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UNIVERSITY OF W-INOtt
AGRICULTURE I1BRARJ

I3ST THE MID"WEST

elbert r.. jaycox

BEEKEEFHSTGt IKT THE MUD-WEST

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
SERICULTURE LIBRARY

BE3EKEEPING

insr the nunncrw^iEST

ELBERT K,. JAYCOX
Professor of Apiculture

CIRCULAR 1125

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
College of Agriculture • Cooperative Extension Service

This publication includes information about insecticides, chemi-
cals, drugs, and other materials whose usage is regulated by
state and federal agencies. Every effort has been made to pro-
vide information that is current and correct as of the date of
publication. However, the status of some materials is not clear,
and that of others may change at any time. Anyone using
regulated materials, or planning to do so, should read and
follow the label directions. If there is any question about the
use of such materials, contact the extension apiculturist or
extension entomologist in your state, or the local extension
adviser or county agent. Beekeeping periodicals often include
announcements about changes in the accepted uses of regulated
materials by beekeepers.

So that the information in this publication may be more easily
understood, trade names of products or equipment have been
used in place of complicated descriptions or chemical identifica-
tion. No endorsement of named products is intended, nor is
criticism implied of similar products that are not mentioned.

Photographs by the author.

CONTENTS

BEES: THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE COLONY 3

Kinds of Adult Bees 3

The Workers 4

The Drones 7

The Queen 9

Length of Development 12

The Races of Bees 12

The Colony 12

Honeymaking 17

BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENT 20

Hive Parts and Selection of Equipment 21

Assembly of Equipment 27

Tools, Specialized Equipment, and Clothing 32

Making Your Own Equipment 36

SPRING MANAGEMENT: STARTING WITH BEES 52

When and How to Start 52

Location and Arrangement of Colonies 56

Handling the Colony 58

What to Look for in the Colony 62

The Need for Space in the Spring 65

Spring Management of Overwintered Colonies 66

Pollen Feeding 68

SUMMER MANAGEMENT: HONEY PRODUCTION 69

Nectar and Pollen Plants 69

Swarming and Swarm Prevention 73

Excluders 75

Supering for Honey 76

Removing the Honey Crop 79

Processing the Honey 84

Marketing the Honey 90

FALL AND WINTER MANAGEMENT 95

MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES IN BEEKEEPING. ... 99

Caring for Extracting Combs 99

Confining Bees 99

Dividing Colonies 101

Feeding Bees 103

Fumigating Stored Combs 108

Handling Beeswax 109

Handling Queen Bees Ill

Hiving Swarms 119

Identifying Apiaries and Equipment 120

Keeping Records 121

Killing Bees 122

Moving Bees 123

Repelling Bees 127

Saving Queenless Colonies and Helping Weak Ones. . . .127

Transferring Bees 129

Trapping Pollen 129

Uniting Bees 131

DISEASES, PESTS, AND PESTICIDES

AFFECTING HONEY BEES 133

Brood Diseases 133

Adult Bee Diseases 140

Pests of Honey Bees 142

Pesticides and Honey Bees 145

POLLINATION BY HONEY BEES 149

SELECTED SOURCES OF INFORMATION

ON BEEKEEPING AND EQUIPMENT 154

Books, Handbooks, and Manuals 154

Periodicals 155

Beekeeping Organizations 155

Beekeeping Supplies and Equipment 155

Apiary Inspection, Registration, and Beekeeping

Information 155

GLOSSARY 157

INDEX 165

eekeeping has been an important part of agriculture in the
Midwest since about 1840. Early settlers and farmers kept bees
in primitive hives or cut down bee trees to get honey for home use and
for sale. In fact a dispute over bees once triggered the brief "Honey
War" involving troops from Missouri and Iowa. A Missouri farmer
set off the dispute when he cut three bee trees in the border area claimed
by Iowa.

Honey bees have been selected and managed by man for many cen-
turies. Nevertheless, they are still wild insects capable of living on
their own without any assistance or special equipment. Probably because
of this "resistance" to becoming domesticated, honey bees respond to
beekeeping management practices in much the same way wherever they
are kept. For this reason, the techniques discussed in this book are of
use whether you live in the Midwest, in another section of the United
States, or even in another country. Management must always be adapted
to fit local conditions and to take into account the somewhat variable
behavior of different geographical strains, or races, of honey bees.
Differences in climate and sources of nectar and pollen, even over
short distances, will force you to adjust your beekeeping methods,
especially their timing, to the area in which you live. Wherever possible,
the timing recommended in this manual relates to natural events such
as plant bloom and seasonal temperature changes, which can be used
as guidelines in temperate areas. They are not useful, however, in
tropical or semitropical climates. Beekeepers, beekeeping organizations,
and departments of agriculture are good sources of information about
local conditions affecting honey bee management.

Beekeeping is continually changing, reflecting changes in cropping
practices and agricultural land use. Commercial honey production now
requires more extensive operations than in earlier days because nectar
sources are more widely scattered. Fruit and vegetable growers, pressed
by increasing production costs, are becoming more aware that the
quality and quantity of insect-pollinated crops can be improved by
renting bees for pollination. Providing bees for pollination is hard
work, but it reduces the commercial beekeeper's dependence upon honey
as the main source of income. After a period of decline, interest in
keeping bees in urban areas has been renewed. Bees kept in cities im-
prove yields in home gardens and orchards. Such colonies are often
good honey producers because of the diversity of flowering plants
available to them.

Learning to handle and manage bees is fun. It can also be confusing
because advice given by any two authorities on bees is rarely the same.
Fortunately, bees will usually prosper if you make sure they always
have enough hive space and enough food. By joining state and local
beekeeping organizations, you can share your experiences with others
and increase your pleasure from keeping bees. For young people who
are interested in starting to keep bees, there are beekeeping projects in
4-H and Future Farmers of America clubs.

BEES: THE INDIVIDUAL
.A.2STD THE COLONY

The first step in studying bees is to learn as much as possible about
their biology. This information about their life and needs is required to
manage and maintain the colonies properly. It is even more important
when you must diagnose an ailing colony that may have lost its queen
or become infected with disease.

Kinds of Adult Bees

The honey bee colony includes both male and female bees for only
a portion of the year. The males, or drone bees, are normally present
in spring and summer. Female bees, the queen and her workers, are
present all year. Naturally, all three types of individuals are important
to the colony and to the survival of the species.

The beginning beekeeper needs to learn to recognize these different
bees as quickly as possible. They are shown together in Figure 1. Close
observation, repeated at frequent intervals, will make it easy to dis-
tinguish the two sexes and the two female castes.* The workers are the
smallest bees in the colony. Their abdomens are pointed at the end but
may vary somewhat in length. The abdomens of workers with full
honey stomachs are longer than those of workers carrying little food,
but they are always shorter than the queen's abdomen. Before the
young queen mates, her body is similar in appearance to a worker's,
except that its overall size is noticeably larger. As she begins to lay,
the queen's abdomen becomes greatly elongated, so much that her wings
look short. They cover only about two-thirds of her abdomen. In con-
trast, the wings of both workers and drones nearly reach the tip of the
abdomen when folded. Queens' and workers' large, compound eyes are
separated by areas of hair in which their three, small, simple eyes,
called ocelli, are located. Drones have large, stout bodies with blunt
abdomens. A conspicuous brush of hairs is visible at the end of their
abdomens. This character is not present on the female castes. The
drones' large, compound eyes can be easily distinguished from those of
the other bees because they are the largest and they meet on top of the
head. The drones' ocelli are located below the compound eyes, close to
the antennae.

* All specialized terms are defined in the Glossary.

Bees: The Individual and the Colony

The three kinds of adult honey bees. The worker bee is at the top left, the
drone is below the worker, and a marked queen is the large bee at the right.

(Fig. 1)

The Workers

The worker bees (Fig. 2) are the largest group of bees in the hive
— up to 60,000 in midsummer. They develop in the smallest cells in the
comb of the colony from fertilized eggs laid by a queen. They are im-
perfect females and under normal hive conditions they do not lay eggs.
The young, grublike or wormlike larvae receive large quantities of food
that surround and support them for the first few days after they hatch
from the egg. As the larvae grow, they consume all the excess food.
The nurse bees then feed them small quantities of food at frequent
intervals. About 5 days after hatching, the larva is sealed in its cell
where it spins a partial cocoon and begins the body changes, or meta-
morphosis, that produce the pupa and finally the adult worker bee. The
cell capping on worker cells is flat or only slightly convex. There are
about 55 worker cells to the square inch, including both sides of the
comb.

From 19 to 22 days after the egg was laid, depending on conditions
in the hive, an adult bee emerges from the comb by chewing a hole in
the capping of her cell. She is soft and downy, and is not yet capable of

A worker bee. (Fig. 2)

! making wax, stinging, or flying. She will spend more than half her
life doing hive duties in a rather flexible sequence that is governed by
the colony's needs. Usually this begins with cleaning cells and feeding
and caring for the brood (the immature stages of bees) (Fig. 3). Other
typical duties include building comb, removing debris, and guarding
the entrance (Fig. 4). Although we think of bees as being very indus-
trious, the workers spend many hours patrolling the hive and sitting
idle on combs. The patrolling probably serves to inform bees of the

! needs of the colony and also produces heat to maintain the warmth of

I the brood nest where the young bees are reared.

Young workers begin to fly from the hive when they are 10 to 20
days old, and in some cases even earlier. At first they take short flights
in front of the colony, often on warm afternoons. These flights acquaint
the bee with the appearance of the hive and its immediate vicinity.
The term "play flights" has been given to this activity because the bees
bob and weave in the air while facing the hive.

Workers forage first for either pollen or nectar. They may change
from one to the other but usually collect pollen first and nectar later.
The nectar collectors may also collect water when the colony needs it,
and a few bees collect plant resins called propolis or bee glue.

Workers live 4 to 6 weeks during the active season. Those reared in
the fall may live as long as 6 months, allowing a new generation to
develop in the spring before they die. These differences in length of
life have not been completely explained, but they are probably brought
about by changes in glandular activity, diet, and the amount of brood
reared by the colony in the fall.

Bees : The Individual and the Colony

A young worker bee feeding a larva.

(Fig. 3)

Worker bees on guard at the hive entrance.

(Fig. 4)

The colony uses large quantities of honey and pollen as food, but
the bees usually store more honey than the colony needs. Only this
surplus production should be removed by the beekeeper (see page 79).
The young worker bee needs pollen to develop the glands that are used
to make the secretions fed to developing larvae and to the queen. Adult
bees can survive without pollen, but they are soon unable to rear young
bees. Wax is produced by glands on the underside of the abdomen of
house bees. It is secreted only when the colony is obtaining considerable
quantities of nectar or is being fed sugar or honey by the beekeeper.

The Drones

The male bees, or drones, appear in the colony in late spring (Fig.
5). No certain number is produced and colonies may have only a few
hundred or as many as several thousand. They help to produce heat in
the colony and may be of value by affecting the "morale" of the colony
or in other ways that are still not known. However, since they consume
food and take up space, their numbers should be kept at a minimum.
Colonies allowed to build combs without foundation or to repair dam-
aged combs will produce large numbers of drone cells as well as worker
cells. You can reduce drone production by using full sheets of comb
foundation and by culling combs with large areas of drone cells.

WWH&.-MBWSM

The drone. Note the blunt ab-
domen and the eyes that meet
on the top of the head. (Fig. 5)

Bees : The Individual and the Colony

The drones are produced from unfertilized eggs usually laid by a
queen but occasionally by workers whose ovaries have developed (lay-
ing workers). A normal queen lays drone eggs in cells that are larger
than worker cells. When sealed, the cells have distinct, rounded cap-
pings (Fig. 6). Both laying workers and queens unable to lay fertilized
eggs produce drones in worker-sized cells. Those that complete their
development are normal, small drones, but many of them do not survive
to maturity in the smaller cells. Drones require from 24 to 25 days to
develop from egg to adult.

Another type of drone is produced in some honey bee colonies.
However, they are never seen as adults because the worker bees remove
them from the comb a day or two after the larvae hatch. These drone
larvae hatch from fertilized eggs that have a matching pair of hereditary
factors called sex alleles. The eggs are laid in worker-sized cells by a
queen that mated with one or more drones having a sex allele the same
as one of hers. Eggs with a single allele are unfertilized and usually
laid by the queen in large cells of the comb where they produce normal
drones. Fertilized eggs with two different sex alleles produce normal
worker bees.

The production and loss of these drones, called diploid drones, is
detrimental to a colony because as many as half of the fertilized eggs
do not produce worker bees. The colony fails to develop the large pop-
ulation needed for honey production. A spotty brood pattern when no
disease is present may indicate this problem, and the colony should be
requeened.

Young drones are fed by workers for the first few days of their
lives. After that time they help themselves to the stored honey and fly
in search of queens on warm afternoons. Drones are attracted to cer-
tain small areas, at a considerable distance from their hives, where they
congregate and patrol while flying 30 to 50 feet above the ground. It
is here that they usually meet and mate with queen bees.

When flowers cease to provide nectar for the colony, either in the
fall or, more rarely, at any time of the year, the workers no longer tol-
erate the drones. Workers remove developing drones from the comb
and begin to harass the adults, the oldest ones first. The drones are
rarely stung but they are pushed and pulled so much that they have
difficulty eating. Ultimately, all the drones in a queenright colony are
driven from the hive and die. The Italian race tolerates them longer
than the Caucasians, and queenless colonies allow them to stay for an
indefinite period.

Worker bees on sealed brood. The worker cells are at the top left and the
drone cells at the bottom right. (Fig. 6)

The Queen

The queen (Fig. 7) is responsible for all the qualities of her colony.
She mates with several drones and stores their spermatozoa within her
body. These drones die, leaving the queen as their representative within
the colony. The workers share the queen's motherly duties by caring for
the young, but her genetic, or hereditary, makeup and that of the drones
she has mated with determine the size and temper of the colony, the
color of the workers and drones, disease resistance, honey-producing
ability, and all the other characteristics of the colony.

Queens develop from fertilized eggs or from young female (worker)
larvae not over 3 days old. In a colony that wants to swarm or needs
to replace a failing queen, the old queen lays several eggs destined to
become new queens in special cells, or cell cups, that hang vertically on
the comb (Fig. 8). Worker and drone cells lie on a horizontal plane.
When an old queen is lost, killed, or removed from a colony, the bees

Bees: The Individual and the Colony

can produce a new queen from any worker larva not over 3 days old.
To do this they modify the worker cell containing such a larva so that
the queen develops in a vertical cell similar to those built from queen
cell cups. Several queens usually are started at the same time. Regard-
less of the method by which she begins her development, the young
queen larva develops much like a worker but does so more completely
and more quickly, in only 15 to 17 days. She receives glandular secre-
tions, called royal jelly, in excess quantity throughout her life. Queen
larvae float in a bed of food. This greater quantity of food, together
with other differences in quality and content, brings about the differ-
ences between worker and queen bees, and produces a queen that is a
perfect female with a complete reproductive system.

When she emerges from her cell, the young queen is practically ig-
nored by the workers. Very quickly, however, they are attracted to her
and begin to feed and groom her. They even bite and chase her within
the hive during the first few days. After about a week the queen is
agile and physically ready for her mating flight. She leaves by herself,
usually between noon and 4 p.m., and probably flies a considerable dis-
tance from the hive. It seems likely that queens visit drone-congrega-
tion areas because they mate with many drones in a short period. The
average queen makes more than one mating flight and mates with as
many as 10 different drones. This system of mating reduces inbreeding
and thereby increases the efficiency of the colony.

The mated queen begins to lay a few days after completion of her
flights. Her egg production increases rapidly to as many as 2,000 eggs
per day. This high output, equal to the queen's own weight, is made
possible by the high-protein diet of glandular secretions provided in
large quantity by the worker attendants.

Queens lay eggs in greatest numbers in the spring and early sum-
mer. They gradually cease to lay in the fall and do not begin again
until January or February. Winter brood rearing is normal and takes
place in most colonies that have adequate stores of honey and pollen and
a good population of worker bees.

Queens may live as long as 5 years but are most productive during
the first 2 years. A common cause of failure is inadequate mating that
results in the production of too many drones when the queen is unable
to fertilize the eggs she lays in worker cells. At that time the colony
usually tries to replace her by a process called supersedure. An old,
failing queen and her young daughter may continue to live and lay eggs
in the same colony for a considerable period.

Honey bee queen, marked on the
thorax. (Fig. 7)

wmsm

Queen cell cup being prepared by worker bees.

(Fig. 8)

Bees : The Individual and the Colony

Length of Development

The three kinds of honey bees undergo the same type of develop-
ment, known as complete metamorphosis. Each one takes a different
length of time to develop as follows:

Oueen Worker Drone

Day

3-5

7-9

9-10

[9-22

24-25

Egg is laid 0

Egg hatches 3

Cell is capped 7-9

Adult emerges 15-17

The Races of Bees

Throughout the world there are many races of bees that have devel-
oped slightly different body characteristics, biology, and behavior. In
the United States two races of bees are most common ■ — the Italian
and the Caucasian. The Italian bees have yellow or brown bodies with
varying numbers of dark bands toward the end of their abdomens.
They tend to raise young bees early and late in the year and need more
honey for maintenance than do the dark races. The Caucasian bees are
black with gray bands of hair. They conserve their honey somewhat
better and use more propolis than the Italian bees. Both races are
usually gentle and the bees are quiet on the combs. Carniolan bees are
a dark race with characteristics somewhat similar to the Caucasians.

The honey bees available in the United States are the result of
crossing and selection of bees from many different races in addition to
those mentioned above. Beekeepers should try queens from different
queen breeders to learn more about the behavior and honey production
of different strains of the same race. Most strains are gentle when
handled under the proper conditions. If you have bees that are not
gentle, requeen them immediately with a queen from a gentler strain.
There is no relation between temper and honey production.

The Colony

Social insect colonies, including honey bees, have often been re-
garded as a single superorganism because groups of individuals appear
to serve the functions of organs, and the colonies undergo changes as
a group that compare with the lifetime development of an individual.
To understand and manage honey bees you must be familiar with the
development and activities of the colony, and the seasonal changes that
take place in it.

The brood nest, where the queen lays eggs and young bees are
reared, is the heart of the colony. It may be only a small circle of cells
on one side of a comb, or it may include up to 20 or more full combs
(frames). The areas occupied by brood on individual frames are usually
oval or circular. The entire brood nest, including all the areas of comb
containing brood, is generally ellipsoidal or spherical so that it is readily
surrounded by the cluster of adult bees in cool weather. The bees form
such a cluster when the temperature drops to about 57°F. (14°C).
The area containing developing bees, but not the rest of the hive, is
kept at a temperature of about 95°F. (35°C). The worker bees warm
the brood nest to this temperature by moving their bodies and fanning
their wings, activities that require honey as "fuel." In hot weather the
bees cool the nest to 95°F. (35°C.) by fanning to evaporate dilute
nectar or water present in the brood nest.

The bees store pollen, their protein food, in the cells immediately
surrounding the brood (Fig. 9). In this location it is near at hand to
be fed to developing larvae and to be eaten by newly emerged adult
bees. The nectar and honey are stored beyond this band, or shell, of
pollen.

In the fall, the brood nest and the majority of the bees are in the
lower combs of the hive. The honey for winter food is above them and

A comb with sealed brood in the center surrounded by a ring of light-colored
pollen. Outer cells of the comb contain honey in open cells. (Fig. 9)

Bees : The Individual and the Colony

there must be pollen stored within the cluster area for winter use. This
pollen and the developed food glands of the workers serve as a protein
reserve for the colony until fresh pollen is available from spring-
blooming plants. During the winter the bees in a hive of adequate size
(at least two deep hive bodies) move upward as they gradually eat the
stored honey. In early spring the brood nest is most often in the top
part of the hive with empty combs beneath it. If nothing is done to
change this arrangement, the bees will slowly occupy the lower combs,
and the queen will expand her laying to all areas of the hive. However,
the direction of natural expansion is upward, so the beekeeper usually
rearranges the hive as explained on page 67.

Theoretically, one set of 10 deep combs is sufficient space for a
prolific queen. In practice, 18 or 20 combs in two 10-frame hive bodies
provide more suitable conditions for a large brood nest, perhaps because
it can be more nearly spherical, rather than flattened as in a single hive
body. The colonies need additional room for their rapidly increasing
number of adult bees by late April or early May in central Illinois, or
about the time of fruit tree and dandelion bloom. The nectar and pollen
gathered from such plants may contribute to the crowding. The bees
continue to store pollen near the brood nest and honey in the combs
above it throughout the season. Without sufficient comb space, the
workers gradually fill the cells of the brood nest with honey. This is
highly desirable in the late summer to provide food for winter, but it
is harmful earlier in the season when the greatest possible number of
cells is needed for rearing young bees. The crowded brood nest restricts
the queen's laying.

Worker honey bees have abilities that allow them to accomplish
tasks that many other insects cannot do. They recognize several differ-
ent regions of the color spectrum including near ultraviolet, which man
cannot see. However, they cannot distinguish red from shades of gray
and black. Honey bees detect polarized light and use it for orientation
when foraging. Their senses of smell and taste are highly developed
for most materials that are biologically important to them. They readily
detect differences in concentrations of sugar solutions and distinguish
minute differences in the components of mixtures of odors or solutions.
Field bees learn the location of their hive and the appearance of land-
marks around it. They also learn the daily movement of the sun in the
sky and compensate for it when using the sun for orientation. Worker
bees have a time sense, with a 24-hour base, that allows them to visit
flowers or artificial food sources at the times when nectar and pollen
are being offered. They can learn to associate a food reward with a

flower scent after only one trial. Learning to associate color, time, and
form (shape) with food takes 3 to 40 trials.

The honey bee colony has a simple system of communication that
contributes to its success and adaptability. The system is based on the
exchange of food among members of the colony (Fig. 10) and on odors
released in and outside of the hive. The queen's glands secrete attractive
substances and odors that are removed from her body and shared by
the workers of the colony. The materials keep the colony together and
prevent the workers from laying eggs and building queen cells. How-
ever, if there is an insufficient supply, or if it is not distributed evenly
in a crowded colony, the bees construct queen cells to produce a new
queen. Odors secreted by workers are used to attract other bees and to
alert and alarm the colony. The fruity odor of the scent gland causes
bees to cluster when swarming. It is also used when workers rediscover
other bees, a queen, or the hive entrance after a period of confusion.
Disturbed and injured bees secrete a volatile material known as iso-
pentyl acetate that smells like banana oil. It attracts and excites bees
and prepares them to defend the colony by stinging the cause of the
disturbance.

A more complex means of communication may be present in the
elaborate system of movements performed on the combs by bees when

Worker bees exchanging food on a comb containing honey. The two bees in
the center are responding to smoke by eating honey from open cells.

(Fig. 10)

Bees: The Individual and the Colony

they return to the colony after collecting nectar and pollen. These
movements, usually called dances or the "language" of the bee, contain
information about the distance and direction of the food source from
the hive. They may also contain information about the quality, or sugar
concentration, of the nectar. Although the idea of a bee language has
been widely accepted, many scientists and nonscientists still do not
agree that the language theory satisfactorily explains how bees recruit
others to a food source. There is agreement that the movements con-
tain information because it has been thoroughly decoded. But if there
is truly a sophisticated language, it should bring recruits quickly and
accurately to new food sources under a variety of conditions. Instead,
the percentage of success is often low, the time in flight is far longer
than needed for direct flight, and many bees fly the opposite direction
from the food.

An alternative explanation proposes that odors of the food and of
the aerial flight paths of foraging bees flying to it are used by newly
recruited bees in finding food sources for the first time. This idea is
supported by observations that few bees can be recruited to an odorless
food source although foragers already visiting the food perform more
frequent and vigorous dances in the hive than they do when collecting
scented foods. More new bees, rather than fewer, should reach the
food if the dances are the primary means of directing prospective for-
agers to a food source.

