenk) . 173
92. Reproductive organs, sting and poison glands of queen. (From
Snodgrass) 182
93. Reproductive organs of drone. (From Snodgrass) . . . 185
94. Propolis at entrance, built by Caucasian bees .... 197
95. Map of Florida showing distribution of honey plants. (From
Baldwin) 210
96. Map of United States, showing distribution of colonies of bees
(Redrawn from map furnished by Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates, U. S. D. A.) 214
97. Map showing distribution of Dadant apiaries. (Redrawn from
Dadant) . .220
98. Apiary in the West, shaded by thatched shed. (Redrawn from
Root) 230
99. Former apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, College Park, Md.* 231
100. Hive-body resting on cover 236
101. Handling a frame, first position* 238
102. Handling a frame, second position* 238
103. Handling a frame, third position* 238
104. Hive leveling device 239
105. Division board (Doolittle) feeder * .242
106. Alexander feeder in collar under hive-body * . . . 242
107. " Pepper-box " feeder * 242
108. Pan in super arranged for feeding * 242
109. Cutting combs from a box-hive 246
110. Hive ready for moving 250
111. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony first posi-
tion. (From Demuth) 275
112. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony second
position. (From Demuth) ....... 275
113. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony third
position. (From Demuth) 276
114. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony fourth
position. (From Demuth) ....... 276
115. Queen excluder ("honey board") ...... 277
116. Uncapping knives* 293
117. Steam-heated uncapping knife 294
118. Comb for uncapping used in Europe 294
119. Capping melter . 295
120. Tank to receive cappings . 295
Illustrations xxi
FIO. PAGE
121. Extractor with stationary can * ..... 296
122. Power extracting outfit. (Photo by Root) , Facing page 297
123. Honey strainer. (Redrawn from Root) . 298
124. Honey storage tanks. (Drawn from photograph by Root) . 299
125. Diagram to show method of spacing bee-way sections. (From
Demuth) 308
126. Diagram to show method of spacing plain sections. (From
Demuth) 308
127. Comparison of plain and bee-way sections. (From Demuth) . 308
128. Comparison of tall and square sections of equal capacity. (From
Demuth) 309
129. T-super. (From Demuth) . . ... . . .309
130. Super for square bee-way sections with section holders. (From
Demuth) 309
131. Super for square plain sections with section holders. (From
Demuth) . ,310
132. Super for tall plain sections. (From Demuth) ... . 310
133. Superior tall plain sections in wide frames. (From Demuth) 310
134. Old type of wide frame for holding sections. (Drawn from
Miller) 311
135. Section folder 312
136. Diagram showing the arrangement of the supers. (From
Demuth) 315
137. Crate holding two 5-gallon honey cans 321
138. Shipping cases for comb-honey *.,.... 328
139. Double boiler for melting combs 336
140. Hot water (Hershiser) wax press ...... 336
141. Diagram showing the response of a colony of bees to changes
in outer temperature. (From Phillips and Demuth) . . 348
142. An apiary in winter 350
143. Roof of a bee-cellar away from a house 353
144. Arrangement of hives in a cellar. (Drawn from Alexander) 354
145. Diagram showing the effects of an accumulation of feces. (From
Phillips and Demuth) 357
146. Alfalfa 373
147. Basswood 375
148. Buckwheat 377
149. Spider flower (Cleome) ........ 378
150. Cotton 379
151. Dandelion . 380
xxii Illustrations
" PAGB
152. Heartsease 382
153. Horsemint . 383
154. Locust 384
155. Partridge pea . , ,387
156. Button sage 389
157. White sage 390
158. Sourwood 390
159. Sweet clover 392
160. Tulip poplar 393
161. White clover 394
162. Willowherb 395
163. American foul brood * 398
164. The ropiness of American foul brood * 399
165. American foul brood comb * 399
166. Apiary in southern California which was practically destroyed
by disease ' 400
167. European foul brood * 401
168. Apparatus for the shaking treatment * ... . 405
169. Gasoline torch * . ._ 406
170. Wax-moth, in natural position at rest ..... 411
171. Wax-moth, male .411
172. Wax-moth, female 412
173. Work of wax-moth larvae on comb * . . Facing page 412
174. Larva of wax-moth , 412
175. Eggs of wax-moth laid on top-bar of frame .... 412
176. Pupa of wax-moth 413
177. Cocoons of wax-moth ........ 413
178. Lesser wax-moth in natural position ..... 414
179. Lesser wax-moth, male . . . . . . . . 414
180. Lesser wax-moth, female 414
181. Lesser wax-moth, larva 415
182. Lesser wax-moth, pupa 415
183. Hive stand to keep off ants 415
184. Comb cut for starting queen cells by the Alley method . . 420
185. Queen cells reared by the Hopkins method . . . .421
186. Swarm box for starting queen cells ..... 423
187. Pratt nursery 424
188. Queen mating hive ......... 424
189. " Baby nucleus " hive devised by Pratt 425
190. Queen mailing cage * 426
BEEKEEPING
BEEKEEPING
CHAPTER I
BEEKEEPING AS AN OCCUPATION
THE keeping of bees for the pleasure derived from studying
them and also for the profit arising from their products is
the vocation or avocation
of many thousands of peo-
ple in all sections of the
United States and Canada.
In former times, the bee-
hive, or more properly the
skep, "gum" or box-hive
(Fig. 1), was found on al-
most every farm, in im-
portance occupying a place
similar to that which poul-
try does to-day. Then as
now, beekeeping was usu-
ally not the sole business
of those interested. The
number of farmer-beekeep-
ers is now being reduced
in most parts Of the FIG. 1.- A primitive box-hive.
United States and bees are
no longer quite so commonly seen in the country as in
earlier davs.
2 Beekeeping
Two classes of beekeepers.
By one of those curious shiftings which are so frequent in
human activities, beekeeping is coming more and more to
be restricted to two rather distinct classes of beekeepers.
Of these the more important numerically is composed of the
so-called amateur beekeepers, who keep a few colonies pri-
marily for recreation and only incidentally for honey for
home use and perhaps a little to sell locally. The amateur
ranks are now made up to a large extent of dwellers in towns,
cities and suburbs. The other class, on which the honey-
consuming public must chiefly depend, is that of the profes-
sional or specialist beekeeper, whose chief if not sole business
is honey-production, and who is often a resident of a town or
city. Various factors, to be discussed later, make it increas-
ingly desirable that commercial honey-production be carried
on by experts, by men who are mentally equipped and trained
to get maximum results. While the present tendency is, of
necessity, toward the keeping of bees by professional bee-
keepers, there will always be thousands belonging to the
amateur class, and it is by no means intended in the present
discussion of the subject to leave out of consideration the
enthusiast who desires to keep a few colonies for pleasure.
It is probable that the larger part of our present professional
beekeepers began as amateurs, rather than as farmer-bee-
keepers, and, in all likelihood, the extensive producers of the
future will be recruited from the suburbanites and nature-
lovers who now keep bees for the enjoyment they get from
them, with little present thought of future gain.
This source of future commercial beekeepers seems all the
more probable since it is difficult to begin beekeeping on a
large scale. The many minor details which go to make up
success in getting maximum crops cannot come solely from
reading nor can the needed information be bought with the
apiary. A small beginning is strongly to be advised and, as
the novice grows in experience, the colonies may be increased
in number. It is a commendable plan to make the bees pay
for themselves, almost from the start, as well as for the addi-
Beekeeping as an Occupation 3
tional apparatus needed in increasing the apiary. This they
will do in the average locality, as well as show some profit.
If the work then proves congenial, the transition from ama-
teur to professional is often so gradual as scarcely to be recog-
nized.
Those beekeepers who are also engaged in general farming
or who specialize in one or two farm crops are usually too
busy elsewhere to give the bees the necessary attention at the
time when they most require it and consequently few of this
class of beekeepers rise to the ranks of the specialists. This
is not so true of amateur beekeepers, since some of the
many occupations which they follow usually permit the
time and study necessary to the making of the proficient
beekeeper.
No genuine beekeeper will admit that any other occupation
is more interesting than the care of bees. In fact, beekeepers
are, in a sense, bound together by a common tie in their in-
terest in bees, and this sense of union finds expression in their
conventions, in the fraternal tone of their articles in the
journals devoted to bee-culture and in their intimacy with
each other. This sympathy arises from the fact that they
recognize the fascination in the study of the bees and possess
in common an absorbing interest in an insect which from the
earliest times has aroused the curiosity of mankind. For
the amateur beekeeper, this study has the marked advan-
tage of being a recreation which pays its own way and, under
proper conditions, produces no mean profit.
Beekeeping is from its very nature one of the minor
branches of agriculture. It is the means of conserving for
human use the nectar of the multitude of flowers, which is
usually so abundantly secreted in all sections of the country,
and which, if not collected by the bees, is immediately lost.
The raw material of honey costs the beekeeper nothing.
The proper care of the bees in order to obtain the maximum
crop and the preparation of the product of their labors for
market take time and study, but for these the beekeeper is
well repaid by the returns.
4 Beekeeping
Extent of beekeeping in the United States and Canada.
It is usually not realized that beekeeping has so many
followers. Unfortunately, no thoroughly reliable data are
available as to the number of persons engaged in this pursuit,
but careful and seemingly conservative estimates place the
number at about 800,000 in the United States. The average
number of colonies owned is small, probably not more than
ten, so that many of these persons are interested to only a
slight degree. However, the aggregate crop is sufficiently
great to cause surprise to one unfamiliar with the industry.
The value of the average annual crop of honey in the United
States amounts to at least $20,000,000 while the beeswax
produced is valued at about $2,000,000. It should be em-
phasized that these estimates are conservative.
The Census figures for Canada are seemingly as faulty as
those for the United States. For example, the 1911 Census
shows 124,237 colonies in Ontario, whereas, according to
Morley Pettit, provincial apiarist, the number should be
about 300,000. The total value of the honey and wax crop,
according to the Census of 1911, is given as $713,250, but
it is seemingly safe to state that Canada now produces a
crop about one-tenth that of the United States. The in-
dustry is steadily growing, especially in the provinces where
the beekeepers are helped by inspection and instruction,
as they are in Ontario.
There is unquestionably great opportunity for the further
development of the industry. Various writers have ven-
tured estimates as to the amount of nectar now out of range
of sufficient bees to gather it. These guesses have varied
enormously, some stating that perhaps half the nectar
secreted is wasted, while others, perhaps nearer the truth,
have claimed that not more than one-twentieth is saved.
In all the country, there are but few places where too many
bees are kept and it is doubtless conservative to venture
ah estimate that ten times the present honey crop could
be produced with profit.
There is a fear commonly expressed by professional bee-
Beekeeping as an Occupation
FIG. 2. A bee and apple blos-
soms. Bees are valuable as agents
of cross-pollination.
keepers in their conven-
tions and elsewhere that
the honey market will be
overstocked if any greater
crops are produced. This
fear is ungrounded. A
few dealers are now at-
tempting to supply their
customers with honey
throughout the year, al-
though usually the honey
crop is sold so quickly that
it is found on the market
only between the time of
harvesting the crop and the
holiday season. It must
also be remembered that
in many families honey
is almost unknown as a
food, not because it is not relished but because the present
supply is so limited that it never comes to the attention
of the housewife.
Furthermore, bakers
and confectioners are
using an increasing
amount of honey
for manufacturing
purposes, especially
honeys of the darker
grades. With such
conditions of the
honey market, there
need be no fear of
overproduction, even
though the beekeep-
ers take full advantage of the nectar supply, in so far as it
is profitable.
FIG. 3. Mud hives in Palestine.
6
Beekeeping
In addition to the value of the honeybee as -a honey-
producer, it has a value to agriculture which is probably far
greater. Peculiarly
enough, the bee-
keeper is usually not
the one who receives
the greatest profit
from the presence of
his bees in the com-
munity. The honey-
bee is one of the
most beneficial of
those insects which
carry pollen from one
flower to another.
Such cross-pollina-
tion is frequently es-
sential to the pro-
duction of fruit and,
among all the insects
which serve the fruit-
grower, the honeybee
occupies a unique
position. In the spring, the time when their services are
most needed, other insects are often few in number and
there is no way of prop-
agating them. In the
case of the honeybee,
however, it is relatively
easy to carry to the or-
chard thousands of in-
sects, which are ready, in
favorable weather, to aid
the fruit-grower in return
for the small amount of
nectar obtained (Fig. 2).
In many orchards the FIG. 5. An old Greek hive.
FIG. 4. Group of Caucasian hives.
Beekeeping as an Occupation
FIG. 6. Gravenhorst hive, a combination of
skep and frame-hive.
greater part of the
fruit set is the result
of the labors of the
honeybee, and many
fruit-growers are
taking up beekeep-
ing solely for its use-
fulness in this re-
gard. It is conserva-
tively estimated
that the honeybee is
more valuable to
American agriculture
in its work of cross-
pollinating than it is
as a honey-producer.
In all * matters per-
taining to the advancement of the beekeeping industry the
beekeeper should therefore find a warm ally in the fruit-grower.
Relation of apparatus to the development of beekeeping.
It may perhaps be considered as characteristic of human
endeavor that when a new piece of apparatus is invented
it is first made as com-
plex as possible and, if it
becomes widely adopted
and is used commercially,
much of the later develop-
ment is in the direction of
simplification. This is cer-
tainly true of the appar-
atus used by the beekeeper,
and the stage of the de-
-German^hive, opening at the velopment o f the industry
in any country may be
approximately judged by the complexity of the apparatus
used.
8
Beekeeping
The primitive method of keeping bees consisted simply
of giving them some kind of cavity in which to live. Such
hives are exemplified in the mud hives of the Palestine
beekeeper (Fig. 3), and the straw skeps of the old-time
European beekeeper. The interesting collection of hives
shown in Fig. 4 is drawn from a photograph sent the author
by J. de Dieterichs, Nucha, Caucasus, Russia, these hives
being types used in that country. To our discredit, it must
FIG. 8. Bee-house in Carniola, Austria.
be admitted that in parts of America the box-hive (Fig. 1)
or "gum" has not been eliminated. With such crude
equipment, beekeeping as a business is not possible.
With the invention of the movable-frame hive by Langs-
troth, around which so much of this book centers, the de-
velopment of practical beekeeping began. This type of
hive was promptly adopted by German beekeepers, since
the previous rediscovery of the bar-hive by the great bee-
keeper Dzierzon had prepared them for it. The bar-hive
had, however, been used centuries before in Greece (Fig. 5).
Beekeeping as an Occupation
To utilize the principle of the frame-hive without departing
too radically from the skep, the Gravenhorst hive (Fig. 6)
was adopted by many
Germans,
ciencies are
defi-
FIG. 9. Carniolan hive.
Its
at once
obvious from the il-
lustration.
With the adoption
of the fundamental
principle of the frame-
hive, the types of hive
developed along two
main lines. The
original frame-hive of the German beekeepers, following
the example of Dzierzon, opened at the rear, and this
type (Fig. 7) is still much used. Its construction prevents
adequate expansion of the brood-chamber and of the room
for surplus, which are of such vital importance with modern
American manipulations. Such hives are ill suited to
American condi-
tions and are
apparently losing
ground abroad.
In connection
with these hives
as well as with
some other local
types, the Ger-
man, Austrian
and Swiss bee-
keepers often
keep their bees
in elaborately
ornamented bee-
houses (Fig. 8),
each colony of course having its own hive (Fig. 9). This
has been tried to a limited extent by American bee-
FIG. 10. Bee-house mentioned in " The Hoosier
School Boy."
10
Beekeeping
keepers, and bee-houses may still be seen in parts of the
country. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 10) is drawn
from a photograph by Geo. S. Demuth of K the bee-house in
Eggleston's "Hoosier School Boy," still standing near Madi-
son, Indiana. For a time the -author was obliged to use
such a house, far less elaborate however than those often
built by the bee-enthusiasts of Europe. The house-apiary
is cozy and for certain manipulations, such as queen-rearing,
is convenient, but
the extensive Amer-
ican beekeeper
would find it impos-
sible to produce his
large crops in such
quarters. The
house-apiary, as
usually constructed,
like the hive open-
ing at the back,
limits the expansion
of the hive and is
therefore disadvan-
tageous.
The other type of
hive, opening at the
top, has been ex-
tensively adopted in
Europe, as exemplified by the W.B.C. hive (Fig. 11) of
England, the C.D.B. hive (Figs. 12 and 13) of Ireland
and the modified Dadant hive so much used on the con-
tinent of Europe. It will be seen from the illustrations
that these hives are less simple than those used in Amer-
ica. The chief objection, as viewed from American
conditions, is a lack of room for expansion, although the
complexity of these hives would seriously interfere with the
work of an extensive American beekeeper when in the middle
of a heavy honey-flow. The type of hive which we may
FIG. 11. W.B.C. hive of England.
Beekeeping as an Occupation
11
properly call typically American (Fig. 20) is a simple box,
with freely movable but accurately spaced frames, capable
of any amount of expan-
sion. It is a most efficient
tool for the beekeeper and
as fine a home for the bees
as any hive ever made. It
is readily moved, easily
packed for the winter and
these and other advantages
come chiefly from the se-
vere simplicity which is de-
manded by business bee-
keepers. The American
beekeeper has, therefore, no
reason to envy his co-
workers abroad their elab-
orate and often attractive
hives.
This comparison of equip-
ment serves to make clear
why beekeeping as a profitable business is possible in the
United States and, in turn, the simplicity of the hive is
doubtless due to the demands of practical men. The origi-
nal Langstroth hive
was much more
elaborate than our
present hives and,
with the advance
of the industry, all
the superfluous
parts of the hive
have been removed
FIG. 13. Frame of C.D.B. hive. ne by one. The
present hive, there-
fore, typifies American apiculture of the present day.
There are still some hives used in the United States which
FIG. 12. C.D.B. hive of Ireland.
12 Beekeeping
are less simple than the hive here mentioned, but such
hives are usually of brief popularity or are adapted for a
limited number of beekeepers.
In future references to apparatus in this book, emphasis
is placed on the fact that tools alone do not suffice but that
the prime essential to business beekeeping is knowledge
of the bees. However, it is only just to give credit to our
apparatus as the best lot of tools ever devised for beekeeping
work. The American manufacturers of beekeeping supplies
are to be commended for their efforts to make the apparatus
simple and to a large degree standard. The American bee-
keeper is to this extent far in advance of beekeepers else-
where. The American apparatus is standard in Australia.
These remarks are not intended as derogatory of European
beekeeping. The American beekeeper owes much of his
scientific knowledge of bees to European investigators and
beekeepers. It is nevertheless true that commercial bee-
keeping is an American institution.
Who should be a beekeeper f
Beekeeping^ is a peculiar occupation in that it can be
followed in town or country, by young or old, by rich or
poor. Many women are numbered among the ranks of
beekeepers. To the professional or business man, it offers
a change from the confinement of office or laboratory. To
the mechanic, it serves equally as well for recreation. Many
teachers find it a desirable occupation during vacation, at
which time it adds not a little to the meager incomes pro-
vided by parsimonious school-boards. Lawyers, artists,
farmers, ministers, merchants, brokers, professors in uni-
versities and laborers are numbered among its devotees.
Several old men known to the writer are kept mentally
alert by their work and interest in the bees, while one boy
friend of eight summers is a veteran in enthusiasm. Among
the ranks of professional beekeepers are found well-educated
and uneducated men of all ages and with all the mental and
physical defects or advantages in the category.
Beekeeping as an Occupation 13
With such an array, it may seem fruitless to ask who
should be beekeepers. The care of bees is not, however,
equally well suited to all persons, and it would save much
disappointment, both financial and otherwise, if this ques-
tion were more frequently asked before embarking on this
business. First of all should be excluded those persons
who are seriously affected by the poison of bee-stings. To
some people, this is a serious matter and, unless it is im-
perative that they care for bees, it is better for them not to
undertake it. To practically all beginners, the stings are
annoying, and the experienced beekeeper, however much he
may brag of his indifference to stings, still suffers as much
pain from the prick as he did at first. With time and numer-
ous stings, an immunity to the poison is developed which
eliminates the after-swelling, which is the most annoying
feature of the stinging. Nervous persons who cannot take
stings without excitement would do better to keep away
from bees, as there are times when the best of beekeepers
will be punctured.
To carry on beekeeping with interest and profit requires
an intimate study of the bees and a detailed knowledge of
their needs. It further requires a knowledge of the plants
from which they gather nectar so that the necessary steps
may be taken to get the colonies in proper condition for the
work required of them. To be a good beekeeper, one must
read and re-read the books and journals pertaining to the
subject, for each reading, accompanied by additional ex-
perience among the bees, brings out some new point which
proves important in the practical work. Furthermore,
the beekeeper cannot work by rule of thumb. Bees are
living, lively animals and may be " expected to do the un-
expected," as beekeepers so often express it. For this
reason, it is necessary for the beekeeper to know the be-
havior of bees in all its phases and in so far as they have
been determined, which is not far, the causes of their various
activities. Obviously, the successful beekeeper is a naturalist
and such persons are born, not made successfully. Patience,
14 Beekeeping
power of concentration and sympathetic understanding of
the bees are essentials and, as a result, the bees become pets
rather than beasts of burden to the true bee-crank. Per-
sons who fail to appreciate bees from this point of view will
probably find it more pleasant and profitable to let them
alone. Like all general statements about bees, there are
exceptions to this one. Some who are financially successful
beekeepers are totally devoid of sympathetic interest in
bees and have learned to handle bees as it were by force.
Such men are out of place as amateur beekeepers and in-
deed fail to reach the highest success as professionals.
The ardent bee-man finds pleasure in comparing expe-
riences and observations with his co-workers, in conventions
and out, and some of the best " conventions " are those in
which two or three experienced beekeepers spend half or
more of the night in talking over their latest ideas. They
discuss new and supposedly improved apparatus and all
the latest systems of manipulation, for there seem to be
styles and fads in beekeeping as in clothes. The man who
fails to find pleasure in such an interchange of views will
find himself out of place among bee-enthusiasts.
Not only is a knowledge of what to do necessary to success
with bees, but it is equally necessary that the right thing
be done at the right time. To put on comb-honey supers
too late, to delay the necessary steps in swarm control or
to neglect the preparation of bees for winter, all mean loss
in bees, honey and money. In the make-up of the beekeeper
must be promptness to do the things which his experience
teaches. In the hands of the wise, the bees need remark-
ably little attention. They should not be manipulated
daily and the hive is better unopened unless some change
is called for. The beginner errs almost universally in over-
manipulation. It must not be forgotten, however, that the
reduction in handling which comes with experience is not
neglect, and the beekeeper must know daily whether the
condition of the nectar-sec ?ting plants or of his colonies
calls for any manipulation. This requires experience and
Beekeeping as an Occupation
15
observation and finally promptness in doing what is
necessary.
Instead then of being an occupation fitted for everyone,
beekeeping is well fitted only to the minority. The array
of human excellences here enumerated are not all necessarily
present in perfection, but the nearer the approach of these
qualities to that happy state, the more satisfactory will
beekeeping be found as a vocation or avocation. It is to
be hoped that these formidable requirements will not deter
the potential bee-crank from making a beginning.
Beekeeping for women.
A question much discussed in books and journals on bees
is that of beekeeping for women. Many women can and do
handle bees (Fig. 14)
with marked success.
In those parts of the
business which require
delicacy of touch and
minute attention, such
as queen-rearing,
women often surpass
men in proficiency. As
amateur beekeepers
they are at home. The
question which usually
presents itself, however,
is whether beekeeping
is suitable for women
as a means of earning
a livelihood and re-
FIG. 14. A woman beekeeper.
peatedly has the writer
been asked for advice
on this subject. Professional beekeeping on a scale
sufficiently large to supply an adequate income requires
long hours of work in the hot sun, heavy lifting and
unremitting physical endurance. On a small scale these
16 Beekeeping
obstacles may be overcome, but in a commercial apiary the
work must be done promptly, for delay means loss. While
some women have found pleasure and profit in commercial
beekeeping, it emphatically cannot be recommended for
the majority of women, and this should be made clear to
avoid disappointment for those who may be attracted to it.
Of course, this applies only to those women who have no
man in the company to do the heavy work. Many a pro-
fessional beekeeper has received assistance of incalculable
value from the women of the family. It should be made
clear that the obstacles to the commercial success of women
beekeepers are physical ones only.
Advantages in extensive beekeeping.
Several references have been made to the desirability of
encouraging professional beekeeping, and this should be ex-
plained to avoid misunderstanding. Everyone who desires
to keep bees, of course, has that privilege, so long as by so
doing he does not interfere with the rights of others. By
common consent, a man's bees are not considered as tres-
passing when they go outside his land for forage and conse-
quently a beekeeper cannot legally or morally claim the
exclusive right to keep bees in a locality. The beginner,
therefore, is not considered as overstepping his rights in
getting bees. Taking a broader view of the subject, how-
ever, the professional beekeeper by his knowledge of the
subject is able to produce larger crops, thereby utilizing the
available nectar more economically. By this same knowl-
edge and his better equipment, he is able to produce a better
quality of honey. It is therefore evident that from the
standpoint of conserving a resource to the best advantage
there is reason to encourage the extensive beekeeper.
In case a brood disease breaks out in a community, then
there is every reason for taking sides with the professional
beekeeper. The man with a few colonies is not financially
interested to an extent which will compel him to care for
the disease and in disease control it is usually necessary
Beekeeping as an Occupation 17
that there be some incentive to compel action, the financial
incentive being most efficient. The small beekeeper usually
becomes a menace to the industry in such an outbreak and
not until most of these men lose all they have is much progress
made against disease.
The most economical development of the larger honey
markets for the beekeepers of any region can come only
through co-operation in buying necessary supplies and in
selling their products. So long as there are so many thou-
sands of beekeepers with small financial interest in the
industry, such co-operation is rendered virtually impossible
and the industry is thereby retarded. In some of the
western states, beekeeping is carried on chiefly by extensive
beekeepers and they have found co-operation practical and
profitable, while the beekeepers of the east still fight their
battles individually, co-operation being made practically
impossible because of the thousands of beekeepers who
could not be reached by such a co-operative movement.
Similarly, it is difficult to bring about concerted effort
in having desirable laws passed for the protection of the
industry or in instituting any agency for the advancement
of the industry unless there are a number of men whose
financial interest is sufficient to induce them to spend time
and money in working for the things they need as beekeepers.
Beekeepers are very human people, and "money talks" in
this business as well as in other lines of human endeavor.
There is therefore adequate reason in the view that the
development of beekeeping to its true place in American
agriculture depends on the making of a large number of
professional beekeepers and this in turn implies the elimina-
tion of the beekeeper with a few colonies, little interest and
still less of willingness to work for the industry.
While the number of professional beekeepers is increasing
in a way to give satisfaction to those interested in the best
development of the industry, a word of caution may not be
amiss. Some beekeepers feel that as professionals they
must engage in no other business, whereas for certain months
c
18
Beekeeping
they are not occupied for more than a small fraction of the
time. Without entering into a moral discussion on the
virtues of industry or the various things that Satan is said
to find for idle hands to do, it is obvious that the professional
beekeeper may use other occupations to add to his income
just as the amateur beekeeper uses his bees. As the bee-
keeper becomes more proficient he eliminates all unneces-
sary manipulation so that the care of a goodly number of
colonies may take a relatively short time. When the crop
is off and sold he has little to engage his attention until the
next season, especially if his bees are wintered out of doors.
Where bees may be kept.
It has been the pleasure of the writer to visit apiaries on
the roofs of city buildings (Fig. 15) and in the almost desert
valleys of Cali-
fornia (Fig. 166),
in city back-
yards (Fig. 16)
and in the moun-
tain wilds, in
small towns, on
farms, in Canada
and in the tropics
(Fig. 17). In di-
versity of loca-
tion these api-
aries are as varied
as their owners.
While recruits to
the ranks of beekeepers may be found in all ages and
conditions of men, so bees may be kept in places which
would at first appear utterly unproductive, as well as in
places which are obviously abundant in their nectar supply.
The uninformed observer may fail utterly in his estimate
of the value of a location from the standpoint of the bee.
Most of the valuable nectar-secreting plants do not have
FIG. 15. Roof apiary in lower New York City.
Beekeeping as an Occupation
19
large highly col-
ored flowers, and
the cultivated
varieties of the
flower garden are
of insignificant
value. Bees fly
for two or three
miles for forage
and may go even
farther in emer-
gency. In choos-
ing a location,
it is therefore
necessary that
FIG. 16. Apiary on shed roof, to economize space.
in the range of flight there be an adequate supply of nectar-
producing plants. The ideal location is obviously one in
which the nectar
supply is near
so that it may
be obtained
without the loss
of energy inci-
dent to long
flights.
Results to be ex-
pected.
The stori'es
sometimes told
of the crops that
have been obtained from single colonies or of the rapidity with
which the number of colonies may be increased are apt to mis-
lead the beginner. While several hundred pounds of honey
may at times be obtained from a single colony in a season,
this is by no means usual. In apiaries managed for comb-
honey production, it is perhaps fair to estimate the average
FIG. 17. Tropical apiary, San Sabastian, Porto
Rico.
20 Beekeeping
annual crop at 25 to 30 sections. For extracted-honey,
larger averages may be expected, perhaps of 40 to 60 pounds.
The financial returns depend entirely on the market and the
method of selling the honey. If sold by the beekeeper
direct to the consumer, a pound of extracted-honey brings
from 10 to 20 cents, while a section of comb-honey sells at
15 to 25 cents. If sold to dealers, the return is less but
there is less liability of financial loss and less time consumed
in selling. Naturally these estimates must be dependent
on the quality of the product and on the neatness of the
final package. In addition to the labor there will be other
expenses for supplies such as comb-foundation, sections and
occasional new hives and fixtures, not counting the apparatus
used in increasing the apiary. These may cost from 50
cents to $1.00 for each colony in a season. Estimates such
as these are really of little value since the returns differ so
greatly according to the kind of honey obtained and the
facilities for marketing. For example, the white clover
honey of the North brings a higher wholesale price than
the amber honeys which come from most regions of the
South but, on the other hand, the southern beekeeper en-
joys a longer nectar-secreting season and usually obtains
larger crops from each colony.
Another factor which must not be overlooked is the bee-
keeper. Anyone may reap a heavy harvest in the season
when nectar is abundant but in the lean years, which come
more often than desired, only the good beekeeper makes the
most of the nectar at hand. And then come years of prac-
tically total dearth of nectar, when feeding is necessary to
keep the colonies alive.
Taking all these factors into consideration, it may be
justly concluded that a successful beekeeper is usually well
repaid for the time he spends in his work, if he considers
the return in the sense of wage. He may also consider that
he has received the interest on his original relatively small
investment. He usually averages little more than this,
however, so that beekeeping is in no sense a " get-rich-
Beekeeping as an Occupation 21
quick" business. Its advantage as a recreation over most
other occupations of a similar character is that it is a means
of occupying time not otherwise engaged to a financial
profit and the returns therefore often add that part to the
income which brings comforts and pleasures.
Beekeeping yields a quick return on the investment, for
frequently in a good year a colony will pay for itself. In
fact there are few branches of agriculture which on so small
an investment will yield as great a return. It may at least
be said for the person who decides to try out beekeeping
that he does not stand to lose much. This chance calls
to mind a conversation with a western friend. In recount-
ing the present advantages and past glory of his beautiful
city, he recalled the former gambling days when everything
was "open." After a vivid description of those halcyon
days and of some of the men of that time, he said, "I knew
some of those men well. They were personal friends of
mine and they saw nothing wrong in gambling. And I
can appreciate their point of view for I'm a beekeeper
myself."
In discussing the financial results, it is far from wise to
overlook the other benefits. Beekeeping, to an enthusiast,
means out of doors and intimacy with these interesting
insects which have been studied for centuries and still re-
main an unsolved riddle in many of their activities. It
may mean health to the person confined to an office. It
means to a congenial spirit association with bee-enthusiasts,
than whom no more optimistic and warm-hearted people
exist. If these things make an appeal, then may apiculture
be classed as yielding the greatest profits that can be con-
ceived.
If now we attempt to decide for the questioning prospec-
tive beekeeper whether he should take up bees, from the
previous discussion the whole question is solved: if he
will like beekeeping, he should take it up ; if not, he would
better never have considered it. And this is about as re-
liable and lucid a prophecy as is usually possible.
CHAPTER II
APPARATUS
BEFORE discussing the phenomena observed in the activi-
ties of bees, on which the practical manipulations rest, it is
desirable that some description be given of the hives and
equipment used in beekeeping, since frequent references
are made to these things in the chapters dealing with be-
havior as well as in those concerning the practical work of
the apiary. Since this subject is to be introduced early,
it seems best to complete the discussion here, except for
certain pieces of apparatus used in special manipulations.
Relative importance of equipment and skill.
It is important that the relation of the equipment of the
apiary to the needs of the bees be understood. A hive is
not only a home for the bees but it is, especially, a tool for
the beekeeper and, being only a tool, it is of far less importance
in apiary management than the skill and experience of the
beekeeper.
By many beekeepers, especially among beginners, the
apparatus of beekeeping is given undue importance and
the interest aroused by the work of putting together the
carefully manufactured supplies is really quite excusable.
In the American literature on beekeeping the description
of apparatus plays too prominent a part. Tools alone do
not make the mechanic. It is therefore proposed here to
give only a brief description of the general equipment of
beekeeping, leaving for the chapters on special phases of
beekeeping, the description of the apparatus used in these
manipulations. For greater detail, the reader is referred
22
Apparatus 23
to catalogues of supplies which manufacturers are quite
willing to furnish.
It would be interesting to trace the evolution of the various
implements used in beekeeping, but this is beyond the scope
of this book. For certain appliances, discussed in later
chapters, such a method of treatment has seemed desirable
and, in fact, to discuss all of the present apparatus in that
manner would make the reasons for their construction
clearer. There should some day be prepared a book on
the evolution of hives and the beekeeper's equipment, if
for no other purpose than to show the ardent inventor,
who is usually a beginner, the steps that have already been
taken and passed by and to prevent the repeated re-dis-
covery of abandoned apparatus. In recent times, the
industry is relatively free from the exploitation of worth-
less apparatus but, at about the time of the invention of
the Langstroth hive, the beekeeping industry was well-
nigh buried in bizarre hives. The industry has not ceased
to advance, but beekeepers have outgrown the belief that
success depends on tools. The recognized essentials of
beekeeping are knowledge of the bees, skill in manipula-
tion and simplicity in apparatus.
The supplies of the beekeeper have few prerequisites.
They must be simple in construction, strongly built and,
above all, interchangeable throughout. The manufacturers
of beekeeping supplies in the United States have done much
to simplify the equipment. The best materials are usually
employed.
Apiary house.
In the main or home apiary, it is desirable to have a work-
shop, usually known by beekeepers as the " honey-house,"
where supplies may be prepared and the crop cared for and
perhaps stored for a time. This house should be below the
bees if the ground slopes (p. 292). It is perhaps needless
to give plans for an apiary house since the experienced bee-
keeper will easily construct one that fits his individual needs
24
Beekeeping
and the beginner will use what he has at hand. One sug-
gestion is perhaps not amiss, if one may judge from the
honey-houses usually seen. The house should be large
enough to permit the
storage of the surplus
fixtures out of season
and of the crop until
it is shipped. Beekeep-
ers frequently fail to
provide adequate space
for these uses.
Windows and doors x
should be thoroughly
screened to prevent the
entrance of bees. The
door should swing freely
both ways (Fig. 18) so
FIG. is. Honey-house door. The that the beekeeper may
wooden door rolls clear of the opening thrnno-h \vith hk
and the screen door swings both ways. P aSS , tnrou S n Wltn ms
arms full. The window
screens are best made by tacking wire-cloth to the outside
of the window casings, allowing it to extend about six
inches above the opening. The upper border should be
held out one-quarter of an inch
by narrow wooden strips to pro-
vide abundant exits for bees
which accidentally get into the
house. Bees rarely enter such
openings and those which fly to
the screens from the inside im-
mediately crawl upward and go out, promptly clearing
the room of bees. Bee-escapes (Fig. 19) may be used
at the corners of ordinary framed window screens but
1 A. C. Miller has recently called attention to the desirability of a solid
door to the apiary house, so that bees will not be attracted to this opening
by the odor of honey. The suggestion is good and the desirability of
having such a door swing both ways still exists.
FIG. 19. Porter bee-escape.
Apparatus 25
these are less effective. The best arrangement of windows
is to have the sash slide horizontally on runners so that the
openings may be entirely free from glass. By this arrange-
ment, bees are not imprisoned on single window panes and
in hot weather the beekeeper appreciates all the breeze
that may be allowed to enter the house.
Benches, cupboards and racks for small supplies and
tools can be arranged to suit individual needs, but these
too should be large and roomy. It is a good plan to provide
racks for surplus combs, the frames being hung in strips of
wood properly spaced.
The kind of honey produced determines the other features
of the house. For comb-honey production, a well-sup-
ported second story is recommended for the storage of
honey. In extracting, it is desirable that the extractor,
uncapping boxes and tanks be so arranged that it is not
necessary to lift heavy supers and cans and so that at no
time the honey must be lifted by hand. Honey is best
stored in a warm place and a second story or attic is ideal
also for extracted-honey. By the use of a honey-pump,
the honey can be raised to a high level and it can then be
moved by gravity in future bottling or packing. While
general advice on the construction and arrangement of
honey-houses is difficult to give, it will profit the beekeeper
carefully to study his needs in drawing his plans, so that
labor will be reduced.
For the out-apiary, a smaller house will serve and many
beekeepers do not have any house in such yards. The
portable extracting outfit is one solution, and for comb-
honey production it is as easy to haul home in the supers
as in shipping cases. For extracted-honey production, a
small extracting house is usually preferable.
If bees are wintered in a cellar (p. 353), this may be built
under the apiary house. It is desirable to provide a cook
stove, which is a comfort in chilly weather and is serviceable
in wax-extraction. Running water in the honey-house will
be found a great convenience.
26
Beekeeping
Hive stands.
The arrangement of the hives will determine the character
of the stand. A wooden frame, bricks, tile (Fig. 20), con-
crete blocks or flat stones are equally
good to raise the bottom board of the
hive above the ground so that it will
not rot. It is sufficient to raise it only
a few inches to allow air to circulate
freely under the bottom. In a perma-
nent apiary, it is convenient to arrange
the hive stands in the desired order
and to number them by the system
used in numbering the colonies for pur-
poses of record.
Hives and hive parts.
1 C
1 t
u: i
1 C
1 C
FIG. 20. Ten-frame
Langstroth hive
with queen-ex-
cluder, comb-honey
super and telescope
cover.
The hive which opens at the top and
in which the combs are built in freely
movable frames is the one generally
used in America. It was invented by
Rev. L. L. Langstroth, the Father of
American beekeeping, in 1851. From
this date, the development of modern beekeeping begins.
The original Langstroth hive has been somewhat modified as
the result of the experience of later years, but as now used
(Fig. 20) it consists of a plain wooden box holding frames
hung from a rabbet at the top (Fig. 21) and which do not
touch the sides, top or bottom. The box is usually dove-
tailed and is commonly made of white pine dressed to | inch.
The greatest advance of the Langstroth hive is not so
much in the movable frames as in the free space (Fig. 21)
all about them. The size of this space is of the greatest
importance, it being such that bees pass through it freely
but do not build wax nor deposit propolis in it. The manu-
facturers of beekeepers' supplies make this space a quarter
of an inch.
Apparatus 27
The plain box rests on a bottom board, so made that
there is an entrance space (Fig. 20), and over the hive is a
cover which can be entirely removed to permit the removal
of frames. There are various types of bottoms and covers,
with no marked advantages in one over the others. The
telescope cover over a thin inner cover is a good type (Fig. 20).
The size of frame standard in America is that of the Lang-
stroth (or L) hive, 9| high by 17f inches long. Frames of
other sizes, but having the same method of hanging, have
been devised and a larger size has much to commend it, but
the desirability of uniformity outweighs the advantages of
the odd sizes.
The number of frames in the hive is
determined by the character of the local-
ity and the kind of honey produced.
Many comb-honey producers in the white
clover region prefer the eight-frame hive FIG. 21. Diagram
while the majority of extracted-honey of ^ame and^lb-
producers use the ten-frame size. Some bet in Langstroth
prefer a twelve-frame hive. The sales of hive -
supply dealers indicate a growing prefer-
ence for the ten-frame size among all classes of beekeep-
ers. In deciding which size of hive is preferable, the
usual method is to determine the amount of brood that
can be reared by a strong colony and to calculate the requi-
site number of combs from" their area. This is not an
entirely reliable criterion for the following reasons: (1) the
outside combs are frequently unavailable for brood-rearing,
because of inaccurate spacing, (2) the top rows of cells in
combs built on comb-foundation usually sag, reducing the
area available for brood by a depth of one to two inches,
(3) there is frequently considerable drone comb or irregular
comb. The comb area needed for brood depends on the
character and time of the honey-flow and on the system
followed. For example, if the main honey-flow comes
early in the season (e.g. white clover in the North), it is
desirable to build up the colony with great rapidity. This
28 Beekeeping
may be done by stimulating breeding, and since more space
is then needed it can be supplied by giving two hive-bodies
for the brood. Later, when brood is less to be desired, the
breeding space may be reduced.
Another type of frame is sometimes used and should
perhaps be mentioned, although its use is decreasing.
These frames have end-bars wide enough so that they
touch each other and the bees cannot pass around the ends
of frames. The chief advantage stated is greater v/armth
in winter. Some frames of this type are suspended from
the top, others from the middle of the end-bar and some
are supported from below.
Frames of any description must be spaced so as to give
room between the combs to allow brood to be reared in the
cells and also to provide space enough for
the bees between the combs. The spacing
usually adopted is If inches from center
to center but some beekeepers prefer 1^
FIG. 22. Spacing inches. 1 The closed-end frames when
of Hoffman frames, brought together are properly spaced.
While the larger number of beekeepers do
not use the closed-end type, various devices are in use for
the spacing of open-end frames. The frame most commonly
used has the end-bars wide enough for a short distance so
that they touch at the top (Hoffman frames, Fig. 22). The
metal-spaced frame is possibly an improvement. Some
honey-producers object to spacing devices because they
interfere in uncapping, and this objection is largely over-
come by the use of staples in the side of the end-bar.
To obtain regular cells in the comb, comb-foundation, a
thin sheet of pure beeswax embossed to correspond with
the bases of cells, is placed in the frames. On this as a guide,
the bees build the side walls of the cells, utilizing to some
extent the extra wax in the foundation. Foundation is
made in various thicknesses, the thinnest being .used for
comb-honey, and in both worker and drone cell size.
1 The English frames are 1 2 % inches from center to center.
Apparatus 29
To strengthen the combs, it is customary to wire the
frames with fine (No. 30 gauge, tinned) wire. The wires
are generally stretched horizontally, and most frames as
they come from the manufacturer are pierced for wiring.
After the wires are stretched tight, the foundation is fas-
tened to the top of the frame
and the wire is imbedded in the
foundation, usually by pressure.
The spur imbedder (Fig. 23) is n G . 23. - Spur wire-imbedder.
generally used but is not espe-
cially good. Heat generated by a weak electric current is
sometimes used, but perhaps the best method is to run
along the wire a small warm soldering iron with a notch
in the point.
Whatever style of hive is adopted, the parts must be
accurately cut so that the bee-spaces are of the right size
and so that the apiary equipment may be interchangeable
throughout. Hives or frames of different sizes or of im-
proper dimensions are perhaps the worst inconveniences
that can be found in an apiary. The materials used should
be the best, for the equipment is
often used for many years. As a
rule, it is better to buy hives and
frames and, in fact, practically all
the necessary supplies from the
regular manufacturers of such ar-
ticles. This advice is not given
as an advertisement for the manu-
facturer but is based on the rec-
ollection of ill-spaced, inaccurately
FIG. 24. Smoker. ^ cut, home-made outfits which have
been encountered in traveling
among beekeepers. Obviously, an expert wood- worker can
do as well as the regular manufacturer, but even then the cost
of home-made supplies usually exceeds the price charged
by the dealers, when one considers the time consumed.
The outside of hives should be painted to protect them
30
Beekeeping
from the weather. It is most important that the joint or
dovetail be painted as decay starts there in unpainted hives.
White paint (white lead and raw linseed oil) is to be pre-
ferred as it makes a cooler hive than dark colors. For the
sake of the appearance of the apiary, all hives should be of
the same color. This is also important if one wishes to
interchange hives in the apiary.
The hive, as it has been discussed so far, is essentially
the home of the bees and is occupied by them throughout
the year. This portion is usually known as the brood-
chamber. For surplus honey, on which the beekeeper de-
pends for his profit, additional parts are needed and these
are discussed in connection with the production of the
various kinds of honey.
Equipment for handling bees.
A few special tools are necessary in handling bees. A
good smoker (Fig. 24), consisting of a tin or copper receptacle
in which to burn rotten wood or
other materials, with a bellows at-
tached to force a draft, is in-
dispensable. The medium-sized
smokers are best for the beginner
and the professional beekeeper may
learn by experience what size is
best suited to his needs. The
German beekeeper often uses a
specially constructed pipe (Fig.
25), which is naturally a dual-pur-
pose tool.
A veil of black material, prefer-
ably of cotton netting with a silk
tulle front (Fig. 26), is needed to
protect the face from stings. Even
a seasoned beekeeper, who some-
times likes to brag that he never uses a veil, may find it
convenient to have a veil thrown back on his hat, which can
FIG. 25. German beekeep-
er's pipe.
Apparatus
31
FIG. 26. Cotton netting veil with silk
tulle front.
be brought down when
the bees become annoy-
ing. Black wire-cloth
veils are often used and,
while they are a better
protection than the cloth
veils, they are less con-
venient as they cannot
so easily be thrown back.
A steel tool of some
kind is needed to pry up
covers and to loosen and
separate frames. A screw-
driver will answer but
some specially devised
tools (Fig. 27) may be
found preferable.
Gloves of cloth or leather are sometimes used to protect
the hands. The handling of frames is less impeded if the
finger ends are cut out. Gloves
are hot, usually sticky or stiff,
and are as a rule abandoned
after the early stages of bee-
keeping are passed.
^ brush to sweep bees from
the combs is a convenience, es-
pecially in removing bees while
taking frames from the hives
at extracting time. The German brush with white bristles
(Fig. 28) is perhaps the best of those manufactured, but a
turkey feather, a long
whisk broom or a bunch
of weeds pulled as needed
are as good.
A tool box or portable FlG - 28 - ~ German bee brush -
seat (Fig. 29) and a wheelbarrow or cart for carrying supplies
and honey are among the other conveniences used in handling
FIG. 27. Hive tools.
32
Beekeeping
FIG. 29. Tool-box seat.
bees. A hive
cover on edge
makes a good
temporary seat
and has the ad-
vantage of being
where it is
needed, and when
needed is not
otherwise oc-
cupied.
Other equipment.
There are some additional appliances which may be use-
ful in any apiary and which may be mentioned briefly.
For making changes in supplies and in devising parts for
special uses, the apiary equipment should include some
carpenter's tools, among which may be mentioned hammers,
saws (including a keyhole saw),
brace and bits, square, planes
and a good supply of nails of as-
sorted sizes. Cement-coated nails
are the best for most purposes
FIG. 30. Alley queen and drone trap. FIG. 31. Bee-escape board.
in the apiary. Queen and drone traps, usually known as
Alley traps (Fig. 30), are useful in catching undesirable
drones or in preventing the escape of a queen at swarming
time (p. 273). Bee-escapes (Figs. 19 and 31) are used in
removing bees from supers of honey, especially comb-
Apparatus
33
honey, before it is taken from the hive. An observatory
hive with glass sides will be found instructive and enter-
taining to the beginner
and even to the more
experienced beekeeper,
if placed where the bees
may be watched fre-
quently. A COmb-foun- FlG . 32 . _ Comb-foundation cutter.
dation cutter (Fig. 32)
is convenient and better than an ordinary knife. If the
beekeeper desires to make his own comb-foundation, there
. . are various machines that
may be obtained for that
purpose. It is usually
cheaper to buy founda-
tion. In case it is neces-
sary to feed colonies in
order to stimulate brood-
rearing or to provide
stores for winter or dur-
FIG. 33. Van Deuscn hive clamp.
ing a period when no nectar is available, various types of
feeders may be used. The construction of these is in-
dicated in the illustrations (Figs. 105, 106, 107 and 108),
given in connection with the discussion of feeding (p. 240).
Clamps for holding the parts of the hive together (Fig. 33)
are convenient in moving, but the wide (1J inch) staples
sold by dealers in beekeeping supplies are as good.
CHAPTER III
THE COLONY AND ITS ORGANIZATION
IN the proper management of bees, all manipulations must
be based on their normal activities. Bees are creatures of
instinct and are limited in their ability to adapt themselves
to changes in their environment. While in certain activities
they show evidences of memory, learning, association and
adaptive responses, in general they may be considered as
responding to their environment in a " machine-like " man-
ner. Because of the nature of most of their activities, it
becomes necessary to know their normal behavior even more
than would be the case were they more adaptive. In giving
directions for handling bees, the systems of manipulations
and apparatus are usually emphasized, but in the present
book the normal activities will be made more prominent so
that the reader may better understand the reasons for the
usual rules and systems. Again, most of the American
literature applies especially to the white clover region and
the rules fail to apply elsewhere, so that there seems to be
additional justification for a discussion of the more funda-
mental factors in beekeeping.
It frequently happens that a supposedly new plan or
system is published which is old, except that it is a new
adaptation of well-known principles to slightly changed
conditions. The success or failure of these plans when tried
by others is often attributed to peculiarities of the various
localities where they are tested. The word " locality" is
called upon to cover a multitude of defects in our knowledge
of bee activities. Bees respond to stimuli in but one way
and wherever a given stimulus is applied, the result is the
34
The Colony and its Organization 35
same. If one's knowledge of the circumstances surround-
ing his bees is not adequate there seems to be comfort in
attributing to " locality" one's failure in the application of
rules.
Point of view.
It may be worth while to extend these introductory re-
marks to explain the point of view held in the present dis-
cussion of bee activities. There are several distinct angles
from which one may view the actions of a colony of bees and,
since they lead to unreconcilable conclusions, they cannot
all be correct. First to be mentioned among those who
write concerning bees is the so-called student of nature who
seemingly tries to find in bees a type of intelligence even
higher than that possessed by man and who attributes to
these insects thoughts and passions to which only the poetic
may hope to attain. The complex colony life of bees offers
to such a type of mind unlimited opportunity for speculation,
which leads nowhere and is in fact a detriment to legitimate
investigation. Allied to the just mentioned enthusiasts
over nature are the amateur philosophers who hold up the
bee as a brilliant example of industry. To all such specu-
lative fancy, we may with profit turn our backs.
In studying the behavior of any lower animal, there is but
one source to which one should go for information. This is
found in the actions of the animal in response to stimuli of
its environment. If the bee makes a visible movement in re-
sponse to a stimulus arising in its environment, 1 that visible
movement and nothing else is of value hi forming a conclu-
sion. If there is a movement or other response inside the
animal or otherwise invisible, or if the bee perceives the
stimulus but does not move in response, then the observer
has a negative result. It is frequent in bee literature to find
1 The environmental factor may be inside or outside the hive, or even
inside or outside the individual bee. For example, pathogenic micro-
organisms or irritating foods are inside but not part of the animal and are
therefore environmental factors.
36 Beekeeping
the words "think," "know," " suppose" and the like applied
to bees. As a figure of speech such a form of -expression may
perhaps be admissible, but if used in its absolute sense then
it is not warranted. It would result in a marked diminution
of the literature on bees, and a great improvement therein,
if such material could be wiped out of existence.
Danger from poor work:
There is but one source of erroneous theory more danger-
ous than those mentioned and that is the observer who makes
false observations and unwarranted deductions. Here too
the bee has not escaped. Because of the wide interest in
bees there has been a demand for scientific information
concerning them and this has induced several untrained or
poorly trained men to undertake observations on the struc-
ture or behavior of bees, for which they were not equipped.
Such work, being frequently presented in a more popular
and attractive form than genuine scientific work, has had
much influence among beekeepers so that, in attempting to
present the results of thorough work, it is first often neces-
sary to show the inaccuracies of work done by unqualified
writers.
Advantage of experience in behavior investigations.
It must not be supposed that our present knowledge of
the behavior of the bee is complete. It is, in fact, woefully
meager. It is probably true, however, that a well-informed
beekeeper has a wider and more accurate knowledge con-
cerning bees than have many students of animal behavior
concerning the species with which they work. The intimate
acquaintance of the beekeeper with these insects results in a
knowledge of their activities which, while faulty at times
due to a lack of training in observation, is as a whole quite
accurate. While this information is often fragmentary and
is usually acquired without any special realization of the
general principles of behavior, at the same time the data
acquired through years of contact with the bees are perhaps
The Colony and its Organization 37
as reliable as those obtained by the experimenter on other
species in the course of a relatively brief investigation. A
new worker in bee behavior should hesitate before denying
the belief of the beekeeper until he is sure of his ground.
Zoological position of the honeybee.
The honeybee belongs to the order of insects known as
Hymenoptera, to which belong also many parasites of other
insects, the solitary and social wasps, ants and the entire
group of bees, from the solitary species through various
stages in the development of the bee colony to the honeybee.
The honeybee is the highest of these colonial forms, highest
because most specialized in its behavior and least able to
exist alone. Yet, while it is highly specialized in its behavior,
it is not so strikingly modified in its structure as are some of
the other Hymenoptera, such as the Ichneumonidse. Among
the Hymenoptera there are three groups of social insects,
wasps, ants and bees, and the type of colony found in these
three groups is fundamentally the same. The only other
true colonial insects are the termites, " white ants," of a
distinct order and with a quite different type of colony.
The genus Apis to which the honeybee belongs also in-
cludes the species indica, florea, dorsata and zonata, all of
which are natives of the far East and none of which is as
useful to man as the species mellifica. 1 These are briefly
discussed in Chapter IX.
1 One of the cases of confusion originating from the application of the
law of priority in scientific nomenclature is the attempted change of the
name of the honeybee from mellifica, by which it has been known for so
many years, to mellifera. In the 10th edition of Linnaeus' "Systema
Naturae" (1758), the boundary of the prehistoric for the taxonomist, the
name mellifera was used, while Linnaeus himself used mellifica in later
years. The name mellifica is found in a vast literature, it is the scientific
name by which the bee is known to most zoologists and beekeepers, the
name which Linnaeus preferred and, last but not least, it is a correctly
descriptive name. It should be recognized in taxonomy, as well as in
civic legislation, that a law to be effective must be backed by public senti-
ment. It might therefore with propriety be suggested to the taxonomic
purists that they cultivate public sentiment by allowing the zoologist,
dealing in things not names of things, to live in peace among his old friends.
38 Beekeeping
Bees not domestic animals.
Bees have been kept by man from an early stage in the
development of human civilization, yet it cannot be said
that they are domesticated. In all of their activities, bees
under the care of man do not differ from bees in a wild state.
The bee has been modified by breeding in various ways
but, in so far as the natural instincts are concerned, it is
doubtful whether any appreciable change has been brought
about and in the greater number of phases of bee life no
change has even been attempted. An escaping swarm takes
up its abode in a hollow tree and the bees are often then
spoken of as "wild, " but this adjective is just as applicable
to the bees in the apiary. Certain animal trainers become
proficient in handling savage animals through their knowl-
edge of the ways of these beasts. Similarly the beekeeper,
by studying the behavior of his bees, comes to know their
habits and is governed by this knowledge. This comparison
of bees and wild animals must be construed not as intended
to inspire fear in the uninitiated but to point out that the
beekeeper actually is dealing with animals unmodified in
their instincts by their long association with man. By the
proper use of smoke and especially by the way the colony is
handled, the beekeeper can seemingly do with his bees as he
pleases. The fact is, however, that he cannot overstep the
bounds set by the instincts of these animals. It is therefore
an incorrect conception of the ability of the beekeeper to
state, as did Langstroth, that bees are capable of being
tamed. In view of these facts, the necessity of a thorough
knowledge of bee activities is most evident.
Necessity of colonial life.
Bees cannot live alone. Their structure and instincts fit
them for life in a colony or community, where the various
duties are divided among the individuals according to struc-
Many zoologists refuse to take taxonomy seriously and there seems every
reason for disregarding its laws in the present case.
The Colony and its Organization 39
tural fitness and age. While an individual worker bee may
live if forcibly isolated from its mates, it cannot reproduce
itself, fails to care for itself adequately and soon dies. Most
insects have the ability to hibernate in winter but the honey-
bee seems to have lost that ability. Since at low tempera-
tures the bee becomes numb and finally dies, it must have
the ability to make its own environment, so far as tempera-
ture is concerned. This makes a colony necessary in winter
so that the bees may mutually and collectively warm each
other. Efficiency, if not necessity, demands that the work
of the colony be divided and such a division of labor tends to
develop into a condition demanding the maintenance of the
colony. The honeybee is further modified for the defense of
the colony rather than of the individual. The barbed sting
is used but once and is more effective because it is left behind
while the former owner dies. Such a weapon of defense is of
no service to the individual.
Size of the colony.
This varies according to the season, the smallest number
being usually found at the close of the winter in the North,
when the number may be reduced to 10,000 or even much
less. At the height of the season, the number may reach
70,000, and while a larger number may be possible it is unu-
sual. Swarms sometimes issue which contain 35,000 individ-
uals. Such numbers usually surprise the uninitiated. It is
not, however, necessary for bees to exist in such large numbers
to constitute a colony. A mere handful of bees (perhaps 200)
may constitute a small colony (usually called a nucleus x ) and
if favorable conditions were to continue such a nucleus would
become a full-sized colony.
TYPES OF INDIVIDUALS IN A COLONY
A normal colony at the height of the summer season of
activity is composed of three kinds of individuals, (1) the
1 The unusually small colonies are known among beekeepers as "baby
nuclei."
40
Beekeeping
queen (Fig. 34, 6), of which there is normally only one, the
mother of all the other bees of the colony (except just after a
a
FIG. 34. The honeybee : a, worker ; b, queen ; c, drone. Slightly
enlarged.
new queen has been reared), (2) thousands of workers (Fig.
34, a) or sexually undeveloped females which normally lay
no eggs but do all the other work and (3) many drones (Fig.
34, c) or males, often removed
or restricted in numbers by the
beekeeper, whose only function
is to mate with young queens.
These three types of adult in-
dividuals are easily recognizable
even by a novice by differences
in the size of the various parts of
the body. In addition to the
adult bees, there are normally
found during the active season
all stages of developing bees
(Fig. 35).
Queen.
FIG. 35. The honeybee: a, . n i_
egg; b, young larva; c, old There is normally but one
larva ; d, pupa. Enlarged. queen, the largest individual in
The Colony and its Organization 41
the colony. She has for her sole duty the laying of eggs and
all the individuals normally develop from eggs laid by her.
They are deposited at the bases of cells of the comb in that
portion of the nest devoted to the rearing of brood, the brood
nest. The eggs are fastened to the cell base by the poste-
rior (future caudal end of the larva) end by means of a secre-
tion of the queen. The number of eggs laid by the queen 1
varies from a few daily in early spring and late fall in the
northern regions to about 1500-2000 a day at the height of
the egg-laying season. Under special conditions, usually
artificially produced by the beekeeper, she may lay as many
as 4500 to 5000 eggs a day and maintain this rate for several
days. The weight of the maximum number that can be laid
in a day is equal to about twice the weight of the queen at
any time during the period, indicating a marvelous rapidity
in metabolism.
The queen is not, as her name would indicate, the ruler of
the colony. It has for ages been known that there is one
large individual in the colony and the ancients gave the
name "king" to this supposed ruler. When it was learned
that the supposed monarch laid eggs it became necessary to
change the name. It is now known that the queen is men-
1 In 1903, the author had occasion to study the egg-laying of normal
queens. Queens were introduced to a small colony in an observatory hive
on an empty comb. These queens usually deposited about four or some-
times six eggs a minute, passing quickly from one cell to another. The
abdomen is inserted in the cell, the legs are braced firmly on the edges of
adjacent cells and the wings are placed flat against the edges of cells to the
rear. During egg-laying, the queen is often surrounded by a circle of
worker bees with their heads toward her, rubbing her with their antennae.
Frequently this rapid egg-laying is continued without interruption for
20 to 25 minutes and at times for a longer period. There then is usually a
resting period, often of about five minutes, during which time the queen is
fed by the workers. Whenever the queen comes to rest, she is surrounded
by a circle of workers and, as she walks over the comb, each bes turns to-
ward her when she gets within half an inch. This is probably a response
to the stimulus of odor.
Some curious traditions have arisen about this circle around the queen,
one of the most interesting being the claim that there are always twelve,
the number being associated with the twelve apostles. The turning toward
the queen is often ascribed to the affection of the workers for her, but this
is probably as well grounded as the tradition of there being always twelve.
42 Beekeeping
tally less highly developed than the workers and that, to
some degree, the workers determine the number of eggs to
be laid and otherwise determine the queen's activities.
The ovaries of the queen (Fig. 92) are highly developed, as
is necessary for her specialized function, and because of this
development the abdomen is greatly elongated. Her legs
(Fig. 81) are not specially modified as are those of the workers
and the ovipositor is curved and smooth and has attached to
it a poison sac l and functions as a sting. Whether it also
assists in egg-laying is not determined. The eyes (Fig. 69)
are much like those of the workers, the mandibles are notched
and proportionately large, the head is not so elongated as
that of the worker and is somewhat smaller. The antennae
have twelve segments, like those of the worker.
Mating normally takes place but once when the queen is
from five to eight days old, the time differing slightly in
different races and being influenced also by conditions of the
weather. There is reason to think that some queens mate
more than once, but always before laying eggs. Mating
never occurs in the hive but on the wing and the queen re-
ceives a supply of spermatozoa (male sex cells), millions in
number, which are stored in her spermatheca (Fig. 92) and
remain functional during the life of the queen or until they
are exhausted. Egg-laying commonly begins two days after
mating. The queen often lives three or four years but a few
exceptional cases are recorded of queens living seven years.
The life of the queen seems to depend somewhat on the num-
ber of eggs which she lays. The queen, when she fails in egg-
laying, is superseded by a young queen reared by the workers.
1 On one occasion the author was stung by a virgin queen. While it
was doubtless his own fault, this is an experience that comes to but few
beekeepers. This was in the early days of his beekeeping experience and
that there was a poison sac at the other end of the sting was attested by a
goodly swelling. The queen was seemingly uninjured. This occurred in
the apiary of the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio and, by a strange coinci-
dence, E. R. Root received a letter the same day from a western beekeeper
who had a similar experience and who considered it rare enough to be worthy
of publication.
The Colony and its Organization 43
While there is usually but one queen in the colony, it some-
times happens that two are found, usually mother and
daughter at the time of supersedure. Records of this kind
are not infrequent but usually each observer thinks that his
observation is unique, v. Buttel-Reepen 1 claims that there
are usually two brood-nests. He records one case in which
this was not true and several American beekeepers have
recorded the same thing. The specialization which normally
permits but one egg-producing female is not well understood
nor do we know why a queen usually attempts to kill any
rivals (except under swarming conditions). Recently, Al-
exander 2 has advocated the use of two queens for rapid up-
building of the colony in the spring and he brought this about
by a special method of introduction. He records that usually
but one remains in the fall.
Workers.
The larger number of bees in the colony are females whose
sexual organs are undeveloped and which are structurally
modified in other ways. These are justly called worker bees.
These bees feed the growing larvae, clean, guard and venti-
late the hive, build comb, gather nectar, pollen, water and
propolis and, in fact, do all the work of the hive, except that
normally they lay no eggs (p. 187).
The ovaries are small and there is no spermatheca. The
mandibles (Fig. 70) are not notched as in the queen, the legs
(Fig. 81) are variously modified, the third pair being modi-
fied for the carrying of pollen. The ventral plates of the
last four visible segments of the abdomen are modified on
the anterior edge to form wax glands (Fig. 53) from which
the wax used in comb building is secreted. The sting (Fig.
83) is straight and barbed. The antennae have 12 segments.
The tongue is longer than in the queen or drones. The
1 v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1900. Sind die Bienen Reflex-maschinen ? (Eng.
trans., p. 10.)
2 Alexander, E. W., 1907. A plurality of queens in a colony, without
perforated zinc. Gleanings in Bee Culture, XXXV, pp. 1136-1138.
See also p. 1496 and Vol. XXXVI, p. 1135.
44 Beekeeping
honey stomach (Fig. 60) is well developed. The workers never
mate with the drones and lay eggs only under abnormal
circumstances, which are discussed under Chapter VIII.
Speaking in general terms, the length of life of worker bees
is measured not so much by days or weeks as by the amount
of work which they do. During the period when nectar is
being gathered abundantly, they literally work themselves
to death and the population of the colony is appreciably
decreased unless brood is being reared heavily. During
such a period, the average length of life of worker bees is
barely six weeks, while in periods when less work is necessary
the life is lengthened. Those bees which emerge in the early
autumn are the ones which live until the following spring.
During the active season, the majority of worker bees die
outside the hive, failing to return with the last load. Small
wonder that in addition to their other burdens they must
sometimes serve as examples of industry !
Drones.
The males of the bee are known by this name. The use of
the word drone, meaning a lazy person, arose from the name
of the male bee, and it may be re-applied to them as fitting.
They are not a useful part of the colony organization in the
routine, for they do none of the work of the hive nor do they
assist in gathering. The only function of a drone is that of
mating with a young (virgin) queen and in this act it dies.
Drones are heavy consumers of stores and are not in favor
among beekeepers, so that their numbers are greatly reduced
in the modern apiary. This is done either by restricting the
number of cells in which they may be reared or by trapping
them after they emerge as adults.
The drone is a large individual, exceeding even the queen
in girth of thorax. 1 The compound eyes (Fig. 69) are so
1 This fact enables the beekeeper to trap out drones by means of the
Alley traps (Fig. 30), which have openings ^^ of an inch wide,
through which workers can pass but which are not large enough for most
drones and queens because of their larger thoraces.
The Colony and its Organization 45
large that they meet on top of the head, forcing the ocelli
(simple eyes, O, Fig. 69) down on the front nearer the bases
of the antennae. The legs (Fig. 81) have no pollen baskets.
The wax glands are missing, and there is no sting (this
being a strictly female organ, a modified ovipositor).
There is one more segment visible in the abdomen than
in the female and the abdomen is larger and blunt at
the end. A row of prominent hairs is present on the dorsal
side of the abdomen.
In the early spring when brood-rearing begins, the first
eggs laid by the queen ordinarily develop into workers and,
as the colony becomes more populous and the weather mod-
erates, drones rapidly appear. They may be fairly abun-
dant, if the beekeeper does not reduce their number, up to
the close of the honey-flow, but at that time the workers
drive them from the colony. The first indication of this
exodus is to see them in numbers on the bottom board and
soon workers will be seen leaving the entrance carrying the
heavy drones, with the base of a wing grasped by the man-
dibles. They are dropped a hundred feet or more from the
hive and usually fail to return. If they do return the pro-
cess is repeated. 1 There is reason to believe that the drones
are first starved and then carried out when they become
weak. They are rarely stung to death. This slaughter of
the drones is best seen in localities where the honey-flow
stops abruptly. In queenless colonies, drones are not re-
moved and cases are reported of such colonies retaining
them until well into winter. Drones usually do not fly until
over a week old but they are probably functionally developed
earlier, for the spermatozoa are developed in the pupa.
The drones are seemingly not so fundamentally members
of a single colony as are females. They may be placed in
any colony without being molested and appear to enter
anywhere without challenge until the time of the slaughter.
1 It is not so usually recognized that old workers are sometimes treated
in the same manner.
46 Beekeeping
Brood.
The developmental stages of bees (Fig. 35) are discussed
in a later chapter (p. 93) and, for our present purpose, it is
necessary only to present a general statement concerning
the numbers of individuals in these developmental stages
in the colony. In the earliest stages of brood-rearing (in
late winter in the North), the queen lays only a few eggs a
.day and the number increases to 1500 or more a day in an
average colony. In exceptional cases, however, this may be
exceeded until there are in the combs at one time as many as
40,000 developing bees in all stages, and possibly of all three
kinds of bees. Incidentally, this gives some basis for an
estimate of the death rate of the adult bees of the colony.
If bees emerge from the comb at the rate of 1500 a day dur-
ing a honey-flow, the population of the colony is not notic-
ably increased, indicating that 1500 or more bees from that
colony are dying daily. In the spring when the bees are
working less in gathering nectar, the population increases
rapidly, indicating a much lower death rate. Truly, bees
are creatures of a day.
NATURAL NEST
In a wild state, the bee colony lives in a hollow tree or
cavity in the rocks, although they thrive in the artificial
hive provided by the beekeeper. An examination of a wild
colony will assist in the understanding of various manipu-
lations and hive arrangements. The combs which form
their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers
(p. 108). The horizontal, hexagonal cells of the two vertical
layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends on a
common septum (Fig. 36). In the cells of these combs are
reared the developing workers and drones, honey and pollen
also being stored in such cells. These combs hang from the
top of the cavity and are frequently also attached to the
sides. They are rarely built upward from a lower support.
The cells built naturally are not all of the same size. The
The Colony and its Organization
47
ones in which worker bees are reared (worker cells) are about
one-fifth of an inch across and those used for rearing drones
(drone cells) are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter.
FIG. 36. Structure of comb : a, vertical section at top of comb ; b, ver-
tical section showing transition from worker to drone cells ; c, horizon-
tal section at side of comb showing end-bar of frame ; d, horizontal
section of worker brood cells ; e, diagram showing transition cells.
Slightly reduced.
The cells used in storing honey are usually of the larger size
while pollen is ordinarily stored in worker cells. The storage
cells are less regular and as a rule slope upward at the outer
end. The side walls are not all at right angles to the midrib
48
Beekeeping
(the common septum) but on all the edges of the comb there
may often be noticed a sloping of the outer ends of the cell
walls toward the edge of the comb (Fig. 36, c). Where drone
and worker cells join, the bees overcome the lack of conform-
ity by building transition cells (Fig. 36, 6 and e, Fig. 37) of
irregular shape. Such cells usually cannot be used for brood-
rearing. Attention should perhaps be drawn to the differ-
ence between vertical and horizontal sections of comb (Fig.
36, a, b and d). An examination of a comb will show these
illustrations to be
correct, although
many authors of
books on bees
persist in labeling
drawings like Fig.
36, d as vertical
sections. In ad-
dition to the ir-
regular transition
cells, the cells at
the. junction of
the comb to its
support are quite
irregular.
The combs of
the natural nest
are often not straight but are bent and curved in various
ways. The several combs may be parallel or, if this is
not the case, the irregular spaces may be filled with short
combs. Notwithstanding the irregularity of the whole
comb, individual cells of the comb are commonly quite
uniform. This regularity has been greatly overestimated,
however. Reaumur went so far as to advise that the
width of a cell be adopted as a legal unit of measure, but
even a cursory examination of naturally built comb will
show how impractical this would have been. There are also
in bee-lore traditions of the marvelous accuracy with which
FIG. 37. Piece of new comb showing transition
cells.
The Colony and its Organization 49
bees form the angles of the side walls and those of the side
walls with the base. It has been stated that the comb is
built with such accuracy that the maximum capacity and
strength are obtained with the minimum expenditure of wax.
Miraldi and Koenig vied with each other in the supposed
accuracy of their measurements of the various angles and in
their calculations of the greatest economy of wax. While
it would be a marvelous accomplishment if bees were able to
build so accurately, it is per- ^
haps more marvelous that they
can adapt their cells to their
needs. It need scarcely be
said that the formerly sup-
posed accuracy is not actual. 1
In addition to the horizon-
tally placed hexagonal cells,
there are found on the combs
at certain times cells of a differ-
ent type. These hang verti-
cally from the combs and are FlG ' 38 ' ~ celL Natural
used for rearing queens (Fig.
38). They are circular rather than hexagonal, are larger
than the other cells and the outer surface is rough and
pitted, somewhat resembling a peanut.
Contents of the cells.
As previously stated, the cells of the comb are used for the
rearing of brood and for the storage of honey and pollen,
each use being in a sense more or less restricted to cells
in definite locations. As the larvae (p. 100) reach the age
when food is no longer taken, they are sealed over with a
characteristic capping (Fig. 39), and when a cell is filled with
ripened honey it too is sealed, but with a different capping
1 Under manipulation, the size and regularity of the cells are controlled
by the use of comb-foundation, sheets of pure beeswax on which the midrib
is impressed (p. 28 ). Even when this is used, a sloping of the side walls
of the cells toward the outer margin of the combs may often be observed.
E
50
Beekeeping
(Fig. 40). The cells containing pollen are usually not en-
tirely filled and, unless they are also used for the storage of
honey, as is sometimes the case, the pollen is not covered.
While the usual conception of the use of the combs includes
only the uses just mentioned, the cells actually have an im-
portant use as places for adult bees. In winter the bees
normally form their cluster over cells containing no honey
and adult bees crawl into the empty cells, filling every one
within the space
occupied by the
cluster. They are
thus able to form
a much more com-
pact mass, the out-
side of the cluster
being essentially a
solid wall of bees.
During the active
season, bees often
crawl into the
empty cells, but
their function dur-
ing this time is
not clear, except
that by this means
cells are prepared to receive eggs. It has been suggested
that many of these bees are " sleeping," but how one may
determine this has not been explained.
Arrangement of the nest.
There is to be observed in a natural colony a definite and
virtually constant arrangement of the contents of the combs.
During the active season, the brood occupies an approxi-
mately spherical space involving several combs at the lower
part of the center of the comb mass. This space may be
shifted or restricted by excessive stores of honey. Around
this, on the sides and above, are cells of pollen and beyond
FIG. 39. Cappings of brood
pings are over drone pupae.
the larger cap-
Natural size.
The Colony and its Organization 51
these are the honey stores, chiefly to the back of the nest.
Drone cells are most often found in the lower corners of
combs. This typical plan may be variously modified if the
nest is of peculiar shape.
In natural comb-building, bees build for the immediate
present, with no evidence of a plan for the needs of the future.
When comb-building begins, worker cells are built so long as
the queen continues promptly to lay eggs in the new cells.
A queenless colony builds storage cells (drone-cell size). If
the colony is rather weak and can care for only a little brood,
the bees soon begin to build storage cells and this also occurs
if the queen is a poor layer. In a nucleus, however, only
worker cells are built. If nectar is coming in abundantly
they construct storage cells. It may thus happen that some
of the combs near the center of the brood nest contain a
superabundance of cells suitable only for the rearing of drones
or for the storage of honey, and this condition remains in
future years, regardless of the best interests of the colony.
Color of the combs.
When first built, combs are light yellow or almost white
in color, 1 but after brood is reared in the cells the comb is
darkened by the " cocoons" left by the brood. These so-
called cocoons consist of larval skins and excreta, with the
possible addition of a portion of the delicate silken cocoon
(p. 101). These deposits increase with successive rearings of
brood until the bases of the cells are appreciably thickened
while the outer parts of the side walls remain practically
unmodified in size. If an old comb is soaked in water the
layers of deposits may be readily separated. The combs
are also darkened by deposits of propolis on the cappings of
honey cells and the tops of combs are often strengthened by
deposits of this substance, especially when the combs are
attached to rough wood, as in a hollow log.
1 The color varies with the sources of honey and pollen at the time the
comb is being built. This fact is noi: yet satisfactorily explained. It is
also known that waxes vary similarly in certain physical properties.
52 Beekeeping
Protection of the nest.
Since the nest of a colony is usually built in a cavity, it is
thereby protected, at least partially, from extremes of
weather and from depredations. In addition to the pro-
tection afforded by the shelter, the worker bees cover the
inside of the cavity (if it is rough) with propolis (bee glue).
This serves to protect the colony from external moisture,
often strengthens the wood in a rotten tree and covers irreg-
ularities in the surface. Certain races (p. 196) are especially
active in reducing the size of the entrance with the same
material (Fig. 94), sometimes adding wax to it. An exam-
ination of a cavity in a tree which has been occupied by a
colony for a considerable time will prove interesting in show-
ing the ways in which bees have improved their abode.
While swarms usually seek protection in a cavity, it some-
times happens that they fail to do this but build their combs
in the open. Bouvier l has described in detail the comb
architecture of such a colony which survived the winter in
Paris but died in March. Similar cases are reported fre-
quently in the United States but such a colony fails to sur-
vive cold winters. On one occasion, an open-air colony was
discovered near Washington and was moved to the apiary of
the Department of Agriculture, then located at College Park,
Maryland (Fig. 41). The colony defended itself from rob-
bers and wasps during a period when robbing was severe and
wasps were unusually abundant, and lived until nearly mid-
winter, when it succumbed during a blizzard. In general,
the combs of such colonies are bent so that the wind cannot
blow directly through the nest, and the edges of combs are
sometimes united with comb projections or propolis. This
ability to live in the open suggests a similarity with the giant
bees of India and the Philippines which normally build
unprotected combs, the latter bees however usually building
only a single large comb.
1 Bouvier, E. L., 1905. Sur la nidification d'une colonie d'abeilles a
1'air libre. Bui. soci6t6 philomatique de Paris, Neuv. s6r., VII, pp. 186-
206.
The Colony and its Organization 53
Comparison with stingless bees.
The arrangement and protection of the natural nest of the
honeybee may be compared with the arrangement found in
the stingless bees, to which they are closely related. These
bees do not build double rows of cells in their combs but the
brood is reared in cylindrical cells fused together in single
layers. The pollen and honey are stored in large spherical
cells of wax. Several years ago, the author had opportunity
to examine the nest of a colony of these bees minutely. In
this particular species, the spherical cells for pollen and
nectar are about one inch in diameter. The entrance is
contracted and projects as a funnel almost two inches out-
ward. This funnel is evidently composed of propolis and
wax to which pellets of earth are added. Inside the entrance
are the storage cells for pollen surrounding the outer half of
the group of brood cells. Back of the brood cells and par-
tially encircling them are the cells of honey, the honey in
this particular case being well ripened and of superb flavor.
The contracted entrance suggests a resemblance to the work
of certain races of honeybees (e.g. Caucasian, p. 196) in clos-
ing the entrance in the autumn, while the general arrange-
ment of the nest follows the usual plan for the honeybee
closely, except that the pollen cells are between the entrance
and the brood.
CHAPTER IV
THE CYCLE OF THE YEAR
To describe the various activities observed in the bee
colony in its response to changes in the environment, there
is perhaps no better arrangement of the facts than to follow
such a colony through the year, assuming that it is normal
and unmolested by man. For convenience, the cycle is
begun at the close of winter. It must of course be understood
that any such arrangement is arbitrary, since the cycle varies
in different regions with differences in climate and in the
sources of nectar.
In discussing the round of action, it is customary among
American writers chiefly to discuss the phenomena observed in
the white clover region, and they often fail to make clear that
elsewhere the course of events may be materially modified.
The long winter of the North is a striking feature of the year
and greatly influences the activities of the bees. In this
region, too, all of the seasonal influences which go to make
up the year are intensified and the proper control of bees is
more difficult. In the discussion which follows, the events
typical of the North must be made rather prominent in
order to follow the plan of arranging the facts to the yearly
cycle, but an effort is made to include the differences which,
in beekeeping literature, are often attributed to the abused
term "locality." 'From the strong contrasts in seasons and
in bee activities observed near the northern limits of the
region where bees may be kept, there is a gradual fading of
the boundaries of the seasons and a corresponding reduction
in the extremes of bee activity until we reach the tropics,
where every day to the bees is as the day before, except for
54
*::
FIG. 42. Eggs in cells of the comb. Slightly enlarged.
FIG. 43. Larvae in cells of the comb, almost full grown,
enlarged.
Slightly
The Cycle of the Year 55
the indistinctly circumscribed honey-flows and for temporary
disturbances in weather conditions.
BROOD-BEARING
A normal colony of bees in good condition just previous
to the beginning of the season's activity may be assumed to
be broodless and to consist of a mated queen and perhaps
10,000 or more worker bees. The combs contain an adequate
supply of honey and stored pollen. The workers fly from
the hive whenever the days are warm enough, especially
after a period of confinement, and with the opening of the
earliest spring flowers they replenish their stores of honey
and pollen. Previous to the stimulus of incoming nectar,
however, the rearing of brood is begun. This usually com-
mences, in colonies wintered out of doors, in the coldest
period of the winter, in February or even in January in the
North, and this fact indicates strongly that the beginning
of brood-rearing is usually not due to a rise in the outside
temperature or to the procuring of nectar or pollen, as is
usually assumed. It certainly is not due to any instinctive
knowledge of the coming of spring.
The first eggs (Fig. 42) are laid in the center of the winter
cluster, before it is loosened. They are usually deposited
in circular areas of cells on adjacent combs and, if the queen
can pass around the combs without leaving the cluster, such
circles of eggs will be found opposite each other on the comb.
As breeding continues, eggs are placed in concentric rings,
not only on the middle comb but on contiguous combs, so
that the form of the brood nest becomes approximately
spherical. The development of the brood (Fig. 35) will be
discussed in greater detail in a later chapter (p. 93) and it
will suffice here to state that after approximately three days
there hatches from the egg a small worm-like larva, pearly-
white l in color. This is fed great quantities of food by the
1 In the comb the larva appears white but, if one is removed from the
cell and placed on white paper, a slight yellow or brown color is evident.
56 Beekeeping
workers so that it grows nearly to fill the cell (Fig. 43) in a
few days. It is then capped over (Fig. 39) and undergoes
metamorphosis into an adult, this transition stage being
known as the pupa. If about two weeks after brood-rearing
has begun, the central comb is removed, we find the inner
circle of the brood sealed, surrounding this concentric circles
of larvae, the smaller toward the outside, and in the outer-
most circle are recently laid eggs. Similarly as other combs
are examined, the same succession of brood is found as we
go to the outer lateral boundaries of the sphere of brood.
As the brood continues to develop, the innermost cells are
first emptied by the emergence l of the young adult bees and
the queen then returns to the -center of the sphere to deposit
eggs. The emergence of the brood increases the size of the
colony and consequently the amount of brood that can be
fed and protected is greater, especially since the young bees
normally do most of the work of caring for the brood. Fur-
thermore, as the temperature of the outside air rises, the
cluster is expanded and more brood can be included in it.
Bees often attempt to rear more brood than they can cover
in the event of unusually cold weather, and if the weather
turns cold they may contract the cluster and leave brood
exposed to die of starvation and cold. The concentric ar-
rangement of the brood may often be observed throughout
the breeding season (Fig. 44) but usually after a time the
symmetrical arrangement of early spring is less conspicuous,
due to irregularities in the combs or to external conditions
modifying the extent of brood-rearing from day to day. In
general, however, the brood consists of concentric spherical
layers of various ages. 2 The concentric arrangement of the
The content of the intestine is often dark and this may frequently be
seen through the transparent tissues as a narrow band on the convex
side.
1 Beekeepers frequently refer to the emergence of young adult bees as
"hatching." This, however, is incorrect and the word should be applied
only to the issuing of the young larvae from the eggs.
2 In a hive as shallow as the Langstroth the sphere is usually flattened,
as in Fig. 44.
The Cycle of the Year
57
pollen and honey about the brood has been previously
described (p. 50).
The first eggs laid develop into worker bees, but as the
season advances eggs are laid in the larger cells of the comb,
from which drones develop. The number of drones and the
time when they first appear depend largely on the kind of
cells in the comb. If there are drone cells near the place
where the cluster is formed, they are soon included within
the limits of the brood nest, as it expands, and drones appear
earlier than if the drone cells were at one side of the hive.
FIG. 44. Concentric arrangement of the brood.
Brood-rearing during the season.
The cycle of brood-rearing has been studied by Dufour l
for the conditions prevailing in Fontainebleau, France, from
1897 to 1900. This was done by measuring the extent of
the brood nest every 21 days (worker brood requiring that
time to develop) and by estimating accurately the number
of eggs laid since the previous measurements. The hives
(Layens) used contained 20 frames, 2 each 37 cm. (14.67 in.) by
1 Dufour, Leon, 1901. Recherches sur la ponte de la reine. Ann. de la
fed. des soc. d'apiculture (France). Lille: Le Bigot Freres (with L'Api-
culteur, 1902).
2 These hives are comparable to the hives sometimes used in America,,
to which the name "long idea" is given. All 20 frames are in one hive body.
58
Beekeeping
31 cm. (12.3 in.). To show the course of egg-laying during
the season, the accompanying table is copied from this paper.
These observations were made during 1900 on a colony in
which the queen was reared in 1899, egg-laying of this queen
having begun about June 17, 1899. During the year a total
of about 150,000 eggs were laid. The maximum egg-laying
occurred during the period of the chief honey-flow, which
that year was from June 1 to 12. The colony did not swarm.
TABLE I. EGG-LAYING DURING AN ENTIRE SEASON DUFOUR
DATE
PERIOD
AVERAGE
LAYING
Feb. 26
Feb. 5-Feb. 26
135
March 20
Feb. 27-March 20
220
April 12
March 22-April 12
309
May3
April 12-May 3
1008
May 23
May 2-May 23
1454
June 14
May 24- June 14
1538
July 5
June 14- July 5
1081
July 26
July 5- July 26
668
Aug. 16
July 26-Aug. 16
348
Sept. 6
Aug. 16-Sept. 6
450
Sept. 27
Sept. 6-Sept. 27
83
In brief, the results of Dufour's work are as follows : For
that locality and under the conditions prevailing, the largest
average observed was 1627 eggs a day (June 10-July 1, 1898).
The maximum occurs during a heavy honey-flow or imme-
diately after. A queen about to be superseded may lay about
400 eggs daily, while a young queen may begin by laying
900 eggs daily (these figures probably vary with the time of
year). Artificial swarming is said greatly to diminish egg-
laying. It must be remembered that variation in climatic
conditions and in honey-flows influence egg-laying and the
results of such work would not be the same everywhere.
Work of this character should be carried out elsewhere.
The Cycle of the Year 59
THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HIVE
In a study of the activities of a colony of bees, the question
of temperature must be carefully considered. Bees are cold-
blooded (poikilothermous) animals, that is, the temperature
of the body of an individual bee is variable and is the same
or almost the same as that of the air immediately surround-
ing the body. All cold-blooded animals usually have a
temperature slightly above that of the surrounding medium,
except in the case of animals having a moist skin and sur-
rounded by air, in which evaporation on the surface of the
body may cause the temperature of the body to fall a little
below that of the air. The heat which raises the tempera-
ture of the individual bee, and collectively of the bee colony,
above that of the surrounding air is generated chiefly by
muscular activity. The individual bee can continue mus-
cular movements only so long as the temperature of the body
does not fall below 45 F., but at about this temperature it
loses its power of movement. The highest temperature at
which bees can live has not been accurately determined but
it must be over 130 F.
While the individual bee does not possess the ability to
maintain a nearly uniform body temperature, as do warm-
blooded animals, the colony as a whole shows some remark-
able temperature changes, different from any observed in
individual bees or in other cold-blooded animals. Warm-
blooded animals maintain a fairly constant temperature
which may be either higher or lower than that of the sur-
rounding air. While the colony of bees may maintain a
temperature either warmer or colder than the surrounding
air (colder than the air outside the hive), the temperature
of the colony is not constant. In warm-blooded animals,
most of the heat is generated by the processes of internal
combustion in the assimilation of food, augmented by heat
due to muscular activity. In the bee, the chief method of
heat production is by muscular activity, with possibly some
additional heat from other life processes, and the bee, unlike
60 Beekeeping
a warm-blooded animal, promptly cools if muscular activity
ceases and the surrounding air is cool. The temperature
changes of other colonial insects have not been studied, but
it would seem probable from our present knowledge that
the honeybee is the only insect which is able to generate
heat sufficient to maintain active movements without hiber-
nation throughout the winter in the North.
The most interesting and important phases of the temper-
ature of the bee colony are to be observed in the winter
season and this will be discussed at the close of this chapter.
While many observations have been made on the temper-
ature of the bee colony during the period of brood-rearing,
the work has not been done with sufficient detail so that we
have little information concerning heat generation during
this season. The foregoing statement perhaps demands
some explanation. If a colony of bees is disturbed, 1 its
temperature promptly changes and consequently the inser-
tion of a mercurial thermometer into the brood nest, or even
an approach to the hive to read a thermometer already
inserted, may at times produce abnormal temperature
conditions. Furthermore, most of the thermometers used
are of doubtful accuracy and the slow action of a mercury
thermometer is an additional cause of inaccuracy. It is
usually stated that during brood-rearing a temperature of
approximately human blood heat is maintained within the
cluster and that this temperature is practically uniform.
The uniformity of the temperature has been greatly over-
estimated, at least in certain parts of the season, and it may
vary over several degrees. It rarely exceeds 97 F. How-
ever, if the temperature of the outside air exceeds the maxi-
mum hive temperature, the bees reduce the temperature of
the cluster by fanning, causing a drop in the temperature
inside the hive by evaporation.
In the case of other insects, the length of the developmental
stages varies greatly, according to temperature. Since the
bee colony virtually creates its own temperature environ-
1 This is specially true in winter when a definite cluster is formed.
The Cycle of the Year 61
ment within the brood nest during brood-rearing, the de-
velopmental stages are practically uniform in length of time.
This is a great benefit to the beekeeper, especially in timing
swarming and similar phenomena where queen cells are
concerned. It has been found that if brood is removed and
kept at a temperature lower than is usual in the brood-cham-
ber, development continues but, as with other insects, it is
retarded.
One other point regarding the hive temperature is impor-
tant. The temperature is not uniform throughout the hive
but may vary over many degrees in cold weather. This will
be explained in greater detail under a discussion of bees
during winter. In any weather, however, the efforts of the
bees in heat generation are confined to the brood nest or, in
;the absence of brood, to the cluster, except when wax is
being secreted, when a high temperature is also maintained
at the point of building. Away from the centers of activity,
however, the temperature is not raised except by chance
muscular movements or by convection currents, but may be
cooled if it is too hot. This perhaps explains the seemingly
unreconcilable records of hive temperatures during the
summer.
SWARMING
Continued and increased breeding, previously described
as occurring in early summer, would result in enormous
colonies if the queen were able to lay eggs with sufficient
rapidity to meet the demands of such a case. It would not,
however, result in any increase in the number of colonies.
Obviously, it frequently 'happens that an entire colony of
bees is destroyed, in Nature as well as in the hands of the
beekeeper, and the very existence of the species depends on
another method of reproduction. The colony life of the bee
is so completely developed that it is permissible to think of
the individuals as merely " winged organs of the colony," as
Maeterlinck has expressed it. We now come to the breed-
ing of colonies or swarming. This process of reproduc-
62
Beekeeping
tion may be likened to the simple fission or division observed
in the protozoa, by which they increase in number.
Preparation for swarming.
As the colony increases in strength, the rearing of brood
is no longer confined to the worker and drone cells but
special queen cells are built (Fig. 45), in which female larvae
are fed a specially prepared food,
royal jelly, and in which the
course of their development is
so modified that there result
queens with their special organs
instead of worker bees. The
rearing of queens also occurs if
a colony becomes queenless by
the death or removal of the
queen, provided eggs or young
larvae are present, or when a
queen is about to be superseded
by a young queen because she
fails in egg-laying. Queen cells
may be built in advance of the
laying of eggs in them (pre-con-
structed cells), as is usually the
case in swarming, or the cells may
be built around small female larvse
which would otherwise become
workers (post-constructed cells), as is necessary in queenless
colonies. The eggs from which queens and workers develop
are identical, the only known cause of the difference in the
course of their development being the special cells and the
food provided for the developing queen.
Issuing of the swarm.
When the larvae in the queen cells are fully fed, they are
sealed over as are other larvae. At about the time of this
sealing, the first (prime) swarm usually issues, although it
Fio. 45. Group of queen
cells. Natural size.
The Cycle of the Year 63
may be delayed by inclement weather. 1 Swarming consists
of the departure of the old queen with part 2 of the workers
from the hive, leaving behind the brood, including the queen
cells, some adult bees and the stores, except such honey as
the workers are able to carry in their honey stomachs.
Before leaving, the bees gorge themselves until the abdomens
are distended and are thus provided with food for a few
days, in case the weather is inclement. The queen usually
lays fewer eggs just before swarming than is usual for that
season and her abdomen often becomes smaller, enabling
her to fly more easily. Frequently for a time before the
issuing of the swarm, the work of the colony in gathering is
decreased and many of the field bees remain at home, thereby
crowding the hive. The swarm usually issues on a bright
day about mid-day 3 and most of the workers in the hive at
that time leave with the swarm. Those in the field at the
time of swarming return to the hive and do not follow the
swarm.
Stimulus to leave the hive.
The stimulus to the act of swarming is not understood, but
it has been observed in hives with glass sides that bees in
various parts of the hive show signs of excitement, which
gradually spreads throughout the hive. Sometimes the
queen leaves among the first but she usually remains inside
until a considerable number have left the hive. Since a
swarm sometimes issues without a queen, she can scarcely
be considered the leader. This is also shown by the fact
that when the queen is caged, as a means of swarm preven-
tion, the bees sometimes swarm, leaving the queen in the cage.
When a queen is disabled so that she cannot fly or is detained
1 Races of bees differ somewhat in the time of swarming. Italians tend
to swarm with the queen cells in an earlier stage of development than other
races.
2 Why some go and others remain is not known. They are not sepa-
rated according to age nor duties.
3 Swarms usually issue between 10 A.M. and 2 P.M. but in warm sultry
weather may come out earlier, or quite late in the afternoon.
64 Beekeeping
by a queen trap (Fig. 30), the bees may make several at-
tempts to swarm and often finally destroy the old queen,
sometimes swarming with a virgin raised at this time.
As soon as the bees leave the entrance there is a striking
tendency to move upward. Some go upward within the
hive and if it is opened they pour out at the top and if, as
sometimes happens, the queen goes up inside instead of out-
side, the swarm soon returns to the hive. In an analysis of
swarming this upward movement is to be reckoned with.
In seeking an explanation of the stimulus to leave the hive,
there are some manipulations which produce similar results
and which are of value for purposes of comparison. (1) In
transferring colonies (p. 245) from a box-hive, an empty
box is sometimes placed over the inverted box-hive, which is
then pounded. This drumming causes the bees to fill their
honey stomachs, after which they gradually move upward
until practically the entire colony is clustered in the upper
box in the shape of a swarm. (2) In making artificial
swarms (p. 283) or in the use of the swarm box (p. 422) for
starting artificial queen cells, the bees gorge themselves and
later cluster like a swarm. (3) If bees are smoked exces-
sively, they gorge themselves and begin to run (especially
true of black bees), usually in an upward direction. In these
three examples the bees are " demoralized "; the colony is
disorganized. The bees usually do not sting and most of
them do not attempt to fly so long as they can proceed in the
desired direction on foot. They can be moved to a new loca-
tion after these operations, in which event practically none of
them return to the old location.
The same peculiar manner of leaving the hive may be
induced by placing bees in a box with a small opening. If a
substance with a repelling odor is now placed in the box,
the bees shoot out the opening as in swarming. This manner
of exit may be merely incidental to rapidity of movement and
may not be specially characteristic. The fact that move-
ments can be duplicated does not necessarily imply similar
causes.
FIG. 46. A swarm cluster. FIG. 48. Capturing a swarm.
The Cycle of the Year 65
Behavior of the issuing swarm.
The issuing of a swarm is one of the most exciting and
interesting incidents in the apiary. The bees rush from the
hive, giving the observer the impression that they are pursued
or "possessed of the devil." They appear intoxicated with
the " swarm dizziness" and whirl in " bacchanal delight," as
if drunk with joy. Even the beekeeper becomes excited.
The bees circle in the air and the whirling swarm may drift
about the apiary for a time. There is an excitement in the
" swarm tone" which is infectious.
It is especially to be noted that swarming bees rarely
sting, and it is commonly stated that they cannot sting
because their abdomens are distended with the load of honey
in the honey stomach. This latter statement is incorrect,
if taken literally, but even the hardened beekeeper finds
enjoyment in walking into the midst of the circling swarm, in
spite of the fact that he has probably tried to prevent swarm-
ing, and he needs no veil under such circumstances.
Clustering.
The swarm after a time begins to settle on the limb of a
tree or some such support (Fig. 46) and the excitement is
past. Like the issuing of the swarm from the hive, the
incentive to cluster is not understood. The queen may be
the first to alight, and this seems quite natural since she is
heavy and a poor flyer compared with the workers, but she is
just as likely to join the cluster after it is partly formed.
However, the cluster is usually not formed if the queen has
not accompanied the swarm. One feature is noticeable in
the forming cluster, however, which perhaps throws some
light on the subject. It is well known that when bees are
thrown in front of a hive the abdomen is raised and the wings
are fanned vigorously. At such a time the dorsal scent
organ (p. 172), located on the intersegmental membrane
between the sixth and seventh terga of the abdomen, is
exposed by the bending ventrally of the last visible abdominal
segment. During clustering, the bees on the outside of the
66 Beekeeping
mass expose this gland and the wings are moved rapidly so
that it seems probable that the odor which is emitted and
dispersed attracts the flying bees to the cluster.
If the cluster has been formed in an inaccessible place, the
beekeeper often finds it desirable to have the bees move to
another support. The cluster will gradually move (more
readily upward) into the dark interior of a box placed nearby,
this movement being more rapid if a piece of comb, or
better, comb with brood, is placed inside the box (Fig. 47).
If the queen has failed to fly or has been prevented in some
way, the swarm usually does not cluster but returns to the
hive, and if a cluster does form it usually breaks up in a few
minutes.
In a large apiary when swarms are issuing frequently,
many swarms will settle on one particular support. The
only plausible explanation for this peculiar action is that
the support retains an odor acquired from contact with the
swarm which acts as an attraction to other bees in the act
of swarming. This lends considerable weight to the theory
that clustering is a response to an odor stimulus. Bee-
keepers sometimes take advantage of this phenomenon
and provide an easily accessible and readily handled sup-
port for the clusters. The swarm catcher (Fig. 47) is readily
adapted to this purpose. In Langstroth-Dadant l (p. 218)
is the statement that swarming bees cluster on any dark
object that resembles a swarm in shape, especially if that
object affords adequate support. This presupposes that
bees are attracted to the clustering place through sight, for
which supposition there is little evidence. In this discussion
an old comb is mentioned as a favorite support, but in this case
it cannot be claimed that sight is the only means of perception.
Supposed aids to clustering.
An old practice at the time of swarming was to beat tin
pans, ring bells or otherwise to create a din, in the belief
1 Langstroth-Dadant, 1907. Langstroth on the hive and honey bee, re-
vised by Dadant. Hamilton, 111., 575 pp.
FIG. 47. Swarm catcher.
The Cycle of the Year 67
that the distracting noise would cause the bees to settle.
Modern beekeepers have abandoned this relic of antiquity,
since it has no effect whatsoever on the clustering. The
origin of this ancient practice has been variously explained,
one plausible theory being that it arose from the practice
of notifying neighbors of the issuing of a swarm, so that
ownership could be claimed. Nowadays a bell is not a
part of the apiary equipment and no evil seems to have
come from neglecting this rite. Flashing lights on the
swarm by means of a mirror is another theoretical impedi-
ment to long flights in which the modern beekeeper places
no confidence.
Scouts.
Under natural conditions, when the queen is present, the
swarm will hang on the support from fifteen minutes to a
day or more. The cluster is usually then broken and the
swarm flies away (often for a considerable distance) to
establish itself in a hollow tree or cave. That scouts locate
the future abode has been claimed, probably correctly.
Baron v. Berlepsch, the celebrated German beekeeper,
records * an instance of scouts working for several days in
advance of swarming to prepare a place. Usually it can-
not be so well demonstrated that scouts have been sent
out, but the accuracy with which swarms often fly to a
cavity without delay indicates that they are in some manner
led to the place. How this is done is not known. Similar
instances of bees being led to certain places are discussed
in a later chapter (p. 120).
After the swarm has been removed (Fig. 48) a few bees
will often be seen around the former location of the cluster,
either at rest or on the wing. These bees are evidently
attracted or held by the odor which adheres to the support.
That these are scouts which return after the cluster is hived
1 v. Berlepsch, 1852. Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, VII, Nr. 7. Reprinted
in v. Buttel-Reepen, 1906. Are bees reflex machines? (Eng. trans.)
68 Beekeeping
has been suggested. At any rate, the modern practice is
to hive a swarm away from the clustering place for fear re-
turning scouts may draw away the colony.
Entering the new home.
When a swarm enters a new abode, the first bees to locate
the entrance stand with their legs extended and the abdomen
raised to an angle of about 45, while their dorsal scent
glands (pp. 65 and 172) are exposed. They fan vigorously
and the odor given off is sufficiently strong to be perceived
if the nose is placed within an inch or two of the fanning
bees. Bees to the rear take up the same position until
finally the whole mass is fanning and moving toward the
entrance 1 (Fig. 49). This may be observed also if bees
are thrown in front of the hive.
When a swarm enters a cavity, the bees promptly clean
it of loose pifeces and dirt, the large pieces and irregularities
of the cavity being ultimately covered with propolis. Large
numbers of bees, especially the younger ones, now hang
on one another in curtains while the secretion of wax takes
place for the building of combs. The supply of honey
carried in the honey stomachs is adequate to nourish the
colony for a time if no nectar can. be brought to the hive.
As soon as there are cells available the queen begins egg-
laying, the field bees gather the available nectar and
pollen and these activities increase as the comb is sup-
plied by the comb builders. The swarm is equipped as a
normal colony in a surprisingly short time, if the nectar
supply is adequate.
1 If by chance the first bees are headed in the wrong direction or if the
hive is moved after the fanning has begun, the whole mass may march
away in the wrong direction. In shaking bees in front of the hive it is
therefore advisable to toss some of them in the entrance, v. Buttel-
Reepen attributes this action to the sound given off in fanning, but there
is little to support this belief. In this marching, any slight obstacle in-
terferes greatly with the progress of the mass of bees, which would scarcely
be the case if sound were the attracting stimulus. Even the smallest
amount of smoke interferes for the moment with the entrance of a swarm
and smoking should be avoided at this time.
The Cycle of the Year 69
Parent colony.
This name is usually given to that part of the original
colony which remains in the hive after the swarm issues.
It is misleading in that the actual parent of the individual
bees, the queen, departs with the first swarm but, as ordinarily
used, the term indicates merely the colony from which the
swarm issues and is not misunderstood. The course of
events in this colony will now be given, it being assumed
that, in the present instance, another swarm will not be
cast. In a few days (often about eight days) after the de-
parture of the swarm, the first young queen emerges from
her cell by gnawing her way out, often with the help of the
workers. 1 She may destroy the other queens by gnawing
into their cells, so that she is without a rival in the colony,
and she may be assisted in this destruction by the workers.
Mating flight.
When a few days old, the time depending somewhat on
the weather and the race of bees, the virgin queen flies
from the hive for the first time. Her early flights, often
several in number, resemble the first flights of worker bees
for she circles about the entrance, gradually venturing farther
away, apparently taking note of the location of the hive.
At last when from five to eight days old, she flies quickly
from the hive without preliminary circling and flies upward
in larger and larger circles, often until she is lost to vision. 2
1 Before the queen emerges, the bees frequently gnaw away part of the
capping of the queen cell, making it thinner and smooth. As the virgin
queen cuts her way out she may be fed by worker bees. In cutting the
queen cell, it frequently happens that a circular cut is made and at one place
the capping is left intact, forming a kind of flap. After the queen emerges
this flap may spring back into place, confusing the beekeeper who sometimes
does not recognize the cell as an empty one.
2 In the summer of 1903, the author and an equally ardent co-worker
made a series of observations on the flight of virgin queens in the vivarium
of the Zoological Department of the University of Pennsylvania. Small
nuclei were placed about the room, which is covered with a glass roof, and
a full colony was so arranged that the workers could fly freely to the outside
but the drones could leave only to the inside. The drones used had never
70 Beekeeping
On such a trip she meets the drone and after mating l takes
place she returns to the hive. She may be followed back
by a considerable number of drones which sometimes re-
main about the front of the hive for several hours. The
mating flight may last only a few minutes or may be pro-
tracted to over a half-hour, probably depending on the
number of drones in flight near by. The male genital organs
which are torn off in mating may often be seen protruding
from the queen's vagina and this is useful to the beekeeper
as evidence of mating. These parts shrivel in a short time
and are removed by the workers. In about two days after
flown outdoors, it being found that drones which had experienced flight
in the open air soon wore themselves out on the glass in their efforts to
escape. Virgin queens were introduced to the nuclei and their flights
were observed from the rafters above. The first flights were circles of
small diameter and while on these flights the queens were never seen to
be followed by drones. If the virgins did not fly frequently enough to
satisfy the observers they would sometimes be removed and tossed into
the air, when they behaved normally. Finally the virgin would dart from
the entrance and swiftly circle upward, often followed by several drones.
She would soon strike the glass roof and alight and the drones would at
once disperse, there apparently being no attraction in a queen at rest. It
has long been the dream of beekeepers to induce mating in an inclosure,
so that mating can be controlled for purposes of selection and the observa-
tions here mentioned were instigated by this desire. No queenp mated in
the room. The virgin queens usually returned to the nuclei unassisted,
unless the flight occurred late in the afternoon.
During the summers of 1903 and 1904, several unsuccessful attempts
were made to produce drone-laying queens (p. 187) by confining virgin
queens to prevent mating flights. During the morning the small nuclei
showed no special signs of excitement but in the early afternoon the queens
would attempt to eave the hive and would be prevented by the perforated
zinc over the entrances. They would sometimes continue these efforts
until dark. While this was going on, the workers would crowd around the
entrance both inside and out and rush about "as if offering assistance."
These efforts were not observed during the first few days after emergence
of the queens from the cell and finally the queens were no longer seen at
the entrances. Within a month they had all died. Whether this was due
to over-exertion or to the inability to mate or whether they were killed by
the workers could not be determined. Keeping virgin queens in cages was
equally unsuccessful.
1 The act of mating is rarely seen, but a few beekeepers have reported
instances in which this was observed. Apparently after the union the queen
and drone fall to the ground and the queen turns around and around until
she tears the copulatory organs from the dead drone.
The Cycle of the Year 71
mating, the queen begins to lay eggs and from that time
on the routine of egg-laying is her portion. The so-called
parent colony is now normal, with a laying queen, comb,
stores and brood.
After-swarms.
If the colony which cast the first swarm is populous, there
may be left in the parent colony enough bees to cause the
issuing of other swarms. These are called second-swarms,
third-swarms or, collectively, after-swarms. When the first
virgin queen emerges she often does not destroy the other
queen cells but, instead, flies from the hive with another
swarm. This may be repeated several times as other queens
emerge, the swarms usually becoming successively smaller.
The queens departing with after-swarms are virgins and
consequently must mate before they are able to fulfill their
duties normally. Good beekeepers make every effort to
prevent after-swarms as they are usually too weak to be
of value and they deplete the parent colony, making the
gathering of surplus honey impossible. When virgin queens
fly out to mate, they may be accompanied by a little
" swarm," which affords some evidence that the swarm is
led out by the queen. Nuclei used for mating queens are
often almost depopulated in this way.
If the old queen in a colony is prevented from flying or
is unable to fly (as by having the wings clipped), the bees
may make several efforts to swarm without her. They
often finally kill the old queen and depart with a virgin.
Such a swarm may be the first to issue from a colony in the
season, but it is virtually an after-swarm in its composition
and behavior. Swarms of this kind often cause the bee-
keeper trouble if he is unaware that the old queen has
been superseded, and consequently if the old queen was
clipped he thinks that the swarm is without a queen and
will return.
After-swarms are the plague of the beekeeper's life, for
they seem to break all the laws of the bee colony. They
72 Beekeeping
often cluster without a queen, they are fleet on the wing,
they may fly directly to the woods without clustering and
they cannot be accurately foretold, as can a first swarm,
when the queen cells are of value as a forewarning.
Activity of swarms.
It is often maintained that the bees in a swarm work
with greater vigor than those which have not swarmed.
While this cannot be accepted without qualification, there
are certain activities which are more in evidence at this
time. Wax secretion is apparently carried on more readily
than under other conditions, and if nectar is available the
bees may be so manipulated that a large amount of surplus
honey is obtained. To take advantage of the supposedly
increased activity of the swarm, the same conditions are
partially induced artificially in various manipulations.
The effect of swarming on egg-laying has been mentioned.
It is probable that the supposed vigor of swarms is due not
so much to the accomplishment of more work as to the
diverting of the labor of the colony into lines which are
more conspicuous to the beekeeper. It will be shown
later that colonies which swarm produce less honey than
those which make no effort to swarm.
Swarming conditions induced artificially.
While so-called artificial swarms are a part of the practical
manipulations to be discussed in later chapters, it may be
of interest to record some attempts at producing swarming
conditions which throw some light on the natural phe-
nomenon. During the summers of 1912 and 1913, the
author was interested in the taking of motion pictures of
bee activities. In the first season, Fortune favored the
project by permitting the use of a natural swarm, which
was, however, artificially delayed until the camera was ad-
justed. In all cases the clustering was produced artificially.
In the first case, a swarm issued on a Thursday morning
and the queen was caught, caged and placed in the second
The Cycle of the Year 73
story of the hive, thus causing the bees to return. At
eight o'clock the following Saturday morning the queen
was liberated and about nine o'clock the camera was focused
on the entrance and front of the hive. In not more than
fifteen minutes after everything was ready and as the wait-
ing group was in attendance seated on adjoining hives, the
swarm came out and the camera was put in action. When
the (clipped) queen left the hive, the camera was stopped
and she was put into a queen cage which was then tied to
the limb of a tree, so situated that a swarm hanging on it
would show against the sky. When the bees returned to
the hive they were shaken into a box and thrown uncere-
moniously into the branches of the tree around the caged
queen. Those that returned to the hive were again brought
out. In a short time the fanning observed in a natural
cluster was set up and the bees gradually formed a shapely
cluster. To get pictures of the settling of the swarm, the
branch was now shaken, at first gently and then more and
more vigorously, and the bees returned to the same branch
in the exact manner of the clustering of a natural swarm.
Here again the camera man was busy. The further treat-
ment of the bees was exactly as with a natural swarm.
Since the first pictures were not satisfactory, the per-
formance was repeated twice the next year but without
the aid of a natural swarm. The bees were shaken into an
empty hive on the old stand with the entrance closed by a
stick. The clustered bees were then loosened from the
inside of the hive cover by pounding, and as the stick was
removed the camera was started. The rushing out of the
bees could not be distinguished from that of a natural swarm.
The bees were then shaken into a box and placed on a branch
about the caged queen. These unusual procedures suggest
that the clustering is brought about by the attraction of the
odor from the dorsal scent gland and that the bees may be
induced to abandon their old hive by the shaking incident
to this manipulation. It is also suggested that the queen
plays an important part in clustering.
74 Beekeeping
Peculiarities of bees in swarming.
A bee normally returns from the field to its own hive and,
while it may make mistakes, it " knows" its own location.
This is accomplished by the exercise of a memory of loca-
tion (p. 179). When the swarm issues, the memory of the
old location is abandoned (not destroyed), but if the queen
is lost or removed this memory is again called into action
and the bees return to the old hive. If the queen goes
with the swarm, it may be placed in a new hive, even right
beside the old one if desired, and the bees no longer return
to the old hive. On the return from future trips to the
field they go directly to the new home. The memory of
the old location is no longer called into action and is finally
lost. This is accomplished also in artificial swarming but
perhaps not to so marked a degree.
When a swarm issues and the air is filled with the circling
bees, it sometimes happens that other colonies which are
preparing to swarm will send out swarms prematurely and
the various swarms will mingle in the air and in the cluster.
Even if this does not happen, drones from various colonies
join the swarm. These facts indicate that swarming bees
have an attractive influence toward other bees. This has
been attributed to the noise made by flying bees, which is
so well known to beekeepers and which is sometimes called
the " swarm tone." Since it is not surely determined that
bees hear, it may be that this attraction is not one of sound
but may be one of smell.
The issuing of premature swarms andk>f numerous after-
swarms may become so common as to demoralize the apiary
and swarms may issue several at a time, without queens,
when no queen cells have been built or when the colony
has recently swarmed. Several swarms may unite in one
cluster. The impulse to swarm is known among beekeepers
as the " swarming fever" and the exaggerated conditions
just described are often discussed as if this "fever" were
infectious. Under such conditions, the usual rules for
swarming laid down by the beekeeper are seemingly dis-
The Cycle of the Year 75
regarded, which may be construed as evidence that, after
all, the beekeeper knows little about swarming.
Since swarming bees influence other bees to swarm pre-
maturely, it is evident that these conditions may become
worse in large commercial apiaries than would be the case
if colonies were scattered as wild bees are or where only a
few colonies are kept together. This abnormal condition
is largely the result of modern beekeeping, not only in the
maintenance of large apiaries but more especially in the
manipulations practiced in comb-honey production.
It is sometimes assumed that bees from colonies about to
swarm get mixed in other colonies and serve to incite swarm-
ing in their new homes. There is no good evidence for this
belief.
It should also be noted that when preparations for swarm-
ing are well under way, the various manipulations devised
to prevent it are usually unsuccessful and the only way to
get the colony back to normal (normal from the standpoint
of the beekeeper) is either to allow it to swarm naturally,
to make an artificial swarm, or to remove or cage the queen.
This and numerous other facts observed in swarm control
indicate that the condition of the bees which induces swarm-
ing is not one which comes into existence suddenly, but
is the result of a gradual development. Whether this con-
dition is physiological or psychological is undetermined.
Whatever the condition may be, it is in a sense at odds
with the gathering instinct, so that one of the most difficult
problems of the northern comb-honey producer is to keep
his colonies in the optimum condition for gathering, which
is equivalent to swarm prevention.
Cause of swarming.
Perhaps no subject in bee behavior has been so mucli
discussed as the cause of swarming. The simplest way to
account for this phenomenon is to attribute it to " instinct"
but naturally in doing this we are no nearer an explanation
than we were before. Instinct is blamed for many things
76 Beekeeping
in bee literature, it being overlooked that instincts are called
into action only by definite conditions in the environment.
It is also a common error to assume that bees voluntarily
call forth this instinct when " things look favorable," but
this is similar to the giving of human motives to other
actions and is unjustifiable here as elsewhere. This kind
of error is mentioned again here because it appears so fre-
quently in the discussion of swarming.
Overcrowding of the hive, lack of ventilation, heat, an
abundance of drones and other conditions have been re-
peatedly given as causes or contributing conditions to
swarming. Unfortunately for these speculations, the con-
ditions named may be partially or entirely lacking at the
time of swarming, although generally they are present in
colonies about to swarm. To establish the cause of swarm-
ing, however, it is first necessary to find a condition or
conditions which are invariably present. While this prob-
lem is as yet unsolved, an analysis of some of the facts ob-
served may be helpful.
It should first of all be observed that swarming is par-
ticularly prevalent in the northern regions. Near the
northern limits of the white clover belt, for example, there
is a definite, relatively short period when swarming may
be expected. This comes before and during the white
clover honey-flow but when the nectar is coming in freely
swarming may become rare. Beekeepers usually explain
this by saying that the bees are too busy gathering nectar
to swarm, but this explanation is unsatisfactory. Farther
south, there is a less well marked swarming season and the
percentage of colonies which swarm or which prepare to
swarm decreases as a rule, until under average tropical
conditions swarming becomes much less abundant, the
swarming period being less definite and more prolonged.
There are some exceptions to this general statement. Swarm-
ing may extend over six weeks or more in parts of Florida but
is never as excessive as it sometimes is in the North.
It should further be noted that colonies headed by young
The Cycle of the Year 77
queens are less likely to swarm than those with older queens.
For example, if a young queen is introduced to a colony in
August the probability of a swarm from that colony the
following spring is less than if the queen were reared early
the preceding spring.
Within the white clover region, some interesting differences
may be noted. Geo. S. Demuth of the Bureau of Ento-
mology reports the following interesting variations. In south-
ern Indiana swarming has usually ceased before the beginning
of the white clover honey-flow, while in the northern part
of the State the swarming season extends into the honey-
flow. This indicates that the stimulus of the heavy honey-
flow is not the cause of swarming. In one season which
came under Demuth's observation, white clover failed
to secrete enough nectar to provide surplus honey in north-
ern Indiana and colonies were unable to build up sufficiently
to swarm. In August, however, there was a heavy yield
from heartsease, the colonies built up rapidly and there
was a well marked period of swarming. Demuth at one
time practiced moving his bees in the fall to the. Kankakee
swamps for the Spanish needle honey-flow. While swarm-
ing was common in the spring during the white clover honey-
flow, it was not so during the fall honey-flow. The same
thing is observed when clover is followed by buckwheat.
While, therefore, honey-flows influence swarming by provid-
ing stores whereby colonies may build up to swarming
strength, they can scarcely be considered as primary causes
of swarming.
The lack of adequate space for breeding is a common
condition in colonies from which swarms issue and the con-
traction of the brood chamber in comb-honey production
probably contributes to excessive swarming. However,
if the contraction is excessive swarming is greatly reduced
and if this is carried to the extreme we have artificial swarm-
ing, in which operation all the brood combs are removed.
There fe a marked difference in the amount of swarming
according to the type of honey produced. In the produc-
78 Beekeeping
tion of extracted-honey, in which the bees are provided
with an abundance of empty combs, swarming is much less
common than from the contracted and crowded hives con-
sidered necessary for the production of comb-honey.
Similarly in the " non-swarming hive" devised by L. A.
Aspinwall, Jackson, Michigan, an abundance of room is
provided in the brood chamber by the insertion of slatted
wooden separators between the brood combs. From this
array of seemingly irreconcilable statements, one thing in
common may be observed. So far as contraction is con-
cerned, when swarming is less common there is room avail-
able for the young bees which have not yet begun their
field duties.
In the preparation of his Farmers' Bulletin on Comb
Honey, 1 Demuth makes a careful analysis of the various
methods employed in the control of swarming, which is so
important a problem in the production of comb-honey.
The following quotation from this bulletin gives his con-
clusions : "Any manipulation for swarm control, whether
applied after the colony has acquired the 'swarming fever'
or applied to all colonies alike previous to the swarming
season, is based upon a single principle a temporary dis-
turbance in the continuity of the daily emergence of brood.
This disturbance should occur just previous to or during
the swarming season." While the various methods of
swarm control are reserved for a later chapter, the funda-
mental principle that there must be a temporary disturbance
in the continuity of brood emergence, which Demuth was
the first to point out, is of primary importance in a con-
sideration of the cause of swarming. The methods de-
scribed in Demuth's bulletin are those which have proved
reliable in the hands of practical beekeepers throughout
the United States and yet these methods do not have in
common those things which are called for in considering
overcrowding, overheating, lack of ventilation or the presence
1 Demuth, Geo. S., 1912. Comb Honey. Farmers' Bulletin 503, U. S.
Dept. of Agric. [see especially pp. 34-35].
The Cycle of the Year 79
of drones as causes of swarming. If these things are really
causes of swarming it is somewhat remarkable that the
application of remedies for these conditions are not more
serviceable in controlling swarming.
The principle involved in swarm control and the differ-
ences in the amount and persistence of swarming observed
in different regions and under different systems of manipu-
lations indicate that swarming colonies have at least one
condition in common. While this condition may not be
the cause of swarming, it is at least interesting to study its
application. Gerstung advances the theory that swarming
is caused by the presence of too many young bees in the
hive. These bees, as will be discussed in a chapter to fol-
low, are those which feed the larvae and the usual supposi-
tion is that there is too much larval food prepared and that
the presence of this food in the nurse bees induces the build-
ing of queen cells and the rearing of queens. While this
effort at explaining the results of the presence of an unusual
number of young bees may be open to question, it may at
least be pointed out that swarming is always accompanied
by an unbalanced condition of the brood-chamber (not of
the hive) in regard to the age of the bees found there. If
the various preceding statements concerning swarming are
re-examined, it is seen that when swarming occurs normally
there is actually this unbalanced condition. In the north-
ern regions breeding reaches its maximum in a shorter time
than in the South and consequently as this brood emerges
the colony suddenly acquires an unusual number of young
adults. Where the season opens earlier this condition is
reached earlier (cf. southern and northern Indiana), while
in the South, where breeding increases more gradually,
this condition becomes less marked. Finally in the tropics
the preponderance of young bees does not occur unless
breeding is decreased by a dearth and begun again by a
rapid flow. Variation in seasons may cause either a more
gradual breeding in the North or a greater rapidity farther
south. This may explain the divergence in the experience
80 Beekeeping
of beekeepers from year to year in the number of colonies
which prepare to swarm. If there is a dearth of nectar,
swarming may be lacking and may accompany a later honey-
flow (cf. example of heartsease honey-flow, p. 77), when
the unbalanced condition likewise occurs. Where an
abundance of room is provided (e.g. extracted-honey pro-
duction), the younger bees are usually found in the upper
portions of the hive away from the brood, and to this extent
they are eliminated. In the Aspinwall hive, the space
between the slats provides room for the young bees away
from the brood. The distinction of having the young bees
away from the brood is probably important and finds its
application in the proper manipulation of comb-honey
supers (p. 314). A queen is capable of maximum egg-
laying only after some weeks of egg-production and this
may serve to explain the lack of swarming in colonies headed
by queens reared and introduced in August. Demuth's
conclusion on the control of swarming exactly coincides
with this theory as to cause.
This theory is not again brought forward as a satisfactory
solution of the cause of swarming. It is desired at this
time merely to point out that, of all the theories advanced,
this most nearly satisfies the various and divergent con-
ditions observed in connection with this peculiar phenome-
non. The subject is one of great interest and of the utmost
importance to the practical beekeeper. It is worthy of
more serious investigation than it has so far received.
Swarming-out.
Bees sometimes abandon their nest and to this phenomenon
is usually given the name "s warming-out." This is mislead-
ing since it indicates some relation between this and swarm-
ing and it is not definitely known that any such relation
exists. Swarming-out may occur under a variety of con-
ditions, the most common of which is in the early spring
(or at other times) if the stores are exhausted. These are
also known as "hunger swarms." Some of the published
The Cycle of the Year 81
records of extraordinarily early swarms are doubtless in-
stances of swarming-out rather than of swarming. Nuclei
used in queen-rearing are frequently depopulated, but this
may be a case of the bees accompanying the virgin queen
on her mating flight. When American foul brood is present
in a colony, swarming-out is of common occurrence, the
bees abandoning the hive when in advanced stages of the
disease. Whether this is due to the influence of the (to
us) unpleasant odor is not clear.
Somewhat similar is the abandonment of the hive so
frequent after hiving artificial or natural swarms or after
treatment of a brood disease. After the artificial swarm is
made, the bees may leave immediately or they may begin
work and then desert the hive within twenty-four hours or
even later. This is prevented if a comb containing un-
sealed larvae is given the colony or, if a queen trap is placed
over the entrance, the deserting bees will return to the
imprisoned queen. When bees swarm-out they may cluster
or they may fly away as after-swarms often do. After
artificial swarming, a colony may repeatedly attempt to
swarm-out, suggesting the intensified swarming sometimes
observed in northern comb-honey apiaries. After sufficient
comb is built and when larvae have hatched, this trouble
disappears. The swarming-out of colonies under adverse
conditions suggests the reported action of giant bees (Apis
dorsata), which are said to abandon their combs if attacked
by the wax-moth, or to migrate with the change in seasons
to districts where nectar is available.
GATHERING OF NECTAR AND STORING OF HONEY
At any time that nectar is available, if the weather is
suitable for flight, the bees gather nectar to be converted
into honey for use as food. Usually, as early in the spring
as bees are able to leave the hive for extended flights, there
is some nectar available but, under the adverse condition of
spring, when the colonies are. weak and when flying is diffi-
82 Beekeeping
cult, no more honey can be obtained than bees need for
their own use and usually they must draw on their old
stores during this season. In almost every locality, there
are later periods when no nectar is available or at least
when there is less than enough to maintain the colony.
That commercial beekeeping may be possible, there must
be other periods when the amount of honey produced is
in excess of the requirements of the bees until the next
honey-flow. This surplus may become the beekeeper's. 1
Periods of surplus depend solely on the plants of the region
and consequently they vary with different localities, as do
the plants. The problem confronting the beekeeper, there-
fore, is so to manipulate his bees that, when nectar is avail-
able near his apiary, the bees may be in condition to secure
the maximum quantity. Varying conditions call for dif-
ferent systems of management. This fact is well known
to practical beekeepers but, nevertheless, these differences
lead to confusion. For example, a beekeeper in the white
clover region works out a method by which he is able to
control swarming and thereby to secure maximum returns.
The system is published, whereupon it is perhaps tried
by beekeepers in buckwheat, Spanish needle or alfalfa
regions. The bee journals are probably then filled with
articles by these men who perhaps report failure. There
would be great good from this interchange of results did
it not tend too often to create a belief that, for example,
bees in Colorado behave peculiarly because they are in
1 It may not be amiss to call attention to the incorrectness of the concep-
tion that bees and, in fact, all plants and animals were created or evolved
for the use of man. It would scarcely be necessary to refer to this were
it not that frequently such statements appear in the bee journals. Not
until one realizes that every species of plant and animal is in a struggle
for its own existence, without regard for the welfare of any other species,
can one get a correct conception of the facts of Nature. The honeybee
was evolved from less specialized insects because the changes fitted it better
to its environment ; they store honey because the instinct to do so fits
them better to their environment. The fact that man can take some of
this honey should not cause him to think that all this course of evolution
was for his benefit.
The Cycle of the Year 83
Colorado. In other words, the difference in "locality" is
too often considered as a matter of geography. Obviously,
political boundaries are nothing to bees and they behave
similarly everywhere under similar conditions. The differ-
ences lie in a failure to observe and to record the peculiar
conditions of the " locality," to appreciate the underlying
causes of the behavior of the bees and to explain why the
manipulation is a success or a failure, as the case may be,
in the light of local conditions. If these distinctions were
better understood, it would save much loss of effort and
many failures. Obviously, a beekeeper should know not
only what to do and when to do it, but why. It frequently
happens that a beekeeper going from one place to another
attempts to follow his former practices in the new place
and usually this leads to failure.
The flows of nectar which are of value for surplus are
those which come after the colonies are strong, but earlier
honey-flows are of great value in providing stores and in
furnishing a stimulus to breeding. For each situation,
it is therefore most desirable that the plants which furnish
nectar be known and that the usual time of blossoming be
learned. With this information, the beekeeper can so
manipulate his colonies as to obtain maximum results.
The study of the periods of blossoming is especially neces-
sary in the more northern regions where the honey-flows
are sharply circumscribed. In the South, the honey-flows
more usually run together and there is less difficulty in
having colonies strong for the surplus honey-flows. Honey
plants do not bloom in the same relative times in different
localities. For example, in some places white clover has
usually ceased to secrete nectar before the basswood honey-
flow begins while in others they are mixed. Following the
clover honey-flow there is often a dearth until the fall flowers
begin to secrete, but in some northern localities white clover
may be delayed and the fall flow advanced until they leave
practically no interval.
A current fallacy should perhaps be denied. Bees do
84 Beekeeping
not cease to store honey in the tropics. Just where a con-
trary statement originated is difficult to learn, but the
supposed fact is sometimes used as a demonstration of the
wonderful wisdom of bees in learning that nectar is always
obtainable. It has also been used as an evidence of adapta-
tion. The great crops of surplus honey obtained in tropical
countries are sufficient denial.
The gathering of nectar and the storage of honey is a
pure instinct, in that it is done without previous experience,
for a definite purpose and with no knowledge of the end
to be accomplished. As will be explained in the following
chapter, this is normally the work of the older bees in the
colony. The nectar is carried to the hive in the honey
stomach (Fig. 60) where it is regurgitated into cells of the
combs. Here it is "ripened" into honey. This ripening
consists in the removal of the surplus moisture, the water
in honey usually being about twenty per cent of the total,
while nectar is often over sixty per cent water. The chemical
composition of nectars has not been sufficiently studied and,
indeed, this is a hard problem, because of the difficulty of
obtaining sufficient quantities without modification. Enough
is known, however, to allow the assumption that the ripening
process also includes the changing of sucrose (cane sugar) into
invert sugars (dextrose and levulose).
In the laboratory inversion is accomplished by the addi-
tion of an acid to the cane sugar solution and there is a
small amount of acid in honey. What this acid is has not
been determined, it being usually calculated in analyses
"as formic acid," which must not be misinterpreted as
indicating that the acid actually is formic acid. It in-
dicates merely that in the analysis the acidity is calculated
as if the acid were formic acid. It was formerly believed
that the poison of the bee sting is formic acid and various
fanciful theories have been advanced to explain the origin
of the formic acid supposed to be present in honey. The
worst of these explanations is that just before sealing the
honey, a worker bee puts a drop of poison from the sting
The Cycle of the Year 85
into the honey to preserve it. No such action has been
observed. Possibly these speculations are the basis for the
calculation of the acidity of honey by the chemist " as formic."
The conversion of sucrose to invert sugars may also be
accomplished by the action of enzymes and the bee pro-
duces these, although what part of the bee's body is the
origin of the enzymes is not yet fully established. Honey,
as stored in cells, contains some suspended pollen grains
which are a probable additional source of enzymes. In-
version doubtless continues after the honey is sealed.
The instinct to gather nectar and to store honey is not
universally predominant in the activities of a colony, even
though nectar is available. When a colony is preparing
to swarm it does not store as actively as at other times and
one of the serious problems of the northern beekeeper,
especially the comb-honey producer, is to keep his bees in
proper condition for storing. Since swarming and storing
are both instinctive activities, the substitution of one for
the other assuredly does not imply knowledge of future
needs, as is sometimes claimed. After swarming is over,
the storing instinct appears as prominently as usual.
Collection of other materials.
The gathering of pollen and propolis and the collection of
water are likewise activities of the colony. It is sometimes
stated that pollen is gathered only when needed but this
is not true, for queenless colonies gather large quantities.
The advice is occasionally given to watch the entrances of
colonies in the spring to determine whether pollen is coming
in, it being stated that queenless colonies may be detected
by a lack of pollen gathering. This is not a safe criterion.
Propolis is collected most abundantly in the late summer
and autumn and usually only when there is no heavy nectar-
flow. Water is needed at practically all times during the
breeding season, perhaps more especially in hot weather.
The bringing of water to the hive is most noticeable in the
early spring.
86 Beekeeping
KILLING OF THE DRONES
At the close of the honey-flow and after the swarming
season, the drones are driven from the hive. They are
not stung to death as is commonly reported. The first
indication of the exodus of the drones is that numbers of
them are seen on the bottom board or around the entrance.
There is some evidence that before removal the drones
are starved, they normally being fed by the workers and
not taking food directly from the stores. Then the worker
bees drag them out one by one and fly away, dropping
them some distance from the hive. This driving out of
the drones is more marked in the northern regions where
the main honey-flow usually ceases abruptly. If a colony
is queenless the drones may be retained, some of them often
living into the winter and, even in normal colonies, a few
drones are sometimes retained for a time. The cause of
the driving out of the drones in most cases and their reten-
tion under some conditions is so far not satisfactorily ex-
plained.
THE END OF BROOD-BEARING
Where winter occurs brood-rearing ceases in the autumn,
while in the tropics brood is reared constantly, unless it is
discontinued by a dearth. Cessation of brood-rearing is
therefore not a necessary occurrence in the annual cycle.
It was shown earlier that the reduction in egg-laying begins
with the cutting off of the nectar-flow. When the days
become cold, brood is no longer reared and finally the last
of the brood emerges leaving the colony without brood for
most of the winter, provided it remains normal. The last
eggs laid may be removed by the workers before they hatch,
or larvae and pupae may be carried out.
In seeking an explanation of the stoppage in brood-rearing,
one becomes involved in some difficulties. In the first place,
various races of bees differ in regard to the amount and
continuance of brood-rearing in the autumn. Italian bees
The Cycle of the Year 87
decrease the amount of brood when the honey-flow stops
while Carniolan and Caucasian bees rear more brood "out
of season," or after the honey-flow. But all races rear
some brood "out of season," so that the final discontinuance
of brood-rearing cannot be considered as due to lack of
incoming nectar or pollen. Even among colonies of the
same race there is considerable variation in a single apiary.
Of course, no colony can rear brood without food for the
young larvae. The stoppage of brood-rearing is sometimes
attributed to low outside temperature but, as stated earlier,
brood is sometimes reared in the coldest months, in fact
it is usually begun then in colonies wintered out of doors.
As will appear later, the cold outside during January is
the cause of a higher temperature within the cluster than
is usual in the autumn and, combined with the effects of
the accumulation of feces, is the cause of higher cluster
temperature than occurs with the same intensity of cold
in December. Furthermore, when a colony begins brood-
rearing in the winter, the presence of brood seems to induce
the production of sufficient heat to care for it, the resulting
temperature being sufficient to induce more egg-laying, so
that brood-rearing once begun continues through the re-
mainder of the winter. Since a moderately low outer tem-
perature may cause more active heat production in a small
colony than in a strong one, this may explain some of the
variation observed in the time that brood-rearing ceases.
A small colony may have a higher cluster temperature than
a strong colony, the greater activity in the center of the
cluster being necessary to produce the required temperature
in the shell of the cluster, which is a less efficient insulator
in a weak colony. The structure of the cluster is described
in the following section. If an explanation for the cessation
of brood-rearing is sought, the paradoxical conclusion is
reached that in the fall (1) the outside temperature is not
high enough for brood-rearing without artificial heat pro-
duction and (2) it is not low enough to cause the bees to
produce sufficient cluster heat for brood-rearing. Egg-
88 Beekeeping
laying and brood-rearing may seemingly be stimulated
either by a high or very low outside temperature.
THE WINTER CLUSTER
There are three possible ways by which an animal can
survive a protracted period of adversity like a northern
winter, when food is not available in the field and when it
could not get food even if it were present, because of the
cold. The first method is hibernation, in which the only
storage of food is within the animal, and at low temperatures
the vital functions apparently cease. This is the universal
mode of wintering among solitary insects and, even among
the social species, in bumblebees and wasps, the majority
of the colony die off while the fertile queens hibernate like
solitary insects. Ants hibernate in a mass during extreme
cold weather. Another method is migration, but this is
not open to most insects because of their size and inability
to fly long distances, as do birds. If a cold-blooded animal
cannot hibernate, as the honeybee apparently cannot, nor
migrate, there is but one course open to it. This is to lay
up a store of heat-producing food and, when the surround-
ing temperature falls below that at which the animal can
live, to generate heat, virtually to create a thermal environ-
ment of its own. This remarkable procedure, in which
the honeybee is unique among insects, is the one encountered
in a study of bees in winter. Beekeepers have long known
that the winter cluster is warm but they have perhaps failed
to comprehend the marvel of an insect which can use this
method of overcoming adverse conditions.
The hoarding instinct, the instinct to store food in great
excess of the immediate needs, now becomes of vital im-
portance to the continuance of the species, but it would
serve no useful purpose in the winter season if the bees in a
colony did not also have the ability to generate and con-
serve heat. As will be seen later, the generation of heat
is by a method common to all insects and other cold-blooded
The Cycle of the Year 89
animals while the conservation of heat depends chiefly on
the structure of the winter cluster.
When the last brood has emerged, the colony and its
nest are then in condition to pass the winter. In cold
weather the bees form a single compact cluster and leave
the hive only on occasional warm days for cleansing flights.
Bees do not discharge their feces in the hive so long as they
are in normal, healthy condition but> after even a short
confinement, will venture out for this purpose as soon as
the outside temperature permits. 1
Movements in winter.
The cluster is first normally formed where the last brood
emerged; here the bees find empty cells into which to
crawl, so that they form themselves into a compact mass,
separated only by thin walls of wax. They do not form
the winter cluster where the combs are filled with honey
and it would probably be impossible for them to conserve
the heat of the cluster if sheets of honey separated the bees
in adjacent spaces. As the contiguous stores -are consumed
and additional cells are emptied, the cluster is shifted so
that the bees are always near stores. This shifting is, how-
ever, apparently impossible in extreme cold weather, when
colonies sometimes die in a way that can be explained only
as due to starvation through inability to reach stores just
a few inches distant. The early fall cluster is usually low
on the combs, near the entrance, if there is considerable
honey stored and the movement of the cluster is usually
upward and toward the rear of the hive as winter progresses,
and as stores are consumed. If a colony is in a two-story
hive, the cluster is often in the upper story in the spring.
Responses to outside temperature.
The cluster varies in size with the outside temperature.
After the emergence of the last brood in the fall, if the
1 Bees often remain in the hive at a temperature of 70 F. if a flight is
not necessary, but will often fly when the temperature is about 50 F. if
they have been confined for a time.
90 Beekeeping
temperature is about 60 F., the bees do not cluster com-
pactly and do not fly from the hive, even on bright days,
but remain inactive on the combs. In this condition they
are less active than at any other time in the cycle of the
colony and approach most nearly to a condition of hiberna-
tion. During the warmer days there is no need of a tight
cluster, for the function of the cluster is the conservation of
the heat generated within. When the temperature is suffi-
ciently high the bees generate no heat but, whenever the
temperature of the air immediately surrounding the bees
drops below 57 F. (the lowest temperature which normal
bees ever experience in the hive), they form a definite cluster.
As the outside temperature continues to fall, the cluster
becomes more and more compact and the temperature of
the inside of the cluster increases rapidly. After the genera-
tion of heat is begun, the temperature within the cluster
soon reaches a point higher than that reached before heat
generation was necessary. Within certain limits, the tem-
perature of the cluster increases as the outside temperature
drops and, as the outer temperature again rises, heat gen-
eration is reduced or discontinued while the temperature of
the cluster drifts to meet the rising outside temperature.
Heat generation is renewed if the outer temperature again
drops, even though the temperature of the cluster and that
of the outer air have not yet been equalized. This pro-
duces a peculiar inverse relationship between the outer
and cluster temperatures. It is of particular practical
importance that, within certain definite limits, the bees are
not compelled to produce heat.
Conservation of heat.
The cluster consists of a hollow sphere of bees several
layers thick, those between the combs with their thoraces
in contact and abdomens extending outward. The cells
within the cluster are also filled with bees. The hair on
the thorax assists in making this living shell an excellent
non-conductor of heat, so effective in fact that a point in-
The Cycle of the Year 91
side the cluster may sometimes be 100 F. warmer than a
point a few inches away but outside the cluster. The
number of inactive bees varies with the outer temperature,
being larger at warmer temperatures when less heat produc-
tion is required and smaller when more bees are engaged in
activities involved in heat production.
Source of heat.
Within the hollow sphere are bees which move about
freely, these being the ones most concerned in heat genera-
tion. They produce heat by muscular activity, such as
movements of the legs and abdomen, but perhaps most
effectually by vigorous fanning. The bees which form the
shell constantly shift their positions and exchange places
with bees from within. A bee from the center forces its
way head first through the shell, then turns around and
remains for a time on the outside layer. The shifting seems
to be more rapid in cold weather than in mild.
Effect of accumulation of feces.
During the winter, the bees consume the honey stored dur-
ing the summer. The undigested portion, which forms
excreta, is retained in the rectal ampulla (hind-intestine)
until the bees have opportunity for flight, for normally no
feces are deposited by the workers within the hive. Dur-
ing the cold winters of the North there are times when
bees cannot fly for several weeks and the generation of heat
during such a period of cold weather requires increased
consumption of food and causes an increase in the amount
of feces. The presence of feces, on the other hand, causes
the bees to become restless, to generate still more heat (see
Fig. 145) and to accumulate still more feces. Apparently
a colony in winter confinement is in the confines of a vicious
circle and the successful wintering depends preeminently
on good food. If, however, the colony is so placed that
little or no heat must be produced, the situation is relieved
and this the beekeeper accomplishes by placing colonies
92 Beekeeping
in the cellar, provided conditions within the cellar are
correct.
Bees wintering in the open fly out whenever the outside
temperature will permit, and after a considerable period of
confinement many will fly out when it is so cold that they
are unable to return. On these winter flights the feces
are voided, consequently they are of the highest value to a
colony wintered out of doors.
While numerous other points concerning the activities
of bees in winter are left to be discussed in the chapter on
wintering, it is evident from what has been said that bees
are highly sensitive to changes in temperature, and that
they have a wonderful ability to overcome the adverse
conditions of winter by the generation of heat. It is to be
noticed especially that they usually do not warm the whole
hive or cavity but confine heat production to the cluster.
It might therefore be concluded that a hive is actually little
protection for them in winter but it should be remembered
that this protects them from wind, rain and snow. They
further seal the hive with propolis to make the top water-
and even air-tight and some races contract the entrance
with propolis. The practical bearing of these facts forms
one of the most vital problems of the northern beekeeper
and the discussion of this subject from the standpoint of
practice forms a later chapter.
CHAPTER V
THE LIFE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN RELATION
TO THE COLONY
IN the preceding chapter the activities of the colony are
discussed, much as if the colony were an individual or unit.
While this is a true picture of one side of the life of the species,
it is not complete, for the individuals not only carry on their
own life processes but pass through individual cycles. A
knowledge of the interrelationships of the individuals within
the colony is important for an understanding of the colony
organization, for this complex society is based on a division
of the labors of the hive, which is of the highest interest and
of the greatest practical value to the beekeeper. While
in this book there is no attempt at a complete discussion of
the anatomy or development of the bee, it is necessary that
these subjects receive some attention to outline correctly
the little that is known concerning the physiology of the
species. The discussion of physiology is reserved for another
chapter.
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
This subject is one of mystery to the beekeeper. While
the development of the bee in the egg has been investigated
by several observers, 1 the papers on the subject are not
1 Butschli, O., 1870. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene. Zeit.
f. wiss. Zool., XX.
Kowalevski, A., 1871. Embryologische Studien an Wurmern und Arthro-
poden. M&m. acad. imp6r. sci. St. PStersbourg, (7) XVI, 12, pp. 1-70.
Grassi, Battista, 1882-84. Studi sugli artropodi. Intorno allo sviluppo
93
94 Beekeeping
readily accessible to beekeepers, and writers of books on
beekeeping have not given to this subject as careful consider-
ation as to the anatomy of the adult bee. The changes
taking place during metamorphosis (pupa stage) are so
wonderfully complex that an account of the transformation
of the larva into an adult bee is almost unbelievable. 1 Be-
cause of the lack of attention given to the development of
the bee in the literature on beekeeping, relatively more at-
tention is here given it than to the anatomy of the adult bee.
Cellular structure of tissues.
To form a correct understanding of the development of
the bee or of the structure of the adult, one must know some-
thing of the units of which the tissues are formed, called
cells. This word, as used by the biologist, has a special
significance, being applied to a type of structure which makes
up the tissues of all plants and animals. This unit of struc-
ture is usually microscopic and a single organ of the bee
may contain many thousands of them. The cell consists
of a minute mass of protoplasm (living substance) contain-
ing a nucleus 2 (Fig. 50). Protoplasm is a complex organic
substance characterized by life ; the nucleus is a differenti-
dell Api nell' uovo. Atti dell' Acad. Gioenia di scienze nat. in Catania,
Ser. 3, XVIII, pp. 145-222.
Dickel, O., 1904. Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien am Bienenei.
Leipzig : Engelmann.
The work of Carriere u. Burger (1898, Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Mauerbiene. Abhdl. der kaiserl. Leop. Carol. Deutsch. Akad. der Naturf.,
LXIX, 2) on the mason bee, Calicodoma, is of value in a study of this sub-
ject. The recent work of Dr. Jas. A. Nelson of the Bureau of Entomology
(1915, The embryology of the honeybee. Princeton University Press)
is the most complete on this subject and is the most thorough work on the
development of any insect. It is the only discussion of the embryology of
the bee in English and should be consulted by any one interested in this
phase of the life of the bee. The author is indebted to Doctor Nelson for
help in the preparation of this section.
1 The metamorphosis of the bee is described in detail by Anglas, J.,
1900. Observations sur les metamorphoses internes de la guepe et de
1'abeille. Ill pp. Lille: Danel.
2 This word, like "cell," is one of various meanings. It is used by the
beekeeper to designate a small colony.
The Life of the Individual
95
ated portion of the protoplasm which is especially active
during the division of cells and carries the special organs
(chromosomes), instrumental as the bearers of hereditary
characters. The nucleus and surrounding protoplasm are
closely united in their functions and are incapable of sepa-
rate existence. The nucleus is, in its resting condition,
usually rounded in form, while the remaining protoplasm
is of various shapes according to the special functions of the
cell. Protoplasm "is characterized by ability to take in
nourishment, to grow,
to give off waste, to
divide and to move in
response to stimuli, but
in each organ the cells
become specialized to
do some one thing .es-
pecially well and they
often lose some of the
functions of primitive
protoplasm. For exam-
ple, a nerve cell loses its
power of contractility
but becomes specialized
for transmitting nervous
impulses, while a muscle
cell has a marked power of contractility. A detailed discus-
sion of the structure and function of the various parts of
the cell in different tissues is, of course, impossible here, 1
but these few suggestions are sufficient to indicate the ex-
treme complexity of the organization of each tissue that
goes to make up any organism, such as the bee.
The egg.
The egg, as it leaves the ovaries of the queen where it is
formed, is essentially a single cell. The eggs of most ani-
FIG. 50. Group of tissue cells from skin
of young salamander.
1 The interested reader is referred to Wilson, E. B., The cell in development
and inheritance. New York : Macmillan, and to other works on cytology.
96 Beekeeping
mals known to the layman require fertilization (a union with
one of the reproductive cells of the male) before they can
develop, but there are many cases in which this is not neces-
sary and the development of the drone bee is of this char-
acter. The eggs which develop into females are, however,
fertilized. This difference has so important a bearing on
practical beekeeping that a discussion of it is reserved for a
future chapter.
The egg of the bee is a small white" cylindrical object
about T V of an inch long, somewhat larger at one end (future
head end) and slightly curved. It is deposited on the base
of the cell of the comb by the queen and is fastened in place
by a secretion. The head end of the future larva is always
formed away from the point of attachment. The egg is
covered by chorion, a thin, tough membrane, the surface
of which is ridged. These ridges are, however, quite minute
and are not so conspicuous as most illustrations of bee eggb
would indicate. In addition to the nucleus and surrounding
protoplasm, the bee egg contains a relatively large amount
of non-living stored food, yolk. The embryo is formed on
the convex side of the curve of the egg, which becomes the
ventral side of the larva. The fate of the various parts
of the egg is therefore in a sense determined. Because of
the presence of so much yolk, the early cells are not clearly
marked off from one another.
Early embryonic development.
Development consists of the repeated division of the egg
cell into numbers of united cells and of the rearrangement
and differentiation of the resulting cells to form definite
organs. As development proceeds, the cells become more
and more specialized until the final adult condition is reached,
and even in the adult, certain changes in some cells continue
through the life of the individual. As cell division (or rather,
in this case, nuclear division, for the protoplasm is continu-
ous in the early stages) progresses, the nuclei move from
the interior to the surface. During the second half of the
The Life of the Individual
97
second day, a thickening appears on the convex side, and,
on the anterior end (larger end) of the egg, the first indica-
tions of the future appendages are soon visible (Fig. 51, a
and b). These consist of the rudiments of the antennae
(Ant) and mouth parts (mandible, Md and maxillae, IMx,
2 MX) on the head and of the three pairs of legs (1L, 2L, 8L)
on the thorax. These rudiments are simply slightly rounded
swellings which are at first smaller toward the posterior
end of the egg, since development progresses from the an-
terior end. The embryo shows at first no division into
ShGl
FIG. 51. Three stages in the development of the embryo.
head, thorax and abdomen, but the fate of the various
swellings must be determined by following them through.
The rudiments of the stigmata (Sp t openings of the tracheal
system) appear early and the first evidence of the silk glands
(SlkGl) becomes visible about the same time just behind the
second maxillae. The first external indication of the nerv-
ous system is in two pairs of swellings (Br) on the upper
side of the head. Even in this early stage, a number of
important organs are already outlined.
98 Beekeeping
Later embryonic development.
In a later stage (Fig. 51, c), the embryonic band on the
ventral side of the egg has widened and in the next stage
here illustrated (Fig. 51, d} the band completely envelops
the egg. In the stage shown in Fig. 51, c the mouth (Mth)
and anus (An) have appeared as pits. These continue to
grow into the egg and ultimately join with certain cells on the
interior to complete the alimentary canal. The portions
formed by the two invaginations from the outside are the
fore- and hind-intestine, while the part arising from the
interior is the mid-intestine. The Malpighian tubes (MT),
the excretory organs, arise as outgrowths from the anterior
end of the hind-intestine. The pits (Sp) which are the rudi-
ments of the spiracles, deepen and send branches forward,
backward and downward to meet corresponding outgrowths
from other pits, finally forming the tracheal trunks with
their commissures and branches. The silk glands (SlkGl),
which function only in the larva, project backward as long
tubes.
Segmentation.
The most striking feature of the late embryo is the fact
that it is constricted into a series of segments (metameres
or somites) which are plainly recognized in the larva. These
segments are characteristic of all insects and part of the
metameres of the abdomen are still plainly marked off in
the adult. From the fact that segmentation is recognizable
in various parts of adult insects and is present in insect
embryos, it is assumed that this form is characteristic of the
primitive organism from which all insects have arisen. The
typical appendages are arranged in pairs on the segments
but in their later development these appendages are modified
according to their fate. The stigmata and the ganglia of
the nervous system are also arranged segmentally at first,
but this primitive arrangement is later partially lost. The
segmentation of various species studied does not wholly
agree, but it is usually assumed that the first six or seven
The Life of the Individual 99
segments coalesce to form the adult head, the next three
the typical insect thorax, and the remaining ones, usually
twelve 1 in number, form the abdomen. The thorax of the
adult bee is not typical, as will be explained later.
Fate of parts of the embryo.
Some of the head appendages of the embryo disappear
early, being rudimentary organs. For example, the append-
ages of the second segment become the antennae while those
of the third disappear in insects, but in Crustacea (e.g.
shrimps and lobsters) form the second antennae. Several
of the segments of the primitive insect head are not recog-
nizable in the bee. In the adult insect, these segments fuse
completely and by growth of various parts are so distorted
that an examination of the adult head does not suggest
segmentation and, without a study of the developmental
stages, this segment al origin would be unsuspected.
The three thoracic segments are fused in the adult bee
but, since the three pairs of legs arise from them, the seg-
mental origin is suggested. The wings arise as secondary
outgrowths or appendages, dorsal to the legs, from the two
posterior thoracic segments and do not correspond with
other appendages. In the adult bee, the first abdominal
segment is also fused with the true thoracic segments to
form the part known as the thorax, which therefore does
not correspond exactly with the thorax of lower orders of
insects. This fusion also occurs in most of the other Hy-
menoptera. The remaining posterior segments form the
abdomen of the adult but not all of the segments remain
visible to the outside. In the adult worker and queen bee,
the five posterior segments are turned in to form a pocket
around the sting and anus. In the drone, only four segments
are so turned in.
The embryo, just before leaving the egg, shows no rudi-
ments of antennae or legs, these temporarily disappearing.
1 Two of these segments are obscure and in later stages there appear to
be present only ten.
100
Beekeeping
The nervous system is now well organized, consisting of the
brain and a chain of ganglia arranged segmentally. The
second maxillae fuse to form the lower lip (L6).
Larval development.
At the end of about three days of embryonic development,
the embryo breaks the chorion and becomes a young larva.
During the larval period the most striking feature is the
enormous growth of the animal. The illustration on page
40 (Fig. 35) shows an egg, a relatively young larva, a fully
grown larva and a pupa
drawn to the same scale
and, when it is realized
that the growth from
the youngest larva to
the fully grown larva
takes place in a few
days, the rapidity of
growth is astonishing.
It should be pointed
out that the development
of all insects is not simi-
lar. In the grasshopper,
for example, a young
insect hatches from the egg which resembles the adult in
most respects. Such a development is known as incomplete
metamorphosis. In the higher orders of insects, there
hatches from the egg a larva unlike the adult and usually
more or less worm-like, which when fully fed undergoes a
complete and relatively sudden change into the adult. This
type of development is known as complete metamorphosis.
The bee larva is an extremely simple organism, lacking
legs, wings, antennae and eyes, and is unprotected by hairs
or thick chitin. A longitudinal section through the larva
(Fig. 52) shows that the largest organ is the stomach, as
is necessary for excessive growth. Being protected from
enemies and from adverse environmental conditions in the
FIG. 52. Diagram of a longitudinal me-
dian section of a bee larva.
The Life of the Individual 101
cells of the comb, the bee larva needs no protective covering
and, being fed by the worker bees, 1 it does not need organs
which will enable it to soek or even to detect food or to masti-
cate solid food. It is ideally adapted to the protected condi-
tion in which it is placed in the colony scheme and quickly
perishes if removed and exposed to adverse conditions.
Metamorphosis.
After the excessive growth, the larva is sealed in the cell
with a capping of wax (Fig. 39) and it then spins a delicate
silken cocoon with the secretion of the silk glands (SlkGl)
within the cell. Soon after this, all external motion ceases
and the animal begins to undergo that wonderful series of
changes known as metamorphosis. During the larval
growth the mid-intestine and hind-intestine are not con-
nected (Fig. 52) but this connection is made after sealing
and the feces of the larva are then cast out.
The organs which served the larva are of course not suit-
able for the adult insect and the changes necessary to obtain
suitable adult organs take place in the pupal stage. Anglas
has described many of these changes but the metamorphosis
of insects is so complex and so much disputed by various
workers that it is to be hoped that the changes in the bee
may be again investigated. The simple alimentary canal
of the larva is discarded and a new one is formed in its place.
The segmentally arranged muscles of the larva either dis-
appear or are changed into those of the adult. The nervous
system apparently loses some of the segmental ganglia by
the fusion of various ganglion pairs. The antennae, eyes,
legs and wings develop from rudiments which have remained
undeveloped in the larva. Not only do the internal organs
change and new structures appear but the animal changes
1 The larva of the honeybee is fed frequently during the period of rapid
growth. In bumblebees (Bombus) and stingless bees (Melipona and
Trigona), a cell is filled with a mixture of pollen and nectar, after which
the queen lays an egg on the mass. The cell is then sealed and the larva
J s not fed further during the developmental stages.
102 Beekeeping
its outward appearance. The small head of the larva grows
to adult size, the thoracic segments and the first abdominal
segment unite and undergo marked external changes to
form the thorax of the adult. The abdomen changes least
in external form but marked internal changes occur. This
brief category of the vital modifications can give but a
suggestion of the changes which the pupa undergoes. All
of this occurs in an animal which externally seems lifeless,
but the internal changes require such large expenditures
of energy that the animal loses weight by the consumption
of the food which the greedy larva stores up as fat in the fat
body.
The external changes of the pupa are interesting, even
though of minor importance. The compound eyes first
change from white to pink by the deposition of a pigment
around the rhabdomes of the eye (p. 167) and later this pink
pigment is gradually covered by a darker external pigment
so that the eyes appear brown and then black. The thorax
shows coloration earlier than the abdomen. Toward the
close of the pupal period, the outside of the animal becomes
covered over with a layer of hard chitin for the protection
of the adult and to serve as a skeleton for the insertion of
the muscles. The legs and wings originate as hollow bud-
like outgrowths on the thorax and after the last moult of
the larva these invaginations are suddenly extended by
blood pressure. The wings are at first small thin sacs which
grow and finally take on the adult form, after which the two
sides of the sac fuse and the blood in the sac returns to the
body cavity, leaving the wings as dry membranes.
Length of developmental stages.
The length of the various stages of development varies
among the different types in the hive. The preceding ac-
count applies especially to worker bees, which have been
most frequently investigated, probably because of the ease
of obtaining material. The stages are essentially similar
in queens and drones. While the rapidity of development
The Life of the Individual
103
is slightly modified by changes in temperature of the hive,
it is, in the main, quite uniform and it is therefore possible
to give the time from egg-laying to emergence of the adult.
It must be understood that these vary somewhat and it is
rather remarkable that the variation is not more pronounced.
On account of the variation the various tables given for the
length of stages are not uniform. The following table (II)
is a fair average :
TABLE II. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
STAGE
QUEEN
WORKER
DRONE
Egg
3
3
3
Larva ....
51
6
6*
Pupa . . . . .
7|
12
14*
Total ....
16
21
24
The figures given in this table for the pupal stage include
all the time that the developing bee is sealed up in the cell.
During part of this time, the larval stage is continued but
no additional food is taken. This is followed by a semi-
pupa stage, when the insect resembles a larva but has under-
gone a moult and the hind- and mid-intestine are connected.
The true pupa stage follows this and the transition to the
adult is gradual, the separation between the two stages being
marked by the emergence of the insect from the cell. The
number of moults in the larval stage are sometimes given
as probably six (Cheshire). This should be more carefulty
studied.
The structure of the adult bee will be briefly discussed
in conjunction with the functions of the various organs.
When the young bee emerges from the cell it is structurally
in the adult condition. It does not grow in size nor do any
marked changes in most of the organs occur during adult
life. This is true of all insects. While certain internal
104 Beekeeping
organs undergo change, these are not of a character to change
the outside appearance. The food taken by the adult is
not stored up within the body, as in the larva, but is taken
for immediate use.
THE CYCLE OF DUTIES OF THE ADULT WORKER BEE
When the worker emerges from the cell, it is covered with
a soft skin, the last pupal moult, which is quickly removed.
For a day or two the young bee remains on the combs, fre-
quently on the one from which it emerged, and moves about
but little. Numbers of young bees are often seen in the
upper part of the hive and especially in the supers. In a
few days they begin the inside work 1 of the hive which
1 An interesting opportunity for speculation is offered in attempting
to determine the basis for the division of labor in worker bees according
to age. In studying the structure of the compound eye, the author (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Science, Philadelphia, Vol. LVII, pp. 123-157) was struck by
the presence of enormous numbers of curved unbranched hairs which cover
the eye of the young adult bee so completely that the facets are not visible.
These hairs are broken off readily and in field bees most of the hairs have
disappeared. It is probably impossible for the compound eyes to function
while these hairs remain. These facts suggested the possibility that the
young bees remain in the hive because they cannot see clearly enough to
fly to the field and that when the hairs are lost the field work is begun.
That the young bees are capable of flight is clearly shown by their ability
to leave with a swarm. In this case, sight is probably not essential. In
attempting to determine whether there is any ground for such a belief,
numerous experiments were tried, by removing the hairs of young bees
to see whether they were then more inclined to leave the hive. The hairs
were scraped from some young workers and in other cases soft paraffin or
beeswax and paraffin was applied to the eyes and then removed, the hairs
breaking off with its removal. In every case the handling made the action
of the bees abnormal, so that no conclusions of any value were obtained.
That this is probably the correct interpretation of the function of these
hairs still lingers in the mind of the author, in spite of inability to obtain
proof through experiments.
It may be said in favor of this theory that it offers a structural basis
for an instinct which is otherwise unexplained. The attribution of an
action to "instinct" is a lazy way of explaining phenomena. Merely to
classify an action and group it with others, to which a class name is given,
does not throw any light on the behavior. When an action is attributed
to "instinct" the study of the behavior often suffers a loss rather than
gain, for the giving of a name, to some minds, constitutes an explanation.
There is reason for the belief that instincts all have a physical basis, some
The Life of the Individual 105
consists of feeding and caring for the larvae, feeding the
queen and the drones, cleaning, ventilating, comb building
when necessary, guarding the hive from intruders and other
work inside the hive. 1
When about a week old, 2 on bright days, the young bees
take "play flights" in front of the hive. Suddenly, as if in
response to a signal, the young bees fly out, circle about the
hive, usually with their heads toward the entrance, and as
a rule they do not at first venture more than a few feet away.
In a short time this flight is over and the young bees return
to the hive. This flight of young bees is often mistaken by
beginners in beekeeping for the attack of robber bees but
the action in the two cases is so different that close obser-
vation soon makes the dissimilarity clear. When robbers
are numerous, they dart toward the hive and alight about
every crack, while young bees circle about, rarely alighting
on the hive. The flight of the young bees is also sometimes
mistaken for the beginning of swarming.
Later flights are more extended, and when workers are
from 14 to 21 days old (if during a honey-flow), they begin
their field duties of gathering nectar, pollen, propolis and
peculiar physical structure which determines the action. This physical
basis may be a specialization of some nervous element or of some other
organ, but it probably always exists. In the case under discussion, it is
not enough to state that the division of labor inside and outside the hive
is instinctive and such a statement is largely an evasion of the problem
which the facts observed present to us.
1 In addition to the inside duties named, the young bees must sometimes
serve as honey reservoirs during a heavy honey-flow. Especially in comb-
honey production where the bees must be crowded to produce fancy honey,
the comb built is often not sufficient to hold the nectar brought in and it is
given to the young bees. They may be seen in the evening on the combs
with abdomens distended, but usually before morning more comb is
completed and the honey is deposited in cells. Possibly this may be part
of the ripening process, which is poorly understood as yet. This function
of young workers suggests the behavior of the honey ants, in which certain
individuals serve as honey pots for the storage of honey until used. In
this case the abdomen is abnormally distended.
2 In giving age in days or weeks it must be understood that this is vari-
able, depending on season and honey-flows. The determining factor in
the aging of bees is work, not days (p. 126).
106 Beekeeping
water. Normally, they now abandon the work inside the
hive. It sometimes happens that a colony will contain
relatively too many young bees or too many old ones, these
conditions often arising in practical manipulations. If
there is a lack of young bees, the old ones act in their stead,
but they secrete wax slowly (p. 108) and do not produce
larval food adequately. If a colony is made up artificially
of young bees, some of them begin field work earlier than
normally.
DIVISION OF LABOR
From the preceding chapter, it is evident that there is a
definite division among the different members of a colony.
In a colony composed of perhaps 60,000 individuals, the
very existence of the bees depends on an orderly performance
of the various duties, and the development of colonial life,
therefore, rests on the evolution of some system for the
division of labor. The organization of the colony, already
described, shows one of the most marked cases of appor-
tionment of work, for the egg-laying is normally performed
by but one individual, the queen, while all the other females
(workers) are so constituted that egg-laying is not normal
and mating is impossible. The drones or males are so
specialized in function that they are probably useful to the
colony only in the mating of young queens. While the duty
of egg-laying devolves on the queen, the care of the brood falls
entirely to the workers. Since they must do work both
inside and outside the hive, there arises the further neces-
sity of a division 1 of these functions and this, as has been
stated, is based on the age of the individuals.
1 The division of labor is as highly developed among bees as in any
insect community. Among certain species of ants, a greater diversity of
structure accompanies the performance of certain duties. For example,
there may be soldiers which serve only as protectors of the community
and there may be two types of workers, differing structurally and in their
duties. While structural differences do not occur in so marked a way,
the members of the bee colony are fully as greatly specialized in their labor
but the performance of specific duties is determined in some manner other
than by structure.
The Life of the Individual 107
Since it may not at first glance be clear how the age at
which bees perform certain functions is determined, it may
be well to explain the simple method by which this is accom-
plished. If the queen is removed from a colony of black
(German) bees and a yellow (Italian) queen is at once in-
troduced, for a period of twenty-one days after the removal
of the old queen the young worker bees which emerge from
the cells are black, since they are the progeny of the old
queen. At the end of that time, however, the worker brood
from the black queen has all emerged and yellow bees begin
to appear. The time at which the yellow bees first perform
certain functions may now be determined. This experi-
ment may be variously modified, as by the removal of all
the brood of the black queen at once or by the placing of
a frame of brood from an Italian colony in a colony of black
bees. The introduction of Italian bees into Germany and
later into America has been an important factor in enabling
investigators to learn many of the phenomena of the hive,
for the use of bees of two colors 1 is often of the highest
importance.
The labor within the hive.
When the workers first emerge from the cells they take
no part in the work of the hive for a day or two, nor do they
leave the hive. The first flight in front of the hive is usually
when they are about a week old, if the weather is favorable,
and these flights are continued on warm bright days until
they are nearly three weeks old. Although they do not go
far at first they may remain on the wing for a considerable
period. That these early flights are necessary in enabling
the young bees to void their feces is indicated by the fact
that if confined they become restless. 2 The abdomens of
young bees are frequently distended with feces.
1 Another method of marking bees for observation is mentioned by Cas-
teel, Cir. No. 161, Bureau of Entomology, p. 5. The method employed
was to paint bees with different colors and also to number them.
2 This was observed when colonies containing young bees were placed
108
Beekeeping
Donhoff l states that he offered a stick dipped in honey
to young bees daily. Until they were fifteen days old they
did not lick the honey eagerly. The younger bees never
attempted to lick it, but as they grew older they paid more
attention to it. He concludes that the " impulse for gather-
ing honey" is not developed in young
bees. Not until his experimental bees
were seventeen days old did he find any on
his outdoor feeders and not until they were
nineteen days old did any fly to the field.
Comb building.
If there is need
for more combs, the
workers form cur-
tains by hanging on
one another from
the top of the hive
or cavity. The
temperature is raised
and in a few hours
wax-scales may be
seen on the ventral
sides of the abdo-
mens of the hang-
ing bees. Finally,
some of these scales
are removed and manipulated and the bees begin building
new comb. The small pieces of wax are put approximately
in the right place and are then sculptured and molded into
FIG. 53. Ventral plates
of the abdomen of a
worker bee.
FIG. 54. Inner sur-
face of the left
hind leg of a
worker bee, show-
ing a wax-scale.
in a cellar for winter, in connection with work of Demuth and the author
on winter activities. The entire colony became active and a high tempera-
ture was maintained. The condition was removed by taking the colonies
from the cellar for a flight. Bees that emerged from brood combs were
also kept in a warm room, away from older workers. These had distended
abdomens and if one escaped from the hive it usually flew at once to the
window, leaving a spot of feces on the pane.
1 Donhoff, 1855. Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, p. 163.
The Life of the Individual
109
FIG. 55. Ventral view of worker re-
moving wax-scale. Enlarged.
their proper position and
shape. In spite of the
number of bees at work
in building, the wax is
quickly smoothed into its
final form, becoming a
part of the comb.
Dreyling l has shown
that in just emerged
worker bees the cells of
the wax glands are not
fully developed and that
as the worker grows older
the cells elongate. As the
bee ages, *S&wever, these
cells decrease and degen-
erate. These results fully support the observations of
beekeepers that bees secrete wax best before they become
field bees. If, however, a colony of old bees is required to
build comb, the bees can
still secrete some wax, but
for some reason not under-
stood they* usually build
irregularly.
Beeswax is secreted in
pockets on the ventral side
of the abdomen on the wax
plates (Fig. 53) situated
on the sternal plates of the
last four visible segments
of the abdomen. Each
segment bears two of these
plates, making eight in all.
FIG. 56. Side view of worker removing
wax-scale. Enlarged.
1 Dreyling, L., 1903. Ueber die wachsbereitenden Organe der Honig-
biene. Zool. Anz., XXVI.
, 1905. Die wachsbereitenden Organe bei den gesellig lebenden
Bienen. Zool. Jahrbucher, Abth. Anat. u. Ont. d. Theire, XXII.
110
Beekeeping
As the secreted wax comes in contact with the air, it
hardens, forming the scales of wax.
The manipulation by
the bees of the wax-scales
has been carefully de-
scribed by Casteel. 1 The
scales are removed from
the pockets by spines of
the pollen comb (Fig. 54)
on the first tarsal segment
(plant a) of the third pair
of legs. The surface of
the planta is passed over
the ventral side of the ab-
domen (Figs. 55 and 56)
and after the scale is loos-
ened the third leg is bent
forward (Figs. 57 and 58),
thus passing the scale to the front pair of legs. It is then
masticated by the mandibles, after which it is ready to put in
place in the new comb.
The various movements
in manipulatio'n are so
well shown in CasteePs
figures that further de-
scription is unnecessary.
It is clearly shown that
the so-called wax-shears,
which are described by
so many authors as be-
ing used to remove wax-
scales, have in fact nothing to do with the wax manipu-
lation. It is shown later that these are concerned in pollen
gathering.
FIG. 57. Ventral view of worker pass-
ing wax-scale forward. Enlarged.
FIG. 58. Side view of worker passing
wax-scale forward. Enlarged.
1 Casteel, D. B., 1912. The manipulation of the wax scales of the
honey bee. Cir. No. 161, Bureau of Entomology, 13 pp.
The Life of the Individual
111
Feeding of larvce.
The feeding of the larvae is one of the most ardently dis-
puted questions in bee activity. The chief controversy
arises over the source of the food, some authors claiming
that it is a secretion of glands, while others maintain that it
is regurgitated from the ventriculus. The heat of contro-
versy seems to have hidden from view the fact that this
can be determined only by investigation. An explanation
of the two current views involves some study of the
glands emptying into the alimentary canal and of the
ventriculus.
There are in the head
of the worker bee, two
systems of glands (Fig.
59), the lateral pharyn-
geal (supracerebral of
Bordas, System No. 1
of Cheshire) (1GI) and
the salivary glands of
the head (postcerebral
of Bordas, System No.
2 of Cheshire) (2GI), and
in the thorax are found
the salivary glands of
the thorax (thoracic sal-
ivary of Bordas, System No. 3 of Cheshire) (Fig. 60,
SGI). The ducts of the two systems of salivary glands
unite into one median tube which enters the base of
the labium and opens upon the upper surface of the
ligula. These glands are homologous with the salivary
glands of other insects and presumably their secretions
assist in digestion although their exact function is un-
known. They are found in queens, drones and workers.