Two other observations bring the language theory into question.
One is the effect of light wind, which does not interfere with flight, on
foraging success of recruits. They do not find downwind food sources
as well as ones upwind, indicating that odors borne by the wind out-
weigh the importance of information they receive from dancing for-
agers. Even a change in the number of bees visiting a food source from
one colony can affect the success of recruits from another colony in
finding the same source. When fewer bees from one colony fly to the
food, fewer new recruits from a second colony are able to find it. Bees
using a language should not be affected in this way. However, if the
recruits are using the flight path to the food, such a path would have
a weaker odor trail when fewer bees were flying along it.

It is natural, but not necessary, to relate the foraging success of
honey bees to their use of a sophisticated language. Some stingless bee
species use food odors and aerial odor trails and are even better able to
exploit food sources rapidly than are honey bees.

One question commonly asked about the dance language is, "Why
does the information exist if it is not used?" Similar information is

present in the movements made by solitary moths after a flight. These
movements continue for a period of time proportional to the distance
the moth flew, yet there is no other individual that makes use of the
information.

These controversial ideas are presented here to demonstrate that
we do not know for certain all the facts about the activities of honey
bees. More research is needed on the subject.

A communication system similar to the one bees use to find food is
used to select a new home for a swarming colony. However, the relative
importance of odor, flight paths, and "language" has not been fully
clarified. Scout bees visit available cavities, such as a hollow tree, cave,
or hole in a building, and evaluate their suitability as a home for the
swarm. After many visits, the bees agree which one is best and move
to it as a group.

Honeymaking

Bees make honey from several different sweet fluids that they collect
from plants. Nectar, secreted by the nectaries, or glands, of flowers is
the most common raw material, but some of it also comes from glands
located on the leaves and buds of plants. This is called extrafloral nec-
tar, and the glands are known as extrafloral nectaries. Honeydew is
another sweet fluid that bees use to produce honey. It is surplus plant
sap excreted by plant-sucking insects such as aphids and scale insects.
Honeydew honey, called forest honey in Europe, is a wholesome product
except when it is contaminated with mold or fungus organisms that
J darken it and lower its quality.

Nectar-collecting bees make trips ranging in duration from a few
minutes to 3 or 4 hours. An average trip probably takes about an hour,
and a bee may make as many as 10 trips per day. In order to get a full
load of nectar, a bee may visit only one flower, such as that of saguaro
cactus, or several hundred flowers, such as those of white clover. The
nectar is carried back to the colony in the honey stomach, or honey
sack. This is a storage organ in which no digestion takes place. It is
controlled by the bee so that she can either regurgitate its contents or
allow them to pass into her digestive system. She adds enzymes and
waterlike secretions to the nectar from glands in her head. Nectar also
contains plant enzymes, and honeydew includes enzymes of insect
origin.

When the bee returns to the colony, she passes her load of nectar to
one or more young house bees and returns to the field. The house bees
do the primary job of processing the nectar into honey. This consists

Bees : The Individual and the Colony

of repeatedly regurgitating droplets of the fluid onto the partly folded
tongue held beneath the head. The bee continues this activity for 15 to
20 minutes, adding more glandular secretions and reducing the water
content of the nectar. The resulting, partially ripened honey is placed
in cells in the comb where it loses more moisture to the air circulated
through the hive by fanning bees. When nectar is coming into the hive
in large quantities, it cannot be processed immediately, but is stored as
hanging droplets or as partly filled cells over a wide area of the combs.
These small quantities of fluid lose moisture rapidly and are then
processed and consolidated into full cells of honey. The filled cells are
sealed with a capping of new wax.

Processing changes the raw material containing 25 to 40 percent
solids, mostly sugars, into honey containing an average of about 83
percent solids. This rise in the percentage of soluble solids is propor-
tional to the drop in moisture content. In addition to these changes in
physical properties, extensive changes in chemical composition take
place during processing. Nectar usually contains a mixture of two or
three sugars: sucrose (common table sugar), dextrose (glucose), and
levulose (fructose). During nectar processing, enzymes present in the
fluid split most of the sucrose into the two simpler sugars, dextrose and
levulose. At the same time, enzymes are also responsible for synthesiz-
ing other, more complex sugars and transforming some of the dextrose
into gluconic acid, the primary acid in honey.

The final composition of different honeys is variable and complex,
and differs according to the plant source. Sugars make up 95 percent
or more of the solids present. The simple sugars (levulose and dex-
trose) account for nearly 70 percent, and levulose is usually predomi-
nant. As many as 12 complex sugars including maltose are present in
small quantities. Although sucrose is often found in high concentration
in nectar, as in nectar from the clovers, it makes up only 1 to 2 percent
of honey on the average. Enzymes present in honey include invertase,
diastase, catalase, and glucose oxidase. There are many acids in honey
besides gluconic acid, and together they contribute to its noticeably acid
reaction (pH about 4). Hydrogen peroxide in honey is a factor in the
antibiotic properties of honey. This material and the high density and
acidity of honey make it toxic to many disease organisms. Because most
honeys are supersaturated solutions of dextrose, they are unstable as
a liquid. The excess dextrose eventually crystallizes out of the solution
in the process called granulation. Some honeys never granulate, while
others granulate in the comb before they can be extracted.

Honey bees produce only comb honey, and the final product is
sealed beneath a solid layer of wax cappings. However, man has never

been satisfied to have only the single product, so there are different
forms of honey whose names relate to the different methods of produc-
tion and preparation for market. These forms include section comb
honey, bulk comb honey, cut comb honey, chunk honey, liquid honey,
and granulated honey.

Section comb honey is produced in small, square or rectangular
wooden frames called sections. Each one holds about a pound of comb
honey. Bulk comb honey is produced in shallow extracting frames,
which can be sold as a unit containing several pounds of honey. Such
comb can be cut into pieces called cut comb honey and sold in bags or
plastic boxes. If the pieces are packed into jars and surrounded by
liquid honey, they are called chunk honey. Liquid honey, also called
extracted or strained honey, is separated from the comb by any of
several methods. When honey solidifies it is known as granulated,
crystallized, creamed, or candied honey. The granulation may be natural
or the result of a special process described on page 90.

BEEKEEPING EQUHPiMEHSTT

Honey bees have been kept by man in a wide variety of hives. In
the early days of the United States the most common hive was a section
cut from a hollow tree, called a gum or log gum, with a slab of
wood to cover the top of it. In Europe the straw skep hive was com-
mon and one model used in Greece had movable combs. In most other
early hives it was not possible to remove or exchange combs easily
because the bees glued everything firmly together and their combs were
not surrounded by wooden frames. In 1851, L. L. Langstroth designed
an improved hive that utilized a principle discovered earlier and now
called the bee space. He made a hive in which the frames hung
within a box so that they were surrounded on all sides by a space of
14 to Y% inch. Bees leave such a space open but smaller spaces are
usually filled with propolis. In larger spaces bees build extra comb.
Langstroth's design is now used in all modern beekeeping equipment
and, although the dimensions and some details have been changed, the
hive is still called the Langstroth hive.

Bee hives have often been designed and built without regard for the
needs and habits of the honey bee colony. Probably the best design for
a colony was the large hive developed by Charles Dadant. It provided
a large, deep brood chamber with plenty of room in which the queen
could lay, and shallower supers for honey storage. However, the price
and promotion of smaller hives offered for sale during the period from
about 1885 to 1900 made them more popular. These small hives have
since been blamed for the reduction in the numbers of farm apiaries
because farmers removed too much honey from them, allowing colonies
to starve during the winter. The 10-frame Langstroth-style hive has
gradually become the standard hive used in the United States. It is
essentially a compromise between the needs of the bees and a size one
person can handle and move. As commercial beekeeping becomes more
mechanized, there is less reason to limit the hive size and shape just for
convenience in lifting and moving hives. But the amateur beekeepers
will continue to need a hive whose parts they can lift, and the 10-frame
Langstroth with shallow supers fills this need.

Many beekeeping enthusiasts are attracted by unnecessarily elab-
orate equipment or feel a need to modify the basic Langstroth design.

Most items designed for this purpose are of little value. Knowledge of
bees and the ability to manage them are the two essentials of success
with bees. It is the strong colony of bees, properly managed, that makes
the honey, not some special piece of hive equipment. Use standard
items of equipment to enjoy beekeeping to the fullest extent. If you
should want to sell or exchange the equipment, you can do so more
easily with conventional hives.

Hive Parts and Selection of Equipment

A bee hive is composed of one or more wooden shells called hive
bodies within which hang the combs in wooden frames. The space
between the cover and the bottom board can be expanded or reduced to
meet the needs of the colony during the year. Hive bodies in which a
brood nest is located are usually called brood chambers. Hive bodies
located above the brood chamber are called supers, simply because of
their location above the brood nest. The hive may be made up of any
combination of hive bodies of the same or different vertical dimen-
sions, or depths. Traditionally, beekeepers have used brood chambers
at least 9^i inches deep, but honey bee colonies will live just as well
when given sufficient combs of shallower dimensions. Amateur and
commercial beekeepers should seriously consider using hives composed
entirely of 10-frame hive bodies 6^ inches deep (Fig. 11). They pro-
vide complete interchangeability, are lighter in weight, and are easier
to manipulate. All the parts of a hive should be the same width, prefer-
ably 10-frame. The parts of a bee hive are shown in Figure 12.

Hive composed of two,
Dadant-depth shallow
hive bodies. (Fig. 11)

Beekeeping Equipment

Parts of a typical bee hive. The parts have been separated and identified for
easier recognition. (Fig. 12)

Bee hives are available from many different companies (see page
155) or you can make your own. If you prefer to build them, make sure
that all dimensions of the hive bodies conform to those of commer-
cially built hives. Otherwise the bees will fasten the parts together so
firmly that you cannot manipulate them easily. Hive covers and bottom
boards need not necessarily be of the same pattern as commercial ones.
Simpler ones can easily be made at home, and plans for constructing
them and other parts of a hive can be found on page 38.

Beekeeping suppliers and catalog stores offer basic equipment kits
for beginners. The kits contain only the basic tools and equipment
needed to get a swarm or package of bees started and to provide hive
space for them for about a month in the spring. Purchase additional
equipment at the same time in order to be ready to provide space for
the colony to expand during the season. Without additional hive bodies
the bees will soon become crowded and swarm. They may never de-
velop a sufficient population and a supply of honey to survive the
winter. In that case you will have to start over the next year. If you
do it right the first time with adequate equipment, you may soon be
wondering what to do with all the honey.

The type of equipment you should select depends, in part, on the
type of honey you plan to produce. The beginner is wise to avoid
producing section comb honey because it requires specialized manage-
ment and an abundant nectar flow for good returns. Management for
producing cut comb honey (Fig. 13) is simpler, the returns are gen-
erally better, and the equipment for producing it can also be used inter-
changeably for producing extracted honey. For these reasons, section
comb honey production is not included in this book. Details concerning
its production can be found in sources listed on pages 154 to 155.

No matter which type of honey you want to produce, plan to use
at least two hive bodies 9^ inches deep or three hive bodies 6^i inches
deep for the brood chamber. Above this brood chamber you will need
two to four hive bodies, or supers, for honey storage. To produce cut
comb honey, give the bees shallow supers, S11/1Q inches or 6-Hi inches
deep, with frames containing cut comb foundation without wire rein-
forcement. The term "comb foundation" refers to sheets of beeswax
embossed with the worker cell pattern. Bees add wax to the foundation
to make a complete comb. Extracted honey can be produced in supers of
any depth. The frames should contain wired or plastic-base foundation.
The 6^-inch-deep supers, sometimes called Dadant-, Illinois-, or
medium-depth supers, are a good size. They are lighter in weight than
deep, 9^-inch supers, but you do not need as many of them to hold

Beekeeping Equipment

A full shallow comb of honey. The comb and frame may be sold as a unit or
the comb may be cut into pieces for cut comb or chunk honey. (Fig. 13)

the crop as you do of the standard shallow, 51%6-inch supers. Many
beekeepers in the western states use only deep supers. Although they
must handle heavier units weighing up to 90 pounds, they handle
fewer of them, and all the equipment is interchangeable.

Of the several styles of frames, those with a wedge top bar and a
split or slotted bottom bar are the least trouble for the beginner to use
with supers of any depth. Foundation slips quickly into this frame and
it will stay secure when the wedge is nailed in place. Plastic-base foun-
dation can be stapled in place or held with a wedge. If it is stapled, an
extra row of cells for honey storage is gained on each frame.

There are two basic types of comb foundation, distinguished by
their relative thicknesses. Brood foundation, often called medium brood,
is used for the brood chamber and in all frames used to produce ex-
tracted honey. Its thickness, especially when reinforced with wire or
plastic, helps make strong combs that can withstand many years of use.
Plain and wired foundation make the best combs when placed in wired
frames; plastic-base foundation does not require any wiring. Founda-
tion for honey to be eaten in the comb must be thinner and more deli-
cate than brood foundation. The thinnest one, for comb honey produced
in sections, is often called thin super or thin surplus foundation. The

foundation for cut comb honey, sold by that name, is slightly thicker
so that it will stay in place in the frame until made into comb. These
thin foundations are used without wiring so that the filled honey comb
can be cut from the frames ready to eat. Support pins or bobby pins
can be inserted through the frame ends to help hold the foundation in
place. The pins are pulled out of the frame at harvest time and can be
reused.

When bees are provided with comb foundation, they must have
incoming nectar or sugar syrup to secrete wax and build comb. Other-
wise they may cut holes in the foundation and fail to make it into comb.
For this reason you must feed any new colony started with sheets of
foundation. Add foundation to established colonies only during a nectar
flow or while they are being fed syrup. Always use full sheets of foun-
dation, not just strips.

Hive covers are of two basic types. One telescopes down over the
hive body and is used above a flat inner cover to keep the bees from
attaching it too tightly to remove (Fig. 14, top). The other type of
cover fits flush with the sides of the hive body, and may or may not
extend over the ends. These simple covers are made in several styles.
They may be constructed of a single piece of j4-inch-thick exterior
plywood or several pieces of wood joined together and covered with
metal. Other patterns have one or two cleats at either end (Fig. 14,
bottom). The telescoping cover is heavy and expensive. It creates prob-
lems when hives are moved because the hives do not fit closely together
on a truck, and they will break open when roped tightly in place. How-
ever, the cover provides some insulation and ventilation for the colony
and resists weathering well. Plain covers are less expensive and easier
to make than telescope covers. They save time in manipulating colonies,
stay in place well, weigh less, and are best suited for migratory bee-
keeping.

The hive bottom, or bottom board as it is called, is also made in two
basic types. One is reversible, with a deep and a shallow side to give
either a ^-inch or a %-inch entrance to the hive (Fig. 14, top). It has
long siderails that sit on the ground. The other type is constructed
much like a simple cover, with cleats at front and back (Fig. 14, bot-
tom). The brood chamber sits on strips of wood whose height governs
the height of the entrance. A ^-inch entrance is most common, but
deeper ones can easily be provided by varying the height of the wooden
strips. This bottom is easier to make, lighter in weight, and usually
less expensive than the reversible one. Hive bottoms should be nailed
or stapled in place if the hives are moved. Otherwise the hive bodies are
just stacked one above the other on the bottom board. Bottom boards

Beekeeping Equipment

A one-story hive with a telescoping cover and a reversible bottom board is
shown at the top. Another one-story hive with a plain cover and two-cleat
bottom board is shown in the bottom illustration. (Fig- 14)

will last much longer when soaked or brushed with a wood preservative
such as pentachlorophenol before being painted. Be careful not to use
any preservative material harmful to bees or one that contains harmful
ingredients such as insecticides that will kill bees.

Hives placed on a hive stand, on bricks, or on other supports are
at a little more convenient height for the beekeeper to work. The en-
trances to the hives are also less liable to be covered by grass and weeds
that can interfere with hive ventilation and cause the death of the
colony in hot weather. On the other hand, hive supports can be a dis-
advantage. A queen that falls to the ground during manipulation or a
clipped queen that tries to leave with a swarm may not be able to get
back into the elevated hive. When several hives are on a single stand,
manipulation of one colony may disturb and alert the others. Hives
with preservative-treated bottoms are damaged little by being set on
the ground, and the preservatives do not bother the colony. Commercial
beekeepers and others who move their hives regularly do not use stands.

The design of beekeeping equipment has changed little over many
years, but equipment is now being made in fewer styles and with new
materials. Hives, frames, excluders, and combs are now made in plastic.
Some of this equipment has warped in use, and other types of plastic
have not been well accepted by the bees. But the equipment is con-
tinually being improved, and its use will probably be limited only by
the relative prices and availability of wood and plastic. Beekeepers
should test the new materials and determine in their own apiaries
whether they have advantages over the traditional ones.

Assembly of Equipment

New bee equipment is usually purchased "knocked down" (KD),
or unassembled. The directions and diagrams furnished by the manu-
facturer are easy to follow, but a few details sometimes cause difficulty.
A common error is to nail the sides of the hive bodies in place with the
handholds on the inside. The frame rests (notched or rabbeted areas
at the inside top of the hive ends) also cause some problems. Equipment
from some suppliers requires the addition of a small wooden strip
across the frame rest to give the proper vertical spacing of the frames.
Other manufacturers supply a bent metal frame rest that must be in-
stalled so that it projects upward from the rabbeted area, not toward
the inside of the hive body.

Frames are made in several sizes and patterns, but all are assembled
in the same way. You can assemble small numbers of frames individ-
ually. For larger numbers, a frame-nailing device or jig will make the

Beekeeping Equipment

job easier and faster (Fig. 15). Drive nails down through each end of
the top bar into the end bars and drive a second pair through the end
bars into the shoulder of the top bar (Fig. 16). This cross-nailing
greatly strengthens the frame. Glue and power-driven staples can also
be used to assemble frames. Water-resistant casein glue and polyvinyl
(white) glue are easy to apply with a plastic squeeze bottle. The bottom
bar needs two or four nails, depending on the style of frame. Frames
with one V-shaped edge on the end bars are assembled with the V
facing you on the left end and away from you on the right end.

Frames are wired (Fig. 17) to reinforce the combs so that they will
not sag and warp in hot weather or fall apart in the extractor. If you
intend to keep more than a half dozen colonies or if you like to learn
new techniques, you should learn to wire frames. A plan for a wiring
board can be found on page 40. Using such a wiring device, thread at
least two, and preferably four, horizontal wires through the ready-made
holes in the end bars. Draw the wire tight enough to make a high note
when you pluck it. Start and end the wire by wrapping it around small
nails driven into the edge of the end bar. Only No. 28 tinned wire is
suitable for wiring frames. If the wire cuts deeply into the end bars,
insert metal eyelets into the holes or use a compression stapler to put a
staple beside the holes.

Assembling frames in a wooden jig. The jig is inverted to put the bottom
bars in place. (Fig. 15)

Cross-nailing the
end and top bars of
the frames.

(Fig. 16)

The alternative to wiring is the use of plastic-base or vertically
wired foundation with metal support pins to hold and center the foun-
dation at the end bars of the frame. Combs produced in this way should
be handled and extracted carefully, especially in hot weather, until
they are fully finished and have been in use for at least one season.
Hold the combs vertically when you examine them so that the new
comb will not sag or fall from the frame because of the weight of brood
or honey.

Fit foundation into a frame so that the upper edge rests in the
notch in the top bar and the lower edge rests in the slot of the bottom
bar. The foundation in a wired frame should lie on top of the wires.
Place wired foundation so that the bent ends of the wires will be held
in place by the wedge. Push the wedge firmly into place against the
foundation and nail or staple it so that the nail heads or staples are
beneath the top bar (Fig. 18). Here they cannot later be hit with an
uncapping knife. Plastic-base foundation can be held in place with
staples or a wedge (Fig. 19).

When frames are wired, the wires must be embedded in the wax
so that they are acceptable to the bees. Otherwise the bees may build
irregular cells along the wires or fail in other ways to make a perfect
comb. Place the wired frame and foundation, wires up, on a board cut
to fit within the frame. Roll a heated spur embedder along each wire,
pushing it about halfway through the wax or against the vertical wires.

Beekeeping Equipment

The foundation should be warm. For large numbers of frames, use an
electrical embedder with a 12-volt transformer to heat the wires so that
they sink into the wax (Fig. 20). Use it briefly and carefully to avoid
cutting the foundation into strips with overheated wires or melting holes
in the wax where wires cross. Plans for an electrical embedder and em-
bedding board can be found on page 43.

Wiring frames in a homemade wiring device. A deep frame compressed with
a metal clamp is shown in the illustration at the top. A shallow frame com-
pressed against a wooden stop is shown at the bottom. (Fig. 17)

Using a compression stapler to fasten plastic-base foundation in a shallow
frame. (Fig. 19)

Beekeeping Equipment

A simple device for
embedding wires into
comb foundation.
When the copper con-
tacts at each end of
the wooden piece touch
the wires on the frame
end bar, the heated
wires sink into the
wax. (Fig. 20)

After assembly, the external wooden hive parts should be treated
to increase their usable life. Bottoms, and other hive parts, can be soaked
or coated with pentachlorophenol, a wood preservative that can be painted
over. In some countries hive bodies are preserved by dipping them
for 10 minutes in paraffin heated to the smoking point (316°F., 158°C).
Hives can be painted with either latex or oil-base paint. They should be
painted inside and out. This reduces peeling and loss of paint caused by
moisture in the wood and does not harm the colony in any way. White
paint reflects heat better than darker colors or aluminum paint. The light
color helps colonies stay cooler in hot summer weather. Foraging bees
find their own hives more easily when they are distinguished by different
colors painted near the entrances. The color combination of blue, yellow,
white, and black is a good one for this purpose.

Tools, Specialized Equipment, and Clothing

Three essential beekeeping tools are shown in Figure 21. The
smoker is your most important tool. With it you are master of the bees
as long as you use it properly and keep it lit. The 4 X 7-inch size is the
best of the three sizes available. Smaller ones are too small even for
beginners and the largest size is designed for commercial beekeepers.

Hive tools are all-purpose levers for prying hives apart and for
scraping. The 10-inch length gives the best leverage when hives are
heavy and stuck tightly together.

Three important tools in beekeeping. The bee brush is at the top, the hive
tool in the middle, and the smoker at the bottom. (Fig. 21)

Beekeeping Equipment

A bee brush is used to remove bees from combs of brood or honey,
particularly those bees that don't come off when the comb is shaken.
Since queen cells may be damaged by shaking, a brush is a necessity in
queen rearing. If a brush isn't handy, a handful of long grass can be
used as a substitute.

A queen excluder is a grid of accurately spaced holes or wires
through which workers can pass, but not queens or drones. The steel-
wire excluders, either metal or wood bound, are best. The zinc and
plastic ones are suitable only for temporary use or for special purposes
such as making cages or covering hive entrances.

Always use standard hives without modification or accessories.
Special bottom boards and covers, queen and drone traps, and other
similar equipment usually increase the cost of keeping bees without
providing proportionate returns. It is proper management, not spe-
cialized equipment, that leads to success in beekeeping.

It is not necessary to wear extra layers of clothing when working
with bees but it is a good practice to dress properly, at least until you
gain experience. Bee gloves, either cloth or leather, help to put you at
ease in handling frames of bees. Simple gauntlets let you use your
fingers more easily than do gloves, yet cover your wrists and the open-
ing in your sleeve above the cuff (Fig. 22). A muslin sleeve with
elastic in each end makes a good gauntlet. Make it long enough to
reach from your thumb to above the elbow. You can also cut the toe
or foot from a large, white, cotton sock and pull it over your sleeve
with the knitted top on your wrist.

White or tan clothing is most suitable when working with bees.
Other colors are acceptable but bees react unfavorably to dark colors
and fuzzy materials. Be especially careful to cover your ankles or wear
light-colored socks. Angry bees often attack ankles first because they
are at the level of the hive entrance. Any bee on the ground tends to
crawl upward and may go up your leg with peaceful intentions until
you squeeze her. Use bicycle clips, inner-tube bands (Fig. 23), or
string to fasten your pants legs.