The lateral pharyngeal glands (1GI) are absent in the drone
and never more than rudimentary in the queen, and this
leads to the conclusion that they function in some way which
is especially useful to the worker. They are claimed by
FIG. 59. Median longitudinal section of
head of worker, showing the glands
(1GI and 2GI).
112
Beekeeping
Schiemenz, 1 and after
him by Cheshire, 2 to
be the source of food
given by the work-
ers to the larvae of
queens, drones and
workers. It is
claimed that the de-
velopment of these
glands is in propor-
tion to the special-
ization of the species
in the feeding of the
larvae ; in bumble-
bees (Bombus) they
are as well developed
as in the honeybee.
They are decreas-
ingly smaller in Psi-
thyrus, Andrena and
Anthophora. Since
the feeding of some
of these species is
entirely unlike that
of the honeybee, this
evolution perhaps
proves too much for
this theory.
Schonfeld, 3 on the
contrary, holds that
the larval food arises in the ventriculus and not in these
FIG. 60. Alimentary canal of worker, show-
ing glands, pharynx (Phy), oesophagus (CE),
honey-stomach (HS) , pro ventriculus (Pvenf) ,
ventriculus (Vent), intestine (SInf), rectal
ampulla (Reef) and Malpighian tubules
(Mai).
1 Schiemenz, Paulus, 1883. Ueber des Herkommen des Futtersaftes
und die Speicheldrusen der Bienen, nebst einem Anhange iiber das Reichor-
gan. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XXXVIII, pp. 71-135.
2 Cheshire, 1886. Bees and beekeeping. 2 vols., London : L. Upcott
Gill.
3 Schonfeld, 1886. Die physiologische Bedeutung des Magenmundes
der Honigbiene. Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol. Abth., pp. 451-458.
The Life of the Individual
113
-LMcl
TMcl
Int.
-Epth
glands. Cook 1 and Cowan 2 both adhere to this view. The
alimentary canal of the worker (Fig. 60), posterior to the
pharynx, narrows to a slender oesophagus ((E) extending
through the thorax. In the abdomen, this is enlarged into
a thin-walled sac known in the honeybee as the honey-
stomach (HSj crop of other insects), since it is used to
carry nectar to the hive. At the
posterior end this merges with the
proventriculus, with heavy muscular
walls, which contains a valvular ap-
paratus (Fig. 61). Behind this is
the stomach or ventriculus (Vent).
Schonfeld claims that the brood
food, especially that of the queen
(royal jelly), is regurgitated from
the ventriculus. The experiments
of Schonfeld seem to show that
the valve in the proventriculus opens
and moves anteriorly even to the
oesophagus when this is done, but
Snodgrass 3 claims that this cannot
be done without tearing the mus-
cles of the proventriculus. Cowan
and other authors figure' this action
T i .,i f FIG. 61. Longitudinal me-
in a diagram, but with no evidence dian sectioi f of base of
from observation. Schonfeld and oesophagus.
Cook fed charcoal in honey and
found this in the brood food which would, in their esti-
mation, be impossible if the food is of glandular origin, but
they overlooked the fact that the charcoal might get into
the brood food from the mouth of the worker. The char-
coal could not pass through the walls of the ventriculus in
1 Cook, A. J., 1904. The beekeeper's guide or manual of the apiary,
18th ed., Chicago.
2 Cowan, T. W., 1904. The honey bee, 2d. ed., London.
8 Snodgrass, R. L., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Tech,
Series, 18, Bureau of Entomology, pp. 162.
I
114 Beekeeping
digestion. According to Petersen, the peritrophic membrane
in the ventriculus is so formed as to make regurgitation
from the ventriculus impossible.
While the work of Schiemenz and Schonfeld must be
given due consideration, we must wait until some competent
investigator takes up this problem. The various arguments
are thus summarized by Snodgrass (p. 100) :
"1. The brood food itself is a milky-white, finely granu-
lar, and gummy paste having a strong acid reaction said to
be due to the presence of tartaric acid.
11 2. The pharyngeal glands of the head are developed in
proportion to the social specialization of the various species
of bees; they are always largest in those individuals that
feed the brood, and they reach their highest development
in the workers of the honey bee. From this it would seem
that they are accessory to some special function of the
worker.
"3. The contents of the stomach in the workers consist
of a dark brown, slimy, or mucilaginous substance in no
way resembling the brood food, even when acidulated with
tartaric acid. Pollen is present in varying quantity, mostly
in the posterior end of the stomach, and shows little or
no evidence of digestion. Since the brown food is highly
nutritious, it must contain an abundance of nitrogenous
food material, which is derived only from pollen in the bee's
diet. Therefore it is not clear how the stomach contents
can alone form brood food.
"4. The constituents of the food given to the different
larvse, at different stages in their growth, and to the adult
queens and drones show a constant variation apparently
regulated by the workers producing it. A variation of this
sort cannot be explained if it is assumed that the brood food
is produced by the glands alone.
"5. Powdered charcoal fed to a hive of bees appears
after a short time in the brood food in the cells, and this
has been urged as proof that the latter is regurgitated 'chyle.'
But it is certainly entirely possible that the charcoal found
The Life of the Individual
115
in the food might have come only from the honey stomach
or even from the oesophagus or mouth.
"6. We have Schonf eld's word for the statement that a
regurgitation of the stomach contents may be artificially
induced by irritation of the honey stomach and ventriculus
in a freshly dissected bee, but all explanations offered to
show how this is mechanically possible in spite of the pro-
ventricular valve are unsatisfactory when the actual ana-
tomical structure is taken into consideration."
TABLE III. COMPOSITION OF LARVAL FOODS. v. PLANTA
DRONES
WORKERS
QUEEN
Under 4
Over 4
Under 4
Over 4
Days
Days
Days
Days
Proteid . . .
45.15
55.91
31.67
53.38
27.87
Fat ....
13.55
11.90
4.74
8.38
3.69
Sugar ....
20.39
9.57
38.49
18.09
44.93
Composition of larval food.
The chemical composition of the larval food has been in-
vestigated by von Planta. 1 This larval food is obviously
not merely a mixture of honey and pollen nor is the food given
the various kinds of bees at different ages uniformly the
same. The following is a brief summary of von Planta's
conclusions : The three kinds of bees require different
food and, in the drone and worker larvae, the food changes
after the third day, being mixed with half-digested pollen
grains and honey in the case of the drone and honey only in
the case of the workers. 2 On the other hand the queen larva
receives the rich food supplied the young larvae of other
1 von Planta, Adolf, 1888. Ueber den Futtersaft der Bienen. Zeit. f.
Phys. Chemie von Hoppe-Seyler, XII, pp. 327-354. 1889; idem, XIII,
pp. 552-561.
2 Pollen grains are found plentifully in the mid-intestine of the older
worker larvae, so that in this respect at least the results of v. Planta's work
must be questioned.
116 Beekeeping
castes throughout her entire larval period (called royal
jelly) which is free from undigested pollen and completely
predigested. The table (p. 115) gives the percentages of
the various food constituents as determined by v. Planta.
Snodgrass (p. 93) reports finding undigested pollen grains
in royal jelly, contrary to the statements of v. Planta. The
larval food differs essentially in appearance from the con-
tents of the ventriculus so that it is difficult to conceive of
it being a regurgitated product to which is added merely
an acid secretion of the glands. The beekeeping industry
is under lasting obligation to v. Planta for his research in
this and other subjects, but it is no disrespect to his work
to express the belief that this subject should be thoroughly
investigated by modern methods. The methods of analysis
have been greatly improved since his work was done ; they
have, in fact, been so completely changed that v. Planta's
results cannot be considered as conclusive in any respect.
Feeding of queens and drones.
In addition to the feeding of the various types and ages
of larvae, the workers feed the queen and seemingly the
drones also during their presence in the colony. The exces-
sive egg-laying of the queen (p. 57) obviously calls for
nourishment in large quantities and during the season of
heavy laying the queen usually stops for a few minutes
about every half-hour and during this resting period she is
almost constantly fed. While the feeding of the drones is
less easily observed, there is reason to believe that the feed-
ing is discontinued at the close of the honey-flow, at which
time the drones are first driven to the lower parts of the hive
and finally are easily carried out, because of their weakened
condition. Both queens and drones are capable of taking
honey from cells, but apparently do not take pollen themselves.
Other inside work.
Little remains to be said in detail of the inside work of
the hive which is performed by the workers. They clean
The Life of the Individual 117
the hive, and in case they are unable to remove the debris,
they may cover it with propolis. Lizards (Fig. 62), small
snakes and other intruders to the hive, which are too large
for the workers to remove, are sometimes found as "mum-
mies" on the hive bottom, sealed in propolis. The ventila-
tion of the hive is accomplished by fanning of the wings.
The colony exhibits an astonishing degree of efficiency in
its ability to protect itself and the brood from excessively
high inside temperatures by rapid ventilation through a rel-
atively small opening at the entrance.
FIG. 62. Lizard incased in propolis.
The guarding of the colony from intruders is interesting and
of great importance to the colony. This is done by bees
which stand about the entrance and on the lower edges of
the combs of the brood chamber. These bees usually do
not remain long at this work for the guards are constantly
changing. The hand may be placed right among them if
the movement is slow, while a swift movement will cause
them to dart out and will bring others to the entrance.
The honeybee is capable of preventing the entrance of in-
sects larger and more powerful than itself, such as wasps
and bumblebees. During the summer of 1909, small yellow-
jackets were especially abundant in the apiary of the De-
partment of Agriculture, then at College Park, Maryland,
and many dead ones were found daily in front of the
hives. Numerous large wasps with hard chitinous covering
are also killed by the bees. The bee-moth in some way
often succeeds in entering the hive but usually the eggs or
larvae are removed before any harm is done. Their success
probably depends upon their habit of flying by night.
118 Beekeeping
Of all these labors which the workers perform within the
hive, none of them monopolizes the time of certain individuals
as completely as does comb building, in which the bees hang
in curtains from the comb support. Casteel has shown that
even in this the bees change their duties frequently. Bees
are constantly changing from guards to feeders of the brood
or from ventilators to cleaners, and yet the work of the hive
is done well and, one is almost tempted to say, systematically.
The labor outside the hive.
While the division of the inside duties may be explained
to a certain degree, the division of the outside work presents
problems of far greater perplexity, chiefly because of
difficulty of observation. That there is an order to this
work is an inevitable conclusion, but how this order is brought
about among the thousands of field workers is not easily
determined. Bees go to the field to obtain nectar, pollen,
water and propolis. If there were no " system," we should ex-
pect to find colonies lacking one or more of these substances
in sufficient quantity or, perchance, a colony with the
brood nest choked with pollen or a hive over-propolized.
There are, in fact, variations in all these things, but there
are no cases which can be considered abnormal. Further-
more, on the grounds of an apiary of 200 colonies may be
found heads of white clover or other nectar-secreting flowers
right at hand. The bees in any case are not falling over
each other to reach a certain flower and leaving other flowers
untouched, as would be the case sometimes if bees were
guided to nectar merely by the chance sight of a flower.
Or, assuming only that there is a system whereby the indi-
vidual colony divides up the surrounding territory, there
would be cases of conflict between bees from the various
colonies in their attempts to reach the same flowers. If
then we dare to assume a pre-arranged plan, it must include
the entire apiary and even more, all the apiaries within the
range of flight. While bees get nectar from the flowers
right beside the hive, they are no more numerous on
The Life of the Individual 119
such flowers than on other flowers a quarter or half mile
away.
On one occasion, the author watched a head of white
clover within two feet of a hive entrance. This flower was
without a visitor for so long that it was almost concluded
that there must be no nectar in it. All this time hundreds
of bees were flying to and from the hive, many of them pass-
ing within six inches of the flower. Finally, a bee flew from
the entrance directly to this flower and worked for a con-
siderable time, sucking nectar, and, evidently getting a
sufficient quantity after a time, it returned to the hive. That
there was considerable nectar present in this flower is shown
by the fact that other visits were made to this flower within
the next half-hour from the same hive. At no time, in an
hour's observation, were two bees on the head at once.
Furthermore, when a bee flies from the hive, the flight
is usually not uncertain but is directed toward a source of
supply. It is usually stated that bees carry either nectar
or pollen back to the hive but not both, but this is not cor-
rect. It may perhaps be stated that they usually gather
from one species only on any given trip. 1 Some additional
1 This feature is of the highest importance in a consideration of the
value of the bee in the cross-pollination of plants. Since the trips are
usually confined to one species, the beneficial results are increased many
fold, for if they wandered promiscuously from one to the other species
they would thereby scatter pollen where it would be ineffectual. That
they fail to discriminate among various varieties may be considered as
not a misfortune since certain varieties are pollinated better with pollen
from another variety.
Bulman (1902, The constancy of the bee, Zoologist, Ser. 4, VI, pp.
220-222) quotes from various authors to the effect that bees keep to one
species on a single trip from the hive, and even "as long as they can, before
going to another species" (Darwin, Fertilization of Plants, p. 415). This
constancy is considered most highly developed in the honeybee but is
claimed for certain Diptera (Bennett, Proc. Linn. Soc. Zool. XVII, p. 184).
Ord (1897, The constancy of the bee, Trans, nat. hist. soc. Glasgow, n. s.,
V, Pt. 1, pp. 85-88) undertook to examine this as "one of the great pillars of
the Law of Natural Selection" and finds that "only about 30% have
proved inconstant while they were under my eye. ... In most cases
when I was able to follow the bee for any considerable time, I found that,
sooner or later, a change was made." He then records numerous observa-
tions which show inconstancy in a marked degree as from Leguminosae to
120 Beekeeping
facts concerning the gathering of bees are of interest. If
honey is exposed where it is accessible to bees, they go to it
by the hundreds, if there is no nectar in the field, and under
these circumstances they are on the lookout for openings
in other hives so that they can rob. On the other hand,
during a nectar-flow honey may sometimes be exposed in
the apiary without a bee coming near it. 1 This leads some-
times to the conclusion that bees prefer nectar to honey.
Even if honey is placed in a feeder inside the hive, it is often
not touched during a heavy nectar-flow.
Division of labor in gathering.
There has been little done on the division of labor outside
the hive but Bonnier 2 has written a paper of great interest
on this subject. Whether his conclusions may be accepted
must depend upon future experiments, but a resume* of his
paper is of interest. The field bees are divided by him into
two classes, searchers and collectors. Searchers fly to vari-
ous plants, gathering some nectar and some pollen and light-
ing on many neighboring objects, and behave much as do
wasps, which are generally searchers. A bee is transformed
Primulace or Compositse or from yellow flowers to pink, white or purple.
He concludes that the majority of bees are constant, but if watched long
enough they are by no means so, that "few bees appear to be able to with-
stand the temptation of a Garden," where a variety of plants present them-
selves, and that "the Hive-bee appeared to be fully as inconstant as the wild
Humble-bees." Bulman gives records of 48 observations on honeybees
in a garden which were inconstant. That bees go from white clover
(Trifolium repens) to alsike clover (T. hybridum) or to two species of another
genus which are perhaps less readily distinguishable to an untrained human
eye should not excite wonder. All that can be claimed from the known
facts concerning the so-called constancy of the honeybee is that if enough
flowers of one kind are easily accessible, they seem to prefer those of one
kind. They usually do not fly from dandelion to apple blossom, although
Ord records one such case. No more than this is needed to make bees more
beneficial to the fruit-grower than they would be if their visits were entirely
promiscuous.
1 Zander, Enoch, 1913. Das Geruchsvermogen der Bienen. Biol.
Centralbl., XXXIII, pp. 711-716.
2 Bonnier, Gaston, 1906. Sur la division du travail chez les abeilles.
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de 1'academie des sciences,
CXLIII, pp. 941-946.
The Life of the Individual 121
from a searcher to a collector when a suitable source of
nectar or pollen is discovered, and other bees come to the
same source. During a good honey-flow, searchers are
sent out only in the early morning and soon all become col-
lectors (which may account for the lack of robbing and
the indifference to honey about the apiary at such times)
but during a dearth of nectar, searchers are out all day.
Bonnier further claims that bees "commanded" to collect
either nectar, water, pollen or propolis do not leave their
work and will not stop even to collect honey placed in front
of them. This claim is supported by experiments. The
following translation of a portion of the paper cannot well
be summarized :
". . . I shall cite the following which shows . . . how
the division of labor among bees of the same hive is organized
and so a sort of tacit understanding, which is manifested
among bees of different hives. I detached six branches of
flowers of Lycium, each having about the same number of
open flowers. I put each branch in a bottle filled with water.
On placing these bottles in the same place from which I
had taken the branches, I saw that the workers continued
to visit the flowers of the branches put in water just the
same as those on branches not detached from the plant.
This verified, I carried the six bottles containing the branches
to the fruit garden, September first, away from all nectar-
bearing plants, consequently to a new place for the bees.
I remained constantly watching the six bottles containing
Lycium branches. No bees came to visit the flowers on
these branches. The next day I saw the first bee as a
searcher, which discovered them. She inspected all the
branches and took some nectar and pollen; I marked her
on the back with talc colored red. In about three minutes
she returned to the hive.
"Five minutes afterward the same first bee (which I
call 'A'), as shown by the red mark, came back with another
and the two bees as collectors undertook a methodic visit
to the branches, one to collect nectar and the other pollen.
I call the second bee ' B ' and marked her white.
122 Beekeeping
"Ten minutes after, there were three visiting bees. A new
one 'C/ which I marked green, came to join the other two
from the same hive, as I verified.
" Later the same three workers, A, B, C, A and C always
collecting nectar, and B only pollen, came back regularly to
the flowering branches and visited them in the same order.
All the next day these same three bees, A, B, and C, visited
the six branches.
"I then asked myself why other bees of the same hive
or of other hives did not come to collect from these branches,
as well as the three bees. Remaining under the branches,
I observed attentively what took place on the second day.
Early in the morning and several times in the forenoon, once
in the afternoon, other searchers came to the branches of
the flowers and each of these searching bees did the same
thing as A. She observed the collectors with great care,
their number, their manner of work, and, after two to four
minutes of inspection, she flew away and did not come back.
It seems that these bees, finding the place occupied, and
the number of collectors sufficient for the small amount to
be collected went elsewhere to search.
"The fact is that the day after, I saw more and the same
bees, A, B, and C, continued to visit the six branches in
the same manner, A and C always for nectar, and B for
pollen.
"Then I replaced the six flowering branches of Lycium
with twelve branches which appeared to me about the same ;
I saw two new recruits arrive, *D' and 'E/ which I marked
differently with colored powder; ten minutes after, two
others, 'F' and 'G,' and A, C, D, E, [F in the text,
evidently a typographical error] and G came for nectar,
B and F for pollen. There were seven bees visiting in place
of three. The number of flowering branches was double,
the number of collectors was about double. 1
1 "Similar experiments have shown me that the number of bees visiting
a definite number of flowers of the same species under similar environmental
conditions is quite proportional to the number of flowers, except when
The Life of the Individual 123
"The next day other searchers came. The seven marked
bees continued their visits. I took some pollen from the
stamens of Lycium and put it in a mass below the nectar of
one flower. When bee t C t arrived at that flower, she
stretched out her proboscis as usual to siick up the sweet
liquid but saw that it was not there and that something
different was in the flower; she examined it carefully for
more than a minute, did not collect the pollen but renounced
it and went to pump nectar in the neighboring flowers. I
made the inverse experiment and bathed the pollen of one
flower in nectar; *F,' after pollen, came to this flower,
found the sweet liquid on the anthers, examined it, did not
touch the anthers of that flower, but renounced it and went
to continue her collecting on the neighboring flowers."
Bonnier further found that certain bees confined their
visits to a certain limited portion of a row of plants which
were all in bloom. He concludes as follows: "They thus
accomplish on the whole, the collection of the most in the
least possible time of the substances necessary to all colonies
of bees in the same region."
If division of labor as described by Bonnier is even par-
tially true, it may help us to understand why it happens
that the flowers visited on a single trip are usually of one
species. It is to be hoped that these interesting observations
may be repeated by other investigators.
Pollen gathering.
Pollen is carried to the hive in the pollen baskets or cor-
biculse (Fig. 63) situated on the outer surface of the tibiae of
the third pair of legs. The activities of the bees in collect-
ing pollen have been admirably described by Casteel. 1 In
collecting from a flower, the worker not only secures pollen
on its mandibles and tongue but also on the hairs of the legs
the visit is disturbed by the arrival of wild Hymenoptera as numerous."
Bonnier.
1 Casteel, D. B., 1912. The behavior of the honey bee in pollen collect-
ing. Bui. No. 121, Bureau of Entomology, 36 pp.
124
Beekeeping
and body, and this pollen must be transferred to the baskets
and securely packed before returning to the hive. This is
done either while resting on the flower or on the wing. The
action of the pollen brushes on the legs is as follows: (1)
those of the first pair of legs remove pollen grains from the
---femur
Cor&icu/a
FIG. 64. Flying bee, showing movements of
legs in pollen collecting. Enlarged.
FIG. 63. Outer surface
of the left hind leg of
a worker.
FIG. 65. Flying bee patting pollen on
the pollen baskets. Enlarged.
head and the region of the neck, and also take the moistened
pollen from the mouth-parts (Fig. 64), (2) those of the second
pair remove pollen from the thorax, especially from the
ventral portion, and also receive the pollen collected by the
front legs, (3) the third pair of legs collect pollen from the
The Life of the Individual
125
abdomen and also receive on the
pollen combs (Fig. 64) the pollen
collected by the second pair of
legs. The pollen is moistened by
the addition of fluid substances
which come from the mouth and
Casteel presents analyses (by Dun-
bar) showing that honey is used for
this purpose.
The method of loading pollen
on the pollen baskets has been
variously described, it usually being
stated that it -is put in place by the
second pair of legs. This is not the
usual method, however, although a
little pollen is added to the mass
while the bee pats down its load
with the second pair of legs (Fig.
65). The loading is accomplished
by the rubbing together of the
inner surfaces of the hind legs
(Figs. 66 and 67). It is removed
from the pollen combs by the pecten combs, is pushed
upward by pressure" of the auricles and is forced against
the distal ends of the tibiae and on into the pollen
baskets from
below, being
pushed upward
against any pol-
len that may
have been
loaded previ-
ously. The long
lateral hairs of
the pollen bas-
kets help to re-
FIG. 67. Flying bee loading the pollen baskets. tain the pollen
FIG. 66. Inner surface of
left hind leg of worker.
126 Beekeeping
masses. It is thus clear that the so-called wax-shears,
formed by the pecten and auricle, are part of the apparatus
for pollen packing and, as shown earlier (p. 110), they have
nothing to do with wax manipulation. Casteel shows also
that in packing pollen in the cells of the combs additional
moisture is probably used, for analyses show a higher per-
centage of sugar than in pollen from the legs.
Propolis collection.
The collection of propolis has not been so adequately
described. This substance consists of gums collected from
various trees and other materials of a similar consistency.
The "bees carry it to the hive on the pollen baskets, the load
sometimes appearing smooth and shiny, at other times
rough, depending upon the material collected. It is usually
gathered most abundantly in late summer and autumn,
and races of bees differ in the amount of propolis which they
collect. Caucasian bees are troublesome because of the
great quantities which they deposit in the hive (p. 197).
Inside the hive, propolis is deposited on rough surfaces, in
cracks and openings that are smaller than a bee-space
(p. 26) and sometimes on the upper portions of the combs.
The " travel-stain " frequently seen on comb-honey is
propolis. Heddon showed some years ago that bees do not
deposit it on smooth surfaces.
The collection of water is most commonly observed in
early spring and during the hottest part of the summer,
there probably being less need for water when the humidity
within the hive is high. It is carried to the hive in the honey-
stomach (Fig. 60), as is nectar.
DURATION OF LIFE
The length of life of the various members of the colony
under different conditions presents a problem of great in-
terest. The queen bee normally lives several years, while
The Life of the Individual 127
the workers, which develop from eggs identical with those
from which queens develop, live from a few weeks in summer
to possibly six months over winter in the North. 1 Drones
usually live not to exceed four months, unless they are in
queenless colonies, in which case they are sometimes reported
to live over winter. Death comes suddenly to the drone at
the time of mating, seemingly of shock. If a drone is caught
on the wing during the time of mating and is slightly pressed,
the male organs are ejected and the drone instantly dies.
Obviously this. death by shock does not concern us in a
study of the normal term of life. 2
The most interesting phases of this subject are the phe-
nomena observed in worker bees. Those bees which emerge
somewhat before the beginning of a heavy honey-flow, so
that they begin their field duties when there is heavy work
in gathering nectar, usually live only about six weeks, but
if when the outside work begins there is no nectar available,
the duration of life is much greater. Those workers which
emerge at the end of the brood-rearing season are the ones
which must live until the next spring if the colony is to sur-
vive. It is obvious, therefore, that the length of life of the
workers is influenced to a marked degree by the conditions
under which they live. Similarly, queens live longer if
they are called on to lay eggs less abundantly, and it is ob-
served that in the tropics and semi-tropics, queens do not
live as long as in the North, where the brood-rearing season
is relatively short. 3 Further evidence of a similar nature is
afforded by various facts observed in practical beekeeping.
Some honey-flows seem to deplete the colony more than
1 The method of determining the length of life of bees is identical with
that of determining the duties of bees at different ages.
2 Bumblebee drones do not die at mating time, according to a quota-
tion given by Weismann, without the reference.
3 It is difficult to draw any conclusions from the length of life of queen
bees since they are superseded by the workers when they fail in egg-laying.
Death is often not natural with them. It is interesting to note that al-
though they can continue to form new eggs in the ovaries (in contrast to
some female insects which lay but one or two lots of eggs) they gradually
fail in this respect.
128 Beekeeping
others ; if there is but little honey in the field the death rate
often is greater than if there were no nectar available or
than is the case when there is plenty of nectar. The work
necessary to get the nectar costs more than the nectar is
worth. Beekeepers often observe at the close of a severe
winter what is known as " spring dwindling." This is, to
the best of our knowledge, due to the fact that during cold
weather the bees have had to work vigorously to generate
heat and that, when the spring comes with its increased
activities incident to brood-rearing, the bees are worn out
and die rapidly.
Work determines length of life.
All of these facts and many others observed in the apiary
indicate a peculiar condition found in bees which may be
figuratively expressed in the following terms : a bee is born
with a definite supply of energy and when this energy is
exhausted the bee dies. It may be likened to a storage
battery that continues to give out its stored energy until
it is exhausted, but unlike the storage battery the bee seem-
ingly cannot be " recharged." In our own experience, we
find that after exhausting exercise, rest and food enable us
to recover completely from the exhaustion, and we are prob-
ably better for the exercise. It must not be concluded
from what has been said that bees have no recuperative
power, but it is obvious from the various facts observed
that in some fundamental way their term of life is limited
by the amount of work they do.
Practical applications.
Success in practical beekeeping rests in a recognition of
this phenomenon of the wearing out of bees, but nowhere
is this more evident than in wintering. In order that the
bees may live over winter and still have energy to do the
work required of them, under the trying conditions of spring,
the bees should be kept under conditions which will require
of them the minimum exertion. This the northern beekeeper
The Life of the Individual 129
attempts to do by keeping the bees in the cellar or by pack-
ing the hives during the coldest months. As will be explained
in the chapter on wintering, the character of the food is
an important factor in the reduction of the necessary labor.
Possible determining factors.
The cause of the wearing out of bees is not fully under-
stood, because there are so many phases of bee physiology
about which we are ignorant. An old bee loses the hairs
on the body and the wings often become frayed. These
parts are not replaced, since in the adult they are non-living
chitinous structures, but it can scarcely be believed that
these factors are sufficient to cause the death of the insect.
The fact that the larger number of bees die outside the hive
during the active season perhaps lends weight to a belief
that worn-out wings have failed to carry them back. How-
ever, if bees are confined in a cage and are constantly stimu-
lated, they wear themselves out and die, when wings could
be of no help to them. Koschevnikov 1 has described the
fat body of the bee and records that in old age the fat cells
become less vacuolated and the cells are filled with a granu-
lar plasma, while the cells become united into a syncytium,
in which the cell boundaries are lost and the nuclei remain
distinct. The cenocytes are rather mysterious cells, found
in the fat bodies of insects. In the old bee, these become
filled with yellow granules, which Koschevnikov thinks are
excretory products which cannot be eliminated but are
simply retained by the cells. These facts suggest the possi-
bility that old age in a bee is due to lack of the excretory
function of these cells, but far more evidence is necessary
for adequate explanation.
Some comparisons with other insects help to make clear
the difficulty of the problem which confronts us in the
phenomenon of old age in the bee. 2 Worker ants have been
1 Koschevnikov, G. A., 1900. Ueber den Fettkorper und die (Enocyten
der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera, L.) Zool. Anz., XXIII, pp. 337-353.
2 For an interesting discussion of the duration of life, the reader is re-
130 Beekeeping
kept for several years in artificial nests and Lubbock l
reports keeping a queen ant of Formica fusca for nearly
fifteen years, "by far the oldest insect on record." Queen
bees live several years and it may be that if worker bees
were equally well cared for and fed they might live as long
as the queen. We get no light on the potential length of life
of bumblebees and wasps because the colony is not main-
tained over winter ; possibly if they were protected as bees
are or could hibernate like ants they might live for several
years. It is perhaps not legitimate to compare the larval
or pupal stages of insects which require several years for
their development (e.g. Cicada, Lachnosterna). Among
insects ants are perhaps the patriarchs, while most insects
live but a few days, weeks or months. Many insects take
little or no food as adults (e.g. females of Psychidse, Phry-
ganids, males of Phylloxera) and it is therefore not surprising
that they do not live long. If, now, we compare ants and
bees, we find them similarly constructed, similarly they live
in colonies and their activities are in many ways almost iden-
tical. The marked differences are in the facts (1) that
bees fly while ants do not and (2) that ants live on a mixed
diet while bees in the adult stage live chiefly on sugars.
ferred to Weismann's essay "The Duration of Life" (Dauer des Lebens)
in his Essays on Heredity (English translation, 1891, Oxford). Prof.
Weismann considers death an adaptation, as secondarily acquired, produced
by natural selection, not a primary necessity of living matter and that
"unlimited existence of individuals would be a luxury without any corre-
sponding advantage" to the species. Death is a "beneficial occurrence,"
whereby worn-out individuals which are harmful to the species are re-
moved, leaving room for those which are sound. According to this view,
duration of life is hereditary (for which there is much evidence) and there-
fore we should expect workers and queens to be potentially equal in dura-
tion of life (L c., p. 60), if the workers were as well protected as the queens.
This is seemingly true for ants. However, it is difficult to comprehend
the cause of an adaptation which leads to the use of food which fails to
nourish the body and thereby shortens the term of life, since it is not evident
in what way a shorter span of life for the workers is of benefit to the species.
Beekeepers would probably be inclined to believe that if they could get
worker bees which would live as long as do worker ants that it would be
advantageous to the honey-producer, if not to the bees themselves.
1 Lubbock, Sir John, Jr. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) XX, p. 133.
The Life of the Individual 131
Probably bees consume more pollen than beekeepers usually
believe but their main source of nourishment is honey.
Carbohydrates do not furnish the nourishment suitable
for the rebuilding of worn-out tissues and this may be at
least a partial explanation of the differences in the term
of life. The queen is, however, fed on predigested food all
her life and it is usually assumed that this is comparable
to royal jelly. If this assumption is correct, her food pro-
vides her with fats and proteids as well as sugars.
CHAPTER VI
THE LIFE PROCESSES OF THE INDIVIDUAL
THE discussion in previous chapters has had to do with
the colony of bees and with the individual bees in their
relation to the colony. To give a more complete account
of the activities of the bees and to present a better con-
ception of what manner of animal a bee is, it is necessary
to discuss certain life processes of the adult individual.
The entire form and structure of the body is so fundamentally
different from that of man that it is difficult to form an ade-
quate idea of the life activities. In this chapter mention of
two important systems of organs is omitted, the nervous
system with its sense organs and the reproductive organs,
the structure and functions of these systems being so im-
portant that a separate chapter is devoted to each one.
To understand the life processes, it is obviously necessary
to know the structure of the parts which function in the
various activities. Fortunately the anatomy of the honey-
bee has been carefully studied and described by Snodgrass. 1
Previous to the appearance of this paper various books and
papers on bee anatomy were published but unfortunately
in many cases the descriptions were erroneous and the
conclusions unjustified.
In presenting the subject in the present case, it seems
desirable not to discuss anatomy separately but rather to
treat the bee as a living animal and to describe the functions
of the various systems of organs, giving only the anatomical
1 Snodgrass, R. E., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Tech. Ser.
18, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agric., 162 pp., 57 ill.
132
The Life Processes of the Individual 133
data necessary to elucidate the points discussed. This
point of view is to be preferred as being of greater interest
to persons who are not specialists in morphology and, after
all is said, our chief interest in any animal lies in the fact
that it lives and moves rather than that it has legs or a
stomach of a certain structure and form. This view is
emphasized by Snodgrass who also shows in numerous
places our woeful lack of knowledge of the details of the
physiology of the bee. Since anatomy is not treated fully in
this book, the reader may find certain points not described
sufficiently to meet his needs. In the illustrations used in
this chapter, all of which are from Snodgrass, parts are
shown which are not here described and symbols are used
which are not explained. Partially to remedy these neces-
sary shortcomings, the symbols used by Snodgrass are
given in the Appendix (pp. 439-448). For fuller descrip-
tions the reader is referred to his admirable bulletin.
GENERAL PLAN OF THE BODY OF THE BEE
The plan of organization of the bee is quite unlike that
of the human body. The structure of the body as a whole
and of the various organs is different from that with which
we are most familiar and it is imperative that we avoid
forming conclusions as to the functions of various organs
from supposed homologies. First of all, there is no internal
skeleton for the attachment of muscles and to serve as a
support for the organs of the body, but the chitinous cover-
ing serves as a skeleton. The body of the bee is divided
into three portions, head, thorax and abdomen, the legs
and wings being attached to the thorax.
The three portions of the body differ greatly in function.
The head is the seat of the brain and carries the two kinds
of eyes (three simple eyes and two large compound eyes),
and the antennae (feelers), which are covered with sense
organs. It also carries the complex mouth parts. The
thorax is chiefly concerned in locomotion, being almost
134
Beekeeping
entirely occupied by large muscles for the movement of the
wings. The abdomen contains the greater part of the
alimentary canal, the reproductive organs and large air
sacs. It will of course be understood that the functions
of these three main parts are not confined to those named.
The tracheal sacs extend into the thorax and head, the
nervous system extends along the central side of the thorax
and abdomen.
Head.
On the head are located numerous sense organs, the dis-
cussion of which is reserved for a later chapter. Aside
Vx
ten
PrbFs
A -
FIG. 68. Front (A) and back (E) views of head of worker bee with
the mouth parts cut off near their bases.
from these, the most interesting features are the complex
mouth parts. The general appearance of the head of a
worker bee (with all the hairs removed) is shown in the
accompanying figure (Fig. 68, A and B). It is roughly
triangular with the apex below, where the mouth parts
are situated. The sides are rounded out by the compound
eves (E). From front to back, the head is flattened and
The Life Processes of the Individual 135
is concave on the posterior surface to fit the rounded thorax.
The three ocelli (0) in the worker are arranged in a triangle
at the top of the head, the antennae (Ant) arise from the
center of the face. On the posterior surface is the foramen
magnum (For) through which pass nerves,
oesophagus, dorsal blood vessel and tra-
cheal tubes connecting the head and
thorax. Below the foramen magnum is
the fossa (PrbFs) where the proboscis
is attached.
The heads of the queen and the drone
differ from that of the worker in size and
shape (Fig. 69, A, B and C). The face
of the queen (B) is more nearly round
and is relatively wider. That of the
drone (C) is larger and nearly circular,
this being due to the unusual develop-
ment of the compound eyes (E) which
meet at the vertex of the head, crowd-
ing the ocelli (0) to the front near the
bases of the antennae. The head of the
queen is smaller than that of the worker.
The mandibles (Fig. 68, A, Md) or
jaws, which are of special interest to the
beekeeper, are situated on the sides of
the mouth anterior to the base of the
proboscis, being attached to the clypeus
(Clp) and the postgena (Pge) by two
articulations, so constructed that they
serve only to crush or bite food and
not to grind it. The mandibles of in-
sects, when present, work sidewise and
not up and down in a median plane, as do our jaws. The
mandibles of the three types of bees differ in shape and size.
Those of the worker (Fig. 70, A) are hollowed out and have
smooth and rounded edges, while those of the drone (Fig. 70,
B) and of the queen (Fig. 69, B) are pointed and notched.
FIG. 69. Anterior
view of heads of
worker (A), queen
(B) and drone (C),
with front, anten-
nae and proboscis
removed from each.
136
Beekeeping
FIG. 70. A, right mandible
of worker with muscles and
mandibular gland (IMdGl)
The typical mandible of the
Hymenoptera is like those of
the queen and drone while the
worker mandible is a specialized
type. The fact that the worker
mandible is smooth and rounded
is often pointed out in connec-
tion with the fact that worker
bees cannot puncture fruit. It
need scarcely be said that queens
and drones never injure fruit.
The mandibles are moved by
two sets of muscles (Fig. 70, A,
EMd and RMcl) with their origin
in the head. On each mandi-
ble is the opening of a gland
(^<K3)> located in the head
(Fig. 69, A, B; Fig. 70, A, B),
which is a large sac in the
worker (Fig. 70, A) but is reduced in the drone (Fig. 70,
B). In the queen (Fig. 69, B) it reaches its greatest size.
It was originally described by
Wolff * as a mucous gland which
serves to keep the surface of the
roof of the mouth moist, where
he thought the olfactory organs
are located. The function of
this gland is not clear, but it is
supposed by Arnhart 2 to func-
tion in softening wax. This
theory rests On the assumption
made by Cheshire and others
with muscles cut off.
2 MdCI
FlG . 71. -Internal mandibular
gland (2MdGi) of worker.
1 Wolff, O. J. B., 1875. Das Riechorgan der Biene. Nova Acta der Ksl.
Leop.-Carol. Deutsch. Akad. der Naturf., XXXVIII, pp. 1-251.
2 Arnhart, Ludwig, 1906. Anatomic und Physiologie der Honigbiene.
In Alfonsus' " Allgemeines Lehrbuch der Bienenzucht," Wien. (99 pp.,
4 pis., 53 figs.).
The Life Processes of the Individual 137
,,-Lbl
FIG. 72. Mouth parts of the worker: A, tip of glossa; B, same from
above ; C, small piece of glossal rod ; D, parts forming the proboscis,
flattened out, ventral view ; E, cross-section of glossa ; F, end of
mentum (Mf) and bases of ligula (Lg) and labial palpi (LbPlp) ;
G, lateral view of proboscis, showing parts on left side ; H, lateral
view of glossa with its rod detached.
that the wax is changed chemically when it is manipulated
by the mandibles. A second gland (Fig. 71, %MdGl) is
found in workers only on the inner wall of the postgena
(Pge) with an opening at the base of the mandibles.
138 Beekeeping
The proboscis consists of the external mouth parts other
than the mandibles (Fig. 68, Prb, Fig. 72, A-H). This
group of organs serves in taking up liquid food. The name
"tongue" is usually given to the slender median portion
(Gls) but is loosely applied to the three median parts, the
labrum. Snodgrass (I.e. pp. 44-45) explains the relation
of these parts to the mouth parts of other insects and points
out the true homologies, at the same time showing the
errors into which various writers on bee anatomy have
fallen. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 72, A-H)
shows the structure of the organs of the proboscis. It
will be seen (Fig. 72, D) that there are three terminal pieces,
the central glossa (Gls) and two lateral labial palpi (LbPlp)
arising from the mentum (Mt\ a median basal sclerite,
and two maxilla?, arising from separate basal pieces, the
stipes (St). These in ' turn articulate with the lorum (Lr),
a flexible band connecting with the cardines (Cd) which
attach the whole proboscis to the head at the fossa of the
proboscis (PrbFs, Fig. 68, B), on which it is suspended.
The maxillae (Ma;) are articulated by the cardines (Cd)
to the maxillary suspensoria on the side walls of the fossa
while the mentum (Mt) articulates with the submentum
(Smt) which is held in the lorum (Lr). These parts are
suspended in the membrane in the fossa floor, giving great
freedom of movement.
The glossa (Gls) is covered with circles of hairs and the
tip (labellum, Lbl) is spoon-shaped. The tip is protected by
spiny hairs (Hr), formerly supposed to be taste organs, between
which is the end of the ventral groove (k) of the glossa.
When the proboscis is not in use the labium and maxillae
are folded back against the mentum and stipes. When
in use, these parts are unfolded and held together. In
sucking liquid the base of the labium slides between the
bases of the maxillae. To acquire this motion, the sub-
mentum turns on the lorum and the mentum turns on
its articulation with the submentum. This gives the men-
tum a forward and backward movement and the labium
The Life Processes of the Individual 139
is pulled and pushed through the maxillae. This motion
doubtless effects a pumping action, bringing the liquid
through the temporary tube Ant
formed by the .curling of the
glossa. It is probably sucked
farther by the pharynx. The
glossa is also retracted into
the mentum and this with its
own contractility gives it great
flexibility of movement.
Thorax.
As explained earlier (p. 99),
the functional thorax of the
bee (Figs. 73 and 74) con-
sists of the three segments
which form the thorax in
other orders of insects and
the segment which is the first
abdominal segment of other
orders. This modification is
found in most other Hymen-
optera 1 but the fact has seem-
ingly escaped most writers on
bees. The prothorax (1st
thoracic segment) is reduced
and the first pair of legs,
arising from this segment, are
loosely attached. The meso-
thorax (2d thoracic segment)
is specially well developed to
accommodate the large mus-
cles which propel the fore wings, while the metathorax (3d
thoracic segment) is reduced, consisting only of a narrow
plate (T8), the metatergum,. and two lateral plates on
Mb
VT
'Mb
VLT
,-VlT
FIG. 73. Dorsal view of ventral
walls and internal skeleton of
worker. Much enlarged.
595.
Snodgrass, R. E., 1909. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXVI, pp. 511-
140
Beekeeping
Set
each side (pleural plates,
PIS and plS). The
tergum (dorsal plate)
of the first abdominal
segment (IT) is fixed
to the metathorax. The
posterior portion of this
segment (propodium or
median segment) forms
the peduncle (Pd) to
which the functional
abdomen is attached.
The legs and wings are
Thorax of worker, showing discusged under organs
of locomotion (p. 154).
FIG. 74.
propodium or first abdominal segment
(IT).
Abdomen.
The abdomen of the female bees (queens and workers)
appears to consist of six segments (Fig. 75) but to this
number must be added the modified abdominal segment
on the thorax (IT). In
the drones, there are ad-
ditional segments par-
tially visible externally.
Snodgrass has figured
(Fig. 76) the tip of the
abdomen of the worker,
showing that the eighth
abdominal segment is in-
vaginated and the eighth FlG 75> _ Lateral view of abdomen of
abdominal spiracle opens worker,
within the invagination.
Zander 1 further claims that the quadrate plate (Qd) is a
part of the ninth tergum. The anal opening (An) is in a
1 Zander, Enoch, 1899. Beitrage zur Morphologic des Stachelapparates
der Hymenopteren. Zeit. fur wiss. Zoologie, LXVII, pp. 288-333.
The Life Processes of the Individual
141
vnrf
tube (without chitin) which represents the tenth abdominal
segment (X) so that the bee, like most other insects, has
ten abdominal segments. In the drone, nine of these seg-
ments are partially visible. The plates of the abdomen
are easily movable, being connected by membranes so that
the abdomen may be distended by food, or in the queen
by the growth of the ovaries. In the typical segments
(II-VII), there is a tergum (T) covering the dorsal and
lateral surfaces, overlapping a sternum (S) or ventral piece.
The spiracles (see p. 151) (Sp) are on the terga (see Figs.
73 and 75).
The eighth, ninth
and tenth segments
of the drone are not
typical. The tergum
of the eighth seg-
ment (Fig. 93, D,
VIIIT) is partly
covered by that of
the seventh and car-
ries the most pos-
terior of the spiracles
(Sp). The sternum
of this segment
(VI I IS) is likewise concealed on the ventral side. The
dorsal portion of the ninth segment is chitinized to but
a small extent but the ventral portion (IXS) is chitin-
ized and carries two pairs of clasping organs, used during
copulation (IClsp and 2Clsp). The penis is extruded during
mating between the clasping organs.
ACl
SKA Tri Ob
FIG. 76. Tip of abdoinen of worker with left
side removed, showing normal position of
sting and anus.
DIGESTION
The workers take in food not only for their own nourish-
ment but also that they may be able to provide food for
the larvae. The queen eats frequently, especially during
the period of active egg-laying, and a rapid metabolism
142 Beekeeping
must take place to permit her to produce the large number
of eggs which she lays in the height of her activities. The
larvae, as has been explained in the previous chapter, take
enormous quantities of food, given them by the worker
bees, permitting the rapid growth during the short period
of larval development.
The food of the various members of the colony all comes
from nectar and pollen. The workers eat honey and pollen
for their own nourishment but modify the raw materials
before feeding the larvae. They also normally feed the
queen and the drones, but the composition of the material
furnished is not determined. That the raw materials may
serve their purpose, they must be so modified that they
may pass through the walls of the alimentary canal and
then remain in a soluble condition in the blood until taken
up by the tissues. To accomplish this, various digestive
enzymes are needed. The source of these will be discussed
later.
The digestive processes of the bee are not thoroughly
understood. The usual discussions, which are abundantly
numerous in spite of our lack of knowledge, are too often
confined to the drawing of analogies with human digestion.
No such analogies are permissible and it is, for example,
entirely unwarranted to apply the name "chyle stomach"
to the ventriculus, because of a supposed homology with
human intestinal digestion. The whole structure of the
insect alimentary canal is different from that of man and it
is, in fact, better not to apply names to any of the parts
which are drawn from human anatomy. It is perhaps per-
missible to use the terms mouth, oesophagus and anus for
both insects and man, but to call the ventriculus the chyle
stomach or the rectal ampulla the large intestine is mislead-
ing. These parts do not seem to have homologous func-
tions in man and bees.
The structure of the alimentary canal has been well
described by Snodgrass and by other workers and in so
far as a knowledge of anatomy is helpful there is little room
The Life Processes of the Individual 143
for criticism. There have been, however, very few in-
vestigations of the digestive processes. The digestion of
insects is discussed by Biedermann, 1 and more recently
Petersen 2 has published a discussion of the processes of
digestion in the honeybee. This is the first good paper on
this subject and the author is to be commended for taking
a stand against the making of comparisons with human
physiology.
The mouth parts have already been described (p. 135),
and those glands (1GI, Fig. 59) which are supposed to be
concerned in the production of larval food have also been
discussed (p. 111). Behind the mouth is an enlargement
of the alimentary canal called the pharynx (Phy, Fig. 60),
leading to a long narrow tube extending through the thorax,
the oesophagus ((E). Behind the constriction between
the thorax and abdomen, the alimentary canal widens to
form the honey-stomach (HS), homologous to the crop of
other insects. This is a thin-walled, muscular organ used
by the worker in carrying nectar to the hive. Behind the
honey-stomach is a valvular structure, the proventriculus
(Pvent, the anterior part being often called the stomach-
mouth) which separates the honey-stomach from the ven-
triculus (often called the chyle stomach). The proven-
triculus is of special interest in the bee, since when closed it
prevents the nectar from mixing with the contents of the
ventriculus and makes it possible for the honey-stomach to
function as a carrying vessel. It is claimed by Schonfeld
that the anterior end of the proventricular valve (nn, Fig.
61) may be moved forward to touch the posterior end of
the oesophagus, so that the contents of the ventriculus
may be forced out as larval food. Snodgrass has shown
that this cannot happen without tearing the muscles of the
1 In Winterstein's Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie, vol. 2,
Heft I.
* Petersen, Hans, 1912. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Physiologie der
Verdauung. V. Die Verdauung der Honigbiene. Pniigers' Arch, fur die
gesammte Phys. d. Menschen u. d. Tiere, XLV, pp. 121-151.
144 Beekeeping
honey-stomach, and furthermore, as is shown later, the
contents of the ventriculus could not escape were this con-
tortion possible. Cheshire claims that the hooks (at nn,
Fig. 61) of the pro ventriculus serve to separate the honey
and pollen in the honey-stomach, but no proof is presented.
The only known function of the proventriculus is that of
opening to allow food to pass to the ventriculus. There
is no evidence that it assists in the mastication of pollen.
Behind the proventriculus is the ventriculus (Vent), a
thick-walled organ, ringed by numerous constrictions. It
consists (Fig. 77) of longitudinal and transverse muscles
surrounding a much folded epithelium, the cells of which
are supposed to produce some of the digestive enzymes.
The inner depressions of this epithelium are filled with a
gelatinous mass (pp) which extends into the lumen. The
food contents of the ventriculus are surrounded by layers
of membrane (peritrophic layers, Fig. 77, Pmb), formed
from the gelatinous mass in the enveloping epithelium.
The peritrophic layers are often described as chitinous but
this, according to Petersen, is an error. These membranes
do not seem capable of allowing the passage of the food con-
tained in them to the ventriculus wall and probably little
or no absorption of food occurs here. Furthermore, pollen
is usually found at the posterior end undigested and, ac-
cording to Snodgrass, it is not prepared for absorption
until it reaches the rectal ampulla. Snodgrass observed
in certain parts of the ventriculus wall a sloughing off of
the ends of the epithelial cells (Enz), presumably enzymes,
which are seen in the gelatinous peritrophic mass. Petersen,
in confirmation of this view, found that the peritrophic
layers (which come from the peritrophic mass on the epithe-
lium) are not chitinous but contain proteolytic ferments.
The peritrophic layers and their attachment to the pro-
ventricular valve effectually prevent the regurgitation
of the contents of the ventriculus into the honey-stomach.
The contents of the ventriculus does not at all resemble
larval food. It therefore appears clear that the theory that
The Life Processes of the Individual 145
Epth
FIG. 77. Histological details of alimentary canal of worker: A, cross-
section of ventriculus ; B, section of ventriculus wall ; C, section of
Malpighian tubule ; D, cross-section of small intestine ; E, section of
ventriculus wall, showing formation of enzyme cells ; F, section of
anterior end of rectum* showing rectal glands (RGl) ; G, slightly
oblique section of posterior end of ventriculus, showing openings of
Malpighian tubules.
larval food is regurgitated can no longer be considered as
at all tenable.
Behind the ventriculus, the alimentary canal narrows
to form the small intestine (Fig. 60, SInt) and at the point
146 Beekeeping
where the ventriculus and small intestine join, the Mal-
pighian tubes (Mai) empty into the alimentary canal.
The small intestine is coiled and finally empties into the
rectal ampulla (Rect, rectum or large intestine). The inner
epithelium of the rectum is thrown into six longitudinal
folds, the so-called rectal glands (Fig. 77, RGl) of unknown
function. It is usually believed that they increase the
absorbing surface but, since they are covered on the inner
surface with chitin, this explanation seems improbable.
The rectal ampulla is capable of considerable expansion
and normally retains the feces when bees are confined to
the hive, as in winter. It is supposed that most of the
absorption of food takes place in the hind-intestine. Peter-
sen advances the fantastic theory that the rectal glands
are the source of the hive odor.
The food of bees which must be acted upon by the various
digestive juices to be prepared for absorption have their
origin in the nectar and pollen collected from flowers. The
chief food is honey, which consists largely of invert sugar.
This name is given to a mixture of two sugars, levulose and
dextrose, which by various means can be made from sucrose
(cane sugar). In the higher animals, these sugars are ca-
pable of absorption without further change, and this is pre-
sumably true of bees also. The sugar in nectar is probably
sucrose with some invert sugar. The preparation of this
material for absorption therefore begins with the ripening
of nectar into honey. As explained earlier (p. 85), this is
by the action of an enzyme and, according to Petersen,
such an enzyme was extracted from the head of the bee by
Erlenmeyer and by v. Planta, presumably from the salivary
glands. The absorption of sugars probably occurs in the
ventriculus and any water in the honey which is not needed
is ejected. The process of such an ejection is not clear.
It is also stated by Petersen that the bee produces a diastatic
ferment by which the digestion of starch is possible, but he
was never able to prove from experiments that starch is
changed into dextrin, maltose or dextrose in the honey-
The Life Processes of the Individual 147
stomach. However, pollen contains no starch so that the
breaking down of starch plays a small part in the digestion
of the bee.
The next important constituent of bee food is proteid,
derived from pollen. Petersen shows the presence of pro-
teolytic ferments in the salivary gland secretions and es-
pecially claims that the layers of peritrophic membrane
consist largely of such ferments. He also makes the in-
teresting observation that the bee is incapable of digesting
the proteid from pollen unless the grains are broken before
they enter the ventriculus, any ones remaining unbroken
simply passing out in the feces. It would therefore seem
probable that the pollen is surrounded in the ventriculus
with the peritrophic layers containing the ferments and is
then passed on to the small intestine without being broken
up or absorbed. The use of pollen is more in evidence
during brood-rearing and it is usually assumed that the
workers predigest this, or perhaps more correctly, secrete
a mixture rich in protein for the use of the larvae. However,
since the mid-intestine of the older larvae contain consider-
able pollen, a large part of their proteid digestion is by their
own proteolytic ferments.
Pollen contains considerable oil but Petersen failed to find
that any of it is digested by the bee, at any rate most of it
passes through without being broken up or absorbed.
The retention of feces by bees, so long as they stay in the
hive, except when dysentery develops, is of importance
in their management. The relation of this retention to
the activities of bees in winter is discussed in a previous
chapter (p. 91). Usually during the active season, when
feces accumulate most rapidly, there are frequent opportu-
nities for flight and the ejection of feces.
For bees living only on honey or perhaps on a syrup of
cane sugar, digestion is reduced to a minimum. It remains
to be proved whether under such conditions the bees are
fully nourished. That bees can live over winter without
pollen is of course not proof that they do not need it then.
148 Beekeeping
While bees can convert sucrose (cane sugar) into levulos^
and dextrose and can digest maltose, they cannot digest
certain other sugars. There is also considerable evidence
that dextrine cannot be digested and that the presence in
the food of unusual amounts of dextrine may produce the
condition known as dysentery. It has also been found
that certain proteids which have been used as substitutes
for pollen cannot be digested. The alimentary canal of
the bee, therefore, appears to be a highly specialized system,
incapable of any considerable flexibility. Bees would evi-
dently fail to be nourished by the mixed diets of many
other species, which is additional argument against at-
tempted homologies with human digestion.
CIRCULATION
When the products of digestion are absorbed and traverse
the alimentary canal wall, they must be carried to the
various tissues for assimilation. This is done by means
of the blood. In the higher animals blood is normally
confined in blood vessels which carry it throughout the
body, but in the bee, as in other insects", the blood bathes
the various organs, filling up the interstices between them.
These spaces may, however, be so arranged that the blood
flows in definite channels or sinuses. The blood is further
confined to definite paths by membranes stretched across
the dorsal and ventral walls of the abdomen (DDph and
VDph, Fig. 78) which bound the chief sinuses. These
diaphragms have a rhythmical motion and assist in the
circulation of the blood. The heart (Ht) is located dorsal
to the dorsal diaphragm, this sinus being therefore known
as the pericardial chamber. The heart is a long muscular
tube consisting of four chambers lying in the third, fourth,
fifth and sixth segments of the abdomen. In each of these
segments is a valvular opening (ostium, Ost) on each side
for the admission of blood from the pericardial chamber,
and there are also segmental valves to prevent a backward
The Life Processes of the Individual 149
flow of blood. The posterior end of the heart is closed
but on the anterior end it is continued in a long tube (aorta,
Ao) extending in various convolutions and arches through
150 Beekeeping
the thorax and opening by simple branches into the head
cavity.
The blood of the bee is a colorless liquid containing certain
corpuscles, but no red ones such as are found in mammals.
The blood is forced through the heart and aorta to the head
cavity. It then flows backward through the sinuses of the
thorax into the ventral sinus of the abdomen. Pumped
backward by the pulsation of the ventral diaphragm, it
flows through various definite cavities between visceral
organs in the abdomen and into the pericardial cavity,
from which it again enters the heart through the ostia. In
its passage through the sinuses about the viscera, the blood
takes up the food which has passed through the walls of
the alimentary canal. This nourishment is promptly
carried to all parts of the body by the circulation.
METABOLISM
It is not proposed at this time to enter into a long dis-
cussion of the ways by which each organ is rebuilt as needed.
In the general discussion of the cells which make up the
various organs (p. 94), it was stated that each cell is ca-
pable of taking up nourishment and of building this into
protoplasm. It also utilizes oxygen furnished by the res-
piratory processes. To this process the name anabolism
is given. Not all cells require the same constituents of the
food presented or the same amount of oxygen, but by some
mysterious process each cell is enabled to choose those parts
which it needs. Similarly, as the activities of the cells
progress, protoplasm is broken down and waste products
are formed : this we know as katabolism. The final products
of katabolism are carbon dioxid and water, together with
various more complex chemical compounds usually con-
taining nitrogen, such as uric acid and urea. The elimina-
tion of the more complex waste products is discussed under
excretion.
The Life Processes of the Individual 151
RESPIRATION
That an animal may live, it must have oxygen. The
oxygen taken into the body in respiration does not go to
form protoplasm in the various cells but it is used to com-
bine with the products of katabolism to make simpler com-
pounds which can be eliminated from the body. These
products of the breaking down of the living substance are
of such a character that they poison the cells unless they
are promptly removed. The process is like ordinary com-
bustion in that these products combine with oxygen to
form carbon dioxid and water and to generate heat.
In man, the oxygen is taken into the lungs and the blood
is pumped there to meet the oxygen. But the bee does not
have a closed circulation which will effectually carry the
blood to the oxygen. Furthermore, the higher animals
have in their red blood corpuscles a substance, haemoglobin,
which is capable of absorbing abundant oxygen, but this is
lacking in the colorless blood of insects. In the bee, instead
of the blood being carried to the oxygen, the oxygen is
carried to the blood by means of tracheal sacs and a multi-
tude of tracheal branches which go to every organ and to
every part of the bee's body. These tracheae receive their
air supply through openings in the outer wall, the spiracles,
two pairs on the sides of the thorax and eight pairs on the
abdomen. The tracheae are composed of a delicate epi-
thelium lined with a thin layer of chitin. To prevent the
collapse of the tracheal trunks, some of them are further
strengthened with spirally placed rings of chitin, which
are thickenings of the chitin lining. The finer branches
lack these chitin rings and there are few heavy trunks in
the bee, the walls usually being delicate.
The oxygen is therefore carried to all parts of the bee's
body, passes through the walls of the tracheal system, is
absorbed by the blood and is carried to every cell. The
products of katabolism are in turn carried by the blood,
and the water vapor (at least most of it) and the carbon
152
Beekeeping
dioxid enter the tracheal branches and are expelled through
the spiracles. The more complex compounds are eliminated
in the process of excretion.
The tracheal system of the bee is shown sufficiently in
the accompanying il-
lustration (Fig. 79) so
that a detailed de-
scription is unneces-
sary. The abdomen
contains . the unusu-
ally large tracheal
sacs (TraSc) connected
with each other by
ventral commissures
(TraCom). They are
also connected with
tracheal sacs of the
thorax. From the
most anterior spiracles
of the thorax are
heavy trunks to the
air sacs of the head,
above the brain. The
tracheal system of the
bee is more elaborate
than that of most
other insects and prob-
ably in no other
species is there more
free access of oxygen
to all parts of the
body.
The pumping of the
air through the body is accomplished by the respiratory
movements of the abdomen, consisting of a lengthening
and shortening of the abdomen and a slight dorso-ventral
movement. The muscles of the abdomen which function
TfdCom
FIG. 79. Tracheal system of worker with
dorsal sacs and trunks removed, from above.
The Life Processes of the Individual 153
in respiration have been described by Carlet, 1 who dis-
tinguishes seven sets. It is stated by Djathchenko 2 that in
expiration the spiracles are momentarily closed, the contrac-
tion of the muscles thus forcing air to the minute branches.
The spiracles are then opened and the air is expelled.
EXCRETION
The products of the breaking down of protoplasm consist,
as previously stated, of carbon dioxid, water and various
compounds containing nitrogen. Since the adult honeybee
can live for long periods (especially in winter) on pure sugar,
excretion must at times be reduced to a minimum. Sugar
breaks down into carbon dioxid and water, both of which
may pass off as gases through the tracheal system. It is
only the other components of honey and the pollen which
ultimately go to form nitrogenous compounds. The carbon
dioxid is all expelled through the tracheae and probably
most of the water escapes as vapor by this course, although
some may be ejected with the nitrogenous compounds.
The excretory organs are the Malpighian tubules (Fig. 60,
Mai), about 100 in number in the bee, which open into the
alimentary canal at the junction of the ventriculus and the
intestine. They are long delicate tubes which coil about
the other viscera. These tubules are only one cell in thick-
ness and the ends of these cells (Epth, Fig. 77, C) often
bulge into the cavity of the tubule. The junction of the
Malpighian tubules with the intestine is shown in Fig. 77, G.
Minute crystals of urates have been found in the Malpighian
tubules. The excreted products empty into the intestine
and are expelled in the feces.
In the fat body (located in the body cavity) are found
certain large cells of rather mysterious function, called
1 Carlet, G., 1884. Sur les muscles de 1'abdomen de 1'abeille. Comptes
rendues de 1'Acad. des Sci. de Paris, XCVIII, pp. 758-759.
2 Djathchenko, Sophie, 1906. Zur Frage der Athumsorgane der Biene.
Ann. de 1'Inst. agron. de Moscou, XII, pp. 1-14.
154 Beekeeping
oenocytes. Koschevnikov l states that the oenocytes of
the young adult bee have a uniform, slightly pigmented
protoplasm, while in old bees yellow granules begin to ap-
pear in these cells. After the winter confinement, these
granules are numerous and in old queens they are especially
abundant. According to the view of this author, oenocytes
are excreting cells which take up waste products of katabo-
lism and, after modifying them, deliver them again to the
blood to be carried to the Malpighian tubules. The changes
of age may be interpreted as due to an accumulation of these
products in cells which are no longer able to discharge them.
This failure of the oenocytes should be investigated from
the point of view of the term of life of the bee. In some of
the primitive insects the fat body is supposed to function
as a permanent storage for urates.
LOCOMOTION
Bees are able to go from place to place by means of two
systems of locomotor organs, the wings and the legs. Both
of these are attached to the thorax and the muscles of flight
are so well developed that they occupy almost the entire
space in the thorax.
The wings (Fig. 80) are membranous structures with a
definite framework of veins attached to the sides of the
thorax. As previously explained (p. 99) they are not
primary embryonic appendages, but are secondary out-
growths from the second and third thoracic segments. The
details of the venation of the wings need not be considered
at length. This has been investigated in a careful manner
by Comstock and Needham 2 and the designations used in
Fig. 80 are those decided upon by these authors after a
study of the comparative venation of the various orders of
insects. The symbols are explained in the appendix. The
1 Koschevnikov, G. A., 1900. Ueber den Fettkorper und die (Enocyten
der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera L.). Zool. Anz., XXIII, pp. 337-353.
1 Comstock, J. H., and Needham, J. G., 1898-99. The wings of insects.
Am. Nat., XXXII and XXXIII : Reprinted, Ithaca, N. Y.
The Life Processes of the Individual
155
attachment of the bee's wings to the thorax has been in-
vestigated by Snodgrass (I.e. pp. 61-63).
The motion of the wings in flight is in four directions, up,
down, forward and backward, and the combination of thesa
movements causes the wing tips to describe the course of a
figure 8, if the insect is held stationary. In flight, the 8
is of course modified. The hind wings are small and are
attached by hooks on their anterior margins to thickenings
on the margin of the front wings. They are not provided
with large flight muscles of their own but are carried along
by the action of the powerful muscles in the mesothorax
which propel the fore
wings.
The muscles of flight
are in four sets, cor-
responding to the four
directions of wing move-
ment. The chief muscles
are not attached directly
to the bases of the wings,
as in dragonflies, but the FIG. 80. Fore and hind wings.
wings are moved into
the right position by muscles situated inside the pleura of
the two thoracic segments. After the wings are in position
for flight, the compression of the thorax by the vertical
muscles lowers the dorsum and raises the wing while the
contraction of the longitudinal muscles raises the dorsum
and lowers the wing. The vertical muscles are therefore
the elevators and the longitudinal muscles the [depressors.
The movements of the wings during flight is therefore
produced mainly by changes in the shape of the thorax.
The forward and backward movements are accomplished
by the action of the muscles on the pleurum, acting directly
on the bases of the wings.
Because of the enormous development of the two main
sets of flight muscles, bees are capable of strong and rapid
flight. They are also capable of arresting progress suddenly
FIG. 81. A, left front leg of worker, anterior view ; B, spine of antenna
cleaner; C, details of antenna cleaner; D, left middle leg of worker,
anterior view ; E, left hind leg of queen, anterior view ; F, left hind leg
of worker, anterior view ; G, inner view of left hind leg of worker, show-
ing pollen-combs ; H, left hind leg of drone, anterior view.
156
The Life Processes of the Individual
157
or of getting under way rapidly. There is no reason to be-
lieve that flight is in any way dependent upon the amount
of air in the tracheae, as has been claimed, for filling the
air sacs obviously does not reduce the weight of the bee.
The maximum rate of flight is not clearly established, for
the currents of air must be eliminated in making such de-
terminations ; the rapidity of movement depends largely
upon the load being carried. Bees are able to fly at a con-
siderable angle for some
distance as is seen in
apiaries in mountainous
districts. The power of
the wing muscles is shown
by the ability of a
worker to fly from the
hive carrying a drone,
which weighs more than
the worker itself.
In walking, bees use
all six legs (Fig. 81). In
addition to their function
in locomotion, the legs
constitute a rather com-
plex set of tools for nu-
merous other purposes,
especially complex in the
worker. On the front legs at the articulation of the tibia
and first tarsal joint are the antennae cleaners. The
middle leg has a spur to which has been attributed the
function of prying pollen from the hind legs in storing it.
The hind legs of the worker bees are highly specialized,
carrying pollen baskets or corbicula on the outer side of
the flattened tibiae and rows of spines on the inner side of
the first tarsal joint. Between these two joints are the so-
called wax-shears, which in fact have nothing to do with
the wax, but function in pollen gathering (p. 123). Each
leg is provided with a pollen brush for collecting pollen.
FIG. 82. Dorsal (A), ventral (B) and
lateral (C) views of last tarsal joint
of first foot of worker.
158 Beekeeping
The muscles for moving the legs are located inside the
joints and are inserted on the chitinous walls.
The last tarsal joint on each leg carries a pair of bilobed
claws (Fig. 82, Cla), which differ among the three types of
bees. Those of the drone are bent more nearly at right,
angles than those in the workers and queens and those of
the queen are larger than the claws of the workers. Between
the claws is a lobe (empodium, Emp) used when the bee
walks on a smooth surface. On such a surface the claws
are useless and the sticky empodium is lowered and flat-
tened, providing a good foothold.
The motion of the legs in walking is typical of all insects.
The legs move in two sets ; the fore and hind legs on one
side move in the same direction as the middle leg on the
opposite side, thus giving a triangle for support at all times.
In flight the legs hang freely and are forced somewhat
backward, except when they are being used as in the manipu-
lation of pollen (p. 123).
PROTECTIVE APPARATUS
Worker bees defend the colony by means of the sting,
situated usually in a cavity at the tip of the abdomen (Fig.
76) but capable of marvelously rapid action when it is
protruded. As was stated earlier (p. 140), this sting cavity
is formed by the infolding of the eighth, ninth and tenth
segments of the abdomen. The sting is homologous with
the ovipositor of other insects (see Snodgrass, I.e. pp. 76-
77) and is made up of parts considered by some embry-
ologists as comparable with the legs and mouth parts of
the more anterior segments of the bee. The sting of the
worker bee is straight while that of the queen is longer,
curved and less strongly barbed.
The sting (Fig. 83) and its accessory apparatus form a
rather complex structure. The shaft consists of three parts,
a dorsal sheath (ShS) along which move two barbed lancets
(Let). The sheath is enlarged at the anterior end into a
The Life Processes of the Individual 159
bulb (ShB) and is further continued in two arms (ShA)
which curve outward. The lancets slide on a grooved
track the full length of the sheath, past the bulb and diverge
along the two basal arms. The sheath and lancets combine
to form a hollow tube (PsnC) through which the poison
flows.
The arms of the sheath are attached at their anterior
ends to oblong plates (06) which overlap the sides of the
sting. To these plates
are attached palpi
(StnPlp), soft white pro-
jections provided with
sense organs, by means
of which the bee can
tell when she is in con-
tact with the object
which is to be stung.
The lancets are attached
to triangular plates (Tri)
which in turn articulate
with the quadrate plates
(Qd). By the move-
ments of these plates on
each other the lancets
are slid along the sheath FlG 83 _ Ventral view of sting of worker
when the Sting is Used. and accessory parts, flattened out.
It has been shown by
Zander 1 that the triangular plate (Tri) is part of the
eighth sternum, the quadrate plate (Qd) is part of the
ninth tergum and the oblong plate (06) is the ninth
sternum.
"In the accessory plates of the bee's sting we have a
most excellent illustration of how parts of a segment may
become modified to meet the requirements of a special
function, and also an example of how nature is ever reluctant
1 Zander, Enoch, 1899. Beitrage zur Morphologic des Stachelapparates
der Hymenopteren. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., LXVI, pp. 288-333.
Let/
BGl
160 Beekeeping
to create any new organ, preferring rather to make over some
already existing structure into something that will serve a
new purpose." SNODGRASS, I.e. p. 78.
The poison of the sting arises from two sets of glands.
The conspicuous poison sac (PsnSc) which opens into the
bulb of the sting is usually seen attached to the sting when
the sting is pulled from a bee. The contents of this gland
have an acid reaction and it was formerly believed to be
formic acid. This acid comes from two long coiled tubes
(AGID) on which are two small enlargements, supposed
to be the secreting glands (AGl). The tubes (AGID) also
probably have gland cells in the walls. The other poison
glands (BGI), known as the alkaline glands, also empty into
the bulb of the sting. Their secretion is supposed to have
an alkaline reaction. According to Carlet, 1 the secretions
of these two sets of glands must be mixed to be fully effec-
tive. The secretions enter the bulb where they are mixed
and are then forced down the canal (PsnC) formed by the
sheath and lancets.
In most books on bees, certain lateral openings in the
lancets are described as paths of the poison in the process
of stinging. Snodgrass showed, however, that these do not
connect with the poison canal and supposed them to be ducts
of some kind of subcuticular glands. Mclndoo has shown
them to be olfactory pores (p. 170).
The sting, as every beekeeper knows, is an effective
weapon of defense. When used, it usually cannot be with-
drawn because of the barbs (Brb) on the lancets. The
sting with the accessory plates and poison sac are therefore
usually torn from the body of the bee, causing so severe
an injury to the abdomen that the worker dies within a
short time. The defender is thus sacrificed for the good
of the colony. The parts torn away include the muscles
which operate the accessory plates and indirectly slide the
lancets on the sheath. The sting may therefore be driven
1 Carlet, G., 1890. Memoir sur le venin et 1'aiguillon de 1'abeille.
Ann. des sci. nat., Zool., 7 ser., IX, pp. 1-17.
The Life Processes of the Individual 161
farther and farther into the wound if not promptly re-
moved and the same reflex actions of the muscles serve to
force more poison from the poison sac. In removing the
sting, care should be exercised not to squeeze the poison
sac thus emptying its contents into the wound.
CHAPTER VII
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SENSES
IN order that bees may respond to factors in the environ-
ment, obviously these influences must be perceived. The
organs which receive the stimuli from without are the special
organs of sense. The resulting nervous impulses are then
transmitted through the nervous system, by means of which
also the actions of the animal are coordinated and molded
in response to the stimuli received. The nervous system
and its various organs of special sense are therefore of the
highest importance to the animal and the influence of the
stimuli of the environment are so important in the behavior
of these insects as to justify a separate chapter.
Nowhere in the entire discussion of bee activities is it
more necessary to avoid comparisons with our own actions
than here. Man is capable of conscious and volitional
acts while evidence of such acts in bees is lacking. Further-
more, the structure of the nervous system and of the sense
organs is so unlike analogous structures in man that at-
tempts at homologies are entirely unwarranted.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
This system of organs consists of a series of nerve masses
called ganglia (Fig. 84, Gng) situated on the mid-ventral
line of the body, the ganglia being connected by a pair of
longitudinal cords, called connectives. The nerve cells are
located in the ganglia while the delicate processes from
these nerve cells, the nerve fibers, form the connectives
and also go to all parts of the body, some serving to trans-
162
The Nervous System and the Senses
163
mit stimuli from the sense organs and some to carry stimuli
from the nervous system to the various organs of the body.
The nerve fibers there-
fore are often compared
with wires used in con-
ducting electric energy
from place to place.
In an hypothetical
generalized insect em-
bryo we should doubt-
less find a ganglion for
each segment of the
body, probably twenty
in all, but the ganglia
of the bee larva are
modified from the primi-
tive condition and in
the adult still further
specialization is ob-
served, by the fusion
of various ganglia.
The brain (Fig. 85),
situated above the oesoph-
agus, consists of three
consecutive ganglia, rec-
ognizable in the embryo,
but completely fused and
not readily recognizable
in the adult. From the
brain, two short connec-
tives (circum-oesopha-
geal) pass one on either side of the oesophagus to the
subcesophageal ganglion (SceGng) also located in the
head. Continuous with the brain are the optic lobes (Opl)
forming the nervous connection with the large compound
eyes (E), and from the brain are nerves to the antennae
(AntNv) and also to the frontal ganglion (FtGng), from
FlG ' 84 -
of worker '
164
Beekeeping
which the stomatogastric system (sympathetic system)
has its origin (StgNv). The suboesophageal ganglion gives
off nerve branches to the mandibles (MdNv), maxillae (MxNv)
and labium (LbNv). For a study of the minute structure of
the brain and the paths of the various nervous elements, the
reader is referred to the works of Kenyon l and Jonescu. 2
SoeGng-'
FtCom
StgNv
Nv
MxNv
MdNv
LmN
FIG. 85. Brain and suboesophageal ganglion of worker, anterior view.
In the thorax the number of ganglia is reduced to two
(Figs. 78 and 84, iGng and 2Gng}. The first innervates the
first pair of legs while the second is a combination of four
ganglia, as shown by the fact that it innervates the meso-
1 Kenyon, F. C., 1896. The brain of the bee. Jr. comp. neurol., VI,
pp. 133-210.
, 1897. The optic lobes of the bee's brain in the light of recent
neurological methods. Am. nat., XXXI, pp. 369-376.
2 Jonescu, C. N., 1909. Vergleichende Untersuchungen tiber das
Gehirn der Honigbiene. Jenaischen Zeit. f. Naturwiss., XLV, N. F.,
XXXVIII.
The Nervous System and the Senses 165
and metathoracic segments (with the corresponding two
pairs of legs and wings) and the first abdominal segment,
which is fused with the thorax in the bee, as well as the first
segment of the abdomen behind the constriction. It should
be noted that nerves (W2Nv and WSNv) run to the bases of
the wings to innervate sense organs (p. 170).
In the abdomen are five ganglia (8-7Gng) which send nerve
branches to the remaining abdominal segments. The third
and fourth ganglia lie one segment in front of the segments
which they innervate while the remaining ones are in their
own segments, the last (7Gng) supplying the remaining
posterior segments of the abdomen, it therefore being ac-
tually a fusion of four ganglia.
The action of the nervous elements remains a matter
chiefly of conjecture. These cells have lost their contractility
and probably never regenerate nor divide in the adult bee.
Their function is obviously important, for if this system is
injured the coordination of the body is destroyed. However,
the cutting of the nerve cord does not cause death and even
if the thorax and abdomen are entirely separated the parts
may function independently. If the head is removed, the
animal can still walk and if the abdomen is removed it can
still take in food. These facts indicate that the nervous
control of the body is not centralized in the brain as com-
pletely as in man and in many other animals. Proper
correlation of movement cannot, however, take place unless
the nervous connections are intact.
SENSE ORGANS
So little is known of the structure and function of the sense
organs of bees that this subject must be discussed with
caution. We know that the simple and compound eyes
are the organs of sight and recently it has been found where
the organs of smell are located. Beyond this is a vast field
for investigation and a fertile field for speculation.
166 Beekeeping
Sight.
The organs which receive light stimuli are the three simple
eyes or ocelli (0) and the two large compound eyes (E), all
situated on the head. The compound eyes are located on
inner ch.
FIG. 86. Section of compound eye and optic lobe of worker; Om,
ommatidia.
the sides of the head, each eye consisting of many units. In
drones, the number of these units is larger than in the two
types of females and the compound eyes are so enlarged as to
meet on the vertex of the head. The structure of the units
of the compound eye was described some years ago. 1 On
1 Phillips, E. F., 1905. Structure and development of the compound
eye of the honey bee. Proc. acad. nat. sci. Phila., LVII, pp. 123-157.
The Nervous System and the Senses
167
CL
CC
rhb.
the outer surface, these units (ommatidia) are indicated
by hexagonal facets in the chitinous covering of the eye. If
a section is cut through the entire eye of
a worker bee (including the optic lobes),
the structure is that shown in Fig. 86.
Numerous ommatidia are shown in full
length and beneath these are the optic
lobes, which need not be described here.
An examination of a single ommatidium
(Fig. 87) shows the following details of
structure : (1) an outer corneal lens of
chitin (CL) continuous with the chitin
of the head, (2) the crystalline cone (CC)
and (3) the rhabdome (rhb) surrounded by
eight or nine sense cells or retinulae (ret).
Surrounding the ommatidia are two types
of pigment cells, (1) the corneal pigment
cells (c.-p.c.), which in the pupal stage
secreted the chitin of the corneal lens,
and (2) the outer pigment cells (o.-p.c.).
So far as can be determined, the functions
of these parts are as follows : rays of light
pass through the lens and crystalline cone
cells and enter the transparent rhabdome
where the stimulus is received. Any rays
of light which enter obliquely or which
strike the edge of the crystalline cone are
absorbed by the surrounding pigment cells
so that it seems probable that only those
rays which strike the surface of the eye
at a right angle ever reach the sense cells.
There is no apparatus for changing the
focus of the lens.
The type of image formed by the com-
pound eye has been the subject of con-
siderable speculation. The two theories
on this subject are (1) that each facet forms a separate
a-p.c.
-BM
Nv
^ Section
tidium.
168 Beekeeping
image 1 and (2) that the impressions of the individual facets
form a mosaic image. 2 The latter theory has most to sup-
port it and is generally accepted. Forel 3 gives an admir-
able discussion of these theories and adds considerable evi-
dence to support the latter theory.
As was stated earlier, it is probable that only the rays of
light which strike the lens perpendicularly can reach the
sensory cells. The image is probably not a distinct one.
If an object in motion is within the range of vision of the bee,
the image is transferred rapidly from one set of ommatidia
to another, which probably accounts for the fact that bees
perceive objects in motion more readily than they do still
ones.
In addition to the compound eyes, there are three simple
eyes or ocelli (0), which Grenacher 4 states are derived from
the same primitive organ as the individual ommatidia of
the compound eyes ; in fact, as shown by him and by Forel,
compound eyes in some species are replaced by ocelli.
The parts played by the ocelli and by the compound
eyes in the vision of the bee are not clear. From a study of
the angles of refraction, it has been inferred that the ocelli
are for perceiving near-by objects, while the compound eyes
are far-sighted. However, just the reverse has been claimed,
and we have no reliable data on this subject.
It has been shown by numerous experiments and by the
experience of beekeepers that bees perceive differences in
1 Gottsche, C. M., 1852. Beitrag zur Anatomie u. Physiologie des
Auges der Fliegen u. s. w. Miiller's Archiv. f. Anat.
2 Exner, Sigmund, 1875. Ueber das Sehen von Bewegungen und die
Theorie des zusammengesetzten Auges. Sitzb. des K. Akad. der Wissensch.,
LXXII, Abth. III.
This theory goes back to the work of J. Muller, 1826. Zur vergleichenden
Physiologie des Gesichtsinnes. Leipzig.
3 Forel, Auguste, 1908. The senses of insects. Eng. trans, by Yearsley.
London : Methuen and Co.
4 Grenacher, H., 1874. Zur Morphologic und Physiologie des facet-
tirten Arthropodenauges. Nachrichten v. d. K. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. a.
d. G. A. Univ. zu Gottingen, pp. 645-656.
, 1877. Untersuchungen iiber das Arthropoden-Auge. Beilageheft
zu d. klinischen Monatsblattern f. Augenheilkunde, XV. Rostock.
The Nervous System and the Senses 169
color. It is asserted that ants do not perceive red light
and the same statement is made concerning bees, but
this is incorrect for bees. It is also sometimes said that in-
sects perceive some of the ultraviolet rays, beyond the range
of human vision. The color preferences of bees have also
been observed, it often being stated that they prefer blue.
It seems certain that bees do not see objects distinctly
and their vision is clearly far less acute than that of wasps
and some other insects. Perhaps they do not perceive the
form of objects at all. The relative intensity of light is
probably an important part of their vision. When it is re-
called that the hairs (p. 104) cover many facets of the com-
pound eye, especially in younger bees, and that the structure
of the eyes does not suggest a high degree of efficiency in
vision, it becomes a matter of wonder that bees are helped
by vision as much as appears to be the case.
Smell.
It is commonly believed that bees possess an acute sense
of smell, and this belief is borne out by experiments on this
subject. With the exception of qualifying statements by
Lubbock l and Forel, this is usually conceded. The location
of the olfactory organs is a matter of much less unanimity
of opinion. Mclndoo 2 has recently performed a valuable
service in gathering together the literature on the olfactory
organs in insects and it is necessary only to give a list of the
organs which are supposed to carry the olfactory organs to
show the confusion which has existed. These sense organs
have been located by various authors on the following struc-
tures : (1) the spiracles, (2) organs close to the spiracles,
(3) glands of head and thorax, (4) oesophagus, (5) " internal
superior surface," (6) folded skin beneath antennae, (7)
rhinarium, (8) plate between eyes and beneath antenna?,
1 Lubbock, Sir John, 1899. The senses, instincts and intelligence of
animals. Internat. Sc. Ser. Lojidon., vol. 65.
2 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The olfactory sense of insects. Smithsonian
misc. col. LXIII, no. 9, 63 pp.
170
Beekeeping
(9) mouth cavity, (10) epipharynx, (11) palpi, (12) antennae,
(13) various structures on the antennae, (14) caudal styles,
(15) organs on base of wings and on legs, and (16) on different
organs for different orders of insects. Notwithstanding this
assortment of theories, it is probably correct to state that
until recently it was the consensus of opinion that the ol-
factory organs are located on the
antennae. However, Mclndoo 1
shows that if the antennae of the
honeybee are removed, the insect
still reacts to odor stimuli. It
is impossible to go into the de-
tails of this work here, but, in
brief, this author concludes that
certain sense organs located at
the bases of the wings, on the legs
and on the stings of females are
olfactory organs, named by him
olfactory pores. His work covers
not only a study of the structure
and distribution of these organs
but is supported by experimental
evidence, which is usually omitted
in other papers on this subject.
The location of these organs is
indicated on the diagrams from
FIG. 88. Diagram of dorsal Mclndoo's paper (Figs. 88 and
view of worker, showing loca- gg)^ the organs being indicated
pores. f
gr UP3 f lfaCt ry
areas and the different
groups being numbered (21
groups in all, Nos. 19, 20, and 21 being on the sting and
not shown in the diagrams). The structure of a typical
olfactory pore is shown in Fig. 90. From the sense cell
(SC), a nerve fiber (SF) extends to the surface of the
body through the pore aperture (PorAp), this aperture being
1 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The olfactory sense of the honey bee. Jr.
exp. zool., XVI, pp. 265-346.
The Nervous System and the Senses
171
within a flask (PorW) which lies in the chitinous body wall.
These sense organs have protoplasm exposed to the outer
air, not covered with chitin, while most of the other organs
which have been supposed to have the olfactory function
are covered with a chitinous layer. This is especially to be
noted in the sense organs of the antennae and it is difficult
to see how odors may be sup-
posed to penetrate such layers.
The structure of the olfactory
pores therefore fits them for
their olfactory function and
Mclndoo has shown by experi-
mental evidence that this is
their office. He l has also found
these olfactory organs in spiders
and in other Hymenoptera.
Admitting that these olfac-
tory pores are the true organs
of smell, we are still confronted
with some difficulty in deciding
what part responses to odor
stimuli play in the behavior of
bees. That bees are attracted
by odor to honey during a
dearth of nectar cannot be
doubted. Similarly it is be-
lieved that the recognition of
hive-mates, the discovery of
enemies and the reactions to-
ward the queen are due to re-
sponses to odors. A difficulty encountered in this field of
investigation is that the human sense of smell is so inefficient
that it is difficult to comprehend the responses observed,
1 Mclndoo, N. E., 1911. The lyriform organs and tactile hairs of
araneads. Proc. acad. nat. sc. Phila., LXIII, pp. 375-418.