A folding wire veil or a round wire veil, worn with a hat, is a good
all-purpose choice for the beginner. A nylon net veil is cool and easy
to carry, but it is more easily damaged in use. Wear the veil on a
hat with a wide brim and pull the excess material away from your neck
when putting it on (Fig. 24). Instructions for making a nylon net veil
can be found on page 51.

A pair of gauntlets
in use. They can be
used alone or with
a pair of gloves.

(Fig. 22)

An inner-tube band
for closing pant legs
when working with
bees. The band
closes and pulls
down the pant leg.
(Fig. 23)

Beekeeping Equipment

A nylon net veil
worn with a straw
hat to keep the veil
away from the
face. Note how the
excess material is
pulled away from
the neck. (Fig. 24)

Making Your Own Equipment

There are several reasons why people make their own beekeeping
equipment. They may want to reduce the cost of getting started in
beekeeping or they may simply enjoy working with their hands. In
many cases they want a special item that is not readily available or, if
it is, the product is not suited to their needs. The plans and instructions
in this section will enable you to make some of your own equipment.
Before doing so, you should compare the labor and material costs oi
making a piece of equipment with the delivered price of the same item
from a bee supply company. The price of high-quality lumber used in
commercial bee supplies may make it difficult for you to save money
unless you produce a lower quality product from less expensive mate-
rials.

Constructing a bee hive. Bee hive construction is not difficult for
a person with suitable woodworking tools and experience in operating
them. The equipment produced can be as satisfactory as the commercial

products, provided that all dimensions are accurate (see construction
Dlan on page 38). The inside dimensions of the hive bodies and the
ize of the frames are especially important so that the completed hive
provides the proper bee space — the space that bees keep free of
omb and propolis. Without proper dimensions, the movable frames
quickly become immovable and difficult to manipulate when filled with
bees. The construction plan shows the inside dimensions for the deep
hive body only. Those for the other hive bodies differ only in depth,
which is the same inside and out. The external dimensions given are
suitable only for equipment constructed from ^-inch-thick lumber.
Adjust the dimensions if you use wood of any other thickness.

Western pine is the best wood to use for hive bodies, lids, and
frames. Many other woods can be used, but most are less suitable
because of their weight, tendency to crack and split, and other charac-
teristics. Hive bottoms made of cedar, cypress, or redwood generally
last longer than those made of pine or similar woods. Regardless of
the type of wood used, hive bottoms resist moisture and decay better
if they are treated with a wood preservative such as pentachlorophenol.

Bee equipment may be assembled with nails or power-driven staples.
Seven-penny box nails, cement or resin coated, are a good size for
hive bodies. The corners of the hive bodies should be cross-nailed for
greatest strength. Galvanized nails are a good choice for assembling
bottoms and for use with redwood lumber. Coated box nails, I1/4. inches
long, are suitable for nailing frames. Glue makes all wooden equipment
stronger and longer lasting.

You may wish to consider some optional ways of making the differ-
ent parts of a hive. For example, lids can be made of exterior plywood
without cleats. Or the lid can be lengthened to accommodate a^ X2-
inch cleat extending downward at each end of the lid. The smooth top
of such a lid can be covered with metal to increase its weather resis-
tance. When making hive bodies, you have the option of dadoing the
handholds into them, about 2 inches below the top, or nailing a }i X 2-
inch cleat at the same level on each end of the hive bodies. It is much
easier to handle heavy supers of honey by grasping such cleats instead
of handholds. The hive bottom in the plan provides a ^-inch-deep
entrance. If you prefer to make a deeper entrance, cut the spacer strips
to the height you desire, such as }$ or 7A inch. Bottoms with 2 X 2-inch
rather than y± X 4-inch cleats make it a little easier to pick up the hive
and may also help to keep the hive a little drier. The hive pattern can
be adapted to make nuc boxes by narrowing the hive width to provide
room for 3 or 5 frames rather than 10. To make pallets for use in

Beekeeping Equipment

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

10-FRAME BEE HIVE

(%-inch-thick lumber)

DADANT- ~>p/s
OR ILLINOIS-DEP1
HIVE BODY

DEEP ^8

HIVE BODY

Inside dimensions:

L — 183/s"

W — 143/4"

D — 9%" %»

BOTTOM BOARD

3/4" x 2" cleot
(optional
in place
of handhold)

(A) DETAIL OF COVER

AND BOTTOM
Saw kerfs (cuts)
with fin or
roofing paper strip
set in before
nailing and gluing

SHALLOW
FRAME

As below, but
5%" deep.

DADANT-DEPTH
FRAME

SIDE VIEW OF TOP BAR

Hf>

-19'

7h"

-Mr-.

1 ^ riv ■

SIDE VIEW OF BOTTOM BAR

(B) DETAIL OF
FRAME REST

Rabbeted corners
not dovetailed.

handling and storing stacks of hive bodies, follow the pattern for the
hive cover and add a rim of spacer strips around the outer edge of the
flat side of the lid. These will help to catch and confine honey and bits
of wax that fall from combs.

Frame-making requires many saw cuts and can be dangerous with-
out special equipment and techniques. It is usually better to buy frames
than to risk a serious accident. However, if you decide to make them,
use the pattern for frames with straight-sided end bars. These are
easier to cut out and are as well accepted by the bees as frames with
tapered or indented end bars.

Paint the hive bodies and lids on all surfaces, inside and out. This
reduces the loss of paint by peeling and is not detrimental to the bees.
Bottoms can be painted after being treated with wood preservative or,
preferably, sealed with a couple coats of boiled linseed oil. Frames do
not need any preservative treatment.

Making and using a frame-wiring board. A frame-wiring board
is used to install horizontal wires in frames. These tightly drawn wires
serve as supports for comb foundation and the comb constructed from
it. The board is basically a jig in which a frame can be held firmly
with the end bars or bottom bar under tension while special frame
wire is threaded into place. A well-designed wiring board should make
it relatively easy to thread the wire, to tighten it in the frame, and to
fasten it in place. Releasing the frame from the board should further
tighten the wire in the frame.

As seen in the construction plan on page 40, the base of the wiring
board is a piece of 24 -inch-thick plywood. Beneath it are three cleats
also of the same or similar lumber. Two cleats extend beyond the edges
of the board and are drilled so that the board can be fastened firmly in
place while it is being used. The L-shaped blocks at the front of the
board are spaced so that the inside corners of the L's are 19 inches
apart. They hold the frame top bar. The bottom bar fits into the wooden
i channel at the rear of the board. The channel has blocks at each end,
17^4 inches apart, to keep the frame from moving laterally. The over-
hanging lip of the channel, li/2 inches above the board, keeps the
bottom bar from moving upward. There is a thin strip of wood ap-
proximately Y& inch thick and 11/2 inches wide on the base board
between the end blocks. This piece levels the frame in the jig.

In the center of the board is a clamping device made of 1/2 X Y&-
inch strap iron. The device consists of two arms riveted to a central
lever that is bolted to the board. The rivets are centered Y% inch from
the center of the bolt. The rear arm is about 9 inches long, the front one

Beekeeping Equipment

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

WIRING BOARD

Adapter block for shallow frame

DETAILS OF FRAME WIRING

DETAILS OF CHANNE
FOR BOTTOM BAR

SIDE VIEW

TOP VIEW

t3 -. r~p-

TZJ czl

Z7'/z-

IZL

^U^

^0 C

r£

is 9i/2 inches, and each is bent upward an additional V2 inch. The cen-
tral lever is about YIV2 inches long. The arms slide through, but are
kept in place by, wooden blocks near their midpoint. With the lever
pulled to the left, the bent ends of the arms are far enough apart to
accept a frame between them, about 17^4 inches wide. As the lever is
moved to the right, the arms move inward, squeezing the end bars of
the frame. A sheet metal catch attached to the base board holds the
lever at the point where it exerts enough pressure to bend the end bars
slightly inward but not so much that it damages the frame. The sheet
metal catch has a Vi-inch-wide notch in the center of a %o~mch-wide
vertical lip. This notch accepts and holds the clamping lever. The catch
has elongated holes through which it is bolted to the base. It can be
moved right or left to adjust the tension of the clamping lever. The
clamping device is the most difficult part of the wiring board to make.
It should be done last so that its size and location will fit the frame
properly. The bolt that holds it to the base should be about midway
between the frame ends and about $x/z inches from the front edge of
the base.

The spool of frame wire is driven onto a splined crankshaft so that
the wire can be held taut after it has been threaded through the frame.
The shaft is supported and held in place by two wooden endpieces. A
piece of wooden dowel on a sturdy-but-flexible, U-shaped wire keeps
the frame wire from unreeling when it is not being used. The frame
wire passes through a metal screw eye that puts it in line with the
top hole in the end bar. When the wire is being threaded into a frame,
it passes around three spools, or 1 14-inch lengths of 1-inch dowel or
other wooden rod. The spools are located outside of, and V£ inch from,
the frame end bars and are mounted so that they turn freely. Those on
the left are centered between each pair of holes in the end bar. The
one on the right is centered between the middle pair of holes.

The board is designed primarily for wiring full-depth (9i/8-inch)
frames, but can be adapted for wiring Dadant-depth (614-inch) frames.
In place of the metal clamping device, which will not fit the smaller
frame, a special adapter block is used to hold and compress the shal-
lower frame. The block can be seen in the drawing on the right rear
corner of the board, where it is stored when not in use. The block is 1
inch high, 4i4 inches long, and 1 inch wide at the widest point of the
curved edge. A li/s-inch-square piece of Masonite or other hardboard
extends ]/& inch beyond the curved side. This special block is mounted
just to the rear of the metal clamping device, approximately in the
location indicated by the dotted lines on the figure. The exact position

Beekeeping Equipment

must be determined by placing a 614-inch frame in place and marking
the outside edge of the bottom bar. Fasten the curved edge of the
block about 3/1G inch inside that line (toward the front of the board).
The block will then press the bottom bar inward when the frame is
pushed into place. When the frame is removed after being wired, the
resiliency of the wood adds tension to the wire.

To wire a full-depth frame, place it on the board and fasten the
metal clamp. Drive a wire nail into the upper edge of the right end
bar just above the top and bottom holes. Leave the heads of the ^-inch
nails about Vs inch above the wood. Thread the wire through the top
hole of each end bar, around the spool, and back across the frame.
After threading it in this manner through all eight holes, wind the end
of the wire tightly around the nail nearest the bottom bar, drive the
nail in, and twist off the excess wire. Pull the wire off the spools and
crank the excess back onto the spool of wire. Starting on the bottom
section of wire where it is fastened, run your fingers along the wire,
pulling it toward you. At the left end of the frame transfer your fingers
quickly to the next section of wire, pulling the slack from it and from
the lower wire. Follow this procedure on each wire while cranking
excess wire back onto the spool. Try to get all wires tight enough to
make a high note when plucked. You will have to learn how much
pressure you can apply without breaking the wire. When you are
satisfied with the amount of tension in the wire, grasp it just outside
the end bar beneath the upper nail and wind the wire around the nail
while keeping it tight in the frame. Drive in the nail and twist the wire
to break it off. The same general system is also used for Dadant-depth
frames.

Making equipment for embedding wires into comb foundation.
Beeswax comb foundation, plain or wired, produces the strongest
combs if it is installed in wired frames before it is given to a colony of
bees. To be acceptable to the bees, the frame wires must be embedded in
the wax of the foundation. The job of embedding can be done easily
and quickly by using an electrical embedder and a special embedding
board shown in the construction plan on the next page. The embedder
heats the wire by briefly short-circuiting a 12-volt electrical current.
The embedding board serves as a base on which to press the heated
wires into the beeswax of the comb foundation.

The electrical embedder consists of a transformer, used to reduce
house current to 12 volts, whose output wires are connected to copper
contacts at either end of a ^-inch-square piece of wood. There is only

ONSTRUCTION DETAILS

LECTRICAL EMBEDDER
EMBEDDING BOARD

;

LECTRICAL EMBEDDER

Copper contact

12-volt transformer

BEDDING BOARD

3R FULL-DEPTH FRAME

>r shallower frames, make board

i ' narrower than inside height.

FRONT VIEW

VZ=&

l">

\h%~

cleat

DETAILS OF END BAR WITH WIRES

Beekeeping Equipment

one critical dimension in making such an embedder. The copper con-
tacts must be spaced so that their centers are 6 inches apart for full-
depth (9V8-inch) frames and approximately 2 inches apart for shallow
(6]4- and 5^8-inch) frames. These contacts are pressed against the
end portions of the wire that cross one end bar at right angles to it
(see detail in construction plan). All the wire in the frame is heated i
at once when electrical contact is made.

The embedding board is a piece of ^4 -inch-thick lumber cut to fit
closely within the frames being used. It should be approximately 7^
X 16? s inches for full-depth frames, narrower for shallow frames.
In order for the wires to make the best possible contact with the wax,
the embedding board should have a convex curve on the longer dimen-
sion of its upper surface. From its 24"mcn thickness in the center, the
board should taper to Yi inch at its outer ends. The cleats beneath the
board provide needed additional height.

Place the frame on the embedding board with the comb foundation
(already attached) beneath the wires. While pressing on the frame,
contact the wires on the end bar with the embedder. Hold it in contact i:
only briefly, a second or two at first, until you learn how much heat is
needed to sink the wires into the foundation. Too long a contact will I
produce heat enough to cut plain foundation into strips or to melt wax
away from the intersection of vertical and horizontal wires. Before
embedding foundation, be sure it is warm, at least at room temperature.
Afterwards, do not subject it to cold temperatures because the contrac-
tion and later expansion of the wax may cause the foundation to pull
away from the wires.

Building a solar wax melter. A solar wax melter is a glass-covered
box that uses the heat of the sun to melt beeswax and to separate it
from honey and other materials with which it is found in honey bee
colonies. The melter can be used to render old combs, cappings, burr
comb, and other hive scrapings containing wax. It is also handy for
removing beeswax from excluders. The melter produces wax of high
quality and eliminates the need for the sometimes hazardous job of
rendering wax in the home.

The sloping top surface of the solar wax melter provides maximum
exposure to the sun and allows honey and melted wax to drain quickly
into the storage pan. Before use, the entire unit, including the sheet-
metal pan, should be painted black for maximum heat absorption. The
glass cover with two sheets of double-strength glass about ]4 mcn apart
helps to retain the absorbed heat. The Celotex, or fiberboard, insulation

ilso serves the same purpose. Internal temperatures well above the
nelting point of beeswax, about 145°F. (63°C), are maintained on
varm, sunny days. Place the melter in a sunny, sheltered spot for best
•esults.

The plan on page 46 is meant to provide ideas on how to build a
nelter. It has been modified from one originally published by F. K.
36ttcher of West Germany. You need not copy the plan exactly. For
his reason, many dimensions are not given, especially the less impor-
tant ones. A melter of the size illustrated will handle all the wax from
lp to 60 hives of bees. Modify the dimensions to fit your needs, or the
naterials available, but beware of making it too small. The sheet metal
)an should be 4 to 6 inches deep and big enough to accept excluders
'I614 X 20 inches) or at least two full-depth frames (19 X 20 inches).
Consider the possibility of making one or more cappings baskets of
'expanded" metal that will fit into the sheet metal pan.

The pan to catch the hot honey and melted wax should be rela-
ively large to prevent accidental overflows. The one illustrated is an
nexpensive plastic dish pan readily available in many stores. The wax
an be easily removed because it does not adhere well to the smooth,
lexible plastic. The sloping sides of the pan also make it easier to
emove the cake of wax.

The wooden brace is designed to support the lid while you clean
mt the slumgum, or residue, that remains after combs are melted. It
ies between the exterior box and the interior layer of insulation. The
inger hole, or notch, is used to pull it up into place. Cut the free end
it an angle so that it makes firm contact with the lid frame when the lid
|s a suitable height to work beneath.

The melted wax will flow more easily down the pan if the combs,
pxcluders, and cappings baskets are set on lengths of metal rods or
ingle iron. You should also put a coarse screen across the outlet of
:he pan to keep unmelted pieces of comb and other debris from flowing
jnto the pan of molten wax. The honey collects beneath the wax in
he pan. It is darkened and unsuitable for human food, but can be
psed to feed bees in early spring (not in the fall). The slumgum re-
naming in the sheet metal pan contains beeswax that can be removed
)nly by a hot water press. If you accumulate 100 pounds or more, it is
'vorthwhile having it rendered commercially.

The melter is highly attractive to robber bees because of the odors
£iven off by the warm honey and wax. It should be kept tightly closed
except when loading it or removing the filled collecting pan.

Beekeeping Equipment

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

SOLAR WAX MELTER

FINGER HOLE
HINGE

INSULATION

,SHEET METAL PAN

,%" BRACE TO HOLD LID UP

/TWO LAYERS OF GLASS IN SASH

.INSULATION

PAN STC

HAND

HINC

SIDE VIEW

PLASTIC DISH PA
(12" x 14" x 6

The wax melter has a double layer of '/^"Celotex,
except for the top rear, which has a single layer,
and the front, which has no insulation.

PLASTIC DISH PAN,
INSULATION

FRONT VIEW OF FACE

-20?

BACK VIEW

Making and using a pollen trap. A pollen trap is a device used by
beekeepers to remove and collect pellets of pollen from the legs of
honey bees as they return to the hive from foraging trips. The pollen
is used to supplement the protein food of honey bee colonies in the
spring, either by itself or in mixtures with materials such as soy flour
and brewers' yeast. Pollen traps are also used by people interested in
identifying and comparing the types and amounts of pollen collected
by colonies of bees. Such studies indicate what plants are being visited
and their relative importance in a particular area.

There are many types of pollen traps, but all operate in the same
way. The bees entering the hive are forced to pass through two layers
of 5-mesh hardware cloth with the holes offset and the screens about
14 inch apart. Traps are most effective in removing large loads of
pollen, but they probably take only about 40 to 60 percent of the in-
coming loads, or pellets.

The pollen trap discussed here (see the construction plan on page
48) was originally designed at the Ontario Agricultural College in
; Canada and has been modified slightly to make it easier to construct
and use. The design is a good one because it provides full ventilation
for the colony and makes it easy to remove the collected pollen from the
back of the hive without disturbing the colony.

In constructing the trap and interpreting the drawings, consider
ithat the trap is composed of several layers, represented graphically by
'letters A through D on the left side of the plan. The bottom layer, D, is
a standard bottom board of the type used in the eastern United States.
It has been shortened to 19% inches, the same length as a hive body.
The %-inch-deep side is uppermost, and its opening faces the rear of
the hive. The second layer, C, is the cloth-covered pollen tray onto
(which the pollen loads fall as they are pushed off the legs of bees
:passing through the two pollen-removing screens. The three long pieces
of the pollen tray are ^4-inch-square pine lumber. One crosspiece is
\}i inch square; the other, ^ X ^ inch to give more space for the nails
idriven into it to hold the metal flashing. The flashing helps to keep
'rainwater out of the back of the trap. The unbleached muslin, or some
other loosely woven cloth, should be stretched tightly and stapled to
;the top surface of the tray. It allows air to circulate through and
around the pellets of pollen and helps to prevent mold growth.

The trap base, layer B, is really two layers as seen in the expanded
view on the right. The lower portion is a U-shaped frame of %-inch-
iSquare pine lumber on which a 16J4 X 19%-inch piece of 8-mesh
.hardware cloth is stapled. The lack of a crosspiece at the rear of the
jtrap allows additional space to remove the pollen tray when it is heavily

Beekeeping Equipment

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

POLLEN TRAP

BOTTOM
BOARD

(A) DETAILS OF POLLEN-REMOVING SCREENS

5 mesh per in
1" diamel

covered with pollen pellets. Three pieces of 24-inch pine lumber are
placed diagonally on the hardware cloth and stapled to it from below.
One piece is 14 inches long, and the shorter two are 8 inches long. All
are U/2 inches high. These allow bees to move more easily through the
pollen-removing screens, and they help to distribute the pollen more
evenly on the pollen tray.

The upper portion of the trap base is a U-shaped frame of 24-inch
pine lumber 21/2 inches high. There is a framework of 3g X 24~mcn
cleats fastened }£ inch below the top. This framework supports the
pollen-removing screens. The front cleat is oriented so that its narrow
side faces the entrance, thus making the entrance as deep as possible.
The entrance opening is 1%6 inches high and 14^4 inches wide. The
two portions of the trap base are nailed together as in illustration B.

The pollen-removing screens, layer A, are fastened to a framework
of i/4-inch exterior plywood or other wood of the same thickness. In
the rim at the front of this frame are two 1-inch holes with %fi-inch-
wide channels leading to the front edge. The holes and channels are
covered underneath with 8-mesh hardware cloth. These allow drones
to get out of the hive. They cannot pass through the pollen-removing
screens, and their dead bodies can clog the screens.

The pollen-removing screens are two layers of 5-mesh hardware
cloth with their holes offset. The rear section, where few bees attempt
|to pass, is covered with one layer of 8-mesh hardware cloth for addi-
tional ventilation. Five-mesh hardware cloth is not generally available,
but can be purchased from bee supply companies.

All wooden parts of the trap should be painted or varnished to
resist the weather.

Put the trap on during periods when the bees are actively collecting
pollen. You can expect to collect 1/4. to 1 pound per day per trap, de-
pending on the colony's activity and the sources of pollen available.
Since the trap takes only part of the pollen from the bees, it can be left
pn for periods of several weeks without damaging the colony. How-
ever, because honey production can be reduced somewhat, you may
Hwish to trap pollen for one to three weeks and then remove the screens
ifor an equal period before collecting pollen again from the same colony.

Pollen should be removed from the trap at least every two or three
days. Put it in plastic bags and store it a 0°F. ( — 18°C.) until used.

All pollen traps are vulnerable to water damage to the pollen, and
this one is no exception. Wind-driven rain entering the front or back
of the trap may wet the pollen on the cloth-covered tray. To reduce
uch losses you may need to devise a storm hood that shelters the
entrance without hindering the bees when entering the hive.

Beekeeping Equipment

Ants are a common pest in pollen traps. Use oil pans or sticky-
barriers to keep them out. Do not use insecticides of any kind or you
may also kill the bees.

Occasionally you will find a colony that does not adjust to the
presence of a pollen trap on its hive. The bees will cluster at the hive
entrance and within the trap long after other colonies have adapted to
it. When you find such a colony, it is best to remove the trap to another
colony because otherwise your pollen yield will be quite low.

Making a bee veil. Bee veils of black nylon net are easy to make
and have several advantages. When rolled up, they fit easily into a
shirt pocket or glove compartment. They are easy to see through and
are cooler than other types of veils. Their disadvantages include ease
of snagging, melting if touched by flame or spark, and touching the
face or neck in a wind.

Suitable, 72-inch-wide net material is available at most fabric stores.
The sketch on the next page shows the desirable mesh size. It must be
black so that you can see through it well. Other colors, especially the light
ones, cannot be used.

Make a paper pattern the size indicated in the sketch. This size is
suitable for a tall person and a large-brimmed hat. The veil circum-
ference can be adjusted to fit around the brim of the hat on which it
will be worn. The top elastic should fit snugly around the hat's crown.
After making one veil, you may wish to adjust other measurements
to fit the individual who wears the veil. The back should always be
shorter than the front to help keep the net from touching the neck.
A large hat brim also helps in this regard.

Place the paper pattern on the folded net with the front of the i
pattern along the fold. After cutting it out, sew the back of the veil with
a flat-felled or French seam. Make a casing around the top of the veil
to hold the elastic. Make another casing around the bottom except for
a 6-inch section at the center front. Put the elastic into the bottom
casing. Attach the center 6 inches of the nylon cord to the front of
the veil with black bias tape or seam tape. At the same time lap the ends
of the elastic around the cord before it is sewn beneath the tape.
This is the most difficult and important part of the job. The net, tape,
cord, and elastic must be attached firmly together or you will quickly
get holes at each end of the tape. The final step is to put elastic in the
casing at the top of the veil and sew its ends together.

When you put the veil on, pull the front down so that the elastic is
stretched against your chest. Loop the cord ends around your body in
opposite directions, bring them back in front, and tie them together.

-INSTRUCTION DETAILS

YLON NET BEE VEIL

»ER PATTERN

ON NET

TOP

22" FRONT

MATERIALS NEEDED

NYLON NET, 72" WIDE — 22"

BLACK ELASTIC, !/4" WIDE — 53"
23" for the top
30" for the bottom

BLACK BIAS TAPE
OR SEAM TAPE — 6"

NYLON CORD — 8'

Measurements include allowances
for seams and casings.

STARTING WITH BEES

When and How to Start

Spring is the ideal time to begin keeping bees. In the Midwest the
best months for this are April and May, depending on the state or
location, and when fruit trees, dandelions, and early flowers are in
bloom. The reasons for starting at this time are that the spring blossoms
and the lengthening days help to get the bees off to a good start and
the early start allows the colony to increase its population in time to
store honey from the clovers and other major food sources that begin
to yield nectar usually in June, but varying widely.

Established colonies. A beginning beekeeper should start with
at least two colonies but not more than four or five. With more than
one colony you have the advantage of being able to exchange brood,
bees, and combs in case one of the colonies needs some help. With too
many colonies you may have only enough time to keep them supplied
with supers, and not be able to enjoy learning the details of the activi-
ties in any of them. The beginner can purchase established colonies ^j
from a local beekeeper but should do so with care. Hives offered for n
sale may be homemade, with poor combs and, sometimes, the bees may
be diseased. There is nothing wrong with good homemade equipment
built to proper dimensions, but hive bodies and frames made without '
regard for the proper bee space are worthless. The amount of honey .
in the hive that you buy is not as important as the quality of the equip- j
ment as long the there is at least a small reserve supply. The bees -'
themselves can be improved at slight expense by requeening the col-
ony. Buy established colonies only after they have been inspected and I
found free of disease by a qualified apiary inspector. Such inspections
are usually available on request from your state Department of Agri-
culture.

If you buy full-sized colonies, you will lose the opportunity to watch
the fascinating early development of the colony that you have if you
buy package bees or small "nucleus" colonies of three to five frames.
Also, newly established small colonies are easier for the beginner to
observe and manipulate than are the larger ones. In part, this is be-
cause of the beginner's reaction to the number of bees present and also <

because of the greater number of guard bees and field bees in the larger
colony. They are not necessarily meaner, but more bees react when large
colonies are handled. Consider this difference when you begin keeping
bees because it is essential that you open the hive regularly and learn
about the inside activities of the colony-
Package bees. Package bees (Fig. 25) consist of 2 to 4 pounds of
Dees and a laying queen shipped in a screened cage with a can of sugar
syrup to provide food en route. They are produced in commercial
apiaries in the southeastern United States and in California. Order
:hem early, in January if possible, in order to have the best chance of
receiving them on time, preferably during early fruit and dandelion
bloom in your area. A 2-pound package with a queen will produce as
^ood a colony as a 3-pound package if it is fed well and gets off to a
good, early start on drawn combs. However, for installation on foun-
dation, a 3-pounder is usually a better choice. Packages hived on frames
illed with foundation must be fed continually with sugar syrup until
:heir combs are completed and there is stored honey in the combs. This
fnay require a month or more if nectar is not available because of lack
of bloom or poor spring weather. The food is a good investment because
t is used to produce wax for comb building and to feed developing
foung bees. Any excess is stored for future use in the colony. With-
out such food the bees may fail to build comb and may die. Use syrup

\ 2-pound package of bees

(Fig. 25)
53

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

made from two volumes of granulated, white beet or cane sugar dis-
solved in one volume of hot water. This ratio of sugar to water is used
most economically by the bees. However, thinner syrup of equal vol-
umes of sugar and water can also be used. A gallon can or large jar i
placed above the brood nest makes a better feeder than the entrance
type (see page 104). The colony will reduce its intake or refuse syrup
altogether when nectar becomes readily available to them. Wash and
exchange feeders regularly so that the syrup does not become fer-
mented or contaminated by the growth of fungus or other organisms.

Package bee colonies develop more rapidly when installed on combs
containing honey and pollen. They can be started a little earlier in the i
season because of the pollen that is available immediately for rearing
brood. The beginner usually has no choice but to start with foundation
the first year. In subsequent years, however, install packages on combs
if at all possible.

Package bees usually are shipped with instructions for placing them
in the hive. The bees are not difficult to handle if you remember some
important fundamental details. A complete one-story hive must be
ready to accept the bees and a location must have been chosen for it.
When the package arrives, put it in a dark, cool place such as a base-
ment until you can install the bees in the hive, preferably the same day.
If you must delay the job, check to see that there is still syrup in the
feeder can in the package. With plenty of food the bees can be kept in
the package for a day or two if necessary. Late afternoon or evening
is the best time to install them so that the bees will settle down
quickly without flying very much. When you are ready to start, place
the cage on its side and spray, sprinkle, or brush warm sugar syrup
on the side of the screened cage. Use only as much syrup as the bees
will clean up readily. Do not soak them with it. When the bees arei
gorged with syrup they are gentler and less inclined to fly and sting.

When you are ready to install the bees, put on your veil, get your
hive tool, and place the hive on location with five frames set to one side
of it. A smoker is rarely needed but you should have it ready. Also
have the cover and the equipment ready to feed the bees after they are
installed. Stuff the hive entrance lightly with green grass or reduce its
size with an entrance cleat. Loosen the cover of the package but do not
remove it. The queen cage is usually beside the syrup can at the top of
the package or hanging by a wire or tin strip below the can. Give the <
package a sharp bounce on the ground to knock the bees to the floor.
Remove the syrup can and queen cage and replace the cover over the
hole. Expose the white candy in the queen cage by removing the cork or
other covering from the small hole in the candy-filled end of the cage.

Then wedge the cage, candy-end up, between two frames in the cen-
ter of the frames in the hive. Bounce the cage again and pour the
jbees into the empty space in the hive, shaking the cage back and forth
to dislodge the bees and to get them out of the cage. You may have to
repeat this procedure several times until no more bees will come out.
Leave the cage beside the hive entrance overnight with the hole beside
the entrance and touching the bottom board. If the queen cage contains
ionly a queen and no candy, or if you want to use the fast-release
method, shake the bees into the box as described above. Then sprinkle
syrup on the queen cage to wet the queen and prevent her from flying.
Hold the queen cage down in the hive, remove the screen, and drop the
queen among the bees. When the queen is in, quickly but gently replace
the frames in the hive and put the feeder in place. Whatever method
you use to introduce the queen, leave the hive alone for at least 5 days,
except to refill the feeder if needed. Then, on a warm afternoon, take a
brief look at the colony. Use only a little smoke and handle the bees
|and equipment gently. Look primarily for eggs and larvae that indicate
[the queen has been accepted and is laying. Remove the queen cage after
checking it to be sure it no longer contains the queen. Close the hive
quietly after checking the syrup supply. Any colony without a queen
should be given another one without delay to avoid losing the entire
colony.

Nucleus colonies. Another way to start is to purchase a nucleus,
a complete small colony (Fig. 26). A nucleus, with three to five frames
pf brood, bees, and a queen, compares in price with package bees and
has the advantage of having developing bees that will quickly increase
the size of the colony. In purchasing nuclei locally, be sure they are
ifrom colonies that have been inspected for disease. Nuclei may carry a
flat price or, sometimes, a lower price that requires an exchange of an
equal number of frames of foundation. The frames of brood and bees
can be placed into your prepared equipment. The colony will need
incoming nectar or sugar syrup until all its combs are completed. (See
page 25 or page 103.)

Other sources of bees. Honey bee colonies, together with their
combs, can be transferred from a tree or house into a modern hive.
However, because of the amount of work involved and the difficulty of
obtaining good combs, you should avoid this method of obtaining bees
unless you have no alternative. Swarms also can be used to establish
iyour first colony or to provide additional new colonies for your apiary.
They are not usually available as early in the season as package bees,
jwhich are more suitable for an early spring start. Most swarms con-
tain old queens that should be replaced during the summer.

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

Opening a small
hive, or "nuc box,'1
containing a three-
frame nucleus col
ony of bees.

(Fig. 26)

Location and Arrangement of Colonies

The location and arrangement of an apiary is important to the bees,
to the owner of the bees, and to the people and animals close-by. Bees
are affected by the exposure of the hive in relation to wind, sun, and
the surface on which the hive is placed. Protecting hives from prevail-
ing winds, especially in winter, will result in stronger colonies. Hives
should be located so that the sun hits them at least in the morning and
early afternoon. In the Midwest, colonies are rarely damaged by being
in full sun, but afternoon shade is beneficial. With shaded hives, the
bees may forage better because fewer bees are required to cool the
hive and to carry water for evaporation. Reflected heat from around
the hive also affects the colony. Grass or other ground covers reflect
less heat than exposed soil. Asphalt areas or tarred roofs are not suit-i
able sites for hives. Never place colonies in low areas subject to flooding'
or where water stands after heavy rains.

Traditionally, hives in apiaries have always been arranged in
straight rows. It is much better to place the hives in some irregular
pattern so that field bees are more likely to return to their own colonies

With hives in a straight row, foragers drift to the end hives and in-
:rease their populations at the expense of the colonies in the center of
;he rows. For convenience, the hives can be arranged in pairs about 6
inches apart. Pairs of hives can be separated from one another by
several feet. A semicircle or U-shaped arrangement reduces drifting
md makes it easy to handle the colonies with a hive loader.

Flowering plants within about a mile of the colony are important to
:ts success. A good apiary location should have spring nectar and pollen
Dlants as well as plants that provide the main nectar source later in the
year. Ornamental trees and shrubs provide early pollen and nectar for
Dees in or near cities and towns. As a result the colonies develop faster
:han in areas of open farmland. Later in the season a farm-based col-
3ny may have the advantage of more clovers and other crops that pro-
duce nectar. Remember this difference if you have to choose between
:wo locations. Also consider the possibility of moving hives to take
advantage of different areas with more available nectar and pollen
olants. There is a saying that good locations make good beekeepers.
Commercial beekeepers must seek and test new locations regularly.

When locating the hives, you also need to consider the conditions
[mder which you will have to work with the bees. Just keeping the bees
n a sunny spot will help because they will be easier to handle if the
:olony is warm and flying well. Don't put hives under a tree or in
[similar spots where you cannot stand comfortably to open them. Since
you will manipulate the hives from the side, leave space on at least one
side for standing and for handling equipment. You will enjoy the bees
'nost if you look within the hive regularly — at least weekly in good
weather. For this reason, keep hives as close to home as possible where
you can observe them readily. Obviously, not everyone can keep several
:olonies in the backyard, but you are more likely to find the time to
'naster them if they are close-by.

A final consideration in locating your colony is an important one.
pees can be a nuisance in several ways wherever they are kept. How-
ever, you can reduce or prevent problems by planning ahead. Bees are
liable to sting people and animals in the vicinity of their hive and in
':he flight path between it and the plants they visit. To offset this ten-
dency, try to screen the hive or apiary to make the bees fly above the
[leads of passersby. Bees also spot cars, clothing, and buildings in the
vicinity of the hive by releasing their body wastes in flight. Spotting
jtrom a single colony is not serious but several colonies flying largely in
ine direction may make a car or a house unsightly in a short time.
When nectar is not available bees cause problems by visiting sources of
vater such as water faucets, children's wading pools, and bird baths.

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

A honey bee waterer filled with crushed rock. A float valve controls the
flow of water from a tank to which the waterer is connected by a hose.

(Fig. 27)

Once they become accustomed to a watering place, they will continue to
use it all during the flying season. Water must always be available
close to the hives, starting the day a colony is established or moved.
Provide a tank or pan with something in it on which the bees can land.
Cork floats or crushed rock can be used for this purpose (Fig. 27).
A hose or faucet dripping onto a board or cement slab is also suitable.

Handling the Colony

The beginner with bees is naturally reluctant at first to spend much
time looking at the colony within the hive and is usually a little over-
cautious about handling the bees and about damaging the colony. With
proper clothing and equipment there is no reason to hesitate. And don't
worry about the colony — it can be damaged far more by neglect than by
too much attention.

If you have been stung by a bee without more effect than the usual
swelling, you have little to worry about in handling a colony. A few
people, however, react strongly to bee stings and may have trouble
breathing ; they may even go into shock or unconsciousness. When this
happens the person should be taken immediately to a doctor for treat-
ment with adrenalin (epinephrine). The effect of a bee sting can be

reduced by promptly removing the stinger. Scrape it off, being careful
not to squeeze it and drive additional venom into the skin. When you
are stung while handling bees, quickly remove the sting and smoke the
spot. The smoke repels bees and covers the odor of the sting that other-
wise may attract bees to sting the same spot. It is also a good idea to
smoke your hands, gloves, and ankles before you begin handling a colony.

Before opening a hive, you need to light the smoker. It is essentially
a firebox with a grate and a bellows. To work properly and to provide
thick, cool smoke it must have coals above the grate and unburned
material above them. A burlap sack cut into strips makes good smoker
fuel. Rotten or pitchy wood, corn cobs, and shavings are also suitable.
Light a small quantity of fuel and puff the bellows until the material
flames. Add more pieces, while puffing the bellows, until the barrel of
the smoker is full but not packed tightly. Once started well, a smoker
will not go out when you need it. Refill it and pack it down with your
hive tool as you work. Keep the smoke cool and thick.

After putting on your veil, approach the hive from the rear and
work from either side. If several colonies or rows of colonies face the
same direction, examine the front hive or row first so that you later
work behind the disturbed colonies. Avoid jarring the hive or setting
the smoker on it before opening the hive. Blow several puffs of smoke
into the hive entrance and into any other hive openings such as auger
holes or large cracks through which bees can crawl. The smoke repels
and distracts the guard bees. Pry the cover up slowly with the hive tool,
hold the edge up 2 or 3 inches, and blow several good puffs of smoke
beneath it. With too much smoke you can make bees run and "boil" out
of the hive. But it is better to use plenty of smoke, even too much,
while you are learning to handle bees, than to use too little. You will
soon learn to gauge how much is needed by observing the actions of
the bees. On warm days when a nectar flow is in progress, you need
very little smoke. More smoke than usual is needed in cool and cloudy
weather.

Once the cover or a hive body is lifted, remove it without letting it
back down in place. In this way you crush fewer bees and alarm the
colony less. Place the cover, underside up, on the ground close beside
you toward the rear of the hive. In this position it serves as a place to
put the second story when you look at the bottom brood chamber of a
two-story hive (Fig. 28). If you want to look at both hive bodies,
separate them, using smoke, and look at the lower one first. Otherwise
many bees move to the lower body and make it harder for you to
examine the combs. Smoke the bees in the top hive body before you
put it back on the lower one.

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

Examining a two-story colony of bees. The top hive body has been placed
on the inverted cover at the rear of the hive. A frame on the edge of the
brood nest is being removed. (Fig. 28)

With the cover off, you should be able to see the area with the
greatest number of bees, especially in a package colony or nucleus.
This area is the brood nest where the queen and developing bees are'
located. To look at the colony, you must first loosen and remove a
frame at the edge of the brood nest or, in large colonies, the first or
second frame from the edge of the hive (Fig. 28). Pry the frames
apart with the straight end of the hive tool. New frames separate
easily, but you may have to force older ones apart at the end bars in
order to break the bits of comb and propolis holding them.

Pull the first frame slowly out of the hive, look briefly for the
queen and, if she is not on the frame, set it on end against the opposite
side of the hive near the entrance (Fig. 29). If the queen is on the
frame, it is better not to set the frame outside the hive where she may
fall on the ground. The rest of the frames can then be examined and
replaced in order. Hold the combs above the colony when looking at
them, with the comb surface vertical. Pollen and nectar may fall from
combs held horizontally. To look at the opposite side of a comb, raise
or lower one end until the top bar is vertical. Pivot the frame 180 de-
grees and bring the top bar back to a horizontal position. Repeat the i
process before replacing the comb in the hive. Put the first frame back
in its original position.

One application of smoke usually lasts for several minutes. Then
you may notice bees lining up along the tops of the frames looking at
you. Before they decide to fly at you, give them a puff or two of smoke

to drive them back down. To close the hive, smoke the bees at the top
of the hive, strike the cover on the ground in front of the colony to
knock off adhering bees, and lower the cover slowly into place. When
putting any equipment with bees in it back together, pause slightly just
before the parts touch; most of the bees will move out of the way.

The standard hive holds 10 frames with a little extra space when
they are new. In a short time, additional wax and propolis make it
difficult to remove the individual frames. It is better to violate the
bee-space concept and use nine frames than to fight with tightly stuck
frames. The 18 combs of a two-story brood chamber give the queen
plenty of room in which to lay, and the thicker combs of honey in the

Placing a frame beside the hive before examining the lower brood chamber.
The hive tool is kept in the hand when manipulating frames, and the smoker
is held between the legs ready for use. (Fig. 29)

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

supers are easy to uncap. Full hive bodies of foundation, whether for
brood combs or for honey production, should contain 10 frames. The
extra brood comb can be removed later when it is completed. Use nine
frames per hive body when only a few frames of foundation are added,
and push the frames together toward the center of the hive. With the
wider spacing the bees may build undesirable comb between the sheets
of foundation.

What to Look for in the Colony

Above all, most beekeepers want to see the queen bee in the colony.
Finding her is usually easier in a small colony than in a large one. In
either case, she is sometimes elusive and may be found on the wall of
the hive or on the bottom board instead of on the combs. You can find
the queen most easily by smoking the colony lightly and looking quickly
at all the combs within the brood nest. She is often found on a comb
containing eggs, or on one with the cells that have been cleaned and are
ready to receive eggs. The quality of the queen can be judged without
seeing her by the pattern in which she lays her eggs in the comb. Large
solid areas of sealed brood, and concentric rings of eggs and larvae of
different ages are the signs of a good queen. It takes practice to rec-
ognize eggs and young larvae at the base of the cells; learn to identify
them readily. (See Figure 30.) Shake the bees off a frame into the
hive in order to see details in the comb more easily. You can make
the bees move away from an area of comb by touching them lightly on
their backs with your finger or the flat end of a hive tool.

The brood pattern should be solid, with few open or unused cells
(Fig. 31). A spotted pattern may indicate that the queen had a sex
allele the same as one or more of the drones with which she mated.
Such a queen should be replaced. The egg-laying behavior of the queen
may produce a spotted brood pattern when she does not fill all the
adjoining cells with eggs. She also should be replaced. Brood diseases
kill larvae and pupae and create an uneven, spotted appearance of the
brood combs. As explained in the section on diseases, you must learn
to detect diseases or, at least, to recognize abnormal larvae and pupae.
(See page 133.) By doing so, you will know when to ask for help in
identifying the disease, or you may be able to diagnose it yourself by
comparing the symptoms with the descriptions of brood diseases. Proper
diagnosis and control of disease, especially American foulbrood, is
extremely important. Otherwise you may lose all your bees and spread
infection to other colonies within flight range of your apiary.

£ggs in new worker comb are shown at the top, and mature worker larvae
learly ready to be sealed in their cells are shown in the center. The bottom
llustration shows worker pupae with their eyes colored; the cell cappings
lave been removed to expose the developing bees. (Fig. 30)

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

A comb from the brood nest showing a good pattern of sealed brood. Young
bees have emerged from the center cells. The queen will lay eggs in the
center cells as soon as they have been cleaned and polished. (Fig. 31)

The brood nest of the colony is an ellipsoidal or spherical area
within the frames. The comb in the center of the brood nest has a large
area of brood on each side. The combs toward the outer edges of the
nest have smaller and smaller brood areas until the ones on the edge of
the nest have only pollen and honey without brood. It is important to
keep these combs (frames) in order in a small colony, especially when
the temperature may go below 57°F. (14°C), the clustering tempera-
ture of a colony. If you put a large frame of brood near the edge of
the cluster, the bees may not be able to keep it covered and warm
because the shape of the brood nest has been changed. Eggs and de-
veloping bees can be injured or killed by being chilled. In large colonies,
and during warm weather, the order of the combs is not as important.
However, it is best to keep brood combs together, with combs of pollen
and honey on the edges and above the brood nest.

The colony needs pollen and honey in the hive all year as food for
the adults and for rearing young bees. It has been estimated that a full
cell of each type of food is needed to produce one young bee. The pollen
supplies proteins, vitamins, and other minor nutrients. Honey provides
carbohydrates in the form of several sugars. Honey removed from
the hives must be only the surplus produced by the colony. If more
than that is taken, or if it is taken at the wrong time, the bees
may starve. A beekeeper must learn to estimate the amount of food,
particularly honey, in the hive at each observation and to decide whether

the colony is "making a living" or needs some help until more nectar is
available. Learn to do this each time you open your hives, especially
package colonies or any small colony just getting started. In early
spring the bees may be unable to fly for a week or more because of
cool or wet weather. At this time, and any time before the major nectar
flow period, a colony needs 10 to 20 pounds of reserve food or the
equivalent of two or three well-filled combs. You can test for incoming
nectar in the hive by holding a comb flat above the open hive and giving
it a quick shake downward. Any thin nectar in the comb will splash
down onto the tops of the frames where it will be reclaimed by the bees.
When nectar is not available in the field, bees attempt to steal honey
from other colonies. The guard bees of strong colonies attack and
repel the robbers, but weaker colonies are sometimes overcome and
killed by large numbers of robbing bees. The problem is most serious
in the spring and the fall at any time hives are opened and combs ex-
posed to bees. The natural defense system of the colony is disturbed
by smoke and by the separation of the parts of the hive. Bees from
other colonies are attracted and they fly around the exposed combs
trying to get some of the colony's stored honey. Even after the hive is
put back together, the robber bees may gather along the edges of the
cover and other cracks in the hive. They will also try to get into the
entrance of the colony as well as other nearby colonies. A beekeeper
must learn to recognize the presence of robber bees and to take action
to prevent the buildup of widespread robbing. This means keeping
jhives open only briefly when robbing is liable to occur and being careful
not to expose combs, especially ones not protected by bees. It is easier
to prevent robbing than to stop it. Always pick up bits of comb in the
apiary and try not to let nectar or honey drip outside any hive. Robber
|bees can be recognized by their darting flight around combs and open
jhives, often with their legs hanging down. They land on combs and
imove quickly to cells of honey to fill up. If you see robbing starting, it
| is a good idea to stop looking at the bees and close the hive. As a pre-
cautionary measure, you can stuff grass or weeds lightly into the
entrances to reduce their size. With small entrances to guard, the bees
of a colony are better able to repel robbers.

The Need for Space in the Spring

The colony increases rapidly in size in April and May. It needs
iroom for brood rearing, for storing honey and pollen, and for the in-
creasing number of adult bees. Since one of the primary causes of
swarming is crowding of adult bees, the colony should have two or

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

more full-depth hive bodies or their equivalent to reduce the chance of
early swarming. The package colony or nucleus needs a second hive
body as soon as most of the foundation has been drawn into comb and
bees cover eight or nine frames in the hive. It has been estimated that
a 10-frame hive body provides room for about 15,000 adult bees. If
this is correct, the growing colony needs at least two hive bodies, and a
full-sized colony containing about 60,000 bees needs four hive bodies
just for housing the bees.

Spring Management of Overwintered Colonies

There are some special points to consider in management of over-
wintered colonies. An important one is the late winter-early spring
check on honey reserves. This period is a crucial one for the bees be-
cause they are rearing brood and must increase honey consumption
greatly to keep the brood nest warm and to feed the developing bees.
Most losses from starvation take place during this period — not during
the middle of winter. The first check of the year should determine two
things — whether the colony has enough honey and whether the honey
is located on both sides of the cluster. The timing of the examination
depends on local conditions and the weather. In central Illinois, the
examination can usually be made by mid-February, during a warming
period when the temperature reaches the 40's or 50's (5° to 15°C.) on
a sunny day. If necessary, the check can be made at much lower tem-
peratures; the chance to save the life of a colony outweighs any minor
damage resulting from the observations. Even in a colder climate you
would be wise to check the bees not later than March 1.