, 1914. The olfactory sense of Hymenoptera. Ibid., LXVI, pp.
294-341.
FIG. 89. Diagram of ventral
view of worker, showing loca-
tion of groups of olfactory
pores.
172
Beekeeping
which is perhaps but another way of saying that we are too
prone to put human interpretations on all such observations,
v. Buttel-Reepen, 1 from his wide experience with bees,
concludes that there are seven normal odors in a colony of
bees which influence behavior. These are (1) an individual
odor, (2) an odor common to the offspring of one queen,
(3) brood and larval-food odor, (4) drone odor, (5) wax odor,
(6) honey odor and (7) the hive odor, which is a combination
of all or part of the other odors. Whether there are other
normal odors is a matter of conjecture but, in cases of dysen-
tery or a brood disease, abnormal odors occur which influence
the behavior of the bees.
On the dorsal side of the ab-
domen of the workers and queen
on the articular membrane be-
tween the sixth and seventh
terga (counting the propodium)
is a transverse area which is
the external portion of a scent-
producing organ. This organ
was described by Nassenoff, 2
later by Sladen 3 and more re-
cently Mclndoo 4 has described
the structure of the glands on
the interior as well as the ex-
ternal structure. This organ
may perhaps be considered as the source of the individual
odor of the females.
FIG. 90. Cross-section of typ-
ical olfactory pore: SC, sense
cell; SF, sense fiber; PorAp
pore aperture.
1 v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1900. Sind die Bienen Reflex-maschinen ?
Biol. Centralbl., XX; reprinted Leipzig: Georgi ; Eng. trans, by Mary
H. Geisler, Medina, O. : A. I. Root Co., 48 pp.
2 Nassenoff, see Zoubareff, A., 1883. A propos d'un organe de 1'abeille
non encore decrit. Bui. d'apic. suisse rom., V, pp. 215-216. Trans. Brit,
bee jr., No. 136. Nassenoff s paper is in Russian.
3 Sladen, F. W. L., 1901. A scent-producing organ in the abdomen of
the bee. Gleanings in bee culture, XXIX, pp. 639-640; also in Ent.
month, mag., XXXVIII, pp. 208-211.
4 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The scent-producing organ of the honey bee.
Proc. acad. nat. sc. Phila., LXVI, pp. 542-555.
The Nervous System and the Senses
173
If the queen is removed from a colony and a strange queen
is placed among the bees in a cage, after a day or so she has,
according to the current belief, acquired the hive odor and
she will be accepted if
released. If a strange
bee attempts to enter a
hive, it is usually recog-
nized at once and re-
pelled, this being con-
sidered as due to the
possession of a different
hive odor, but if a field
bee returns to its own
hive, it is admitted, be-
cause it has the hive
odor. These responses
may vary according to
the honey-flow and other
environmental factors.
In these cases and many
others, there is evidence
of the importance of re-
sponses to odors in the
behavior of bees, so that
there is justification for
believing that the sense
of smell is of primary
importance. It must be
admitted that the belief
in this importance is
based chiefly on the ac-
cumulated experiences of
beekeepers rather than
on careful experiments, which are sorely needed in an examina-
tion of these data in order to eliminate complicating environ-
mental factors. Additional evidences of odor influences are
given in the discussion of swarming.
FIG. 91. Antennal organs: A, antennal
joint of drone, showing a few pore plates
(PorPl) and a group of ForeJ's flasks
(FFl) ; B, pore plates and Forel's flasks
from drone's antenna ; C, pore plates
(PorPl), pegs (Pg) and tactile hairs
(THr) from worker's antenna ; D, struc-
ture of pore plate and tactile hair ;
E, structure of peg ; F, structure of
tactile hair ; G, structure of Forel's flask ;
H, structure of pit peg.
174 Beekeeping
Antennal sense organs.
Before the work on the olfactory pores, just described, it
was supposed that some of the sense organs on the antennae
are olfactory organs. Just which of the organs serve in this
way was not easy to decide. That these are sense organs
can scarcely be doubted, but in view of the elimination of
organs of smell from the antennae of bees, the only course at
present is to describe these organs and leave their function
to be decided by later experimental work. The accompany-
ing illustration (Fig. 91) shows the distribution and struc-
ture of these organs. These organs are known as (1) pore
plates, (2) pegs, (3) Forel's flasks, (4) pit pegs and (5) tac-
tile hairs. In all of them the sensory cells are covered
with chitin.
Taste.
To what extent bees have this sense has not been made
clear. In human experience, the senses of taste and smell
are so closely related that to determine these separately in
the bee will prove a somewhat difficult task. There are sen-
sory cells on the epipharynx, in the mouth cavity, on the
palpi and perhaps on other mouth parts, some of which may
prove to be organs of taste. The evidence that bees dis-
tinguish tastes is meager. It is well known that bees show
preferences in the material collected. They will for example
abandon honey-dew if nectar becomes plentiful, but this
action may not be due to a sense of taste.
Touch.
This sense is probably well developed, and it is safe to
assume that some of the antennal sense organs function in
this way. The use of the antennae by the bees suggests
this. Bees are remarkably sensitive to jars and respond
promptly when touched on various parts of the body.
Most of the hairs which cover the body are not sensory,
however.
The Nervous System and the Senses 175
Hearing.
No organ has so far been described for bees which is surely
an organ of hearing nor is it definitely established that bees
can hear. In experimenting on this subject, it is of course
necessary that vibrations through solids be eliminated and
that the stimulus come to the bee only through vibrations
of the air. It is commonly believed by beekeepers that
bees hear, the belief being based chiefly on the fact that bees
make noises which are interpreted as purposeful. Various
investigators share this belief, among whom may be men-
tioned v. Buttel-Reepen l (I.e.). Since this author has
.(pp. 12-18 Eng. trans.) gathered together the evidence on
this subject, it is necessary here only to mention the various
phenomena which he details. (1) Queenlessness of a strong
colony is noticed in from one hour to several hours. The
bees no longer hum ''contentedly/' but this gives way to a
"lamenting buzz." This change is said not to be due to the
lack of the queen's odor, although the author admits that if a
dead queen is placed in the colony the agitation ceases. (2)
If a colony is made queenless and the caged queen is later
placed in the upper part of the hive, the agitation ceases
and v. Buttel-Reepen cannot believe that this is due to odor.
(3) Bees disregard a queen in the open air a foot from the hive.
From these observations, he believes that odor is not the only
factor in " communication " of bees and he believes that
bees communicate by sound. He further details some
other evidence. (1) "It can hardly be doubted that sounds
of some kind perhaps serve here [in swarming] for communica-
tion." (2) The "swarm tone" serves to draw out colonies
scarcely ready to swarm. (3) The humming of bees is in-
terpreted as leading the bees during the hiving of a swarm.
1 On p. 2 (Eng. trans.), v. Buttel-Reepen says: "No zoologist who has
done any experimental beekeeping can have the least doubt that bees
have an excellent sense of hearing, since observations yield him hundreds
of proofs. The man who is not familiar with biological facts might recog-
nize nothing of the kind with certainty, for up to the present the organ of
hearing has not been discovered."
176 Beekeeping
(4) The queen makes at least two sounds, "teeting" and
"quahking." (5) When a queen is " frightened" she emits
a peculiar sound. This author concludes by claiming that
the fact that bees do not respond to artificial sounds is no
proof of a lack of hearing.
It need scarcely be pointed out that these statements are
not conclusive evidence of a sense of hearing in bees ; in fact
most of the phenomena observed are as readily interpreted as
evidence of a sense of smell. In earlier chapters it is men-
tioned that the phenomena in swarming and in the hiving
of a swarm are most plausibly explained as brought about
by reactions to odors, v. Buttel-Reepen's statement that
"only the dead bee is quiet" may be answered by the state-'
ment that a totally deaf man often makes more noise in
walking and frequently by articulate sounds than does a
man with acute hearing. To sum up, we are justified in
concluding (1) that no organ or organs of hearing are recog-
nized, (2) that the existence of a sense of hearing is doubtful,
and (3) that the investigations so far carried out are incon-
clusive.
Temperature sense.
In the discussion of the activities of bees in winter (p. 90),
it is stated that at about 57 F. the bees form a cluster and,
if the outer temperature drops below that point, they begin
to generate heat. When no cluster is formed the bees are
more active at temperatures above 69 F. than at tempera-
tures below this. In a discussion of the temperature of the
hive at other seasons (p. 60), it is shown that the tempera-
ture of the hive while occupied by the bees rarely exceeds
97 F. and that during brood-rearing the temperature of
the brood chamber is quite constant. This brief summary
of the facts of hive temperature indicates that in some manner
bees perceive changes in temperature and it may almost be
believed that they have a temperature sense superior to our
own. The nerve endings or sense organs which function
in this response to temperature stimuli are not determined
The Nervous System and the Senses 177
and perhaps this is a function of some of the problematical
organs on the antennae.
Finding of the flowers.
In a previous chapter (p. 118), a discussion is given of
the division of labor whereby bees are seemingly able to
apportion the available forage to prevent duplication. In
this connection the interesting question arises as to how the
bees find the flowers. Considerable detailed and painstaking
work has been done on this subject. Plateau l and his
followers on the one hand believe that bees are guided to the
nectar by odor, this being supported by experimental evi-
dence as well as by an array of facts concerning the gathering
of nectar from inconspicuous flowers. Forel 2 and other
writers assert, on the contrary, that color is the important
stimulus and that flowers are found through the sense of
sight. Plateau's work is open to one important criticism,
since he overlooks the possibility of the return of bees to his
mutilated flowers through memory. Burton N. Gates,
several years ago, showed that bees visit artificial flowers
and also fly to natural flowers which have been sealed in
glass tubes. The reaction to these unusual objects was
entirely normal. These results point strongly to the belief
that odor is of minor importance in the location of nectar-
1 Plateau, Felix, 1895-97. Comment les fleurs attirent les insects. Bui.
acad. roy. d. Belgique, 3 ser., XXX, n. 11, XXXII, n. 11, XXXIII, n. 1,
XXXIV, n . 9, 10, 11. See also Plateau, 1888. Recherches experimen tales
sur la vision chez les arthropodes, ibid., part. 3-5 and other papers.
2 Forel, Auguste, 1886-88. Recueil zoologiques Suisse, 1 ser., IV.
, 1908. The senses of insects. Eng. trans. Yearsley. London :
Methuen and Co., 324 pp.
See also: Andreae, Eug., 1903. Inwiefern werden Insekten durch Fabre
und Duft der Blumen angezogen. Beihefte z. Bot. Centralbl., XV.
Giltay, E., 1901. Ueber die Bedeutung der Krone bei den Bliiten und
tiber das Farbenunterscheidungs vermogen der Insekten, I. Pringh. Jahrb.
f. wiss. Bot., XL.
Detto, Carl, 1905. Blutenbiologische Untersuchungen I u. II. Flora
odor Allg. bot. Zeit., XCIV.
Kienitz-Gerloff, 1898 u. 1903. Proffessor Plateau und die Blumentheorie
I u. II. Biol. Centralbl., XVIII u. XXIII.
178 Beekeeping
secreting plants. That bees differentiate between flowers
which are encountered in their flights is shown by the fact
that they usually visit but one species on a trip (p. 119).
Finding of the hive.
It is well known that bees normally return to the right
hive. The fact that strange bees are not usually admitted
may be explained on the basis of difference in colony odors
but this does not explain the method by which they find
the right hive in the majority of cases. Bethe 1 asserts that
the bees are led back to the hive by an "unknown force"
but, as v. Buttel-Reepen points out in his discussion of
memory of place in bees, this explanation is not satisfactory,
and cannot be accepted until the known forces are eliminated.
It will be recalled (p. 105) that young bees take "play flights"
on warm days. If bees which have not taken such flights
are taken out a few feet from the hive, they fail to return.
Bees that have had some experience on the wing are able to
return from short distances, and, finally, old bees are often
able to return if taken away two miles or more. They
evidently increase in efficiency with experience. It is also
known that if the hive is moved a foot or more in any direc-
tion the returning bees seek the entrance to the hive in the
old place. If the hive has been moved only a short distance
they may soon find it by searching, but if it is moved several
feet they may fail to find it.
If bees were attracted to the hive by odor, the field bees
would probably have no difficulty in finding it if it were
moved perhaps a mile. Under such circumstances a short
distance would make no appreciable difference and yet the
moving of the hive a foot often delays their entering it. Odor
is therefore evidently not the guiding sense.
Bees in the field cannot always see their hive, and in all
probability, they can see neither far nor distinctly. If
1 Bethe, A., 1898. Dilrfen wir Ameisen und Bienen Psychische Quali-
taten zuschreiben? Arch. f. d. ges. Phys., LXX, also as separate, 1898.
Bonn : Emil Strauss, with different paging.
The Nervous System and the Senses 179
sight is their guide, they must remember various objects
over or about which they fly as they go out and must return
by known paths. This is actually the case. If bees are
accustomed to fly in only one direction to the forage and
are carried off a shbrt distance into unknown environment,
they fail to return. It is evident that bees are guided back
to their hives by a memory of the objects encountered, as
perceived by sight. If a hive is moved, they then follow over
the accustomed paths to the old location of the entrance,
but having no experience over the road from the old location
to the new one, they fail to make the trip unless they acciden-
tally encounter the hive. No ''unknown force" need be
called in here to explain the phenomena. Evidently the play
flights and the early trips to the field are the times during
which bees acquire knowledge of their surroundings. If a
colony is moved several miles, the bees must orient themselves
anew, and in order that they may perceive the change and
"recognize" the necessity for re-orientation, the beekeeper
often places brush or grass about the entrance so that the
change may be perceived when they first fly out.
That sight is the important sense in the location of the hive
is appreciated by beekeepers who have learned that irregu-
larities in the rows of hives, landmarks of trees or shrubs
in the apiary or differences in color of the hives are beneficial
in enabling the bees to find their hives quickly. These cus-
toms are well founded on the behavior of the bees.
Memory.
It would appear from the preceding discussion that bees
are not entirely bundles of reflexes but that they actually
have memory. The finding of the hive is good evidence of
this fact and it is also asserted (v. Buttel-Reepen) that they
remember the location of the feeder in the hive and that
scouting bees remember the paths to the locations chosen
by them.
The best evidence of memory is found in the fact that
memory is sometimes lost. If bees are stupefied by tobacco
180 Beekeeping
smoke, by the smoke of the puff ball (an old practice) or
by some anesthetic, they are unable to return to their old
location and must re-orient themselves after they revive.
When bees swarm they usually do not again return to the
location of the old hive (except when hived on the old stand
by the beekeeper) and may safely be placed in a new location
perhaps only a few feet from the old hive. The memory of
the old location is not lost immediately, however, for if
within a day or two the bees desert the new quarters they
often return to the old hive. Here the old memories are, as
it were, reserved, but they are lost in a short time. Simi-
larly in artificial swarms, after drumming or after certain
manipulations in which the colony becomes "demoralized,"
the memory of the location is lost, either permanently or
temporarily. If bees are confined for a few days they may
be placed in any location and bees wintered in a cellar no
longer remember their former locations. The loss of memory
in these cases is not due to the formation of new associations.
Bees obviously cannot lose what they do not possess and, if it
is granted that memory is sometimes lost, the only conclusion
is that they possess memory.
Nature of bee activities.
In the introduction to Chapter III, it was stated that bees
are essentially creatures of instinct. While in the intervening
discussions there are given evidences of the possession of
memory, of limited powers of learning and association and of
certain adaptations of the reactions of bees to circumstances,
it should be clear that in the bee we have to do, not with
human intellects and poetic passions, but with animals whose
behavior is chiefly guided by mental capacities imprisoned in
the chains of instinct, with animals most of whose activities
are justly described as machine-like. If. this discussion of
the nervous responses of bees has destroyed some of the
poetry of the hive, this can scarcely be considered as a serious
loss, for it is not by such fancies that we can come to know
the truth concerning the things about us.
CHAPTER VIII
THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES AND PAR-
THENOGENESIS
THE organs of reproduction are those which produce the
cells from which individuals of the next generation develop
and they also include the accompanying organs which serve
to permit the proper disposition of the sex cells. The con-
tinuance of the species is the function of these organs. In the
larger number of species, new individuals arise from eggs which
have been fertilized by sex cells of the male of the same
species. In the honeybee, we are not only interested in the
methods by which new individuals arise but certain peculiar
phenomena play an important part in practical apiary ma-
nipulations. The development of the drones or males from
unfertilized eggs must be considered, especially by the queen
breeder.
Origin of the eggs.
The eggs from which all the members of the colony develop
are normally laid by the queen. In this individual, the only
female in the colony whose reproductive organs are fully
developed, the ovaries are large and, in fact, she is to a con-
siderable extent simply an egg-producing machine. The
ovaries of the queen (Fig. 92) consist of two groups (Ov) of
egg tubes or ovarioles (ov). These tubes are small at the
anterior end where the eggs are beginning their growth and
toward the posterior end the individual tubes, as well as
the total mass, increase in diameter. At the posterior end,
the tubules in each mass open into the anterior end of an ovi-
duct (OvD). The oviducts from the two ovaries unite farther
181
182
Beekeeping
Ov
Ov
back into a common tube or duct, the vagina (Vag), which
opens to the outside below the base of the sting. The
posterior portion
of the vagina is
enlarged, forming
the bursa copula-
trix (BCpx).
Opening from
the vagina is
the spermatheca
(Spm), a sac-like
organ which serves
to receive the
ACU) male sex cells, the
spermatozoa, from
the drone at the
time of mating
and to retain
them until they
are needed. At-
tached to this are
two accessory
glands (SpmGl)
the duct of which
opens into the
duct from the
spermatheca to
the vagina. The
duct from the
Stn-
FIG. 92. Reproductive organs, sting and poison
glands of queen, dorsal view.
spermatheca is S-
shaped and is surrounded by muscles forming the " sperm-
pump" of Breslau. 1 By the contraction of some of these
muscles, the lumen of the upper end of the loop is enlarged
and a small bundle of spermatozoa is taken from the sperma-
theca. By the contraction of other muscles, the sperma-
1 Breslau, Ernst, 1905-06. Die Samenblasengang der Bienenkonigin.
Zool. Anz., XXIX, pp. 229-323.
The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 183
tozoa are forced on to the vagina. Cheshire 1 described
this apparatus incorrectly by assuming that the muscles
around the duct are sphincter muscles to hold back motile
spermatozoa. The spermatozoa, according to Breslau, are
not motile and no retaining muscle is needed. In copu-
lation the spermatozoa are deposited by the drone in the
vagina and must find their way to the spermatheca by
this same duct. There is no special receiving duct as
described by Cheshire. The spermatheca is not composed
of muscle layers, as formerly supposed.
Cheshire estimates that a normal vigorous queen may
during her lifetime lay 1,500,000 eggs. Since mating occurs
usually but once, those eggs which are fertilized must re-
ceive spermatozoa from the supply stored up in the sperma-
theca at the time of mating. Since at each expulsion of
spermatozoa a considerable number pass out and all but one
are wasted, it is necessary that an enormous number be
stored originally. Cheshire estimates the number at 4,000,-
000 but it is enough to know that millions are then stored.
The marvelous feature of the phenomenon is that these
minute cells are able to live for perhaps five years away from
the animal in which they were formed (the drone) and at
the same time are so highly specialized that they can take
no nourishment. There is no multiplication of spermatozoa
in the queen as has been hypothecated by various beekeepers.
The formation of the eggs has been studied by Paulcke. 2
In the early stages of the formation of the egg at the anterior
end of the ovarian tubes, the future egg nucleus is surrounded
by other nuclei which later form nurse cells. There is at
first no visible differentiation, no cell boundaries being seen,
but farther down the tube the nuclei are surrounded by cell
walls. Gradually the future egg cells begin to enlarge and
1 Cheshire, F. R., 1885. The apparatus for differentiating the sexes in
bees and wasps. Jr. roy. micr. soc., ser. 2, V, pp. 1-15.
'Paulcke, W., 1900. Ueber die Differenzirung der Zellelemente im
Ovarium der Bienenkonigin (Apis mellificd). Zool. Jahrb. Anat. u. Ontog.,
XIV, pp. 177-202.
184 Beekeeping
the individual egg cells are separated by a number of nurse
cells, 48 to each egg, according to Paulcke. The egg cell
increases in size chiefly by an accumulation of yolk which
serves as food for the future embryo, this yolk being supplied
by the nurse cells, which finally are exhausted and absorbed
into the yolk of the egg. The egg and nurse cells are sur-
rounded by an epithelium which grows thinner as the egg
enlarges and which finally breaks when the egg passes into
the oviduct.
The egg is covered by a thin layer of chorion secreted
around it by the epithelial cells and the boundaries of the
cells may be seen in the lines which persist on the chorion,
forming a delicate network on the surface. At the anterior
end of the egg (where the head of the larva is formed and also
toward the head of the queen) there is a peculiar arrangement
of these lines, forming the micropyle. Here the spermato-
zoon which fertilizes the egg enters, but the mechanism has
not been adequately described. In most insects there is a
definite opening for the entrance of the spermatozoon and
often a complex mechanism for the closing of the opening
after fertilization. There is nothing so described for the
bee egg.
Origin of the male sex cells.
The organs of the male (Fig. 93) in which the male sex
cells originate are equally interesting. The spermatozoa
develop in the testes (Tes), two organs homologous with the
ovaries of the queen. The development of the spermatozoa
probably occurs almost entirely during the pupal development
of the drone and possibly not at all in the adult drone. From
the testes, the spermatozoa pass through the vas deferens
(VDef) into the vesicula semenalis (Ves) where they
collect. The seminal vesicles open into the base of the
accessory mucous gland (AcGl). These in turn open into a
single duct, the ejaculatory duct (EjD), unusually large in
the drone and curiously indented to conform to the structure
of the vagina.
The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 185
Tes
FIG. 93. A, reproductive organs of drone, dorsal view, natural position;
B, inner surface of dorsal wall of bulb of penis ; C, group of sperma-
tozoa and intermixed granules; Z), terminal segments of drone ab-
domen with penis partly protruded; E, lateral view of penis as
invaginated within abdomen.
186 Beekeeping
At the time of copulation, the penis, which is previously
folded within the abdomen of the drone, is everted and pro-
jects into the vagina of the queen. The spermatozoa then
pass through the ejaculatory duct as does presumably also
the contents of the accessory mucous glands. The forma-
tion of the spermatozoa has been studied by Meves, 1 by
Mark and Copeland 2 and by Doncaster. 3
The sudden expulsion of the penis causes the immediate
death of the drone. The structure of the penis may be
readily seen by gently squeezing the abdomen of a drone,
by which means it is everted. In this case also the drone
dies immediately so that his death at the time of mating
should not be attributed to any action of the queen. As has
been previously stated (p. 69), mating occurs in the air
outside the hive.
Parthenogenesis.
The chief reason why the reproductive processes require
extended discussion in a book on practical beekeeping is
because of the development of the drones or males from
unfertilized eggs. In most species, the sex cells disintegrate
unless they unite with the products of the opposite sex of the
same species, but there are numerous instances in the animal
kingdom in which egg cells are produced, which, without
fertilization, are able to develop into normal adults. To
this phenomenon the name parthenogenesis 4 is given.
1 Meves, Fr., 1903. Ueber Richtungskorperbildung im Hoden von
Hymenopteren. Anat. Anz., XXIV, pp. 29-32.
, 1907. Die Spermatocytenteilungen bei der Honigbiene (Apis
mellifica L.) nebst Bemerkungen iiber Chromatinreduction. Arch, f . Microsk.
Anat. u. Entwick., LXX, pp. 414-491.
2 Mark, E. L. and Copeland, Manton, 1907. Some stages in the sper-
matogenesis of the honey bee. Proc. Am. acad. arts and sciences, XLII,
pp. 103-111.
3 Doncaster, L., 1906. Spermatogenesis of the hive bee, Apis mellifica.
Anat. Anz., XXIX.
, 1907. Spermatogenesis of the honey bee. Ibid., XXXI.
For a more extended discussion, see Phillips, E. F., 1903. A review
of parthenogenesis. Proc. Am. philos. soc., XLII, No. 174, pp. 275-345.
The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 187
In 1745, Bonnet described the parthenogenetic develop-
ment of plant lice and just one hundred years later Dzierzon
announced his theory that the drone is likewise a product
of an unfertilized egg. This later paper, published in the
Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, was the beginning of a long and
heated discussion in which the leading zoologists of the day
took part. Briefly his theory was as follows : (1) the queen
is able "at pleasure" to lay either worker or drone eggs, the
drone eggs being deposited just as they leave the cvary 1 ;
(2) all eggs in the ovary are eggs which would normally
develop into males and if fertilization occurs the sex is
changed to female. It is well to divide Dzierzon's theory
into these two. parts for they are not equally capable of proof.
The facts observed in the apiary on which this belief is
based are as follows : (1) If a queen is unable to fly out to
mate or is prevented from mating in some other way she
usually dies (p. 70) but if she does lay eggs, as she may,
after three or four weeks, the eggs which develop are all males ;
(2) if when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa
is exhausted, her offspring are all males ; (3) if a colony be-
comes queenless and remains so for a time, some of the
workers may begin egg-laying and in this case too only
males develop. The author has found that many eggs laid
by drone-laying queens fail to hatch and, in fact, are often
removed in a short time by the workers. This makes it
impossible for us to accept Dzierzon's statement that all
eggs laid by such a queen become males and the statement
must be modified as follows : all of those eggs laid by a drone-
laying queen which develop become males. The poten-
tialities of the eggs which never hatch are not known. In
addition to the facts here stated, the theory of the partheno-
genetic development of the drone is supported by investiga-
tions of the phenomena of development in the egg.
1 Onions (1912, South African fertile-worker bees. Agricultural Journal
of the Union of S. Af ., May) claims that in South African bees females are also
produced parthenogenetically. The claim is supported by considerable
evidence. See also Van Warmelo, D. S., ibid., 1913, who denies this state-
ment.
188 Beekeeping
Sex determination.
The determination of sex is one of the most earnestly
debated questions in zoology. Numerous theories have been
proposed, most of which are not now seriously considered.
From the observations and conclusions of Dzierzon and other
observers it was long held that sex in bees and similar forms
(ants and wasps) is determined by the presence or absence
of fertilization. These species were seemingly an exception
to the phenomenon observed in most species. Of recent
years, sex determination has been the object of numerous
investigations and it is now quite generally accepted that
sex is inherited in accordance with the same laws which govern
other phenomena of inheritance. It is, of course, impossible
to attempt to record here or even to outline the observations
which lead to this theory or to elaborate the theory, as has
been done by various authors. It is now held that one of
the chromosomes (the bearers of hereditary characters) of
the sex cells bears the sex-determining character. If we
take into consideration the important fact that not all the
eggs of an unfertilized (drone-laying) queen hatch, then the
bee does not appear as an exception in Nature. It seems
clear, however, that the statement of Dzierzon that all the
eggs in the ovary are male eggs cannot be accepted and it is,
in fact, not improbable that the eggs destined to be females
die for want of fertilization, while the eggs destined to be
males, not requiring fertilization, are capable of development.
It should be understood that the casting of doubt on Dzier-
zon's theory of sex determination does not invalidate his
theory in so far as it pertains to the development of males
from unfertilized eggs.
In view of the fact that drone eggs are usually deposited
in the larger cells, the theory has been advanced that the
pressure on the abdomen of the queen when she is about to
lay an egg in a worker cell, by some reflex, causes the sper-
matheca to open, thereby enabling the egg to be fertilized.
This is known among American beekeepers as the Wagner
theory. Since fertilized eggs may be laid in comb foundation
The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 189
when the side walls are only started and since drone eggs
are often laid in worker cells, this simple explanation cannot
be accepted.
From the various phenomena observed in connection with
parthenogenetic development, it appears that fertilization
of the egg serves two purposes; it brings to the egg the
hereditary characters of the male parent and also stimulates
the egg cell to develop by cell division. If development can
occur without this stimulation, the resulting individual con-
tains the hereditary characters from one parent only. It
should perhaps be mentioned that in plant lice both males
and females sometimes develop from unfertilized eggs while in
certain Lepidoptera only females develop from unfertilized
eggs. The male sex is not a necessary result of partheno-
genetic development.
The theory that drones develop from unfertilized eggs
has not been accepted without protest. From the begin-
ning, it has been assailed by the publication of evidence and
arguments which were supposed to contradict the theory.
In the author's paper, to which reference has been made,
the various contrary views are outlined and the interested
reader is referred to this paper for references to the literature
on the subject up to the date of publication (1903). Of
recent critics, none is so insistent as Dickel, a German bee-
keeper, who claims that fertile queens cannot lay unfer-
tilized eggs and that sex is determined by secretions of the
nurse bees. These fantastic theories with others of a similar
character have been adequately overthrown by Dickel' s
critics and need not be discussed at length here.
Practical applications.
The development of males from unfertilized eggs is a fact
of importance in various phases of apiary work. If, for
example, an Italian queen mates with a black drone, the
workers and queen offspring are hybrids, 1 while the drone
1 Exception is sometimes taken to the use of the word hybrid as applied
to a cross of two races, in which sense it is used by beekeepers. This
190 Beekeeping
or male offspring is pure Italian. This fact is important to
the breeder, for drones from mismated queens are just as
good for breeding purposes as those from purely mated
queens. It is true that this has been denied by various
writers but the denial is based chiefly on variation in the color
of the drones, it being overlooked that color is not a safe
criterion for the purity of race of either queens or drones.
Color is a much more stable characteristic in workers. The
parthenogenetic development of drones must be considered
in planning any breeding work with bees. In the selection
of breeding material it does not necessarily follow because
the workers of a colony have the quality desired that the
drones of that colony will be best for breeding purposes,
since the hereditary characters of the workers come from
two parents while those of the drones come from only one of
the two.
Hermaphrodite bees.
Many cases are recorded l of bees which show both male
and female characters. These hermaphrodites or androgy-
nous bees may have male characters on the head and female
characters in the abdomen or they may be divided longitudi-
nally in various combinations of characters. There is a
mixture of male and female characters, varying in different
individuals, in both external and internal organs. It is a
peculiar fact, not easy of explanation, that when such cases
occur there are often many in the same colony. < Boveri 2
suggests that in such cases fertilization is delayed until after
cell division has begun and that only part of the cells receive
criticism is probably based on the belief that sterility is characteristic of
hybrids, as in the case of the mule, or it may be based on the belief that
the word should be applied only to crosses of true species. There seems to
be no objection to the word as beekeepers use it. It is most commonly
applied to crosses of Italian and German bees.
1 v. Delia Torre, K. W. u. Friese, H., 1899. Die hermaphroditen und
gynandromorphen Hymenopteren. Berichte d. naturw.-med.' Ver. Inns-
bruck, XXIV.
2 Boveri, Th., 1901. Ueber die Polaritat des Seeigel-eies. Verb. Ges.
Wurzburg (N. S.), XXXIV, pp. 145-176.
The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 191
the male chromosomes. While this theory would readily
explain the great variation in such hermaphroditic bees it
is based on the assumption that sex is determined by fertili-
zation, which may be questioned.
Eggs which fail to hatch.
In some cases, one of which came under the author's
observation, queens are normally mated and lay eggs, but all
the eggs fail to hatch. This is perhaps due to some abnor-
mality of the queen, and in the case examined it appeared
that the failure to hatch might have been due to the evap-
oration of the water in the protoplasm through the unusually
thin and soft chorion of the eggs. Similar cases were de-
scribed by Glaus and v. Siebold 1 and also by Leuckart. 2
1 Glaus u. v. Siebold, 1873. Ueber taube Bienen-eier. Zeit. f . wiss. Zool.,
XXIII, pp. 198-210.
2 Leuckart, R., 1875. Ueber taube u. abortive Bieneneier. Arch.
Naturgesch., XL.
CHAPTER IX
RACES OF BEES
THE honeybee, so well known to beekeepers, has certain
near relatives which are of interest, and it is quite probable
that a careful study of the various phases in the behavior of
these bees would throw considerable light on similar phe-
nomena in the honeybee. The honeybee is usually considered
as representing the apex of the evolution of the bees (Apidse),
in that the social organization is the most complex found
in this family of insects. The ants (Formicidae) and wasps
(Vespidse) represent lines of parallel evolution in social life
which has resulted in insect communities, comparable, but
by no means identical, with that of the honeybee.
TYPES OF SOCIAL BEES
Among the Apidse are three great types of social bees, the
bumblebee (Bombus), 1 the stingless bees (Melipona and
Trigona) and the honeybees (Apis). The simplest forms, the
bumblebees, have smaller colonies which die out during the
winter, leaving the species to be continued from fertilized
queens which hibernate. The stingless bees are tropical
insects which store their honey and pollen in spherical vessels
and rear their brood in "combs," one cell in thickness. In
the honeybee colony, the architecture is the most perfect
and the honey and pollen are stored and the brood is reared
in hexagonal cells, which combine to form a comb two cells
1 For an excellent discussion of the biology of English bumblebees,
consult Sladen, F. W. L., 1912. The humble-bee, the life history and how
to domesticate it. London : Macmillan and Co.
192
Races of Bees 193
in thickness. The bumblebees and stingless bees fill a cell
with pollen and honey, the queen then deposits an egg on
this mass and the larva is not further fed or cared for. On
the other hand, the queen honeybee lays her eggs in empty
cells and the larvae are fed a specially prepared larval food
as they require it. For a further discussion of the more
primitive bees as well as of the probable evolution of the
Apidse, the reader is referred to the interesting paper of v.
Buttel-Reepen. 1
SPECIES OF THE GENUS APIS
In the genus Apis there are other interesting honeybees but
which have no special practical value. It is of interest to
note first that specimens of Apis have been found in fossil
form, preserved in amber, v. Buttel-Reepen mentions A.
adamitica and A. meliponoides, the latter transitional be-
tween Melipona and Apis. Among recent species of this
genus are A. dorsata, the giant bee of India, with its varieties
zonata and testacea of the Philippines and the Malay penin-
sula, A. florea, a dwarf bee of India with several varieties
and finally A. mellifica, 2 the honeybee with the numerous
varieties to be discussed later. Unsuccessful efforts have
been made to introduce the giant bees into Europe and
America, among which may be mentioned the trips of Benton,
1880 and 1905, and Dathe, 1883. Dathe succeeded in getting
living dorsata bees to Germany but the effort was fruitless.
The last mentioned trip of Benton was at the expense of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Dorsata builds a single
comb in the open air, usually suspended on the limb of a
1 von Buttel-Reepen, H., 1903. Die stammesgeschichtliche Entstehung
des Bienenstaates sowie Beitrage zur Lebensweise der solitaren und sozialen
Bienen (Hummeln, Meliponinen, etc.). Leipzig: Thieme.
2 For a discussion of the propriety of meUifica as the specific name of
the honeybee, see v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1906. Apistica. Beitrage zur
systematik Biologie u. s. w. Mitth. aus dem Zool. Mus. Berlin, and also the
English translation of his paper "Are Bees Reflex Machines?" (Medina,
O. : Root, 1907). See also p. 37 of this book.
j.94 Beekeeping
tree ; there is no distinction between drone and worker cells
and these bees do not take kindly to confinement in a hive. 1
VARIETIES OF THE SPECIES MELLIFICA
In the classification of insects, differences in structure
and color are the characters on which classification is usually
made, but in the differentiation of the varieties of honeybees
there are no constant differences in these characters to guide
the student. The varietips are established by beekeepers
because of recognized and well-marked differences in the
behavior of the bees from various regions. They are, how-
ever, valid biological varieties. While there are color dif-
ferences, these are of little value in attempting a classifica-
tion. Since beekeepers usually refer to these divisions of the
species as races, this term is here adopted. Roughly the
races are divided into three groups, (1) the eastern races,
(2) the European races and (3) the African races. Certain
characteristics of these groups are valid but the grouping is
somewhat artificial. The principal races are here discussed
in the order suggested by this grouping, the names given the
races being indicative of their origin. 2
Egyptian.
These bees are somewhat smaller than the races best
known to American beekeepers, the abdomen is slender and
1 For further data concerning the various species of the genus Apis,
consult the above mentioned papers by v. Buttel-Reepen as well as the
following :
Gerstacker, 1862. Ueber die geographische Verbreitung und die Abande-
rungen der Honigbiene nebst Bemerkungen iiber die auslandischen Honig-
bienen der alten Welt. Reprinted in v. Buttel-Reepen's Apistica. Partial
English translation by Dallas, Ann. and mag. of nat. history, 1863, III
series, vol. 11.
Koshewnikov, G. A., 1900-1905 [Material for the study of the genus
Apis] Russian.
Additional references are given in the v. Buttel-Reepen papers.
2 None of the races of the honeybee is native to America. The German
bees were introduced early in the history of the country and are often
designated native bees, but this is an error. After their introduction they
Races of Bees 195
pointed and the cells of the comb are also said to be some-
what smaller. The first three segments of the abdomen are
light yellow to reddish yellow with black border, being
brighter than Italians. The abdomen is covered with grayish
white hairs. The abdomen of the queen is marked with
reddish brown on the first segment and the color areas are
variable. Queens and drones are small and the queens are pro-
lific . These bees sting furiously and are not subdued by smoke .
They do not, according to v. Buttel-Reepen, form a winter
cluster and therefore cannot withstand cold weather. Drones
are reared in large numbers; the cappings are "watery" ; l
the queen cells are small, very numerous, clustered and
smooth. Fertile workers are abundant and are said to be
present even when there is a laying queen. These bees were
introduced into Germany in 1864 and to England and
America in 1867. Here they attracted considerable atten-
tion but were promptly abandoned as worthless.
Syrian.
There are two races of bees in Palestine, one of which is,
according to v. Buttel-Reepen, identical with the Egyptian.
The other is known among American beekeepers as the
Holy Land bees. The Syrians are larger than the Egyptians
and in color they resemble Italians. These bees swarm
excessively, build many queen cells and winter poorly.
Many virgin queens go with after swarms and do not kill
each other until one is mated. Young queens lay drone
eggs in the first month. These bees were introduced into
America in 1880 by Jones and Benton but were soon aban-
doned as valueless. They were introduced by Hopkins
into New Zealand in 1883.
multiplied rapidly and were soon found in the woods. It was formerly a
common saying that a swarm always flies westward (to new territory).
1 Some races of bees fill their honey cells more completely than others
and when the honey is in contact with the capping it gives the honey an
appearance that is described as watery. When the capping is separated
from the honey by an air space the capping appears white (or yellow, de-
pending on the color of the wax). In general the black races seem to
produce whiter comb cappings than more yellow bees.
196 Beekeeping
Cyprian.
This bee has been given a thorough test by American
beekeepers. It is somewhat smaller than the Italian and
the abdomen is pointed, with three yellow bands, similar
to that of Italians but somewhat lighter in color. The
queens are small and very prolific. These bees winter well
unless the colony wears itself out by breeding in winter.
The workers are exceptionally cross, are not subdued by
smoke and do not run on the combs. They build many
queen cells (less than Syrians). Sent (unsuccessfully) to
America by Gravenhorst in 1877 and first imported by
Stahala in 1879 : additional shipments by Jones and Benton
in 1880. They have been widely advertised and tested but
were abandoned because of their unmanageable qualities.
Grecian.
These bees resemble a hybrid between Italians and Ger-
mans. So far as known they have not been shipped to
America. They were sent to Germany in 1860 by v. Roser.
Caucasian.
These bees vary in color from three bands of yellow on
the abdomen to black or gray according to the region from
which they come. The ones introduced into America have
shown virtually no yellow color, having come from the more
northern parts of the Caucasus. The yellow examples are
said to resemble Italians markedly. This is the most
gentle race known, although they defend their hives well
against robbers. They seldom enter the wrong hive, win-
ter well, cap their honey cells white and are, in the main,
desirable bees. The hybrids are not gentle. They were
first taken from their native country by Butlerov in 1877
and were shipped to Germany in 1879 to Vogel, who de-
scribed them carefully. The first exportations were chiefly
the yellow strains. In 1880 Julius Hoffman, Ft. Plains,
New York, received two colonies of these bees but condemned
Races of Bees 197
them because they did not work on buckwheat ! Later
Rauchfuss Brothers, Denver, Colorado, imported queens of
this race and recommended them. Following this, addi-
tional queens were imported and American bred queens were
distributed by the United States Department of Agriculture
several years ago.
The gentleness of this race is universally admitted, but
Caucasians have some faults which have caused them to be
abandoned by most beekeepers who have tried them. They
use propolis most
lavishly and in
the autumn of-
ten build a wall
at the entrance,
leaving holes
only large enough
P "IK -^ IG< 94- Propolis at entrance, built by Caucasian
; ingie bees. The entrance block on one side made a
to pass (Fig. 94). propolis wall unnecessary there.
They also build
many burr and brace combs. The dark color makes it diffi-
cult to tell when the queens are purely mated and the dark
queens are difficult to find on the combs. An additional fac-
tor which has led to the lack of interest in this race is the
rapid spread of European foul brood within recent years.
This has virtually necessitated the use of Italian bees in
many localities and has discouraged experimentation with
other races. There are still several prominent beekeepers
who are enthusiastic in their praise of the Caucasians.
Italian.
This is the most popular race of bees among the best
American beekeepers. The bees of Italy vary considerably
in color, those in the north of the country being virtually
identical with the German bees in color. The typical
"three-banded" Italians are found farther south and in
Sicily there is a still lighter strain. Some investigators
believe Italians to be a cross between the German and
198 Beekeeping
Egyptian bees. Typically, the yellow color covers three
segments of the abdomen, the head and thorax and posterior
segments of the abdomen being black with some traces of
yellow on the mandibles, and the hairs have a yellow cast.
The legs are brown. Queens and drones are variable in
color from solid black to the yellow found on workers.
Italians are gentle (but not equal to Caucasians in this
respect), less prolific than the eastern races but usually
better than black bees, build few queen cells, rarely develop
fertile workers, keep the hive clean, drive out wax-moths,
winter well, do not run on the combs, swarm less than Carnio-
lans and some eastern races and cap their honey less white
than Germans, Carniolans and Caucasians. The rearing of
brood is quickly curtailed in a dearth of nectar and they
cease rearing broojd in the autumn sooner than most races.
An important characteristic of Italians is the resistance to
European .foul brood. In this respect, they have been com-
pared chiefly with German bees, to which race they are
vastly superior.
Italian bees were sent to Switzerland (by v. Baldenstein)
in 1843, to Germany in 1853, to England (by Neighbor) in
1859 and to France about the same time (by Hamet), to
Australia in 1862 and again in 1880, to German Guinea in
1887, from California to New Zealand in 1880, from Germany
to Ceylon in 1882 and from Italy to New Zealand (to
Hopkins) in 1883, to Guam in 1907 (from Hawaii by Van
Dine).
The first importation of these bees to America has been a
matter of some dispute and was the basis of a sharp contro-
versy. Their introduction marks an important milestone
in American apiculture, almost equal in importance to the
invention of the movable-frame hive. About 1855, Samuel
Wagner and Edward Jessop of York, Pennsylvania, made an
unsuccessful importation of an Italian colony, which died
en route. In the winter of 1858-59, Wagner, Langstroth
and Colvin (Baltimore) sent an order to Dzierzon (Germany),
which was not -delivered. Later in 1859, they received
Races of Bees 199
seven living queens l from Dzierzon and reared two or three
queens that fall, but the imported queens all died the follow-
ing winter. On the same steamer that brought these queens,
Mahan (Philadelphia), who had made a trip to Europe
for these bees, brought over "one or more" queens (of
doubtful purity). In June 1860, Wagner and Colvin
received another consignment. In the meantime, S. B.
Parsons (Flushing, L. I., New York) was commissioned by
the Agricultural Division of the Patent Office to procure
ten colonies, which he purchased from Herman of Tamins
(reported by him January 3, 1860) and shipped from Havre,
reaching the United States in May. In the annual report
of the Division of Agriculture submitted January 29, 1861,
the Superintendent reports that the effort was unsuccessful
" owing to inattention to the instructions given by the agent
of the Office." C. J. Robinson later asserted that he and
Mahan had solicited an order from the Commissioner of the
Patent Office in 1859 authorizing Mahan to proceed to Italy
and procure bees. This request was refused but it was
claimed that this instigated the movement to have Parsons
(an agent of the Division then in Italy) get the bees. Robin-
son states that Parsons bought ten for the Government and
ten for himself (this second purchase is denied by the friends
of Parsons) and that he reported that all the bees consigned
to the Government died. At any rate, Parsons in 1860
placed at least some of his stock in the hands of Gary,
Langstroth, Quinby and others and the sale of Italian queens
began in 1861. Riley, then Chief of the Division of En-
tomology, in 1892 claimed for the Government the credit
of the first importation direct from Italy. Rose (New
York) received colonies in 1861 and Colvin continued ship-
ments from the Dzierzon apiary in 1863-64. Various
other early shipments were made, and now many queens
are received annually. In the early days of the enthusiasm
1 A cage dated May 1859 in Dzierzon's handwriting was found by C. H.
Lake after he purchased the Colvin apiary (Beekeeper's Instructor III,
No. 12, 1881).
200 Beekeeping
over Italian queens they often sold for twenty dollars each.
Italian bees are now found everywhere that beekeeping is
conducted and are usually considered preferable to all
others. In the United States, special attention has been
given to the breeding of Italian bees and it is probably true
that better Italian stock can now be obtained in America
than in Italy.
To distinguish differences in strains of Italian bees and
in part to provide trade names, various names have been
given by American beekeepers to certain types. The five-
banded or "Golden-all-over" bees have been bred specially
for an increase in the yellow color on the abdomen. The
red clover Italians sold several years ago were supposed to
have a tongue-length above the average, sufficient to allow
them to get nectar from the red clover blossom. Various
strains are distinguished by the name of the breeder. The
specially yellow bees are not usually considered as desirable
for commercial beekeeping as the typical Italians, which
are commonly designated as three-banded or leather-colored.
German.
These bees are black in color and are generally known
among American beekeepers as "Black bees." It is of
interest to note that according to Dzierzon there were yellow
bees in Germany before Italians were introduced and this
helps to explain the variation in the German bees. v. Buttel-
Reepen, following distinctions made by Dzierzon and other
early writers, divides the German bees into two varieties,
the typical variety and the heath bees. The typical variety
is native to Germany, Russia, Scandinavia, Denmark,
Holland, England, Switzerland, Austro-Hungary and parts
of other European countries. The heath bee is darker than
the typical variety, swarms excessively and is especially
adapted to honey-flows coming in late summer (buckwheat,
heather) : young queens in after swarms lay drone eggs
abundantly the first season. This variety is found in Hano-
ver, Holstein, Oldenburg and Holland. There is a possi-
Races of Bees 201
bility that there are two varieties of German bees found in
the United States, as is so often claimed, and that these
have arisen from these two natural varieties.
The German or black bees found in the United States
seem to combine many of the undesirable qualities of all
other bees. They are less prolific than Italians, they (and
especially crosses with Italians) are cross but respond to
smoke, they build more queen cells than Italians and develop
fertile workers more readily (less in these last respects than
the eastern races), they do not clean the hive well or resist
moths completely, they run badly on the combs and fall
off from the corners of the combs during manipulation and
they swarm more than Italians. Their greatest fault is
that they succumb so rapidly to European foul brood that
it is most difficult to rid a colony of black bees of this disease.
They cap comb-honey white and winter fairly well, but
their nervousness is against them in this respect. While
these bees are condemned by the best American beekeepers,
some of the leading beekeepers of Europe (especially in
Switzerland) claim them to be superior to Italians. Since
no effort has been made to improve these bees in America,
this may account for this difference of opinion.
The German or black bees were introduced into New
England (probably from England) in 1638. In 1644, John
Eales was brought to Newburg from a neighboring town to
instruct the people in beekeeping, indicating an early in-
terest in the industry, but he later became a town charge.
Black bees reached West Florida not later than 1763, Ken-
tucky in 1780, New York in 1793, west of the Mississippi
River in 1797, Cuba in 1764, San Domingo in 1781, New
South Wales in 1822, Tasmania in 1831, New Zealand in 1839,
Brazil in 1845 (or earlier), Chile about 1848, California in
1853, Columbia about 1855 and Argentine in 1857. Har-
bison took 116 colonies (with a loss of only six) from Penn-
sylvania to California via Panama in 1857. The same year
(August 20th) the first bees were shipped from San Jos6,
California, to Hawaii.
202 Beekeeping
Carniolan.
These bees are grayish-black in color and the claim that
yellow bees were native to parts of Carniola is often ques-
tioned. Professor Francis Jager is authority for the statement
that the bees of the Wippach valley (Vipavska dolina) are
yellow. Carniolan bees are large, gentle (second only to
Caucasians), prolific, swarm excessively, are good honey-
gatherers, build numerous queen cells, collect little propolis,
winter admirably, cap their honey white and do not run
on the combs during manipulation. It is claimed by some
beekeepers that they resist European foul brood as well as
Italians : this should be thoroughly investigated by disin-
terested persons. They are native to Carniola, Austria.
These bees have been shipped repeatedly to Germany and
other European countries and to America. While they
have some ardent advocates in the United States, they are
losing ground, especially on account of their swarming pro-
clivities and the black color, which American beekeepers do
not fancy. Queen breeders have distinguished other races,
which are not distinct from the Carniolan, among which are
the Banat (Banater) race, of recent importation into America,
and the Dalmatian which appeared in American literature
in the eighties. The names of other provinces have been
used as trade names for different breeders.
African races.
While several races of bees have been distinguished from
Africa, in addition to the Egyptian previously discussed,
very little information is at hand concerning these bees in
the hands of beekeepers. A yellow race, described as Apis
adonsoni, is found in parts of Africa, having the abdomen
a darker reddish-yellow than the Egyptian. On the north
coast of Africa is found a black bee, known among beekeepers
as Tunisian, Punic or North African. This race extends
well into the continent. The bees of this origin that have
been tried in the United States are extremely cross, propo-
lize excessively and winter badly. They are not now known
Races of Bees 203
to be present in the United States. A separate race of black
bees is described from Madagascar and other islands and
still another from Togoland. It is well known that honey-
bees are abundant in parts of Africa and careful explorations
would doubtless reveal many interesting facts concerning
these bees. Onions l claims that in the South African race
the unmated workers lay eggs which develop into female
bees. As the continent of Africa becomes more settled by
white men and as apiculture advances, we may expect some
interesting additions to our knowledge of the African races
of bees.
Asiatic races.
v. Buttel-Reepen (Apistica) places A. indica as a variety
of A. mellifica. It is a smaller bee, which is said to bite
rather than sting. It crosses with previously described
races. Several sub-varieties are indicated.
Chinese- Japanese.
These bees are placed by v. Buttel-Reepen as sub-varieties
of indica. The Chinese bee has a heavy coat of long dirty
gray hair ; the Japanese bee lacks this.
BEST RACE OF BEES
To answer the question as to which race of bees is best
is difficult. For comb-honey production, the German,
Carniolan and Caucasian races have the advantage of capping
the honey white but the German bees are especially subject
to European foul brood, Carniolans swarm excessively
(especially in comb-honey production) and Caucasians
propolize badly. Without going further into the merits
and demerits of the various races, it may be as well to give
the almost unanimous verdict of American beekeepers,
1 Onions, G. W., 1912. South African "fertile worker-bees." Agricul-
tural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope, May. See also Van Warmelo
in the same journal, 1913.
204 Beekeeping
which is in favor of the Italian race. It is probably true
that the tests made cannot be considered as free from prej-
udice but the decision was made years ago and no special
reason has been presented for changing it. Since this race
became popular it has been carefully bred and it is easier
to get good stock of this race than of any other in the United
States. It was the first race brought to this country in the
effort to improve on the early introduced black bees and
proved so vastly superior that it soon took a firm hold on
American beekeepers. It is doubtful whether any other
race will be accepted as better or even as good by the ma-
jority of beekeepers and certainly no markedly better race
has been tried in this country.
CHAPTER X
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE UNITED
STATES
BEFORE discussing the different methods of manipulating
bees in the successful production of honey, it may be help-
ful to point out some of the fundamental differences found
between various parts of the United States in regard to the
sources of honey and in climatic conditions, which influence
the choice of the proper system of manipulation. In the
American literature on beekeeping, these differences are
frequently mentioned and the word "locality" in the bee-
keeper's vocabulary has come to be used as an all-inclusive
argument or excuse for his particular practice and often
partially to cover his ignorance of the actual reasons for
differences observed. This term " locality" is the subject
of the present chapter. As will be shown later, two apiaries
but a few miles apart may give quite different results, not
only in the amount or source of crops but in the effect of
certain manipulations, and the facts here presented help
to explain these differences. Since migratory beekeeping is
practiced only between two unlike regions, this subject is
also discussed in the present chapter.
The system of manipulation to be followed and the manner
in which honey may best be prepared for market depend on
the color and quality of the honey and perhaps especially
on the length and intensity of the nectar-flow. While the
chief sources of honey are discussed in another chapter, it
may be helpful here to present in outline the combination
of floral and climatic conditions which so strongly influences
205
206 Beekeeping
the business of honey-production and guides the beekeeper
in choosing suitable locations for his apiaries.
Variation in intensity of honey-flows.
In general, the nectar-flows increase in rapidity or intensity
as one goes northward and with this rapidity in the honey-
flow usually comes a shortening of the period during which
nectar is secreted. As a rule, the northern honeys are lighter
in color, although there are many exceptions which will be
pointed out later. In the more northern localities, the
beginning and end of the honey-flows are usually sharply
marked, while in the South there is a gradual increase in the
honey-flow to the maximum and a correspondingly gradual
cessation of the honey-flow.
Variation in the value of plants.
There is a striking difference in the value, from a beekeep-
er's standpoint, of plants according to locality, and the causes
of these phenomena are in most cases not understood. A
few of the more striking examples will serve to illustrate
this variation. White clover yields nectar most abundantly
in the northern range of this plant, while farther south the
flow of nectar from this plant is less intense and the honey is
often somewhat darker. Alfalfa yields nectar freely in
the irrigated districts of the West, but is usually of no value
to the beekeeper east of the Mississippi River. Buck-
wheat is the source of large honey crops in parts of southern
New York and Pennsylvania, while in Indiana and Illinois
it secretes much less nectar, again increasing in value to the
beekeeper in Michigan. Exceptions to these general state-
ments sometimes arise because of abnormal climatic condi-
tions. For example, a heavy honey-flow from alfalfa was
recently obtained in the vicinity of Syracuse, New York.
This was probably not due to the plants becoming accli-
mated but occurred in a dry season. In some seasons white
clover yields well much farther south than the limits pre-
viously given. Other examples are given later.
Regional Differences within the United States 207
BEEKEEPING REGIONS
It helps to an understanding of the differences in the prac-
tices of beekeepers in various parts of the United States if
we divide the country into honey regions. This, as any
experienced beekeeper will at once recognize, is a more or
less arbitrary division and many exceptions might be cited
to the following classification. In the main, however, the
nature of the honey-flows justifies such an arrangement, and
this plan is still more permissible if we consider the systems
of manipulation found most advantageous by beekeepers.
These regions may first be divided into general and restricted,
depending chiefly on their area. The general regions are
those not only of considerable extent, but of greater influence
on the choice of manipulations.
General regions.
These are five in number and the division is based on
differences in climatic conditions found in the United States.
The placing of the sage region in the rank of a general re-
gion is justified mainly by the size of the crops obtained
there in favorable seasons.
(1) The white clover region includes eastern Canada, the
New England States, except along the coast, and a belt along
the northern United States as far west as the Dakotas.
It is limited to the west by the arid region and again reap-
pears on the Pacific coast, both in the United States and
Canada. The southern boundary is approximately Mason
and Dixon's line and the Ohio River. In this region, in addi-
tion to white clover, alsike clover, sweet clover, basswood,
tulip poplar and locust contribute to the honey crops and,
with the exception of that from tulip poplar, the honeys
from these sources are light in color. Alsike clover is steadily
increasing in importance with its wider planting for forage,
while basswood is rapidly disappearing because of the exten-
sive cutting of this tree for lumber. In this region the
honey-flows are rapid and relatively short and the main
208 Beekeeping
honey-flow is usually preceded by a honey-flow from spring
flowers (fruit bloom, dandelion) followed by a dearth. In
the more northern localities this interval is brief or entirely
absent. After the main honey-flow there is usually a period
when no nectar is available, followed again by a late summer
or fall honey-flow (buckwheat, asters, goldenrod or Spanish
needle, according to locality). This region is suitable for
comb-honey production better than any other part of the
United States, on account of the intensity of the honey-flows
and the light color of most of the honeys. The necessity
for a rapid building up of colonies in the spring and the diffi-
culty of swarm control make necessary special systems of
manipulation in this region. The wintering problem is
naturally most acute here also. Most of the American
literature on beekeeping in both books and journals is based
on systems applicable to the white clover region. The
honeys of this region are in great demand, probably because
the honey-consuming public is better educated to the flavors
obtained here. In this region are thousands of beekeepers
with only a few colonies, although the number of specialists
is increasing satisfactorily.
(2) The alfalfa region is located in the West, where this plant
is chiefly grown for forage. Alfalfa is at its best as a nectar-
producing plant under irrigation and usually at high alti-
tudes. Colorado, Utah and Jdaho are now the largest
producing States in this region. Sweet clover is also an
important contributor to the nectar supply in some sections.
The honey of this region is usually of fine flavor and light
in color, but alfalfa honey quickly begins to granulate and
in consequence would seem best adapted to extracting.
The honey-flow is not so rapid as in the white clover region,
which also makes this region less favorable for comb-honey
production. However, many beekeepers of this region
produce comb-honey extensively. The system of manip-
ulation is different from that in the white clover region
because the honey-flows are usually longer and swarming
is less difficult to control. The number of honey-flows de-
Regional Differences within the United States 209
pends on the number of crops of alfalfa that are harvested
in a season. This region is steadily increasing in importance,
and a market is rapidly being built up for alfalfa honey.
In this region, honey-production is conducted chiefly by
extensive beekeepers.
(3) The south-eastern region, which varies greatly in the
sources of honey throughout its extent, and which is an
area of abundant rainfall, lies south of the white clover
region and extends west to eastern Texas. The various
rather distinct subdivisions of this territory might well be
placed among the restricted honey regions, except that
certain things in common in the honey-flows make the same
type of manipulations necessary. Among the important
plants of this district are sourwood, cotton, tulip poplar,
tupelo, manchineel, mangrove, titi, palmettos, citrus trees,
gallberry and partridge pea, with nectar from clovers in
some sections in favorable seasons. Sweet clover is valu-
able in some localities. Most of the honeys are amber,
and the chief characteristic of this region is a succession of
honey-flows, often intergrading. The honey-flows are usually
not rapid. This region is therefore best adapted to extracted-
honey production. Swarming is much less troublesome
than in the North. Beekeeping is developing in this region,
but there is opportunity for many more beekeepers, there
being now relatively few who rank as professionals. Colonies
of bees may usually be bought at low prices in box-hives.
This region is perhaps the best in the United States for
commercial queen-rearing, except in parts of Florida where
dragon flies are troublesome.
The diversity of conditions in this region is well shown
in the accompanying map (Fig. 95), which was prepared by
E. G. Baldwin, De Land, Florida, who has studied the bee-
keeping possibilities of his State quite thoroughly. It
will be seen that the sources of nectar are quite distinct
geographically. The geographical position of this State
and the diversity of soil and climatic conditions strongly
influence the growth of the honey plants. In this State
210
Beekeeping
two localities only a few miles apart may be quite unlike,
when viewed from the standpoint of the beekeeper. This is
also true in many other parts of the United States.
(4) The semi-arid region of the south-west is located chiefly
in the arid and semi-arid parts of Texas and Arizona and
here too the honey plants are of somewhat restricted dis-
tribution. Among
the plants which
are important to
the beekeeper are
mesquite, horse-
mint, catclaw,
huisache and
guajilla. Most of
the honey pro-
duced in this
region is ex-
tracted, although
a large number
of beekeepers pro-
duce bulk comb-
honey (chunk
honey), cut from
large combs (with-
out sections) and placed in cans in which extracted-honey
has been poured to fill the spaces. Such honey is usually
sold locally. Beekeeping in this region is largely in the
hands of professional beekeepers.
(5) The sage region is confined to the canons of southern
California and should be considered a restricted region
except for the fact that sage honey wields so important an
influence on the honey market that the region may justly
be placed among those of major importance. The various
sages are all heavy yielders under favorable conditions and
there is usually no other honey source of importance where
this honey is produced. The influence of rainfall on the
honey crop of this region is discussed in the chapter on honey
fygnn of White Tupelo Money.
.- -Partridge Pea Honey
Orange Blossom Jfoney.
-J>8/metto(tx>tfi So** Cabbage,
Slack /Mangrove
'Meuchlneel Jfoney
FIG. 95. Map of Florida,
showing distribution of
honey plants.
Regional Differences within the United States 211
sources. If the crops of sage honey were uniformly heavy,
this would be an ideal region for comb-honey production,
for sage honey is mild in flavor, water-white and does not
easily granulate. However, successful comb-honey pro-
duction necessitates a rapid flow, which often fails to appear
in this region and most of the honey is extracted. Here too
there are many professional beekeepers, although a consid-
erable number are not modern in their methods of manipu-
lation and equipment.
In addition to the geographical limits ascribed to these
main regions, other localities situated outside the prescribed
boundaries might well be included with certain of the gen-
eral regions in discussing the type of flow. For example,
California, north of the sage region, is comparable with the
South, and along the Pacific coast to the north there are
localities which belong to the white clover region.
Restricted regions.
In addition to the more general divisions named, there
are other localities with special advantages for the beekeeper,
but more limited in extent, which lie within the boundaries
of the main divisions. As previously mentioned, the south-
eastern region is virtually composed of a number of such
restricted regions. The list here given will be recognized
as incomplete and is intended merely as a suggestion. Many
more restricted regions will be recognized from the discus-
sion of the sources of nectar. Among the more important
limited regions may be mentioned those in which the fol-
lowing plants secrete nectar.
(1) Buckwheat. The honey of this plant is dark and of
strong flavor, suitable chiefly for manufacturing purposes.
The variation in the secretion of 'nectar from buckwheat
has been mentioned.
(2) Sumac. Valuable locally in New England. Another
species of the same genus yields a surplus in limited areas
in Georgia.
(3) Spanish needle (numerous species). Heavy yielders
212 Beekeeping
of amber honey in the autumn in swamps. Among the best-
known regions in which these plants are of value may be
mentioned the lower Delaware River and Illinois River
valleys and the Kankakee swamp.
(4) Willowherb. Important in northern Michigan in
burned over forest areas.
(5) Sweet clover. In some sections, especially in lime-
stone regions, this plant is exceptionally abundant and is the
source of large crops of honey of a slightly greenish color.
It is especially valuable in northern Kentucky and southern
Indiana.
(6) Blue thistle. Important in the Shenandoah valley.
(7) Raspberry. Northern Michigan where the forests
have been burned over and in parts of New York.
(8) Beans. In southern California, where beans of
various kinds are grown in great quantity, beekeepers find
it profitable 'to move their apiaries to the bean fields after
the sage honey-flow. The honey is white, of excellent flavor
and granulates quickly.
(9) Heartsease. Mississippi valley. A heavy yielder
of nectar in late summer.
Variation within a region.
It must not be understood that the territory within either
a general or a restricted region as here defined is equally
good throughout. The cutting of forests, the extensive
cultivation of some plant which restricts the growth of
honey plants, local differences in soil or drainage, the pres-
ence of large towns and a multitude of other factors may so
reduce the number of individual honey plants where they
would normally grow as to make extensive beekeeping un-
profitable. On the other hand, the cutting of forests may
make a region better by allowing a honey plant to spread
(e.g. willowherb) or the planting of some nectar-yielding
species, either under cultivation (e.g. alsike clover, alfalfa)
or in waste places (e.g. sweet clover), may greatly increase
the value of a region to the beekeeper. In fact, the entire
Regional Differences within the United States 213
alfalfa region is a man-made honey region. These factors,
many of which are due to human interference with the natural
environment, must be considered in choosing locations of
apiaries and in manipulating colonies.
Climatic influences may change an area from year to
year. A lack of sufficient rainfall, for example, may kill
white clover in certain areas and not in others. This occurred
during 1914, when a severe drought killed clover over much
of Illinois, while an abundance of rain fell in northern por-
tions of the State, there being marked differences in localities
only a few miles apart.
DISTRIBUTION OF BEES IN THE UNITED STATES
The relative importance of the various honey regions is
indicated by the number of colonies of bees found in each
one, although care must be exercised in examining these
data to avoid misinterpretation. The only source of informa-
tion on this subject is the United States Census, and the
data from this source are not complete. However, while
the number of colonies reported is far too low, it may per-
haps be assumed that approximately the same percentage
is omitted throughout the United States. The accompany-
ing map (Fig. 96) was prepared in the Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates of the Department of Agriculture from data furnished
by the Census of 1910 and the author is indebted to this
Bureau for permission to use it here. In this map will be
found a dot for each county where bees are kept, the size
of the dot being proportionate to the number of colonies
reported.
In the white clover region, it is evident that the more
northern localities are most thoroughly stocked with bees.
In the alfalfa region bees are less abundant, and this is true
also in the sage region. The amount of honey produced in
these regions is far below that of the moist regions of the
country, but the honey goes to market in large shipments,
because of the larger number of specialist beekeepers, and
214
Beekeeping
Regional Differences within the United States 215
as a result these crops are important in determining the
wholesale price of honey.
The enormous number of colonies in the southern States
is a surprise. In the fifteen States usually included in the
division of southern States are found forty-five per cent of all
the colonies in the United States. In this region the box-
hive and the farmer-beekeeper are still found in large num-
bers, there being few specialists except in Texas. Because
the industry has not developed on modern lines, most of
the honey from the South does not reach the larger centers
of distribution, and it therefore has little influence on the
wholesale honey markets. The number of colonies of bees
found in the South is proof of the wonderful opportunities
for the development of the industry, for many of these colo-
nies are given no attention. As one beekeeper expresses
it, these bees would die, if they could, to escape the ill-treat-
ment to which they are subjected, but the environment is
so favorable that they increase in spite of mismanagement.
Attention should also be called to the larger number of
colonies in southern New York and northern Pennsylvania,
where buckwheat is plentiful. The other restricted honey
regions seem to have less influence on the number of colonies.
This map will repay considerable study in connection
with other phases of beekeeping. To one familiar with
the distribution of the diseases of the brood of bees in the
United States 1 it is clear that there has been a severe loss
from this cause, as indicated by the smaller dots in regions
where diseases are most prevalent. New England was
formerly well stocked with bees, but many colonies have been
destroyed by disease. Certain areas in Pennsylvania, Ohio
and Indiana, where disease is abundant, are inadequately
provided with bees. One important reason for the larger
number of colonies in the South is probably the scarcity of
disease.
1 Phillips, E. F., 1911. The occurrence of bee diseases in the United
States (Preliminary report). Circular No. 138, Bureau of Entomology,
25pp.
216 Beekeeping
MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING
By this expression beekeepers designate the moving of
apiaries from place to place during a single summer to take
advantage of two or more honey-flows which do not occur
in a single locality. This has been practiced since ancient
times, and most extensive beekeepers cherish the hope that
some day the subject may be sufficiently understood so
that they may move their bees several times a season and
thereby keep them working almost all the year. Some
elaborate plans have been made for moving bees from south
to north as the seasons advance, but most of the trials have
been failures. Since success in beekeeping depends on an
intimate knowledge of the honey sources of the locality and
of the best manipulations to obtain maximum crops, such
migratory beekeeping would necessitate detailed knowledge
of many sections, so that the beekeeper may know when
and where to move his colonies to advantage.
The Mississippi River has long been considered an ideal
avenue for transporting colonies in migratory beekeeping,
especially since there is no better way to ship colonies than
by boat. It has been propose'd that the beekeeper place
his apiary on a flatboat in the South in early spring and
move northward by night, allowing his bees to gather nectar
by day, and following the season as it extends northward.
This plan so well illustrates the limitations of migratory
beekeeping that it may be critically examined. One of the
chief difficulties is the fact that the beekeeper must know
just where to anchor after each move so that his bees will
be in range of the best forage and this would involve too
careful a study of the valley to make the plan practical.
This objection might be overcome but there is a more funda-
mental difficulty which has not been sufficiently considered
by those who have cherished this dream. If one species
of plant furnished the main nectar-flow throughout the
Mississippi valley, the beekeeper could move northward
to prolong the gathering period, but this is not the case.
Regional Differences within the United States 217
There are many plants which furnish nectar in the various
portions in the valley and if the apiary were moved
northward the bees often would leave behind them a honey-
flow from another source. If migratory beekeeping from
south to north and then back south with the closing season
proves successful it will probably be within the nectar-secret-
ing area of a single species of plant or perhaps of two species,
one for each direction of the journey. The Mississippi River
plan was tried several years ago on a rather extensive scale
without success.
The experiment of moving an apiary south for the winter
for the purpose of making increase has recently been tried.
If one is raising bees for sale and has a heavy demand for
colonies that may pay but the chances of success in following
this plan for honey-production are small.
The limitations of migratory beekeeping, in so far as
present successes indicate them,"-have not been previously
pointed out. They are approximately as follows : The
movement of bees must not be from one general region to
another, as from the white clover region to the alfalfa region,
but from a location where the flora is that of the general
region to a restricted region where the honey-flow comes at a
different time, usually later. For example, it has been found
profitable to practice the following plans in migratory bee-
keeping : (1) from white clover to sweet clover, buckwheat,
Spanish needle or heartsease, (2) from sage to bean or (3)
from one of the restricted regions in the South to another.
As previously mentioned, the honey-flow at the temporary
out-apiary usually comes after the main honey-flow at the
permanent apiary. In most such cases, the conditions
demand the production of extracted-honey, as comb-honey
production and migratory beekeeping are not well suited
to each other.
In considering the possibility of migratory beekeeping
it must be decided whether it is desirable to move the bees
or simply the beekeeper. In other words, if the trip is a
long one involving considerable expense and danger of loss
218 Beekeeping
in moving a large number of colonies, it may be cheaper or
easier for the beekeeper to own two or more lots of bees and
supplies. The expense of transportation and the danger
involved are probably the factors which determine the feasi-
bility of moving from south to north or from sage in Cali-
fornia to alfalfa in Utah or Colorado. In the South, espe-
cially where bees can be purchased at a low price, it would
not seem profitable to move apiaries over long distances.
The shipping of bees in wire-cloth cages may in the future
remove the present limitations.
It would certainly seem that a northern beekeeper is
not embracing all his opportunities if he quits work when his
bees can no longer get nectar, while there are still hundreds
of places in the South or even in the tropics where he might
maintain apiaries with profit in the winter. When it is
recalled that the professional beekeeper is a relatively new
factor in beekeeping, it may still be expected that the future
development of the industry will show an increase in migra-
tory beekeeping, or at least in migratory beekeepers.
OVERSTOCKING
The bugbear of the specialist beekeeper is the fear that he
will overstock his localities, that is, place in each apiary so
many colonies that there will not be enough nectar available
to permit the colonies to store approximately the maximum
profitable surplus. Since there are few places in the United
States that are now overstocked, this subject worries the
beekeeper more than the facts warrant. Some beekeepers
have found it practical to keep several hundred colonies in
one apiary. E. W. Alexander, Delanson, New York, found
it more profitable, in an exceptionally good buckwheat
region, to keep over 700 colonies in one yard than to establish
out-apiaries. In the South and West large apiaries are not
infrequent.
While it is desirable to keep bees in as few places as possi-
ble to avoid duplication of apparatus and time lost in trans-
Regional Differences within the United States 219
portation, there is another factor to be considered. The
size of an apiary should be determined chiefly by the number
of colonies that the beekeeper can manipulate in a single day
during the honey-flow. If he finds that he can usually care
for seventy-five colonies in a day under his system of manage-
ment, then that number is ideal for his apiaries. He can
then arrange his out-apiaries so that each will receive a
visit as frequently as the conditions demand. The amount
of work that can be done in a day will increase with experi-
ence and the out-apiaries correspondingly may be increased
in size, for they should be large enough to furnish a full
day's work, unless there is some means of rapid transporta-
tion available. With modern transportation facilities the
distance to out-yards is of less importance than formerly
and many beekeepers now have motor trucks to carry an
extracting outfit and other apparatus and supplies from one
apiary to another. Considering the day's work as the deter-
mining factor in the size of the apiary, the out-apiaries may
be more numerous and closer together than would be the case
if each yard were increased to the maximum. In the present
undeveloped condition of the beekeeping industry and with
so many localities almost untouched by bees, it is not wise
to run any risk of overstocking. The location of out-
apiaries should be determined by the available forage, the
minimum distance between them usually being determined
by the distance that bees can fly.
DADANT OUT-APIARIES
To illustrate the problem which confronts the beekeeper
in the establishment of out-apiaries there is here reproduced
a map (Fig. 97), made from one by C. P. Dadant, Hamilton,
Illinois, of the apiaries near his home in 1891. He then
owned the Home, Sherwood, Villemain and Sack apiaries,
the other four shown being apiaries of other beekeepers.
All of these are located on land sloping toward the Mississippi
River. The Sherwood apiary was the best, giving crops in
220
Beekeeping
the spring and fall. The Villemain apiary appears to have
been in the poorest location, the range of the bees being
restricted by the river, but it was near the only basswcod
grove in the country and the bees gathered honey in the fall
from the islands. The Sack apiary seems to have been too
near other apiaries but was
actually second only to the
Sherwood yard. The bees
did not work more than a
mile along the bluff but went
three miles to the river,
having the bottom lands
covered with fall flowers
within their range of flight.
They were separated from
the adjacent apiaries by hills
and timber. The two small
circles show sites of former
apiaries, used before the
Sherwood apiary was estab-
lished. The bees in the
home apiary were only a
mile and a half from abun-
dant pasturage on an island
but did not reach it, although
they sometimes went two
miles or more in another di-
rection.
This description of conditions in 1891 l may not represent
the condition of the Dadant apiaries to-day. The map,
however, shows the locations decided upon in that region by
an experienced beekeeper who had kept bees in that district
for twenty years. It shows that distance from one apiary
to the next is not the sole consideration but that contour
of the land, timber tracts and other barriers must be taken
1 Dadant, C. P., 1891. Arrangement of out-apiaries. Gleanings in
Bee Culture, XIX, pp. 60-61.
FIG. 97. Map showing distribution
of Dadant apiaries, Hamilton, 111.
Regional Differences within the United States 221
into account. Similar maps and descriptions of out-apiaries
appeared in the same journal at about the same time, one
of the apiaries of E. France, Platteville, Wisconsin, and
another from A. E. Manum, Bristol, Vermont. The effect
of contour of the land is especially well illustrated in the
Manum map. It would probably profit any extensive bee-
keeper who has several out-apiaries to make a similar map
of his region, especially if he includes the honey sources.
CHAPTER XI
THE FIRST STEPS IN BEEKEEPING
MANY persons begin beekeeping accidentally. The in-
terest of many of the present beekeepers in the honeybee
has first been aroused by a swarm passing over the premises
or perhaps lighting on a tree near by. The desire not to allow
anything to go to waste or not to allow a valuable article to
elude him, coupled perhaps with a dare-devil impulse to
risk a combat, has induced many a man or woman to attempt
to hive the stray swarm. Or perhaps there is a temptation
to exhibit one's prowess before the other members of the
family. Having hived the swarm in a box or barrel with
no loss of life or limb and bees are never easier to handle
than when swarming it is by easy steps that one goes on
until an attack of what is commonly known as " bee-fever"
has developed, from which recovery seems hopeless. If a
swarm is caught and put into a box, the owner should obtain
a modern hive as soon as practical and lodge his new posses-
sion in a home where they may be manipulated. The neces-
sary equipment is discussed in Chapter II.
Purchase of colonies.
There are those, however, who decide to begin beekeeping
without this accidental impulse. The desirability of begin-
ning on a small scale may be again emphasized here. Colonies
should if possible always be purchased near at hand to pre-
vent the loss which may follow, especially if colonies must
be transported by inexperienced persons. The further
advantage in this procedure is that the former owner may
usually be induced to assist in the moving and he will also
222
The First Steps in Beekeeping 223
prove helpful in the early days with the bees. It is best
to have the bees already housed in the hive which is to be
adopted but if this is not possible then colonies in any hive
or in boxes or barrels may be purchased and transferred
(p. 245). Transferring is a difficult operation for a novice,
in fact it is not relished by an experienced beekeeper, and is
to be avoided. Early in the summer is usually the best
time for making the start, although the price charged for
colonies is usually higher at that season. There is less
opportunity for making such mistakes in management as
will result in loss of bees during the first few months of
ownership if these come during the summer. It matters
little what race or strain of bees is obtained at the beginning
except that it is desirable to avoid bees with too great a
percentage of black blood in them, such bees being diffi-
cult to manipulate. After the apiary is established any
desired race may be obtained by removing the queens and
replacing them with mated queens purchased from com-
mercial queen breeders. If these are introduced to replace
the old queens of the colonies, the progeny of the new queens
will rapidly replace the offspring of the discarded ones as
they die from natural causes.
Purchase of bees to be shipped from a distance.
Another method of buying bees which is growing in favor
is to buy them by weight, without frames. Bees are now
easily shipped in cages specially constructed for the purpose,
even though the journey require several days. By this
method the possibility of carrying some brood disease is
obviated and there is less likelihood of damage to the bees
by the breaking or melting of combs or by suffocation during
the journey. Nuclei or small colonies with frames may also
be shipped a considerable distance. These will usually
build up to full colonies during the season if bought early,
but of course surplus honey can scarcely be expected the
first year from such a small colony. Still another plan is to
buy an empty hive and leave it with some beekeeper so
224 Beekeeping
that a swarm may be hived in it, after which it is removed
to the desired location.
Requirements in purchased colonies.
If there is opportunity to examine the colonies before
purchasing them, there are several important things which
should be insisted upon : (1) get as little drone comb or
crooked or defective comb as possible ; (2) see that the
colony is free from disease (p. 397) ; (3) the colony should
be provided with plenty of honey and (4) the amount cf
brood should be adequate for the time of year. It is perhaps
asking too much of the beginner to expect him to determine
whether disease is present in colonies purchased. In many
states and counties there are official apiary inspectors whose
duty it is to give advice on the subject of disease and these
men may be asked to assist in this work. At any rate,
even the novice can tell whether there is any dead or dis-
colored brood and it is at least safe not to accept colonies
in which any discolored brood is found, normal brood being
pearly white. Formerly the sale of bees was believed to
bring ill-luck and the customary way to acquire colonies
was to go at night to the apiary and after the removal of
the colony, to leave coins to the value of the bees on an
adjacent hive. The possibility of an insufficient pile of
coins or perhaps none at all is probably a factor in causing
modern beekeepers to prefer to sell bees according to pres-
ent-day methods. The beginner can scarcely be advised
to adopt the ancient manner, for the custom might be found
faulty when explained to a magistrate.
How to learn beekeeping.
To acquire skill in manipulating bees and to learn the
proper management of the apiary so as to obtain maximum
results, the best method is to spend some time in the apiary
of an experienced beekeeper. If one contemplates making
beekeeping an important part of the occupation, this is
especially to be desired. It is usually possible to arrange
The First Steps in Beekeeping 225
for employment at a small wage in the apiary of a specialist
for a season. Not all extensive beekeepers, however,
manipulate their bees well and many of them fail to get the
maximum returns through faulty systems, especially in
comb-honey production, but after some experience in such
an apiary the prospective beekeeper is better able to read
the details of manipulations understandingly, and he can
correct in his own practice the mistakes which may have
been taught him by his teacher.
Value of reading.
The many books on bees all have points of merit and
reading the various journals devoted to beekeeping is to be
commended. Reading alone does not make a beekeeper.
The " book-beekeeper " may be well informed concerning
the behavior of bees and may know the different systems of
management so that he can discuss them in detail, but only
by practice do these things become an actual part of his
beekeeping equipment.
Merits of beekeeping courses.
A good way to learn beekeeping is to attend some school
where a thorough course in this subject is given. Until
recently beekeeping was not included in the work of the
agricultural colleges in the United States, but interest is
now being aroused in this work and it is spreading in a
manner to give deep satisfaction to those interested in the
development of the industry. In the apiary of an experi-
enced beekeeper, the beginner perhaps gets more personal
attention than he does in a class, but usually in the rush of
honey-production, the theoretical side of the work is neg-
lected and frequently the beekeeper is not able to offer much
help to his student on such subjects. Consequently when he
begins to keep bees for himself, he may find local conditions
quite unlike those in the apiary in which he worked and,
not knowing the fundamental facts about bees, he may be
at a loss to know what to do. In a regular course of study,
Q
226 Beekeeping
the proper emphasis may be placed on the various subjects,
although naturally there is less opportunity for practice
with the bees. The ideal plan is to take the prescribed
course and then spend the following summer in the apiary
of the best beekeeper available. The student is then able
to understand more clearly what he sees and hears and is
better able to recognize and perhaps mentally to condemn
the little peculiarities in practice which one encounters
occasionally in the manipulations of practical beekeepers.
If the teaching of beekeeping is conducted wisely, it should
result not only in increased knowledge of bees, but in the
training of more professional beekeepers.
Beginner's outfit.
It is only with experience that one is able to judge of the
comparative merits of different hives and other equipment,
but the beginner usually desires definite information con-
cerning the equipment which should be purchased. The
giving of such advice is attended with some risk, for one
hesitates to advise an equipment which may be discarded
when the beekeeper becomes more familiar with the business.
In the following lists, the choice is made on the basis of the
equipment which is preferred by the majority of good bee-
keepers and not alone on the author's personal preferences.
General equipment :
Bee veil.
Smoker medium size.
Gloves (for the beginner only).
Some kind of hive tool a screwdriver will answer.
For each colony :
Bottom board of I inch material.
10-frame Langstroth hive preferably single-walled.
Self-spacing frames, punched for wiring.
Medium brood foundation, li Ib. for each hive body.
Telescope cover.
The First Steps in Beekeeping 227
For comb-honey production (minimum) :
3 supers for 10-frame hive (if possible one made up for sample).
The 4i inches square section, 1| inches wide, is usually
preferred. The purchase of only one super to the colony is
to be condemned.
Thin foundation, 2 oz. to super. For the beginner the use
of small starters of foundation is sometimes preferable.
If full sheets are used, 8 oz. to the super should be provided.
For extracted-honey production :
2 extra hive bodies identical with those used in brood chamber,
with full sheets of comb-foundation (see p. 28 concerning
spacing devices in surplus chambers).
1 2-frame non-reversible extractor.
1 Bingham uncapping knife.
For bulk comb-honey production :
3 10-frame supers with shallow extracting frames.
| Ib. thin-super foundation for each super.
CHAPTER XII
THE APIARY SITE
IN the establishment of a commercial apiary, the chief
requisite is proximity to the sources of nectar. To fulfill
this, it is essential that the honey resources of the region be
studied carefully. While it is possible to keep bees in almost
all of the habitable parts of the United States, it is not every-
where profitable to practice extensive beekeeping, so that if
one contemplates making honey- production a major portion
of his business, it is best to go to the best available location
rather than to struggle along in a mediocre locality. A
second requisite is ease of transportation to the apiary and
to market.
Apiary grounds.
In the North, a plot of ground sloping to the south or
east is usually preferable and in any region it is advisable
to face the apiary so as to protect the entrances of the hives
from the prevailing winds. If the contour of the land or a
near-by forest does not afford protection from the wind, a
windbreak may be planted. A row of evergreens is efficient
in the North and is serviceable in winter when it is most
needed. A solid fence or building is less desirable, since
such a windbreak, instead of breaking the force of the wind,
often simply deflects the currents into the midst of the apiary
with disastrous results. In moist regions, a slope is desirable
for drainage. The hives should be so placed that they
receive sunlight in the early morning. This is helpful in
winter and perhaps equally so in summer as it starts the
bees to the field earlier, so that they get the nectar from
228
The Apiary Site 229
plants which furnish it only in the mornings. If possible,
the apiary should not be near the public road and should
be situated where the bees will not prove a nuisance to
passers-by or sting live-stock. If the only convenient loca-
tion is near the road, the line of flight of the bees may be
deflected upwards by a high hedge or a solid fence, for after
they fly over such an obstruction they will keep above the line
of travel on the road and will not molest teams or pedestrians.
This is an important consideration as bees sometimes sting
horses fatally. The apiary should preferably be located
away from the clothes-drying yard so that they will not spot
the clothes with their feces. This applies especially in the
North, and this objection may largely be overcome by re-
moving the cellar-wintered bees when no clothes are to
be hung out. Perhaps it would be more in keeping with the
usual practice to advise that no clothes be hung out just
after the bees have been placed on their summer stands.