Put on your protective clothing and open each hive briefly to see if
it has sealed honey near the cluster. You should be able to see such
sealed honey after removing the cover but without removing any
frames. Use smoke lightly but judiciously as needed. If there is honey
on both sides of the cluster, no adjustment is necessary and you may
close the hive. But if the colony is against one side of the hive or lack-
ing visible food, you should make some changes. Remove a comb with
honey from the side of the hive opposite the cluster, pry the frames
with the cluster away from the wall of the hive, and insert the honey.
Without this adjustment, the cluster of bees may die when it contracts
away from food during the next cold period. If the colony needs addi-
tional food, you can exchange combs with a well-provisioned hive or
feed the colony with syrup-filled combs or dry sugar. (See page 103.)
After looking at a colony during cold weather, you should put a rock
or brick on the lid to hold it in place. The bees will be unable to reseal
the lid while it is cold, and it may blow off without additional weight.

There is a natural winter loss of bees despite good management.
If you find a dead colony, close the entrance and take it out of the
apiary as soon as possible. This prevents robbing, damage to combs,
and the spread of any disease that may be present. After being freed of
dead bees, the hive and combs can be used to start another colony or
for supers. Inspect them first for symptoms of disease before reusing
them.

The first thorough colony examination should be made on a day
when the temperature reaches about 70°F. (21 °C). Look first for the
queen or for brood. The absence of brood in a small colony is normal
but a colony covering six or eight combs should have young bees and
brood. Look at the brood to see if it is normal, without disease, and
with no drones in worker cells. Consider the honey reserves and plan
to feed the colony if there are less than several full combs of honey.

As the weather continues to warm up in April and May, it is time
to do the important spring manipulation called "reversing" the colony.
This job consists of moving the colony's brood nest from the top of
the hive to the lowest position next to the bottom board. During the
winter the colony works its way upward in the hive until it is just
beneath the lid of a two- or three-story hive. By exchanging the posi-
tions of the top and bottom hive bodies or by moving frames if the
hive bottom is nailed on, you "reverse" the colony and provide a stimu-
lus for further upward expansion of the brood nest. You also slow the
iswarming urge by this manipulation. When you rearrange the hive,
place several empty combs above the brood nest where the queen can
quickly fill them with eggs. Put part of the stored honey on either side
of the empty combs and leave the rest on the outer edges of the brood
Inest in the lower brood chamber.

Every colony should be reversed at least once during the spring,
usually in April or early May, depending on weather conditions in
your section of the Midwest. Several other tasks can be done at the
|same time. You should clean off the bottom board, which will be littered
.with dead bees, comb fragments, and other debris. At the same time
you can exchange hive bodies, tops, and bottoms that need repair or
painting. At the end of winter the combs of the lowest hive body are
usually empty of everything except a few cells of pollen. For this
'reason it is a good time to cull old, damaged combs and frames before
they are refilled with brood, honey, and pollen. Combs with large areas
I of drone cells should also be pulled out. Remove all winter packing
materials, if you use them, at this time. If you use chemicals for disease
ijprevention, apply them after reversing the colonies and inspecting the
brood for any symptoms of American foulbrood and other bee diseases.

Spring Management: Starting With Bees

Pollen Feeding

Pollen is essential for rearing young bees and developing strong
colonies. Newly emerged adult bees also need pollen to eat. In late .;
winter the colony uses pollen that was stored the previous year. If
there is little stored pollen, the colony will not die but its growth will
be hindered until fresh pollen is available in the field. Feeding pollen
or pollen substitutes in February and March stimulates the bees to
build strong colonies early in the season. If you want to make addi-
tional colonies by dividing, or need strong bees for fruit pollination,
consider feeding a pollen mixture to the bees. However, unless you
can use the extra bees, you may only create a swarming problem and a
feeding problem for the extra bees that require food until nectar is
available in quantity. Pollen mixtures are especially valuable to help
colonies develop normally in rural areas where most of the land is
cultivated or in other areas where early sources of natural pollen are
lacking. Without such help, the colonies may not reach full strength in
time for the main nectar flow.

Honey bees have such a strong urge to collect pollen in the spring
that they create problems when they visit farm feedlots for bran and
ground corn. A dry pollen mixture placed in the apiary in February
and March will help to satisfy this need and may keep the bees at home.
Once started, the feeding should continue without interruption until

natural pollen is available.

usei

Iff:

SUIMIDVLEIFL MANAGEMENT:
HONEY PRODUCTION

Nectar and Pollen Plants

One reason for the success and adaptability of the honey bee is its
willingness and ability to use the nectar and pollen from thousands of
plant species of all types. The intermediate body size and tongue length
of honey bees as compared with other bees enable them to utilize many
different types of flowers to obtain nectar and pollen. Although their
j tongues are shorter than those of most bumble bees, they are long
, enough to reach nectar in flower tubes several millimeters long. Honey
bees also visit tiny, open flowers that are too small for larger bees.

In general, honey bees must depend for their nectar and pollen on
(wild plants, or on cultivated plants grown for food crops, pasture, or
other purposes. The yield of nectar is not sufficiently large to justify
planting crops only for bees. However, there are many ways in which
I plantings made for other purposes can benefit bees. Agricultural land
'diverted from production can be planted to clovers and other legumes
useful to bees. Shrubs, trees, and annual plants used for recreation and
i conservation areas can provide beauty and pleasure for people, seeds
and berries for wildlife, and nectar and pollen for honey bees. Road-
side plants used to reduce maintenance and to control erosion can also
I provide forage for bees.

Summer honey production depends in large part on the nectar yields
of summer-blooming plants. But if it were not for the nectar and pollen
of spring flowers, there would not be the force of bees required later
to bring in that honey crop. For this reason, all nectar and pollen plants
are considered in this section. In the spring, the food reserves in the
hive are usually low and the demand for food to feed the rapidly de-
veloping young bees is high. Cool and wet spring weather often limits
flight and thereby retards the growth of the colony. It is unusual for
colonies to produce surplus honey from early-blooming plants such
as tree fruits, berries, dandelion, mustard, and willow. However, if
colonies have enough field bees, and the weather is good, they may
! store surplus honey from these early nectar sources. Such surplus
! should not be removed because it is used by the colony for food until

Summer Management: Honey Production

the main nectar flow later in the year. Bees secrete wax and build combs
from foundation well during a spring nectar flow. However, unless
you also feed the bees, do not try to put a full super of foundation on
a colony in the spring. Two or three frames are usually enough.

Honey bees visit large numbers of plant species at any one time and
throughout the foraging season. The system of communication within
the colony tends to concentrate the foragers' efforts on those plants that
give the greatest quantity of nectar and pollen, and have the highest
concentration of sugar in the nectar. A plant that is highly attractive
to bees when nectar is scarce may not be visited when other more
desirable plants are in bloom. When we speak of nectar and pollen
plants, we include all plants visited by bees. Most of them are not of
primary importance to bees and are classified as minor sources of
pollen and nectar. The major, most important, nectar and pollen plants
are the few that grow in abundance, usually within a mile and a half of:
the colony, and provide a fair return of pollen and nectar per flower
head or individual floret. An English study of pollen collection by bees
indicated that plants offering fair amounts of pollen must be growing
within 1/4 mile of the hive to be visited by bees. The greatest amount
of pollen was collected from the main nectar sources and from those
most abundant near the hive. In general, this is also true in the Midwest.

The primary or major nectar and pollen plants of the Midwest,
based on their yield and value to honey bees, are as follows:

Alfalfa — Mcdicago sativa True clovers, Trifolium species

Dandelion — Taraxacum officinale Alsike clover — Trifolium hy-

Soybean — Glycine max bridum

Sweetclovers, Melilotus species Ladino — Trifolium repens

White sweetclover — Melilotus Red clover — Trifolium pratense

alba White Dutch — Trifolium repens
Yellow sweetclover — Melilotus
officinalis

Secondary nectar and pollen plants are as follows:

Aster — Aster species Cranberry — V accinium macro-
Basswood and related species — carpon

Tilia americana and other Tilia Elm — Ulmus species (Pollen

species only)

Berries, raspberry and others — Goldenrod — Solidago species

Rubus species Lima bean — Phaseolus lunatus

Birdsfoot trefoil- — Lotus cornicu- Locust, black — Robinia pseudo-

latus acacia

Chicory — Cichorium intybus Locust, common honey — Gleditsia
Corn — Zea mays (Pollen only) triacanthos

(continued)

Maple — Acer species Sunflower — Helianthus species

Milkweed — Asclepias species Tree fruits — apple, apricot, plum,
Morning glory — Convolvulus and cherry, pear

Ipomoea species Tulip poplar — Liriodendron tulip-
Mustard — Brassica species if era

Smartweed — Polygonum species Vine crops — cucumber, musk-
Sorghum — Sorghum species melon, pumpkin, squash, water-

( Pollen only) melon

Spanish needles — Bidcns species Willow- — Salix species

Sumac — Rhus species Yellow rocket — Barbarea vulgaris

Plants in southern areas of the Midwest bloom as much as 3 to 6
weeks before those in northern areas. The dates referred to here are
those for central Illinois and must be modified for locations north or
south. In mid-March, the first sources of pollen and nectar are the
maples, elms, and willows. Early fruit bloom, such as that of apricot,
begins in April, and apple trees are usually still in bloom in early May.
Mustard and yellow rocket are early sources of nectar and pollen.
Dandelion comes early in protected spots but reaches its peak bloom
in May.

Primary nectar flows, which produce most of the honey crop, are
from white Dutch clover, the sweetclovers, alfalfa, and soybeans, de-
pending on the area. Alfalfa is of greatest importance in the northern
and western portions of the Midwest, while the clovers are of impor-
tance throughout the entire region. Red clover is a good pollen source
but cannot be relied on as a nectar producer because honey bees often
are unable to reach the nectar in the long floral tubes (Fig. 32). How-
ever, bees may collect considerable amounts of nectar from red clover
in dry years and from the regrowth after the first crop of hay has been
taken. Soybeans are a major nectar source in Illinois, Iowa, and prob-
ably most other states of the Midwest with large acreages of beans. In
central Illinois, late-blooming, full-season soybean varieties such as
Clark, Kent, and Wayne are of most value to the bees. They usually
j yield nectar after the clovers have finished (Fig. 33). Bees obtain large
quantities of nectar and pollen from soybeans, which are usually attrib-
uted to some other plant. There is good evidence that bees increase the
yield of beans of some varieties. Chicory is also an important source
I of pollen as well as nectar. In other countries it is considered a good
i nectar source, but in this country it has generally been overlooked as
a plant valuable to bees.

Smartweed, Spanish needles, goldenrod, and aster are the latest
blooming of the more important plants. They may yield nectar in
August, September, and even later, depending on the weather and the

Summer Management: Honey Production

soil moisture. The acreage of these plants is no longer as large as it
used to be, and crops of honey from them are also rarer than in earlier
years.

Honey bees also collect two other materials from plants. One of
these is called honeydew. It is excess plant sap excreted by aphids and
other insects that feed on plants. It is most common on trees such as s
willow, elm, pine, and oak, but may also occur on alfalfa and other
crop plants. The other material is called propolis. It is a plant resin or
gum collected from buds and other plant parts of trees such as poplar

Forager collecting
pollen and nectar
from red clover
blossoms. The
bee's pollen load
can be seen in the
pollen basket on r
her rear leg.

(Fig. 32)

Honey bees visit'
soybeans for nectar
and pollen as the
clovers become
less attractive in
July and August.
(Fig. 33)

and ash. The bees pack it onto their hind legs but must have help to
remove it in the hive. They also collect and reuse propolis from used
beekeeping equipment stored in the open.

When nectar is not available, usually in the fall, bees collect a wide
variety of sweet substances. They suck the juices from apples, pears,
grapes, and other fruits that have cracked or been opened by other
insects or by birds. Bees create problems when they visit sugar syrup at
canneries, and root beer and other drinks at drive-in restaurants.

Swarming and Swarm Prevention

Swarming is the natural method of propagation for honey bee col-
onies. Natural selection has favored the maintenance of the swarming
trait because those colonies that did not swarm died without leaving new
colonies to carry on. For centuries man has selected bees that produced
jthe best swarms to increase the number of colonies. The use of movable
(frame hives now enables us to divide colonies at will, and we must try
to prevent or control swarming because it weakens the colonies and
reduces honey production.

A swarm consists of the old queen, some drones, and 50 to 90 per-
cent of the worker bees of a colony. They leave the colony suddenly as
a group and cluster temporarily on some object such as a tree branch.
|Later they disperse and move to a new home selected for them by scout
bees. Sometimes several swarms from one hive leave over a period of
a week or more, and many of them are accompanied by young, un-
mated queens. Queen cells are built in preparation for swarming, and
the first swarm often leaves about the time the cells are sealed (Fig.
34). Swarming is most common in the late spring and early summer
periods.

Many factors contribute to swarming. The most readily apparent
one is crowding and lack of room for adult worker bees. In experi-
ments on swarming, a colony put into a small hive swarmed in as
[short a time as 24 hours. Swarming is also associated with the amount
and distribution of the glandular secretions of the queen. When there
;is a shortage of the secretions, the bees make queen cells in preparation
[for swarming or supersedure. Queen cells are also built in crowded
colonies because of the unequal distribution of queen substances among
jthe adult workers. Colonies with queens over a year old are more likely
to swarm than those with young queens. The seasonal cycle of colony
growth, the weather, and the heredity of the queen are additional fac-
tors related to swarming. The colony that becomes big early in the
Season is more likely to swarm than one that reaches its peak later.

Summer Management: Honey Production

Swarming can rarely be prevented entirely but it can be reduced to a
reasonable level by good management.

To reduce swarming you must plan ahead to provide your bees with
young queens and sufficient hive space at all times. These measures will
reduce but not solve the problem. You must also be able to recognize
the signs that indicate a colony is making, or will soon make, prepara-
tions to swarm. One evident sign is a mass of bees that entirely fills
the hive. They may come out of the hive in large numbers when you
open it. A badly crowded colony often has bees clustered on the land-
ing board and on the front of the hive near the entrance. During ex-
tremely hot weather such "hanging out" is an attempt to cool the hive
and may not be related to crowding inside (Fig. 35). Any crowded
colony should be given one or more additional hive bodies filled with
combs or foundation. The combs will do them the most good ; founda-
tion is of little value unless there is a nectar flow or the hive is being
fed so that the bees can complete the comb. It is not unusual for a
colony to occupy three or more deep bodies before the main nectar flow
begins.

Unsealed queen cells built on the bottom edge of a comb in preparation foi
swarming. (Fig- 34)

Worker bees
"hanging out" and
fanning on the
front of their hive
because of the
heat. (Fig. 35)

Another warning sign of impending swarming is the condition of
the queen-cell cups on the combs. They are always present but are
usually short and small. The wax of the cups is the same color as the
comb on which the cups are built. As soon as a colony begins prep-
aration for swarming, the cell cups are enlarged, their edges are ex-
tended and thinned, and new, white wax can be seen on the cups. The
queen will lay an egg in the cup shortly after these preparations. When
you find these conditions present, you must try to keep the colony from
carrying out its plans. An additional super may solve the problem. If
not, you can switch the location of the colony with a weaker one so
that many of the stronger colony's returning field bees will be lost to
it. You can also remove sealed and emerging brood to add to weaker
colonies. If nectar is coming into the hive, add one or more frames of
foundation in place of the combs removed.

Prompt action is needed when you find large numbers of queen cells
in a crowded colony. Check first to see if the queen is present and, if
so, find and destroy all queen cells. Additional hive space may prevent
a swarm from leaving, but more drastic measures have a better chance
of success. For example, you can divide the colony into two smaller
colonies or make one or more nucleus colonies from it. These tech-
niques are explained on pages 101 to 102. There is little you can do for
a colony after a swarm has left except to make sure that it has empty
combs in which the new queen can lay.

Excluders

Excluders are used to confine queens to one part of the hive and to
prevent them from laying eggs in honey supers. Unless they are kept
from doing so by an excluder, many queens make a narrow brood nest

Summer Management: Honey Production

up the center of the entire hive. Eventually they are forced down as
honey is stored in the upper combs, but there may be brood in the
supers when the honey crop is removed. Excluders can save time and
effort in beekeeping in spite of persistent claims that they are "honey
excluders" that reduce yields. It is true that some strains of bees seem
reluctant to pass through an excluder but they may need a period of
time to adjust to its presence. Put the excluder and first super on
the hive ahead of the nectar flow to allow the bees to become accus-
tomed to passing through it. The benefits of excluders outweigh the'
disadvantages.

Supering for Honey

As the main nectar flow begins, the colony needs additional comb
space in which to store the nectar and the honey made from it. If you
are beginning in beekeeping with all new equipment, you must add
supers containing frames of foundation suitable either for extracting
or for making some type of comb honey. On the other hand, if you
already have empty, finished combs they should be added to the hives at
the start of the main nectar flow. Light-colored combs, not previously
used for brood rearing", are best for honey production. Honey taken
from such combs is lighter in color and contains less pollen than honey
extracted from dark combs. The honey may also have a somewhat
better flavor. Plan to reserve your light-colored combs for honey pro-
duction and keep them free of brood by using excluders or by employ-
ing management practices that keep the queen out of the supers.

When brought into the hive, nectar is about 50 to 80 percent water.
It therefore takes up much more comb space initially than it does after
being evaporated and processed into honey. Colonies provided with
supers of drawn comb immediately have space in which to put this
large volume of fluid, so they are less liable to store it in the brood nest
where it restricts the queen's laying space. Colonies that receive supers
of foundation must first build comb before they can store nectar and
honey in those supers. The resulting delay can reduce the amount of
honey produced and also increase the possibility that the colony will
try to swarm. Beekeepers can produce more extracted honey than comb
honey because drawn combs can be used each season. To produce comb
honey of any kind, they may reuse the frames but must use new foun-
dation each year.

It is important to learn the best time to put on the supers. Some
beekeepers do it according to the date, if they know from experience
when the main nectar flow usually starts. A few beekeepers put enough
supers on at the start of the nectar flow to provide storage for the

entire season's crop. Probably the best way to determine when storage
space is needed is to look at the combs and shake them to see how much
nectar is being brought into the hive. Incoming nectar also stimulates
wax production, which is evident as new, white wax on the honey cells
and along the top bars of the frames. A change in the weight of a hive
is another good indicator of the need for supers (Fig. 36). Gains of 1
to 10 pounds per day may be recorded during a nectar flow. A scale
colony should be weighed each morning before general flight begins.
Otherwise the weight may be affected by the number of bees out in
the field and by the unprocessed nectar in the hive. On warm nights the
bees process much of the nectar brought in during the day. You can
hear the humming sounds of this activity when you walk through an

Checking the

weight of a colony

on a platform scale.

(Fig. 36)

Summer Management: Honey Production

apiary at night. The activity of bees at a watering place can give you
another clue to the start of the nectar flow. When the flow begins, the
bees use dilute nectar in place of water, and very few bees continue to
visit the regular source of water. Extremely hot weather, however, may
bring them back for water to cool the hive.

There is no formula to use in deciding how many supers to add at
one time. This depends on the strength of the colony and the amount
of incoming nectar. It is always better to give too much comb space
rather than too little, especially at the start of the nectar flow. During
the heat of summer, extra supers of drawn combs are of value to the
colony by serving as insulation for the top of the hive. This insulation
and extra storage space can be as effective as shade for increasing
honey production. However, you must be much more conservative in
adding supers if you have only foundation to give. Do not put on more
than two shallow supers of foundation, or one deep one, at a time, and
plan to check the colonies at weekly intervals. Add the first foundation
only when you are sure that a good nectar flow has begun.

The first super goes onto the hive above the brood chamber, which
is usually made up of two deep hive bodies or three shallow ones. When
additional space is needed, you may either "top super" by putting the
next super above the one added first, or "bottom super" by putting it
between the brood chamber and the supers already on the hive. There
are advocates of each system, but experiments have shown that they
produce similar yields of honey. However, top super ing is the better
choice. Bottom supering requires much more work, invites the queen to
move into the supers if there is no excluder, and makes further evalu-
ation of the nectar flow difficult. Top supering allows you to look only
at the top of the hive to determine when you need to add more supers
There are only two times when you should bottom super. Do it when
adding a super of foundation after previously giving a colony drawn
combs. However, if you anticipate not having enough completed combs
to handle the crop, you should mix three or four frames of foundation
alternately with the combs in a super and use it as if it were all drawn
combs. Bottom supering may also be of value when most of the combs
in the supers are capped.

Initially, an abundance of space is an advantage to the colony and
will help it to produce the greatest amount of honey possible. Later, as
the flow begins to wane, you should be careful about oversupering the
hive. The bees will fill the lower portion of the hive with honey and
be better prepared for winter if they have little empty space in the
supers.

Removing the Honey Crop

Surplus honey can always be removed from the hive when all the
cells are capped with wax. Bulk comb, section, and cut comb honeys
must be fully capped for sale or home use. Remove such honey as soon
as it is ready so the comb will not become discolored by "travel stain" as
the bees walk over it. Combs of honey for extracting can be removed from
the hives before they are fully capped. In humid areas, such as Illinois,
this requires caution, and combs should be at least three-quarters or more
sealed. Otherwise the moisture level in the honey may be high enough to
lower its quality and increase the chance it will ferment. Honey may con-
tain as much as 18.6 percent moisture and still qualify for the two top
grades of honey. However, honey of lower moisture content is thicker and
more desirable. Above 17 percent moisture, unheated honey is increas-
ingly liable to ferment, and at 19 percent it will definitely ferment unless it
is stored below 50° F. (10°C). Even sealed honey may be high in mois-
ture if the weather is humid and unfavorable for evaporation. In drier
areas of the Midwest, especially in the western section, bees are better
able to remove moisture from the nectar. In these areas combs some-
what less than three- fourths sealed may often be removed from the
hives. In any area it is a good idea to shake a few combs to see whether
there is thin nectar present, as explained on page 65. Honey removed in
the morning will usually have less unprocessed nectar with it than that
taken off later in the day.

Fully capped honey, as well as partially sealed combs, may occa-
sionally show signs of fermentation when removed from the hive. Such
signs are usually bubbles in the cells and a slightly sour odor. Any such
combs should be uncapped and returned to the hives. The bees will
reprocess the honey, which can be extracted later, usually without a
trace of fermentation. If bees in a particular apiary consistently pro-
duce fermented honey, move them to a higher or windier site where
they can evaporate moisture from their colonies more easily. This prob-
lem is most common in areas having high summer humidity and other
local conditions such as evening fog that reduce the evaporative power
of the air circulated by the bees in their hives.

Honey stored during the spring is usually left with the bees. Some
of it, such as dandelion honey, is not good tasting, and the bees need
it for rearing brood. The honey from the main sources, the clovers,
soybeans, and alfalfa, is usually mild flavored and light colored, ideal
for home use and sale. This crop should be removed from the hives as
soon as possible, at least by the middle of August, to prevent it from

Summer Management: Honey Production

being mixed with honey of stronger and less desirable flavors such as
smartweed, aster, and goldenrod. Leave the partially filled supers and
some extra comb space in case a late nectar flow occurs. By a week or
so after the end of the summer nectar flow, the moisture level of the1'
honey is usually low enough so that you may remove all the surplus
honey, sealed or unsealed. Be sure that the colony has 40 to 60 pounds
or more of honey remaining in the hive for winter. In the colder, more']
northerly areas of the Midwest, bees may need 80 or 90 pounds to have
the best chance of surviving a long winter. Bees that did not make a
crop of honey, or those from which you removed too much honey, must
be fed sugar syrup in early fall to provide stored food for winter. Bees
winter as well on this food as they do on honey, perhaps even better
in some cases.