The hives should, if practicable, occupy the higher ground
of the plot chosen for the apiary, so that in carrying heavy
supers to the apiary house the load will be carried downhill
and the empty supers uphill. Such an arrangement will
materially reduce the labor in a commercial apiary.
Exposure to the sun.
While exposure to the sun is to be advised in the early
morning, it is often well to protect the hives from the sun
in the middle of the day, so that the bees will not hang
out in front of the hive and to prevent the melting down of
combs. On the other hand, too dense a shade is not advan-
tageous and usually it is not best to locate an apiary in woods.
To provide shade, the hives may be placed in two rows under
a shed or arbor with the hive entrances to the outside (Fig.
98). Such sheds usually run north and south, but in hot,
dry countries an east and west direction is sometimes better.
In temperate climates, sheds are not in favor, but many
beekeepers use shade-boards, so constructed that they
extend about a foot in all directions from the hive except to
230
Beekeeping
the north. These must be held in place by a heavy weight
and are rather objectionable because they have to be re-
moved each time the colony is manipulated.
As the extreme of protection from the sun's rays may be
mentioned the house apiary, in which the entrances to the
hives are through holes in the wall of a specially constructed
house. Such arrangements meet with little favor among
American beekeepers because of the difficulty in manipulat-
ing the colonies inside the house. In Europe, however, the
beekeepers often
construct elabo-
rately designed
and decorated
house apiaries
(Fig. 8) in which
an American com-
mercial bee-
keeper would find
himself seriously
hindered.
FIG. 98. Apiary in the West, shaded by thatched
Care of the apiary
grounds.
The ground on
which the hives
are located should be smooth so that a wheelbarrow or cart
may be utilized in carrying supplies or honey. This is also
desirable if a lawnmower is used to keep grass and weeds from
obstructing the entrances. High grass about the entrances
is a hindrance to the bees on returning to the hive and
should be avoided. Few commercial beekeepers find time
to use a lawnmower during the rush season, but prefer to
lay boards in front of the hive or to kill the grass with
salt. It is sometimes convenient to pasture one or more
sheep in the apiary inclosure. Raising the hives above the
grass on high stands is another solution of the difficulty, but
is not desirable in a heavy flow of honey, since bees often
The Apiary Site
231
fall to the ground with their loads and since the stands may
break down under the weight of honey.
Arrangement of hives.
The hives may be variously arranged according to the
preference of the beekeeper. Each hive should be inclined
FIG. 99. Former apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, College Park, Md.
The use of this apiary for experimental work accounts for the divergence
in the height of the hives. The hives were here arranged singly about
four feet apart.
so that the entrance is about an inch lower than the back of
the hive to prevent water from collecting on the bottom
board. It is usually desirable that the hives be so placed
that the beekeeper will not need to pass in front of the hive
entrances as he goes about his work. The usual practice
is to place hives in rows either close together on a slightly
raised platform or singly on individual stands. The placing
of hives in pairs on a single stand is also common. Where
economy of space is a consideration, it is found advantageous
232 Beekeeping
to place hives close together in groups of four, back to back,
two facing east and two west. This allows a space beside
each hive for the beekeeper while manipulating and is greatly
to be preferred to hives in long rows close together. Where
space will permit, the placing of hives singly (Fig. 99) is
preferable.
Number of colonies in one apiary.
The number of colonies which may profitably be kept in
one apiary depends entirely on the nectar supply. In the
white clover region, it is considered best to have not more
than one hundred colonies in an apiary, with apiaries lo-
cated at least two miles apart. This number can be in-
creased in many localities. In the other general honey
regions of the United States, it is usually profitable under
favorable local conditions to keep from 200 to possibly 500
colonies in one apiary. There are so many factors to con-
sider in determining this point that no general rules may be
laid down. Since this is not a question which the beginner
is called on to answer, it may be advised that the beekeeper
decide each case individually from a study of the honey flora,
the experience of other beekeepers and his own experience.
Out-apiaries.
In locating an apiary away from the central apiary, usually
called an out-apiary or out-yard, easy transportation, espe-
cially to the main apiarjr, is most desirable. It is also an
advantage to have the out-yard, especially one in which
comb-honey is produced, near to the home of some person
who can hive swarms which may issue in spite of precautions
taken, and to protect the colonies from depredation. If these
things are not practical, it is better to have the bees where
they are not easily seen from the highway.
Conveniences less essential in out-apiaries.
In establishing an out-apiary, the points previously men-
tioned should be considered as desirable but not essential.
The Apiary Site 233
Since bees may be kept on roofs, in woods and in other places
lacking many desirable features, it will be seen that it is not
profitable to consider the desirable features too seriously.
Another distinction should be made. If the out-apiary is
permanent, it will pay better to plan the location thoroughly.
However, many commercial beekeepers, especially those
outside the white clover belt, find it well to change the loca-
tions of their out-apiaries to meet changing conditions in
the region and they therefore do not find it profitable to con-
sider the conveniences in equipment and in apiary planning
to any great extent. To the commercial beekeeper the
only essentials are the things which bring the greatest
return. The amateur can better afford to spend time cut-
ting grass and arranging hive stands since his living does not
depend on the crop and he has fewer colonies for which to
plan.
CHAPTER XIII
THE MANIPULATION OF BEES
THE work which the beekeeper does with his bees has for
its object an increase in their productiveness. Bees gather
nectar and pollen when they are available in response to
their own instincts to gather; they build wax when it is
needed if space and food are available. The duties of the
beekeeper are not concerned with creating these impulses.
However, bees do not always work so as to accomplish the
most efficient results, when measured by the commercial
standards of the beekeeper, and the care which he bestows
on his bees serves to provide conditions suitable for the
turning of their natural instincts into those channels which
will yield the greatest profit.
Disturbance to be reduced to a minimum.
Bees should be handled so that their work will be dis-
turbed as little as possible, for the manipulations of the bee-
keeper are only accessory to their labors. Stings should be
avoided. This is not so much because they are painful, but
chiefly because the odor of the poison irritates bees and
makes them difficult to manage. A veil (Fig. 26) and a good
smoker (Fig. 24) are practically indispensable. By the
use of smoke, the bees may be quieted so that they may be
handled readily, the guards are disorganized and the bees
gorge themselves with honey, after which they are not
easily provoked to an attack. Too much smoke must be
avoided as it disorganizes the entire colony and considerable
time elapses before the bees fully return to their normal
activities.
234
The Manipulation of Bees 235
Hasty movements and the jarring of the hive are to be
avoided. The organization of the bee's eyes enables it to
see movement more readily than still objects. On seeing
bees flying about the face, the beginner often strikes at
them or moves quickly to escape the sting, thus provoking
an attack. It requires quiet nerves not to jerk a frame or
even to drop it when the hand in which it is being held is
stung.
Equipment for manipulation.
Aside from a smoker, veil and hive- tool, the beekeeper
needs no other equipment in opening a hive, but the be-
ginner may find gloves (better those with the fingers removed)
desirable. If special clothing is worn in the apiary, and it
is desirable for both comfort and economy not to wear one's
best, white suits are most satisfactory. They are the most
comfortable in the heat of summer and the beekeeper has
a good excuse for this comfort because they are best for
apiary use.
When to handle bees.
The best time to open hives is in the middle of warm days,
especially when the bees are busily engaged in collecting
nectar. Bees should never be handled at night nor on wet,
cold days. It is not always possible for the extensive bee-
keeper to choose the ideal time but it is well to plan to open
hives in favorable times, not only for the comfort of the
operator but principally because it interferes least with the
work of the colony.
Opening a hive.
Before opening the hive, a little smoke should be blown
in the entrance. When the cover is slightly raised, a little
more smoke should be directed over the frames before the
bees have an opportunity to escape. If .the frames are
covered by a mat or oilcloth, which is not desirable but
often used, the outer cover may be entirely removed and one
236 Beekeeping
corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. The covering
then may be removed and the manipulation begun. In
case the bees become troublesome at any time during the
work, as they probably will if it is continued for a time,
more smoke may be blown over or directed down between
the frames to disorganize new guards. No directions need
be given as to the way to recognize trouble and it need
only be stated that the most common fault is to use smoke
too freely. During all manipulations the operator should
stand at the side or back
of the hive and not in
front of it, to prevent in-
terference of bees leaving
and returning to the hive.
If one wishes to examine
the brood chamber when
the colony is in two or
more hive bodies or has
FIG. 100. -Hive-body resting on c^Ter Comb-honey Supers, the
during manipulation. hive cover serves as a
good support for the re-
moved bodies. They are placed diagonally on the cover
(Fig. 100) with only four points of support, thus avoiding
the crushing of bees. If a second body is removed, it may
be placed out of line on the first in the same manner. If the
bees show signs of robbing, combs in removed bodies should
be more carefully protected.
Remedies for stings.
Various remedies for stings have been advocated but they
are all valueless. The puncture made by the sting is so
small that no liquid can enter it after the sting is removed
and the opening has closed. As soon as practical, imme-
diately if possible, the sting should be removed, care being
taken not to squeeze the attached poison sac. This can be
done by scraping the" sting out with a knife blade or the finger
nail. After this is done the injured spot should not be
The Manipulation of Bees 237
rubbed and the usual advice of the beekeeper is to " forget
it." Bathing with liniment or any other irritation serves
only to spread the poison through the tissues. The intense
itching soon disappears. As a comfort to the novice, it
may be stated that repeated stings usually cause an im-
munity to the poison to develop, after which no after-swelling
occurs. In case of severe stinging, the injured parts may be
covered with an ice bag or with cloth wet with ice water.
Removing frames.
After the frames are exposed, the propolis which often
fastens them may be loosened by prying gently with a hive-
tool and the frames may be crowded somewhat closer to-
gether to permit the removal of one of them . It is immaterial
which frame is removed first, unless the special object for
opening the hive determines it. In cool weather the prop-
olis may be brittle and care should be taken not to jar the
hive as this is broken.
During manipulation, a side frame is often removed and
leaned against the hive to allow more room for moving the
other frames. In leaning a frame against the hive, it should
be in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and
leaking of honey. The frame on which the queen is located
should not be left outside the hive unless necessary, for she
may crawl away and be lost. The frame should be leaned
against the hive on the side away from the operator so that
he will not be annoyed by bees crawling up his legs. In all
the handling of the colony, bees should not be crushed, for
this excites the others, and if frames are crowded too closely
together the queen may be killed.
Handling frames.
In examining a comb, it should be held so that if any bees
fall they will drop into the hive, except when it is necessary
to carry away a frame for some purpose. Freshly gathered
nectar sometimes drops out if the comb is improperly handled.
If this falls into the hive the bees clean it up, whereas outside
238
Beekeeping
the hive it may cause robbing and is at least untidy. The
beginner should early form the habit of keeping combs in a
vertical position. While sometimes it does no harm to
tip a frame, it is rarely necessary and may cause honey to
leak or the comb to
break, especially if
the frame is not wired.
As a comb is taken
from the hive, it
should be lifted by
the ends of the top-
FIG. 101. Handling a frame, first position. bar, two hands being
used. This brings
the comb up vertically with one side toward the operator
(Fig. 101). To examine the reverse side without tilting
the comb, raise one end of the top-bar until it is perpendic-
ular (Fig. 102), turn the frame
on the top-bar as an axis until
the reverse side is brought into
view, and then lower to a hori-
zontal position with the top-
fe=ia^
FIG. 102. Handling a frame,
second position.
FIG. 103. Handling a frame, third
position.
bar below (Fig. 103). In actual practice these steps are not
taken successively but the turning on the top-bar is simul-
taneous with the raising and lowering of the end of the frame.
This is a good operation for the beginner to practice a few times.
The Manipulation of Bees
239
Desirability of straight combs in manipulation.
The use of comb-foundation in the frames is desirable to
insure uniform comb, all of worker cells, except in places
where the foundation may sag or become torn. Drone
comb is undesirable ex-
cept in raising drones for
queen-rearing. The use
of comb-foundation in
wired frames insures
straight combs and re-
duces the danger of bees
being crushed in remov-
ing or in returning
frames. A frame-hive
with combs built cross-
wise is more difficult to
handle than a box-hive
and this should never be
permitted. The en-
trance of the hive should
be exactly horizontal so
that the combs will hang
parallel with the sides
of the hive and so that
the outer ones are not
fastened to the hive-
body, if they are prop-
erly spaced at the top.
The back of the hive
should be about one
inch higher than the
front to allow condensed moisture to escape. A hive level-
ing device made by Burton N. Gates is shown in the ac-
companying illustration (Fig. 104) which needs no descrip-
tion. This has been found useful, especially with the tile
hive-stands used in the Bureau of Entomology apiary.
FIG. 104. Hive leveling device. In the
upper figure the wedge-shaped piece is
on edge so that when the top is level
the hive entrance is one inch lower than
the back. In the lower figure the
wedge is on its side.
240 Beekeeping
Closing the hive.
In closing a hive, after the frames are replaced and spaced
properly, the cover should be put on in such a way as to
crush no bees. If necessary the bees may be driven down
by the use of smoke, but if bees are on the top edges of the
hive, the cover may be slid on from the end or side so that
none will be crushed.
OCCASIONAL MANIPULATIONS
In the discussions which follow, manipulations will be
described which may be useful at almost any time or at
different times in the season but which are not part of the
regular work of most apiaries. The plan followed in this
book is to give the various manipulations in the order in
which they are used 'during the season. The manipulations
discussed under this heading are most frequently useful in
the spring.
Feeding.
To stimulate brood-rearing or to provide stores in the
spring, in preparing colonies for winter and at other times
during a shortage of stores, it may be necessary to feed the
bees. Obviously, it is desirable to allow the bees to keep
sufficient honey and if this can be done it is always prefer-
able to feeding. No better stimulation to heavy breeding
in the spring can be found than adequate protection and an
abundance of stores, but a large amount of food is needed
at this season and the beekeeper should feed if he finds that
he has failed to leave enough. In small hives, the giving of
additional stores in the spring is usually desirable, either
in the form of combs of honey or as a syrup.
The feeding of sugar syrup to produce comb-honey has
of course been tried and some beekeepers have believed that
the product is honey. This is not the case and the fraud
may readily be detected. Fortunately, even at the lowest
prices of granulated sugar, the sections actually cost the
The Manipulation of Bees 241
beekeeper more than he gets for pure comb-honey and this
fact effectually keeps adulterated comb-honey off the market.
What to feed.
Honey from an unknown source should never be fed,
because of the danger of introducing disease. Beekeepers
usually feel that it is cheaper to feed sugar syrup because of
the higher market value of honey, but no food for bees better
than honey has yet been found. If extracted-honey is
fed, it should be somewhat diluted. The best plan is to
give combs of honey.
As a substitute for honey, a syrup made of granulated
sugar is best. For spring feeding, a thin syrup may be
used, even as dilute as two parts of water to one of sugar
(by volume). Ordinarily equal parts of each are used.
For supplying winter stores, a thick syrup, 2| to 2^ parts of
sugar to one of water, is preferable. To prevent granula-
tion of the sugar in the thick syrup, it is inverted (changed
chemically to levulose and dextrose) by the addition of a
teaspoonful of tartaric acid to 20 pounds of sugar while the
syrup is being heated to dissolve the sugar crystals. In
early spring and late fall, syrup may be fed while warm and
fall feeding should be done as rapidly as the bees will take
the syrup. In making syrup, the greatest care must be
taken not to allow it to be discolored by scorching the
sugar; it should be as clear as if made with cold water.
Glucose, other cheap syrups or molasses and the cheaper
grades of sugar should not be fed to bees, especially for
winter stores, since they contain substances- indigestible to
bees, causing dysentery.
Candy and cube sugar are sometimes used for supplying
bees in winter after their stores are exhausted. These
should be used only in emergency and nothing but granu-
lated sugar should be used in making candy for this purpose.
A soft white sugar, known in the trade as " coffee A," placed
in a division board feeder is sometimes used as a stimulant
to brood-rearing.
B
242
Beekeeping
Slow feeding to prevent robbing is sometimes desirable
during extracting or other manipulations or while rearing
queens. A thin syrup of one part sugar to nine of water is
used, being fed in large feeders in the open.
FIG. 105. Division board
(Doolittle) feeder.
FIG. 106. Alexander feeder in
collar under hive-body.
Feeders.
There are numerous types of feeders, used for different
purposes. The division board feeder (Fig. 105) is hung in
the hive like a frame. It may be filled without being re-
FIG. 107. " Pepper-box"
feeder.
FIG. 108. Pan in super arranged
for feeding.
The Manipulation of Bees 243
moved and a float must be used to prevent bees from drown-
ing. The Alexander feeder (Fig. 106) is useful mainly for
stimulation. It may be placed under the rear of the brood-
chamber if the bottom board is moved forward, but this
often causes robbing and a better plan is to place it in a
collar under the brood-chamber as shown in the illustration.
For feeding small quantities, a "pepper-box feeder" (Fig.
107) may be inverted over the brood frames in an empty
hive-body. Mason jars may be used in the same way,
special pierced covers being sold by dealers in beekeeping
supplies. For rapid feeding in the fall, a large pan in an
empty super (Fig. 108) is perhaps best. Green grass should
be thrown in the syrup to give support to the bees while
feeding, this being better than excelsior or chips as it does
not absorb the syrup. The empty super and pan may be
placed under the brood-chamber for late feeding, in which
case the bees take the syrup more rapidly.
Uniting.
If a colony becomes queenless in late fall, it is usually
not profitable to give it a queen, but it may be united with a
normal colony to save the bees. It is not wise to try to
winter weak colonies, but if two or more are united to make
a strong colony, keeping the best queen, the risk in wintering
is reduced and better results are obtained in the spring.
It is also more profitable to unite weak colonies in the spring
than to build them up.
Influence of hive odor.
Every colony of bees has a distinctive odor by which bees
recognize individuals from their own colony, normally
resenting the entrance to their hive of those from other
colonies. In uniting colonies, the different odors may be
hidden by smoking both vigorously. Tobacco smoke may
be used, but if too much is employed the bees become stupe-
fied. If bees are stupefied by tobacco smoke, chloroform or
other anaesthetics, they lose their memory of former locations
244 Beekeeping
and may be united and placed wherever desired, but Ameri-
can beekeepers rarely have occasion to use such methods.
During a honey-flow, when the field bees are coming in
heavily laden with nectar, the field bees of two colonies that
are close together may be allowed to enter one hive and they
do not molest each other. The queen to be saved should be
caged for a day or two to overcome the danger of the strange
bees killing her. When brood-rearing is reduced, as in the
fall, the colony odor is apparently less influential, for less
precaution is necessary in uniting.
Learning the new location.
Field bees return to the location of their hive and they
remember the old location and return to it if the hive is
moved. If two colonies to be united are not close together,
they should be moved gradually nearer, perhaps a foot
every day that the bees can fly, until they are side by side.
The bees learn each location in succession and after uniting
they will not return to the original position and be lost.
If it is necessary to move the colonies faster, they may be
put into the new place and a pile of brush or weeds or a
slanting board placed in front of the entrance so that when
the bees fly out they will perceive a change and learn the new
location. If it is desired to unite two weak swarms, this
may be done simply by placing them together, either in the
hive or on the hive entrance. Swarming bees abandon the
memory of the old location (p. 180) ; they are full of honey
and may be placed anywhere. The better queen should be
saved and the other removed or the bees may separate into
clusters. Swarms may be added to newly -established colo-
nies if desired.
If queenless colonies are found in early spring which are
to be united with normal colonies, the usual practice is to
place them on top of the normal colony. Few bees return
and there is usually no trouble as such bees seem ready to go
to any colony.
The Manipulation of Bees 245
Transferring.
In increasing the apiary, it is sometimes profitable to buy
colonies in box-hives because of their small cost. They
should, of course, be transferred to movable-frame hives as
speedily as possible, for bees in box-hives are of small value
as producers, because of the impossibility of manipulating
the combs. The advice is often given to beginners oo buy
colonies in box-hives and transfer them, but this advice is
(questionable. There is no more trying work connected
with beekeeping, unless possibly it is the moving of a large
apiary, and if a beginner can successfully transfer a colony
from a box-hive he has proved his right to become a beekeeper.
The best time to transfer colonies, if there is opportunity
for choice, is the spring (during fruit bloom in the North)
when the amount of honey and the population of the colony
are at a minimum. However, the work can be done at any
time during the active season, but there should be nectar
coming to the hives so that while combs are exposed robbing
will not be induced. If necessary, transferring may be done
in a tent or cage of netting or wire cloth to keep robbers
away, but the odor of honey may cause excitement in the
apiary. If the field bees are out of the hive, the work is
lessened.
Methods.
There are several methods of transferring and one may
be chosen according to the plans and wishes of the beekeeper.
Plan 1. The box-hive is set a few feet to one side and
in its place is put a hive with movable frames, containing
full sheets of foundation or drawn combs. As the field bees
return, they go at once to the new hive. The box-hive is
turned upside down and a small box is inverted over it.
The box-hive is now pounded continuously (the operation
being known as drumming or driving) in such a manner as
to transmit the jar to the combs and the bees desert their
combs for the upper box. They cluster in this box like a
246
Beekeeping
natural swarm and they may then be thrown in the new
hive. If possible, the queen should be seen so that the
operator may be sure that she is off the old combs. It is
necessary that she be obtained, unless one desires to requeen
at this time, in which event the old queen should be cap-
tured and the new one may be run in with the bees and will
be promptly accepted. The box-hive containing the brood
is now placed right side up in a new location. In 21 days
all of the worker brood will have emerged and possibly
some new queens will be reared. These bees may be driven
out and united
with their former
hive-mates by
allowing them to
run in the en-
trance. They
should, however,
be compelled to
go through per-
forated zinc or a
queen and drone
trap (Fig. 30) to
keep out the
young queens.
The old combs
may now be
melted after removing the honey. By this method straight
combs are obtained. If nectar is not being collected, the
newly established colony should be fed.
Plan 2. Wait until a swarm issues from the box-hive
and then move the old hive to a new location. The swarm
is then placed in a new hive on the old stand and it is further
increased by returning field bees. After 21 days the bees
which have emerged are united with the bees in the new
hive, as described under Plan 1.
Plan 3. If the beekeeper desires to save the combs in
the box-hive, the bees may be drummed into a box, after
FIG. 109. Cutting combs from a box-hive.
The Manipulation of Bees 247
which the brood combs and any other good combs are cut
out (Fig. 109) and fitted into frames, being fastened with
string, rubber bands or strips of wood until the bees have an
opportunity to repair them. These frames are hung in a
hive on the old stand and the bees are then allowed to run in.
The cutting of combs, especially those containing brood and
honey, is a disagreeable job and, since combs from a box-
hive are usually of little value, this method is not recom-
mended.
Plan 4. Another method which is in some respects
better than those just given is to place the box-hive with its
largest surface uppermost. If the bottom is now open, it is
closed except for an entrance and a piece is removed from
the upper side of the box-hive. The hive in which the colony
is to be located is now put over the large opening and all
cracks and openings around it are closed. The upper hive
is filled with drawn combs or, if these are not available, with
sheets of foundation. When the queen needs more room
for egg-laying, she will go to the upper hive and, after she
is located there, a queen excluder is put between the box-hive
and the new hive to prevent her return. As the brood
emerges below, the colony becomes established above. If
there is difficulty in getting the queen to go to the new hive,
the box-hive may be drummed. After the brood in the old
combs has all emerged, the bees may be drummed from the
box-hive and it may be treated as desired.
Transferring from walls of houses.
Swarms often locate in the walls of houses and it is some-
times necessary to remove them to prevent damage from
melting combs. If the cavity in which the combs are
built is accessible, the method is the same as in transferring
under the third plan, except that drumming is impractical
and the combs must be cut out with the bees still adhering
to them. A liberal use of smoke will subdue them. If it is
impossible to open the cavity without doing considerable
damage to the building, a bee-escape (Fig. 19) may be put
248 Beekeeping
over the entrance so that the bees can leave but cannot
return, any other openings to the combs being carefully
closed. Even better than a bee-escape is a cone of wire-
cloth eight inches high with a hole at the apex just large
enough for a single bee to pass. This is tacked on the house
and the bees issue through the hole in the apex but do not
find it again to return. A hive (with drawn combs in it if
possible) is then placed so that its entrance is as near as
practical to the entrance which the bees have been using.
A queen should soon be introduced to the bees in the hive.
The old queen does not desert her combs and continues lay-
ing eggs, but, as her colony is depopulated, the amount of
brood rapidly diminishes. As brood emerges, the young
bees also leave through the wire-cloth cone and join the bees
in the hive until in four or five weeks the queen is left prac-
tically alone. When nearly all of the bees are out of the
cavity and there is little or no brood, the bee-escape is re-
moved, the entrance to the cavity is made larger if possible
and if there is no honey-flow, the bees rob their old home
and carry the honey to their new hive, leaving only the empty
combs. These will usually do no damage as wax-moths
soon destroy them. The entrance to the cavity should now
be carefully closed to prevent another swarm from taking
up quarters there and the hive is removed. This method
takes considerable time, but is often best where the cavity
is inaccessible. It is often difficult to close the cavity to
prevent the bees from establishing a new entrance when a
bee-escape is placed over the one to which they are accus-
tomed.
Transferring from hollow trees.
The method to be used will depend on the accessibility
of the cavity and the value of the tree. Usually the bees
cannot be drummed out and the combs must be cut out
after subduing the bees with smoke. If the colony is high in
the tree and the tree is felled, the bees are disorganized by
the jarring so that they can be handled easily. The hunting
The Manipulation of Bees 249
of colonies in the woods is interesting and the cutting of a
bee tree is an experience which everyone interested in bees
should have, but the time consumed is considerably more
than the value of the bees and honey justify. It does not
pay to build up the apiary in this way if the beekeeper's
time is valuable.
Preventing robbing in the apiary.
At any time during warm weather, bees are inclined to
rob other colonies, if there is no honey-flow. Every precau-
tion should be taken to prevent this. Feeding often attracts
other bees and, if there are indications of robbing, it should
be deferred until late in the day. Honey left where bees
can get it or combs left out of the hives during manipulations
may at times lead to serious robbing.
As soon as robbers are noticed, manipulation should be
discontinued and the hives should be closed. If serious
robbing occurs, the entrances should be contracted and the
hive fronts wiped with a cloth moistened with kerosene or
carbolic acid. If brush is thrown at the entrances, robbers
are less likely to enter. Outdoor feeding to prevent robbing
is described in a previous section (p. 242).
A wire-cloth cage, five feet square and six feet high, may
be used if manipulations are necessary during a time when
robbing is probable. This cage should not be closed at the
top and bees which fly from the colony under manipulation
escape, while robbers will rarely enter. A folding tent or
cage made of mosquito netting may also be used. A smaller
wire cage closed at the top may be set over a colony that is
being robbed.
If the cause of robbing is suddenly removed, this may
produce more excitement than if the robber bees were allowed
to complete their work. For example, if a colony is being
robbed and is suddenly removed to save it, the robbers
turn their attention to other colonies, or if a piece of exposed
comb has attracted robbers, its removal may divert them
to more serious devastation.
250
Beekeeping
The beginner in beekeeping may mistake the play flights
of young bees for robbing, but after the latter has once been
observed this error will not be repeated. Bees appear old
soon after they begin robbing ; they are dark and thin, their
actions are nervous, and the hairs on the body are lost,
probably by being torn off by defending bees and by squeez-
ing through narrow openings.
When a colony is abnormal, as in queenlessness or disease,
it may be robbed of its stores slowly, without any excitement,
usually by the bees of a
single colony.
Moving bees.
In migratory beekeep-
ing, in bringing pur-
chased bees to the apiary
and under various other
circumstances the bee-
keeper will find it neces-
sary to move bees. The
frames must be fastened
firmly in place. If self-
spacing frames are used,
especially if there is con-
siderable propolis on them, no precautions need be taken
to prevent the swinging of the frames, but it is often
desirable to nail a f -inch strip over the tops of the frames
so that they cannot fall out of place if the hive is
tipped. Abundant ventilation should be given, the
amount depending on the temperature. In cold weather,
the entrances may simply be closed with a block and the cover
fastened securely, but in extremely hot weather it is desir-
able to remove the cover or both the cover and the bottom
board and nail on wire-cloth (Fig. 110). A 2-inch collar
may be fastened to the top of the hive-body and wire-cloth
put above this, to give clustering space for the bees. Colo-
nies rarely suffer from exposure during moving so that the
FIG. 110. Hive ready for moving. In
this case the bottom board is left on.
The Manipulation of Bees 251
beekeeper should not err by giving inadequate ventilation.
In transporting colonies on a wagon, the length of the frames
should be across the wagon bed, while on a train they should
be parallel with the length of the car.
It is customary to ship colonies in hives with combs, but
recently the shipping of bees in wire-cloth cages without
combs has been practiced. This has much to commend it,
especially in reducing the danger of introducing bee diseases
into new locations. The cages contain numerous slats on
which the bees hang, and they are provided with food for
the bees en route. The bees are put into the cage by means
of a funnel, either with or without a queen. Bees are now
regularly sold by the pound in such packages and shipped
to all parts of the United States. It is probable that as this
method is perfected it will be used in migratory beekeeping,
thus avoiding danger of carrying disease to the home apiary
and reducing the transportation charges.
ELIMINATION OF NON-ESSENTIAL MANIPULATIONS
While it is necessary in any discussion of beekeeping which
aims at completeness to describe the various manipulations
which may be needed during the course of the year, the bee-
keeper should early in his experience establish a system for
the care of his bees so that unessential movements and
manipulations may be avoided. If bees are kept solely
for pleasure, it matters little whether they are disturbed in
their work, and the time of the beekeeper need not be con-
sidered an important consideration, but when bees are kept
for profit, these factors become vital. Every manipulation
which does not benefit the beekeeper by increasing his
profit should be ruthlessly eliminated, and every time a
colony is opened it should be for some definite purpose.
Two essentials.
There are two factors necessary to the production of the
maximum honey-crop over which the beekeeper has no
252 Beekeeping
control. He cannot govern the weather or produce honey-
plants with profit. There are on the other hand two other
factors with which his work must deal. His efforts should
be for the purpose (1) of getting plenty of bees of the right
age in time for the harvest and (2) of keeping these bees in
proper condition for gathering the maximum crop. The
first essential is far-reaching and obviously includes the
entire care of the colonies to prevent starvation or loss from
other causes. It applies especially to the work in the
spring. The second essential applies chiefly to the control
of swarming. It is well for the beekeeper to keep these two
essentials always before him and to ask himself, when he
plans any work with the bees, whether it comes under one
of these heads.
The beekeeper may profitably go one step further in the
analysis. For example, stimulative feeding in the spring
is mentioned earlier in this chapter. He should first of all
determine whether stimulative feeding is more profitable
than the giving of abundant stores. If he finds that he gets
more bees by stimulative feeding, he should then determine
whether he gets enough more to justify the expenditure of
time and money, or whether he can get a larger total crop
by keeping a few more colonies, combined with the giving
of abundant stores. An example taken from life may not
be amiss, the names being here omitted. Two beekeepers
are located in exceptional situations which may be assumed
to be equally good. One of these men is skilled in the
improvement of his stock and has made significant progress,
but the work occupies considerable time. The other bee-
keeper feels that he has not the time for this (and he may
not have the skill), but he keeps 100 colonies more than his
co-worker. In the case just given the beekeeper with the
larger number of colonies makes more money, but this illus-
tration is by no means given to discourage breeding work.
It shows, however, that for that particular region the greater
profits come with extensive beekeeping, while in other regions
more intensive work might yield better financial returns.
The Manipulation of Bees 253
Both men have the same object in view to produce workers
on time for the harvest. Both are successful while all about
them are beekeepers with indifferent or poor success, at-
tributed probably to bad luck.
Increase in efficiency through system.
Not only must these essentials be emphasized, but the
necessary manipulations must be systematized. After some
effort in this respect, the beekeeper is usually astonished
at what may be accomplished. This may be illustrated
by another case. This beekeeper began work with bees
on a business basis after keeping a few colonies for pleasure
for several years. At the beginning of his experience he
taught school, thus having his Saturdays for the bees as well
as the summer vacation. At first the vacation was six
months, but later the school year was increased, giving him
only three months. By systematizing his work, he was
able to do as much as formerly and gradually increased his
colonies to 250 in three apiaries, all run for comb-honey.
He then gave up teaching and accepted a position which
kept him away from his bees except during thirty days' vaca-
tion in the summer. At first he was frequently near his bees
so that if any work was necessary he could arrange to have
it done by others. Finally he accepted another position
which took him entirely away from his old home and he
now goes back just before the honey-flows and leaves as
soon as they are over. He still produces comb-honey and
is still successful. He has probably almost reached the
maximum number of colonies that he can run for comb-
honey in so short a time. It is obvious that many manipu-
lations usually considered necessary must be eliminated in
these apiaries. By leaving plenty of stores and by giving
the bees abundant protection many of these are rendered
unnecessary. This case is not by any means recorded as
ideal, but it illustrates what the elimination of superfluous
manipulations may accomplish.
Anyone can produce honey in a time of plenty, but only
254 Beekeeping
the good beekeeper gets an adequate return in less abundant
seasons. The ideals toward which the beekeeper should
work are : (1) to handle the bees as little as possible ; (2) to
manipulate them only when he has some definite object in
view ; (3) to follow a definite system, not based on rules but
on a knowledge of bees, capable of modification as occasion
may arise, but working for one end maximum honey-
production.
CHAPTER XIV
SPRING MANAGEMENT
IN attempting to give the work of the apiary in chron-
ological order, it is difficult to decide where to begin. To a
large degree, success depends on the results obtained in
wintering, so that preparation for winter might be considered
the first step in the annual cycle, and practical beekeepers
usually so consider it. However, winter is a period during
which the beekeeper has little work with his bees, and it is
perhaps better to begin the cycle with the first evidences of
activity outside the hive. As has been shown, bees do not
hibernate, and consequently their early flights are not
evidences of an awakening after a period of inactivity.
With their first return to the open air in the spring, the bee-
keeper knows that the active season with his bees has arrived.
As will be shown in the chapter on wintering (see also
p. 91), bees are often compelled to retain their feces for
long periods in winter. This, together with the excessive
generation of heat, may deplete the colony, causing condi-
tions known as spring dwindling and dysentery, one or both of
which may be present.
It will also be shown later that it is not desirable to manipu-
late bees in winter. Brood-rearing may begin during the
severe weather of January or February in the North in
colonies wintered out of doors, but this can scarcely be
considered as an activity of spring.
With the opening of the earliest spring flowers and the
accompanying rise in temperature, the bees venture forth to
get the small amounts of nectar and pollen thus provided.
255
256 Beekeeping
As the weather becomes warmer the supplies rapidly increase
and the bees are greatly stimulated to build up the colony.
The old bees that emerged the previous autumn have been
called upon, under ordinary winter conditions, to expend
considerable energy, and their ability to do the collecting and
the inside work in the spring is in general in inverse ratio
to the expenditure of energy in the winter. Brood-rearing,
however, begins before or as soon as new supplies come to
the hive, provided, of course, that the colony is normal, and
as the first bees emerge they in turn increase the capacity of
the colony for brood-rearing, so that with a good queen and
other favorable conditions the brood is rapidly increased.
Object of spring manipulations.
The main object of the work in the spring is to insure an
abundance of bees in time for the harvest. In the more
northern localities, summer comes on with a rush and often
the principal nectar-secreting plants are in bloom so soon
after cold weather that the colony is frequently not in condi-
tion to obtain the maximum crop, or there may be a period
in the spring when, from lack of nectar, the bees are not
stimulated to the maximum breeding. If left to themselves
and if honey is already present in the hive, bees will naturally
rear brood and thereby rapidly increase the size of the
colony, and the work of the beekeeper is to provide the most
favorable conditions for the manifestation of this instinct.
Prevention of drifting.
Colonies which are wintered in the cellar need not be put
in the same locations that they occupied the previous year,
when they are removed. In setting them out, some care
is necessary to prevent mixing. If they can fly as soon as
they are set out, they may rush forth and then be unable
again to locate the proper hive, in which case they often
"drift," that is, bees enter the wrong colonies with the result
that some colonies will be increased in size at the expense
of others. If bees can be set out at night or on a cloudy or
Spring Management 257
chilly day, this is generally avoided. The entrances may
also be reduced or, if necessary, may be closed with wet
cloths.
Spring protection.
If the colonies have been wintered in the cellar, breeding
will normally not begin so soon as in colonies that were left
outside. When the hives are carried to their summer stands,
the bees are subjected to sudden changes in temperature and
to low temperatures and, unless the wintering has been
exceptionally good, they may be able to withstand adverse
conditions less well than colonies that were wintered in the
open. It is therefore preferable to provide packing for
these colonies, even if it is only a wrapping of waterproof
paper over the hive. After colonies are removed, the bees
need a cleansing flight to rid themselves of the accumulated
feces and they should be put out at a time when this will
probably soon be possible.
First examinations.
During early breeding, the beekeeper ought to have no
occasion to open a hive, but, if he finds that certain colonies
are not up to standard, he may choose a warm day to open
them to do whatever conditions may demand. After a
winter away from the bees, the beekeeper is usually anxious
to look at them. On a fine warm day when the bees are
flying freely, he should make his first general examination
of the apiary but, if he has previously supplied the colonies
with abundant stores and has them protected from changes
of temperature, he may well put off a general examination
of the apiary. If he desires to learn whether the bees have
sufficient stores he can determine this by lifting the hive,
or the size of the cluster may be determined, without break-
ing the propolis which seals the cover, by looking at the
combs from below.
On the first examination, the beekeeper should look
especially for queenless colonies. If any are found, it is
s
258 Beekeeping
best to unite these with normal colonies, although queens
may now be obtained early from southern breeders. He
should also examine the stores, for bees require large amounts
of food during the spring and, while they usually get consid-
erable nectar, it rarely is enough to provide stores for exces-
sive breeding. If food is needed, it may be given rapidly
in the form of a thick sugar syrup, or it is even better to give
combs of honey. If hives are soiled with the spottings of
dysentery or if there are dead bees present, the hives may be
cleaned out somewhat, but the first examination should be
brief, unless the weather is exceptionally warm.
Spring dwindling.
The old bees die rapidly and are replaced by young bees,
which, in a good colony, emerge more rapidly than the old
ones disappear. If, on the contrary, mortality among the
old bees exceeds the rate of emergence, the condition arises
which is known as spring dwindling. Obviously, prevention
is better than treatment, but by giving extra protection and
by making the collection of stores unnecessary by feeding,
the energy of the old bees may be conserved so that it is
utilized chiefly in rearing brood and the colony may often
be saved. The brood-chamber may also be reduced to con-
serve the heat of the cluster.
Need of water.
Bees need water for brood-rearing and it sometimes hap-
pens in the spring that bees are lost in trying to obtain it.
If there is no water close at hand, it is often advantageous
to provide a watering place in a warm sheltered spot in or
near the apiary.
Uniting.
If exceptionally weak colonies are found, it is economy
not to attempt to build them up, but to unite them. In
uniting colonies in the spring, two weak colonies should
not be placed together, but a weak colony should be placed
Spring Management 259
with a strong one. If desired, the number can be restored
by subsequent division. This is one of the most important
points in spring management.
Cleaning the hives.
When the weather becomes settled, it is desirable, espe-
cially where comb-honey is produced, to subject the hive to a
spring house-cleaning. If the bottom board is cleaned of
de*bris and the propolis is scraped from the frames and
rabbets, it will not only facilitate future manipulations but,
when the sections are put on, there will be less propolis avail-
able to discolor them. Beekeepers, however, are not so
devoted to a spring house-cleaning as are housewives. While
Caucasian bees were kept in the apiary of the Bureau of
Entomology the removal of propolis in the spring was prac-
tically a necessity. This may be done quickly in the spring,
while the propolis is brittle. Dr. Miller uses a hoe to remove
propolis and burr combs from the top-bars of the brood
frames.
Equalizing the colonies.
Not all colonies increase in population equally fast, even
with the best of management. The differences may be due
to a variety of causes. If some colonies have more stores
than they need, thereby reducing the space available for
brood-rearing, combs of honey may be removed and given
to colonies that need more stores, returning to the rich
colonies empty combs removed from those to which honey is
given. Similarly, if some hives contain more brood than the
average, colonies may be equalized by taking combs of
emerging brood with the adhering workers away from those
abundantly supplied, giving them to weaker colonies, care
being exercised not to transfer the queen. The weakest
colonies in the apiary should be assisted in this way only
after all the others are equalized ; then they are given any
frames of brood still available, and are thus built up as rapidly
as possible. Another method of equalizing is to shake bees
260 Beekeeping
from the frames of a strong colony in front of the entrances
of those to be helped. The young bees go in and are accepted,
while the field bees return to their original hive. The queen
must, of course, not be shaken in this way. The advantages
of having colonies develop at about the same rate and of
reaching the honey-flow equally strong in bees, are as fol-
lows : (1) the colonies are ready for a given manipulation at
the same time, thus allowing the work to be well systema-
tized; (2) less hive-bodies are needed than if strong colo-
nies are given supers in accordance with their individual needs ;
(3) when properly done, equalizing probably results in an
actual increase in the total number of bees in the apiary,
since every queen is more nearly capable of egg-laying to
her full capacity and no queen is restricted by having only
a small number of workers to feed her brood ; (4) less manipu-
lation is necessary when the honey-flow begins (especially
in comb-honey production) in sorting combs of brood and
in reducing the brood to one hive-body, if this is practiced ;
(5) the brood is compact and this is especially desirable in
comb-honey production.
The work of equalizing colonies is considerable and the
beekeeper must determine for himself whether it is profit-
able. In the management of out-apiaries, this work neces-
sitates extra trips which come at a time when the average
beekeeper has all the work that he can do. Making colonies
all in one mold often fails to bring to light the deficiencies
of some queens and the superior qualities of others for
breeding stock. If a brood disease is present or is even
known to be present in the neighborhood, there is danger in
moving combs about so freely.
Clipping queens.
The clipping of the wings of queens is advantageous in
the control of swarms, as will be shown later, and to find
queens in the spring is easier than later. In clipping the
queen, she is lifted from the comb, held securely but gently
between the thumb and index finger of the left hand and a
Spring Management 261
wing is cut off with fine scissors. The queen may be held
with her wing against wood, when it may be cut with a sharp
penknife, but scissors are safer, at least for the beginner.
Some beekeepers clip the queen's wing when she is introduced,
in case queens are mated from nuclei, but some colonies may
rear queens without the knowledge of the owner and an
examination for undipped queens in the spring will greatly
reduce swarms which issue with queens capable of flight.
Some beekeepers, so that they can tell a queen's age, clip
opposite wings on alternate years or make a distinctive cut
each year. It may perhaps be well to warn the beginner
against clipping the wings of an unmated queen. If egg-
laying is progressing regularly the queen is of course mated.
Summary of favorable spring conditions.
The conditions favorable to the rapid increase in the size
of the colony in the spring may be restated as follows :
(1) a large number of vigorous workers, due to successful
wintering, (2) a prolific queen, (3) abundant stores properly
located in the hive so as to be easily accessible to the bees,
(4) favorable weather conditions, (5) fresh pollen and nectar
and water for the bees, (6) a prolific race or strain of bees,
(7) good brood combs of worker cells in quantity sufficient
for the needs of the colony.
QUESTIONABLE MANIPULATIONS
The manipulations previously discussed in this chapter
are not all practiced by all beekeepers but they are not the
subject of controversy. On the other hand, there are two
spring manipulations that have been the subject of much
discussion by beekeepers and they are still in dispute. These
are spring stimulative feeding and the spreading of the brood.
Stimulative feeding.
So long as nectar is coming to the hive in abundance, the
colony is stimulated to the maximum brood-rearing possible
262 Beekeeping
in~ proportion to the population. Frequently, however,
there are periods when from a lack of nectar-secretion or
inclement weather, no fresh supply of food is obtained. It
is asserted by some that the feeding of a thin sugar syrup at
this time in small quantities acts just as a natural honey-
flow, stimulating the bees to greater activity in brood-rear-
ing and resulting in the maximum strength of colony at the
time of the honey-flow. Since feeding requires some manip-
ulation of the colony which is not beneficial in inclement
weather, many beekeepers believe that by providing an
abundance of food in the fall or by giving stores rapidly in
the spring the colony receives all the stimulus to brood-
rearing that it should have and that stimulative feeding is
not desirable. This is obviously a question especially for
the northern beekeeper. If a colony is short of stores, combs
of honey may be given it. If a colony has wintered well,
has a good queen, is in a large hive abundantly supplied
with stores and is well protected from changes in tempera-
ture, it is doubtful whether it can be stimulated to much
greater brood-rearing than these conditions will bring about.
Even if stimulative feeding results in increased brood-rear-
ing, as it may under some circumstances, the beekeeper
may still find it to be an unprofitable practice. If he is
managing several apiaries, the work of going to all of them
daily, or even less frequently, is considerable, and he may
find it more profitable simply to operate more colonies to
make up for the difference. If stimulative feeding is prac-
ticed, it is usually best to feed warm syrup in the evenings
so that the bees will not fly as a result of the feeding and so
that robbing will not be started.
Spreading the brood.
Spreading the brood is an even more debated question.
If the brood-cluster is divided and an empty comb is inserted,
the bees will attempt to cover all the brood and, in so doing,
that part of the empty comb which intervenes will be kept
warm enough so that the queen will lay eggs therein. When
Spring Management 263
this new brood is well started, the manipulation may be
repeated and still more eggs will be laid. This is attractive
in theory but in practice is attended with danger. The
bees may not attempt to cover both portions of the divided
brood, resulting in loss, or, because of exceptionally cold
weather, they may contract the cluster and leave the out-
side brood to die. The beginner should by all means leave
the amount of brood to be determined by the bees, confining
his work to the supplying of protection, stores and room
for the expansion of the brood.
If the giving of abundant protection, stores and room
for the maximum advantageous expansion of the brood will
cause the colony, from its own instinct, to reach its maximum
strength in time for the storage of the crop, then additional
manipulations in stimulative feeding and in spreading of the
brood, even though they may do no harm, are non-essential.
They are, therefore, to be condemned for the commercial
apiary. If the favorable conditions enumerated do not
bring the necessary strength of colony and if stimulative
feeding will, then these manipulations are justifiable. If
the period for brood-rearing previous to the beginning of
the honey-flow is short, rapid brood-rearing becomes more
important. This is usually the case in northern localities.
It is safe to say, however, that stimulative feeding and spread-
ing of the brood should not be practiced early in the spring but
should be confined to a period of six or eight weeks just previ-
ous to the particular honey-flow for which the beekeeper is
building up his colonies. If the main crop is in late summer,
the beekeeper need not force his bees in the spring. In some
localities, the season is made up of a series of honey-flows of
about equal importance. If there are long intervals between
honey-flows, the beekeeper must see that brood-rearing is at
its best during a period of six or eight weeks before each flow.
Substitutes for pollen.
Beekeepers have repeatedly noticed that during a short-
age in the supply of pollen, bees will pack meal or sawdust
264 Beekeeping
on their legs, just as they do pollen, and will carry it to the
hive. There are also reports of coal dust being carried in
this way. After observing bees carry in rye flour from a
neighboring mill, Dzierzon put some in the apiary where the
bees could get it readily and they carried it in eagerly. It is
still held by many beekeepers that bees should be given rye
flour or pea, oat or corn meal in the spring, these being
considered more suitable foods than wheat flour. These
substitutes are chemically not very similar to pollen, and
observations as to the effects of them on the development
of the brood are badly needed. In fact, it can scarcely be
said that we know that the giving of substitutes for pollen
is serviceable in brood-rearing, and one cannot but wonder
what Dzierzon's advice would have been if his apiary had
been near a coal mine. Because of the unusual things that
bees do, we are not justified in concluding that the giving
of substitutes for pollen is useless, however, and no harmful
results are recorded from the practice. It is a promising
field for study, for there is sometimes a scarcity of pollen just
when it is most needed.
CHAPTER XV
SWARM CONTROL AND INCREASE
AT the close of the chapter on the manipulation of bees,
it is pointed out that success in honey-production depends
(1) on getting bees in time for the harvest and (2) on keeping
them in the proper condition for storing. The first require-
ment is discussed in the chapter immediately preceding.
However, if a colony of bees builds up rapidly to full strength,
the beekeeper is confronted by the problem of preventing it
from dividing its forces, thereby causing him to fail in get-
ting the maximum crop, or even to get no surplus from it.
This second problem is mainly involved in swarm control,
but also includes the providing of other conditions favorable
for storing.
Loss from division of the working force.
In the days of the box-hive, success in beekeeping was
measured by the number of swarms that issued, but the
beekeeper now knows that he cannot increase the number
of his colonies during a honey-flow without curtailing his
crop, unless the increase is made from brood that would
emerge too late for the resulting bees to assist in gathering
nectar. Success in manipulation is now measured by the
results the beekeeper attains in preventing swarming. If
swarms issue, as they will at times in spite of every known
precaution, the beekeeper then aims to use the bees so as
still to keep them together and thus to overcome the danger
of a reduced crop. Because the experienced beekeeper so
well knows that swarming endangers his crop and also that
Bwarms may be lost, the usual statements concerning the
265
266 Beekeeping
beauty of a swarm fail to meet a ready response from
him. To him, swarming is the one great handicap in bee-
keeping.
The necessity of keeping the bees together cannot be
overestimated. If a colony is divided just before or during
the honey-flow, the two parts fail to produce as much sur-
plus honey in that honey-flow as the same bees would if
they had remained in one colony and in normal condition.
Furthermore, when bees are preparing to swarm, their con-
dition is not so favorable for gathering. Whether there is
some physiological difference or whether the lack of concen-
trated effort in gathering is due to an unbalanced condition
of the colony population is not known, but the results of the
swarming preparations are shown in a decrease in the crop.
In successful honey-production, it therefore becomes essen-
tial that every effort be made to reduce and to overcome the
tendency to swarm.
Variation in swarming.
It is interesting to note that, in any region, swarming
usually occurs at a certain season or seasons and rarely occurs
throughout the entire active season. It is most common
in those sections of the North in which the main honey-flow
occurs in early summer. If there are two heavy honey-
flows, swarming may occur in connection with each one, al-
though it is usually less troublesome in the later one. The
crowded condition of the hive in the production of comb-
honey is favorable for the development of the swarming tend-
ency and, since the early summer flows of the North are
the best for comb-honey, the control of swarming is most
difficult in northern comb-honey apiaries.
That many comb-honey producers crowd their colonies
more than is necessary or desirable will be shown in a later
chapter, but, even with the most skillful manipulation of
the supers and with the proper manipulations throughout,
there is always more crowding than is necessary in extracted-
honey production. Swarm control is therefore chiefly a
Swarm Control and Increase 267
problem for the northern comb-honey producer, and from
these men we have obtained the best systems for controlling
swarming and also the most light on its cause.
In the South, where the honey-flows are longer and less
intense, swarming is less frequent, and this is also true in the
irrigated regions of the West. In those regions of the tropics
where the honey-flows are practically continuous, there may
be a kind of swarming season, but swarms are so much less
frequent that the northern beekeeper would not consider
the control of swarming a serious problem in such a
locality.
Variation in colonies in respect to swarming preparations.
In any apiary and in almost any season, colonies differ
greatly in their propensity to swarm. (1) There are some
which show no indication of swarming. These are the very
best for honey-production and the beekeeper should aim
to increase their number. (2) Other colonies show a tend-
ency to swarm by starting queen cells, but may be deterred
either by cutting out the newly started queen cells or by tak-
ing away some combs of brood. (3) Still other colonies
are more persistent and will swarm if the honey-flow continues
unless they are subjected to some radical manipulations.
(4) Some colonies whose queens fail swarm in connection
with the supersedure of the old queen.
"Of 160 colonies run for comb honey that were fair sub-
jects for comparison, 13f per cent went through the season
without ever offering to start queen-cells; 12 J per cent
started cells one or more times, but gave it up when their
cells were destroyed ; and 73| per cent seemed so bent on
swarming that they were treated by being kept queenless
10 or 15 days. The colonies that were left with their queens
all the time averaged 36| per cent more sections than those
that were treated. But that's better than they would have
done if left queenless for 21 days, which would be the case
practically if swarms were shaken." C. C. Miller, 1905,
" Gleanings in Bee Culture," XXXIII, p. 1174.
268 Beekeeping
Direction of the beekeeper's efforts.
The work of the beekeeper in swarm control may be
divided into two phases, for his manipulation of a colony
depends on his recognition of the degree of persistence in
swarming which a colony exhibits. He may try to increase
the number of colonies which make no preparations to swarm
and may prevent swarming in the colonies which respond
to simple measures. To these manipulations may be given
the name preventive measures.
However, the beekeeper finds some colonies which he
knows from experience cannot be kept from swarming by
cutting out queen cells, by the removal of a frame or two of
brood or by other simple expedients. To describe the dif-
ference which the beekeeper recognizes is somewhat difficult,
but, in general, if the larvae in the queen cells are still small,
preventive measures may be used. In cases of the building
of queen cells obviously due to supersedure or when the
working force is relatively not so strong as the brood, an
artificial swarm should not be made. To the more drastic
measures, used on colonies with advanced larvae in the queen
cells which will persist in their preparations to swarm, the
name remedial measures 1 is proposed.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
These may be grouped under the three heads given be-
low. Whatever the system of management, the earliest
manipulations in swarm control will usually be preventive
measures, for the beekeeper cannot know very far in advance
which colonies will fail to respond to the less drastic manipu-
lations and in any event these will deter swarming in the
larger number of colonies.
1 In Demuth's bulletin on "Comb Honey," he uses the term "control
measures," but the words "preventive" and "control" are not mutually
exclusive.
Swarm Control and Increase 269
Breeding.
Some beekeepers make a practice of requeening colonies
which swarm with young queens which are the progeny of
queens whose colonies have not swarmed, in an effort to
eliminate swarming by selection of non-swarming stock. In
a sense, this work has failed, for after years of such selection
the bees still swarm under favorable conditions, but the
testimony of many practical beekeepers indicates that the
percentage of colonies that swarm under proper management
is reduced by selection of non-swarming stock. Since the
men who are making this selection are, at the same time,
improving the manipulations in swarm control and are be-
coming more skilled in this work, it is somewhat difficult to
measure the value of this effort. Since requeening from
good stock is a highly commendable practice for other rea-
sons, it seems advisable to choose breeders from those which
have not swarmed, wherever possible. If breeding queens
are chosen from the colonies which show the best results in
honey crops, these queens will usually be from colonies that
have not swarmed during the season.
Mechanical devices.
Efforts have been made to devise a hive which will give
to the bees an environment in which the swarming tendency
will usually not be developed, a well-known example of which
is the Aspinwall hive, with slatted frames between the combs.
Similar slats between the frames of ordinary hives have
been used. Since a non-swarming hive is needed especially
in the production of comb-honey, it would appear that there
should be provision for more crowding of the bees than is
given in the Aspinwall hive, but it is perhaps too early to
pass judgment on the efforts in this line. A deep (two inch)
bottom board with a large entrance (Miller, " Fifty Years
among the Bees ") leaves space under the frames in which
may be placed a slatted rack during the active season. This
provides abundant ventilation and room for bees and may
270 Beekeeping
act as a preventive of swarming, although it is not so claimed
by Doctor Miller. The use of large hives in the production
of extracted-honey, which so successfully reduces swarming,
may be considered as the giving of an environment unsuit-
able for the development of the swarming tendency rather
than the control of swarming by manipulation.
Preventive manipulations.
The most common methods of preventing swarming are
by manipulation, probably because success, if attained, is
immediately recognizable. Greater progress has been made
in the devising of manipulations for this purpose than is
shown in breeding or in the invention of mechanical devices.
The manipulations used by the beekeeper in swarm preven-
tion fall into the following classes : (1) the introduction of
young queens (preferably from superior stock, possibly the
progeny of queens whose colonies have not swarmed) ; (2)
the prevention of crowding in the brood-chamber previous
to the honey-flow, the crowding incident to comb-honey pro-
duction being brought about only after supers are put on.
This is often accomplished by giving an extra hive-body for
early brood-rearing, so that there is abundant room for
brood and stores ; (3) the use of bait sections or extracting
combs (Fig. 133) in the first super in comb-honey production,
thus inducing the bees to begin work in the supers promptty
to avoid excessive and unnecessary crowding in the brood-
chamber; (4) the proper manipulation of supers in comb-
honey production (p.. 314) to reduce crowding as far as pos-
sible (possibly also to remove young bees from the brood-
chamber) ; (5) the use of only good worker comb in the
brood-chamber, to reduce the number of cells unavailable
for worker eggs; (6) ventilation (by raising the hive on
blocks, or by large entrances) ; (7) shade, to prevent over-
heating ; (8) the removal of combs of brood which are re-
placed by empty combs or sheets of foundation to relieve
the congestion (see also this manipulation under remedial
measures) ; (9) the removal of queen cells soon after they
Swarm Control and Increase 271
are started, since if queen cells are well advanced, their
removal is not so effective in preventing swarming. This
usually requires an examination of the brood-chamber once
in seven to ten days.
Miller's methods.
To make these manipulations clear, it may be well to
recapitulate by describing the system used by C. C.
Miller. To provide abundant bees in time for the harvest,
as well as to eliminate any tendency to early swarming,
strong colonies are given an extra hive-body, during the rapid
spring breeding, all the combs being built to the bottom
bar of the frame so far as practical. Colonies are requeened
whenever a queen shows signs of inability to keep up the full
strength of colony, these queens being from mothers whose
colonies have not swarmed. When the honey-flow begins,
a single hive-body for each colony is filled with full combs of
brood (any additional combs of brood being used in other
less populous colonies, for increase or for other purposes)
and each colony is given a super containing one or more bait
sections, into which the bees go at once, if the honey-flow
permits. 1 Doctor Miller is a master in the manipulation of
supers and the system used by him is described in a later
chapter (p. 314). His hives have wide entrances (2 inches
deep) and are protected by trees from the heat of the sun.
Frequent examinations are made to remove newly started
queen cells. The crops which Doctor Miller obtains are
so much greater than those of other beekeepers similarly
situated, or even than those in better locations, that his
methods should be carefully studied. He uses the 8-frame
Langstroth hive, but does not especially recommend it. It
should also be added that Doctor Miller is a firm advocate
1 Doctor Miller once asked the author, in all seriousness, what bee-
keepers mean by their reported difficulty in getting bees to work in the
supers promptly. Probably his bees are so much better prepared to gather
a surplus than are those of many beekeepers that in his own apiary he has
not seen for years conditions which occur yearly in the apiaries of many
beekeepers.
272 Beekeeping
of the improvement of stock by selection and he attributes
much of his success to his efforts in this line.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
The preventive measures previously mentioned are usually
sufficient to control swarming in a colony used in extracted-
honey production but, in the crowded conditions of the
comb-honey hive, in a good season, there will probably be
some colonies that will persist in their preparations to
swarm. In a poor season, when the colony lacks the stimu-
lus of nectar coming to the hive, it has not the conditions nor
the number of bees necessary for swarming, but when con-
ditions during early brood-rearing are favorable and when
there is abundance of nectar during the main honey-flow,
there is also usually a larger population, and preparation for
swarming may be begun and often completed in most of the
colonies in the apiary. It then rests with the beekeeper so
to manage these colonies that, by keeping the bees together
and by keeping them in working condition (p. 85), he may
obtain practically as large a crop as if swarming had not
occurred. He now aims not so much to prevent swarming
as to satisfy the instinct and to overcome the evils incident
to division of the working force. The method to be adopted
depends largely on the size and location of the apiary. If
the bees are all in one apiary, where they are under the
immediate care of the beekeeper every day, the bees may be
permitted to swarm naturally but, in comb-honey produc-
tion especially, colonies in out-apiaries can be expected to
produce more, without the loss of swarms, if by some reme-
dial manipulation the swarming tendency is controlled to suit
the convenience of the beekeeper. If an assistant is kept at
each apiary, it becomes essentially like the home apiary,
but it rarely pays to keep so much help.
Control of natural swarms.
Swarms which issue may be managed in several ways.
(1) They may be allowed to fly into the air and cluster on
Swarm Control and Increase 273
some support, after which they may be hived and placed in
the desired location. When the bees have clustered they
may be shaken into a box or basket and then placed in front
of the hive that they are to occupy. They should be placed
so that some of the bees find the entrance promptly, other-
wise the bees may begin their characteristic march in the
wrong direction (p. 68). If the bees cluster on a limb which
can be cut, this may be removed with the adhering bees and
carried to the hive and the bees shaken off. If the cluster
forms on the trunk of a tree or post or in some other place
from which they cannot be readily removed, a box contain-
ing a piece of comb (Fig. 47) may be placed above and
preferably in contact with the cluster and the swarm will
soon move into the box, where it may be handled. Care
should be taken to get the queen, as otherwise the bees may
again take wing and return to her.
(2) If the queen's wings are clipped (p. 260), she is unable
to fly with the swarm and, after leaving the hive, she falls
to the ground. The swarm generally does not cluster if
the queen is not with it or, if it does cluster, it soon takes
wing and returns to the old hive, provided it does not have
a virgin queen with it as is sometimes the case if swarming
has been unduly delayed. In the meantime, the beekeeper
should find the queen on the ground and place her with the
returning bees,, after adjusting the hives as described later.
(3) If a queen and drone trap (Fig. 30) is placed over the
entrance, workers can leave, but when the queen attempts
to leave she is retarded by the trap. She then, in her at-
tempts to escape, usually goes into the upper part of the trap
and is unable to return. The swarming bees then behave
as they do when the queen's wings are clipped, and soon
return. To allow the queen to go below with the bees it is
necessary only to pull the tin slide which is shown partly
drawn in the illustration. Here too the hives are adjusted
as when the queen is clipped and of course the swarm is not
left in the old brood-chamber. The inexperienced beekeeper
should perhaps be warned not to leave a queen trap on the
274 Beekeeping
entrance at all times for it will prevent virgin queens from
leaving the hive to mate. Drones of course are also pre-
vented from leaving and if they are abundant they may
crowd the entrance, with disastrous results.
(4) As the swarm issues, a wire-cloth cage may be placed
over the hive or fitted over the entrance. The bees then
cluster in the top of the cage, without causing confusion in
the apiary, and may be hived when convenient.
Automatic hivers.
Several years ago the desirability of some automatic hiv-
ing device was much discussed and numerous efforts were
made to devise apparatus which would deposit or lead the
issuing swarm to a new hive. These arrangements were
devised to place the swarm in a new location and beekeepers
now prefer that it be returned to the old location.
Location for the swarm.
After a swarm has issued, the old practice was to hive it
in a new location, thus dividing the working force. The
beekeeper should manipulate the two parts of the original
colony so as to prevent such a division. A method some-
times used is to return the swarm without the queen to the
old hive and about a week later (before the developing
queens emerge) the queen cells are cut and the colony is
requeened later. The usual method is to remove the hive-
body containing the brood while the swarm is out and to
return the swarm to a new hive on the old stand. By either
of these methods, the swarm is augmented by the returning
field bees and, if there were supers on the colony before
swarming, they are kept with the swarm and the bees
promptly return to their work. The most common error of
the inexperienced beekeeper in swarm management is to
put the supers on the "parent colony" (the one which re-
tains the brood). The population of the parent colony is
reduced by the loss of the field bees and after-swarming is
thereby made less probable. These manipulations make it
Swarm Control and Increase
275
necessary that the beekeeper be present when the swarm
issues, or soon after, and they are therefore not suitable for
out-apiary management.
Disposition of the brood after swarming.
The so-called parent colony may be sufficiently populous to
cast an after-swarm and should therefore be managed so as to
prevent this and also so that the emerging bees shall be useful,
especially if the honey-flow will probably be of long duration.
The parent colony may be broken up at once by the dis-
tribution of the brood to other colonies, while the adhering
bees are added to the swarm. Another method is to destroy
all queen cells except one and to allow the parent colony to
remain intact. If the parent colony is left to requeen itself
by the emergence of the developing queens, it often casts
an after-swarm, so it is safer either to remove all queen
cells except one or to remove them all and give a laying
queen or virgin queen.
Still another method is to reduce the population of the
parent colony just before the young
queens emerge and to add the emerging
bees to the swarm. If the parent colony
is put back beside the swarm after the
swarm is hived,
is left there for
a week and is
then removed to
a new location,
it is so reduced
when the virgin
queens emerge
that an after-
swarm is not cast. A modification
of this method to be preferred
FIG. 112. Manipulation to
reduce population of par-
ent colony second po-
sition. Parent colony is
now in hive without supers.
FIG. 111. Manipula-
tion to reduce popu-
lation of parent
colony first posi-
tion. Previous to
swarming.
when the clipping of queens is prac-
ticed or when the queen trap is used is to set the parent
colony to one side with its entrance about 90 from its former
276
Beekeeping
FIG. 113. Manipulation
to reduce population of
parent colony third
position.
location (Figs. Ill and 112), so that all returning field bees
join the swarm. As the brood emerges, the young bees be-
come accustomed to the location of
their hive. In a couple of days the
parent colony is turned about half
way around toward its former posi-
tion (Fig. 113), and, after the bees
again become accustomed to the
change, it is moved to a position
parallel to that of the new colony
(Fig. 114). If within seven or eight
days of the issuing of the swarm, the
parent colony is removed to a new
location, the young bees in flying out join the swarm,
thereby considerably reducing the parent colony.
When the parent colony is moved, part of the bees may be
brushed in front of the entrance of the
swarm, leaving some to care for the
brood but not enough to induce an after-
swarm. The parent colony may be
used for increase or the bees as they
emerge may still be added to the swarm
or to some other colony. Other methods
of using some young bees or sealed brood
to advantage will be found by the bee-
keeper. They may be used to build up
weak colonies or, if the honey-flow will
probably be long enough to warrant it,
two parent colonies may be placed side by side. By giving
one a queen and removing the queen cells from the other,
they may be united about two weeks after the swarm issues,
when most of the brood has emerged from the queenless
colony, and they are then ready for supers.
What to use in the brood-chamber in hiving swarms.
The use of full sheets of foundation in the brood-frames has
the marked advantage of resulting in straight combs of worker
FIG. 114. Manipula-
tion to reduce popu-
lation of parent
colony fourth po-
sition.
Swarm Control and Increase
277
cells. The comb is built up rapidly, in fact so rapidly as to
be considered a disadvantage at times, in that brood is so
quickly reared that the increase in population may again
induce swarming. The use of full sheets of foundation may
increase the work done in the brood-chamber, at the expense
of the surplus.
Narrow strips of foundation, perhaps an inch wide or less,
may be used, and this usually results in slow progress in the
construction of combs in the
brood-chamber. The bees
then do more work in the
supers, if they have been
started, and it is so long be-
fore the colony can rear much
brood that they rarely at-
tempt to swarm again in the
season. However, combs
built on strips of foundation
often contain many drone
cells, especially if the comb
building in the brood-cham-
ber progresses faster than the
cells are filled with eggs by ,-,
&& _ / FIG. 115. Queen excluder (honey
the queen or when comb is board"),
built outside the space needed
for brood. If the parent colony has a brood disease, the use
of strips of foundation is preferable, thus combining swarm
management and disease treatment. When either strips of
foundation or full sheets are used and partly drawn combs
are present in comb-honey supers, the queen may go above
to lay eggs and this should be prevented by the use of the
queen excluder (Fig, 115) for a few days or until there is
room for egg-laying below, ' when the excluder may be re-
moved. If the supers are left off for a time, work will
progress in the brood-chamber so that space for egg-laying
will be available there and the queen will not go to the supers.
One or two empty combs may be used in the brood-cham-
278 Beekeeping
her, the remaining spaces being filled with frames containing
full sheets of foundation. This prevents the storage of
pollen in the supers and gives the queen a place to lay eggs
at once, so that an excluder is not necessary. Swarms some-
times desert a hive containing only foundation, but some
empty comb or a comb containing some unsealed brood will
prevent this. The placing of foundation next to full comb
often results in an unusual extension of the side walls of the
comb and a restriction of the building out of the foundation.
Empty combs, or comb filled with honey or sealed brood,
are also sometimes used. It is claimed by some that, just
after swarming, bees secrete wax with a minimum expendi-
ture of energy and with the least consumption of honey, and
it is therefore believed that it is wasteful not to give the
swarm an opportunity to secrete some wax in building comb.
If the swarm is only moderately strong, the bees may confine
their efforts chiefly to the brood-chamber, if empty combs
are used.
In extracted-honey production, these questions do not
arise, for the beekeeper can use whatever is most convenient
and, by giving plenty of room for storage, the colony will
rarely swarm again. It therefore does not pay to use strips
of foundation in the extracted-honey apiary.
In comb-honey production, a swarm may be hived in the
usual way and then in a day or two the brood-chamber may
be temporarily contracted by substituting thick division
boards for four or five of the frames (in a 10-frame hive),
thus so reducing the room in the brood-chamber that the
bees are driven to the supers. This method may be used
during a honey-flow of white honey, which is preferable for
comb-honey, and when there will probably be a later honey-
flow of honey of a lower grade, which is good enough to use
in building up the brood-chamber but not of fine enough
quality for sections. If this contraction is practiced, and it
is less frequent now than formerly, the contraction should
be to about five frames, rather than a slight contraction to
perhaps seven frames.
Swarm Control and Increase 279
Remedial manipulations.
The remedial measures so far discussed are useful for
colonies that have swarmed, in making the most of the parts
of the divided original colony. However, these require al-
most constant attention in some seasons and this is neces-
sary just when the beekeeper can least afford to give it, if he
is managing a large number of colonies. Because of the
desirability of the manipulations being in accordance with
the plans and schedule of the beekeeper, rather than at the
whims of the bees, as in natural swarming, beekeepers,
especially producers of comb-honey, have tried many ways
virtually to create the conditions which are found after
swarming, but to do this with advantage to the crop. By
such a system the comb-honey producer can maintain sev-
eral apiaries, visiting them at regular intervals, with a knowl-
edge that swarms will not issue in his absence, except in
those cases where every rule seems to fail. However, the
losses can be made so slight that it does not pay to keep an
assistant at each apiary, if the proper measures are adopted.
Fortunately for the beekeeper, bees give warning in advance
of the probability of the issuing of a swarm by building
queen cells. By examining each colony once in seven to ten
days during the swarming season, the beekeeper can subject
colonies making these preparations to the chosen manipu-
lation, which may be a preventive or a remedial measure,
depending on how far preparations for swarming have pro-
gressed. If the manipulations given under the title of Pre-
ventive Measures are inadequate, the colony may be handled
with another end in view, namely, to satisfy the desire to
swarm and to prevent permanent division. It is further
possible, especially in apiaries where increase is desired, so
to manipulate every colony before the swarming season
arrives that there will be little swarming, even in comb-honey
production, but since increase in the number of colonies
during or just before the honey-flow is at the expense of the
crop from that flow, beekeepers usually find it advanta-
280 Beekeeping
geous not to attempt to use remedial measures until neces-
sary.
In the literature on swarm control, there are dozens of
plans for accomplishing this end, and it is neither desirable
nor necessary to give all of them or even all of the successful
ones, for to attempt to do so would only be confusing.
Unbalanced condition of swarming colonies.
If the conditions which are found in natural swarming are
examined, it will be recalled that, after the swarm issues, it
receives no additional young bees for a period of at least 21
days (unless they are given by the beekeeper in accordance
with some of the plans previously outlined). If, as seems
not unlikely, one of the most important factors in the cause
of swarming is a preponderance of young bees, this condition
is rectified for the swarm and the bees become "satisfied."
On the other hand, the parent colony rapidly increases the
percentage of young bees (unless, again, they are removed
by the beekeeper) and after-swarms are not uncommon,
unless the beekeeper manipulates to prevent them. It thus
appears that the restoration of the balance of the colony is
important in bringing it to a condition in which the swarm-
ing tendency is lost and in which the storing instinct becomes
dominant.
Break in the emergence of brood.
Whether this speculation is justified must be determined
by future investigations, which are greatly needed. At any
rate, and this is the point of importance to the beekeeper,
those practical manipulations which are successful in the
control of swarming, whether applied before or after queen
cells are built, have for their result a single factor in common
a reduction or temporary cessation in the continuity of
the daily emergence of brood. There have been numerous
discussions of the principles of swarm control, for this is a
problem which has attracted the attention of modern bee-
keepers to a marked extent, but so far as the author is aware
Swarm Control and Increase 281
the existence of a single underlying factor in all the methods
devised was not shown previous to the discussion of this
subject by Demuth. This elimination of the emerging bees,
to be successful in its purpose, must occur just before or
during the swarming season.
The various manipulations devised by beekeepers which
bring about this condition and which have been devised to
control swarming come under two headings : (1) The pre-
vention or great restriction of egg-laying ; (2) the removal
of brood. Even if there were one best manipulation, a bee-
keeper would probably still prefer the one to which he has
become accustomed, but there is so far no one method
superior to all the others. As conditions vary from season to
season, or even within the season, it becomes desirable that
the beekeeper change his manipulations from time to time.
Restriction of egg-laying.
The most radical manipulation under this heading is the
removal of the queen. She may be removed for a period of
perhaps ten days and then returned (after the destruction
of all queen cells), or she may simply be caged and left in the
colony, to be released at the end of the period. Another
method is to confine the queen to a single comb of brood
and several empty combs, or to two or three frames filled
with foundation in a hive-body below the one containing
most of the brood, in which case the queen cells must be
destroyed both before and after the period of separation of
the queen and brood. 1 In any event, all queen cells must
1 The removal of the queen has been recommended by Elwood, Quinby,
Hetherington and France. Caging the queen was then advised by Doo-
little and tried by Miller. The next step was to utilize the queen by keep-
ing her in a nucleus (Miller) and a later development consisted in making
the nucleus practically a part of the main colony. This was done by put-
ting a comb or two of brood, without queen cells, in the lower body and then
placing the queen and most of the brood on top of the hive, over a cover.
Most of the bees are left with the queenless portion and because of the
reduced population in the upper hive, the bees destroy the queen cells.
In about ten days the body containing the queen and brood is put below
and the body containing the few combs of brood is removed to be used as
282 Beekeeping
be removed before the queen is returned or swarming may
occur. These methods are employed only on colonies that
have made active preparations to swarm (having advanced
larvae in the queen cells) and they are successful as a rule, if
the swarming period is not prolonged sufficiently to allow
time for the swarming tendency to be developed anew. The
particular time for making colonies queenless must be deter-
mined by the stage in the development of the queen cells
present in the colony preparing to swarm. If only young
larvae are found in the queen cells, the cells may simply be
cut out as a precautionary measure against swarming, but if
the queen cells are advanced, their removal will not prevent
swarming and the colony should be dequeened. However,
a colony with the queen temporarily removed or even sepa-
rated from the brood is often not in the best condition for
storing, especially when first made queenless, and these
methods have sometimes been condemned because of this
fact. Dequeening is to be preferred in obvious cases of
supersedure or in colonies in which the working force is not
large, but which still persist in preparing to swarm.
Requeening combined with dequeening.
Requeening is desirable whenever a queen is unable to
keep up the population of the colony, and many beekeepers
find it advantageous systematically to requeen every two
years. The presence of a young queen was mentioned earlier
as a preventive of swarming, but this is not a guarantee that
needed ("Put-up Plan," C. C. Miller). Another modification which
followed this is described above, in which the queen is put below an ex-
cluder on one frame of brood and empty combs. Numerous beekeepers
have advised requeening in connection with the dequeening,. others have
modified the plan by making the lower hive into a nucleus for queen rear-
ing, while in one case it is recommended that a nucleus be established on
the side of the hive in which the queen is mated, so arranged that by pull-
ing a slide of perforated zinc, the queen is introduced to the colony after
mating. These various systems are mentioned here mainly to show their
relation to the fundamental principle of restricting egg-laying and also
to suggest the various methods so that the beekeeper may choose the one
best suited to his plans.
Swarm Control and Increase 283
no swarm will issue, under conditions of a prolonged honey-
flow. However, requeening combined with queenlessness
for about ten days, after swarming preparations have begun,
is a much more reliable procedure. The method used in
rearing queens, in mating them and in introducing them to
the queenless colonies will depend on the equipment and
system of the individual beekeeper.
Removal of brood.
The removal of a frame or two of brood was mentioned
earlier as a swarm-preventive measure in relieving the con-
gestion in the brood-chamber, especially in -comb-honey
production. It obviously also has the effect of reducing the
number of emerging bees for a period. If a colony persists
in its preparations to swarm, a common remedial measure is
to carry the removal of brood to the extreme (artificial
swarming). In brief, the beekeeper does for the colony in
advance of swarming just what the bees would do for them-
selves if left to their own instincts. The brood-combs are
removed from the hive and the bees are shaken or brushed
from the combs into a new hive-body. The brood-combs
are then comparable to the parent colony, while the bees in
the new hive make up the artificial swarm. The treatment
of the various parts does not differ from the same procedure
under conditions of natural swarming and need not be re-
peated. Since artificial swarms desert the hive sooner than
natural swarms, desertion may be prevented by removing
only a part of the brood at one time and, in fact, some ma-
nipulations do not call for the removal of all the brood.
This manipulation has been modified in a dozen ways by
various beekeepers, but the essential principle remains the
same. The differences in the directions for the making of
artificial swarms are chiefly in the disposal of the two por-
tions of the original colony. It is claimed by some that, to
obtain satisfactory results, the bees must be smoked or other-
wise manipulated until they fill themselves with honey, just
as bees do in natural swarming. This usually occurs during
284 Beekeeping
the manipulations without any thought on the part of the
beekeeper.
Mechanical appliances.
Various mechanical contrivances have been advocated for
separating the brood and the adult bees. After the queen
has been placed in a new hive, the bees are trapped out and
induced to enter the new hive on which has been placed the
supers. There is no additional principle involved in these
devices and they are serviceable only in changing the work
that the beekeeper has to do. They often do not reduce
the amount of time and labor needed. Among these devices
may be mentioned the Hand bottom board (provided with
levers so placed as to force the returning bees into the de-
sired hive) and Dudley tubes for trapping out workers, all
of which have been described in bee-journals.
INCKEASE
It is assumed in the previous discussion that increase is
not desired, and in comb-honey production in the North,
where the swarming problem is most acute, increase during
the honey-flow is usually too expensive to be justifiable. If
the apiary has been reduced by winter losses or in some other
way, or if an apiary is being built up, the beekeeper may
prefer to sacrifice honey for bees. In connection with the
operation of the various plans for controlling swarming, there
will often be brood that can be used for increase. Another
method is simply to divide colonies into two or more equal
parts, preferably providing each queenless portion with a
queen cell, or better still with a queen, as soon as possible.
To obtain increase and to assist in swarm control without
decreasing the crop too greatly, combs of brood with some
adhering young bees may be removed and made into nuclei
to be allowed to build up and to be augmented with frames
of brood from other sources as they are available.
In case the main honey-flow is in late summer (e.g. buck-
Swarm Control and Increase 285
wheat) it is often possible to make increase in early summer
and to have all the colonies up to full strength by the time
the honey-flow begins. Increase in such a case may not
result in any decrease in the crop and, in fact, it often brings
an increase in the harvest.
In the North, in regions where the main honey-flow comes
in early summer, it will usually be found more profitable to
set aside certain colonies from which to make increase, rather
than to deplete the colonies throughout the apiary in an
attempt to make increase and produce a crop at the same
time. It is possible to make increase and to produce the
maximum crop of honey in an apiary within a single season,
if conditions are favorable, but not to do these things simul-
taneously.
CHAPTER XVI
THE PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY
BEFORE the invention of the honey extractor in 1865,
honey was removed from the comb either by crushing it and
draining off the honey or by melting it, allowing the whole
to cool, leaving the wax on top. By these methods strained
honey is produced, an article greatly inferior to modern
extracted-honey. In extracting honey, the cappings of the
honey cells of the comb are first removed with a hot knife,
the comb is put into an extractor and is then whirled, the
honey being removed from the cells by centrifugal force.
Increase in the production of extracted-honey.
The demand for extracted-honey is increasing, and it is
estimated for the United States that, whereas 34.9 per cent
of the honey produced in 1909 was extracted, in 1914 this had
increased to 42.1 per cent. This estimate of the increase is
conservative, and among professional beekeepers the increase
in this period is doubtless greater. This is partly due to the
demand for honey from bakers and confectioners, but a po-
tent influence is the increased confidence of the consuming
public that the extracted-honey on the market is not adul-
terated. For this confidence, the beekeeper is indebted to
the enforcement of the numerous pure food laws. Bee-
keepers have consistently fought adulteration and have
welcomed the enforcement of these laws in protecting them
from the competition of unscrupulous jobbers who were
formerly guilty of adding inferior syrups to extracted-honey.
286
The Production of Extracted-Honey 287
Advantages of extracted-honey.
The fact that the combs may be repeatedly used increases
materially the amount of honey produced by a single colony
and thereby reduces the cost of production of a pound of
extracted-honey. There is less secretion of wax and, since the
secretion of a pound of beeswax is estimated as costing from
six to twenty pounds of honey (and probably considerable
bee vitality), this saving is considerable. In light honey-
flows, bees often refuse to work in comb-honey sections,
whereas they will store the available nectar if extracting
combs are on the hive. Under comb-honey conditions the
queen is often cramped for room and the population of the
colony is thereby reduced, while in extracted-honey con-
ditions she has abundant room, unless otherwise restricted.
The larger comb area in extracted-honey production fur-
nishes the bees plenty of cells in which to store fresh nectar,
giving increased evaporating surface and thus hastening
the ripening process. The beekeeper can care for more
colonies in producing extracted-honey than in producing
comb-honey. Swarming is more easily controlled and is
much less prevalent because of the abundance of empty
comb provided. Furthermore, in comb-honey production
most of the work in the apiary requires skill and experience,
while in extracted-honey production one man can furnish
the skill for many colonies and can employ unskilled labor
to help during extracting. In selling extracted-honey to the
consumer there is the marked advantage of blending honeys
from different sources, thereby obtaining a mixture which
can be duplicated year after year.
Disadvantages of extracted-honey.
While more extracted-honey than comb-honey can be
obtained from a colony in a season, this is balanced by the
fact that the wholesale market value of a pound of ex-
tracted-honey is less than that of a section of comb-honey,
the unit with which a pound of extracted-honey must be
compared. However, year in and year out the advantage
288 Beekeeping
is probably still with the producer of extracted-honey, so
far as financial return is concerned. In some localities
extracted-honey does not sell as readily as comb-honey.
In extracting honey and in heating it later to bottle it,
some of the delicate aroma is lost but this usually is not
sufficient materially to reduce the value of the honey as a
delicacy.
Extracted-honey hives.
A hive at least as large as the 10-frame Langstroth should
be used, for smaller hives do not provide sufficient room for
the activities of a colony headed by a vigorous queen and
large colonies are far more profitable than small ones. When
a honey-flow begins, the hive should be ready with an extra
hive-body containing frames of the same size as the brood-
chamber already on top. The extra hive-bodies or supers
may be given one after the other as the increase in surplus
honey indicates, the empty super being usually put next
to the hive containing the brood. If the beekeeper believes
the local conditions warrant it he may give several hive-
bodies at once. It is quite usual to space the frames in the
supers farther apart than in the brood-chamber, giving
eight frames equally spaced in a 10-frame body. This
makes less combs to handle for a given amount of honey,
and if the comb is cut deep in uncapping, more wax is ob-
tained. It also makes uncapping easier.
Choice of storage combs.
White honey stored in cells in which brood has been
reared is sometimes darkened slightly but most beekeepers
find it too much work to keep the combs for breeding en-
tirely separate from the storage combs. Colonies are also
sometimes stimulated in the spring by putting a few brood-
combs in the upper story to get the bees to go up promptly.
This is especially valuable in swarm prevention. Usually
the queen is allowed to go where she will in the hive to de-
posit eggs.
The Production of Extracted-Honey 289
Use of extracting combs smaller than brood-combs.
An exception to the above statements concerning the
size of the hive and supers is to be found when unusually
deep brood-frames are used, when frames of Langstroth
depth are often used for extracting combs. Some beekeepers
also prefer to use shallow extracting frames, the length of
the Langstroth frames but 5| inches deep, to obviate the
lifting of such heavy supers as those of full Langstroth size.
The latter frames are advantageous for bulk comb-honey
production (p. 318).
Number of supers.
The character of the honey-flow will determine largely the
number of surplus bodies used and the method of taking off
the honey. In a slow honey-flow one surplus body is often
sufficient and as individual combs are filled and sealed they
are removed and the honey extracted. In a heavy honey-flow
more bodies should be given at one time so that there will be
room for ripening and storing the honey. In the latter case,
whole hive-bodies are frequently taken away at one time.
Manipulation of the supers.
To confine the queen to the lower hive-body and prevent
brood from being scattered throughout the hive, one of
two methods may be employed. If a queen excluder (Fig.
115) is used the queen is kept below, but many honey pro-
ducers object to these on the ground of expense and be-
cause they believe the workers are somewhat retarded by
them. If the new supers are always placed directly above
the brood-chamber and under the supers already on, there
is little likelihood of the queen going above. Under these
circumstances the order of the supers is practically the
same as in comb-honey production (p. 314). Bees prob-
ably begin work in new combs more quickly if they are
placed near the brood-chamber. In rapid honey-flows,
however, bees go readily to the very top of the hive for
empty cells without hesitation.
290 Beekeeping
Need of abundance of drawn combs.
In any event, plenty of drawn combs should be available
and they should be given to the colonies soon enough so
that there will always be some empty comb in the hive.
If the bees become crowded, the queen may be restricted
in egg-laying and there is not room to spread out the nectar
for economical ripening. The crowded conditions so com-
monly found in comb-honey production should be avoided
in the production of extracted-honey. The advantage of
fully drawn combs is especially evident in poor seasons,
for then the bees may refuse to build combs but will store
all the honey available if drawn combs are provided.
The giving of frames entirely or partially filled with
foundation from which combs must be built, diverts a part
of the colony to wax building and probably reduces the
field force, although wax is secreted chiefly by young bees
not yet ready for work in the field. Part of the honey is
consumed in wax building. There may be some delay in
starting work on the new combs, which in a heavy honey-
flow results either in a loss of honey or in the cramping of
the queen. The extracted-honey producer should supply
himself with drawn combs in abundance as soon as possible.
These may be obtained economically by hiving swarms on full
sheets of comb-foundation. Another good method is to put
eight frames in a 10-frame hive as an upper story, four on
one side being full combs and the other four being frames
containing comb-foundation. This is better than to alternate
comb and foundation, in which case the combs are usually
drawn out abnormally thick and the comb-foundation is
drawn out slightly. Better combs are built during a good
honey-flow for the corners are then filled more completely than
in a small honey-flow. If desired the nectar obtained at the
end of the main honey-flow may be utilized in comb building.
System in producing extracted-honey.
The extensive producer of extracted-honey may systema-
tize his work so that it is necessary to visit each out-apiary
The Production of Extracted-Honey 291
only a few times a year. The number and time of these
visits must be determined by the character of the honey-
flows. Usually the honey from each floral source should
be extracted separately and this necessitates a trip after
each honey-flow. The apiaries should be of such size that
either in one day or two all the extracting can be done, and
to help with this work unskilled labor may usually be em-
ployed. Since the giving of plenty of drawn combs re-
duces swarming, it is usually not profitable to keep a helper
at each apiary during the swarming season, for the few
swarms that would be saved are worth less than the helper
would cost. If the apiary can be located near the home
of some interested person the swarms may be caught, but
frequently it is desirable to put out-apiaries in rather deso-
late places, some distance from a dwelling. E. D. Town-
send of Northstar, Michigan, manages a number of out-
apiaries in northern Michigan on four trips a year. On
the first trip (June) he gives each strong colony two 10-
frame supers, each containing eight frames. On the second
trip (July) and the third (after the honey-flows) he extracts,
two trips being made to keep the clover and basswood honeys
separate. In October he sees that the colonies are ready
for winter, after which they are not again visited until June.
Removing honey from the bees.
Honey should not be removed from the hive for extracting
until well ripened. When at least two-thirds of the surface
of the comb is capped over the honey will be sufficiently
thick, but the humidity should be considered in laying down
a rule for this. In dry climates, such as the semi-arid
regions of the West, the evaporation of the water in the
nectar takes place rapidly and it is not necessary to wait
until so much of the honey is capped. Conversely in regions
of high humidity it is sometimes difficult to get honey well
ripened.
When the time comes to extract, the usual practice is
to remove the frames one by one, returning those not ready j
292 Beekeeping
and to brush or shake off the adhering bees. Bee-escapes
(Fig. 31) may be used in removing bees from extracting
supers but this is not usually practiced by extensive pro-
ducers as it necessitates going to the apiary a day ahead
and it is desirable to reduce the trips wherever possible.
For the beekeeper with one apiary, these may often be
used to advantage. A bee brush (Fig. 28) may be used
for brushing off the bees or a bunch of grass or weeds will
answer admirably. The combs practically free of bees are
then taken to the house for extracting. For carrying these
an ordinary hive-body with a cover answers very well and
special handles may be put on it to facilitate carrying, or
several bodies may be placed on a wheelbarrow or two-
wheeled cart. Some beekeepers have arranged rails through
the apiary on which trucks may be run for carrying full
bodies in and for returning the empty combs. This is
practical for fixed apiary locations but often the professional
beekeeper wants to have no apparatus that cannot be moved
if desired.
The greatest care should be exercised while honey is
being taken from the hives that the bees do not begin rob-
bing. This is especially necessary if extracting is done
after the honey-flow has ceased. Should robbing begin,
it is often best to stop work for the day, as robbing is not
only most annoying to the beekeeper but detrimental to
the bees. The feeding of a thin syrup out of doors is some-
times practiced to prevent robbing during extracting.
House for extracting.
The house where the extracting is done need not differ
materially from the honey-house described previously (p.
23). If the apiary is on sloping ground, it is preferable
to have the colonies above the house, so that the heavy
full hives are carried down hill and the empty hives up.
To reduce labor, it is desirable that there be an opening
for admitting the honey to the house convenient to the
uncapping outfit and that the extractor be near at hand.
The Production of Extracted-Honey 293
These should be on a high level in the house, if practicable,
so that from the time the honey runs from the extractor,
its course is down hill to the final container. It is worth
the effort to pay considerable attention to this feature, for
if the honey must be lifted at any part of its journey a great
amount of labor is involved in large apiaries where tons
of honey are extracted in a season. If such an arrangement
is not feasible, a honey-pump (Fig. 122) may be used, as is
described later.
Portable extracting outfits.
In sections where at times it is desirable to move apiaries
or where several out-apiaries are under one management,
it is occasionally advantageous to have a portable extracting
outfit which is virtually an extracting house on wheels.
A well-screened wagon is fitted with uncapping cans, ex-
tractors (with power if desired) and all the necessary equip-
ment. As the honey is extracted, it can be run into a tank
under the wagon bed or into barrels or cans. If desired a
tank wagon to carry the honey may accompany the outfit.
Some beekeepers have found portable buildings (built in
sections) preferable, in which case one is put in each apiary.
If these are used, it is better to have a full extracting outfit
at each apiary.
Uncapping.
When the full combs of honey reach the extracting house,
the first manipulation is uncapping. This is done with a
specially constructed knife,
of which there are several
types (Fig. 116). Of these
the Bingham knife with
heavy wide blade is best.
The knife should be kept
sharp, clean and hot, and
when the usual knives are used, each operator is pro-
vided with two so that one may be kept in hot water, to
294
Beekeeping
clean and heat it, while the other is in use. Recently a
steam-heated knife (Fig. 117) has been put on the market
which is highly recommended by those who have tried it.
Steam is generated in
a small boiler (such
as a one-gallon honey
can), passes through
a hose into a hollow
FIG. 117. Steam- heated uncapping knife. . ,-, i -r
space in the knife
blade, escaping through a small hole in the tip. Some
European beekeepers use an instrument like a<;omb (Fig. 118)
for uncapping, but this is too slow for American beekeepers.
In uncapping, the lower end of the comb is placed on some
support and the comb is slightly tipped so that as the cap-
pings are cut off they fall away from the surface of the
comb (Fig. 119). If the
knife is first inserted at
the lower end of the comb
and brought upward with
a sawing motion, the cap-
pings fall away easily and
cause no inconvenience or smearing. Some beekeepers pre-
fer to begin cutting at the upper end, thereby utilizing the
weight of the knife in cutting the comb. The upward cut
is practiced by most extensive beekeepers.
Cans for cappings.
The uncapping should be done over some sort of receptacle
into which the cappings will fall. Hutchinson used a simple,
cheap and satisfactory outfit, consisting of a barrel hung
with bent wires on the edges of a galvanized iron tub. Across
the top of the barrel is nailed a board through which is
driven a nail with the point upward. One of the end bars
of the frame is placed on this nail point and after one side
is uncapped, the frame is turned on the nail. Some bee-
keepers prefer to bore a one-inch hole in the cross piece
into which the projection on the bar of the frame is inserted.
FIG. 118. Comb for uncapping, used
in Europe.
The Production of Extracted-Honey
295
Another cross piece on
which to scrape wax and
honey from the knife is an
advantage. The cappings
drop into the barrel and
the honey drains into the
tub below through cracks
in the barrel. The advan-
tage of this cheap mechan-
ism is that when one barrel
is well filled with cappings,
the outfit may be set aside
to drain and another one
substituted. More elabo-
rate tanks (Fig. 120) have
been devised for this pur-
pose which have the ad-
vantage of durability and FKKII&. Capping melten This also
permanence. These tanks
may be made either of
sheet metal or of wood lined with tin. A screen is ar-
ranged in the box on which the cappings fall and the honey
drains into the lower
space.
Capping melters.
A later develop-
ment in uncapping
cans is a piece of ap-
paratus in which the
cappings are melted
at once and the honey
and melted wax run
out. Honey is then
quickly drawn off
from the bottom of
FIG. 120. Tank to receive cappings. the receptacle leaving
shows the proper method of remov-
ing cappings.
296
Beekeeping
the wax to cool on top of a little of the honey. A small cap-
ping melter (Fig. 119) is now marketed, but for extensive
operations it is preferable to make a larger tank (Fig. 122)
on this principle. In these melters the honey and wax
come in contact only with the inner wall of a water jacket
and do not touch metal which is in direct contact with the
flame. The objection has been raised that the heating of
the honey in this way discolors it, but if it runs off and is
separated from the melted wax
quickly this is reduced to a mini-
mum. Apparatus of this type has
been adopted by numerous exten-
sive producers. The relief from the
care of a great mass of cappings at
the end of extracting certainly ap-
peals to the extensive beekeeper.
Types of extractors.
After the comb is uncapped on
both sides it is ready for the ex-
tractor. The development of the
extractor from the first simple
Wlth clumsy machines is of interest and
illustrates nicely the progress of
beekeeping in recent years. Following the announcement
of 'the invention 1 of the extractor in Italy, the first type
marketed in the United States consisted of a revolving
can into which frames were placed in pockets and the can
was revolved by means of a handle directly attached.
The next step, and a most important one, was to make
the can stationary (Fig. 121), the frames being placed in
baskets attached to a central axis which is driven with a
gear. The "Novice" extractors (1869) are of this type,
1 The removal of honey by centrifugal force was discovered accidentally,
de Hruschka gave his son a comb on a plate. He put this in a basket and,
boy-like, swung the basket around him. de Hruschka noticed that some
honey was dr.ained out and thereby got the basic idea for the extractor.
The Production of Extracted-Honey 297
the baskets being close to the axis giving the greatest prac-
tical centrifugal force for a given velocity of the comb.
These are made for two and four frames and are still used.
The next advance was in making the reversible extractor, in
which the baskets are hung by one edge on pivots, so that
when the honey is removed from one side, the basket can
be turned and the other side extracted without removing
the combs from the baskets. From this it was a short
step to the automatic reversible machine in which it is not
necessary to bring the reels to a full stop to reverse the
baskets. When first inserted, the baskets are placed so
that in their revolutions they are pulled by their hinges.
After one side is empty, the speed is checked by means of
a brake on the central axis and the momentum of the baskets
throws them around on the hinges exposing the other side
of the comb. Soon after this improvement was made, the
driving rod was provided with a slip-gear so that, after
the reels are well under way, the gear is thrown out and
the reels revolve while the driving gear stands still. From
this point progress has been chiefly in the application of
power to the extractor a*nd in increase in size. We now
have extractors driven by gasoline or electric motors having
a capacity of four, six, eight (Fig. 122) and even twelve
frames. These large outfits are capable of handling tons
of honey in a season. The latest improvement is the ap-
plication of the friction drive in place of gears, by which
any speed may be obtained by changing the position of one
of the friction members, but the special advantages are
smoothness in starting and reduction of noise. Extractors
of all the types mentioned except the early revolving can
extractors are still manufactured and each type is suited
to certain apiary conditions. Obviously only professional
beekeepers need a large power outfit, but there are a great
many of these, as evidenced by the unexpected number
of sales of such equipment. It is claimed that the power
driven extractors clean the combs more thoroughly than
do hand driven machines.
298
Beekeeping
Extracting.
In extracting, care must be exercised not to run the ex-
tractor too rapidly as this may break or crush combs, es-
pecially new or unwired ones. It is a good practice to
extract some honey from one side, to reverse and extract
the other side clean and then go back to complete the ex-
tracting on the first side. With fragile combs, the honey
on the inner side may be forced against the midrib of the
comb so strongly as to crush it if the comb is revolved too
FIG. 123. Honey strainer.
rapidly in extracting the first side. In placing combs in the
extractor, those of about the same weight should be placed
opposite each other to prevent swinging of the extractor,
thus making it easier for the operator and less wearing on
the machine. The honey is thrown against the side of the
extractor can and runs down and out an opening provided
at the bottom, usually equipped with a honey gate (as in
Fig. 121) so that it may be quickly and securely closed.
Straining the honey.
Since particles of cappings naturally adhere to the comb
and since other foreign matter may get into the honey,
including an occasional bee, the honey should be strained
The Production of Extracted-Honey
299
as it leaves the extractor. For small operations, it may
simply be run through a cheese-cloth bag, greater surface
being given by supporting the cheese-cloth on wire netting
(Fig. 123). Another type is known as the gravity strainer.
In this, the honey runs into a tank with a partition having
an opening at the bottom through which the honey can pass
to another compartment. No honey flows from the outlet
until it fills the strainer to the level of the upper outlet and
most of the larger foreign particles rise to the top in the
first chamber allowing the honey to pass off relatively free
from foreign material. Gravity strainers are widely used
and can readily be made to any desired capacity. They
are usually combined with
a strainer of cheese-cloth
(Fig. 122) to get out more
of the impurities.
Storage tanks.
From a strainer of any
type it is advantageous
to run honey into a tank
so that particles that pass
the strainer will have an
opportunity to rise to the
top, the honey always be-
ing drawn from the bot-
tom. Many beekeepers,
however, run honey di-
rectly from the strainer
into cans or barrels. The
extra settling in the tank not only removes more small
particles of wax, but allows air bubbles to es'cape and also
allows any surplus water to evaporate in dry weather.
Large tanks of a capacity of several tons are often used by
California beekeepers (Fig. 124). If the tank is outside
the extracting house, it should be covered tightly to keep
out robber bees as well as dirt. Outdoor tanks are not
300 Beekeeping
practical except in the dry regions of the West where it
does not rain during the honey season. To aid in keeping
out bees and dirt, the western honey tanks have a relatively
small opening at the top.
Reduction of the lifting of honey.
If the extracting house can be so arranged that the honey
will flow from one piece of equipment to the other, much
lifting is avoided. Honey is usually run into tanks through
pipes and if desired these may be utilized in carrying the
honey from one house to another or to tanks some distance
from the extracting house. Care should be taken to keep
these pipes clean. If the honey cannot be run by gravity
through its entire course, a honey-pump (Fig. 122) may be
used and the usual practice is to attach this to the extractor
so that it may be driven by the same power that runs the
extractor. The whipping of honey in a pump tends to in-
duce granulation so that honey should not be pumped after
being heated for bottling (p. 324).
Returning combs to the hives.
After the combs are emptied, they may either be returned
to the bees to be refilled, if nectar is still coming in, or may
be returned to be cleaned of honey and then removed for
storage. If the honey-flow is still on, empty combs may
be put on a hive as the full ones are removed, but during a
light flow of honey or a dearth of nectar this may cause
robbing and undue excitement in the apiary. In this event,
the combs should be kept in the extracting house until the
end of the day. If the combs are returned simply to be
cleaned, a half dozen hive-bodies may be put over one colony
and the bees will soon clean all of them. After the surplus
combs are emptied, they may be left on the colonies to pre-
vent their destruction by wax-moth larvae or they may be
stored in a light, well-ventilated room or in hive-bodies where
they should be watched and fumigated when necessary.
CHAPTER XVII
THE PRODUCTION OF COMB-HONEY
COMB-HONEY is honey as stored in the comb by the bees,
the size and shape of the comb being determined by the
small wooden box (section) provided by the beekeeper
and the comb being sold with the section still surrounding
it. The development of this style of package is readily
traced back to a period previous to the invention of the
modern hive. Formerly boxes were put on top of the box-
hive or skep in which the bees built comb and stored honey.
The next step was to make these boxes of a number of units
comparable to the modern section and to compel the bees
to build one comb in each unit. From this it was a short
step to separate sections with partitions (separators) between.
Purity of comb-honey.
The purchaser of a section of comb-honey may feel sure
that he is buying a pure product of the bees, since comb-
honey cannot be adulterated with profit. It is impossible
to make an artificial comb, fill it with syrup and cap it
over so that it even roughly resembles the work of the bees.
By the use of modern apiary appliances, comb-honey is
produced that is so attractive and uniform in appearance
that the claim is often made that it is manufactured. An
examination will, however, show that no two sections are
NOTE. In the preparation of this chapter, the author is indebted
to his colleague, Geo. S. Demuth, for invaluable assistance. Mr.
Demuth's bulletin "Comb Honey" (U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers'
Bulletin 503) should be read and studied by every producer of
comb-honey.
301
302 Beekeeping
identical as they would be if machine made. To show its
confidence in the purity of comb-honey, the National Bee
Keepers' Association in 1904 offered $1000 for a single sec-
tion of manufactured comb-honey which would even ap-
proximately resemble the work of bees and a similar offer
was made considerably earlier by A. I. Root, Medina,
Ohio. Needless to say, no person has been able to claim
these prizes.
The 1 ' Wiley lie:'
This calls to mind an episode which at the time caused
beekeepers of this country much anxiety. H. W. Wiley
stated in " Popular Science Monthly " in 1881, in an article on
prevalent practices in food adulteration, that artificial
combs of paraffin were being filled with glucose, capped
to imitate the work of bees, and sold as comb-honey. In
this statement he was entirely wrong and he publicly ad-
mitted the error later, there being, however, some basis for
his misunderstanding since he had been informed of efforts
along this line by a New England inventor. "Popular Science
Monthly " did not have a circulation large enough to cause
much trouble from such an erroneous statement, but un-
fortunately it was called to the attention of some prominent
beekeepers. They dubbed it the "Wiley lie" and con-
tinued to magnify the harm that would come from it and
to re-publish the error with denials until the story was
spread throughout the country. The last chapter in this
incident was the anonymous re-publication* of the original
statement and a collection of denials in an effort to hinder
the passage in Congress of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30,
1906, now so familiar to all consumers of food. It should be
made clear that this effort was not perpetrated by any or-
ganization of beekeepers, although an attempt was made
to make it so appear. The only fault that can be found
with the beekeepers is that they did not refrain from dis-
cussing the matter and they thereby probably did the in-
dustry far more damage than did the original statement,
The Production of Comb-Honey 303
for it appeared that they might be covering their own mis-
deeds. Occasionally some ignorant or sensational writer
even now succeeds in repeating this error in print, but bee-
keepers promptly demand and usually receive a public
correction. There is not the slightest basis for the mis-
representation.
Decrease in comb-honey production.
With the invention of the honey extractor, some enthu-
siasts predicted that soon no comb-honey would be produced,
but this prophecy has not been fulfilled. Comb-honey has
a place in the American honey trade which cannot be filled
by extracted-honey. However, a gradual change is taking
place and the percentage of the total honey crop that is
produced in sections is decreasing annually. Professional
beekeepers have found that they can care for more colonies
when producing extracted-honey, thereby increasing their
profits. The spread of the brood diseases is rapidly eliminat-
ing the beekeepers with small apiaries for whom comb-
honey is more convenient and, while the number of colonies
in the United States is increasing, the sale of sections is
steadily decreasing. There are other reasons for this change
which appear later under the enumeration of the disadvan-
tages in comb-honey production.
Demand for fancy comb-honey.
The American markets are now demanding only fancy
comb-honey and the inferior grades and darker comb-
honeys find a poor sale. To be successful in competition
with extracted-honey, comb-honey must be a fancy article,
appealing to the fancy trade. For this reason, which is
becoming more evident every season, there are still many
beekeepers who produce comb-honey who should change
to extracted-honey, and it is to be hoped that this transi-
tion will continue until all the grades of comb-honey which
now injure the market are eliminated. On the other hand,
there will be increased profits for the best grades of comb-
304 Beekeeping
honey, and the beekeepers in favorable localities may find
it profitable to increase their production of honey in sections.
Advantages of comb-honey.
The advantages in the production of comb-honey are
numerous. As stated in the previous chapter, some of the
delicate aroma of the finest grades of honey is lost in ex-
tracting, but this is retained to the full in comb-honey. In
the production of comb-honey by the small beekeeper, less
expensive equipment is necessary. The handling of the
honey is a clean job and there is an attractiveness about
the product that makes the handling of it a pleasure. The
wholesale price of comb-honey is higher than that of ex-
tracted-honey, but the amount obtained from each colony
is usually less, so that the return is about the same in either
case. In a good honey-flow the advantage is with the
comb-honey producer who uses proper methods of manipu-
lation, while in light honey-flows only the producer of ex-
tracted-honey gets all the crop. The section is a convenient
package for retail trade. In this connection it should be
noted that in comb-honey production the beekeeper pre-
pares the honey for the consumer while extracted-honey
is more often sold in wholesale packages. When extracted-
honey is blended and bottled it usually brings as high a
retail price as comb-honey, but in this case the beekeeper
does not do all the work and the bottler gets a good share
of the profits. Comb-honey meets with more ready sale
in most markets than does extracted-honey.
.
Disadvantages of comb-honey.
Comb-honey ships poorly and consequently there is often
considerable loss from breakage, on which account some
wholesale honey dealers refuse to handle it. In colonies
run for comb-honey, swarming is a much more serious
problem than in the larger hives with plenty of empty comb
space used for extracted-honey. In light honey-flows, bees
The Production of Comb-Honey 305
work little or not at all in sections, for bees are induced
to build comb and store honey in small sections with diffi-
culty and there is often a loss before they begin work properly.
A serious drawback is that if honey in the comb granulates it
is almost a total loss, and usually the only way to save any-
thing is to melt the wax and honey and market them sepa-
rately. The section of honey is a difficult package for the
retail merchant to handle and the careless clerk may often
spoil a section by running his thumb into it. For this
reason and also for the sake of cleanliness, comb-honey
sections in sealed cartons appeal strongly to retailers and
consumers.
Restrictions in comb-honey production.
In view of the demands of the market and the tendency
toward the production of only the best grades of comb-honey,
there are certain restrictions which should apply in its pro-
duction. Where the honey is dark or where honeys from
various sources are mixed in the combs by honey-flows
intermingling, extracted-honey should be produced. Honeys
which granulate quickly, although they may be of fine color,
are undesirable for comb-honey production. The recent
increase in the sale of alfalfa comb-honey has caused many
grocers to hesitate to buy any comb-honey, for fear previous
unpleasant experiences may be repeated and leave them
with unsalable granulated comb-honey on hand. Where
the honey-flows are slow or intermittent, extracted-honey
production will be found more profitable. These general
restrictions will of course not apply in certain local market
conditions. For example, there is demand for buckwheat
comb-honey in some limited regions, whereas on the general
market it has no sale. It is evident from a survey of the
whole field that many beekeepers who now produce comb-
honey are doing it to their own detriment while an increase
in the production of comb-honey in the more northern clover
sections would be beneficial to the honey markets. The
limitations in comb-honey production will possibly increase
306 Beekeeping
the price of the better grades of comb-honey and make it
profitable for some northern beekeepers again to produce
comb-honey. The restrictions here enumerated obviously
require that comb-honey be produced by specialists, for
the careless beekeeper and the man who can devote but
little time to his bees cannot hope to produce the finer
grades of comb-honey, except by the accidents of excep-
tional honey-flows.
Honey-house.
The apparatus for the extensive production of comb-
honey is rather complex. The first requirement is a build-
ing for storing apparatus, preparing supers and caring for
the crop. This building should be rat-proof and is fre-
quently built over the cellar in which the bees are wintered,
for commercial comb-honey production is largely restricted
to the North. In managing out-apiaries, it is customary
to carry out the empty supers and bring them back com-
pleted to the central workshop. The place in which the
comb-honey is stored should be the warmest room in the
building and should be arranged for artificial heat when
necessary. It should be sealed to keep out insects and to
allow fumigation.
Hives for comb-honey.
The best hive for comb-honey is a matter of dispute.
While the Langstroth hive is used more than any other,
the number of frames to be used is much debated. If the
locality will permit of the building up of the colony to fill
ten frames completely, a hive of this capacity is preferable,
but in many places this is virtually impossible and an eight-
frame hive gives better results. Of course the colony oc-
cupies the same hive throughout the year and the need of
abundant stores in winter gives the preference to the ten-
frame hive but, by care, the disadvantage of the smaller
capacity of the eight-frame hive for winter stores may be
overcome. Whatever hive is used, for the production of
The Production of Comb-Honey 307
fine comb-honey accuracy in the manufacture is far more
essential than if it were to be used in extracting. The
bee-spaces should be accurate and if self-spacing frames
are used care should be exercised that the deposits of prop-
olis do not force them out of place. Sectional hives, in
which the brood occupies two or more shallow hive-bodies,
are preferred by some beekeepers, especially among comb-
honey producers. While they have much to commend
them, they do not seem to gain in popularity.
Evolution of the section.
The early development of the section was suggested in
an earlier paragraph. The first ones were made of four
pieces of wood and, after the wide adoption of the Lang-
stroth frame, sections 4j inches square became in a sense
standard, since eight of these sections fit into a Langstroth
frame (of special construction, Fig. 134). In 1873, Alexis
Fiddes, Centralia, Illinois, made a one-piece section by
folding thin strips of wood on a saw-cut at the corner and
to him probably belongs the credit of making the first sec-
tion of this type. In 1876 he described these in a note in
" Gleanings in Bee Culture." In 1876, two firms put such
sections on the market but it appears that previously other
beekeepers had made them on this plan. In 1883, Jas.
Forncrook, Watertown, Wisconsin, claimed a basic patent
on these sections and brought suit against A. I. Root, Medina,
Ohio, for infringement. A decision of the Circuit Court in
1884, upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 1888,
declared this patent valueless on the ground that originality
was not substantiated. Fiddes is credited with first making
such sections. Following this decision, the manufacture
of one-piece sections became general and they practically
replaced the four-piece sections, except in certain limited
localities where they are still used. They are now made
with a V-shaped groove which folds more easily and is
stronger than the former method of cutting. Basswood is
used in making these.
308
Beekeeping
Types of sections.
There is considerable variation in the types of section
used and correspondingly in the supers (upper stories) and
fixtures made to hold
them. The standardiza-
:^=- tion of these appliances
5^ is often discussed and is
L==1 greatly to be desired.
ri 7 There are two styles now
^=- in common use which
differ in the method of
spacing. They are now
FIG. 125. Diagram to show method of a l mO st all made of baSS-
spacing bee-way sections. -, i . i ,-, i
wood, | inch thick, as
this bends readily at the corners. The bee- way section
(Fig. 125) is wide (usu-
ally If inches, but rarely
1| or 2 inches) and has ._=:
passageways cut in two .-"
(sometimes three or four) ^~; "~
sides to allow bees to enter '.^"=
the sections, comb build-
ing in the individual sec-
tions being limited by plain
Separators placed between FIG. 126. Diagram to show method of
them. The plain sections spacing plain sections -
(Fig. 126) are narrow, If or 1| inches, and are separated
one from another by " fences" on which are cleats to hold
FIG. 127. Comparison of plain and bee-way sections.
the fence away from the section to allow room for the
passage of bees. The bee-way sections are usually made
The Production of Comb-Honey
309
4j inches square, while the
plain sections are of the same
dimensions, or 4 by 5, 3f by
5 or 4J by 4f. The con-
struction of these sections
and the methods of spacing
are shown by illustrations
(FigS. 125, 126 and 127). FIG. 128. -Comparison of tall and
.L. D , c , i i square sections of equal capacity.
The advantages of the bee-
way sections are protection of the honey by the wider
wood and extra strength, and some markets prefer them.
The .plain sections are simpler in construction, cheaper,
easily cleaned of propolis and more economical of space
in packing. The tall
plain sections give the
impression of larger
size when compared
with a square section
of equal capacity (Fig.
FIG. 129. T-super. 128) .
Types of supers.
The various supers used to hold these sections differ in
the method of support, the protection of the outside of the
section and the degree
of free communication
from section to section.
The types in most com-
mon use are illustrated
(Figs. 129, 130, 131, 132
and 133) and little needs
to be added by way of FlG - 13 - Super for square bee-way
description. In the T-
super (Fig. 129), the sections are supported by strips of tin
(shaped like an inverted T in cross section), no protection
being given to the sections on the top or bottom and, when
2-bee-way sections are used, as is customary, there is no
310
Beekeeping
passageway horizontally
square bee-way sections
FIG. 131.
Super for square plain sections
with section holders.
in the super. The super for
with section holders (Fig. 130)
is used perhaps more
generally than any other.
The sections are not pro-
tected at the top and the
communication between
sections is the same as in
the T-super. For plain
sections, the super cor-
responding to the one
just described is shown
(4 by 5 inches) the corre-
FIG. 132. Super for tall plain sections.
in Fig. 131 and for tall sections
sponding type is repre-
sented in Fig. 132. In the
two last named, cleated
fences are used to provide
passage for the bees ver-
tically and there is little
opportunity for horizontal
passage. To provide pro-
tection for the top of the
sections a wide frame is sometimes used, and in the illus-
tration (Fig. 133) this is shown in combination with
shallow extracting combs
at the sides devised for the
purpose of inducing the
bees to begin work in the
supers quickly. The mod-
ern wide frame is a rever-
sion to the type formerly
much used, except that
FIG 133. -Super for tall C4i by 4f) the older t (often
sections m wide frames. Shallow ex- . . , *f. -re-
tracting frames are shown at the sides. IOF eight Sections, * Ig.
134) had a tin separator
tacked to one side of the frame and bee-way sections
were used.
The Production of Comb-Honey
311
FIG. 134. Old type of wide frame for holding
sections.
Other equipment.
The other apparatus needed in extensive comb-honey
production includes some of the general apiary equipment
discussed in
Chapter III. A
supply of shallow
extracting supers
may often be
used to advan-
tage to induce
bees to begin
storing in supers,
but the combina-
tion super (Fig.
133) is generally
preferable. If a colony is as strong as it should be at the
beginning of the honey-flow there will be little need for
shallow extracting supers. The proper use of bait sec-
tions is as good as either of these methods.
Preparation of the sections.
The folding of the section and the fastening of the founda-
tion in place are sometimes done in one machine, but in
most apiaries these things are accomplished by two opera-
tions. To fold the sections (Fig. 135) without excessive
breakage, they must be damp to allow the wood to bend.
If they are dry they may be moistened by pouring hot
water down the V-grooves while still in the crate, the stream
of course being directed only on the grooves. The whole
crate may be wrapped in a wet blanket for a day before the
folding.
The use of foundation is necessary to insure straight
combs, all of worker cells, and is essential in the production
of fancy comb-honey. The foundation should be as thin
as can be used without being torn by the bees and usually
the grade known in the trade as " thin-super" is preferable.
While only narrow strips at the top are sometimes used, it
312
Beekeeping
is decidedly preferable to use full sheets to insure uniformity
of comb. The sheet is fastened to the top of the section, is
slightly narrower than the inside of the section so that it
can swing freely and extends to within } to J inch of the
bottom. To secure better attachment of the comb to the
bottom, it is becoming more commonly practiced to put
a f inch strip of foundation at the bottom and then make
the top piece of foundation long enough to extend to within
\ to J inch of the bottom starter. The
desirability of using the bottom starter
is somewhat determined by the character
of the flow.
The pieces of foundation are usually
fastened in place by a machine in which
a heated metal plate is brought near or
in contact with the wood at the point
where the foundation is to be attached
and the foundation is brought against
it. The heated plate is then promptly
removed and the melted wax fastens
the foundation to the wood. Grooved
sections which fasten a full sheet of
foundation in place as they are folded
are sometimes used (Fig. 132) while
some beekeepers (especially in Europe)
prefer a section split on top and sides
in which the foundation is continuous
through a row of sections.
The work of folding the sections, putting in foundation
and placing them in supers should be done in advance of
the honey-flow and this should usually be the winter em-
ployment of the comb-honey producer. Enough should
be prepared to care for the maximum crop, for the bee-
keeper has no time for this work when the rush is on. Three
supers for each colony should be the minimum number.
The prepared supers should be carefully protected from
dust.
FIG.
135. Section
folder.
The Production of Comb-Honey 313
Manipulation of the bees.
In the successful production of comb-honey, the skill of
the beekeeper is more exercised than in any other branch of
beekeeping. From this statement the inference should not
be made that the producers of comb-honey are, as a class,
better beekeepers than those who extract their honey, for
there are many beekeepers who put sections on their colonies
and yet fail to get the maximum returns and lose the best
of the crop. It is true, however, that much of our knowledge
of the best methods of handling bees has come from the
work of the exceptional comb-honey producers.
It is useless to expect a weak colony to work well in sec-
tions and it is therefore first of all necessary for the comb-
honey producer to see that each colony has an abundance
of workers at the beginning of the honey-flow, as described
in an earlier chapter. In the building up of the apiary in
preparation for the honey-flow, it is often impossible to get
all colonies up to the standard and it is a quite common
practice to utilize the weaker colonies for extracted-honey
production or to take frames of brood from the weaker
colonies to build up those of nearly full strength (p. 259),
thereby practically abandoning the weakest colonies for
honey-production.
Keeping bees in proper condition.
If a colony is of maximum strength when the honey-flow
begins, it is ready for the harvest. * Every hive should be
packed with brood and honey and should have an abundance
of young bees. If the colony has previously occupied two
stories, as many of them should if properly manipulated,
they are reduced to one story and any extra frames of brood
are used to build up colonies that need them. This crowd-
ing of the brood-nest, so essential to the highest success,
is, however, just the condition favorable for swarming, and
unless care is exercised the efforts of the beekeeper are
rendered less effective. If the colony casts a swarm the
working force is reduced and the two parts are not able
314 Beekeeping
to do as much as is possible without such a division. On
the other hand, the manipulations of the beekeeper may
prevent swarming, but still the bees may be put in such a
condition that they do not work well. It is necessary not
only that the bees be kept from swarming but that the
gathering instinct shall overpower all other activities. In-
crease in the number of colonies during the honey-flow or
just before it is therefore expensive and should be avoided.
Swarming is a far more serious problem in comb-honey
production than in any other type of beekeeping. The
beekeeper is therefore called upon to exercise all his skill
in preventing and controlling this tendency. The manipu-
lations used to prevent swarming are discussed in an earlier
chapter. In comb-honey production the tendency to swarm
is so marked that an examination of each colony once in
seven to ten days is usually necessary to do the things that
conditions may call for. In case swarms issue in spite of
the precautionary measures, various methods are available
for handling the swarm and for the disposal of the brood
to best advantage, which have been previously discussed
(p. 275).
Manipulation of supers.
One of the most important factors in success with c"omb-
honey is putting the supers on in the right order and at the
right time. This may not only do much toward preventing
swarming, but is an important stimulus to storing the maxi-
mum amount of honey. No general rule can be laid down
for the number of supers that should be put on a colony;
they are simply units in the part of the hive devoted to
storing which must be given to the colony as needed and
not before or after. By proper management supers may be
put on slightly before they are needed but they should
usually not all be put on at once. Many beekeepers make
their greatest mistake in this feature and wait until one
super is filled and then remove it, substituting an empty
one if needed. This not only cramps the colony more
The Production of Comb-Honey
315
than necessary but, when the new super is put on, the bees
go into it almost as slowly as they do into a super given
at the beginning of a flow. In the meantime the brood-
chamber is becoming clogged with honey at the expense of
the brood. To give supers as needed necessitates careful
observation of the sources of nectar. Supers should be
given in time so that there is never a lack of some space
for comb building. Furthermore, space for ripening nectar
is needed and comb building should progress steadily so
that the bees will never have honey for which there are no
empty cells. If, early in the honey-flow, nectar is coming
in rapidly, a new super may be added to strong colonies as
FIG. 136. Diagram showing arrangement of the supers.
soon as work is well begun in the one put on previously.
Weaker colonies should qf course not be given supers so
rapidly. In any event, supers should be added before the
bees are in actual need of more storing space.
The position of new supers is to be determined by the
probable future needs of the colony. If the prospects in-
dicate that an additional super will be filled, it should be
put below the supers already on, next to the brood-chamber,
while if there is a probability that the additional super will
not be used it should be placed on top, thus crowding the
bees into the earlier supers. In slow honey-flows, supers
may also be put on top. In a good honey-flow an empty
super should be kept on top at all times so that it is avail-
able to the bees if the beekeeper is delayed in reaching the
316 Beekeeping
colony to give it more room. The proper order of the
supers on the hive is shown in Fig. 136, it being assumed
in this case that super 5 is the one which is used near the
end of the flow. It will be noticed in the case of supers
1, 2 and 3, that after being placed just above the brood-
chamber to be started, they are then put on the top in the
next move. This carries up the wax-building bees where
they are as far from the brood-chamber as possible and this
is perhaps an important factor in swarm prevention.
Removal of supers.
Comb-honey intended for market should be removed as
soon as possible after it is finished to prevent discoloration
of the cappings, known as " travel stain." The extensive
beekeeper does not have time to remove the sections in-
dividually but should give additional room just rapidly
enough to make it possible to complete all the sections in a
super about the same time. After the super is removed
there are often some that are not completed and these may
be sorted out in the shop and the unfinished ones may be
put in supers and given to colonies. C. C. Miller believes
that some colonies are better at this finishing work than
others and so he chooses certain ones for this work. Dur-
ing the finishing, bees should be crowded to insure its being
completed before the honey-flow ceases.
At the close of the honey-flow, the surplus space should
be reduced and all supers in which no work has been done
should be removed. As soon as practical, 'the surplus
space should be reduced to one super but there should
always be room for the ripening of new nectar. If desired,
extracting combs may be used to receive the honey at the
close of the honey-flow.
Caring for the crop.
In a heavy honey-flow most of the honey is removed
before the flow ceases. In this case the bees are readily
removed by smoking and brushing them out. At the close
The Production of Comb-Honey 317
of the honey-flow, all the supers should be removed to pre-
vent honey from being carried down to the brood-chamber
and to keep the bees from propolizing the sections excessively.
At this time bee-escapes (Fig. 31) greatly increase the ease
of taking off supers and, while they are useful at any time,
they are specially helpful after the honey-flow ceases. The
honey should be taken to the shop and protected carefully
from robbing bees.
Preparation of bait sections.
Before storing the supers, any unfilled sections should
be sorted out and the partially filled ones may be given
back to the bees to be emptied. If no disease is present
in the apiary or in the neighborhood and if there are a con-
siderable number of such sections, they may simply be
exposed where the bees can get the honey from them and
they should be left there until a day or two after the bees
have ceased to visit them. Bees often leave sealed honey
untouched under these circumstances. If there are only
a few supers, they may be stacked on colonies and should
be left there for a day after the bees have taken out the
honey. In this way excitement is reduced to the minimum
and general robbing is prevented. The emptied sections
should then be saved for bait sections the following season.
Storage in supers.
The full supers are so placed in the honey-house as to
permit free circulation of air, by laying them crosswise or
by putting sticks between the supers. The storage room
must be kept dry with the windows open (but screened)
during warm weather. During damp, cool weather, the
windows should be closed and the room may be heated
artificially, sudden changes in temperature being avoided.
If wax-moths are abundant, the honey may be fumigated
with sulphur fumes or carbon bisulfide (p. 414).
Comb-honey should be prepared for market as speedily
as practical after its removal from the hive. This is specially
318 Beekeeping
true if the honey granulates quickly. If it is necessary to
store it until cold weather, the storage room must be kept
continuously warm and dry.
Bulk comb-honey.
In Texas and in some other parts of the South, honey is
frequently sold in the comb, being cut from large combs to
any size desired. These pieces are usually put into a can,
extracted-honey being poured over them to fill the spaces.
This is commonly known as " chunk honey," but one German
writer on beekeeping, in referring to this American product,
inadvertently changed the ch to j. The advantages in pro-
ducing honey in this form are : (1) it ships well ; (2) crowd-
ing of the bees is not so necessary since perfect capping is
not essential ; (3) the bees work more readily in the larger
combs, and (4) the beekeeper is not called upon to exercise
so much skill in the manipulation of the colonies. The
manipulations more nearly approach those incident to the
production of extracted-honey. Since such honey usually
sells readily locally and since beekeepers claim to receive
relatively more for it than for extracted-honey, no serious
objection can be raised to its production, but beekeepers
should be warned that the general honey markets make
no demand for honey of this type. Bulk comb-honey is
produced in small quantities in all parts of the United States
but, except in the regions mentioned, its production is con-
fined to the less skilled beekeepers.
Bulk comb-honey for home use.
When all the honey produced is for home consumption,
it is an excellent plan to have all the honey stored in shallow
extracting frames, the length of the regular frames, but
only 5| inches deep. Thin-super foundation may be used
and the frames should not be wired. After being filled, the
frames may be stored in supers and a family that consumes
honey freely (as all families should) will make short work
of the honey in a frame. For serving this honey, a con-
The Production of Comb-Honey 319
venient, though perhaps not artistic, method is to put the
comb in a tureen. The frames may be refilled with founda-
tion again and again. This is recommended to beekeepers
with few colonies as simpler, cheaper and more profitable
than comb-honey production.
Cut comb-honey for market.
Another style of package has recently been devised by
the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, which is attractive and
promises to have a great future. Small pieces of comb
are cut, drained of the honey in the cut cells, wrapped in
two thicknesses of waxed paper and finally put in an attrac-
tive carton. A number of these cartons are then packed
in a box for delivery. The individual cartons are sold in
dining cars, restaurants and hotels, naturally at a high
price for the amount of honey served. So far the demand
for this honey is limited, but beekeepers so situated that
they have their winters free to put up and sell such honey
may find it profitable. The comparative ease with which
honey can be handled in this way suggests the desirability
of a larger piece of honey, weighing perhaps a pound, wrapped
in the same way. Such honey would ship better, it would
all be " fancy" and should bring a high price on the market
when a trade is built up. As far as the writer knows, this
has not been tried in the United States.
CHAPTER XVIII
MARKETING THE HONEY CROP
THE production of honey necessitates skill in the manage-
ment of bees but the preparation of the crop for market and
the selling of the honey are equally important to financial
success and are sometimes equally difficult. In the follow-
ing discussion, the procedure in getting honey into its final
package ready for the consumer will first be considered,
after which some general principles of honey selling, which
apply to all types of honey, will be briefly given.
PREPARATION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY FOR MARKET
The beekeeping part of the work may be considered as
ended when the honey reaches the tank or barrel. Honeys
from different sources should so far as possible be extracted
separately, for they are not of equal money value and the
mixing of honeys of two colors or flavors usually reduces
the wholesale price of the mixture to that of the least valuable.
Wholesale packages.
The usual wholesale package is the 5-gallon (60-pound)
square tin can, such cans most often being shipped two
in a crate (Fig. 137). Most of the foreign honeys that
reach the United States markets come in barrels and
these are also much used by southern beekeepers. In the
West they are rarely used and are not considered safe.
Considerable care must be exercised in their choice and in
preparing them to receive the honey. Second-hand alcohol
or whisky barrels are suitable, provided they have not been
320
Marketing the Honey Crop
321
charred, but it is better to have them of some wood softer
than oak. They must be kept in a dry place and before
using must be made as dry as it is possible to get them, the
hoops thoroughly tightened and the barrels tested. The
inside may then be coated with paraffin as an extra pre-
caution, but it should be
remembered that the
barrels must be tight
first. If the wood in
the barrel is wet, honey
will take up this moist-
ure, causing the wood
to shrink and the barrel
to leak. The usual sizes
have a capacity of about
thirty gallons, but those
holding fifty gallons are
frequently used. Unless
one is producing a cheap FlG> 137-
grade of honey for which
a cheap package is required, it is better and safer to
use the 5-gallon tin cans.
Retail packages for local markets.
In preparing extracted-honey for the local trade, it is
customary to put it in cans or tin buckets of 2j, 5 or 10
pounds capacity. Fruit jars and jelly glasses are also
commonly used. These containers can be considered only
as articles to hold honey and are entirely unsuitable for a
market demanding neat attractive packages. They may
often be used in less exacting markets and carry with them
the advantage of being useful after the honey is eaten.
To the beekeeper, they are desirable on account of their
low cost in case his market will not pay a good price for his
honey. Many beekeepers are, however, guilty of putting
fancy honey into these unattractive receptacles, thereby
stamping their product as a cheap article.
Crate holding two 5-gallon
honey cans.
322 Beekeeping
High-class retail packages.
The bottling of honey for the higher class markets requires
considerable skill and the beekeeper usually leaves this work
to the jobber, who has the necessary equipment and facilities
for buying honey from various sources. There can be little
question, however, that many beekeepers could well afford
to go to the additional trouble and expense of putting honey
in attractive, artistic packages for the trade that is ready to
pay a good price for a high-class product.
An important consideration is the shape of the bottle.
If possible this should not be a stock bottle such as is used
either by other beekeepers or is obviously employed in the
bottling of other commodities. An odd shape or a bottle
made for the purpose on an original design will prove a good
advertisement. The neck of the bottle must of course be
wide. A cheap, homely label will do much to render a
package unattractive. Above all, a label should not be
used which obviously is used by hundreds of beekeepers
and which has the name of the producer printed in a space
left vacant in the making of the original design. It is possible
to make labels in this way which do not tell their history too
loudly, but to a bottler who sells honey in considerable quan-
tities the expense of having a distinctive, attractive label
designed and lithographed will be many times repaid. The
beekeeper should note that the extensive bottlers have
learned this.
Blending.
In a single apiary it is impossible to get honey of the same
flavor and color year after year because of differences in the
nectar secretion, due to climatic differences. It is rarely
desirable to attempt to bottle honey of one source, such as
white clover, because of seasonal variations which the con-
sumer does not understand. If, however, honeys from two
or more sources are blended, the seasonal variations are
hidden and it is possible to give the consumer honey which
looks the same and has the same taste year after year. In
Marketing the Honey Crop 323
making up a blend, it is furthermore not desirable to use
all water-white honeys, for at some time the supply of such
honeys may be limited, and the consumer will not under-
stand why honey of a certain brand has suddenly become
darker. It must be remembered that the average consumer
is ignorant of the facts that honey varies and that honeys
from different sources are unlike in color and flavor and
it is useless for one bottler to attempt to educate the entire
community on these points in which the consumers have
no interest. If he sells pure honey that has a good flavor
and if he can duplicate it when desired no further informa-
tion is asked by the average consumer. In making a blend
it is a good plan to include some sage or tupelo honey as
these granulate slowly and granulation injures the salability
of bottled honey. An important consideration is the choice
of honeys which can be obtained in quantity year after
year. To bottle honey for the better markets, it is, there-
fore, usually necessary to buy some from various sources
and the beekeeper who retails honey on a considerable scale
should not depend solely on his own apiaries to supply him.
In fact, even an extensive series of out-apiaries will not
go far toward supplying an energetic salesman.
Argument for blending.
In the preparation of this chapter the author consulted a
beekeeper of experience and the preceding paragraph was
criticized on the ground that the blending of honeys hides
the characteristic flavor of honey from each source and,
therefore, the flavor of a blend is usually inferior to that
of some of the honeys that go to make it. To a connoisseur
this is true, but a comparison with another commodity may
serve to show that to the average palate this is not the case.
The average purchaser of tea buys a certain brand of pack-
age tea because he knows it is dependable and uniform. He
does not know nor does he care what teas are mixed in this
blend, but he may know enough about tea to know that an
individual kind of tea varies and he does not like the varia-
324 Beekeeping
tion. On the other hand, there are connoisseurs in tea who,
through education and cultivation of taste, are just as
particular about the teas they use as the beekeeper is about
his honey. Probably we could all become educated in teas
but do not consider it worth while. Similarly, the consum-
ing public could become educated in the flavors of honeys
but it is not considered worth the effort. Therefore, it is
to the interest of the beekeeper to furnish a honey which
is the same in color and flavor year after year, so that the
variation which comes with honey from one source may be
eliminated. It is almost a crime in the eyes of a northern
beekeeper to mix any other honey with that from white
clover but, as he is not mixing honey for himself, he should
give the consuming public what it demands.
Heating honey.
In mixing honeys from various sources and in liquefying
for bottling those that may be granulated, they must be
heated. Direct heat must not be employed and it is a bad
practice to run steam pipes through the honey tank. Heat-
ing must always be done in a double boiler and the tempera-
ture of no part of the honey should ever exceed 160 F. A
higher temperature darkens it and spoils the flavor. A
high temperature not only drives off the volatile substances
which give honey the aroma, but a decomposition of a
small part of the sugars takes place, which causes darkening.
In this decomposition, products are formed which cause
honey to respond positively to one of the chemical tests for
invert sugar, which is a common honey adulterant. The
beekeeper who overheats his honey not only injures it but
he may find himself accused of adulteration. The best
plan is to bring the honeys to a temperature of about 130 F.
and to hold this temperature for two or three hours or until
every crystal has dissolved. The temperature is then raised
quickly to 160 F., at which point the honey should be put
into warm bottles and hermetically sealed while hot. The
bottles should be filled as full as possible so that there will
Marketing the Honey Crop 325
not be large air spaces at the tops. The mixing and heating
tank should be deep and the honey should be drawn from
the bottom to avoid the scum which rises to the top and to
free the honey entirely from air bubbles which not only
detract from the appearance but hasten granulation.
Granulation of honey in bottles spoils the appearance but
by using honeys which granulate slowly (e.g. sage and tupelo)
in the blend and by treating in the manner just described,
granulation may be prevented for a considerable time.
Beekeepers often put on their labels the erroneous statement
that all honeys granulate and that this is a proof of purity.
Artificial invert sugars which are sometimes used in the
adulteration of extracted-honey frequently granulate quickly.
The adding of glucose to prevent granulation, without so
indicating on the label, is of course adulteration and is not
only dishonest but unlawful.
The granulation of honey after bottling is retarded (1) if
the honey is free from air bubbles, (2) if the bottle is filled
to the top, (3) if no scum has been poured into the bottle
with the honey and (4) if not a single honey crystal is un-
melted at the time of bottling. If these precautions are
taken even the rapidly granulating honeys will remain
liquid for a considerable period.
PREPARATION OF COMB-HONEY FOR MARKET
In comb-honey production the beekeeper must do more
of the work of preparing his product for the consumer since
he is producing honey in retail packages. Recently some
honey jobbers have been buying honey and cleaning and
grading it themselves, because so many beekeepers fail to
do this work carefully, but a better price can be obtained for
comb-honey if it is properly graded and cleaned before selling.
Cleaning the sections of propolis.
There is usually some propolis on the sections which
should be removed. Since the removed propolis adheres
326 Beekeeping
to other sections if it comes in contact with them, it is best
to have a bench made with a box or tray into which the
propolis will fall or to raise the sections an inch or two above
the table top on a block while they are being cleaned. These
appliances also make it possible to reach the bottom of the
section in scraping. Propolis is usually scraped by hand, a
sharp steel case-knife being used. If the knife does not
remove all propolis and stain, sandpaper will complete the
work. The scraping of sections requires care to prevent
damaging of the honey.
Grading.
In no other type of honey package is so much care needed
to grade properly as in comb-honey. The grading rules
which are most applicable to all conditions of comb-honey
production throughout the United States are those adopted
by the National Bee Keepers' Association, February 13, 1913,
which are here given.
Sections of comb honey are to be graded : First, as to finish ;
second, as to color of honey ; and third, as to weight. The sections
of honey in any given case are to be so nearly alike in these three
respects that any section shall be representative of the contents of
the case.
I. Finish:
1. Extra Fancy. Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly
attached to the four sides, the sections to be free from propolis or
other pronounced stain, combs and cappings white, and not more
than six unsealed cells on either side.
2. Fancy. Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached
to the four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced
stain, comb and cappings white, and not more than six unsealed
cells on either side exclusive of the outside row.
3. No. 1. Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached to
the four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced
stain, comb and cappings white to slightly off color, and not more
than forty unsealed cells, exclusive of the outside row.
4. No. 2. Comb not projecting beyond the box, attached to the
sides not less than two-thirds of the way around, and not more than
sixty unsealed cells exclusive of the row adjacent to the box.
Marketing the Honey Crop 327
II. Color:
On the basis of color of the honey, comb honey is to be classified
as : first, white ; second, light amber ; third, amber ; and fourth,
dark.
III. Weight:
1. Heavy. No section designated as heavy to weigh less than
fourteen ounces.
2. Medium. No section designated as medium to weigh less
than twelve ounces.
3. Light. No section designated as light to weigh less than ten
ounces.
In describing honey, three words or symbols are to be used, the
first being descriptive of the finish, the second of color, and the
third of weight. As for example : Fancy, white, heavy (F-W-H) ;
No. 1, amber, medium (1-A-M), etc. In this way any of the pos-
sible combinations of finish, color and weight can be briefly
described.
Cull honey.
Cull honey shall consist of the following: Honey packed in
soiled second-hand cases or that in badly stained or propolized
sections; sections containing pollen, honey-dew honey, honey
showing signs of granulation, poorly ripened, sour or " weeping "
honey ; sections with comb projecting beyond the box or well at-
tached to the box less than two- thirds the distance around its inner
surface ; sections with more than 60 unsealed cells, exclusive of the
row adjacent to the box ; leaking, injured, or patched-up sections ;
sections weighing less than ten ounces.
The Colorado Honey Producers' Association on December
13, 1911, adopted a set of grading rules which are well adapted
to the market conditions which Colorado beekeepers meet.
They are not suitable for grading all comb-honey because the
requirements on color, weight and finish are not sufficiently
separated. These rules have recently been revised.
In the grading rules of the National Bee Keepers' Associa-
tion the weight is classed in three divisions, but, since the
net-weight amendment is in force (since September 3, 1914)
and since comb-honey in a section is considered a package
of food, these divisions are no longer suitable. It is now
necessary under the law that each section of honey which
328 Beekeeping
enters interstate commerce be marked with the net weight.
This is construed to mean the weight exclusive of the wood
but including the wax. Sections have quite commonly
been called " one-pound sections," but unless a comb is
exceptionally well filled it does not weigh a full pound. Bee-
keepers have usually sold these by the piece but the con-
suming public has known little of the actual weights. The
name " one-pound section" is incorrect and should be
dropped. This law will benefit the beekeepers who use
full-size sections and will help to expose the few who have
been using undersizes.
In grading comb-honey some beekeepers place the sec-
tions directly into shipping cases, but since the picture of
each grade is a mental one only, it is perhaps preferable
to make separate piles of each grade where they can be seen
throughout the grading. Of course when similar sections
enough to fill a case are ready they may be cased, marked
and prepared for shipment. It will be found advantageous,
especially to the retailer, to make smaller sub-grades to
give greater uniformity to the contents of each case.
Shipping cases.
The case for shipping comb-honey which is most com-
monly used is one holding 24 sections in one tier (Fig. 138),
but a two- tier case is preferred by many western beekeepers.
, _ _^ Other types are used
for certain local mar-
kets. It is customary
also to make the
shipping cases with
glass fronts so that the
case may be used for
displaying the honey.
A shipping case of
corrugated paper with-
FIG. 138. Shipping cases for comb- out glass IS gaining in
honey. popularity.
Marketing the Honey Crop 329
Glazed sections.
It is not unusual for pieces of glass to be fastened to each
side of sections by means of tacks or tin triangles or by
strips of paper before being offered for sale, thus protecting
the honey from dust and insects. Formerly it was not un-
common to sell the package by weight, in which event the
glass was sold at a considerable profit. The amendment
to the Food and Drugs Act requiring that each package of
food be marked with its net weight will probably injure the
market for glazed sections.
Use of cartons.
The modern retail market deals chiefly in package goods
and the purchaser usually sees only a carton or case and not
the food that he buys. Similarly comb-honey is now fre-
quently put in a carton and this plan commends itself be-
cause of the security from dust and insects. The cheap
cartons that slip over filled sections are not so efficient
neither are they so attractive as those that may be com-
pletely sealed. Most cartons are now made of thin card-
board but a sealed corrugated paper carton would be more
serviceable in the delivery of the honey from the retailer.
The comments made on labels for extracted-honey may
well apply to the printing on the comb-honey carton. In-
dividuality and attractiveness are essential in making an
appeal to the fancy trade and the carton will appeal to
the consumer as a more sanitary package than an exposed
section. When cartons are used, the corrugated paper
shipping case is preferable since there is no advantage in a
glass front.
Shipping comb-honey.
The fragile comb in a section of honey carries consider-
able weight as compared with the heavier reinforced combs
in the brood-chamber of the hive. In cool weather, when
the wax becomes brittle, it is less capable of withstanding
jars and at any time comb-honey is not capable of with-
330 Beekeeping
standing much hard usage. Naturally a small package
like a single shipping case is easily thrown about by careless
expressmen and consequently it is safer to ship in larger
packages. For this reason and also to protect the wooden
shipping cases from dirt and to prevent the breakage of the
glass, several shipping cases are usually packed together in
a crate. Comb-honey should be shipped to its final destina-
tion before cold weather. For car load shipments it is safe
to pack in a car without crates since the shipping cases are
not handled individually en route.
PREPARATION OF BULK COMB-HONEY FOR MARKET
The packing of bulk comb-honey does not. differ essentially
from that for extracted-honey except that the cans or bottles
must have openings sufficiently large to admit the pieces of
comb.
The packing of the small pieces of cut-out comb has been
sufficiently described in the paragraph in which they were
discussed.
PREPARATION OF GRANULATED HONEY FOR MARKET
As has been shown previously, some honeys granulate
quickly to a semi-solid condition and some beekeepers have
developed a market for it in this form. Alfalfa honey is
exceptionally fine for this purpose. The honey may be
poured while in a liquid condition into special paper bags
or oyster pails and allowed to granulate before being sold,
though such packages are somewhat crude. A better
method is to allow it to granulate in larger vessels (such as
5-gallon square cans) after which it is removed and cut into
bricks as butter is cut. It is then wrapped in waxed paper
and put in a neat carton. Since this is a comparatively
unknown article of food to the average consumer, its source
and nature should be stated on the package. Granulated
honey should not be allowed to remain on store shelves
until warm weather, for the crystals may dissolve, causing
Marketing the Honey Crop 331
considerable loss and inconvenience. The market for such
honey is not well developed but it is worthy of considerable
attention since many people after trying this honey prefer
it to liquid honey.
WORDING OF LABELS
Beekeepers are often at a loss to know just what should
be put on labels in order to conform with the various pro-
visions of pure food laws. In the case of the net- weight
amendment of the Federal Food and Drugs Act, the require-
ment is definite, that the net weight or volume shall be indi-
cated. Since bottles vary somewhat, it is best to test a
number to find the minimum and then have on the label,
"Net weight not less than oz." or " Minimum weight
oz." Aside from this there is no difficulty. If the label
tells the truth about the contents, the beekeeper will not get
into trouble. He should not label his honey "Pure clover
honey" if it is partly sage honey, nor should he attempt to
deceive the customer by labeling it "Clover brand honey"
if it is not as nearly all clover honey as it is possible to get.
Some beekeepers have worried over the fact that even in
the purest honey there is possibly a little nectar from some
other source. If this causes worry it may be entirely avoided
by stating the exact facts. Furthermore it must be remem-
bered that the officials who enforce these laws are sensible
men and a slight discrepancy on the label would probably
not be considered a violation of the law, provided there is
evidently no intent of misrepresentation. The various pure
food laws are designed to protect the purchaser against
fraud and the honest producer against dishonest competi-
tion. It may perhaps be considered as ingratitude, there-
fore, if a beekeeper complains at the necessity of telling the
exact truth on his label. Beekeepers are almost unani-
mously opposed to the adulteration of honey and should
do everything possible to aid in the enforcement of these
laws.
332 Beekeeping
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HOME MARKET
Too many beekeepers ship their honey as soon as it is
marketable to the chief honey markets. While there is
demand in the wholesale markets under normal market
conditions for all the honey that is shipped in, there are many
beekeepers who could dispose of their own crops and even
buy considerable honey from other beekeepers to sell in the
local markets. Of course, the retail price should be con-
siderably more than the wholesale price, and if the beekeeper
does not have other work that brings him more than the
retail profit he may well turn his attention to the develop-
ment of his home market. He will probably find that his
home town consumes little honey until he undertakes to
advertise his products, but the experience of those who have
tried it is that the per capita consumption of honey is easily
increased to many times what it was formerly. Individual
cases of success could easily be enumerated. If the bee-
keeper is in a small town it is probably known to many of
the inhabitants that he keeps bees and in a larger town or
city he can easily let this be known without much cost for
advertising. The consumer will have confidence in the
purity of the honey if it is bought directly from the producer,
and if the beekeeper will go from house to house letting the
housewives sample his honey, he will not only sell hundreds
of pounds at a better price than the wholesale price but will
provide a good food as a substitute for the cheap jams and
syrups so much used.
To stimulate trade and create public comment, no better
advertisement can be obtained than an observatory hive
filled with bees. When such a hive is placed in a store
window, the sidewalk is often blocked with the curious.
Interest can be increased by giving an exhibition of handling
bees or of extracting honey ; the crowd will grow and people
who have not tasted honey for years will remember that
they are fond of it and will buy some. A peculiarity of honey
is that it is usually easier to sell the second bottle or section
Marketing the Honey Crop 333
than it is the first. The ingenious beekeeper will think of a
dozen ways to use his bees or his commonest manipulations
as advertising matter and he will probably be surprised not
only at the ignorance but also at the interest of the public
concerning anything pertaining to bees. Another fruitful
field is found in making exhibits at fairs.
In deciding the price of his product either at wholesale
or retail, the beekeeper should consult the crop reports.
The bee journals give valuable information on this subject,
and in 1914 the United States Department of Agriculture
through the Bureau of Crop Estimates began to furnish
crop reports on honey. In Ontario the Beekeepers' Asso-
ciation furnishes its members with this information.
CO-OPERATIVE SELLING
In discussing the sale of honey, mention should be made
of co-operative selling. The best example of this to be
found in the beekeeping industry in the United States is
the Colorado Honey Producers' Association, which for
several years has successfully looked after the interests of its
members in the purchase of supplies and in the sale of honey.
This organization is similar in nature to the agricultural
co-operative organizations found in Europe and parts of
the United States. Beekeepers who have similar honey and
who are so situated as to be unable to develop home markets
should consider the possibilities of this method of selling at
wholesale.
CHAPTER XIX
THE PRODUCTION AND CARE OF BEESWAX
BEESWAX was formerly an important part of the products
of the beekeeper for, at the close of the season, certain colo-
nies were chosen to be killed after which the honey and wax
were removed. With the introduction of modern methods,
honey-production increased, but there was less beeswax
since the combs are not destroyed, except as they are acci-
dentally broken. In spite of this entire change of policy
on the part of the beekeeper, beeswax is a part of the product
of the apiary which should not be neglected. Cappings
from extracting, pieces of comb built in parts of the hive
where frames have accidentally not been supplied, burr and
brace combs and combs accidentally broken in extracting
may be mentioned as sources which in the aggregate furnish
the beekeeper with a considerable amount of wax, while
occasionally the combs of diseased colonies still further in-
crease the supply. The preparation of this wax for market
often involves considerable labor and the beekeeper too often
neglects it on that account. However, if pieces of comb
are carefully preserved from wax-moth larvae, they may be
kept until there is an accumulation sufficient to justify the
necessary expenditure of time or combs may now be sent
to central stations or dealers for rendering.
Rendering the wax.
Beeswax is ordinarily removed from the combs by heat.
Cappings from extracting and new combs may be melted
up and the wax allowed to harden in a cake since these con-
tain little or no foreign matter. If any dirt is present, it
334
The Production and Care of Beeswax 335
FIG. 139. Double boiler for melting combs.
will settle at the bottom in cooling and may be cut from the
cake. A common method for melting combs and pieces of
wax is by the use of the solar wax extractor, the combs being
put in a box covered with glass and the heat of the sun,
being confined by the glass, melts the wax, which runs into
a lower compartment where it hardens. In Hawaii, the
beekeepers have unusually large solar extractors to melt
their cappings as
well as other
pieces of comb.
A more rapid
method is to place
the combs in a
double boiler (Fig.
139), the combs
being either hung
on cross supports
or thrown on a
screen (like that
in an uncapping tank) and as the wax melts it runs out a
gate provided for the purpose. A less efficient method is
to boil combs in water and skim off the wax. Doctor Miller
finds a dripping pan in the oven of the kitchen stove a
good substitute for a solar extractor in the winter.
Wax presses.
These methods are satisfactory for clean combs, free
from pollen, cocoons and other substances, but in the case
of old combs much of the wax adheres to the cocoons
and is not liberated. To render old combs they should (if
the weather is cold) be broken up and then soaked in water
after which they should be put into a sack, heated and pressed
under strong pressure while hot. In this way most of the
wax is removed from the cocoons. There are three types
of press in common use. In the steam heated press the
mass of comb is kept hot by steam generated below dur-
ing the process of pressing out the wax, which drops down
336
Beekeeping
and is drained off. In the hot water press (Fig. 140), the
whole process takes place under hot water, the liberated
wax rising to the top where it is removed. A method in
common use is to melt up the combs in a boiler and dip off
the melted mass into a burlap bag which is then subjected
to pressure, no additional heat being supplied. Small presses
of these types may be purchased from dealers in supplies
but if there is much wax to be rendered, larger machines of
the hot water type
should be made to
which more pressure
may be applied. In
any type of press it is
desirable to press the
bag of comb thor-
oughly and then loosen
it to allow the combs
to be filled with water
before pressing again.
This may be repeated
several times until no
more wax is liberated.
It is advised that
soft water be used
in rendering combs.
The residue after the removal of the wax is commonly
known among beekeepers as "slumgum" and since bee-
keepers seem to have a vocabulary of their own and since
there is no other name for this substance we must perforce
accept it. In most cases, slumgum contains a considerable
amount of beeswax, some samples supposed to be practi-
cally free being found on analysis to contain forty per cent
beeswax. Cocoons entirely free from beeswax are. brown-
ish-gray and cannot be pressed into a hard cake. If then
the slumgum after removal from the press forms a black
hard mass, the beekeeper may rest assured that it still con-
tains wax. This may be shown quickly by putting some in
FIG. 140. Hot water (Hershiser) wax press.
The Production and Care of Beeswax 337
the fire, where it burns briskly. It is almost permissible
to believe that every man who makes a wax press thinks
that no other wax press could ever equal it and some of the
most powerful and elaborate ones that have been demon-
strated to the author were the least efficient.
Removing wax by dissolving.
In Europe, the wax in slumgum is sometimes dissolved
out with turpentine or some other light oil and the solvent
is then regained by distillation, but there is no record of this
being done on a commercial scale in America. By no other
means can all the wax be removed, but it is claimed that
this "extracted wax" differs slightly both physically and
chemically from wax removed by melting. If a solvent is
used carbon tetrachloride would probably be the mqst
satisfactory.
Cleaning wax.
After the wax is extracted, it usually contains many for-
eign particles. While still in a liquid condition the wax
should be placed over an inch or more of water in a vessel
which will conserve the heat so that the wax can remain
liquid for a considerable time. If a heavy wooden box is
available this is good, but even better results may be accom-
plished by packing a thinner vessel in a box filled with saw-
dust. If it can remain liquid for twenty-four hours or more
the results are best. Just before hardening (when the tem-
perature is just above the melting point of wax) it should
be carefully dipped off from the top into vessels to cool.
These vessels should either have the top wider than the
bottom or have smooth straight sides which are covered
with a thin layer of honey just before the cooling wax is
poured in. Every beekeeper should know that wax and
honey never mix. The particles of dirt will have settled to
the bottom and when the wax appears discolored the re-
mainder may be left to harden in the insulated vessel. The
dirt may then be scraped away from this cake, and if there
338 Beekeeping
is much wax still in the dirt it may be kept to put in the
next melting and the dirt will gradually be eliminated.
Extensive dealers in wax use a little sulfuric acid to
assist in cleaning the wax. Manufacturers of comb-founda-
tion usually advise against this practice because beekeepers
often use too much acid. A proportion of not more than
one pint to forty gallons of water should be used, this water
being sufficient for the melting of 750 pounds of wax.
Granulation of wax.
In rendering, wax may be formed into an emulsion due
to the presence of gums in the honey which adheres to the
combs and on hardening this resembles a thick paste of
corn meal. Many beekeepers believe that this is pollen
from the combs and throw it away. It is, however, almost
solid wax. In melting up combs which had contained honey-
dew on one occasion the author found the whole mass of
wax in this condition after cooling. Such granulated wax
(as it is usually called) should be melted slowly by dry
heat (not in water) and with care the wax may be saved.
It is claimed that this emulsion is less common when sul-
furic acid is used in clearing and Dadant claims that it is
increased by excessive heat. The important fact for the
beekeeper is that this is not pollen and should be saved.
Bleaching wax.
The bleaching of wax is rarely done by the beekeeper and
requires little mention in a book on beekeeping. It is inter-
esting to note, however, that waxes from various regions vary
greatly in bleaching, some of the darker waxes being easily
bleached while some lighter waxes do not respond to this
treatment. Presumably this is due to the kind of honey
and pollen available to the bees when the wax was secreted.
Wax dealers claim that wax from some of the southern
States is the best obtainable in the United States for bleach-
ing. Usually wax is cut into thin ribbons and exposed to
sunlight, but chemicals are sometimes used in bleaching.
The Production and Care of Beeswax 339
White (bleached) wax differs physically and chemically from
yellow wax.
Adulteration of wax.
Fortunately this also is a subject in which beekeepers
take no interest, but nevertheless beeswax is frequently
adulterated by the addition of mineral waxes, wax from other
insects or tallow or by cruder methods, such as the addition
of gypsum, starch or flour. The detection of these adul-
terations (except the cruder ones) must usually be left to
the chemist, but beekeepers rely on what is known as the
" break test." If a cake of pure wax is cracked it presents
a granular surface which is not seen in wax with even a
small percentage of paraffin. The determination of the
specific gravity is also useful to the beekeeper in confirming
his suspicions of a lot of wax.
Preparation of wax for market.
Usually the beekeeper ships his cakes of wax in bags or
barrels to the wax dealer and most commonly to the manu-
facturer of comb-foundation. To see a great pile of these
cakes as they come in is sufficient to convince one that bee-
keepers are not as a rule sufficiently careful in cleaning their
wax. One large company of beekeepers puts up wax in
cakes just large enough to go into a shipping case such as is
used in shipping two 5-gallon square cans of extracted-
honey. Each cake is wrapped in paper and there is not a
particle of dirt on the bottom of the cake. This firm re-
ceives an equivalent of about two cents a pound more than
beekeepers similarly located and in fact has received over
five cents a pound more than beekeepers through whose
territory the wax passes on its way to market. The fact
that they produce several thousand pounds of wax a year
makes this a considerable item and it may not be so well
worth while for a beekeeper with only a little wax to ship
at one time.
340 Beekeeping
Special production of wax.
In the previous discussion it is assumed that beeswax
is always a by-product of the apiary, but the manipulation
of bees for the production of wax is a phase of beekeeping
which might well be tried in some tropical or sub-tropical
regions. If the honey is of low grade and the cost of trans-
portation is excessive, this should be tried. In Hawaii the
author advised 1 that by special manipulations the honey-
dew honey be converted into wax and this has been tried.
While the manipulation is reported not materially to have
reduced the output of honey-dew honey it did increase the
wax considerably. In Porto Rico and in other tropical
countries there are good locations from which the transpor-
tation of honey is almost impossible and the author advised 2
that this be tested out in Porto Rico. There are records
in bee journals of this being done with success in such lo-
calities but details are lacking so that to the present the sub-
ject is one chiefly of speculation. It is usually believed
that from seven to twenty pounds of honey are consumed
in the building of one pound of comb and in the literature
the preference is given to the higher estimates. However,
bees appear to build comb much more quickly than usual
under some conditions, and this suggests that because of
some physiological condition the building of comb is more
economical. Careful work as to the cost of wax in terms of
honey is greatly needed, as well as tests as to the possibility
of producing wax where honey is worth only about three cents
a pound at the apiary.
Uses of beeswax.
The only way in which the beekeeper utilizes beeswax
to any extent in his work is in the form of comb-foundation.
This is made of thin sheets of pure beeswax embossed with
1 Phillips, E. F., 1909. A brief survey of Hawaiian beekeeping, U. S.
Dept. of Agric. Bureau of Entomology, Bui. 75, Pt. V.
1 Phillips, E. F., 1914. Porto Rican beekeeping. Bui. 15, P. R. Agric.
Exp. Station.
The Production and Care of Beeswax 341
the bases of cells of the comb. It is supposed that Mehring
in 1857 made the first comb-foundation and during the next
twenty years some progress was made, but not until Root
(1876) made a machine by means of which foundation is
made between rollers was much advance made. Repeated
and continuous efforts to improve the product have led to
great advance in the reliability of the manufactured founda-
tion and comb-foundation is now used by all progressive
beekeepers. Better results are obtained if the wax is sheeted
and then put between the rollers under considerable pressure,
and as a result the home-made article is less dependable
than that made in well-equipped factories. Over 500,000
pounds of beeswax is annually made into comb-foundation
in the United States. The Rietsche press is used in Europe
but rarely in America. Two concrete or plaster of Paris
molds are made so that if hot wax is poured on one and the
other applied the wax is molded to foundation. This
foundation is soft, breaks easily and is more wasteful of wax
than that made on rolls.
As was stated earlier, comb-foundation is made of pure
wax. It is reported that in Europe it is sometimes adul-
terated by adding paraffin or cerasin, but it is claimed that
when this is done the foundation is not easily accepted by
the bees and sags badly after the comb is built. It may be
stated that the manufacturers of comb-foundation in this
country do not practice this deception and the author has
personal knowledge of several cases in which these manu-
facturers have rejected shipments of adulterated wax even
when offered at a very low price. This should give the Ameri-
can beekeeper confidence in the marketed product.
In addition to the use of beeswax in beekeeping it has
many uses in the arts, sciences and industries. It is ex-
tensively used in making candles, which are not molded as
are tallow candles but are made by pouring, drawing or
dipping. Beeswax candles are used chiefly in church cere-
monies. It is also used for making furniture and leather
polishes, sealing and grafting waxes and in making certain
342 Beekeeping
varnishes. It is also used in electrical work as an insulation
and to wax threads, especially in sewing leathers. Numer-
ous salves and cosmetics in which beeswax is an ingredient
are recommended in books on beekeeping, but it is surely
safer to take the advice of a physician on these matters.
In view of the fact that American beekeepers produce
relatively little beeswax in proportion to the extent of the
beekeeping industry, it is necessary to import a considerable
amount from other countries to supply the heavy demands.
This amounts to about 700,000 pounds annually.
CHAPTER XX
THE CARE OF BEES IN WINTER
FOR honeybees to survive the winter season in cold cli-
mates it is necessary that they be able to generate consider-
able heat. They cannot hibernate as do solitary insects
and they cannot migrate to warmer climates. The only
method open to them is, therefore, the storage of food and
the production -and conservation of heat when the outer
temperature falls below the critical temperature, 57 F.
The behavior of the cluster during the winter season has
been discussed in an earlier chapter (p. 88).
Losses in winter.
That the winter problem warrants considerable investi-
gation and study is shown by the fact that American bee-
keepers annually experience an average loss of probably
ten per cent of their colonies. The value of these amounts
to several million dollars and this loss and the weakening
of colonies serve further to discourage the beekeeper and to
reduce his income the following year. In certain years
the losses have been excessive. The season of 1884-85
stands out in the history of American beekeeping as one of
terrible devastation. During the winter of 1903-04 prob-
ably seventy percent of the bees in New England died while
in 1909-10 the loss was probably fifty per cent in the north-
eastern United States. The winter of 1911-12 was also
one of heavy mortality, the actual death of colonies costing
the beekeepers in the eastern United States millions of dol-
lars. The problem is therefore one of vital interest to the
beekeeper and is one of the most important in the develop-
ment of the industry.
343
344 Beekeeping
Object of winter protection.
In providing extra protection to the colonies outdoors
or in placing them in special cellars, the object of the bee-
keeper is to reduce the expenditure of energy on the part
of the bees. As was shown earlier (p. 128), a worker bee
may for all practical considerations be considered as capable
of only a certain amount of work and when this work is
performed the bee dies. Consequently if too much energy
is expended during the winter the entire colony may die,
or if some bees still live they are unable to do the work re-
quired of them in the spring. To conserve the energy to
the fullest extent there are numerous external factors which
must be considered by the beekeeper in planning for the
winter. ,
Requirements for successful wintering.
Before discussing the methods advocated for the care of
bees in winter, it will be well to name the factors which are
essential to the activities of bees during this season. First
of all, to winter well, a colony must be large enough to gen-
erate heat and to conserve it economically. It should
also contain a great number of young bees, full of vitality
and capable of prolonged heat production should this be-
come necessary. To accomplish these requirements breed-
ing should be prolonged in the fall. The colony should
also have a good queen capable of keeping up egg-laying
rather late and then able to permit the colony to build up
rapidly to full strength the following spring.
Winter stores.
The colony should be provided with an abundance of
food of good quality. No' food better than good honey has
ever been found for bees and the safest plan is to leave enough
in the hives to supply the bees without feeding. Not all
honeys are equally good and in general it is safe to consider
the lighter honeys preferable. The fall honeys are not
considered as good as those obtained earlier. There are
The Care of Bees in Winter 345
exceptions to these statements, however, since buckwheat
honey is satisfactory. Most honeys from tree sources are
not so good as those from smaller plants because of the higher
gum content. Honey-dew honey should not be left in the
hives for winter stores, but if some is present the danger may
be reduced by feeding ten pounds or more of sugar syrup
after brood-rearing ceases. In case the colony is found to
be short of stores a syrup made of granulated sugar may be
fed. If the feeding is done early, one part of sugar to one
part of .water (by measure) is a proper proportion, but for
later feeding one part of water to two and one-half parts of
sugar is preferable. To the latter syrup, add one teaspoonful
of tartaric acid to fifteen or twenty pounds of sugar while
it is being heated to change the cane sugar to invert sugar.
Heating should be continued until every crystal is dissolved.
Late feeding should be done rapidly. The use of candy
for colonies which exhaust their stores in winter should be
considered as an emergency treatment and nothing but
granulated sugar should be used in making the candy. Be-
fore cold weather arrives each colony to be wintered out of
doors should have in the combs thirty pounds of honey and
preferably more.
Cause and effects of humidity in the hive.
In winter, especially in a cold or poorly ventilated cellar,
the atmosphere in the hive may become so laden with
water vapor that water will condense on the cover, combs
and sides of the hive, drop to the bottom board and even
run out the entrance. The source of this moisture is, of
course, the food of the bees. Honey is a carbohydrate, and
when consumed ultimately becomes carbon dioxid and water,
one gallon of honey producing approximately one gallon
of water. Unless the moisture is carried off in the form of
vapor by convection currents in the atmosphere, it will
be condensed in the hive, for bees do not ventilate the hive
by fanning when clustered.
The condensation of water may be prevented by raising
346 Beekeeping
the temperature, by abundant ventilation or by artificial
drying, as by the use of unslaked lime. These methods
may be applied in the bee cellar. It should be recalled that
an increase in the temperature of the atmosphere increases
the capacity of the atmosphere for water vapor and thereby
decreases the relative humidity. 1
Bees need water in winter but they get enough in their
food provided the temperature does not get so high that
the relative humidity of the outer air is too low. The
optimum relative humidity has not been determined and,
in fact, virtually no observations have been made on the
relative humidity of the atmosphere of the hive or bee cellar.
Probably the great diversity of opinion as to the best tempera-
ture for the bee cellar is due to the unrecorded differences
in the relative humidity of the various cellars observed.
Effects of ventilation.
Ventilation of the hive and of the bee cellar depends upon
the currents of air caused by the differences in temperature
in two points, since bees do not mechanically ventilate
the hive in winter. The movements of air serve not only
to remove carbon dioxid and bring in oxygen but, probably
more important, they carry out the surplus water vapor.
Abundant ventilation is beneficial and becomes harmful
only if the temperature is too greatly reduced thereby. It
has been determined that bees survive in an atmosphere
which contains an unusually high percentage of carbon dioxid
but it is not wise to err on that side.
Source of heat and effects of changes of temperature.
It has been determined by Demuth and the author 2 that
bees generate heat in winter by muscular activity and that
1 The beekeeper interested in cellar wintering will do well to consult
Marvin, 1912, Psychrometric tables, Weather Bureau Publication 235
and other works dealing with the relation of relative humidity to tempera-
ture.
2 Phillips and Demuth, 1914. The temperature of the honey bee cluster
in winter. U. S. Dept. of Agric., Bulletin 93.
The Care of Bees in Winter 347
undisturbed broodless bees generate virtually no heat
between 57 and 69 F. (Fig. 141). When the temperature
of the air about the bees falls below 57 the bees form a
cluster and raise the temperature, often almost to blood
heat. It follows that when the temperature of the bees
is above 57 and below 69 F. they do less work than at
other temperatures and their energies are thereby conserved.
However, to raise the outer temperature to 57 F. often so
reduces the relative humidity of the surrounding air as to
create excitement in the cluster and thereby to destroy the
desirable condition. Other factors not yet worked out
probably have a bearing on this problem. The majority
of beekeepers consider 40 to 45 F. as the best cellar tem-
perature, but it is clear that the temperature can usually
be raised to at least 50 F. with beneficial results. Humidity
and ventilation are so intimately connected with tempera-
ture that one cannot be investigated separate from the
others.
Disturbance.
Any factor which induces undue activity in the winter
must be considered as a disturbing factor. For example,
low temperature, improper humidity, poor food or insuffi-
cient ventilation create an undue excitement which should
be avoided. Disturbance is usually considered, however, as
applying to manipulation of the colony or to jarring while
the colony is clustered. Any such circumstance causes the
colony to raise the temperature, which may not again become
normal for many hours. All manipulation or handling is
to be avoided, therefore, especially in cold weather or in
the cellar. Colonies sometimes begin brood-rearing in
winter, usually induced by some improper outside condi-
tion. The care of the brood then causes a high temperature
and corresponding excessive activity which decimates the
colony. Brood-rearing should so far as possible be avoided
until the bees can fly freely.
In this connection it will be recalled that breeding often
348
Beekeeping
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The Care of Bees in Winter 349
begins in colonies wintered out of doors during the coldest
weather. The previously mentioned results on colony tem-
peratures lend support to the theory that excessive outside
cold causes the raising of the temperature of the cluster to
the point where egg-laying is possible and that the beginning
of breeding is a response to the stimulus of external cold.
Similarly, colonies wintered in the cellar may have their
temperature raised by reason of an undue accumulation of
feces and breeding may be begun. If these theories are
tenable, winter breeding is to be considered as indicative of
poor wintering and there is abundant evidence that the best
results are obtained where no breeding takes place until the
bees fly freely.
METHODS OF WINTERING BEES
There are two main plans of wintering bees and it is often
difficult for the beekeeper to decide which he should adopt.
They may be left on their summer stands (Fig. 142) where
they are free to fly on warm days or they may be placed in a
cellar or special repository as a protection against extremes
of temperature, in which event they normally have no oppor-
tunity to fly and to void their feces until placed again in
their summer locations. C. C. Miller, in an excellent article l
on cellar wintering, concludes that in general up to 40
latitude it is better to winter outside, and north of that it is
questionable. However, he also points out the fact that
latitude or even isothermal lines cannot alone determine
this. Wind velocity and constancy and the facilities of the
beekeeper are important considerations. There seems to
be a growing sentiment among the beekeepers to prefer
to winter outdoors, but this should probably be considered
chiefly as indicating a lack of information concerning the
methods of getting optimum conditions in the cellar.
1 Miller, C. C., 1913. Some things about cellar-wintering. American
Bee Journal, LIII, pp. 271-273, 310-312.
350
Beekeeping
Outdoor wintering.
In warm situations, bees may be left outside all winter
with no added protection, for they are often able to with-
stand great hardship and may even survive zero weather
in a single-walled hive. However, if the energy of the colony
is to be properly conserved, they should not be called upon
to endure this. Beekeepers are coming to the view that
abundant packing is desirable and the tendency seems to be
FIG. 142. An apiary in winter.
to use more than was formerly thought necessary. Pack-
ing serves to prevent the loss of heat generated by the bees
and thereby materially lessens the muscular activity neces-
sary. Just as it is practically impossible to leave too much
honey in a hive for winter, so it has never been observed that
a colony is too thoroughly packed.