Bees must be removed from honey combs when the combs are taken
out of the hive. This can be done by shaking and brushing, by using.
bee-escape boards or fume boards with repellent chemicals, or by
blowing. For one or two colonies, shaking and brushing is suitable if
done quickly to prevent robbing. After smoking the super, give each:
comb a sharp shake to dislodge the bees into the top of the hive or in
front of the entrance. Those bees remaining on the comb can be brushed
off with a bee brush (Fig. 37), and the comb placed in a covered empty
super.

A bee-escape board consists of an inner cover or similar board the
size of the top of the hive, with one or more bee escapes mounted in
the center or corners of the board. The bee escape is a small metal
passageway with spring closures that allow bees to move through it in
one direction only — down into the hive. In use, the board is put be-
neath the super to be removed with the center hole of the bee escape
facing upward. After 24 hours all the bees will have moved down into
the lower hive bodies. Before you put the board on, be sure that there
are no holes or cracks to let bees in or out of the super. If there are,
robber bees may steal the honey. Do not leave the board on during the i
day in hot weather or the combs may melt. This system of removing
honey requires two trips to the apiary and is practical only for a few
colonies in a home apiary.

Chemical repellents can be used to drive bees from their filled honey
combs before you remove them from the hive. The two materials now
approved are benzaldehyde and butyric anhydride, the latter marketed
under the name of "Bee-Go." Both are fairly effective in repelling bees
and can be used at any time when conditions are suitable for handling
colonies. They are applied to the colony on a fume board, 1 to 2 inches

deep, that fits on the super in place of the hive lid. The fume board
should have a wooden frame covered by i/£- or 3/j>irich-thick pressed
board such as Celotex (Fig. 38). This thick top, white or unpainted,
prevents the sun from vaporizing" the chemicals too rapidly and thereby
stupefying rather than repelling the bees. Smoke the top of the colony
well to get the bees moving before putting the fume board on it, and
be careful to use the proper dosage of the chemical. Otherwise the
materials may not work effectively. Always use caution in handling
such products and follow the directions on the label. Butyric anhydride
has a strong, unpleasant odor that is repellent to humans as well as to
bees. Benzaldehyde smells like bitter almonds.

Bee blowers (Fig. 39) are the newest equipment for removing bees
from honey combs. They produce a large volume of rapidly moving air

! Brushing bees from a frame of sealed honey.

(Fig. 37)
81

Summer Management: Honey Production

In the top illustration, a chemical repellent solution is being applied to a
fume board used to drive bees from honey combs. The fume board is being
placed on the hive in the bottom illustration. The smoke helps to drive the
bees from the frames of honey being removed from the hive. (Fig. 38)

A bee blower in
use. The super of
combs being freed
of bees is placed
on top of the metal
framework. The
bees are blown
downward toward
the front of the
hive. (Fig. 39)

:hat quickly blows the bees out of the combs without injuring them or
naking them angry. The honey supers are removed from the hive and
placed on a stand that is part of the blower. Most models have a chute
:hat directs the bees toward the front of the hive as they leave the
>uper. Blowers are effective regardless of the temperature and the
experience of the operator. They may also be used for other routine
obs such as shaking package bees, requeening, and removing extra
equipment for moving or wintering. The price of the blowers at
>resent limits their use to commercial beekeeping. However, air corn-
lessors and home vacuum cleaners can be used successfully for small
lumbers of colonies.

Brood diseases of bees are transmitted between colonies in honey
md in comb. Combs of honey removed from an infected colony can be
he means of spreading disease in an apiary when the extracted combs
ire returned to several different colonies. For this reason it is good
lusiness to inspect for the most serious disease, American foulbrood,
vhile you are removing honey and before you lose the identity of supers
rom each colony. This can be done by setting the covered supers on
i pallet behind the hive while you examine several frames of brood to
j)e sure they are free of disease symptoms. It is usually safe to skip
iuch inspection if you checked carefully for disease in the spring and

Summer Management: Honey Production

again when the supers were put on. Do not skip the inspection, how-
ever, if any of your bees have had American foulbrood previously or
if there is any reason to think they might be infected.

When combs, empty or full of honey, are removed from a hive, they
are usually infested with the eggs or small larvae of the wax moth
Such combs must be treated in some manner to kill these larvae, or
"wax worms." They will tunnel into the comb making it unsaleable
and eventually destroy the entire comb. The infestation comes about
when the adult moth lays eggs in cracks and crevices in the hives in
the apiary. Adult bees in a normal colony destroy the larvae before
they do any damage. For details on how to prevent damage to honey
in the comb from the wax moth, see page 108. Honey to be extracted
need not be treated but should be extracted as soon as possible. The
empty combs must then be fumigated or returned to the colonies.

Processing the Honey

Honey is a fine food product and should be treated as such from tht
time it is taken from the hive until it is in the final container. Honej
supers should be handled so that they are protected from dust and din
as soon as they are freed of bees. One way is to place them on clean
washable wooden pallets or drip trays that can also be used to covei
each super or stack of supers. Pallets catch dripping honey, keep dir
and bees away from the combs, and allow the use of a two-wheelec
hand truck to move the honey in the apiary and honey house (Fig. 40)

The honey house, or any room in which honey is handled, should b<
easily cleaned and not accessible to insects, animals, or other possibb
contaminants such as dust. The beginning beekeeper usually uses th<l
family kitchen and, except for getting honey on everything, has no rea
problems in sanitation. However, part-time and professional beekeep
ers producing honey for sale must conform to public health regulation
relating to food-processing industries. Before building or remodellins
any space to use for handling honey for sale, inquire about the require
ments you must meet. For convenience, the honey-extracting are;
should be on ground level so that you can move honey into it by hand
truck either from the apiary or from a truck bed that is level with ai
unloading area or ramp. Plan your extracting layout to provide a step
saving flow of equipment from the apiary, through the extraction pro
cess, and into the comb room. Look at several honey houses befor
building your own. The apiculture building on the Urbana-Champaigi
campus of the University of Illinois may provide ideas for your planning.

Supers of honey, with
pallets on top and bot-
tom, being taken into the
honey house on a two-
wheeled hand truck.

(Fig. 40)

Removing moisture. In humid areas even fully sealed combs taken
from the bees may contain honey whose moisture content is so high
that it will not meet the requirements for top-grade honey and may
ferment in the comb. The best time to remove some of the excess
moisture is while the honey is in the comb, regardless of whether it is
to be extracted or sold as comb honey. Avoid storing such honey in
cool, damp locations where it may absorb additional moisture. Warm,
dry air passed through stacked supers of honey will remove moisture
in amounts related to the relative humidity and volume of the circu-
lating air. To handle large numbers of supers, place them in stacks of
six to eight, offset from one another so that the air can pass through
them on its way out of a warm room. If you have only a few supers,
rest them on an air duct and blow warm air up through them. In either
case, the air should be no warmer than 95 °F. (35 °C). From 1 to 3
percent moisture can be removed in 24 hours. Commercial dehumidifiers
tan also remove moisture from honey in comb that is stacked within a
dosed room.

It is difficult to remove moisture after the honey is extracted. How-
fever, warm air passed over shallow tanks of warm honey may be of

Summer Management: Honey Production

some value. When large volumes of extracted honey are involved,
blending the honey with another honey of relatively low moisture con-
tent is the only suitable way to handle the problem. In humid areas,
such as Illinois, honey removed in the latter part of the season tends
to contain more moisture than that taken off earlier.

Comb honey. It is not necessary to process comb honey to enjoy
it on your table. Long before honey extractors were invented, man
was eating honey in the comb as a simple delicacy or as a sweet with
other foods. For example, you can spread thin slices of comb honey,
wax and all, on bread or biscuits and eat everything including the wax.
Although we probably do not digest the wax, it is a wholesome material
often used in pharmaceutical products and can be eaten without hesita-
tion.

Comb honey must be handled carefully to prevent damage to the
cappings. After being treated against wax moth, full combs can be
readied for sale by scraping the frames to remove propolis and by
packaging them in cellophane and cardboard containers. Cut comb
honey is cut out of the frames with a thin, sharp knife or with a special
heated cutter. The pieces should be allowed to drain in a warm room to
remove honey from the open cells on the edges. The pieces can be
packaged in foil trays, in cellophane or plastic bags, or in plastic boxes
( Fig. 41 ) . Comb honey can also be stored in air-tight bags or containers

Cut comb honey in plastic boxes ready for labeling.

(Fig. 41)

in a freezer at 0°F. ( — 18°C). At this temperature it retains its quality
and does not granulate. Containers, labels, and special equipment of all
types are available from beekeeping supply companies.

Extracted honey. There is no neat-and-simple home method of
separating the honey and wax to obtain liquid honey from a comb. The
most common system is to thoroughly crush the comb containing the
honey and then to strain the mixture through a coarse sieve or cloth
such as cheesecloth. Heating the mixture carefully in a water-jacketed
pan, such as a double boiler, to 100°F. (38°C.) will make it strain more
easily. Higher temperatures may give a waxy and less desirable flavor
to the honey.

The best method of producing liquid honey requires an extractor
to whirl the honey from the uncapped comb by centrifugal force. The
job of uncapping is done with a sharp, heated knife to melt and slice
off the wax cappings covering the cells on each side of the comb (Fig.
42). Power uncappers with vibrating blades, and automatic uncapping
machines are available for large beekeeping operations. Commercial
beekeepers often remove all the filled comb that projects beyond the
edges of the frame. This procedure requires separation of large quanti-
fies of honey from the cappings and is not suitable for the beginner,
who should remove only a thin layer of cappings and honey. After
being uncapped, the comb is placed in an extractor that utilizes centrifu-
i gal force to throw the honey out of the cells and onto the side of the
extractor. The honey runs to the bottom of the tank where it can be
drained.

Extractors vary in capacity from 2 frames to 72 frames. A 2- frame
extractor is suitable for a beekeeper with less than 15 or 20 colonies.

^Uncapping knives. The one at the top is heated electrically and the one at the
bottom is heated by steam. (Fig. 42)

Summer Management: Honey Production

;,'-'

Placing an uncapped comb of honey in a 30-frame radial extractor. (Fig. 43)

With more colonies — up to 100 — a 4- frame extractor is needed, either
hand or power driven. The simplest extractors have a gear-driven bas-
ket within a tank. Combs are extracted on one side, and then lifted and
reversed to complete the job. Reversible extractors have baskets that
pivot to extract either side of a comb without lifting it. Extractors that
remove honey from one side of the comb at a time, called tangential
extractors, operate very rapidly. However, if turned too rapidly, they
may break combs because of the weight of the honey. Extraction of
honey in a motor-driven reversible extractor is done in three steps.
First, about half the honey is removed from one side of the combs
before turning or reversing them. Then the second side is completely
extracted. Finally, the comb is turned again and the remaining honey
is removed.

The large extractors, holding 20 to 72 frames, are called radial
extractors (Fig. 43). Combs are arranged in them like spokes in a
wheel with the top bar at the rim. The honey flows from both sides of
the comb to the walls of the extractor. The natural upward slant of
each cell and the centrifugal force make the movement of the honey
possible. No reversing is necessary but the extractor must be started
slowly and operated for at least 20 minutes to prevent comb damage
and remove the honey completely.

Ext

if.

«!:i!:

The acids of honey react with many metals including steel and zinc
used for galvanizing, and may cause damage to processing and storage
equipment. For this reason, stainless steel is the most suitable material
for such equipment. Piping of stainless steel, glass, or plastic approved
for use in food-processing equipment is highly desirable. Galvanized
extractors and tanks should be lined with a protective material approved
for such use, similar to that used to line honey drums. Many products
are available that are used regularly by the beverage and food indus-
tries. Most types of paint are not suitable for coating honey equipment
and are worse than nothing at all. Some epoxy coatings are also unsuit-
able because their solvents and other ingredients are not suitable for use
in contact with honey.

Extracted honey is most attractive when it is clear and bright. To
produce attractive honey it is important to prevent the incorporation of
air bubbles into it. This means that you must prevent the honey from
falling or dripping far enough to produce bubbles and foam. Make it
flow down the sides of containers or along special V-shaped troughs
whenever it is being moved. Use a strainer in such a way that the
honey is collected close beneath it rather than being allowed to drip
(to the bottom of a large container. It is easier to prevent air bubbles
than to get them out later.

After the honey is extracted, it will contain some air bubbles and
[bits of wax. Most of these can be removed by a system of baffles and
screens in a honey sump into which the honey flows from the extractor.
jThey will also rise to the top of warm honey in a can or tank. The
resulting foam can be skimmed off after one or more days depending
on the temperature of the honey and the tank size. It is important to
-remove the wax before final heating and straining. Otherwise it may
change the flavor and appearance of the final product. Honey packers
generally prefer honey that has been only warmed and coarsely strained
br settled. For final packing, honey is heated to 145 °F. (63°C.) for
30 minutes and strained through 90-mesh strainer cloth. The heat
liquefies any granules present and thereby retards granulation. It also
kills yeasts that can ferment honey, usually after it has granulated.
iAfter the jars and cans are filled, they should be allowed to cool before
being stacked. Commercial honey processors use flash heating and rapid
:ooling to further prevent damage to honey by excess heat. Overheated
honey is darkened and may even taste burned. Storage temperatures
and the length of storage also affect honey quality. Changes in the honey
are kept at a reasonable level if it is stored at temperatures of 70° to
|75 °F. (21° to 24°C.) after processing. Unprocessed honey is best
Stored below 50 °F. (10°C).

Summer Management: Honey Production

Many beekeepers feel that honey should not be heated. They are
then surprised and saddened when their entire stock of honey becomes
sour and off-flavored. They may also find that bottled honey begins to
leak on the shelf or, in some cases, expands so much that it comes out
of the bottle when the cap is removed. All these symptoms are the result
of fermentation that takes place in unpasteurized honey of high mois-
ture content (above 17 percent) and in granulated honey. We measure
and speak most often of the moisture content of honey, but we are
actually thinking of the sugar concentration, which governs the market
quality and keeping quality of honey. Sugar-tolerant yeasts are always
present in honey, but they are unable to grow in it and to change its
composition if the sugar concentration is about 83 percent or higher.
When honey granulates, part of the sugar crystallizes out of the solu-
tion, leaving the liquid portion much less concentrated and allowing the
yeasts to grow and to produce the alcohols and acids that change the
honey's flavor. The gas produced often expands the honey out of its
container. To prevent such changes, heat the honey as previously ex-
plained or store it below 50°F. (10°C). To retard granulation and to
keep all the subtle flavors of freshly extracted honey, store it in a
freezer at 0°F. (-18°C).

Granulated honey. Smoothly granulated honey is a pleasing prod-
uct that can be handled easily on the table. However, many honeys
produce coarse granules, especially after being heated, and are there-
fore less suitable for table use when granulated. To return any granu-
lated honey to liquid form, heat it in a water bath or in a warm oven
to bring it to a temperature no higher than 145 °F. (63°C.) long enough
to dissolve the crystals. It is easy to make finely granulated honey for
home use or for sale. Use about 10 percent finely granulated honey as
a starter. The commercial product called creamed honey or honey
spread makes a good starter. Blend the starter thoroughly at room
temperature with honey previously heated to dissolve crystals and to
destroy yeasts. Avoid introducing air bubbles into the mixture. Put it
into containers and store it at a temperature as close as possible to
57°F. (13°C). A home refrigerator is suitable for small batches. A
dry, cool cellar may also be suitable. The honey will be ready to use
in about 10 to 12 days.

Marketing the Honey

Packaging and labeling. The beginning beekeeper with a few col-
onies has no problem in disposing of the honey. Often much is given
away, and some may be sold to neighbors. As the number of colonies
increases and management improves, the beekeeper must decide how

to market the honey. Choices include packing it in jars and cans and
selling it to consumers, packing it for sale to stores or to wholesalers,
or selling it unprocessed, in 60-pound cans or 55-gallon drums, to indi-
viduals or companies who pack it for resale. When the honey is sold,
the beekeeper must conform to the requirements of state and federal
regulations relating to food and drugs.

Honey sold in interstate commerce must meet the requirements of
the federal fair packaging and labeling laws. In states that have similar
legislation, such as Illinois, honey sold within the state must also be
labeled and packaged to conform with the law. For information about
regulations in other midwestern states, contact the agency responsible
for enforcing food and marketing regulations for the state. The follow-
ing summary contains the principal requirements for labeling honey
according to federal and Illinois laws:

1. The word "honey" must appear in bold type, generally parallel to
the base of the container.

2. Honey sold by the producer must bear his or her name and
address, including postal zip code. Individuals or firms packing or
distributing purchased honey must include their name, address (in-
cluding zip code), and words such as "Distributed by" or "Packed by."

3. Containers holding 1 pound or more but less than 4 pounds must
show the weight in both pounds and ounces. For example: Net wt.
|l6 oz. (1 lb.) ; Net wt. 32 oz. (2 lb.) ; or Net wt. 48 oz. (3 lb.).

4. Containers holding less than 1 pound may show weight only in
ounces; those holding 4 pounds or more may show weight in pounds
only. For example: Net wt. 8 oz.; Net wt. 4 lb.; Net wt. 5 lb.; or
Net wt. 10 lb.

5. The net weight must be printed in letters whose size is governed
iby the area of the principal display side of the container. The area is
computed as follows:

Rectangular packages: height X width of the principal display side.

Cylindrical packages: %0 X height X circumference of the package.

Irregularly shaped packages: %0 X total surface area or the entire
;area of the obvious display panel such as the top of the package.

The minimum type sizes that may be used to show the weight are
as follows:

Area of display panel in square inches Minimum type size

5 or less yi6 inch

Between 5 and 25 1/8 inch

Between 25 and 100 %c inch

Between 100 and 400 \/A inch

Summer Management: Honey Production

6. Each type size must have an equal clear space above and below it
and a clear space to the left and right of the net-weight declaration
twice as wide as the letter "N" in the word "Net."

7. The net-weight statement must be on the bottom 30 percent of
panels with an area greater than 5 square inches as computed by the
methods given above.

Copies of the federal law and additional information pertaining to
fair packaging and labeling may be obtained from the Food and Drug
Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, D.C. 20201.

Containers for honey should be new and clean. Drums for bulk-
honey can be reused and should be recoated as needed, but new gaskets
are necessary each time the drums are filled. Five-gallon cans should
not be reused.

Grading. Both comb and extracted honey are sold and purchased by
grades established by the United States Department of Agriculture.
The standards for grading are not required, but they allow producers j
and packers to buy and sell a quality product based on grades established
jointly by the honey industry and the Department of Agriculture. The i
quality of extracted honey is measured by its flavor, its freedom from |
particles or sediment, its clarity, and its moisture content. Comb honey
is graded for many characteristics including the number of uncapped
cells, attachment to the section or frame, uniform honey and cappings,
and freedom from damage. Copies of Standards for Grades of Comb
Honey and Extracted Honey are available from the Fruit and Vegetable
Division, Agricultural Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Some states have additional grading
requirements.

Color is not a factor of quality in the grading system but it is im-
portant in the sale and purchase of honey, especially in large lots.
Honey colors range from water white to dark amber as measured by \
two systems. In one, the USDA Permanent Glass Color Standards i
for Extracted Honey, the color of 2-ounce samples of honey is com-
pared with the color of squares of tinted glass (Fig. 44). In the other,
called the Pfund Color Grader, a wedge-shaped glass trough is filled
with honey and matched in color with a colored glass wedge. The
matching area on the wedge, measured in millimeters, gives a color
rating for the honey sample.

The moisture content, or soluble-solids content, of honey can be
measured with a refractometer or a honey hydrometer. Refractometers
are expensive but are essential items of equipment for anyone dealing

U.S. Department of Agriculture Permanent Glass Color Standards for Ex-
tracted Honey. (Fig. 44)

Hand refractom-
eter in use for de-
termining the mois-
ture content of
extracted honey.

(Fig. 45)

'in large quantities of honey. Only a drop of honey is needed to obtain
a direct reading of the moisture content. An attached thermometer
indicates any needed temperature correction (Fig. 45). The honey
hydrometer is a simple and inexpensive instrument capable of giving an
accurate reading when carefully used. It is a weighted glass float that
|indicates the moisture content of honey by the depth to which it sinks
fin a warm sample of honey. The readings are corrected for the tem-
perature and converted to percent moisture by using a table that comes
[with the instrument.

Beekeepers who have a considerable quantity of honey for sale each
(year should routinely sample each lot of honey as it is extracted or put
in containers (Fig. 46). Several samples should be taken from a day's
output to get a reasonably accurate representation of the honey. All
samples and the cans or drums from which they came must be clearly
marked to relate them, and a record should be kept of the number of
containers in each lot. A 1- or 2-pound sample will provide enough
jhoney to send small samples to several buyers. If beekeepers send
jsamples and know the color and the moisture content of their honey,

Summer Management: Honey Production

Filling a 60-pound
can of honey. The
small numbered
sample jars can be
filled with repre-
sentative samples
of each batch of
honey. (Fig. 46)

they are prepared to bargain for the best possible price for their honey.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides valuable information
about current prices and production in its Honey Market News. This
publication is available without charge from the Fruit and Vegetable
Division, Agricultural Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

The federal government has operated a price support program for
honey for many years. Beekeepers who are unable to sell their honey
for more than the support price may apply to sell it to the Commodity
Credit Corporation. Such honey is sampled and must meet certain re-
quirements of class, color, floral source, quality, grade, and condition of
containers. Information and applications are available from county
offices of the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
(ASCS). This program has been changed frequently and may eventu- 1
ally be discontinued. However, it has helped beekeepers and the honey
industry by preventing distressed sales of honey at low prices.

FALL AUXTID "V^IHSTTEIR,
]VCA^TA.O-H3]y[ElSrT

The care you give the colony, or colonies, in the fall can be crucial
to your success the following year. Because of this, fall management is
often considered the starting point in providing strong colonies to pro-
duce the next year's honey crop.

Each colony should have enough honey and pollen to last until
spring. This means 40 to 60 pounds of honey and as many combs with
areas of stored pollen as possible. In areas with long, cold winters, bees
may need as much as 90 pounds of honey. A well-filled deep hive body
with some empty space in the center combs provides enough stores for
a strong colony wintered in two hive bodies. It is more difficult to rate
the pollen supply, but colonies with a shortage can be given combs from
other colonies or given stored combs that contain pollen. Combs can be
filled with trapped pollen as explained on page 106. Colonies without
sufficient honey should be given full combs saved for the purpose, or
fed enough sugar syrup or diluted honey to make at least 40 pounds of
stored food.

Bees winter best on combs that have been used for brood rearing.
If possible, do not winter bees on all new honey combs, and be sure that
any frames of foundation are replaced with drawn comb. Remove the
excluder and all empty supers. If you have no other place to store empty
combs, you can leave them on the hive above an inner cover with the
center hole open. However, it is better to store combs where they cannot
be damaged or blown over by the wind. See page 108 for information
on fumigating stored combs.

Weak or queenless colonies should be united with stronger colonies
that have queens. See page 131 for details on how to unite colonies.
Colonies in a single brood chamber do not winter well in the Midwest.
If you want to keep the individual small colonies rather than unite them,
consider putting the small colony above a double division screen on a
large colony. A double screen is a wooden frame holding two layers of
wire screen, usually 8-mesh. The screens are sufficiently far apart that
bees on either side cannot touch. A rim with an entrance cut in one end
lets the division screen serve as a bottom for the top colony while the

Fall and Winter Management

heat from the colony below helps to keep the smaller colony warm. To
use the screen, remove the cover of the larger colony and put the divi-
sion screen in place with the entrance toward the back of the hive (Fig.
47). Put the small colony above the screen after making certain it has
a good supply of stored honey of at least five or six full frames.

Good management includes a careful inspection for disease in the
fall. If you follow a program of disease prevention with drugs and
antibiotics, each colony should be treated after the honey crop has been
removed and while the bees are still active. See pages 136 to 137.