A commendable plan, which has been in use for many
years, is to place four colonies close together in a box, two
facing east and two facing west, leaving room for four to
six inches of planer shavings or dry leaves on all sides and
perhaps a foot on top. Sawdust is less desirable than fine
The Care of Bees in Winter 351
shavings because it holds water and thereby becomes a
poorer non-conductor. Tunnels through the packing pro-
vide entrances to the hives and the roof should be water
tight to prevent the packing from becoming wet from rain
or snow. This method of packing is used with excellent
results in many northern apiaries in the United States and
Canada. Packing may also be applied to each colony (Fig.
142) or to a row of hives in a variety of ways to suit the
convenience of the beekeeper.
To secure the most favorable conditions, each strong col-
ony may be given two hive-bodies well supplied with stores
and then if four colonies are packed together in a large box
as described above we have as nearly ideal conditions as
may be obtained in the open. The beekeeper may rest
assured that the labor involved in thoroughly packing his
colonies and in furnishing abundant stores will be repaid
many fold.
Colonies wintered outdoors should be provided with pack-
ing early. While the temperatures of autumn nights are
not so low as to endanger the bees, still the heat which must
be generated in an unpacked hive is an unnecessary drain
on the vitality and stores of the colony and for the average
northern apiary it is desirable that the colonies be packed
early in October. Similarly, the packing should not be
removed too early. When frequent examinations of the
colony become necessary, the temporary packing around the
hives becomes bothersome, but it is best to leave it on so
long as it does not interfere with the work of the apiary.
Where heavy outside packing is needed, the packing may
usually be kept on until some time in May.
To reduce convection currents a tall hive is to be preferred
in winter. For summer manipulations the majority of
American beekeepers prefer a hive not deeper than the
Langstroth, which is rather shallow for best results in winter.
This may be overcome by giving each strong colony two
hive-bodies, the top one being well filled with stores. If
such a hive is well packed it is highly satisfactory.
352 Beekeeping
Hives of various types are made in which insulation is
provided permanently, and were it not for the difficulty of
moving such hives they would probably be more in favor
among commercial beekeepers. Top packing is the most
beneficial and may profitably be retained throughout the
summer if practical.
Insulation for the conservation of heat is of the greatest
importance, but even a well insulated hive or group of hives
may not offer adequate protection unless sheltered from
strong winds. The enormous loss of heat due to wind is
usually not appreciated. A high fence or a heavy evergreen
hedge is the means of a great saving of bee vitality.
The weakest place in the protection of the colony is the
entrance. It is not safe to contract the entrance too much
for it may then become entirely closed by dead bees. Neither
is it safe to close the entrance entirely and provide indirect
ventilation for the bees become restless when confined.
The entrance should be closed as much as possible and yet
provide room for dead bees. An entrance f by 8 inches
is perhaps the largest ever needed in wintering outside
and this is often too large, especially for relatively weak
colonies.
The wrapping of hives in black tar paper and leaving
unprotected the fronts of the hives which face south are
often advocated on the theory that the heat of the sun will
more rapidly warm up the hive on bright days. Since the
sun shines on the hive only a small fraction of the time in
the average apiary in the winter season, the benefits of heat
from the sun should not be overestimated. Any arrange-
ment for absorbing heat from without is equally effective
in dissipating heat from within and consequently a heavy
packing on all sides is advisable. If possible it is best to
have the packing cases painted white to reduce loss of
heat.
To summarize : for outside wintering, leave abundant
stores, pack early and heavily, protect from wind and un-
pack late.
The Care of Bees in Winter
353
Cellar wintering.
It is much more difficult to give definite advice to the
beekeeper who wishes to winter his colonies in a cellar,
although there is theoretically every reason to consider
this the better method. If good food is given the colony
(and this is more important in the cellar than outdoors in
most climates) and if the cellar temperature and ventila-
tion are controlled properly, excellent results may be ob-
tained and a considerable saving made in the stores consumed,
although the saving of stores is a minor consideration. The
optimum cellar temperature, as stated above, is usually
believed to be between 40 and 45 F. It has been shown
that at such a cellar temperature the production of heat
is constantly necessary during the winter and this may be
reduced by raising the cellar temperature. Great care must,
however, be exercised that the bees do not become excited
and crawl out of the hives. In general a cellar temperature
of 50 F. or higher
results in a saving
of the vitality of
the bees. Suffi-
cient ventilation
should be pro-
vided to prevent
condensation of
water, which will,
however, be rare
at the higher cel-
lar temperature.
Light should be
excluded and the
colonies should be
FIG 143 _ Roof of a bee cellar away from a houge
absolutely undisturbed from the time they are put in place
until they are removed. Most beekeepers use the cellars
under their residences, but special cellars are often constructed
under the honey-house or in the apiary (Fig. 143). Since low
temperatures are to be avoided it is usually preferable to use a
2A
354
Beekeeping
cellar under the residence, especially if the house is heated by
a furnace. If separate cellars are built they should be ex-
ceptionally well insulated on all sides, top and bottom, so that
the heat generated by the bees will be sufficient to raise the
temperature of the cellar to at least 50 F. Honey is expen-
sive fuel and bees are costly furnaces, consequently artificial
FIG. 144. Arrangement of hives in a cellar.
heat combined with insulation will be found to result in
better wintering in most cases. Few of the special cellars
built away from the house are satisfactory and furthermore
if the bees are not near by there is danger that the beekeeper
will not give them the attention which they often need during
the confinement.
In the construction of the cellar, care should be exercised
to provide good drainage and ventilation should be adequate
The Care of Bees in Winter 355
to remove the moisture, so that condensed moisture will
never be observed on the bottom boards. If moisture con-
denses on the covers only it does no harm. Since adequate
ventilation without too great a reduction in temperature is
difficult without artificial heat, this is an additional argu-
ment in favor of using the cellar under the residence for the
bees.
Colonies should not be put into the cellar until all brood
has emerged and until all the young bees have had a chance
to fly to void their feces. There is a growing tendency at
present to put the colonies in early and this is to be com-
mended. After a good flight and after the bees are clustered,
the hives should be carried in with the least possible dis-
turbance. They may be piled one above the other as high
as convenient for lifting (Fig. 144) and the tiers should be
separated by alleys wide enough for convenient passage.
During the winter, dead bees should be removed from the
floor as well as from the bottom boards (with the minimum
disturbance) and a careful watch should be kept that the
bees do not become excited by too low or too high a tempera-
ture. A reliable thermometer is practically necessary in
good cellar wintering and the use of a sling psychrometer
(wet and dry bulb thermometer) to determine the relative
humidity of the air in the cellar is recommended. If the
bees remain in proper condition they may profitably be left
in the cellar until rather favorable weather arrives in the
spring. If dysentery develops they may require earlier
removal.
It is obviously impossible to give definite dates for putting
bees in the cellar or for taking them out. This the beekeeper
must determine according to the climatic conditions and,
of course, the dates may vary from year to year. Perhaps
the best advice is to put bees in the cellar immediately after
the last good flight in November. Naturally one cannot be
sure that bees will get a flight late in the month. It is also
not desirable to leave the bees outside waiting for a flight
which may not come, for feces accumulate rapidly in such
356 Beekeeping
cool weather, and if bees go into the cellar after being with-
out a flight for a couple of weeks they are poorly prepared
for the winter confinement. With improved cellar condi-
tions and with the proper food, bees may be put in earlier
without detriment.
It is often equally difficult to decide when bees should
be put back on their summer stands. They should not
be taken out until fresh pollen and nectar are available,
unless they show pronounced signs of dysentery, as indicated
by spotting of the hive or by undue excitement. If the
cellar temperature and humidity are right, they may prof-
itably be left in until danger of severe cold is practically past.
After colonies are removed from the cellar, they may
profitably be given protection to aid in the conservation
of heat. The elaborate packing used on colonies wintered
outdoors is not practical for the spring, but the more colonies
are protected from the wind and the more insulation that is
given to conserve heat, the better the bees are able to build
up rapidly to full strength.
Effects of confinement.
Bees normally do not eject their feces in the hive, and if
confined there for a time, either outdoors or in the bee cellar,
feces may so accumulate that the bees are unable to hold
them. The hive and combs are then spotted and this con-
dition the beekeeper knows as dysentery. The feces are
composed of the parts of the food which cannot be digested
and assimilated and of the excreted products. Therefore,
a food which contains an unusual amount of indigestible
material is ill suited for food during a period of confinement.
Honey-dew honey is specially bad, since it contains a rela-
tively large percentage of gums, and sugar syrup is ideal in
so far as the prevention of dysentery is concerned.
It has been shown in the paper previously mentioned that
the accumulation of feces causes the bees to become more
active, and this in turn causes an increase in the tempera-
ture of the cluster (Fig. 145). The temperature may finally
The Care of Bees in Winter
357
reach a point where brood-rearing may begin, and this with
the increased activity causes excessive feeding and still
greater accumulation of feces. It is therefore quite plain
that a good food free from gums is of primary importance
OCT:
i
i
V s -
FIG. 145. Diagram showing the effects of an accumulation of feces. The
heavy line represents the temperature of the cellar, the lighter ones
those inside the clusters. The colony which died in December was on
honey-dew stores and the one which lived through the winter was on
honey stores. Brood-rearing occurred in the honey-dew colony during
November and it also suffered from dysentery. ,
in successful wintering. If the bees are free to fly at fre-
quent intervals the inferior food will do less harm and bees
may even winter on honey-dew honey if there are no long
periods of confinement. It is, however, doubtful whether
they are as vigorous later on if the food is inferior.
358 Beekeeping
Years ago it was asserted 1 that the presence of pollen in the
hive where the bees could eat it is responsible for dysentery,
but later work and the experience of beekeepers do not warr
rant this conclusion. A suggestion made by Holterman is
worthy of consideration in this connection. He advocates
giving each colony ten pounds of sugar in the form of syrup
late in the fall to be sure they have enough food. This
serves another purpose, perhaps not fully appreciated. The
syrup will be stored next to the cluster, the bees will then
use it first and, since it contains no gums, the accumulation
of feces cannot occur until the syrup is exhausted.
Spring dwindling.
If the colony goes into winter quarters with few young
bees or if by excessive activity during the winter because
of poor care they age rapidly, the adult bees are often unable
to do the work required of them when brood-rearing begins.
Then they may die more rapidly than they are replaced by
the emerging bees. To this condition the- name spring
dwindling is applied. Obviously the proper course is to
prevent the condition. The prolonging of brood-rearing in
the fall and especially the giving of proper care in winter, in-
cluding good food and protection from cold, will prevent this
condition. If it should occur, it may be reduced somewhat
by abundant protection from cold and wind in the spring.
A final word of qualification should be inserted here at
the close of the discussion of the care of bees in winter.
An effort has been made to give the best advice possible in
the light of our present limited knowledge of this subject.
As the investigations proceed, some of the statements here
made may need qualification, and indeed with the facts at
hand some of them could be limited more than they now are.
1 Heddon, Jas., 1885. Success in bee culture. Dowagiac, Mich.
CHAPTER XXI
THE SOURCES OF NECTAR AND POLLEN
To the beekeeper who properly studies his locality, one
of the most important as well as often one of the most diffi-
cult tasks is to determine the sources from which his bees
gather nectar and pollen. The books and journals devoted
to beekeeping give considerable information concerning
honey-plants, but to learn which ones are to be considered
as of primary importance and to identify properly those on
which bees are seen working is sometimes difficult. In
localities where only one or two plants yield surplus, this
problem is relatively easy. For example, in part of the
irrigated regions of the West, alfalfa and sweet clover are
almost the only plants which the beekeeper need consider,
while in the northern part of the United States there are
localities where white clover is virtually the only surplus-
yielding species which need influence the apiary manage-
ment.
Reason for knowledge of nectar sources.
Since the beekeeper does not cultivate anything especially
for his bees, it may not be evident why he should study the
honey-plants. While it is true to a large extent that the
beekeeper must take whatever the plants in the region furnish,
he must, to be successful, know when the dependable plants
will bloom so that he may have his colonies strong and ready
to gather the harvest. In the establishment of out-apiaries
he should also study the country to decide on the best loca-
tions, those nearest to the most valuable and abundant
sources.
359
360 Beekeeping
Difficulties of identification.
At times this work calls for considerable knowledge of
botany, which most beekeepers cannot be expected to possess.
Because of errors in identification and failure to keep in
touch with recent advances in the science of botany, the
scientific names of the honey-plants in the books and journals
on beekeeping often do not agree with those of the leading
botanical works.
Study of neighboring locations.
It frequently happens that a beekeeper maintains his
apiary for years in one locality, sometimes experiencing a
total failure of his crop, when within a few miles of him
there are nectar resources on which he might draw, but of
which he is in ignorance. Many beekeepers have come to
see this only after they have established out-apiaries. A
beekeeper who is depending on his bees for a considerable
amount of his income should make a study of the regions
about him, perhaps for a distance of several miles, and when
he finds a locality which looks promising, but concerning
which he can get no definite information, it will pay to place
one or two colonies there and to inspect them at intervals
during the season. In this way, it is possible at times to
find locations favorable for migratory beekeeping. Any
swamps within moving distance should be investigated,
as these regions are more dependable than drier locations.
In view of the fact that many beekeepers by staying at
home are losing nectar that is abundant only a few miles
away, it is evident that scouting should be more generally
practiced. The increasing use of automobile trucks by
beekeepers will probably lead to more migratory beekeeping
than has existed in the past.
Function of nectar.
The nectar which is secreted in the flowers of numerous
species of plants is not a mere by-product of plant activity
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 361
but serves a definite function in the plant's life-cycle. There
are numerous adaptations of plant structure and physiology
which serve to bring about cross-fertilization, by which the
ovule of one flower is fertilized by pollen from another
flower, often from another plant of the same species. Pollen
of certain species is carried from flower to flower by the
wind but one of the most common methods is through the
agency of insects. The insects which perform this mission
are usually attracted by the nectar which the flowers secrete
and, in going from flower to flower to get this nectar for food,
they act as unconscious agents of cross-fertilization by carry-
ing pollen from the stamen of one flower to the pistil of
another. The nectar is therefore the attractive object in
this process.
Many insects do this work ; some flowers are visited
most frequently by flies, others by small wild bees, but a
honeybee not only goes for nectar for its own food but also
carries it to the hive for food for the brood and for the adults
in adverse seasons. It therefore makes many visits. The
honeybee is unique in many ways, not the least wonderful
of which is its hoarding instinct. That the honeybees gather
at times more than they need makes it profitable for the
beekeeper to care for them so that he may take this surplus.
In the adaptations of Nature, nectar is first of all to
attract insects, then when honeybees gather it, they do so
to feed themselves and their brood. The surplus honey
is therefore simply a by-product, an over-production due
to the prodigality of Nature, by which the beekeeper profits.
Unless gathered by the bees and appropriated in part by
the beekeeper, much of this nectar would simply dry up,
consequently honey-production is the conservation of a
natural resource, which if not taken immediately is lost.
Variations in nectar.
Nectar varies with each individual species of plant.
Since plants vary in the color of flowers, shape of leaves
and in innumerable other characters, it should not be a mat-
362 Beekeeping
ter of surprise that they also show marked differences in
color, water content and flavor of nectar. Not only do
flowers of different species of plants secrete nectar of various
types but nectar of any one species may differ according to
soil, climatic conditions and other environmental factors
influencing the growth of the plant, just as may the leaves
and other parts of the plants. For example, in Colorado
alfalfa honey is a beautiful white product but farther south
it is more amber in color. This may sometimes be due to
an admixture of other nectars.
Variation in secretion.
Nectar-secretion may, in a sense, be taken as an indica-
tion as to the most favorable conditions for growth of any
species and most species which furnish nectar are highly
susceptible in this respect to outside influences. Within the
limits of the geographical distribution of a nectar-secreting
species there may be a more restricted area in which the
flowers secrete nectar. The species may be rather prevalent
outside its usual nectar-secreting boundaries, but there is
probably some factor in the environment not best suited
to the plant if it fails to produce nectar. For example,
alfalfa is now grown in all sections of the United States
but the Mississippi River may be taken roughly as the eastern
boundary of its secreting area. White clover produces in
the northern part of the United States a superb honey,
often in exceedingly heavy honey-flows, but farther south
it becomes a honey-plant of secondary importance.
Effects of climatic conditions on secretion.
Any species of nectar-secreting plant is often rendered
non-productive by unfavorable weather conditions. The
smaller plants usually cease nectar-secretion at once in dry
weather, while the tree sources are less quickly affected.
Basswood seems to be an exception, however. Hot, sultry
weather with rains at night during the blooming period of
white clover usually brings a heavy honey-flow. The sages
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 363
of southern California secrete nectar in abundance only
if there is sufficient rainfall while the plants are growing,
preparatory to flowering. Because of this fact, the bee-
keepers of that region carefully watch the records of rain-
fall during the winter to judge as to their prospects for a
heavy honey-flow in the summer. The physiology of nec-
tar-secretion is so little understood, by beekeepers at any
rate, that we do not know the relative importance of tem-
perature, humidity, barometric pressure and other environ-
mental factors in bringing about abundant secretion. If
these influences were more carefully studied, the beekeeper
could better forecast his crop and plan his work day by day
during the season. As it is, he relies on his unbounded
hope of success to carry him through.
Advantages of swamp sources.
Since plants which grow in swamps are less subject to
changes in available moisture and usually get an abundance,
the swamp honey-plants are usually more dependable than
those growing in dry soils. In swamp lands, too, the honey-
plants are less liable to destruction through agricultural
operations and conditions are more likely to remain the same
year after year. These facts should be more generally
recognized by beekeepers seeking new locations for the es-
tablishment of apiaries. The tree sources are usually more
dependable than smaller plants.
Cultivation of plants for nectar.
It was stated earlier in this chapter that the beekeeper
does not cultivate anything especially for his bees. This
has been tried several times without profit. However,
plants which are nectar-producers and which also have a
value in some other respect may often be cultivated with
profit to the beekeeper. Alsike clover is an excellent honey-
plant and many beekeepers have materially improved their
ranges, either by planting this clover as a forage plant or
by encouraging neighboring farmers to do so. Buckwheat,
364 Beekeeping
alfalfa and cotton may also be mentioned among the culti-
vated plants of value to the beekeeper. In seeking to im-
prove a range by changing the flora, it is often profitable to
scatter seed of some plant which will occupy waste land.
Although the appreciation of the value of sweet clover as a
forage plant and soil renovator is increasing among farmers,
it is still valuable to the beekeeper chiefly as occupying
waste land, crowding out less valuable plants. The scatter-
ing of sweet clover seed along embankments and over waste
land has proved so profitable to beekeepers that the seed is
now offered for sale annually in the bee journals.*
Value of the minor sources.
Those plants which, because of scarcity or limited secre-
tion of nectar, fail to give the beekeeper a surplus are, never-
theless, of marked value and are worthy of more consider-
ation than they usually receive. The amount of honey
consumed by an average colony of bees in a year has been
variously estimated as from 200 to 600 pounds. 1 This will,
of course, vary according to the locality, strength of colony
and other factors. Accepting even the lowest figure, it
is evident that a moderate sized apiary obtains tons of sugar
from the flowers in the surrounding territory. While nectar
comes in abundantly enough at times to produce a surplus,
the beekeeper does not leave in the hives at the close of a
surplus honey-flow enough to feed the bees until another
major honey-flow, except possibly at the close of the season.
The bees are almost constantly gathering nectar from the
minor sources during the summer and the aggregate gathered
from these plants is enormous. If, for example, nectar were
obtained in the North from white clover only, at the close
of the flow the beekeeper would be compelled to leave about
1 A recent estimate is one made by Hommell (1913, [Consumption of a
hive of bees during the year] La Vie agricole et rurale, II, No. 22, pp.
653-655) in which it is concluded that an average of 480 pounds is needed,
divided as follows: maintenance of bees, 400 Ibs., feeding of brood, 70
Ibs., wax production, 10 Ibs.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 365
200 pounds for the bees, and there is rarely enough honey
from white clover to permit this. This indicates that the
beekeeper is debtor to the minor sources for much more
than he is accustomed to believe.
Gathering of pollen.
The amount of pollen consumed by a colony annually is
also considerable. Estimates of the averages in this phase
of bee feeding are not available, but there is, nevertheless,
some basis for judging the consumption. If during the
active season a colony becomes queenless and has no brood
to feed, the stores of pollen increase rapidly and several
combs are often filled in a short time. It can scarcely be
claimed that queenless bees gather more pollen than normal
ones and, in fact, it is sometimes stated that the gathering
is then reduced, so that it is safe to conclude that had brood
been present these extra stores of pollen would have been
consumed almost as fast as gathered. It must be true,
therefore, that a colony uses many frames of pollen in a
season, so that pollen sources are important to the beekeeper.
In gathering pollen a bee is less uniformly beneficial to
plants than when gathering nectar. They may cross-polli-
nate the flowers when so engaged but they are, at the same
time, appropriating a part of the pollen on which fertiliza-
tion depends. In some species of plants, an abundance of
pollen seems to serve as an attractive agent, just as does
nectar in those species provided with nectaries.
Value of bees in cross-pollination.
In discussing the plants from which bees gather nectar,
further mention should be made of the beneficial results
which arise from the visits of bees to the flowers of certain
fruits. As was explained earlier in this chapter, nectar is
serviceable to the plant in acting as an attraction to insect
visitors, which act as agents in cross-pollination. Because
of the mutual adaptations of the insects and plants, they
often become mutually indispensable. Some varieties of
366 Beekeeping
fruit trees are incapable of self-fertilization, in other cases
fertilization is more abundant with cross-pollination and
in no case is cross-pollination detrimental. It is therefore
evident that successful fruit-growing is dependent on insect
visitation. Of all the insects which serve the fruit-grower,
there is none more efficient than the honeybee. Further-
more, in one important respect the honeybee becomes the
most dependable of all. At the season when the fruit trees
blossom, insects of the wild species may be scarce, having
been decimated by severe winter conditions, and we have
no way of increasing their number. While honeybees also
suffer, sometimes severely, from winter conditions, it is
relatively easy not only to build up the colonies in the early
spring but to bring in additional colonies as agents of fertili-
zation. It therefore is a simple matter for the fruit-grower
to provide insects to fertilize his blossoms, if the weather
is suitable for flights during the blooming period. Progres-
sive fruit-growers in all parts of the country are coming more
and more to realize this and many of them now keep bees
solely for the benefits to the fruit crops.
Since it unfortunately sometimes happens that ignorant
or incorrectly informed fruit-growers do considerable injury
to colonies of bees in their neighborhood by spraying their
trees with poisonous chemicals while in full bloom, it may
be well to examine the facts to determine who receives the
greatest benefits from the presence of bees in the average
farming community. If one examines a fruit tree in full
bloom, many species of insects will be found at work on the
blossoms, gathering or eating nectar and pollen. These
numerous species vary greatly in their efficiency in bring-
ing about cross-pollination, and no species is better fitted
by structure or behavior for this work than the honeybee.
Furthermore, if colonies of bees are to be found near by, as
there generally are, there are usually as many honeybees on
the trees as there are insects of all other species combined.
Insects of many of the visiting species stay only long enough
to get sufficient to eat to satisfy their own immediate needs,
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 367
but the honeybees hurry back and forth from the hive, mak-
ing repeated visits and cross-fertilizing innumerable blossoms,
in their efforts to increase the colony stores. The honey
obtained from fruit blossoms is usually small in quantity
and serves only to stimulate brood-rearing, but in getting
it the bees benefit the fruit-grower to an extent which can
scarcely be over-estimated. One peculiarity of behavior
is worthy of special mention in this connection. Honey-
bees rarely go from one species of flower (p. 119) to another
(unless the flowers are virtually identical) while on one trip
from the hive. There is also evidence worthy of belief
that an individual honeybee confines its visits to one species
of plant, sometimes for several days. For example, a bee
will not be seen flying from an apple blossom to a dandelion
flower growing beneath the tree and then perhaps back to
an apple blossom. Consequently, on visiting an apple
blossom it does not present dandelion pollen or, in fact, any
pollen other than that from the apple and, by virtue of this
constancy, the benefits of the visits of honeybees are increased
many fold.
In view of these facts, it is not difficult to believe that in
many orchards over half of the fruit set is to be attributed
to the visits of the honeybees. Were this estimate reduced
to ten per cent, which even an avowed enemy of the bee
would consider too low, it appears that the fruit-growers
receive more actual financial benefit from the presence of
bees in the average farming community than do the beekeep-
ers who own them. It therefore appears quite obvious
that it is to the interest of fruit-growers to encourage bee-
keeping in every way in their immediate localities.
Damaging effects of incorrect spraying.
Since the spraying of fruit trees while in bloom is highly
injurious, not only to honeybees but to all of the insect
visitors, it is evident that such spraying is to that extent
detrimental to the interests of the fruit-grower himself.
Since spraying in full bloom is not necessary to control the
368 Beekeeping
codling moth and is not advised by entomologists and since
it is injurious to bees, several States, at the instigation of
the beekeepers, have enacted laws prohibiting such spraying.
However, it is difficult to enforce such a law and, through
ignorance, carelessness or neglect, serious damage is done to
beekeepers at times. It may also be added that spraying
in full bloom not only is unnecessary and detrimental to
bees but it directly injures the fruit blossoms. 1 It is there-
fore evident that in the light of our present knowledge,
spraying fruit trees while in full bloom is unwarranted and
unwise.
Bees do not puncture ripe fruit.
In discussing the relationship existing between beekeeping
and fruit-growing, there still remains one source of misunder-
standing between men engaged in these branches of agri-
culture which should be mentioned. Fruit-growers often
make the statement that honeybees puncture ripe fruit to
suck the juices, thereby causing considerable financial loss,
as well as hindering the picking of the fruit. This claim has
been the cause of ill-feeling in certain localities. It has,
however, been abundantly demonstrated that honeybees do
not puncture the skin of any fruit. To show this, if a colony
of bees is confined in a hive without honey and is given spec-
imens of sound fruit, the bees will die of starvation without
puncturing a single fruit. On the other hand, if an apple,
plum or grape is punctured, even slightly, and given to bees
in this way they will suck all the juice. If it is maintained
that confined bees may act differently from those free to fly,
it may be replied that no one has ever seen honeybees punc-
ture fruit either by stinging or biting. Furthermore, if
there is any nectar available, honeybees will always take
that in preference to the juice of injured fruits. If then a
fruit-grower sees honeybees sucking his fruit, he may be sure
1 Cf. Beach, S. A., and Bailey, L. H., 1900. Bui. 196, N. Y. Agric. Exp.
Sta., Geneva.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 369
that the fruit was first damaged by some bird, by some other
insect (e.g. hornet), by a bruise or by some form of decay
and he may further be certain that the bees are sucking the
juices of only damaged, unmarketable fruit. It may also
be added that fruit juices are most undesirable stores for
bees and, if used exclusively in winter, the colony will prob-
ably die. The beekeeper is therefore often being injured as
much as the fruit-grower when the bees suck overripe or
injured fruits.
Beekeepers naturally appear biased in seeking to prove
the bee a harmless and solely beneficial insect. They even
minimize the annoyance of the stings in their loyalty to the
bee. In pointing out the benefits of bees and denying in-
juries so often laid at their door, the present writer may also
be accused of this bias. The investigations that have been
made, however, uniformly support the contentions of the
bee enthusiasts and the supposedly harmed fruit-grower
should be led to suspect that his judgment is in error. The
ranks of the bee advocates are year by year being materially
augmented by fruit-growers who have become convinced of
the correctness of the attitude that the beekeeper maintains
toward his bees.
Supposedly poisonous honeys.
Frequent mention is made in the literature on bees of
supposedly poisonous honeys. It is of course true that the
juices of many plants are poisonous to man and this may be
the foundation for the belief that nectar of such species also
contains the poisonous principles. Among the plants some-
times reported to produce poisonous nectar from which
poisonous honeys are made by the bees, are mountain laurel
(Kalmia latifolia), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), yellow
jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens) , sweet pepper bush
(Clethra alnifolia) and rhododendrons (one species of which
is supposed to be the source of honey reported by Xenophon
as having poisoned his soldiers) . It would be unsafe to deny
that the nectar of any plant produces a poisonous honey, but
2B
370 Beekeeping
it is certain that not all of the plants named above produce
such honey. Mountain laurel, yellow jessamine and rho-
dodendrons are abundant in the lower Appalachian Moun-
tains and there are more bees to a square mile in this section
than anywhere else in the United States. Assuredly much
nectar is gathered by bees from these plants, and if all the
honey from these sources were poisonous there would be an
epidemic of poisoning annually in this region. Clethra is the
source of much honey, eaten widely with immunity. If any
plant is ever the source of poisonous honey, this fact should
be determined and made known, but the vague rumors now
current are valueless. It should be remembered in this
connection that certain individuals have idiosyncrasies
toward certain foods and this may account for some of the
recorded cases of honey poisoning. In some rare individuals
the eating of honey from any source or thick sugar syrup
causes violent pains in the stomach. Until physiologists
agree as to the cause of this phenomenon it is unsafe to
speculate, but assuredly honeys should not be ranked as
poisonous because they cause distress in eccentric indi-
viduals.
Plant honey-dew.
By all odds, the main source of the sugars that bees get
is nectar from flowers. There are other sources which should
be mentioned, however, which occur more frequently than
is recognized by beekeepers. In the absence of floral nectar,
bees gather sugars from any available source, giving prefer-
ence to those which have attractive odors. Many species of
plants are provided with glands which secrete sweet liquids
and which are located outside the flowers (extra-floral nec-
taries). Examples of this are found on the leaves of cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum) and Hawaiian hau (Hibiscus or Par-
itium tiliaceum, on outside of flower bracts also). Various
acacias have glands on the stems. Other examples are
found on castor beans (Ricinus) and partridge-pea (Cham-
cecrista fasciculata) and other cases are mentioned in the
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 371
list of honey-plants at the close of this chapter. To the
product which the bee makes from sugar from these sources
the name plant honey-dew honey is given.
Insect honey-dew.
The main source of honey-dew is, however, not plant
secretion but insect excretion. Certain plant-sucking
insects, belonging to the order Hemiptera, such as plant-
lice (Aphidae), scale insects (Coccidse), leaf hoppers (Jas-
sidse), white flies (Aleyrodidse) and tree hoppers (Mem-
bracidse), all belonging to the Homoptera, suck the juices
of the various plants on which they are specifically parasitic
and the portion of the sap not utilized by the sucking insect
is ejected, falling on the leaves and stems of the plant and
even running off to the ground below. Many of these juices
are sweet and are gathered by bees exactly as they gather
nectar,, except that if nectar is available honey-dew is aban-
doned. This is carried to the hive, ripened and sealed,
making what is known as honey-dew honey. This substance
is high in its content of gums and is a poor food for bees in
winter. It was formerly believed that the honey-dew of
some aphids was secreted from the tubular processes on
the dorsal side of the abdomen but it is now established
that it is an intestinal excretion, just as in the other families.
Honey-dew is gathered by ants perhaps more than by
bees.
The sugars in honey-dew honey are the same as those in
honey and the chief chemical difference is in the higher
percentage of gums. The flavor is usually poor, and most
honey-dew honeys are dark in color and granulate quickly,
often before sealing. An exception is that from the sugar-
cane leaf-hopper (Perkinsiella saccharicida) of Hawaii which
rarely granulates. Honey-dew honey is probably much more
common than is appreciated by beekeepers, for the excreting
insects are present in millions every summer and probably
many of our honeys contain small amounts of this substance.
It is not unlikely that the variation in gum content of hon-
372 Beekeeping
eys and the variation in color from a supposedly uniform
floral source may in part be due to varying admixtures of
honey-dew.
In the summer of 1909, honey-dew honey was exceptionally
abundant throughout the eastern United States. This was
due not only to the shortage of nectar but to an exceptionally
large number of aphids. The prevalence of these insects is
determined largely by immediate climatic conditions and
they are destroyed by millions by heavy rains. Dry seasons
may therefore dry up the nectaries and at the same time
allow plant-lice to propagate excessively, giving us our
honey-dew seasons.
ANNOTATED LIST OF HONEY-PLANTS
In the following list an effort is made to give the plants of
value to the beekeeper, as sources of nectar and pollen, with
brief notes which will be helpful in determining the relative
importance of the various species. While this list is chiefly
for plants in the United States, mention is made of some
important plants of tropical America, especially of Hawaii
and Porto Rico. The list will also apply to Canada.
The arrangement of these notes in alphabetical order is
adopted as placing the notes where they will first be sought
by the majority of readers, under the common name of the
species. The following of the natural order, by families and
genera, would show relationships which can only be sug-
gested here by naming under each family the species of that
family that are mentioned in the notes.
This list is unavoidably incomplete because so little sys-
tematic work has been done on honey-plants. There are
hundreds of valuable notes on these plants in the bee journals
but they are hard to find and often it is impossible to tell
what species is being discussed since the scientific name is
not given or is given incorrectly and since the same common
name is sometimes given to two or more species in various
parts of the United States.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
373
Acacias, wattles, Acacia spp. Shrubs or trees, flowers small, in
heads. Catclaw, A. Greggii, May and July. Honey white,
fine flavor. Catclaw, A. Greggii and A. Wrightii, semi-arid
regions of Texas and Arizona. Catclaw and the closely related
huajilla, Havardia ( Xygia) brevifolia, are of first rank among
honey-plants. The various wattles are listed as important
honey sources in Australia, Africa and tropical America.
Black wattle, A. decurrens mollis, and other species are of
value in California and in Hawaii. Huisache, A. (Vachellia)
Farnesiana, is also present along the Rio Grande. A. con-
stricta, June, Arizona. Vari-
ous species in subtropical re-
gions, probably all valuable.
Aceraceae ; see Maple family.
^sculaceae ; see Buckeye family.
Ailanthus, tree of heaven, Ailanthus
glandulosa. Native of China,
reported in eastern United
States and as valuable in Cali-
fornia. Honey ill-tasting.
Extra-floral nectaries present.
Ailanthus family, Simarubacese ;
see Ailanthus and Manchineel.
Alder, Alnus spp. Pollen.
Alfalfa, M edicago saliva (Fig. 146).
Perennial, 12-18 inches, ex-
cessively branched after cut-
ting, short raceme of blue or
violet flowers. Blooms several
times during summer, depending on number of cuttings. Honey
light in color, granulates quickly, especially after extraction,
flavor excellent. Grown throughout United States but valuable
as a honey-plant only west of Mississippi River (except in rare
cases). Native of old world. The main source of honey in the
irrigated regions of Colorado, Utah and other western states.
The honey from this source is reported as amber from more
southern localities, but this may be due to an admixture of
other honeys. Alfalfa honey is produced extensively as comb-
honey, but in this form it suffers in comparison with that of
the clovers because of rapid granulation. The flavor is de-
scribed as mint-like. Also called Spanish trefoil, lucerne and
purple medic. An excellent forage plant yielding several crops
a season. Frequently cut before or during blooming period.
M. denticulata and M. lupulina reported from California.
Alfileria, pin clover, Er odium cicutarium. Annual, April-Septem-
FIG. 146. Alfalfa.
374 Beekeeping
her, throughout United States, especially California. Native
of old world; honey of good quality, pollen abundant. E.
moschatum, good in California.
Algaroba; see Mesquite and also Saman.
Alsike clover, Trifolium hybridum. Perennial, erect, 1-2 feet,
quite similar to white clover except in size. Cultivated ex-
tensively (usually with timothy) for hay. Flowers white
tipped with pink, to pink. May-October, but especially June-
July. Honey only slightly darker than that from white
clover. This clover is rapidly increasing in importance to the
beekeeper. Called also Swedish clover. Not a hybrid^Jbe-
tween white and red clovers as name indicates.
Amaryllidaceae ; see Amaryllis family.
Amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae ; see Century Plant and Lophiola.
Ambrosiaceae ; see Ragweed family.
American bee balm ; see Horsemint.
American holly ; see Gallberry.
Ampelopsis, Ampelopsis spp. Nectar, pollen.
Anacardiaceae ; see Sumac family.
Anemone, Anemone quinquefolia. Pollen.
Antigonon (Corculum). Listed by Root, 1910, Florida, California,
tropics.
Apple, Pyrus Mains (Fig. 2). Honey light amber, superb; pollen.
Apple family, Malaccas (a subfamily of Rosacese) ; see Pear, Apple,
Juneberry and Haws.
Aquif oliaceae ; see Holly family.
Asclepiadaceae ; see Milkweed family.
Ash, Fraxinus spp. Pollen.
Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis. Honey amber, pollen.
Asters, Aster spp. Perennial (rarely annual), 1-4 feet or more,
ray flowers white or purple, sometimes pink or blue, July to
frost. Honey amber in color, flavor often pronounced.
Throughout the United States, especially in North, different
species being adapted to differences in soils and moisture.
A. ericoides and A. novce-anglice are said to be the most val-
uable to the beekeeper. The goldenrods which bloom at the
same time and which are more conspicuous get much of the
credit for nectar-secretion which belongs rightly to the asters.
Valuable especially in providing winter stores, although the
so-called fall honeys are not so good for this purpose as the
purer types of honey (see Wintering). Britton and Brown
mention 142 species of this genus in the United States and 250
species in all. Plants of related genera are also sometimes
known as asters. The species blooming early are rarely
valuable as honey-plants.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
375
Azalea, wild honeysuckle, Azalea spp. Some nectar, pollen.
Ball or button sage ; see Sage.
Banana, Musa spp. Cultivated in Florida and extensively in
tropical America. Pollen.
Banana family, Musaceae; see Banana.
Barberry, Berberis vulgaris. Pollen, nectar.
Barberry family, Berberidaceae ; see Barberry, Berberis pinnata
and B. trifoliolata.
Bass wood, linden, whitewood, Tilia americana (Fig. 147). In
forests and in moist soils,
tree to 125 feet, leaves
oblique, flowers borne on
bracts 2-4 inches, June-
July (usually at end of
white clover honey-flow).
Honey light amber to
white, flavor when un-
mixed is pronounced (es-
pecially if extracted when
unripe) and not especially
pleasant, but when mixed
with white clover honey
is exceptionally fine. In
rich woods in northeast-
ern United States and in
mountains south to Geor-
gia, west to Nebraska.
Formerly much more
abundant. The culti-
vated species, T. europcea,
is equally valuable when
present. The wood is
used in making the one-piece sections used almost universally
for comb-honey. Nectar secretion quickly affected by adverse
weather conditions. A heavy yielder when weather preceding
the honey-flow is favorable. The heavy cutting of these trees
has greatly decreased the importance of this tree to the bee-
keeper. The name linn (or lin) or lime tree is given to the
European species, T. europcea. T. heterophylla is also common
(called bee- tree). T. pubescens has a more southern distribu-
tion. The other species of Tiliacese are mainly tropical.
Bayberry ; see Sweet-Gale.
Bayberry family, Myricaceae ; see Sweet-Gale.
Bearberry ; see Manzanita.
FIG. 147. Basswood.
376 Beekeeping
i
Bee balm, Melissa officinalis. Nectar.
Beech, Fagus spp. Pollen.
Beech family, Fagaceae; see Beech, Chinquapin, Chestnut and
Oak.
Bee-tree ; see Basswood.
Beggar's tick; see Spanish Needle.
Bell-flower, campanula, campanilla, Ipomoea spp. Of primary
importance in Cuba, honey white of finest flavor. Other
species in this family furnish nectar.
Bell-flower family, CampanulaceaB ; see Bell-flower.
Berberidaceae ; see Barberry family.
Berberis pinnata. California. Honey amber.
Berberis trifoliolata. Texas, January-February, nectar and abun-
dant pollen.
Betulaceae ; see Birch family.
Bignoniaceae ; see Trumpet-creeper family.
Birch, Betula spp. Pollen.
Birch family, Betulacese ; see Hornbeam, Hazelnut, Birch and Alder.
Blackberry ; see Raspberry.
Black mangrove, Avicennia nitida. Perhaps the most abundant
source of nectar ever observed. Killed by frost in Florida in
1894 and is returning abundantly. Found in Porto Rico.
Black sage ; see Sage.
Black ti-ti ; see Ti-ti.
Black walnut, Juglans nigra. Pollen.
Black wattle ; see Acacia.
Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis. Pollen.
Bloodwort family. Haemodoracese; see Morong.
Blueberry, Vaccinium spp. Nectar, pollen.
Blue-curls, Trichostema lanceolatum. Honey white, granulates
quickly, August-November.
Blue gum ; see Eucalyptus.
Blue-thistle ; see Viper's Bugloss.
Blueweed ; see Viper's Bugloss.
Bokhara clover ; see Sweet Clover.
Boneset, thoroughwort, Eupatorium perfoliatum. Nectar. Autumn.
Borage family, Boraginaceae ; see Viper's Bugloss.
Boraginaceae ; see Borage family.
Buckeye, JEsculus glabra. Pollen, nectar.
Buckeye family, ./Esculacese ; see Horsechestnut, Buckeye and
California Buckeye.
Buckthorn, coffee berry, Rhamnus cathartica.
Buckthorn family, Rhamnacese; see Buckthorn, Cascara Sagrada,
Coffee Berry, White Lilac and Rattan Vine.
Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum (Fig. 148). Annual, 1-3 feet,
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
377
blooms June-September, depending on time of planting. Honey
dark purple in color, flavor strong and rank, of use mainly in
baking, body usually heavy although
in rapid flows it may be thin. In New
York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, espe-
cially, but found in almost all parts of
northern United States. Native of old
world. Sometimes escapes from culti-
vation. Reliable as a nectar plant es-
pecially in more northern localities.
Nectar secreted most abundantly in the
morning.
Buckwheat family, Polygonacese ; see Wild
Buckwheat, Antigonon, Buckwheat,
Heartsease and Polygonum lapathi-
folium.
Bur-marigold ; see Spanish Needle.
Bush clovers, Lespedeza spp.
Butterfly-weed ; see Milkweed.
Button-bush, honey-balls, Cephalanthus oc-
cidentalis. In swamps, honey mild,
light color.
FIG. 148. Buckwheat.
Cabbage palmetto, Sabal palmetto. To 30 feet, July- August, honey
white, mild, Florida.
Cabbage tree ; see Moca.
Cactaceae ; see Cactus family.
Cactus, prickly pear, Opuntia spp. Locally in deserts and semi-
arid regions, honey heavy of poor flavor.
Cactus family, Cactacese; see Cactus.
Caesalpinaceae ; see Senna family.
California buckeye, JEsculus californica. Considerable nectar.
Reported that the honey poisons the bees (California) ; more
than doubtful.
California laurel, Umbellularia californica.
California poppy, Eschscholtzia californica.
some nectar, California.
Campanula ; see Bell-flower.
Campanula ; see Bell-flower.
Campanulaceae ; see Bell-flower family.
Canada thistle, Carduus arvensis. Honey of good quality.
Caper family, Capparidacese ; see Cleome and Jackass Clover.
Capparidaceae ; see Caper family.
Caprifoliaceae ; see Honeysuckle family.
Carpet-grass, Lippia nodiflora. Of value in California.
December-March.
March-July, pollen,
378 Beekeeping
Carrot family, Umbelliferse. Various species are of minor impor-
tance as sources of nectar and pollen.
Cascara Sagrada, Rhamnus Purshiana. Honey dark, does not
granulate. California.
Catalpa, catawba, Catalpa speciosa. Of little value.
Catawba ; see Catalpa.
Catnip, Nepeta Cataria. Nectar. Unimportant.
Century plant, Agave americana. Heavy yielder in semi-arid tropi-
cal localities, July August. Also other species of Agave.
Chestnut, Castanea dentata. Some nectar, pollen.
Chicory, Cichorium Intybus. July-October, eastern United States,
Chicory subfamily ; see Chicory, Dandelion and Sow Thistle.
China-tree, Pride of India, Melia azedarach. Spring, of value in
early brood-rearing, Texas.
Chinquapin, Castanea pumila. Honey dark amber of most unpleas-
ant flavor, Georgia and other
southern States.
Cichoriacese ; see Chicory.
Cistacese ; see Rock-rose family.
Citrus fruits, lime, orange, grape fruit,
lemon, Citrus spp. Cultivated,
Florida, California, Texas, some
species wild in Florida. Trees.
Honey white, heavy body, deli-
cious flavor. The value of these
trees to the beekeeper is probably
overestimated and honey from
other sources is probably sold as
" orange honey," under which name
the citrus honeys are usually all
sold.
Clematis, Clematis sp. Superb honey
when sufficiently abundant, New
England. Pollen.
Clematis ligusticifolia. In hills of Cali-
fornia, June-July. Pollen abun-
dant.
Cleome, spider-flower, Cleome serrulata
and C. spinosa (Fig. 149). Herbs
2-3 feet, erect, flowers pink or white
FIG. 149 Spider-flower in c serru i ata , purple in C. spinosa.
C. serrulata in prairies Illinois west
to Rocky Mountains ; C. spinosa, from tropical America, some-
times cultivated, Illinois to Louisiana. C. serrulata is called
Rocky Mountain Bee-plant by Colorado beekeepers. Under
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
379
favorable conditions both species are heavy yielders, but they
are, nevertheless, not of primary importance.
Clethraceae ; see White Alder family.
Clover ; see Sweet Clover, White Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson
Clover, Bush Clovers and Alfileria.
Cocklebur, Xanthium pennsylvanicum. Pollen in Autumn
Cocoanut palm, Cocos nucifera. Honey amber, of secondary im-
portance, West Indies.
Coffee berry, Rhamnus californica. Honey amber, April-May.
Foothills of Sierra Nevada Mountains.
Coffee berry; see also Buck-
thorn.
Compositse ; see Thistle family.
Coral-berry; see Indian Cur-
rant.
Corculum ; see Antigonon
leptopus.
Coreopsis ; see Spanish Needle.
Corn, Zea mays. Pollen. Re-
ported as sometimes yield-
ing nectar from the tassels.
Cornaceae ; see Dogwood
family.
Cotton, Gossypium hirsutum
(Fig. 150). Cultivated,
southern States. June-
August. Increasing in
importance. Extra-floral
nectaries on leaves and
bracts.
Cowpea, Vigna sinensis.
Honey light, of poor flavor. Bees get nectar from extra-floral
nectaries.
Creeping thyme, Thymus Serpyllum. Perennial herb, branched,
creeping, forming dense mats, flowers in clusters. Honey
probably amber, flavor not as good as that of many other
honeys. In thickets and waste places south to Pennsylvania.
June-September. Native of Europe. From a plant of this
genus the celebrated honey of the ancient Greeks was pro-
duced, especially on Mount Hymettus.
Crimson clover, Trifolium incarnatum. Annual erect, 6-30 inches,
flowers crimson in long heads. Honey quite like that of
white clover. Cultivated for hay and in waste places. Na-
tive of Europe. Blooms somewhat earlier than the other
clovers.
FIG. 150. Cotton.
380
Beekeeping
Crowfoot family. Rammculacese ; see Anemone, Liverwort,
Clematis and Meadow-rue.
Cruciferae ; see Mustard family.
Cucumber ; see Gourd family.
Cucumber tree ; see Tulip Poplar.
Cucurbitaceae ; see Gourd family.
Currant, Ribes spp. Pollen, nectar.
Cyperacese ; see Sedge family.
Cyrilla family, Cyrillacese ; see Ti-ti.
Cyrillaceae ; see Cyrilla family.
Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, or Leontodon Taraxacum (Fig.
151). Perennial herb growing close to ground. Flowers
yellow, blooms throughout
year but most abundantly in
early spring (with or following
fruit bloom in North) . Honey
amber. In waste places and a
weed in lawns and fields
throughout the United States.
Not valuable as a source of
surplus honey, but especially
helpful in building up colonies
in early spring.
Date palm, Phoenix dactylifera.
Abundant nectar, California,
Arizona.
Desert willow, Chilopsis linearis.
New Mexico.
Dogwood family, Cornacese ; see
Tupelo.
Dutch clover ; see White Clover.
Ebenaceae ; see Ebony family.
Ebony family, Ebenaceae ; see Per-
simmon.
Elder, Sambucus spp. Pollen,
nectar.
Elm, Ulmus spp. Pollen.
Elm family, Ulmacese; see Elm,
FIG. 151. Dandelion.
Granieno and Hackberry.
English walnut, Juglans regia. Nectar, pollen.
Ericaceae ; see Heath family.
Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus spp. Numerous species of value intro-
duced into California. The species vary greatly in nectar
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 381
secretion. Honey-scented gum, E. melliodora, swamp mahog-
any gum, E. robusta, white iron wood, E. leucoxylon, and blue
gum, E. globulus, are those most valued. Primary honey
plants in Australia. Honey sometimes strong flavored.
Eucalyptus family, Myrtaceae ; see Eucalyptus and Rose Apple.
Evening primrose family, Onagraceae ; see Willow-herb.
Eysenhardtia, rock brush, Viborquia orthocarpa. Important in
southwest Texas.
Fagaceae; see Beech family.
Figwort family, Scrophulariacese ; see Mullen and Simpson's
Honey Plant.
Fireweed, Erechtites hieracifolia. Eastern United States, July-
September.
Fireweed ; see also Willow-herb.
Frostweed ; see Rockrose.
Gallberry, inkberry, Ilex glabra. Shrub, 2-6 feet, leaves ever-
green, few teeth at apex or entire. May- July. Honey light
color and of fine quality. Sandy soils, Massachusetts to
Florida, west to Louisiana, mainly along coast, abundant in
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama,
especially in cut-over forest lands. An important and in-
creasingly valuable source of nectar in the southern States
where considerable honey is produced (chiefly for local con-
sumption). A reliable yielder. Other species of holly are also
valuable, as American holly, 7. opaca, April- June.
Geraniaceae ; see Geranium family.
Geranium family, Geraniaceae ; see Alfileria.
Goldenrod, Solidago spp. Perennial herbs, 15 feet, flowers
generally yellow in panicles or heads, August to frost. Honey
golden yellow, not of finest flavor, heavy body. Various
species are adapted to all types of soil, but those growing in
moist soils are the only ones of value to the beekeeper. The
value of the goldenrods is probably exaggerated. In many
places they are the most conspicuous flowers in the fall and
get credit for honey which probably comes mainly from the
asters. Eighty-five species, mostly in North America. The
species which bloom early are usually valueless. The odor of
the fall honeys is so pronounced that it can be detected some
distance from the hive when freshly gathered.
Gooseberry, Grossularia spp. Pollen, nectar.
Gooseberry family, Grossulariaceae ; see Gooseberry and Currant.
Gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. Various species furnish pollen and
nectar, especially the genera Cucurbita, Cucumis and Citrullus,
pumpkin, squash, cucumber and watermelon.
382 Beekeeping
Gramineae ; see Grass family.
Granjeno, Celtis pallida. Southwest Texas, of value.
Grape family, Vitaceae ; see Grapes, Ampelopsis and Virginia Creeper.
Grape fruit ; see Citrus Fruit.
Grapes, Vitis spp. Pollen, some nectar.
Grass family, Graminese; see Sorghum and Corn. Wind pol-
linated, some species visited for pollen.
Greasewood, Adenostema fasciculatum. April- July. California.
Grossulariaceae ; see Gooseberry family.
Guam ; see Guava.
Guava, Inga vera, and guami, /. laurina. Of primary importance
in Porto Rico, found elsewhere
in West Indies and Central
America.
Gum; see Eucalyptus.
Hackberry, Celtis spp. Nectar,
abundant pollen.
Haemodoraceae ; see Bloodwort
family.
Hamamelidaceae ; see Witch-hazel
family.
Haws, Cratsegus spp. Nectar,
pollen.
Hazelnut, Corylus spp. Pollen.
Heartsease, lady's thumb, smart-
weed, Persicaria persicaria
(Fig. 152). Annual herb, 6-24
inches or more (especially in
middle west). Flowers in
dense racemes, pink and
purple, June-October, espe-
cially August-October. Honey
light amber to dark, flavor
good but easily lost by heat-
FIP 1*52 Hearts ing ' S ranulates - On waste
J; 16. J.O . XltJElrLSvJclSG. T i .-* i ji TT j i
land throughout the United
States, often abundant. An important source in middle west.
Native to old world. The common name heartsease is given
to this plant by most beekeepers. There are about 200 species
of this genus, 71 occurring in North America, probably most
of them contributing nectar.
Heath family, Ericaceae; see Azalea, Rhododendron, Mountain
Laurel, Sourwood and Manzanita. The heather, Calluna
vulgaris, of Europe is a member of this family.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
383
Much less important
Heather ; see Heath family.
Hemp, Cannabis saliva. Pollen, eastern United States.
Hickory, Carya sp. Pollen.
Hog plum, jobo, Spondias lutea. Valuable in Porto Rico.
Holly ; see Gallberry.
Holly family, Aquifoliaceae ; see Gallberry.
Honey-balls ; see Button-bush.
Honey-locust, Gleditsia triacanthos. Nectar,
than black locust.
Honey-scented gum ; see Eucalyptus.
Honeysuckle ; see Tartarian Honeysuckle.
Honeysuckle, wild ; see Azalea.
Honeysuckle family, Caprifoliacese ; see Elder, Indian Currant and
Tartarian Honeysuckle.
Hop, Humulus lupulus. Pollen, general in the United States.
Horehound, Marrubium vulgare. Common throughout most of
United States, native of old world.
Honey dark amber, strong flavor, sur-
plus locally in California.
Hornbeam, Carpinus caroliniana. Tree to
40 feet, pollen, eastern United States.
Horsechestnut, jEsculus Hippocastanum.
Some pollen and nectar.
Horsemint, Monarda punctata (Fig. 153).
Perennial herb, 2-3 feet, flowers in
whorls on stem and terminal, April-
June in Texas, later farther north.
Honey amber, flavor somewhat strong.
Southern New York to Florida, west
to Wisconsin and Texas, especially val-
uable in eastern Texas where it is of
major importance. In the genus Mon-
arda there are ten species, probably
all valuable to the beekeeper. Wild
bergamot, M. fistulosa, and American
bee balm, M. didyma, should be espe-
cially mentioned. M. clinopodioides is
also listed for Texas as important.
Huajilla; see Acacias.
Huckleberry, Gaylussacia spp. New England, of importance
along coast.
Huckleberry family, VacciniaceaB ; see Huckleberry and Blueberry.
Huisache ; see Acacia.
Hydrophyllacese ; see Water-leaf family.
Hypericacese ; see St. John's-wort family.
FIG. 153. Horsemint.
384 Beekeeping
Indian currant, coral-berry, Symphoricarpos racemosus. Nectar,
July.
Inkberry ; see Gallberry.
Iron-weed, Vernonia spp. Nectar, late summer.
Iron-wood ; see Ti-ti.
Jackass clover, Wislizenia refracta. August-October. Honey
white. San Joaquin valley, California, increasing.
Jerusalem artichoke ; see Sunflower.
Jobo ; see Hog plum.
Judas tree, red bud, Cercis canadensis. Nectar, pollen.
Juglandaceae ; see Walnut family.
Juneberry, service berry, Amelanchier canadensis. March-May,
tree to 60 feet.
Keawe ; see Mesquite.
Lady's thumb p see Heartsease.
Lantana, Lantana sp. Valuable in Hawaii.
Lauraceae ; see Laurel family.
Laurel family, Lauraceae ; see Red Bay and California Laurel.
Leatherwood ; see Ti-ti.
Leguminosae ; see Pea
family. "
Lemon ; see Citrus
Fruits.
Lilac ; see White Li-
lac.
Liliaceae ; see Lily
family.
Lilies, Lilium spp.
PoUen.
Lily family, Liliaceae ;
see Onion, Lilies,
Asparagus and
Yucca.
Lima bean, Phaseo-
lus sp. Impor-
tant locally in
California, where
FIG. 154. Locust. grown exten-
sively.
Lime ; see Citrus Fruits.
Lime tree ; see Basswood.
Lin ; see Basswood.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 385
Linden ; see Basswood.
Linden family, Tiliacese ; see Basswood.
Linn ; see Basswood.
Liverwort, Hepatica triloba. Pollen.
Locust, Robinia Pseudacacia (Fig. 154). Tree to 80 feet, flowers
white, fragrant, in drooping racemes. May-June. Honey
white, fine flavor, heavy body. Pennsylvania south to Georgia
and west to Iowa. There are six species of Robinia native to
America, of special value as honey-plants where white clover is
not dependable, usually furnishes nectar for about ten days only.
Locust ; see also Honey Locust.
Logwood, Hcematoxylum campechianum. In Jamaica this produces
a honey of superb quality and color. Native of tropical
America and West Indies.
Loosestrife, Lysimachia vulgaris. Pollen.
Lophiola, Lophiola americana. Pine barren bogs, eastern United
States, June-August.
Loranthaceae ; see Mistletoe family.
Lucern ; see Alfalfa.
Lupine, Lupinus spp. Nectarless, visited for pollen.
Lupinus affinis. Reported from California as a nectar plant.
Madder family, RubiaceaB ; see Button-bush.
Magnolia, Magnolia spp. Not important.
Magnolia family, Magnoliacese ; see Magnolia and Tulip Poplar.
Magnoliaceae : see Magnolia family.
Malaceae ; see Apple family.
Mallow, Malva spp. Some nectar, pollen.
Mallow family, Malvaceae ; see Marshmallow, Mallow, Cotton and
Sida spp.
Malvaceae ; see Mallow family.
Manazanillo ; see Manchineel.
Manchineel, manazanillo, Hippomane Mancinella. Important in
southern Florida.
Manzanita, bearberry, Arctostaphylos sp. Shrub or small tree,
November-February. Foothills of western slope (2000-
9000 feet), California. Honey amber (or white) of excellent
flavor.
Maple family, Aceracese ; see Maples.
Maples, Acer spp. Nectar, especially pollen.
Marshmallow, Althaea spp. Nectar, unimportant.
Meadow-rue, Thalictrum spp. Pollen.
Meadow sweet, Spiraea latifolia. Some nectar.
Melia family, Meliacese ; see China-tree.
Meliaceae ; see Melia family.
2c
386 Beekeeping
Menthacese ; see Mint family.
Mesquite, Prosopis glandulosa. Shrub and tree, flowers in dense
spikes, seed in constricted pods. April and June-July.
Honey light amber, of good flavor. Fifteen species in tropical
regions. P. glandulosa is of value as a honey-plant in the semi-
arid regions of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, extending
into Mexico. P. juliflora, introduced from Mexico, is the
chief floral nectar source in Hawaii (called algaroba, keawe),
honey white, granulates quickly. This species is also found in
Peru and has recently been introduced to Porto Rico. P.
velutina and P. pubescens, April-July reported from Arizona.
Milkweed, Asclepias spp. Various species of value, especially
those in swamps. Pollen masses adhere to bees, sometimes
making them incapable of flight. Butterfly weed, pleurisy-
root, A. tuber osa, especially valuable.
Milkweed family. Asclepiadaceae ; see Milkweed.
Mimosa spp. Tropical and subtropical. Probably of value.
Mimosa family, Mimosacese ; see Acacia, Mesquite, Guava, Saman
and Mimosa spp.
Mimosaceae ; see Mimosa family.
Mint, Mentha spp. Honey amber, of value locally.
Mint family, Menthacese ; see Blue-curls, Horehound, Catnip,
Sages, Horsemint, Pennyroyal, Bee Balm, Creeping Thyme
and Mint. An important family.
Mistletoe, Phoradendron spp. Parasitic, December-January,
Texas, California, earliest source of nectar in Texas.
Mistletoe family, Loranthaceae ; see Mistletoe.
Moca, cabbage tree, Geoffrcea jamaicensis. Of marked value, West
Indies, tropical America.
Moracese ; see Mulberry family.
Morong, red-root, Gyrotheca capitata. Pine barrens.
Mountain laurel, Kalmia spp. Valuable locally, Allegheny Moun-
tains.
Mulberry, Morus spp. Pollen.
Mulberry family, Moracese ; see Mulberry, Hop and Hemp.
Mullen, Verbascum spp. Pollen, nectar in some species.
Musaceae ; see Banana family.
Mustard ; see Rape.
Mustard family, Cruciferse; see Rape and Radish. Numerous
species of this family are valuable but are not of primary
importance.
Myricacese ; see Bayberry family.
Myrtacese ; see Eucalyptus family.
Oak, Quercus spp. Pollen, some nectar.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
387
Oleaceae ; see Olive family.
Olive, Olea europcea. April-May, California, value doubtful.
Olive family, Oleacese ; see Ash, Privet and Olive.
Onagraceae ; see Evening Primrose family.
Onion, Allium Cepa. Nectar. Valuable where abundant.
Orange ; see Citrus Fruits.
Orchid family, Orchidacese. Usually adapted to larger insects.
Some pollen.
Orchidaceae ; see Orchid family.
Palm family, Palmacese; see Cabbage Palmetto, Saw Palmetto,
Date Palm, Royal Palm and
Cocoanut Palm.
Palmaceae ; see Palm family.
Paloverde, Cercidium torreyanum.
Reported as valuable in Ari-
zona, May.
Papaveraceae ; see Poppy family.
Partridge pea, Chamcecrista fasci-
culata (Fig. 155). Annual
herb, 1-2| feet, leaves sensi-
tive, flowers yellow, solitary
or in small clusters. Nec-
taries on petioles. July-
September. Honey light
amber, body thin, flavor not
good, of value only for bak-
ing. Maine to Florida, west
to Kansas and Texas, but
valuable as a producer of
FIG. 155. Partridge pea.
surplus only in Georgia and Florida. The species of this
genus are not nectar yielders, except such as have extra-floral
nectaries, from which nectar is quickly washed out in rainy
weather.
Pea family, Leguminosse. This family contains many species of
the highest importance to beekeepers. The honeys are usually
white. See Lupines, Lupinus affinis, Alfalfa, Sweet Clover,
White Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson Clover, Wild Alfalfa,
Locust, Moca, Bush Clover, Vetches, Lima Bean and Cowpea.
Peach, Prunus persica. Nectar, pollen.
Pear, Pyrus spp. Nectar, pollen.
Pecan, Carya sp. Pollen.
Pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegioides. Annual, eastern United States,
July-September. Four species in Florida of value locally,
January-February.
388 Beekeeping
Pepper tree, Schinus Molle. Southern California, introduced.
Regular producer of nectar. Honey amber, strong flavor.
Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana. Tree to 100 feet, May June,
eastern United States.
Phacelia hispida and P. tanacetifolia. Of value in California.
Honey of P. hispida granulates quickly. Species of Phacelia
valued by beekeepers in Europe.
Plantaginaceae ; see Plantain family.
Plantain, Plantago spp. Pollen.
Plantain family, Plantaginacese ; see Plantain.
Pleurisy-root ; see Milkweed.
Plums, Prunus spp. Cultivated and various wild species. Spring.
Polygonaceae ; see Buckwheat family.
Polygonum lapathifolium and P. punctatum are of value in Cali-
fornia.
Poma rosa ; see Rose Apple.
Poplar ; see Tulip Poplar.
Poplars, Populus spp. Pollen.
Poppy, Papaver spp. Pollen.
Poppy family, Papaveraceae ; see Poppy, Prickly Poppy, Blood-
root and California Poppy.
Potato family, Solanacese ; see Tobacco.
Prickly pear ; see Cactus.
Prickly poppy, Argemone platyceras. Texas, pollen, May-July.
Pride of India ; see China-tree.
Primrose family, Primulaceae ; see Loosestrife.
Primulaceae ; see Primrose family.
Privet, Ligustrum spp. Not important.
Pumpkin ; see Gourd family.
Purple medic ; see Alfalfa.
Purple sage ; see Sage.
Radish, Raphanus sativus. Pollen, nectar.
Ragweed, Ambrosia elatior. Annual herb, 1-6 feet, July to frost,
flowers in racemes, green. Throughout United States, a
troublesome weed. An important source of pollen, yields
no nectar.
Ragweed family, Ambrosiacese ; see Ragweed and Cocklebur.
Ranunculaceae ; see Crowfoot family.
Rape, mustard, Brassica spp. Pollen and nectar. Especially
' valuable in California (B. nigra). Honey granulates rapidly.
Raspberry, blackberry, Rubus spp. Various species of value.
Raspberry ; see also Wild Raspberry.
Rattan vine, Berchemia scandens. Some surplus. Honey dark
amber, April, Texas.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
389
Red bay, Persea borbonia. Southeastern United States, April-
June.
Redbud ; see Judas Tree.
Red clover ; see White Clover.
Red-root ; see Morong.
Rhamnacese ; see Buckthorn family.
Rhododendron, Rhododendron spp. Valuable locally, Allegheny
Mountains.
Rock brush ; see Eysenhardtia.
Rockrose, frostweed, Helianthemum spp. Pollen.
Rockrose family, Cistaceae ; see Rockrose.
Rocky Mountain bee-plant ; see Cleome.
Rosaceae ; see Rose family.
Rose apple, poma rosa, Caryophyllus jambos. Tropical, of value.
Rose family, Rosaceae ; see Meadow Sweet, Raspberry, Blackberry,
Wild Raspberry, Greasewood,
Strawberry, Roses, Plum and
Peach.
Roses, Rosa spp. Pollen only.
Royal palm, Roystonea spp. Honey
amber, West Indies. Secretes
heavily.
Rubiaceae ; see Madder family.
Rue family, Rutacese ; see Citrus
Fruits.
Rutaceae ; see Rue family.
Sage brush, Artemisia californica.
Valuable for pollen, southern
California.
Sages, Ramona spp. (Also classified
as Audibertia spp. and Salvia
spp.) Plants of California species
vary in size up to 10 feet.
April-July. Honey " water-
white," granulating least quickly
of any American honeys, flavor
mild and delicious. The semi-
arid regions of southern California
in canons to 5000 feet (Richter).
The black, ball or button sage, R. stachyoides (Fig. 156), is
perhaps the most important, although white sage, R. polysta-
chya (Fig. 157), and purple sage, R. nivea, are valuable.
These plants require about twenty inches of rainfall in late
winter followed by warm spring, free from fogs, to produce
FIG. 156. Button sage.
390
Beekeeping
FIG. 157. White sage.
best results. When at their best these plants equal any other
species in nectar secretion, but failures in crop are common.
The sage worm (Platyptilia mar-
marodactyla) does considerable
damage to the button sage, de-
stroying the nectaries, especially in
cloudy weather. Britton and
Brown list seven species of Salvia
for the eastern United States and
state that there are twenty-five
other species in the United States.
Richter lists seven other species as
California honey-plants.
John's- wort, Hypericum spp.
Pollen.
St. John's-wort family, Hypericacese ;
see St. John's-wort.
Salicaceae ; see Willow family.
Saman, algaroba, Pithecolobium Saman.
West Indies, Central and South America.
Saw palmetto, Sabal megacarpa. To 7 feet, May, honey amber,
thick. Florida.
Scrophulariaceae ; see Figwort family.
Sedge family, Cyperacese ; see Tule.
Senna family, Caesalpinacese; see
Judas Tree, Partridge Pea, Honey
Locust, Eysenhardtia, Paloverde
and Logwood.
Service berry ; see Juneberry.
Sida spp. Tropical, listed for Hawaii.
Simarubaceae ; see Ailanthus family.
Simpson's honey- plant, Scrophularia
vernalis. This common name is
used only among American
beekeepers. The species is native
of southern Europe and was
formerly cultivated for bees in
parts of the United States, but
without profit. Nectar abun-
dant. Other species of Scro-
phularia are good honey-plants.
Smartweed ; see Heartsease.
Solanacea ; see Potato family.
Sorghum, Holcus halepensis. Pollen.
Sorrel-tree ; see Sourwood.
FIG. 158. Sourwood.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 391
Sour clover ; see White Clover.
Sour gum ; see Tupelo.
Sourwood, sorrel-tree, Oxydendrum arboreum (Fig. 158). Tree to
60 feet, flowers white in numerous racemes, June-July. Honey
light in color, granulates slowly. In dry woods, Pennsylvania
to Florida, especially in Piedmont region and lower mountains.
An exceptionally heavy yielder, little affected by changes in
climatic conditions, nor is nectar washed out by rains.
Sow thistle, Sonchus oleraceus. Some nectar.
Spanish needle, Bidens spp., Coreopsis spp. The numerous species
of these genera are variously adapted to all conditions of soil
and moisture, but the swamp species are most important to the
beekeeper. Annual or perennial herbs to several feet, ray
flowers yellow. Autumn. Honey amber, body heavy, flavor
somewhat pronounced, granulates slowly. Bidens involucrata,
native of middle west, is abundant (introduced) in the Dela-
ware River bottoms south of Philadelphia, where it yields
excessively. B. aristosa is the species reported as so valuable
in the Illinois and Mississippi River bottoms. The Kankakee
Swamps (northern Indiana and Illinois) contain Spanish
needle in abundance. There seems to be considerable confu-
sion as to the identification of the various species, and a careful
study should be made of these valuable fall flowers.
The common name Spanish needle is the one usually adopted by
beekeepers. Tickseed, sunflower, beggar's tick and bur-
marigold are also applied to various species.
Spanish trefoil ; see Alfalfa.
Spider-flower ; see Cleome.
Spikeweed, Centromadia pungens. Central California, formerly a
leading source of honey, now being superseded by other plants.
Squash ; see Gourd family.
Strawberry, Fragaria sp. Nectar in some localities.
Sumac, Rhus glabra. Shrub to 20 feet, flowers yellowish green in
dense conical panicles. June-August. Honey amber of fine
flavor when well ripened. Distributed widely in moist regions
of United States, yielding a surplus in New England. There
are several species of Rhus of value to the beekeeper. Poison
ivy, R. radicans, yields nectar.
Sumac family, Anacardiaceae ; see Sumac, Pepper Tree and Hog
Plum.
Sunflower, Helianthus spp. Nectar often abundant. Jerusalem
artichoke, H. tuberosus, cultivated for edible tubers is of value
in moist soil. H. annuus, common in West.
Sunflower ; see also Spanish Needle.
Swamp mahogany gum ; see Eucalyptus.
392
Beekeeping
Swedish clover ; see Alsike Clover.
Sweet clover, Melilotus alba (Fig. 159), M. officinalis, M. indica.
Biennial herbs (M. indica, annual), 3-10 feet. Flowers white
in M. alba and yellow in other two species, in slender racemes.
June-September, or even
later, usually in July.
Honey slightly green in color,
flavor described as like cin-
namon. Throughout United
States, usually in waste
places but becoming more
common as a forage plant.
Secretes nectar wherever
grown. Native of old world.
In some sections (Kentucky,
Utah) this plant is valued
as a soil renovator (see
Farmers' Bulletin No. 485,
U. S. Department of Agri-
culture). White sweet clo-
ver, M. alba (Fig. 159), is the
most common species. Seed
is now offered for sale annu-
ally in the bee journals. It
has been sown extensively
by beekeepers in waste places
and along embankments.
Called also Bokhara clover
and has numerous other common names. Twenty species, all
native of old world. M. indica more abundant in far west.
Sweet-gale, bayberry, Myrica spp. Wind pollinated, some pollen.
Sweet gum, Liquidambar Styraciflua. A source of abundant prop-
olis.
Sweet pepper bush, Clethra alnifolia. Shrub, 3-10 feet. Honey
light amber, good body. In swampy woods, Maine to Florida,
especially near coast, July-August. Of special value in New
England and New Jersey.
Tartarian honeysuckle, Lonicera tatarica. Nectar, important
locally, other species valuable in which flowers are not too long
for bees to reach. Bumble-bees sometimes pierce tubes of
the honeysuckle, L. Periclymenum, to obtain nectar, after
which honeybees work on the pierced flowers.
Thistle, Carduus spp. Considerable nectar.
Thistle family, Composite; see Iron-weed, Boneset, Goldenrod,
FIG. 159. Sweet clover.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
393
Asters, Sunflower, Spanish Needle, Sage Brush, Fireweed,
Thistle, Canada Thistle and Spikeweed. This is a most
important family from the standpoint of the beekeeper.
Thoroughwort ; see Boneset.
Tickseed ; see Spanish Needle.
Tiliaceae ; see Linden family.
Ti-ti, leatherwood, iron-wood, Cyrilla racemiflora. Evergreen shrub
to 35 feet, flowers small, white in narrow racemes. May-
July, February-March in Florida. Honey red, flavor strong,
good only for baking. Virginia to Florida to Texas, of value
chiefly in Georgia and Florida. Not a reliable source, as the
nectar is washed out by rains, which are frequent during
blooming period in Florida. Precedes tupelo in Appalachicola
region. Black ti-ti, Cliftonia sp., blooms later and is more
reliable.
Tobacco, Nicotina Tabacum. Nectar locally, especially in Con-
necticut, honey fair.
Tree of heaven ; see Ailanthus.
Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniacese ; see Catalpa and Desert
WUlow.
Tule, Scirpus sp.
Reported as a
honey-plant
from interior
valleys of Cal-
ifornia ; proba-
bly incorrect.
Tulip or yellow
poplar, poplar,
white wood,
cucumber tree,
tulip tree, Li-
riodendron Tu~
lipifera (Fig.
160). Tree to
175 feet, flow-
ers 2 inches
wide, resem-
bling tulips,
greenish yel-
low, orange
inside. May-June. Honey dark amber, of pronounced
flavor. In woods, eastern half of United States. Especially
abundant in Ohio Valley and southern Appalachian moun-
tains. An unusually heavy and reliable yielder.
FIG. 160. Tulip poplar.
394
Beekeeping
Tulip tree ; see Tulip Poplar.
Tupelo, sour gum, Nyssa spp. Trees to 100 feet, leaves oval or
acute or slightly toothed (N. aquatica). April-June. Honey
of fine quality, light amber, rarely granulating, flavor mild
but characteristic. Swamps of eastern United States, west to
Missouri and Texas, especially abundant in Florida, Alabama
and Georgia. The honey from tupelos is of especial value in
blending extracted-honeys for table trade because of its slow-
ness in granulating. There are four species of Nyssa of value
to the beekeeper. Tupelo, N. aquatica, is found abundantly
in southern swamps, especially along the Appalachicola River.
Secretes so abundantly that it will support thousands of
colonies. Sour gum, 2V". sylvatica, is found farther north and
with N. Mflora furnishes abundant nectar. In abundance of
nectar these trees equal the basswood.
Ulmaceae ; see Elm family.
Umbelliferae ; see Carrot family.
Vacciniaceae ; see Huckleberry family.
Verbenaceae ; see Vervain family.
Vervain family, Verbenaceae; see Carpet Grass, Lantana and
Black Mangrove.
Vetches, Vicia spp. Nectar,
pollen.
Viper's bugloss, blueweed,
blue-thistle, Echium vul-
gare. Biennial herbs,
1-2 1 feet, stem erect
bearing numerous blue
to purple flowers, stem
hairy, July-September
and later. In fields and
waste land, native of
Europe, especially abun-
dant in Virginia, Mary-
land and Pennsylvania.
The common name blue-
thistle is the one by
which beekeepers usu-
ally know this plant.
An important source in
the Shenandoah Valley.
Virginia creeper, Parthenocissus quinquefolia. Nectar, pollen.
Vitacese ; see Grape family.
FIG. 161. White clover.
The Sources of Nectar and Pollen
395
Walnut family, Juglandacese ; see Black Walnut, English Walnut,
Hickory and Pecan.
Water-leaf family, Hydrophyllacese ; see Phacelia.
Watermelon ; see Gourd family.
Wattles ; see Acacias.
White alder family, Clethracese ; see Sweet Pepper Bush.
White clover, Trifolium repens (Fig. 161). Perennial, creeping
branches often taking root at nodes. Blooms from May on,
but especially in June July, when it is especially valuable.
Honey light in color, granulates slowly, flavor superb. In
pasture lands and waste places in moist regions of United
States and Canada. Valuable as honey source chiefly in North
and East. Not cultivated, thrives in limestone regions.
Native of Europe and introduced into United States. One of
the most important sources. May be considered as a " stand-
ard " for comb-honey, being equaled by no other source for
this type of honey. Nectar-
secretion quickly affected by ad-
verse weather conditions. Honey
often mixed with basswood in
Michigan, Wisconsin and adjoin-
ing States. Also called Dutch
clover, under which name seed is
often sold. Other species of Tri-
folium are also valuable, e.g. sour
clover, T. fucatum, California.
Red clover, T. pratense, usually
has a corolla tube too long for the
honeybee to reach the nectar. At
times bees get considerable nectar
from this source. See also Crim-
son Clover and Alsike Clover.
White ironwood ; see Eucalyptus.
White lilac and others, Ceanothus spp.
California, February-May. Nec-
tar and abundant pollen.
White sage ; see Sage.
Whitewood; see Basswood and also
Tulip Poplar.
Wild alfalfa, Lotus glaber. June-Sep-
tember, California.
Wild bergamot ; see Horsemint.
Wild buckwheat, Eriogonum fasciculatum. Honey light amber,
granulates quickly. April-November, southern California.
Wild honeysuckle ; see Azalea.
FIG. 162. Willow-herb.
396 Beekeeping
Wild raspberry, Rubus strigosus. Shrubs, 3-6 feet, stems with
small prickles. May-July or later. Honey white, flavor
unsurpassed by that of any other honey. In dry lands, Canada
south in mountains to North Carolina and in west to New
Mexico, to 5500 feet in North Carolina. Especially valuable
in cut or burned over lands in northern Michigan and noted
in parts of New York. This is said to be the original of the
Cuthbert red raspberry so widely cultivated. Reliable where
abundant.
Willow family, Salicacese; see Poplars and Willows.
Willow-herb, fireweed, Chamcenerion angustifolium (Fig. 162).
Perennial herbs, 2-8 feet, flowers pink to purple (rarely white),
in spike-like racemes. Honey white, flavor excellent, not
pronounced. In dry soil, especially in burned-over forest
lands. Labrador south to North Carolina, Kansas and
California, but especially in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Canada and Washington. This species continues in bloom
from July to frost, the flowers maturing in series upward on
the stem. A heavy reliable yielder.
Willows, Salix spp. Extraordinary value for pollen, some nectar.
Early spring.
Witchhazel family, Hamamelidacese ; see Sweet Gum.
Yellow poplar ; see Tulip Poplar.
Yucca, Hesperoyucca Whipplei. Semi-desert, California.
CHAPTER XXII
BEE DISEASES AND ENEMIES
THE honeybee is subject to several diseases which are at
times a serious handicap to the industry. Several years ago
these diseases were working insidiously, destroying the
industry in some localities and constituting a serious handi-
cap elsewhere. The recent agitation on this subject has,
however, brought about a wider knowledge of these diseases
and they are losing their destructiveness just so fast as the
beekeepers learn how to recognize them and how to treat
diseased colonies.
The diseases of bees may be divided into two classes, those
affecting the brood and those to which the adult bees are
subject. The diseases of the brood are the more destructive
and more is known concerning their causes, distribution,
symptoms and treatment.
BROOD DISEASES
There are three recognized diseases of the brood, known as
American foul brood, European foul brood and sacbrood or
NOTE. Various phases of the investigation of the brood diseases
are reported in publications of the United States Department of
Agriculture to which the reader is referred for additional informa-
tion. These publications deal with the symptoms, treatment,
geographical distribution and causes of the diseases as well as the
control measures provided by various States in the form of apiary
inspection. The present discussion of brood diseases is largely
drawn from the author's bulletin " The Treatment of Bee Diseases,"
Farmers' Bulletin 442, since it seems useless to attempt a rear-
rangement of the material in this bulletin.
397
398
Beekeeping
pickled brood. These diseases weaken colonies by reducing
the number of emerging bees needed to replace the adult bees
which die from natural causes. The adult bees are not known
to be affected. The larvae dead of these diseases show cer-
tain differences in appearance which are useful in determin-
ing which disease is present. These diseases are entirely
distinct, as shown by these differences in appearance, by
differences in response to treatment, by differences in
the age of the larvae affected and by bacteriological ex-
amination. There is no evidence that chilled or starved
brood develops
into an infectious
disease or that
dead brood favors
the development
of an infectious
disease.
FIG. 163. American foul brood : a, b, f, normal sealed cells ; c, j, sunken
cappings, showing perforation ; g, sunken capping not perforated ; h, I,
m, n, q, r, larvae affected by disease ; e, i, p, s, scales formed from dried-
down larvae ; d, o, pupae affected by disease. Twice natural size.
American foul brood.
This disease (Fig. 163) is frequently called simply "foul
brood/' It usually shows itself in the larvae just about the
time that they fill the cells and after they have ceased feed-
ing and have begun pupation. At this time the larva is
sealed over in the comb (Fig. 163, a, 6, /). The first outward
indication of the infection is a slight brownish discoloration
and the loss of the well-rounded appearance of the normal
larva (Fig. 163, I). The larva gradually sinks down in the
cell and becomes darker in color (Fig. 163, h, m) and the
posterior end lies against the bottom of the cell. Frequently
Bee Diseases and Enemies
399
the segmentation of the larva is clearly marked. By the
time it has partially dried down and has become quite dark
brown (coffee colored) the most typical characteristic of this
disease manifests itself.
If a match stick or
tooth-pick is inserted
into the decaying mass
and withdrawn, the
larval remains adhere to
it and are drawn out
in a thread (Fie;. 164) FlG - le4 - ~ The r P iness f American
, . , foul brood.
which sometimes ex-
tends for several inches before breaking. This ropi-
ness is the chief characteristic used by the beekeeper in di-
agnosing this disease. The larva continues to dry down
FIG. 165. American foul brood comb, showing irregular patches of sunken
cappings and scales. The position of the comb indicates the best way
to view the scales.
and gradually loses its ropiness until it finally becomes merely
a scale on the lower side wall and base of the cell (Fig. 163, e,
p, s). The scale formed by the dried-down larva adheres
tightly to the cell and can be removed with difficulty from
400 Beekeeping
the cell wall. The scales can best be observed when the
comb is held with the top inclined toward the observer so
that a bright light strikes the lower side wall (Fig. 165). A
characteristic and usually penetrating odor is often notice-
able in the decaying larvae. This can best be likened to the
odor of heated glue.
The larger part of the larvae which die of this disease are
attacked after being sealed in the cells. The cappings are
FIG. 166. Apiary in southern California which was practically destroyed
by disease. When this apiary was visited by the author in 1908, only
15 colonies were seemingly free from American foul brood in the
151 hives. After treatment only 14 colonies were saved. This devas-
tation had occurred in two seasons.
often entirely removed by the bees, but when they are left
they usually become sunken (Fig. 163, g, c, j) and frequently
perforated (Fig. 163, c, j). As the healthy brood emerges
the comb shows the scattered sunken cappings covering dead
larvae (Fig. 165), giving it a characteristic appearance.
Pupae also may die of this disease, in which case they too dry
down (Fig. 163, o, d), become ropy and have the character-
istic odor and color. The tongue frequently adheres to the
upper side wall and often remains there even after the pupa
Bee Diseases and Enemies 401
has dried down to a scale. Younger unsealed larvae are
sometimes affected. Usually the disease attacks only worker
brood, but occasional cases are found in which queen and
drone brood are diseased. It is not certain that race of bees,
season, or climate have any effect on the virulence of this
disease, except that in warmer climates, where the breeding
season is prolonged, the rapidity of devastation (Fig. 166) is
more marked. Cause, Bacillus larvce.
European foul brood.
This disease (Fig. 167) was formerly called "black brood."
It usually attacks the larva at an earlier stage of its develop-
ment than American
foul brood and while it
is still curled up at the
base of the cell (Fig.
167, r). A small per-
centage of larvae dies
FIG. 167. European foul brood : a, j, k, normal sealed cells ; 6, c, d, e, g,
i, I, m, p, g, larvae affected by disease ; r, normal larva at age attacked
by disease ; /, h, n, o, dried-down larvae or scales. Twice natural size.
after capping, but sometimes quite young larvae are at-
tacked (Fig. 167, e, m). Sunken and perforated cappings
are sometimes observed just as in American foul brood
(Fig. 163, c, g, j). The earliest indication of the disease is a
slight yellow or gray discoloration and uneasy movement of
the larva in the cell . The larva loses its well-rounded, opaque
appearance and becomes slightly translucent, so that the
tracheae may become prominent (Fig. 167, 6), giving the
larvae a clearly segmented appearance. The larva is usually
flattened against the base of the cell but may turn so that the
ends of the larva are to the rear of the cell (Fig. 167, p) or
2o
402 Beekeeping
may fall away from the base (Fig. 167, e, g, I). Later the
color changes to a decided yellow or gray and the translu-
cency is lost (Fig. 167, q, h). The yellow color may be taken
as the chief characteristic of this disease. The dead larva
appears as a moist, somewhat collapsed mass, giving the
appearance of being melted. When the remains have become
almost dry (Fig. 167, c) the tracheae sometimes become con-
spicuous again, this time by retaining their shape, while the
rest of the body content dries around them. Finally all
that is left of the larva is a grayish-brown scale against the
base of the cell (Fig. 167, /, h) or a shapeless mass on the
lower side wall if the larva did not retain its normal position
(Fig. 167, n, o). Very few scales are black. The scales are
not adhesive but are easily removed and the bees carry out
a great many in their efforts to clean house.