As the weather becomes cooler at the end of summer, field mice look
for warm places to spend the winter. A nest in the lower corner of a
bee hive is just such a place. For this reason it is necessary either to
use the ^-inch entrance or to restrict any deeper entrance used during
the summer. An entrance block, a piece of lath with an entrance slot,
or a metal entrance reducer can be used. Do not make the entrance less
than 4 inches wide or cover it with hardware cloth because the bees that
die during the winter may block the entrance. A top entrance hole, %
to Yx inch in diameter, is commonly bored into supers near a front
handhold to provide ventilation and to release moisture from the hive
in winter. Such holes are probably of greatest value in the more north-
erly sections of the Midwest, where they allow bees to fly from their
hives on days too cool to permit flight from the regular entrance. During
the summer, bees do not store honey near such holes, and their activity
near them causes some problems during manipulation of the colony.
Bees in the lower Midwest, as in central Illinois, winter well without

A double division screen in place on top of a hive. The small entrance is
suitable for winter but should be enlarged for use at other times of the year.

(Fig. 47)

such holes, especially if the hive has a ^-inch-deep entrance open the
full width of the hive. You should experiment to see whether top
entrances are of value to you throughout the year before routinely bor-
ing holes in all the supers as many people suggest.

Cellar wintering of bees and wrapping or packing of hives left out
}f doors were once common in the Midwest. Except in the coldest areas,
most bees are now wintered without special protection. Unprotected
;olonies eat more honey, but this disadvantage is offset by less work
in the fall and less expense for the needed materials. Winter death
(osses of entire colonies are often high. There is a growing interest in
in improved type of indoor wintering using a combination of supple-
mental heat, ventilation, insulation, and air conditioning to produce
ideal wintering conditions. Colonies are held from about November to
April at above-freezing temperatures that keep them clustered. Small
tolonies survive easily under such conditions and eat much less honey
than large colonies wintered out of doors. Some form of winter pro-
tection can still be advantageous for the person who wants to provide
t. Beekeepers who pack their hives say that the colonies are invariably
stronger and in better condition in spring than colonies that are left
unprotected. During extended cold periods, a simple wrapping of light-
weight, black roofing paper may help warm a colony enough to prevent
starvation of bees that would otherwise be unable to move the cluster to
reach additional food. The paper can be stapled, cleated, or tied around
:he hive and beneath the lid. If you use such a wrap, be sure the entrance
;o the hive will not be covered if the paper moves.

An apiary in winter. The snow fence provides wind protection until the
evergreens grow taller. The hives face south and the slight slope allows air
drainage. (Fig. 48)

Fall and Winter Management

Wind protection is important to good wintering. Shrubs, fences, or
other artificial windbreaks help the colonies survive by slowing the loss
of heat from the hives (Fig. 48). Snow may completely cover the hives
without damaging the bees but the hives should not be located where
water may collect. The winter apiary site should also be on a slope or
in an area where cold air will flow away from the hives and not collect
around them. If your winter apiary location does not permit the sum
to shine on the hives or is undesirable in other ways for wintering,
plan to move the bees to a better location.

Losses of bees during winter are often high in spite of increasing
knowledge about the biology and management of honey bees. Many
bees of all ages die in the hive. Losses appear to be greater in very
large and very small colonies as compared with those of moderate size.
It is not uncommon for more than half of the bees in a colony to die,
and for 10 percent or more of the colonies to die. Starvation, either
from lack of honey or from inability to reach the honey in extremely
cold weather (cold starvation), is the most common cause of winter
death of colonies.

]yLISOErJL^2STEO"CJS

TECHNIQUES
IKT BEEKEEPING

Caring for Extracting Combs

Good combs for producing extracted honey can be reused for many
years. As a result, a given number of colonies can produce more ex-
tracted honey than comb honey because they are not held back by the
need to make new comb during the nectar flow. After combs are ex-
tracted, they still contain some honey and are usually referred to as
"wet" combs. Beekeepers do not agree on how such combs should be
handled except that they must be fumigated. The combs can be returned
to the colonies to be "dried," then taken off, fumigated, and stored.
This involves a lot of work, especially when the bees cluster in the
supers rather than going back down into the lower hive bodies. Placing
the supers above an open inner cover will not always prevent such be-
havior. It is best to store the combs with the honey on them. The bees
move into them quickly when they are placed on hives the following
season, and the bees benefit slightly from the extra honey. The bees
clean out and liquefy any granulated honey so that such combs will not
induce granulation of the new crop any more than will combs freed of
honey in the fall. If you prefer to clean the combs, do not do so by
exposing them in or near the apiary. This may induce serious robbing
'that could damage your colonies and spread disease. In addition, the
combs may be damaged by the frenzied activity of the bees as they
clean them out.

Confining Bees

Bees can be confined to their hives for short periods to move them,
ito protect them from pesticides, or to keep them from bothering people
or animals nearby. Whatever the method or material used to keep them
from leaving the hive, action must be taken when the bees are not flying,
either during the night or in cool or wet weather. The simplest closure
is a V-shaped piece of window screen or hardware cloth pushed into
ithe hive entrance (Fig. 49). Any other openings must also be screened
or closed at the same time. This method of closing hives is suitable only

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Closing a hive with a V-shaped piece of 8-mesh hardware cloth. (Fig. 49)

A hive with top and
entrance screens in
place for moving.i
Bees can move into
both screens to
cluster and to ven-
tilate the hive.

(Fig. 50)

100

for very short periods when the weather is not hot. With stronger
I colonies, or during hot weather, or for longer periods, the colony needs
| extra space in which to cluster. This can be provided by using an
entrance screen and a top screen. These screens have wooden frames
that give the bees space in which to cluster outside the hive (Fig. 50).
A shallow super with one screened surface makes a good top screen that
can be stapled or cleated to the hive.

Bees can also be confined by covering the hives with plastic sheeting,
burlap, or other materials. The coverings are draped loosely over the
hives and held down by soil around the edges. Black plastic sheeting
is suitable for only a short period early in the day because it heats up
rapidly in the sun. Burlap can be used to keep bees confined for a day
or more. In hot weather it can be kept wet to cool the bees beneath it.

Dividing Colonies

Splitting a strong colony of bees into two or more separate units is
an important technique in beekeeping. It provides new colonies to
replace losses or to increase numbers of colonies. It is also a method
of swarm control, and can be used to make up small colonies (nuclei)
jfor rearing or holding queens. To divide a colony you must first find
the queen as explained on page 62. If you are unable to find her in a
large colony, put a queen excluder between the brood chambers and
|close the hive. Three or more days later examine the colony again. The
queen will be in the brood chamber that has combs with eggs. She is
easier to find in a single hive body.

Colonies may be divided initially within the same hive by using a
double division screen as described on pages 95 to 96. Place the old
queen with about half the combs of brood, mostly unsealed if possible,
;in the bottom brood chamber. Add an extra hive body with empty
combs or combs with some honey if it is needed. Put the double divi-
sion screen on top of the second body with the entrance facing the
tear of the hive. Above it put the second brood chamber containing
five or six frames of brood, mostly sealed, and two combs of pollen and
honey on each side. This hive body initially should contain about two-
thirds of the bees. You must shake many extra bees into it from the
combs of the bottom chamber (Fig. 51) because the older field bees will
return to the bottom story leaving only the younger bees in the new
colony on top. The new division may be too weak to keep the brood
warm if an insufficient number of bees is present. A caged queen should
je introduced into the top colony within 2 hours for best results but no
later than 24 hours after making the division. After the queen is ac-

101

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

09 fit

^■S£u: ■::■, ■

* *$&%&■ ■ -'*^/ BB

Shaking bees from a comb into the hive. One or two sharp shakes remove
most of the bees with little antagonism if the bees are smoked first. (Fig. 51)

cepted and laying well, the new colony can be put on a bottom board
within the same apiary. Fewer bees will be lost, however, if it is moved
at night to a new location 2 or more miles away.

Divisions can also be made directly into a complete second hive. In'
this case, give the new colony more than half the bees and four to six
frames of sealed brood. The hive may be placed near the parent colony.
However, it is better to screen the entrance of the new hive while
making up the colony and then to move it to another location at least 2
miles away to prevent bees from returning to the original colony. Put
the screened colony in the shade after you finish the division so that
it will not be damaged by overheating. As soon as it is moved to the
new location, smoke the entrance and take out the entrance screen.

The same general system of dividing can be used to make small
nucleus colonies. For a three- frame nucleus, take one or two frames of
brood and bees and a frame of honey from a strong colony. Pick
mostly sealed or emerging brood that fills only a third or one-half the
frame if possible. Before you put all the combs into the hive, shake two
or three additional frames of bees into it. Introduce a queen or a queen
cell as soon as possible but not later than 24 hours after making the
nucleus. Although the nucleus can be left in the home apiary, it will do
better if it is moved to another location.

New colonies of all sizes may be made from brood, bees, and combs
from several colonies. Use the same general techniques as explained
above and assemble the colony with sufficient bees and stored honey and
pollen to get it started. In making divides and nuclei, use small- to
medium-sized brood patterns in preference to very large areas of brood.

102

The new colony may not be able to care for a large amount of brood.
By using sealed brood, you reduce the number of bees in the parent
colony and rapidly increase the number in the new colony.

Feeding Bees

Honey and sugar. More honey bee colonies die from lack of honey
than from any other cause. To prevent such losses the beekeeper must
know when the colonies need additional food and the best way to give
it to them. There are two main periods of the year when feeding is
most often needed. The early spring period, after brood rearing begins,
is the most critical one. Feeding may also be needed in the fall if the
summer nectar flow was a failure or if too much honey was taken from
the hive for home use or for sale.

A comb of honey put into the hive beside the brood nest is the
simplest feeder. Combs of honey from hives with a surplus can be
added to hives short of food, so long as American foulbrood disease is
hot present. Brush or shake bees from the combs before exchanging
Ithem. Extracted honey can be fed to colonies as syrup by diluting it
one-fourth to one-half with warm water. Add J4 teaspoonful of sodium
sulfathiazole per gallon for disease prevention. For directions and pre-
cautions in using drugs see pages 136 to 137. Because of the danger
that purchased honey may contain bee disease organisms, do not feed
your bees honey other than your own.

Feeding excites and stimulates the colonies being fed. This excite-
ment can set off robbing in the apiary, particularly of those colonies
receiving the food. To reduce or prevent robbing, and the possible loss
Df colonies, feed bees late in the day after most flight activity has
:eased. Unless the weather is very warm and all colonies are strong,
reduce the width of hive entrances with cleats so that colonies can better
protect their entrances if robbing takes place.

Table sugar, either beet or cane, can be used in place of honey to
feed bees. They will accept sugar in several different forms, including
syrup, fondant, and dry granules. Any solid form of sugar must be
iquefied by the bees before use and then reduced to the consistency of
ioney if it is stored. It takes moisture, sometimes body fluids, to liquefy
ondant and dry sugar. Bees must also expend energy to remove water
from syrup. It is estimated that they use 4 to 5 ounces of sugar to
:liminate each extra pound of water in the syrup. If you want to pro-
vide the most stored food in relation to the amount of sugar fed, use
i concentrated sugar syrup made from 16 pounds of sugar to each
gallon of hot water. At this rate, 100 pounds of sugar will make 13 or

103

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

14 gallons of syrup. When fed in the fall, this concentrated syrup will
provide up to 11 pounds of stores for each 10 pounds of sugar fed. The
process is less efficient when bees are rearing brood in the spring. You
can make a similar syrup by using two volumes of sugar to one volume
of hot water.

Dry, granulated sugar can be used for emergency feeding but is nol
suitable for colonies that must have food immediately to survive. Place
it within the hive on the bottom board, in an open container above the
frames, or on top of an inner cover around the open center hole. Browr
sugar, molasses, plain corn syrup, and other similar materials containing
sugar should not be used for feeding bees.

There are several methods and types of equipment used to feed
syrup to honey bee colonies. The beginner often uses an entrance
feeder that holds a quart jar. It is easy to use but has some serious
disadvantages. For package colonies and other small colonies the syrupi
in the feeder gets too cold and is too far from the cluster during coo''
weather. If you use one, put it on the side of the entrance nearest thei
brood nest and close part of the entrance beside the feeder to reduce
the chance of robbing.

The division-board feeder hangs inside the hive in place of a frame
(Fig. 52). It holds about 2 quarts and can be refilled without removing;
it from the hive. It provides food quickly to strong colonies but is not
a good choice for slow, stimulative feeding.

The best all-purpose feeder is the friction top can or similar large
containers. Five- and ten-pound honey cans, unused paint cans, anc
gallon glass or plastic jars can be filled with syrup and inverted above
the cluster. The feeder can be set within an empty hive body, eithen
directly on the frames or over the hole of an inner cover (Fig. 53)
Leave part of the inner cover hole exposed so bees can get out. If the
feeder leaks, the bees may collect the syrup and keep it from running
outside the hive where it will attract robber bees. For slow feeding and
stimulation, punch 5 to 10 holes in the feeder lid with a threepenny nail
For winter or emergency feeding, use 20 to 30 holes.

There are two emergency methods of feeding to give food quickl)
to a single colony or to a group of colonies. One method makes use oi
open tubs or troughs filled with sugar syrup. Corks, wooden racks, oi
corncobs are added to give the bees a place to land. The tubs are placec
in the apiary beneath a temporary cover to protect them from rain
This is a poor method of feeding because the weaker colonies may no
get the food they need to survive. Neighboring colonies can also gathei
the syrup and robbing may become a problem. A better emergenc)

104

"I^t *•

A. division-board feeder within a hive body. A wooden float is needed inside
the feeder for the bees to stand on when taking syrup. (Fig. 52)

^ plastic jar in use as a feeder over an inner cover. An empty hive body and
he cover enclose the feeder. (Fig. 53)

105

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

method makes use of combs filled with heavy sugar syrup. To fill them,
use a sprinkling can, a coffee can with the bottom full of nail holes, or
a garden sprayer free of insecticide residues. Hold the empty combs
over a tub or large pan and sprinkle or spray the syrup into the cells of
the comb. With both sides filled, a comb will hold several pounds of
syrup. Place two or more filled combs next to the cluster of any colony
that needs food.

Pollen, pollen supplements, and substitutes. Pollen for feeding
bees is obtained by the use of pollen traps that remove fresh pollen pel-
lets from the legs of incoming field bees. (See pages 47 and 129.) For
only a few colonies, combs can be filled with the pellets and used im-
mediately or stored for later use. For larger numbers of colonies this I
method is impractical. To fill a comb, pour fresh pellets from a pollen
trap into the cells on one side of an empty comb, tap the comb several
times to settle the pellets, and put it into a strong colony overnight. The
bees will pack the pollen into place and the process can be repeated the
next day for the other side of the comb. The pellets from the trap also
may be dried or frozen for later use.

Pollen substitutes are protein materials, used alone or in mixtures,
that bees can use temporarily for rearing brood. Among them are ex-
peller-processed soy flour, brewers' yeast, casein, and dried milk. When
the materials are mixed with natural pollen they are called pollen sup-
plements. Bees eat the supplements much more readily than they do the
substitutes because they are attracted by the pollen. Pollen substitutes
are available from beekeeping supply companies and from feed com-'
panies. You must add your own pollen to make a supplement.

These foods can be given to bees as a dry mix in open feeders in
the apiary or as a moist cake or patty on top of the frames in the hive
directly above the brood nest (Fig. 54). For open feeding, a pan oi
dish of the mixture can be placed in any open-front box with an over-!
hanging cover to keep out rain and dew (Fig. 55). Large-mesh chicken
wire over the opening lets bees in but keeps out other animals.

There are many different formulas for pollen mixtures ; they maj
be purchased ready to use or mixed as follows:
Dry mix: 2 lb. brewers' yeast

6 lb. soy flour
2 lb. dried, ground pollen pellets, if available

Pollen cake: 15 lb. soy flour, or soy flour-brewers' yeast mixture
5 lb. dried pollen pellets, if available
13 lb. water 1
27 lb. sugar f sugar syrup

106

'ollen cake in the hive above the brood nest.

(Fig. 54)

5ees visiting a box containing dry pollen mix.
efilling the pan containing the mixture.

The lid is hinged for ease of
(Fig. 55)

107

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Add enough warm water to the pollen pellets to make a paste. Stiii
the pollen paste into the sugar syrup and add the soy flour. Knead the.
mixture into a smooth dough. Add extra water or soy flour if needed,
Put 1/2 to 1 pound of the dough between sheets of waxed paper andij
flatten to 1/4- to ^-inch thickness. If pollen pellets are not available,
use 20 pounds of plain soy flour or a pollen substitute mixture.

Begin feeding the dry mix or pollen cake in February or early
March and make it available to the bees continually until natural pollen
is available.

Fumigating Stored Combs

Honey combs not protected by a strong colony of bees must be
fumigated to prevent damage from the greater wax moth and other
moth pests. A beekeeper must assume that any equipment removed
from the hives during the bees' active season may be infested. Moth
eggs and young larvae are difficult to see. The equipment must be fumi-i
gated to kill all stages of the moth (egg, larva, pupa, and adult). It
must also be guarded against later infestation as long as it is in storage.

There are three fumigants approved for killing wax moths: ethylene
dibromide (EDB), carbon dioxide gas (C02), and paradichlorobenzene
(PDB). Ethylene dibromide is a heavy, clear liquid that is nonflam-
mable and nonexplosive. It forms a heavier-than-air gas that kills all!
stages of the wax moth including the egg. Equipment to be fumigated
should be tightly stacked out of doors or in a well-ventilated room not
being used by people during the 24 to 48 hours needed for fumigation.
Place 1 tablespoonful of EDB on an absorbent pad beneath the cover
of each stack of not more than eight full-depth supers of comb. Use 2.
tablespoonfuls on each stack if the temperature is below 60°F. (16°C).
EDB may be used on empty combs and on combs of honey to be ex-
tracted. It may also be used for fumigating combs of honey to be used
for feeding bees. It is not acceptable for fumigation of unprocessed
comb honey for human consumption.

Carbon dioxide is the only fumigant approved for comb honey. It
must be used in a relatively airtight room or container in which you can
hold a concentration of 98 percent C02 for 4 hours at a temperature of
100°F. (38°C.) and 50 percent relative humidity. Although carbon
dioxide is not a toxic gas, it must be used with care as a fumigant. At a
concentration far below that needed to kill wax moths it can suffocate
and kill humans. Any chamber used for C02 fumigation should' be
designed to include an exhaust system capable of removing the gas in
a known period of time. Do not enter the chamber until the system has
been operated at least that long. Makeshift methods of fumigation with
108

C02 may also be dangerous if the heavier-than-air gas flows out of the
container being used to hold the combs.

Carbon dioxide kills all stages of the wax moth and can be used on
empty as well as full combs. Unless comb honey is treated to kill wax
moths, it may become unfit for sale soon after being harvested if wax
moth larvae begin to tunnel it as they grow and look for food. If you
have a limited amount of comb honey or access to a large amount of
freezer space, you can destroy any wax moth infestation in comb honey
by freezing it. Temperatures of 20°F. (—7°C.) will kill all stages in
4i/£ hours. At 5°F. ( — 15°C.) only a 2-hour exposure is needed.

Paradichlorobenzene is a white crystalline material that vaporizes
slowly in air. The gas is heavier than air, nonflammable, and nonex-
plosive. Place approximately 6 tablespoonfuls (3 ounces) of the crystals
on a paper beneath the cover of a stack of not more than five full-depth
supers. The supers should be tightly stacked, with any holes and large
cracks covered with tape. PDB kills adult moths and larvae but not the
eggs. It also repels moths and should be kept in the stacks at all times
for best results. Do not use PDB on combs containing honey because
it makes it toxic and inedible. After being treated with PDB, empty
combs should be aired for 24 hours or more before being used.

If you have only a few supers of stored combs, you should check
them regularly during the warm season for any sign of wax moth. For
larger amounts of comb, it is better to fumigate routinely at about
monthly intervals unless each stack is protected by PDB. Without such
precautions you may find one or more stacks of valuable combs reduced
'to worthless webs and debris.

Handling Beeswax

Beeswax is an important byproduct of beekeeping and a valuable
ingredient of cosmetics, candles, polishes, and many specialty items. It
is also used in the pure form to make comb foundation. The beekeeper

| has several sources of beeswax including cappings from honey combs,
damaged combs, and the bits and pieces of comb scraped from hive
bodies and frames. From 10 to 12 pounds of wax from cappings is
obtained for each 1,000 pounds of honey, depending on the comb spac-

, ing and yield per colony. An additional 1/2 to 24 pound per year can be

I saved from each colony by collecting all the burr combs and scrapings.

I It is good business to routinely melt very old combs and those with
large areas of drone cells, wax-moth damage, and mold. These should
be replaced by new frames with foundation to maintain good combs

I throughout the entire beekeeping operation. A deep super of old combs

: will yield about 2J/2 pounds of wax.

109

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Placing a comb in a solar wax melter. The wax pan is removed through the
door in the front. A screen across the front of the pan for the combs holds
back the slumgum while allowing melted wax to run into the lower con-
tainer. (Fig- 56)

110

Wax from cappings is light colored and of a high quality, and
should not be mixed with darker wax. Cappings should be melted with
a large volume of water in an aluminum, stainless steel, enameled,
tinned, or galvanized container. Do not use copper or uncoated steel
containers because they discolor the wax. Allow the wax to cool slowly,
scrape any impurities from the bottom of the cake, and store it until
you have enough to sell.

Large numbers of combs can be rendered in a steam chest or a hot
water wax press. The combs can also be taken to a beekeeping supply
company for rendering. There is a charge for the service based on the
amount of wax recovered. The material called slumgum, which is the
residue left when combs are melted in a solar melter or steam chest, is
valuable because it contains up to 30 percent wax. It can be commer-
cially rendered for a fee based on the amount of wax secured from the
slumgum.

The solar wax melter is a handy piece of equipment for melting
comb, cappings, and other sources of wax. It is a sloping pan within a
black, insulated box with a glass top, often of double glass (Fig. 56).
The heat of the sun melts wax quickly and it runs into a pan where it
can be removed in a cake the next morning. The melter can be made
any size to fit the needs of the beekeeper. However, it should be rela-
tively shallow and large enough to expose several frames or excluders
at a time. It also can be designed to accept cappings baskets made from
expanded metal. You can uncap directly into such baskets, allow them
to drain, and place them in the melter to render the wax. A plan for con-
structing a solar wax melter can be found on page 46.

Handling Queen Bees

The queen is all-important to the colony, and the techniques of
handling and introducing queens are important to success in beekeeping.
After learning to find the queen and to evaluate her quality, you must
learn to handle her and replace her if necessary.

Marking and clipping. The best way to pick up a queen is to grasp
both pairs of wings between your thumb and forefinger without pressing
her body, especially her abdomen. After getting her up off the comb,
hold her against the forefinger of the other hand and trap at least two
of her legs with your thumb. Release her wings and you are ready to
mark the queen or clip her wings (Fig. 57). Before handling a queen,
you can practice the technique on drones.

In general, a laying queen cannot fly because of her distended abdo-
men, and she does not sting when handled. Mated queens that are not

ill

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Holding a quee
bee in preparatio
for marking he:
Her legs are hel
gently but firml
between the thum
and forefinger.

(Fig. 57

laying, such as those purchased for requeening or in a package of bees
can fly readily and will do so when released from their cages. Handl<
them only in a closed room or within a screened cage from which the]
cannot escape (Fig. 58), or lightly wet the queen with sugar syru]
before opening her cage. Clipped queens cannot fly. Virgin queens fty
readily and may also sting occasionally when handled.