Decaying larvae which have died of this disease are usually
not ropy as in American foul brood but a slight ropiness is
sometimes observed. There is usually little odor in Eu-
ropean foul brood, but sometimes in bad cases a sour odor is
present, which reminds one of yeast fermentation. This
disease attacks drone and queen larvae almost as quickly as
those of the workers.
European foul brood is more destructive during the spring
and early summer than at other times, often entirely disap-
pearing during late summer and autumn or during a heavy
honey-flow. Italian bees seem to be better able to resist
the ravages of this disease than any other race. The disease
at times spreads with startling rapidity and is most destruc-
tive. Where it is prevalent a considerably larger percentage
of colonies is affected than is usual for American foul brood.
This disease is variable in its symptoms and other manifes-
tations and is often a puzzle to the beekeeper. Cause,
Bacillus pluton.
Sacbrood or pickled brood.
In this disease the larva dies about the time of sealing.
It usually lies on its back with the head turned upward.
Bee Diseases and Enemies 403
The color varies, but is frequently light yellow or brown
and the head is often almost black. The body is swollen
and the contents watery and the head may be quite hard.
There is no ropiness. This disease is usually not the cause
of any serious loss in the apiary and as a rule no treatment
is necessary. The most serious aspect of this disease is
that it is often mistaken for European foul brood or American
foul brood and the colony is treated accordingly. The
cause is a filterable virus.
Methods of spread.
Since all three of these diseases are infectious they are
spread in much the same way. It has long been recognized
that it is unsafe to feed honey from a diseased colony and
probably most cases are due to the carrying of the virus in
honey, as in robbing or feeding. It is well, therefore, to prac-
tice the following precautionary measures :
(1) Do not allow weak colonies to be robbed out.
(2) Never feed honey purchased on the open market.
(3) If possible keep all honey from diseased apiaries out
of the neighborhood.
(4) In introducing purchased queens, transfer them to
clean cages and destroy the old cage, candy and accompany-
ing workers.
(5) Colonies of bees should never be purchased unless it
is certain that they are free from disease.
(6) The purchase of old combs and second-hand supplies
is dangerous unless it is certain that they come from healthy
apiaries.
Treatment.
The treatment of an infectious bee disease consists pri-
marily in the elimination or removal of the cause of the
disease. In treating a disease, therefore, the aim of the
manipulation is to remove or destroy ^all the virus causing
the disease. It should be remembered that the effort is
not to save the larvae that are already dead or dying but to
404 Beekeeping
stop the further devastation of the disease by removing all
material capable of transmitting the cause of the trouble.
In all of the operations great pains should be taken not to
spread the disease through carelessness. After handling a
diseased colony, the hands of the operator should be washed
with water to remove any honey that may be on them. It
does not pay to treat colonies that are considerably weakened
by disease. In case there are several such colonies they
should be united to form strong, vigorous colonies before or
during treatment.
Shaking treatment.
The treatment consists essentially in the removal of all in-
fected material from the colony and in compelling the colony
to take a fresh start by building new combs and by gather-
ing fresh stores. This is done by shaking the adult bees
from the old combs into a clean hive on clean frames.
The shaking treatment should be given during a flow of
honey, so that other bees in the apiary will not be inclined
to rob. If this is not possible the operation may be performed
under a tent made of mosquito netting or a wire-cloth cage.
The best time is during the middle of a clear day when a large
number of bees are in the field.
All implements that will be needed, such as queen and
drone trap, hive tool and lighted smoker, should be in
readiness before the operation is begun. A complete clean
hive with frames is provided, as well as a tightly closed hive-
body in which to put the contaminated combs after shaking.
An extra hive cover or some similar apparatus should be
provided to serve as a runway for the bees as they enter
the new hive. The new frames should contain strips of
comb-foundation from* one-fourth to one inch wide. Full
sheets are not desirable and if combs built on full sheets of
foundation are desired they may be built later.
The old hive containing the diseased colony (Fig. 168, A)
is now lifted to one side out of the flight of returning field
bees and the clean hive (B) set exactly in its p'ace. The cover
Bee Diseases and Enemies
405
(G) is now taken off and a few frames (E) removed from the
center of the hive. If unspaced frames are used, those remain-
ing in the hive should be pushed tightly to either side of the
hive, thus making a barrier beyond which the bees cannot
crawl as they move to the top of the hive after shaking. This
largely prevents them from getting on the outside of the
hive. If self -spacing frames are used, a couple of thin boards
laid on the top-bars on either side will accomplish the same
result. The runway (D) is put in place in front of the en-
trance. The old hive is now opened for the first time. The
frames are removed one at a time, lowered part way into the
FIG. 168. Apparatus for the shaking treatment: A, hive containing
diseased colony (formerly in position of B) ; B, clean hive ; C, empty
hive to receive combs after shaking ; D, hive cover used as runway ;
E, frames removed from B to give room for shaking ; F, queen and
drone trap ; G, cover for clean hive, B.
new hive and, with a quick downward shake, the bees are
dislodged. The frames are then put into the extra hive-body
(C) and immediately covered to prevent robbing. After
all the frames are shaken the bees remaining on the sides of
the old hive (A) are shaken out.
If honey is coming in freely, so that thin honey is shaken
out of the combs, cover the runway (D) with newspapers
and shake the bees in front of the new hive (B), leaving all
frames in place and the cover on. After the operation the
soiled newspapers should be destroyed. In shaking in front
of the entrance the first one or two frames should be so shaken
that the bees are thrown against the entrance, where they can
406
Beekeeping
locate the hive quickly. They then fan their wings and the
others follow them into the hive. If this is not done the bees
may wander about and get under the hive or in some other
undesirable place.
After the bees are mostly in the new hive a queen and
drone trap (F) or a strip of perforated zinc is placed over
the entrance to prevent the colony from deserting the hive.
The old combs are now quickly removed. If several
colonies are being treated at one time it may pay to stack
several hive-bodies containing contaminated combs over a
weak diseased colony to allow most of the healthy brood to
emerge, thereby strengthening the weak colony. After ten
or twelve days this colony is treated
in turn and all the combs are rendered
into wax.
An apiary of any size should have
included in its equipment a wax press
(p. 335) for removing wax from old
combs. After the contaminated frames
are taken to the honey-house the combs
should be kept carefully covered, so
that no bees can reach them until the
wax can be rendered. This should
not be delayed very long or the
combs may be ruined by wax-moths.
The slumgum or refuse remaining after the wax is re-
moved should be burned as it is usually not sterilized in
the rendering of the wax. Contaminated combs should
not be put into a solar wax extractor for fear of spreading
the disease. The wax from contaminated combs may safely
be used in the manufacture of comb-foundation.
The hive which has contained the diseased colony should
be thoroughly cleaned of all wax and honey, and it is desirable
that it be carefully disinfected by burning out the inside with
a gasoline blue-flame torch (Fig. 169). If this piece of ap-
paratus is not available, several hive-bodies may be piled
together on a hive bottom and some gasoline or kerosene
FIG. 169. Gasoline torch.
Bee Diseases and Enemies 407
poured on the sides and on some straw or excelsior placed
at the bottom of the pile. This is then ignited and after
burning for a few seconds a close-fitting hive cover is placed
on top of the pile to extinguish the flames. The inside of
the hive-bodies should be charred to a light brown. The
careful cleaning and disinfection of frames always costs con-
siderably more in labor than now frames would cost, but these
also may be carefully cleaned and used again. Frames may
be cleaned by boiling in water for about half an hour, but
this frequently causes them to warp badly. The disinfection
of hives and frames with chemicals is not recommended.
If there is a considerable quantity of honey in the con-
taminated combs it may be extracted. This honey is not
safe to feed to bees without boiling, but it is absolutely safe
for human consumption. If there is a comparatively small
quantity it may be consumed in the beekeeper's family,
care being taken that none of it is placed so that the bees
can ever get it.
To put such honey on the market is contrary to law in
some states. There is always danger that an emptied re-
ceptacle will be thrown out where bees can have access to it,
thus causing a new outbreak of disease. It can be safely
used for feeding to bees in summer, provided it is diluted
with at least an equal volume of water to prevent burning
and boiled in a closed vessel for not less than one-half hour,
counting from the time that the diluted honey first boils
vigorously. The honey will not be sterilized if it is heated
in a vessel set inside of another containing water. Boiled
honey should not be sold as honey. It is good only as a
food for bees and even then should never be used for winter
stores, as it would probably cause dysentery.
Some beekeepers prefer to shake the bees first on to frames
containing strips of foundation as above described and in
four days to shake the colony a second time on to full sheets
of foundation, destroying all comb built after the first treat-
ment. This insures better combs than the use of strips of
foundation, but it is a severe drain on the strength of the
408 Beekeeping
colony. Since it is desirable to have combs built on full
sheets, the best policy is to replace any irregular combs with
full sheets of foundation or good combs later in the season.
If the treatment just described is given at the beginning
of a good honey-flow, it is practically equivalent to artificial
swarming (p. 283) and may result in an actual increase in
the surplus honey, especially in the case of comb-honey
production. The wax rendered from the combs will sell
for enough to pay for the foundation used if full sheets of
foundation are employed. If treatment must be given at
some other time, so that the colony must be fed, the cost is
materially increased. In feeding, it is best to use sugar syrup
or honey that is known to have come from healthy colonies.
Fall treatment.
If it is necessary to treat a colony so late in the fall that it
would be impossible for the bees to prepare for winter without
assistance, the treatment may be modified by shaking the
bees on to combs entirely full of honey so that there is no place
for any brood to be reared. This will usually be satisfactory
only after brood-rearing has entirely ceased. Unless a colony
is quite strong it does not pay to treat in the fall, but it should
be destroyed or united with another colony. In case a
diseased colony dies outdoors in the winter, there is danger
that other bees may have opportunity to rob the hive before
the beekeeper can close the entrance. In case bees are
wintered in the cellar it is more advisable to risk wintering
before treatment, for if the colony does die the hive will not
be robbed.
Additional treatment for European foul brood.
Since, as stated previously, Italian bees seem to be better
able to withstand European foul brood than are other races,
it is recommended that apiaries in regions where this disease is
prevalent be requeened with young, vigorous Italian queens
of good stock. This should be done whether or not the
shaking treatment is given.
Bee Diseases and Enemies 409
It has been found that the removal of the queen and the
keeping of the colony queenless for a period often results
in the disappearance of European foul brood. E. W.
Alexander, who advocated this method, 1 recommended that
the colony be kept queenless (by cutting out all queen cells
at the end of nine days) for a -period of twenty days, at
which time a cell containing a queen of Italian stock ready to
.emerge is to be given to the colony. The young queen
will thus begin to lay in about twenty-seven days after
the old queen has been removed, or in at least three days
after the last of the drone brood has emerged. Other
writers have advocated a shorter time.
The dequeening treatment is not always successful and it
is therefore recommended that care be exercised in trying
it. Since there is a considerable percentage of successful
results, this would indicate that there is an important
principle involved. It should not be forgotten, however,
that European foul brood often disappears in the late
summer of its own accord if the case is not severe, and it
is probable that in many of the cases of dequeening re-
ported as successful the disease would have disappeared
without the treatment. This treatment is suggested only
for the experienced beekeeper.
DISEASES OF ADULT BEES
These diseases are but imperfectly known and there is
much need of further investigation. In view of this condi-
tion it is virtually impossible to give much help in treatment.
Dysentery.
This condition is one which is manifest chiefly in late
winter and is caused by improper food. It is therefore dis-
cussed in the chapter on wintering.
1 Alexander, E. W. f 1905. How to rid your apiary of black brood.
Gleanings in bee culture, XXXIII, pp. 1125-1127.
410 Beekeeping
Nosema disease.
In 1909 Zander 1 showed that a protozoon, named by him
Nosema apis, is found abundantly in the mid-intestine
of adult bees and he associated this organism in a causal
relationship with the death of many^thousands of colonies
annually. Since this announcement other investigators
have taken up work on this organism. It has been deter-
mined that heating the organism to 57 C. (134.6 F.) for
ten minutes kills it. In England it is now claimed 2 that
this organism is the cause of the so-called Isle of Wight
disease or Microsporidiosus which is reported to have deci-
mated the bees on that island and to have caused heavy
losses in England. Numerous facts concerning this organism
have been brought out, especially notable being the wide
geographical distribution of the parasite. In spite of the
work done by the various investigators there is a paucity of
authentically proven facts which leaves much to be desired.
No treatment has been suggested in England except destruc-
tion of the colony to prevent the spread of the disease.
American beekeepers will do well to await reliable investiga-
tion before following such advice.
Paralysis.
Under this name beekeepers seemingly place practically
all the diseases of adult bees which they observe. Symptoms
attributed to paralysis are also given for poisoning and the
more one reads of the symptoms and treatments suggested,
the more hopeless it appears when one is asked to recommend
treatment. Until more is known it is unsafe to give advice.
Spring dwindling.
This name has also apparently been given to various
conditions. To avoid confusion it should be applied only
1 Zander, Enoch, 1909. Tierische Parasiten als Krankheitserreger bei der
Biene. Miinchen.
2 Graham-Smith and others, 1912. Report on the Isle of Wight bee
disease. Supplement Jr. Board of Agric., XIX, No. 2, 143 pp.
, 1913, ibid., 47 pp.
Bee Diseases and Enemies
411
to the loss of bees in the spring due to the fact that the
adults have been weakened by poor wintering and die faster
than they can be replaced by emerging brood. This is
therefore discussed in the chapter on wintering.
ENEMIES OF BEES
Most books on beekeeping devote considerable attention
to the enemies of bees, of which there are several. Since they
are relatively unimpor-
tant, however, the dis-
cussion will here be con-
fined to the two species of
wax-moth. These do no
damage to strong healthy
colonies of bees properly
cared for, and if seen in
the hive they indicate weakness. This weakness may be
due to queenlessness or lack of stores, but the most common
cause is probably a brood disease. Beekeepers frequently
attribute the loss from disease to some other cause and wax-
moths are most frequently blamed for the losses observed.
The wax-moth (Galleria mellonella).
The larvae of this moth (Figs. 170, 171 and 172) destroy
combs by burrowing through them, constructing tunnels of silk
FlG ' 17 ' ~
FIG. 171. Wax-moth, male. Enlarged.
412
Beekeeping
FIG. 172. Wax-moth, female. Enlarged.
as they go (Fig. 173). These tunnels are spotted with excreta.
The larva? (Fig. 174) feed on pollen, cocoons and other mate-
rials in the combs. The e x ggs
are laid in crevices in the hive
or in any narrow space (Fig.
175) and seemingly in most lo-
calities there are probably few
hives that do not harbor some
FIG. 174. Larva of wax -moth.
FIG. 175. Eggs of wax-moth
laid on top-bar of frame.
eggs. If combs are removed from the bees and sealed up,
it will frequently be found that they become riddled by
\
FIG. 173. Work of wax-moth larvae on comb.
Bee Diseases and Enemies
413
the tunnels of these larvae, presumably developed from eggs
already present on the combs or frames. After feeding, the
larvae pupate, first spinning
silken webs around them-
selves. Previous to pupa-
tion (Figs. 176 and 177)
they sometimes burrow a
little way into the hive
wall, this being specially
noticeable in the redwood
hives in the West. The life
history of this moth has
recently been described by
Paddock. 1 Although re-
peatedly introduced, the
wax-moth is not found in Colorado. Except for special
regions, as the one just mentioned, this moth is found
wherever bees are kept and is also destructive to the combs
of the giant bee (Apis dorsata). The female moths can
FIG. 176. Pupa of wax-moth.
FIG. 177. Cocoons of wax-moth.
1 Paddock, F. B., 1913. The life history and control of the bee-moth or
wax-moth. In Bulletin 158 "Investigations pertaining to Texas beekeep-
ing." Texas Agric. Exp. Station.
414
Beekeeping
often be seen flying in the
apiary in early evening and
attempting to enter the
hives.
The lesser wax-moth (Achroia
grissella).
This moth (Figs. 178, 179,
180, 181 and 182) is less
widely distributed in the
United States than the pre-
vious species. The larvae
FIG. 178. Lesser wax-moth in nat- tunnel through COmbs in
ural position. much tne game way ag tnoge
of the larger species. The eggs are laid singly on the
side wall of cells.
Remedies.
To destroy the moth
larvae and pupae in
combs not in use, place
them in hives tiered
One above the Other FIG. 179. - Lesser wax-moth, male.
and on top place an
empty hive or super. On the top-bars of the upper-
most frames place a saucer into which pour bisulfid of
carbon. The gas caused by the evaporation of the liquid
FIG. 180. Lesser wax-moth, female.
Bee Diseases and Enemies
415
is heavier than air and settles down through the combs.
Care should be exercised not to allow the fumes to reach a
' ' ,A\\ \\ u \ \ \ \\\ \ \ \\\ \\l\\ts,,, flame > a ! the g^ , is
highly inflammable.
The eggs of the wax-
TrrnrsrpSr moth are usually not
destroyed by fumiga-
tion, so the operation
should be repeated at
intervals of two or
FIG. 181. Lesser wax-moth, larva. three Weeks Until all
the eggs have hatched. Sulphur fumes may also be used.
Other enemies. ,
Among other animals which may be mentioned as enemies
of bees there are several that are parasitic or predaceous,
or which destroy the
combs. Toads, vari-
FIG. 182. Lesser wax-moth,
pupa.
FIG. 183. Hive stand to keep off ants..
The band around the post is. tree
tanglefoot.
ous species of birds, mice, rats and other small mammals
(especially in winter), certain spiders and mites, dragon-
416 Beekeeping
flies (especially in Florida where they destroy queens
while mating), various Hemiptera which suck the blood
of adult bees, the death's head moth (repeatedly men-
tioned in Europe), Mediterranean flour moth (eating pollen
in stored combs), a dipterous parasite (Braula cceca) some-
times found on imported queens, blister beetle (Melee)
and other beetles feeding on pollen or combs, wasps and
hornets (Vespa) and ants, especially in tropics and semi-
tropics, are the chief offenders. Dragonflies are so destructive
to queens as to make queen-rearing unprofitable in some
places. Various devices have been suggested for circumvent-
ing ants, among which is the hive stand shown in Fig. 183,
used in Hawaii. Around the post which serves as a base,
a strip of tree tanglefoot is painted and this is renewed at
intervals. The bee louse seemingly does not thrive in Amer-
ica. There are several plants which trap bees and destroy
them and, as mentioned under honey plants, the pollen
masses of certain milkweeds adhere to bees, sometimes mak-
ing them incapable of flight.
CHAPTER XXIII
THE REARING OF QUEENS
UNLESS the queen at the head of a colony is a good one
it is useless to expect that colony to be productive. It
therefore becomes necessary for the progressive beekeeper
to pay considerable attention to the rearing of queens which
fulfill the requirements for commercial success. The chief
requirements are prolificness, vigor of offspring and purity
of race. While ability in egg-laying is a character which is
inherited, it is also influenced by the age of the queen and by
the care she received during her development. Quietness
in winter, reduction in swarming and gentleness are other
desirable characters.
Commerical queen-rearing.
Queen-rearing has become a prominent specialty in
American beekeeping and there are numerous beekeepers
who devote almost their entire energies to rearing queens of
various races for sale. To these specialists, beekeepers have
in the past looked for the greatest advancement in the
breeding of better stock, but it is becoming more and more
evident that this work should not be left entirely to commer-
cial breeders. In any event it is usually not economical for
the extensive beekeeper to purchase all of his queens. Queens
that have been shipped through the mails, especially those
that have previously been laying heavily, are frequently in-
jured to the extent that they never again fully show their
former prolificness. Even if this were not the case, the cost
of queens is almost always greater than is warranted by the
2 B 417
418 Beekeeping
time saved the honey-producer in not rearing them. This
should not be interpreted as an intimation that American
queen breeders charge excessive prices, for such is emphati-
cally not the case, as is shown by the fact that so many queen
breeders are compelled to abandon the work in a year or
two as financially unprofitable. From data furnished the
author by numerous commercial breeders, it is evident that
many of them would make more money if they devoted
their time to honey-production. However, each queen
costs relatively much less in time and honey in requeening
perhaps half the colonies in an apiary in a season than it does
when one rears a large number of queens in making a busi-
ness of rearing queens for sale.
Systematic requeening.
The giving of a yourrg queen to each colony at stated times
is coming to be the approved practice of some of the best
commercial honey-producers. After two seasons in a large
colony in temperate regions (about one year in the tropics),
the majority of queens are incapable of laying the large num-
ber of eggs per day that were laid earlier. There are many
individual exceptions, and if a beekeeper can give each colony
considerable attention he may get good results from a large
per cent of his older queens. The extensive commercial
honey-producer cannot spend much time on each colony and
he must work by averages. If, therefore, older queens are less
prolific and if the cost of requeening does not exceed the
increased profits due to the giving of young queens, he is
prudent to requeen. Before deciding this he should count
the cost and should especially see to it that he is reducing
his queen-rearing to a system so that no time is wasted in
this work. As honey-production becomes more intensive
and as queen-rearing methods become more economical of
time, an increasing number of extensive beekeepers are
finding it profitable to requeen each colony once in two years
systematically and, of course, to replace queens earlier if any
prove defective.
The Rearing of Queens 419
Conditions under which queens are reared.
There are three circumstances under which bees build
queen cells naturally and in artificial queen-rearing it is
necessary to bring about or to utilize some one of these condi-
tions. (1) The most common condition is that found in the
preparation for swarming (p. 62). (2) If a colony becomes
queenless and if suitable larvse are present, queens will be
reared. (3) If a queen becomes inefficient the workers will
rear young queens to supersede her. It is believed that the
best queens are those reared under the swarming impulse
and in supersedure.
Saving natural queen cells.
During the swarming season the beekeeper can often
obtain a number of fine queen cells without any cost in time
by taking queen cells from colonies preparing to swarm,
provided the parent queens are of satisfactory stock. By
placing these in colonies to be requeened, after the removal
of the condemned queens, requeening takes place naturally
and without further manipulation. Making a colony queen-
less early in a honey-flow, like that from clover in the North,
costs less perhaps than a period of queenlessness at any other
time, in that the eggs laid then are not of value as future
honey gatherers. Furthermore, this may often be done in
connection with dequeening to treat swarming. By keeping
a watch for opportunities to utilize good natural queen cells,
time may be saved by reducing the amount of artificial queen-
rearing.
Having natural cells built.
The Miller method. C. C. Miller advocates the follow-
ing method : The breeding queen is kept in a two-frame
nucleus so that all comb built will be of worker cells. Be-
ginning at about the time queen cells are being built for
swarming, on the same day each week a frame is inserted in
place of one of the combs in the nucleus containing the
420
Beekeeping
breeding queen. This new frame contains two small starters
of foundation about 4 by 1 inches, placed 4 inches from
each end. If the nucleus is fairly populous, in a week this
frame will contain considerable comb and the cells will con-
tain eggs and young larvae. It is now taken away and another
frame with starters substituted. The new comb is now
trimmed so that the cells at the edge containing eggs are cut
away, leaving young larvae on the border of the comb. It is
then inserted in the middle of a strong colony which has
begun to build queen cells in preparation for swarming, all
former queen
cells being de-
stroyed and the
queen being re-
moved. In ten
days the comb
containing queen
cells from eggs
of the breeding
queen is re-
moved and the
cells given to
nuclei from
They may if desired be left
FIG. 184. Comb cut for starting queen cells by the
AJley method. A strip of partly drawn comb-
foundation is here used to hold the eggs chosen
for queen-rearing.
which the queens are mated,
in a nursery cage to emerge.
The Alley method. For convenience, a method described
by Alley has much to commend it. A strip of comb is cut
out, just wide enough to contain one complete row of cells
containing eggs. This is then cut down by removing about
two-thirds of the side walls on one side. With a match
or small stick, one in every two or two in every three eggs
are destroyed, leaving the cells empty. The strip of comb is
now fastened to the lower edge of a comb cut as represented
in Fig. 184, the eggs remaining now being pointed down-
ward. This prepared frame is now given to a queenless
colony from which all young unsealed brood has been re-
The Rearing of Queens
421
moved. The workers remodel the cells which contain the
eggs, making them into queen cells.
The Hopkins method. Another method has recently been
recommended by Hopkins 1 for getting queen cells in quan-
tity. A new comb is given to a breeding queen to be filled
with eggs, after which it is removed, and with a sharp knife
three out of every four rows of cells across the comb are cut
away to the midrib, leaving every fourth row intact. Two
of every three eggs are then destroyed as described previously,
as well as any
eggs accidentally
left between the
rows. This comb
is now laid face
down over the
brood-chamber of
a queenless colony,
being raised above
the top-bars of the
hive by means of
an empty frame or
a specially con-
structed collar.
The sealed queen cells are shown in the accompanying il-
lustration (Fig. 185). To protect the developing queens
from cold, the horizontal frame should be covered with a
light mat. To prevent sagging, the comb may be supported
by wires wound around the frame between the rows of cells.
It is possible that when so many cells are built some
queens are not good.
With any of these methods the queen cells may be cut
out and protected with a West spiral wire cell protector and
given to a colony or small nucleus, or they may be placed
in a nursery cage for the queens to emerge.
FIG. 185.
Queen cells reared by the Hopkins
method.
1 Hopkins, I., 1911. The illustrated Australasian bee manual,
ington, N. Z. See also various journal articles by this author.
Well-
422 Beekeeping
Queen cells on artificial bases.
To have the queen cells in more convenient shape for
handling, artificial cell cups have been devised. Doolittle l
made cups by dipping a smooth stick with rounded end into
melted wax and removing the adhering wax. Now the usual
method is to use wooden cell bases. A short cylinder of
wood is hollowed out on one end and lined with wax, the
cavity being the size of a queen cell base. The opposite
end of the cylinder has a nail point in it so that the cell cup
may be readily attached to a wooden strip or, better, the
cylinder is flanged and hangs through a hole in the support-
ing bar (Fig. 187). 2
Transferring larva.
Having made the necessary cups they are inverted, and
the usual practice is to wipe the inside of the cell with a little
royal jelly procured from another queen cell. Young
larvae are now carefully lifted from the worker cells and
placed in the artificial cell cups, being taken of course from
the colony of the queen selected as best for breeding. The
supplied cells are now hung in a colony prepared for cell
building. The larvae chosen should be as young as they
can be obtained, preferably not more than one day from the
egg. Older larvee may be used but the resulting queens
will probably be less valuable.
Swarm box.
A method for getting queen cells started which is in some
respects preferable to putting them in a queenless colony is
the use of the swarm box (Fig. 186). A special box, with
wire screen bottom to provide adequate ventilation, is made
large enough to hold five full frames, but only three are used,
there being left alternating spaces the width of a frame.
The frames used should be abundantly supplied with pollen
1 Doolittle, G. M., 1889. Scientific queen rearing. Chicago: also later
editions.
2 See the ^various booklets by E. L. Pratt (pseudonym Swarthmore).
The Rearing of Queens
423
and honey and it is best to have one an empty comb into
which water is poured. The top of the box is removable
and has two slots cut in it into which are fitted two cell bars
which allow the queen cells to hang over the spaces between
the frames. When the box is prepared with the frames
fastened in place and the slots filled with the empty cell bars
(or plain strips of wood), bees are shaken into the box suffi-
cient to fill it more completely than bees are usually
found in a hive, care
being taken that a
queen is not put into
the swarm box. This
should usually be done
about ten o'clock in
the morning when the
field bees are mostly
away from the hive,
thus providing a sur-
plus of young bees.
In about six hours the
empty artificial cell
bases are removed one
at a time and a worker
larva transferred to
each one, the hole
meanwhile being closed
by an extra cup. When this is completed the top of
the box is covered snugly to keep the cells warm and
the swarm box is put away in a dark cool place. Usually
by the next morning most of the cell cups will have
been built down and queen development will have be-
gun. Considerable variation in the success of this method
has been reported and there are numerous phases of this
question on which more light is needed. Some strains
of bees seem to be poor for this purpose. On the whole,
however, when directions are carefully followed, a good
number of fine queen cells will usually be obtained. The
FIG. 186. Swarm box for starting queen
cells, showing position of frames and inner
side of lid, with wooden cells in place, ready
for bees.
424
Beekeeping
method commends itself because of the saving of time and
it is used by many commercial queen breeders.
FIG. 187. Pratt nursery. Two cells are removed to show construction.
Six such nursery cages fit in a Langstroth frame.
Having cells built out.
After cells have been started by any of the methods given,
they may be put in the upper story of a normal colony,
protected by perforated zinc to keep the queen from destroy-
ing the cells. During the time that the queen larvae are
FIG. 188. Queen mating hives. This type is used in the apiary of the
Bureau of Entomology. The frames are supported by tins which may
be removed and used to fasten three frames together to form a large
frame of Langstroth dimensions. A feeder is provided either at the
front (right) or back (left) of the hive. These small hives are un-
necessarily complex.
The Rearing of Queens
425
taking food they should be kept in a strong colony so that
they will be abundantly fed. If there is no honey-flow, it is
necessary to give the colony some sugar syrup or honey
daily to keep it in prime condition. The cells will be well
cared for in strong queenless colonies, but to keep colonies
queenless so long is expensive. It is a well recognized fact
that if a colony is divided by perforated zinc, the portion
away from the queen is in condition to build and care for
queen cells and may be considered as virtually queenless.
Nursery cages.
Before the queens are ready to emerge, about ten days
from the time of transferring the larvae, each cell may be put
in some sort of nursery cage
(Fig. 187), so that as the queens
emerge they will not kill each
other or destroy other cells.
As a rule individual cages for
each queen cell are best. If
colonies are ready to receive
them the best method is to
put each queen cell in a colony
so that there will be no neces-
sity for introducing adult
queens.
Mating hives.
In case it is desired to have
the queens mated before intro-
ducing them to full colonies
or if queens are being raised FlG . 189 ._" B ab y nucleus" hive
for sale, the queen cells or
virgin queens (as most con-
venient) may be put in small
colonies, usually known as nuclei. Two types of mating
boxes are illustrated (Figs. 188 and 189), but it is usually
most satisfactory not to use too small a mating box.
devised by Pratt. An introduc-
ing cage is in place between the
frames.
426
Beekeeping
Many beekeepers prefer to use full Langstroth frames in
boxes built to hold about three frames.
Classification of queens.
When a queen has mated (usually in five to eight days)
and has begun to deposit eggs she is ready to use and is
known in the queen trade as untested. At this time it
cannot be determined whether she has mated with a drone
of her own race, but if she is kept for a little over three weeks
(until her progeny emerges) the color of the workers is taken
as an indication of the purity or impurity of her mating.
If apparently purely mated she is known in the trade as a
tested queen. Further observa-
tions may cause her to be classed
as select tested or finally as a
breeding queen.
FIG. 190. Queen mailing cage.
The right-hand hole is filled
with candy which is then
covered with a circle of comb-
foundation or waxed paper.
The cork at the end is re-
moved when used for an in-
troducing cage.
Mailing cages.
If queens are to be shipped
they are usually put in a queen
mailing cage (Fig. 190) with some
workers and an adequate supply
of food, usually a soft paste or
candy made by kneading together
confectioner's (not powdered) sugar and honey without
heating. Queens are frequently mailed across the con-
tinent or from Europe in these cages and have been
shipped successfully to New Zealand. Usually a trip of
over ten days results in considerable loss.
Introducing cages.
The queen mailing cage is also used as an introducing
cage or special cages may be used for this purpose. Cages
are so constructed that the queen is separated from the
workers in the hive that is to receive her by soft candy.
The workers gradually eat this out and in the meantime
the queen acquires the colony odor so that when the candy
The Rearing of Queens 427
is eaten away she walks out without excitement and is
accepted. This is the most common method of introducing
queens. Some beekeepers dip the queen in honey and place
her in the colony. The workers promptly remove the honey
and usually accept the queen. Others fill the hive with
smoke and close the entrance after letting the queen run in.
Whatever is done the queen should acquire the colony odor
so that the workers will not attack her as they normally do
strange queens. Young virgin queens are more readily
accepted than mated queens. Colonies that have been
queenless for a considerable time are usually difficult to
requeen and this is especially true if in the meantime some
of the workers have begun to lay eggs (p. 187). In intro-
ducing a queen it is necessary that the colony be queenless
or the strange queen will be killed.
Improvement of stock.
In addition to the manipulations of queen-rearing there
are some fundamental principles which should be considered.
It should be the policy not only to provide queens as needed
but to keep steadily improving the stock. For this work
beekeepers usually depend on the specialists in queen-rearing
but it is desirable that each beekeeper keep the ideal of
bettering his stock constantly before him. The breeding of
Italian queens for additional yellow on the abdomen, result-
ing in the so-called five-banded bees, clearly demonstrates
that changes can be made by applying the principles of
breeding to queen-rearing. While the merits of these bees
is a subject of dispute the success in this line of endeavor
should encourage the beekeeper to believe that as striking
things are possible in other lines of bee breeding.
It is evident that certain characteristics which the bee-
keeper wishes to develop and some which he wishes to reduce
or destroy must be inherited. Exceptional prolificness,
gentleness, excessive swarming, protracted breeding and
their opposites are characteristic of various races and strains
of bees but not of the entire species. This leads to the belief
428 Beekeeping
that the bee breeder may hope to modify his bees along
these lines by proper care in selecting his breeding material.
The actual results of practical beekeepers also show that
improvement may be made, as indicated by increased crops.
Study of breeding needed.
It is not practical in this place to enter upon an elaborate
discussion of the methods and results of modern breeding.
To what characters of bees Mendelian inheritance is oper-
ative has not been shown by the work so far done although
color is probably so inherited. Bee breeding has not been
subject to the researches of the theoretical breeders but work
of this character is greatly to be desired. Certain funda-
mental facts should be mentioned, however, and they are
chosen here because they have been misunderstood by bee-
keepers writing for bee journals. The fact that a queen is
poorly developed because of inadequate care during develop-
ment does not make her undesirable as a breeding queen
and, conversely, prolificness induced by extra care and
manipulation does not make a queen more valuable for
breeding, because characters acquired during the life of the
individual are not inherited.
Selection of drones.
As great care should be exercised in choosing the drones
as is employed in selecting the breeding queen, but most
beekeepers fail to give this subject adequate consideration.
In general the drone (father) is just as influential in deciding
the character of the offspring as is the queen (mother).
Drones may be selected by allowing drones to fly only from
the colony or colonies which are up to the breeding standard
and drone production in these colonies may be increased by
providing drone comb. Drone rearing in other colonies
may be restricted by giving only worker comb or the un-
desirable drones may be trapped by a queen and drone trap
(Fig. 30). While the beekeeper cannot choose the indi-
vidual drone with which a queen mates he can increase the
The Rearing of Queens 429
chances of desirable matings by providing plenty of drones
of good stock and restricting undesirable drones. When
the workers begin to drive drones from the hives they may
be protected by putting them in a queenless colony, where
they will not be molested.
Desirability of pure races.
Above all, the desirability of pure races should be empha-
sized. It is a common belief that hybrids (usually crosses
of Italians and blacks) are good honey gatherers. Crosses
of other races are also recommended. The first cross is
often desirable from the standpoint of honey gathering but
it is better to breed from pure stock only, for the offspring
of a hybrid queen is exceptionally variable and it is rather a
matter of chance if good stock results. Presumably the
desirable characteristics of certain crosses might be fixed
by judicious and intelligent selection, but this is a problem
for a professional breeder and not for the honey producer or
even for the commercial queen breeder.
Danger from inbreeding.
This has been much overestimated in the discussions of
breeding in the bee journals. Inbreeding may accentuate
undesirable characters but it may likewise help to fix desir-
able characters, and it has been used with good results in
other lines of breeding. The commercial honey producer
need have little fear of harmful results, for if any signs of
degeneracy are observed it is easy at any time to introduce
new blood.
CHAPTER XXIV
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
BEEKEEPING does not consist solely in caring for bees
and in using or selling their products. The activities of
beekeepers are expressed in various allied fields and since
these are things about which the beekeeper wants and should
have information, it is proposed in a brief closing chapter
to give a few notes which may be helpful, but which do not
find a place in the previous chapters.
Literature on bees and beekeeping.
In the centuries during which men have been interested in
the honeybee, hundreds and even thousands of books have
been written on this subject. No other insect, and perhaps
no other animal except man, has been so voluminously
discussed. Many of these books are now of interest only
to the collectors of old bee books, for the advance in our
knowledge of these subjects through investigation has
naturally left many of the older books far behind. That
there have been in the ranks of bee enthusiasts some men of
rare powers of observation, is attested by the enduring value
of some of their works. Even to list the books on bee-
keeping would probably require a book the size of this one,
so this interesting task must be set aside. The beekeeper
will find it to his advantage to read almost every one of the
few books now offered to the American beekeeper.
In addition to the works issued in book form, there is an
extensive literature on bees in scientific journals, unfortu-
nately not readily accessible to most beekeepers. Reference
is made to many of these papers in the preceding pages.
430
Miscellaneous Information 431
Some of the journals devoted to beekeeping have contained
articles of lasting practical value but unfortunately these
journals are too often read and at once cast aside, not being
properly filed and indexed for future references. The Bureau
of Entomology has a working bibliography, arranged by
authors and subjects, which is far from complete but which,
nevertheless, is helpful and is probably the most extensive
so far attempted for beekeeping literature. It contains
about 20,000 titles.
At present there are four journals devoted to the interests
of the beekeeper published in the United States and one
in Canada. A larger number appear regularly in various
European countries to which unfortunately few American
beekeepers have access. There should be regular summaries
and abstracts of the best articles in these journals prepared
for American beekeepers either in a bee journal or separately.
Several valuable bulletins have been issued by state insti-
tutions.
Organizations of beekeepers.
There are in the United States probably 100 societies of
beekeepers, organized to protect the interests of those now
engaged in the work, to educate their members in the prac-
tical and scientific phases of beekeeping and to promote
the industry. Most of these associations are active and help-
ful and they are nearly all growing and being improved.
Every beekeeper should be a member of one or more of these
organizations, to help and be helped. The National Bee
Keepers' Association is an association of affiliated societies,
the business being conducted through annual meetings of
delegates.
Laws.
It is not proposed in this place to discuss the legal status of
bees or to delineate the legal rights of their owners. Some
of the associations of beekeepers offer protection to their
members in case of legal complications.
432 Beekeeping
The special laws in which beekeepers are most interested
are those which provide for the inspection of apiaries for
the control of bee diseases. This work falls on the individual
states, there being at present no Federal laws on this
subject. The number of states having such inspection
has increased rapidly within recent years until now practi-
cally all the states in which beekeeping is an important
industry offer such protection. The desirable work now is
to improve and unify these laws and to bring about greater
co-operation in the inspection service of the various
states. The Association of Economic Entomologists now
has a section devoted to apiary inspection which is attempt-
ing this work.
Some states have laws which prohibit the spraying of
fruit trees while in full bloom, the purpose of these being to
prevent the poisoning of bees at work on the blossoms.
Supplies for beekeepers.
It has been shown in earlier chapters that it is quite neces-
sary that hives and other apiary supplies be accurately made,
and for this reason it is usually desirable that a beekeeper
buy his equipment from some manufacturer, unless he is a
skilled wood worker. The American beekeepers are fortu-
nate in that the supply business of the country is adequate.
There are a number of extensive establishments, and most
of them have agencies or branches in various parts of the
country from which supplies may be obtained on short
notice. The manufacturers will gladly send catalogs on
request and give information concerning agencies. The
addresses of manufacturers may be obtained from adver-
tisements in the bee journals.
The uses of honey.
This subject might well form the title of a separate chap-
ter, were space available for a longer discussion. While the
production of honey does not include its use, this is a subject
Miscellaneous Information 433
about which beekeepers should have information as an aid
to the early selling of their wares. They and their families
may set a good example to their customers by using honey
freely in the homes.
That honey is preferable to other syrups is usually acknowl-
edged. It is assuredly to be preferred to the cheap jams and
jellies which are so common in our markets. The chief
use of honey in the home is as a spread for bread, for which
purpose it may be used in any form. It is often recom-
mended in old recipe books and books on beekeeping for use
for almost all human ailments, from boils and freckles to
diphtheria and tape worms, but in these days such medicinal
uses are not to be commended except on the advice of a
physician.
A use of honey which should be more emphasized is in
cooking. Fruits preserved in honey have long been relished
for their superior flavor and are still in high favor among
those who have tried them. The famous Bar le due pre-
serves are made with honey. It is used extensively in com-
mercial bakeries, especially in cakes which will probably
be kept for some time before they are eaten. It is also used
in some of the finest confections as well as in the making of
vinegar. In former days, and to some extent to-day in parts
of Europe, considerable honey was used in making fermented
drinks which are reported to have been as powerful as they
were popular.
There has recently been issued by the United States
Department of Agriculture a bulletin l on the use of honey
in the home which should be in the hands of every beekeeper,
every beekeeper's wife and every beekeeper's customers.
Since it may be had on application it should have a wide
distribution. The recipes have been carefully tested and
only a few of the best are given. A substitution rule is
given by which honey may be substituted for sugar in any
cake.
1 Hunt, Caroline L. and Atwater, Helen W., 1915. Honey and its uses
in the home. Farmers' Bulletin No. 653, 26 pp.
2p
434 Beekeeping
Honey crop reports.
In 1914 the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture inaugurated a system of crop reports
on honey. The first report was on the condition of the bees
and of honey-producing plants on May 1st, to enable bee-
keepers and others interested to form an opinion as to the
probable results of the season. At the close of the season a
report of the crop was issued. When it is considered that
this is the first attempt at anything of this kind, it is encour-
aging to learn from beekeepers that the estimate for the
various states coincides closely with their experience. In
1915 a somewhat more elaborate program is proposed. It
will, of course, be recognized that reporters need experience
in work of this character before they can give data which
are most serviceable, but there is every reason to hope that with
an accumulation of data for several years these reports will
be of great value to honey producers. The beekeeper will
then be provided with reliable data which heretofore have
been obtainable only by honey buyers through their business
connections and he will thus be enabled to know what he
should ask for his products.
Educational work in beekeeping.
The advances of past years in beekeeping have come
chiefly through an exchange of ideas and results through the
journals and books on this subject and more recently by the
distribution of bulletins from the Federal and State labora-
tories devoted to beekeeping. It is now coming to be
generally accepted that these educational agencies are not
entirely sufficient and also that the industry is worthy of
more recognition. Several agricultural colleges are now
teaching beekeeping and it is being included to a limited
extent in the extension work of various institutions. If
this work can be enlarged adequately there is a great future
for the industry along commercial lines and it is to the
interest of every person engaged in any branch of beekeep-
ing activities to further this development.
Miscellaneous Information 435
The Bureau of Entomology.
The author includes at the close of this book, with some
hesitancy, a brief statement of the work of the Bureau of
Entomology of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture on beekeeping, with which he is associated. This is
done for the purpose of informing present and prospective
beekeepers of the activities and purposes of this office, with
a view to enlisting their interest and support.
Since the various states are rapidly taking up work in
beekeeping and since the state officials are in a position to
carry on educational and extension work more advanta-
geously, especially with the present small appropriations for
Federal work, it seems desirable that the work of the Bureau
of Entomology should be confined chiefly to investigation.
At the present time these investigations include work on the
activities of bees during the winter season and the practical
wintering of bees, the development of bees, a study of the
sense organs of the adult bee and the function of these organs
in bee behavior and the diseases of bees. Some other lines
of work of importance have been investigated and still
others are waiting inauguration, and when funds are avail-
able work will be begun on them.
The work in bee culture is now carried on in a laboratory
(see Frontispiece) located in Drummond, Maryland, a suburb
of Washington. This laboratory may easily be reached
from the city by trolley. All mail should be addressed to the
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
In addition to the specific lines of investigation the office
desires to assist in the many problems which are constantly
arising, and correspondence of beekeepers is invited.
The results of the work of this office are published, in so
far as possible, in the series of publications of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. These publications, so long as they
are in print, may be obtained either from the Department or
from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. The following papers, originating
in the Bureau of Entomology, have been issued since 1905 :
436 Beekeeping
Phillips, E. F., 1911. The treatment of bee diseases. Farmers'
Bulletin No. 442.
Phillips, E. F., 1911. Bees. Farmers' Bulletin No. 447.
Demuth, Geo. S., 1912. Comb honey. Farmers' Bulletin No. 503.
Phillips, E. F., 1905. The rearing of queen bees. Bulletin No. 55,
Bureau of Entomology.
Report of the meeting of inspectors of apiaries, San Antonio, Texas,
November 12, 1906. Bulletin No. 70, Bureau of Entomology.
1907.
Phillips, E. F., 1907. Production and care of extracted honey.
Bulletin No. 75, Part I, Bureau of Entomology.
Phillips, E. F., 1907. Wax moths and American foul brood. Bulle-
tin No. 75, Part II, Bureau of Entomology.
Gates, Burton N., 1908. Bee diseases in Massachusetts. Bulletin
No. 75, Part III, Bureau of Entomology.
White, G. F., 1908. The relation of the etiology (cause) of bee dis-
eases to the treatment. Bulletin No. 75, Part IV, Bureau of
Entomology.
Phillips, E. F., 1909. A brief survey of Hawaiian beekeeping.
Bulletin No. 70, Part V, Bureau of Entomology.
Phillips, E. F., 1909. The status of apiculture in the United
States. Bulletin No. 70, Part VI, Bureau of Entomology.
Gates, Burton N., 1909. Beekeeping in Massachusetts. Bulletin
No. 70, Part VII, Bureau of Entomology.
Phillips, E. F. and White, G. F., 1912. Historical notes on the
causes of bee diseases. Bulletin No. 98, Bureau of Entomology.
Casteel, D. B., 1912. The behavior of the honey bee in pollen
collecting. Bulletin No. 121, Bureau of Entomology.
White, G. F., 1906. The bacteria of the apiary, with special
reference to bee diseases. Technical Series No. 14, Bureau of
Entomology.
Snodgrass, R. E., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Techni-
cal Series No. 18, Bureau of Entomology.
Phillips, E. F., 1906. The brood diseases of bees. Circular No.
79, Bureau of Entomology.
White, G. F., 1907. The cause of American foul brood. Circular
No. 94, Bureau of Entomology.
Phillips, E. F., 1911. The occurrence of bee diseases in the United
States. Circular No. 138, Bureau of Entomology.
White, G. F., 1912. The cause of European foul brood. Circular
No. 157, Bureau of Entomology.
Casteel, D. B., 1912. The manipulation of the wax scales of the
honey bee. Circular No. 161, Bureau of Entomology.
White, G. F., 1913. Sacbrood, a disease of bees. Circular No.
169, Bureau of Entomology.
Miscellaneous Information 437
White, G. F., 1914. Destruction of germs of infectious bee dis-
eases by heating. Bulletin No. 92, Department of Agriculture.
Phillips, B. F. and Demuth, Geo. S., 1914. The temperature of the
honey bee cluster in winter. Bulletin No. 93, Department of
Agriculture.
Gates, Burton N., 1914. The temperature of the bee colony.
Bulletin No. 96, Department of Agriculture.
The following papers have been published in other series
of publications of the Department and with one exception
have not been prepared in the Bureau of Entomology :
Van Dine, D. L. and Thompson, Alice R., 1908. Hawaiian honeys.
Bulletin No. 17, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.
Phillips, E. F., 1914. Porto Rican beekeeping. Bulletin No. 15,
Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station.
Browne, C. A., 1908. Chemical analysis and composition of Ameri-
can honeys, including a microscopical study of honey pollen
by W. J. Young. Bulletin No. 110, Bureau of Chemistry.
Bryan, Given and Sherwood, 1912. Chemical analysis and com-
position of imported honey from Cuba, Mexico and Haiti.
Bulletin No. 154, Bureau of Chemistry.
Westgate, J. M. and Vinall, H. N., 1912. Sweet clover. Farmers'
Bulletin No. 485.
Hunt, Caroline L. and Atwater, Helen W., 1915. Honey and its
uses in the home. Farmers' Bulletin No. 653.
APPENDIX
EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE
ANATOMICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
SINCE nearly all of the illustrations of anatomical parts are
from the work of Snodgrass it may be best to give the list
of symbols and alphabetical lettering prepared by him and
given on pp. 141-147 of his paper. These will aid in iden-
tifying parts which are labeled in the illustrations, used in
this book to illustrate certain portions only.
1. SYMBOLS
A, anal vein; 1A, first anal, 2 A, second anal, etc.
AcGl, accessory gland of male reproductive organs.
AGl, acid gland of sting, opening into poison sac (PsnSc).
AGID, duct of acid gland of sting.
An, anus.
ANP, anterior wing process of notum.
ANR, anterior marginal ridge of notum.
Ant, antenna.
AntL, antennal lobe of brain.
AntNv, antennal nerve.
Ao, aorta.
Ap, apodeme, any internal chitinous process of body-wall.
Aph, anterior phragma of any tergum, prephragma.
Ax, the axillaries or articular sclerites of the wing base,
designated individually as lAx, 2 Ax, 8 Ax, and 4 Ax.
ax, accessory axillary sclerites of irregular occurrence in
connection with the principal axillaries (Ax).
AxC, axillary cord, or ligament-like thickening of posterior
edge of basal membrane of wing, attached to posterior
angle of scutellum.
AxM, axillary membrane, the thin membrane of wing base,
containing the axillary sclerites and forming in some
cases the lobes called alulae.
439
440
Beekeeping
B, bulb (bulb of penis or of sheath of sting).
BC, body-cavity.
be, any particular part of body cavity such as that pro-
longed into the mouth parts, legs or pieces of the sting.
BCpx, bursa copulatrix.
BGl, alkaline gland of sting.
BM, basement membrane.
Br, brain.
IBr, protocerebrum.
2Br, deutocerebrum.
SBr, tritocerebrum.
Brb, barb.
BW, body-wall.
C, costa, first vein of wing.
Cb, pollen basket or corbiculum on hind tibia of worker.
CC, crystalline cone of compound eye.
Cd, cardo.
Cer, cercus.
CL, crystalline lens of compound eye.
Cl, Cls, cell, cells.
Cla, claw.
Cip, clypeus.
Clsp, clasping lobes of ninth segment of male, perhaps
equivalent to the four gonapophyses of ninth seg-
ment of female.
IClsp, upper or outer clasper.
2Clsp, lower or inner clasper.
Cow, commissure (of either nervous or tracheal system).
Cor, cornea.
Ctl, cuticle, the chitinous layer of the epidermis.
Ctt, cubitus, fifth vein of generalized wing.
Cw, cross-vein.
Cx, coxa.
CxP, pleural coxal process.
Dct, duct.
DDph, dorsal diaphragm.
Dph, diaphragm.
DphCls, diaphragm cells.
Dphmb, membrane of diaphragm.
DphMcl, muscle fibers of diaphragm.
E, compound eye.
EAp, apodeme of extensor muscle.
EjD, ejaculatory duct.
Em, lateral emargination of notum.
EMd, extensor muscle.
Appendix
441
Emp,'
Enz,
Ep,
Ephy,
Epm,
Eps,
Epth,
F,
F?,
For,
Ft,
FtCom,
FtGng,
FtNv,
Fu,
G,
Ga,
Ge,
Gl,
1GI,
2GI,
SGI,
4GI,
Gls,
Gng,
Gu,
H,
Hk,
Hphy,
Hr,
hr,
HS,
Ht,
ht,
HtCls,
HtTraSc,
Int,
IT,
L,
Lb,
Lbl,
LbNv,
empodium.
digestive vesicles formed by ventricular epithelium.
epicranium.
epipharynx.
epimerum.
episternum.
epithelium.
femur.
flagellum.
foramen magnum.
front.
frontal commissure.
frontal ganglion.
frontal nerve.
f urea or median entosternal apodeme of thoracic sterna.
gonapophysis.
galea.
gena.
gland.
large pharyngeal gland in anterior part of head of
worker.
salivary gland in posterior part of head,
thoracic salivary gland,
small median gland below pharyngeal plate (s).
ganglion.
gula.
head.
hooks on front edge of hind wing.
hypopharynx.
hair.
surface disk of "auditory" organ of antenna, probably
modified base of sensory hair,
honey stomach,
heart.
individual chamber of heart,
pericardial cells,
pericardial tracheal sac.
intima, the chitinous lining of any internal organ,
tergum of first abdominal segment, the median segment,
or propodeum, incorporated into thorax,
leg.
labium.
labellum.
labial nerve.
442
Beekeeping
LbPlp, labial palpus.
Lc, lacinia.
Let, lancet of sting, equivalent to first gonapophysis (1G).
Lg, ligula.
LGl, "lubricating" gland of sting (not shown in figures).
Lin, median lobe of lingua or hypopharynx.
Lm, labrum.
LMd, longitudinal muscles.
Imd, ventral longitudinal muscles of thorax.
LmNv, labral nerve.
Lr, lorum.
LTra, trachea of leg.
Lum, lumen, the cavity of any hollow organ, whether the
glossa, sting, alimentary canal, or gland.
M, media, fourth vein of wing. Mi-M 4 , first to fourth
branches of media.
ra, median plate or plates of wing base.
Mai, Malpighian tubules.
Mb, intersegmental membrane.
mb, membrane.
m-cu, medio-cubital cross-vein.
MD, disklike muscle apodeme.
Md, mandible.
IMdGl, outer saclike mandibular gland.
2MdGl, inner racemose mandibular gland.
MdNv, mandibular nerve.
Mes, mesathorax, designated by figure 2 placed after and
below any thoracic symbol.
Met, metathorax, designated by figure 3 placed after and
below any thoracic symbol.
Mi, the chitinous plates of the neck collectively, the "mi-
crothorax," individually designated mi.
mi, cervical (microthoracic) sclerites.
m-m, median cross-vein.
M ps, mouth parts or trophi.
Mt, mentum.
Mth, mouth.
MX, maxilla.
MxPlp, maxillary palpus.
MxNv, maxillary nerve.
N, notum.
Nu, nucleus.
Nv, nerve.
0, ocellus.
06, oblong plate.
Appendix
443
Oc,
(E,
(ECom,
Om,
OpL,
Ost,
Ov,
ov,
OvD,
OvO,
P,
IP, 2P,
SP, 4P,
PA,
Pel,
PD,
Pd,
Pen,
PenB,
Peps,
Pge,
Pgl,
Pgu,
Ph,
Phy,
PI,
Pi,
Plf,
Pig,
Pip,
Pmb,
PMcl
Ptf,
pn,
PNP,
PNR,
occiput.
circumcesophageal commissures.
ommatidium .
optic lobe.
ostium or lateral aperture of heart.
ovary.
ovariole, individual ovarian tube.
oviduct.
opening of vagina or median oviduct.
paraptera, small pleural plates below base of wing,
typically two episternal paraptera or preparaptera
(IP and 2P) before pleural wing process (WP), and
two epimeral paraptera or postparaptera (8P and
4P) behind wing process.
episternal paraptera, preparaptera.
epimeral paraptera, postparaptera.
arm of pleural ridge.
postclypeus.
muscle disk of episternal paraptera, giving insertion to
pronator muscle (not present in the bee).
peduncle.
penis.
bulb of penis.
preepisternum.
postgena.
paraglossa.
pregula.
phragma.
pharynx.
pleurum,
subdivision of pleurum.
palpifer, palpus-carrying lobe of maxilla.
palpiger, palpus-carrying lobe of labium.
palpus.
peritrophic membrane.
pronator muscle.
postnotum or pseudonotum, the second or postalar
tergal plate of the wing-bearing segments of most
insects, the " postscutellum " of higher orders.
small rod connecting postscutellum (postnotum PN)
with upper edge of epimerum, probably a detached
piece of the former.
posterior notal wing process.
posterior marginal ridge of notum.
444 Beekeeping
Pph, posterior phragma or postphragma of any tergum,
carried by the second notal plate or postnotum (PN),
the '''postscutellum" of higher forms.
PR, internal pleural ridge, the entopleurum, marked exter-
nally by pleural suture (PS).
Prb, proboscis.
PrbFs, fossa of proboscis.
PS, pleural suture, external line separating episternum and
epimerum, marking site of internal pleural ridge.
Ps, presternum.
Psc, prescutum.
Pscl, postscutellum (postnotum).
Psl, poststernellum.
PsnC, poison canal of sting.
PsnSc, poison sac of sting into which opens the acid gland (AGl).
Pt, sensory pit.
Ptr, peritreme, spiracle-bearing sclerite.
Pvent, proventriculus.
PventVlv, proventricular tube or valve in ventriculus.
Qd, quadrate plate of sting.
.R, radius, third vein of generalized wing. Ri-Rs, first to
fifth branches of radius. R s radial sector.
RAp, apodeme of flexor muscle.
Rd, posterior extension or reduplication of any tergal or
sternal plate overlapping plate following it.
Reel, rectum, the large intestine of insects.
RGl, rectal glands.
r-m, radio-medial cross-vein.
RMcl, flexor muscle of mandible or wing.
IRMcl, dorsal retractor muscle of ligula.
2RMcl, ventral retractor muscle of ligula.
R t , radial sector, or second branch of radius at first forking.
S, sternum.
SalD, salivary duct.
SalDO, external opening of salivary duct.
Sc, subcosta, second vein of generalized wing.
Scl, soutellum.
Scp, scape.
Set. scutum.
Sga, subgalea.
Sh, sheath of sting, equivalent to the second gonapophyses
(2G) or middle pair on ninth abdominal segment.
Sh A, basal arm of sheath of sting.
ShB, bulb of sheath of sting or ovipositor.
ShS, shaft of sheath of sting.
Appendix
445
SInt, small intestine.
SI, sternellum.
Slin, superlingua, embryonic lateral lobes of hypopharynx,
true appendages of fifth head segment.
Smt, submentum.
SasGng, suboesophageal ganglion.
Sp, spiracle.
Spm, spermatheca.
SpmGl, spermathecal gland.
St, stipes.
StgNv, stomatogastric nerve.
Stn, sting.
StnPlp, ' palpuslike appendages of the sting, equivalent to the
third gonapophyses (3G) or the outer pair on ninth
abdominal segment.
T, tergum.
IT, first abdominal tergum, the propodeum, incorporated
into thorax.
II T, second abdominal tergum.
Tar, tarsus.
Tb, tibia.
Ten, large tentorial arms of head, the mesocephalic pillars.
ten, slender tentorial arch over foramen magnum.
Tes, testes.
Tg, tegula.
TMcl, transverse muscle.
Tn, trochantin (not separated from sternum in bee).
TnC, coxal condyle of trochantin.
Tr, trochanter.
Tra, trachea.
TraCom, transverse ventral tracheal commissures of abdomen.
TraSc, tracheal sac.
Tri, triangular plate of sting.
Vag, vagina.
VDef, vas deferens.
VDph, ventral diaphragm.
Vent, ventriculus.
VentVlv, ventricular fold or valve in small intestine.
Ves, vesicula seminalis.
Vlv, valve of sting carried by lancet.
VMcl, large vertical muscles of thorax.
VNR, internal, median V-shaped notal ridge, the "entodor-
sum."
Vx, vertex.
W, wing.
446 Beekeeping
WzNv, mesothoracic wing nerve.
W 3 Nv, metathoracic wing nerve.
WP, wing process of pleurum.
2. ALPHABETICAL LETTERING
0, clypeal suture.
6, anterior tentorial pit, in clypeal suture.
c, posterior tentorial pit, in occiput beside foramen mag-
num.
d, thickened posterior edge of lateral wall of fossa of
proboscis.
e, process at upper end of d articulating with cardo of
maxilla and forming maxillary suspensorium.
/, internal median keel of vertex in cranium of drone.
g, suspensorial ligaments of anterior end of oesophagus.
h, pharyngeal rod.
1, convolutions of dorsal blood vessel.
j, anterior articular knob of mandible.
k, ventral groove of glossa.
1, ventral groove of maxillary rod.
m, median plates of wing base.
n, basal hooks of glossa.
o, median ventral plate of ligula.
p, dorsal plates of anterior end of mentum, supporting
ligula.
q, inner wall of canal of glossa.
r, chitinous rod of glossa.
s, pharyngeal plate, on anterior part of floor of pharynx.
t, salivary pouch opening on dorsal side of base of ligula,
receiving common duct of salivary glands (SalD).
u, oblique muscles inserted upon dorsal side of salivary
pouch of ligula.
v, transverse or V-shaped suture on surface of mesonotum
or metanotum, formed by the internal V-shaped
ridge or "entodorsum" (VNR).
w, lateral lobe of pronotum projecting posteriorly over the
first spiracle.
x, thoracic plate lying laterad of anterior part of sternum,
often regarded as a part of presternum.
y, accessory sclerite of fourth axillary (4 Ax) of front wing,
affording insertion for slender muscle (cc) attached
below to common apodeme of mesosternum and
metasternum.
2, coxal condyles of mesothoracic and metathoracic sterna,
Appendix 447
probably really the coxal condyles of trochantins
(TnC) fused entirely with the sterna and epi-
sterna in each segment.
aa, muscle arising from inner wall of mesothoracic pleurum
and inserted upon outer end of corresponding scutel-
lum, probably accessory in function to the great
vertical muscles (VMd) between the mesothoracic
sternum and scutum.
66, coxo-axillary muscle, extending from upper end of
coxa to third parapterum (3P).
cc, muscle inserted upon accessory sclerite (y) of fourth
axillary (4 Ax) from common entosternum of meso-
thorax and metathorax.
dd, notch of antenna cleaner on first tarsal joint (1 Tar] of
front leg.
ee, spine of antenna cleaner situated on distal end of tibia
(no.
ff, so-called "wax shears" or "wax pincers."
gg, transverse chitinous band of empodium (Emp), which
compresses its two lobes when not in use and spreads
out by muscular effort.
hh, dorsal plate supporting empodium.
u, ventral plate supporting empodium.
jj, dorsal groove of lancet interlocking with ventral ridge
of sheath of sting.
kk, sting chamber within end of seventh abdominal seg-
ment, lodging sting whose accessory plates are derived
from eighth and ninth segments.
ZZ, reservoir of thoracic salivary gland.
mm, receptacular chitinous pouches on ventral side of
pharyngeal plate (s) receiving ducts of large lateral
pharyngeal glands of head (1GI).
nn, "stomach-mouth" at summit of pro ventricular pro-
jection within honey stomach (HS).
oo, pores on lancets and shaft of sting sheath opening
to exterior from prolongation of body-cavity (be) con-
tained in each.
pp, gelatinous layer secreted upon inner surface of ventric-
ular epithelium.
qq, food contents of alimentary canal.
rr, cells of ventricular epithelium apparently forming the
internal gelatinous layer.
ss, cartilaginous mass on inner surface of dorsal wall of
bulb of penis ( PenB).
tt, dorsal plates of bulb of penis.
448 Beekeeping
uu, fimbriated dorsal lobes of penis at base of bulb.
w, ventral scalariform row of plates on tube of penis.
ww, dorsal basal plates of penis.
xx, ventral basal plates of penis.
yy, basal pouch of penis.
22, copulatory sacs of penis.
INDEX
Abandoning of hive, 81.
Abdomen, 140.
Achroia grissella, 414.
Acid, formic, in honey, 84.
Acid in cleaning wax, 338.
Activity in winter cluster, 90, 347.
Adult bee diseases, 409.
Adulteration of comb-foundation, 341 .
of wax, 339.
Advantages of comb-honey, 304.
of extracted-honey, 287.
Advertising honey, 332.
African bees, 202.
After-swarms, 71.
After-swarming prevented, 275.
Age, method of determining, 107.
Alfalfa, 206.
region, 208.
Alley method of queen-rearing, 420.
Alley traps, 32.
Amateur beekeepers, 2.
American appliances, advantage of,
11.
American foul brood, 81, 398.
Anatomical symbols, 439.
Anatomy, 132.
Antennae, two pairs in embryo, 99.
Antennal sense organs, 174.
Ants, enemies, 416.
comparison of colony, 106.
Aphids, source of honey-dew, 371.
Apiary grounds, 228.
house, 23.
size, 232.
Apis, genus, 193.
Apparatus, evolution of, 23.
requirements in, 23.
Arrangement of hives, 231.
Artificial queen-cells, 422.
swarming, effects of, 58.
swarms, 283.
Asiatic bees, 203.
Aspinwall hive, 78.
Associations of beekeepers, 431.
Bacillus larva, 401.
pluton, 402.
Bait sections, 317.
Barrels for honey, 320.
Bee-escape, 24, 32.
-glue, 50.
-house, 9, 10.
-journals, 431.
Beekeeping a minor industry, 3.
now undeveloped, 5.
Bee-space, 26, 27.
-stings sometimes serious, 13.
Beeswax production, 334.
source, 109.
Bee-tree, transferring from, 248.
Bee-way sections, 308.
Beginner's outfit, 226.
Beginning beekeeping, 222.
on small scale, 2.
Behavior, knowledge of, necessary,
13, 34.
nature of, 180.
of swarming bees, 74.
source of data, 35.
Bellringing in swarming, 66.
Berlepsch, Baron v., 67.
Bibliography, 430.
Black bees, 200.
brood, 401.
Bleaching wax, 338.
Blending honeys, 322.
NOTE : The names of honey-plants given in the Annotated List of Honey-
Plants (pp. 372 to 396) are not included in this alphabetical index since
they are given in alphabetical order in the list.
2a 449
450
Index
Blood of bees, 150
Boiler for wax rendering, 335.
Bonnier, 120.
Bordas' names of glands, 111.
Bottles for honey, 322.
Bottom starters, 312.
Bouvier, 52.
Brain, 163.
Braula cceca, 416.
Break test for wax, 339.
Breathing, 151.
Breeding, 269, 417.
investigations needed, 428.
Brood, 46.
concentric arrangement of, 56.
development, 55.
diseases, 397.
early arrangement of, 55.
-emergence, effect on swarming,
280.
Brood-rearing cycle, 57.
end of, 86.
temperature, 60.
time of beginning, 55.
in winter, 347.
Brood, removal, 283.
spreading of, 262.
stages, length of, 60.
uses after swarming, 275.
Brush for bees, 31.
Bulk comb-honey, 318.
marketing, 330.
Bulletins on beekeeping, 435.
Bureau of Entomology, 435.
Buttel-Reepen, v., 172.
Buying bees, 222.
Caging of queen, 281.
Canada, statistics of beekeeping in, 4.
Candy for winter food, 345.
Capping cans, 294.
melters, 295.
of cells, 49.
Care of comb-honey, 316.
Carniolan bees, 202. -
hive, 9.
Cartons for comb-honey, 329.
Casteel, 110, 123.
Caucasian bees, 196.
hives, 6, 8.
Cause of swarming, 75.
Cellar temperature, 347, 353.
wintering, 353.
Cell division, 96.
Cells, accuracy, 48, 49.
contents, 49.
Cellular structure of tissues, 94.
Cheshire, 111, 112.
Chilling of brood, 56.
Chinese- Japanese bees, 203.
Chorion of egg, 184.
Chunk honey, 318.
Circulation, 148.
Cleaning hives in spring, 259.
new home, 68.
sections, 325.
wax, 337.
Climate, influence on secretion, 362.
Clipping queens, 260, 273.
Closed-end frames, 28.
Closing the hive, 240.
Clustering of swarm, 65.
aids to, 66.
Cocoon, 51, 101.
Cold-blooded animals, 59.
Colonial life, necessity of, 38, 39.
Color, European foul brood, 402.
of combs, 51.
of hives, 30.
perception, 169.
Comb-building, 68, 108.
plan in, 51.
description, 46.
-foundation, 28, 340.
-honey marketing, 325.
-honey production, 301.
-honey production decreasing, 303.
Commercial breeders, 417.
Complete metamorphosis, 100.
Compound eyes, 166.
hairs, 104.
Condensation in hive, 345.
Confinement in winter, 356.
Conservation of heat, 90.
Constancy of workers, 119.
Consumption of colony, 364.
Contents of cells, 49.
Contraction of swarms, 278.
Control of natural swarms, 272.
Cook, 113.
Cooking, honey in, 433.
Co-operative selling, 333.
Index
451
Courses in beekeeping, 225.
Cowan, 113.
Critical temperature, 90.
Crop reports on honey, 434.
Cross-pollination, 6, 365.
Cultivation of plants for nectar, 363.
Cut comb-honey, 319.
Cutter, comb-foundation, 33.
Cycle of duties of worker, 104.
of the year, 54.
Cyprian bees, 196.
Dadant apiaries, 219.
hive, 10.
Danger from poor investigation, 36.
Dead bees in cellar, 352.
Decrease in comb-honey, 303.
Defence of colony, 117.
Delayed swarms, 71.
Demand for fancy comb-honey, 303.
Demuth, 301.
Demuth's observations on swarming,
77.
Dequeening, 281.
for European foul brood, 409.
Desertion of swarms, 278.
Developmental stages, 93, 102.
Digestion, 141.
Disadvantages of comb-honey, 304.
of extracted-honey, 287.
Disease, effects of, 215.
Diseases of bees, 397.
Disinfection of hives, 406.
of honey, 407.
Disposal of combs after extracting,
300.
Dissolving wax, 337.
Disturbance, effect, 60.
harmful, 234.
in winter, 347.
Distribution of bees, 213.
Division of labor, 106.
in gathering, 120.
Domestic animals, bees not, 38.
Donhoff, 108.
Doolittle cell cups, 422.
Door for honey-house, 24.
Double-walled hives, 352.
Drainage in cellar, 354.
Drawn combs, 290.
Dreyling, 109.
Drifting in spring, 256.
Drone cell, 46.
description, 44.
duties, 106.
food, 116.
killing, 86.
-laying queens, 70.
selection, 428.
Drones, retained in queenless colo-
nies, 45.
Dufour, 57.
Duration of life, 126.
Dysentery, 356, 409.
Dzierzon, 8, 9.
theory, 187.
Early embryonic development, 96.
Educational work, 434.
Egg, 95.
-laying, normal, 41.
-laying restriction, 281.
origin, 181.
Eggs which fail to hatch, 191.
Egyptian bees, 194.
Embryology, 93.
Emulsion of wax, 338.
Enemies of bees, 411.
English hive, 10.
Entrance in winter, 352.
Enzymes in ripening, 85.
Equalizing colonies, 259, 313.
Equipment, importance of, 22.
Essentials in beekeeping, 251.
European foul brood, 401.
Excretion, 153.
Experience in behavior work advan-
tageous, 36.
Extracted-honey marketing, 320.
-honey production, 286.
wax, 337.
Extracting, 298.
Extractors, 296.
Extra-floral nectaries, 370.
Eyes, 166.
Fall treatment for disease, 408.
Fanning in winter cluster, 91.
of swarming bees, 66.
Farmer-beekeepers, disadvantages of,
2,3.
Fat body, 153.
452
Index
Feces, effects in winter, 356.
in winter, 89, 91.
of young bees, 107.
retention, 147.
Feeders, 33, 242.
Feeding, 240.
for winter, 345.
of larva, 101, 111.
Fertilization of egg, 96.
Field duties of workers, 105.
Flight, length of bee's, 19.
of queen, 69.
organs of, 115.
Flowers, finding of, 177.
Food, 142.
for winter, 344.
of larvse, composition, 115.
of larvae, source, 111.
Formic acid in honey, 84.
Foul brood, 398.
Foundation in sections, 311.
need of, 239.
Frames, handling, 237.
Fraternal relations of beekeepers, 3,
14.
Fruit-growing, value of bees in, 6, 7,
366.
Fumigation for moths, 414.
Function of nectar, 360.
Galleria mellonella, 411.
Gates, 177.
Gathering instinct, development,
108.
German bees, 107, 200.
hive, 7, 9.
Gerstung theory of swarming, 79.
Giant bees, 193.
comparison of nest, 52.
comparison in deserting nest, 81.
Glands of head, 111.
Glazed sections, 329.
Gloves, 31.
Grading comb-honey, 326.
Granulated honey, marketing, 330.
Granulation of wax, 338.
prevention, 325.
Gravenhorst hive, 7, 9.
Gravity strainers, 299.
Grecian bees, 196.
Greek hive, 6, 8.
Growth of larva, 100,
Guarding of colony, 117.
Head, description, 134.
Hearing, 175.
Heart, 148.
Heat, conservation, 90.
source, 59, 91.
Heating honey, 324.
Heat in winter, source, 346.
Hemiptera, source of honey-dew,
371.
Hermaphrodite bees, 190.
Hershiser press, 336.
Hibernation impossible, 88.
Hive and hive parts, 26.
arrangement, 231.
finding of, 178.
for comb-honey, 306.
for extracted-honey, 288.
Hivers, automatic, 274.
Hive stands, 26.
tools, 31.
Hiving a swarm, 272.
Hoarding for winter, 88.
Hoffman frames, 28.
Holy Land bees, 195.
Home market, development, 332.
Honey-dew, insect, 371.
-dew in winter, 356.
-dew plant, 370.
-flow, influence on brood-rearing,
86.
-flow variations, 206.
-house, 23, 292, 306.
-plants, 359.
-pump, 300.
ripening, 84.
-stomach, structure, 113.
storing, 81.
uses, 432.
Hoosier School Boy, bee-house in,
9, 10.
Hopkins method of queen-rearing,
421.
House for extracting, 292.
Houses for bees, 9, 10.
Human concepts given to bees, 35.
Humidity in winter, 345.
Hunger swarm, 80.
Hymenoptera, 3.7.
Index
453
Identification of plants difficult, 360.
Imbedding wire in foundation, 29.
Importation of wax, 342.
Improvement of stock, 427.
Inbreeding, 429.
Incomplete metamorphosis, 100.
Increase, 284.
Indiana, variations in swarming,
77.
Individual service, 319.
Insect honey-dew, 371.
Inside labor of the hive, 107.
labor of young bees, 104.
Inspection laws, 432.
Instinct has physical basis, 104.
limitations of, 34, 38.
of gathering, 84.
to swarm, 75.
Introducing cages, 426.
Inversion of sugar, 84, 241.
Irish hive, 10.
Isle of Wight disease, 410.
Italian bees, 107, 197.
for European foul brood, 408.
Labels, 322, 331.
Langstroth hive, 8, 26.
Larval development, 100.
diseases, 397.
food, source, 111.
Later embryonic development, 98.
Laws concerning beekeeping, 431.
spraying, 368.
Leaf hopper, source of honey-dew,
371.
Learning beekeeping, 224.
Legal rights to bee range, 16.
Legs, 99, 102, 157.
Lesser wax-moth, 414.
Leveling hive, 239.
Lifting honey, 300.
Light in winter cellar, 353.
List of honey-plants, 372.
Literature on bees, 430.
"Locality" and variation in practice,
34.
differences, 82, 205.
Location for apiary, 18.
for swarm, 274.
Locomotion, 154.
Losses in winter, 343.
Mclndoo, 169.
Mailing cages, 426.
Malpighian tubes, 98, 153.
Mandibles, 135.
Manipulation for comb-honey, 313.
of bees, object, 234.
Marketing bulk comb-honey, 330.
comb-honey, 325.
extracted-honey, 320.
granulated honey, 330.
honey, 320.
wax, 339.
Mating flight, 69,
nuclei, 425.
of queen, 42.
Mechanical swarming devices, 284.
Mellifera vs. mellifica, 37.
Mellifica, varieties, 194.
Memory, 179.
lost in swarming, 74.
Metabolism, 150.
Metamorphosis, 100.
Methods of spread of diseases, 403.
of wintering, 349.
Microsporidiosus, 410.
Migratory beekeeping, 216.
Miller, C. C., 267, 271.
method of queen-rearing, 419.
Minor sources of nectar, 364.
Mixing honeys, 322.
Moisture in winter, 345.
Motion picture of bees, 72.
Moults of larva, 103.
Mouth-parts, 138.
Movement, basis for behavior in-
vestigations, 35.
Moving bees, 250.
staples for, 33.
Muscular activity, source of heat,
91.
Nassenoff, 172.
Natural nest, 46.
Nectar, function, 360.
gathering, 81.
gathering instinctive, 184.
present loss of, 4.
sources, 359.
Nelson, 94.
Nervous system, 162.
Nest, arrangement, 50.
454
Index
Net weight of sections, 327.
Non-essential manipulations, 251.
Non-swarming appliances, 269.
Nosema apis, 410.
Nucleus, a part of the cell, 94.
for mating queens, 425.
defined, 39.
Nursery cages, 425.
Ocelli, 168.
Odor, American foul brood, 400.
effects in uniting, 243.
European foul brood, 402.
in entering hive, 68.
in swarm clustering, 65.
in swarming-out, 81.
Odors of colony, 172.
CEnocytes, 153.
Olfactory sense, 169.
Opening a hive, 235.
Organizations of beekeepers, 431.
Orientation, 244.
Out-apiaries, 232.
-apiary house, 25.
-door colonies, 52.
-door wintering, 350.
Outside work of workers, 118.
Ovaries, 181.
Overproduction, fear of, 5.
Overstocking, 218.
Packing cases, 351.
in winter, 350.
Palestine hives, 5, 8.
Paralysis, 410.
Parent colony, 69.
Parthenogenesis, 186.
Petersen, 114.
Pharyngeal glands, 111.
Philosophy, bees as basis for, 35.
Pickled brood, 402.
Pipe, German beekeeper's, 30.
Plain sections, 308.
Plan of body of bee, 133.
Planta, v., 115.
Plant honey-dew, 370.
Plateau, 117.
Play flights, 105.
Poetic conception of bees, 35.
Point of view in behavior investiga-
tions, 35.
Poison, 160.
immunity to, 13.
Poisonous honeys, 369.
Pollen, cells for storage, 50.
gathering, 85, 123, 365.
in larval food, 115.
in winter, 358.
plants, 359.
source of enzymes, 85.
substitutes, 263.
Popular works on bees often faulty,
36.
Portable extracting outfits, 293.
Porto Rican apiary, 19.
Position of supers, 314.
Post-constructed queen cells, 62.
Power extractors, 297.
Pre-constructed queen cells, 62.
Premature swarms, 74.
Presses for wax, 335.
Preventive manipulations, 270.
measures, 268.
Professional beekeepers, 2.
beekeeping, advantages, 16.
Profits in beekeeping, 19-21.
Propolis, 85, 117.
collection, 126.
removal, 325.
used in natural nest, 52.
Protection in spring, 257.
in winter, object, 344.
of larva, 100.
of nest, 52.
Proteid digestion, 147.
Protoplasm, 94.
Proventriculus, 113.
Pump for honey, 300.
Puncturing of fruit, 368.
Pupa, external changes, 102.
Purity of comb-honey, 301.
of race, 429.
Queen and drone trap, 32, 273.
breeders, 417.
cells, 49, 62.
cells, saving of, 419.
description, 40.
-excluder, 277.
food, 116.
in swarming, 63.
mating flight, 69.
Index
455
Queen-rearing, 417.
-rearing conditions, 62, 419.
Queen's action in swarming, 65.
classification, 426.
Questionable manipulations, 261.
Races, 192.
Rearing of queens, 417.
Reaumur, 48.
Red clover bees, 200.
Regional differences, 205.
Regions of United States, 207.
Remedial manipulations, 278.
measures, 272.
Removal of brood, 283.
Removing honey for extracting, 291.
Rendering wax, 334.
Reports on honey crop, 434.
Reproductive processes, 181.
Requeening, 282, 418.
Requirements of wintering, 344.
Respiration, 151.
Restricted regions, 211.
Restrictions in comb-honey produc-
tion, 305.
of egg-laying, 281.
Results to be expected, 19-21.
Retail honey packages, 321.
Reversible extractors, 294.
Rewards for adulterated comb-honey,
302.
Ripe fruit not injured by bees, 368.
Ripening of honey, 117.
Robbing, prevention, 249.
Roof apiary, 18, 19.
Ropiness, American foul brood, 399.
European foul brood, 402.
Royal jelly, source, 111.
Rudiments of organs in embryo, 97.
Sacbrood, 402.
Sage region, 210.
Salivary glands of worker, 111.
Scale, American foul brood, 399.
Scent gland, 65.
in entering hive, 68.
Schiemenz, 112.
Schonfeld, 112.
Scouts for swarms, 67.
Scraping sections, 325.
Search for good locations, 360.
Seat for apiary, 31, 32.
Second swarms, 71.
Sections, evolution of, 307.
preparation, 311.
types, 308.
Segmentation of embryo, 98.
Selling honey, 332.
Semi-arid region, 210.
Semi-pupa stage, 103.
Sense organs, 165.
Settling wax, 337.
Sex determination, 188.
of workers, 62.
Shaking treatment, 404.
Shipping bees, 223.
cases, 328.
comb-honey, 329.
Sight, 166.
Silk gland, origin, 98.
of cocoon, 101.
Site of apiary, 228.
Size of apiary, 232.
of the colony, 39.
Skill, importance of, 22.
Sladen, 172.
Slaughter of drones, 44.
Sleep of bees, 50.
Slumgum, 336.
Smell, 169.
Smoker, 29, 30.
Snodgrass, 113, 114, 132, 439.
Social bees, 192.
Solar wax extractor, 335.
Sources of nectar and pollen, 359.
South-eastern region, 209.
Spacing of frames, 28.
Spermatheca, 182.
Spermatozoa, origin, 184.
Spraying, damage from, 367.
laws, 432.
trees in bloom, 366.
Spreading the brood, 262.
Spring activities, 55.
dwindling, 128, 258, 358, 410.
management, 255.
Statistics of beekeeping, 4.
Steam-heated knife, 294.
Stimulative feeding, 261.
Sting, 158.
Stingless bees, comparison of nest, 53.
Sting of queen, 42.
456
Index
Stings, remedies, 236.
Stomach-mouth, 113.
of larva, 100.
Storage cells, 47.
for comb-honey, 25, 317.
in worker bees, 105.
tanks, 299.
Stores for winter, 344.
Strained honey, 286.
Straining honey, 298.
Structure of comb, 47.
Sugar digestion, 146.
syrup for food, 240.
Sun, exposure to, 229.
Super manipulation, 289, 314.
for extracted-honey, 289.
removal, 316.
types, 309.
Supplies, 432.
Surplus, sources, 359.
Swamp sources, advantages, 363.
Swarm activity, 72.
box, 422.
catcher, 66.
control, 78, 265, 313.
description of, 63.
Swarming, 61.
causes loss, 265.
fever, 74.
-out, 80.
preparations, 62.
Swarms, artificial, 283.
on one support, 66.
Symbols, 439.
Symptoms, American foul brood,
398.
European foul brood, 401.
sacbrood, 402.
Syrian bees, 195.
System essential, 253.
in extracted-honey, 290.
Tanks for storage, 299.
Taste, 174.
Taxonomy, 37.
Temperature, effect on brood-rear-
ing, 87.
in winter cellar, 347, 353.
of colony, 59, 60.
responses in winter, 89, 90.
sense, 176.
Temperature variation within hive,
61.
Term of life of worker, 44.
Testes, 184.
Thorax, 139.
not typical, 99.
origin, 99.
Time to handle bees, 235.
Tongue, 138.
Touch, 174.
Townsend 291.
Tracheal system, 152.
Transferring colonies, 245.
larvae, 422.
Transition cells, 48.
Treatment, European foul brood,
408.
of brood diseases, 403.
Tropics, gathering by bees in, 84.
T-super, 309.
Types of bees in colony, 39.
Unbalanced condition of swarming
colonies, 280.
Uncapping, 293.
cans, 294.
United States, statistics of bee-
keeping in, 4.
Uniting, 243.
Uses of honey, 432.
of wax, 340.
Van Deusen hive clamp, 33.
Variation in honey-flows, 83.
in nectar, 361.
in regions, 54.
in secretion, 362.
in swarming, 266.
in value of plants, 206.
of colonies in swarming, 267.
within a region, 212.
Veil, 30.
Ventilation in winter, 346.
of cellar, 353.
Ventriculus, 112.
Walking, 157.
Water collection, 85, 126.
need of, 258.
source in winter, 345.
Wax building, 68.
Index
457
Wax-moth, 117, 411.
presses, 335.
production, 334, 340.
source, 108, 109, 110.
White clover region, 207.
Wholesale packages for extracted-
honey, 320.
Wide frames, 310.
"Wiley lie," 302.
Wind, effects, 352.
Windows of honey-house, 24.
Wings, 154.
origin, 99, 102.
Winter breeding, 87.
cluster, 88.
Winter cluster in cells, 50.
flights, 92.
Wintering, 343.
aster honey for, 374.
Wiring frames, 29.
Wooden cell cups, 422.
Worker cell, 46.
description, 43.
Women, beekeeping for, 15.
Young bees, duties, 107.
queens in swarming, 76.
Zander, 410.
Zoological position of bees, 37.
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA CRUZ
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