Queens are marked to make them easier to find in the hive and t(
indicate their ages. Queens of the dark-colored races (Caucasian an(
Carniolan) should always be marked because they are more difficult!
to find than Italian queens. Fast-drying enamel paint and hot-fuel-prooi
model airplane dope are satisfactory, inexpensive marking material;-
that come in a wide range of bright colors. Apply a dot of the materia
to the queen's thorax, being careful not to get it on her antennae, wings
or membranes. You can practice on drones before attempting to marl
a queen. Use a fine brush or, better, a round-headed pin stuck in a cork-
Hold the queen briefly after marking her to let the mark dry, and ther.
release her on a comb. In Europe an international marking system oi
five colors is used to relate the queen's age to her marking. The colors'
and years represented are as follows: 1976 — white; 1977 — yellow?.
1978 — red ; 1979 — green; 1980 — blue ; 1981 on — repeat sequence of
colors. A German bee-supply company, listed in the section on equip-
ment dealers, sells queen-marking sets with numbered plastic disks in
the five different colors. They are of value if you wish to identify each

112

Using a screened cage to confine a queen and her attendants while handling
them. (Fig. 58)

queen individually. The company also sells marking tubes that can be
used to hold worker bees for marking. (See Figure 59 for examples.)
Queens are clipped by cutting across one pair of wings to remove
about one-third of the longer wing. A fine pair of scissors such as
manicure scissors can be used. Clipping was once considered to be a
method of swarm control because the first swarm will come back when
the queen is unable to fly. It is actually of no help because the beekeeper
usually does not see the swarm leave and return. Shortly thereafter it
Iwill leave for good with a virgin queen. Clipping may prevent the escape
of a queen being handled during introduction, but it is more often used
as a way to indicate the queen's age. To use it for this purpose, clip
the left wing in odd years, the right wing in even years. Clipping may
jleacl to premature supersedure of the queen, particularly if the wings
are cut so short that the queen's balance is affected as she moves on the
'vertical combs.

Introducing. Queen introduction is an important part of bee man-
agement. A new queen introduced into a mean colony can change its
temper in a few weeks and a young queen can more than pay for herself
jby the increased honey production of her colony. Poor queens should
i be replaced whenever they are found, and most colonies should be re-
'queened at least every 2 years.

113

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Bee-marking equipment. Marking disks, in five colors, are used on queens
or workers. Worker bees held in the tube are marked through the netting.
Model airplane dope in the vials is applied with the head of a pin stuck in
the cork. (Fig. 59)

The first step in replacing a queen is to obtain a young, mated queen
from a bee breeder. The queen, together with 6 to 12 attendant bees
and a supply of queen-cage candy for food, will arrive in a small
wooden cage with a screen top (Fig. 60). Give the bees a few drops'
of water on the screen as soon as the cage arrives. If you cannot intro-
duce the queen that day, give the bees water twice a day and keep them;
in a warm place out of the sun. There are holes in each end of the cage
that are covered with cork, cardboard, or a piece of metal. In prepara-i
tion for introducing the queen, remove the cover from the hole on the<
candy end to expose the candy.

The next step in introduction is to make certain that the colony that
is to receive the queen is queenless and without queen cells. Remove i
and kill the old queen, if there is one, and crush any queen cells with a
hive tool to kill the larvae in them. Within 2 hours, place the new, caged
queen in the hive. Before that, however, the attendant bees (workers)
in the queen cage should be removed. Many queens are introduced with
the attendants present but, because the colony may be antagonistic;
towards them, the queen will have a better chance of introduction by ,
herself. Remove the cork and let the bees and queen out on a window of
a room in which the lights have been turned off. They will buzz and fan
their wings but will rarely sting. As soon as they are all out, pick up
the queen and put her, head first, into the hole in the cage. If you don't

114

want to pick her up, hold the cage close to the queen and "herd" her
into it with your fingers. She is then ready to be introduced to the colony
just prepared. Wedge the cage, candy end up, between the top bars of
two frames in the center of the brood nest (Fig. 61). Close the hive and
do not disturb it for at least a week.

There are several other types of queen-introducing cages (Fig. 62).
One of the most useful is the push-in cage shaped like an open-sided
box, made of either metal or cardboard. Both kinds work on the same
principle, but the metal cage requires the addition of queen-cage candy.
Shake the bees off a comb of emerging brood from a colony ready for
a new queen. Place the queen beneath the cage on an area with a few
cells of honey and emerging bees (Fig. 63). Press the cage at least ]/%
inch into the comb. Replace the comb in the brood nest and leave the
hive alone for at least a week. The queen will be released when the
bees eat the queen-cage candy in the tube or tear the cardboard cage
to pieces.

You can improve your chances of success in introducing a queen if
you take into consideration the conditions that favor acceptance. Queens
are most readily accepted by small colonies and during a nectar flow.

Queens and attendants in two types of queen cages. One compartment is
illed with candy that serves as food for the bees when they are shipped by
nail. (Fig. 60)

115

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Introducing j
caged queen be-
tween the comb;
of a queenless col-
ony. (Fig. 61'

For this reason, you will have the best results by introducing the new
queen first to a nucleus or small colony and by feeding the colony a light
syrup for several days before and after introducing the queen if there
is no nectar available to the colony. If you do not have a small, queen-
less colony, prepare one following the directions in the section or
dividing colonies, page 101. Then introduce the queen to this colony as,
just explained. When she is laying well, unite her colony with the
larger one that needs requeening, after first being sure that it is queen-
less and without queen cells. You may unite it by the paper method 01
by just setting the nucleus in the colony brood chamber after removing
an equal number of frames. If you have a large colony that needs a
queen immediately, you have no choice but to introduce her directl)
into that colony. Use the system outlined above for colonies being re-
queened routinely, when timing is not so critical.

If all conditions are favorable for queen acceptance, old and new
queens sometimes can be exchanged directly without the use of queen
cages. But this is a risky procedure except under ideal conditions and.
therefore, rarely attempted by careful beekeepers. The chance of getting
a queen accepted is best if she is held in a cage within the colony long
enough to acquire the colony odor and to be fed through the screen by
the workers. You can improve the chances of acceptance by replacing

116

Different types of
queen-introducing
cages. The two at
the top are com-
mercial, dual-pur-
pose introducing
and shipping cages.
The bottom two are
homemade intro-
ducing cages.

(Fig. 62)

Placing the queen
beneath a push-in
cage on a comb of
emerging brood.
Note the queen cage
candy in the tube
portion of the cage.
(Fig. 63)

117

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

the original screen on the queen cage with 8-mesh hardware cloth wher
you remove the attendant workers. This larger mesh allows the bees tc
feed the queen properly, a job that is difficult or impossible through the
small mesh of the screen provided on commercial queen cages. Youi
percentage of queen acceptance will also be improved if you leave the
candy hole of the cage covered for two or three days before removing
the cover or cork on a second visit to the colony. Obviously, if you are
requeening large numbers of colonies, or if they are located too fat
away for repeated visits, this procedure is not practical. In such cases,
be sure that there is plenty of candy in the cages and do not punch a
hole through the candy to hasten the queen's release. She is much more
liable to be killed if released too soon than if she comes out after a
delay.

You can make your own queen cage candy to use for introducing
queens. Stir powdered sugar into a small quantity of good-quality
honey that you know came from disease- free colonies. You will need
about three volumes of sugar to one of honey. When the mixture ben
comes too thick to stir, knead additional powdered sugar into it with
your hands. Form it into a firm ball and let it sit for several hours or
overnight. If the ball slumps and becomes softer, add more powdered
sugar, then store the finished candy in a sealed plastic bag or other air-
tight container. Because honey is a possible source of disease, it may
not be used in queen cage candy except for home use. Candy for queens
sold locally or shipped must be made with commercial invert sugar,
such as Nulomoline or "queen cage syrup," in place of honey. This
invert syrup is mixed with powdered sugar in the same way as de-
scribed above.

Storing queens. Queens are stored regularly by queen breeders,
who must have large numbers available for sale during a short period
of time. Beekeepers may also need to store queens when weather is
unfavorable for working with bees and when they receive more queens
than they can introduce at one time.

The simplest storage method for holding queens as long as one to
two weeks is to leave them in their shipping cages together with the
attendant workers. When the queens are received, the cages should be
separated and placed, screen side up, in a warm place, preferably 85° to
93°F. (29° to 34°C). However, the cages may be held at a somewhat
lower temperature if necessary. Do not store the cages where they
receive direct sunlight. Place a drop or two of water on the screen of
each cage every day, but be careful that it does not drip onto the candy
within the cage. Cover the cages with a sheet of cardboard except when
giving water to the bees.

118

For longer periods of storage, or when you have no warm place in
which to keep them, queens can be held within a honey bee colony. Re-
move all attendant bees from the cages leaving only the queens. If there
is candy in the cage, be sure that the hole on that end of the cage is
closed by a cork or by some other material the bees cannot remove
easily. The queens can be placed in a colony with a queen as long as she
is beneath an excluder. Place the queen cages, screen side down, over
the center frames of the first super above the excluder. Make sure that
the bees have access to the screened area where the queen is located in
each cage. Naturally the colony must be strong enough so that all hive
bodies are well filled with worker bees. Put a cloth over the cages to
hold in the heat and add an empty super before putting on the lid.
Larger numbers of queen cages should be placed in a frame modified
to hold them within the colony above the excluder. Put a frame of
unsealed brood next to the screened sides of the cages.

In strong, queenless colonies, queens may be stored in the center
of the brood nest in a frame next to one containing unsealed brood.
The colony must be given additional, sealed and unsealed brood if the
queens are to be stored in it for more than a week. Do not allow the
colony to raise a queen of its own until the stored queens are removed.
In well-maintained, queenless colonies, stored queens can be kept in
good condition for periods of one to two months if necessary. It is
better, however, to put them into nucleus colonies of their own for
such extended periods. They are available at any time to replace lost or
failing queens in large colonies. Unless there is a good nectar flow
when queens are being stored in a colony, you should feed the colony
with sugar syrup.

Queen rearing. Queen rearing is one of the most fascinating parts
of beekeeping but is beyond the scope of this circular. When you have
mastered keeping bees for honey production, try queen rearing. Books
on the subject are available at libraries and from beekeeping supply
! companies.

Hiving Swarms

Swarms are a problem to the beekeeper and to people who are con-
fronted with them in their yards or some other location. The beginning
beekeeper can use them to gain additional colonies or to strengthen
established ones. However, the time and expense of obtaining them is
often more than the small value of the bees themselves. Experienced
beekeepers should consider swarm catching a service and charge ac-
cordingly for their time and expenses. In some states a license is needed
to perform this service.

119

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Swarms are not always gentle and you should wear a veil and use ;
smoker while working with them. Prepare a single-story hive with nin<
combs, either empty or partially filled with honey. Foundation is les
suitable but can be used if you have no empty combs available. If thi
swarm is close to the ground, or clustered on a branch that can be cm
off, smoke the bees and shake them into the open hive or in front of it
In some cases you may have to shake the bees into' a pan, burlap bag, O'
other container in order to carry them to a hive. If you are successfu
in getting the queen with the rest of the swarm, the bees will enter thi
hive and make themselves at home. They should be moved that nigh
to a permanent location. The swarm colony can be allowed to develop I
or can be used to strengthen another colony. If you know from which
colony a swarm cams, you may put it back after correcting the condill
tions that caused swarming to develop.

Swarms sometimes come from colonies infected with Americarj
foulbrood disease. The honey carried by the bees can infect the broocj
of the new colony. This serious threat, although not a common occur!
rence, can be eliminated by hiving all swarms on foundation and imme-
diately feeding them 1 gallon of sugar syrup containing 14 teaspoor
of sodium sulfathiazole. Swarms hived on comb can also be fed in the
same way, but the protection from disease is less certain. Whether 01
not you feed the medicated syrup, carefully inspect the colony foi
disease at least twice before adding another hive body with combs 01
foundation.

Identifying Apiaries and Equipment

Hives and apiaries located away from the beekeeper's home should
be marked to show ownership. Such identification helps to prevent
vandalism and theft because it indicates that someone owns the bees.
Otherwise people frequently believe that bees have been abandoned
because they do not see anyone visit the apiary. Identification is also
essential if beekeepers are to be notified of pesticide applications 01
other farm operations affecting their colonies.

One form of identification is the owner's name and address stencilled
in large letters on the hives or on a prominent sign beside the apiary.
The letters should be at least 1 inch high so that a person who is afraid
of the bees can read the sign at a distance.

Frames and other wooden hive parts can be identified by names or
symbols stencilled, stamped, or branded on the wood (Fig. 64).

120

A branding iron
and propane torch
used to identify
frames and other
wooden equipment.
(Fig. 64)

Keeping Records

Beekeeping records are of two general types — management and
[financial. Management records include all the details of the work and
Dbservations related to keeping bees. If the information is recorded
regularly, it will soon be valuable for planning work, for increasing
your knowledge of the biology of honey bees, and for relating manage-
ment to expenses and income. Even a simple diary kept up to date can
be a worthwhile and enjoyable part of keeping bees. Some of the things
to record are local weather data, dates on which nectar and pollen plants
bloom, colony losses, colony weight records, and the dates of doing
such jobs as spring inspection, supering, removing honey, and extracting.

Financial records are essential for anyone who keeps enough col-
pnies to sell honey. They should be detailed enough to make a financial
[summary each year for your own information and for computing in-
come taxes and other reports required for business. Farm record books
(are available from extension service publication offices. Although they
are designed for general farming, they can be modified for keeping
detailed records of a beekeeping business. Apiary record booklets are
also available from several sources in the Midwest. Check with your
extension beekeeping specialist or entomologist for details.

121

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Bank-operated recordkeeping services can be adapted for beekeeping
enterprises as well as for farm businesses. They simplify recordkeeping
for tax purposes and may prove helpful in making short- or long-term
loans. Lending institutions need net worth statements and cash flow
records in support of loan applications.

Killing Bees

Honey bee colonies should be killed when they become infected with
American foulbrood disease, when they are living in the walls of a
building or some other unsuitable location, or when bee equipment must
be freed quickly of all bees. Any material used to kill a colony in a
hive must have no residual effect that would prevent reuse of the combs
or wooden parts. Insecticides cannot be used for this reason. Although
it is highly toxic, the best material to use is powdered calcium cyanide,
sold as Cyanogas A-Dust. In contact with water or moisture from the
air it releases cyanide gas. The material is poisonous and extremely
dangerous. It must be used only outdoors and with proper precautions
to avoid breathing the gas or dust. When not in use, it should be kept
in a locked, dry place. Cyanide is not readily available for purchase,
and its use may ultimately be banned. You should check with your state
Department of Agriculture or extension entomologist to learn the latest
ruling on the use of cyanide and the availability of alternative materials
for killing bees.

Kill the bees in a hive when they are not flying, either in the evening
or early morning. Sprinkle a tablespoon ful of the cyanide dust on a
piece of paper or cardboard several inches square and slip it into the
hive entrance. If you are dealing with a strong colony, be sure to spread
the dust over a rather large area. The dying bees will sometimes cover
a small pile of dust and prevent it from vaporizing properly. Close
the entrance and leave the hive alone for at least 30 minutes to allow
the gas to dissipate.

Colonies in buildings should be killed only with the insecticide
carbaryl (Sevin). Fumigants are too dangerous for this purpose. It is
important to first locate the brood nest in the wall to learn whether it
can be reached by insecticide sprayed or dusted into the flight hole.
Sometimes the brood nest is a long distance from the entrance. By tap- >
ping and listening you can locate the main group of bees on a cold day
or at night when the bees are not flying. Apply the dust or spray at the
entrance or through a hole drilled close to the brood nest. Use the mate-
rial at the concentration recommended on the label for control of bees
and wasps. After the bees have been killed, the dead bees and comb

122

should be removed from the wall and burned or buried. The location
will be attractive to other swarms because of the odors present. Filling
the cavity with insulation or some other nonflammable material will
prevent bees from nesting in the same location again.

Moving Bees

Midwest beekeeping is gradually becoming more migratory as more
colonies are moved to sources of nectar and are used for pollination.
Even those beekeepers who don't regularly move their hives must some-
times move them short or long distances.

The field bees from hives moved short distances — a few feet to
as much as a mile or more — tend to return to the original hive location.
As they fly out into familiar territory they use the landmarks and flight
paths that bring them back to the old hive location. If one hive of a
gjroup is moved a short distance, its returning field bees will join hives
beside the old location. It is better, if possible, to move all the hives
together, a few yards at a time, when relocating them a short distance.
Move the bees in the evening or early morning after thoroughly smoking
the entrance and any other openings. You may leave the entrance open
or screen it closed with a folded piece of window screen or 8-mesh
hardware cloth. (See Figure 49.) Careful handling usually makes it
unnecessary to fasten the hive parts together to move colonies within
|an apiary or close to it. However, if you want to fasten them together,
lo so at least 4 hours before moving the bees.

Most bee moving involves distances great enough to put the field
oees into territory unfamiliar to them. No exact minimum distance can
3e given because it varies with each area and with the foraging distances
3f the field bees. In some areas a 1-mile move is sufficient, but a good
iverage distance is 2 miles. Naturally, the farther you move the bees the
ess likely is the chance that some foragers will return to the old location.

The best time to move colonies is about dusk when most of the bees
are no longer flying. Early morning is less suitable because the increas-
ng light intensity and rising temperature make the bees eager to leave
:he hive. If you have difficulties, it is better to have the extra time avail-
ible at night. A cool, rainy day is also a good time to move bees at any
lour so long as the bees are not flying.

The beginning beekeeper who moves bees by truck or trailer should
nake preparations to complete the job without accidents. Prepare the
colonies a day or more ahead of the move by fastening the hive parts
[ogether. Use hive staples, lath, or steel or plastic strapping. If you use
Staples don't put more than four between any two hive parts. Drive

123

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

them in so they make an angle of about 45 degrees with the crack where
the hive parts meet (Fig. 65). Lath cleats are placed on opposite sides
of the colony and nailed in place with two or more threepenny or four-
penny nails in each hive part. Be sure to smoke the hive well before you
hit it with the hammer. Steel strapping is easy to use and holds the hives
tightly but it requires special, fairly expensive equipment. Plastic tapes
are equally good and are easier to fasten with simple equipment. In hot
weather, especially with strong colonies, moving screens should be used
in place of the regular hive cover. Cover an empty shallow super or
similar wooden frame with window screen or 8-mesh hardware cloth
and place it, screen side up, over the hive. (See Figure 50.) The bees
can cluster in the space and ventilate the colony through the screen.
Fasten the hive together with the screen in place. Cut an entrance screen
for each hive the exact length of the entrance and about 4 inches wide, i
Fold it into a loose V that will slip into the entrance and stay in place.
Seal or plug all other holes in the hive.

Hive staples in place to hold hive parts together for moving

124

When you are ready to load the hives, put on a veil and light a
;moker. Smoke the hive entrance well and wait a minute or two before
lipping in the entrance screens. If bees are clustered on the front of
he hive you may have to smoke them more than once and wait several
ninutes before they all go into the hive. Place the hives in a truck or
railer with the entrances facing forward. Arrange the hives as close
ogether as possible in order to reduce bouncing and shifting while en
oute and tie them in place if possible. At the new location put all the
lives in place, smoke the entrances well, and remove the entrance
creens immediately. You may remove the top screens at this time or
eave them in place with a cover over them until you have time to
remove them.

The advanced amateur or the commercial beekeeper usually moves
kes without entrance or top screens except on occasions when special
>recautions are needed. Hives moved regularly should have the bottom
>oards nailed in place and should be equipped with covers that are the
ame width as the hive bodies. Proper hive equipment and a flat-bed
;ruck with hooks on which to tie the ropes reduce problems in moving
!>ees (Fig. 66). A typical move by a commercial beekeeper may take
ilace as follows. At dusk the beekeeper drives into the bee yard and
>repares to load the hives onto the truck with its headlights off but with
he running lights on and engine running. The running lights provide
pme light to see by, and the vibration of the engine helps to calm the
lees after they are loaded onto the truck. With the help of another
Person, or with a hive loader, the beekeeper quickly places the hives,
Ine to three tiers deep, in rows of five across the truck. Each colony is
moked before it is loaded, and the bees on the truck are smoked peri-
odically if they show signs of unrest. As soon as the load is in place,
pe beekeeper ties each row using a trucker's hitch and a good-quality,
k-inch hemp or polypropylene rope. At the new location, the lights are
urned off, the engine is left running, and the smoker is lighted. After
he entire load is smoked, the ropes are untied and the hives unloaded.
The beekeeper is ready to leave the apiary as soon as the smoker is out
nd the ropes are coiled.

Hive loaders make bee moving a one-man task. They are also useful
or handling honey supers and other equipment. (See Figures 66 and
p\) Heavy-duty loaders can handle two hives on a pallet or one above
he other for loading two tiers at a time. A tractor with a fork lift can
e used for loading pallets with six or more hives. Such palletized hives
re preferred by apple growers for use in hilly orchards where a tractor
nust move the bees to their locations among the trees. The hives are
trapped to the pallets and tied with ropes to the truck.

125

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

Moving bees with ai
electric hive loader.

(Fig. 66;

Cradle of hive loadei
with control buttons
Spring-loaded clamps fit
into the hive handholds
to support the hive.

(Fig. 67}

126

In most states, colonies must be inspected and a permit must be ob-
tained before bees can be moved into the state. These procedures may
also be required for movement between counties. Before moving your
bees, inquire about the regulations at your state Department of Agri-
ulture or other responsible agency.

Repelling Bees

When robbing gets started in an apiary, it may be necessary to repel
robber bees from weak colonies, open hives, and any equipment stacked
in the apiary. The first thing to do is reduce the size of entrances of
all weak colonies or nuclei. For extended periods, place a cleat over all
but an inch or two of the entrance. As a temporary measure, stuff grass,
leaves, or similar materials into the entrance so that only a small open
area is left to be defended by the bees. To make it easier for the bees
to remove the material later, do not push it in too tightly. If you must
continue to work, expose as little of the hive as possible. Set supers flat
on the inverted cover and put wet cloths over the top of them. Do not
set any frames outside the hive or expose honey, syrup, or bits of comb
to the robber bees. Under severe robbing conditions cover the open top
of the hive with wet cloths, leaving only enough space to examine one
comb.

There are no effective repellents available for use on crop plants to
reduce insecticide damage to bees. It is also difficult to repel bees from
their accustomed watering places such as bird baths and other places
where they are not wanted. Solutions containing pine tar, or having the
odor of phenol, are slightly repellent to honey bees and may be useful.

Saving Queenless Colonies and Helping Weak Ones

When you are certain that a colony is without a queen, there are
several things you can do for it, depending on the type of colony in-
volved and the time of year. The queen lost from a new package colony
must be replaced very quickly if the colony is to survive and be pro-
ductive. Get a queen locally if possible. In some localities, such as the
Chicago area, queens are available from bee supply dealers. Unfortu-
nately, by the time you are sure a package colony is queenless, it may
be too late to get either another queen or a replacement package. As a
last resort in such cases, you may want to put a swarm into your
equipment. By giving your name to the police department you can be
notified of the location of swarms.

Even small, queenless colonies can usually produce a queen if they
have eggs and young larvae or are given a comb containing them from

127

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

another colony. Insert a comb with a small amount of brood, less than
one-fourth of a frame, into the center of the cluster. Queens produced
under the adverse conditions in small colonies are rarely very good and
should be replaced later, but they can keep a colony alive and growing.

After a honey bee colony has been queenless for about two weeks,
worker bees begin to lay eggs. They do not lay in a neat pattern as the
queen does. They scatter eggs more randomly and put several eggs in
each cell. The eggs are usually on the sides of the cell instead of at the
base where they are placed by a queen. The presence of laying workers
in a colony makes it difficult to introduce a new, laying queen. The best
treatment is to remove the combs in which workers have laid and to
replace them with one or more frames of unsealed worker brood with
adhering bees. The added brood suppresses egg laying by the workers,
and the young bees are more receptive to a new queen than are the
older bees that make up a large part of the population of a queenless
hive. As soon as you have added the brood and bees, you can introduce
a new queen by placing her cage between the added frames. Do not try
to get rid of laying workers by moving the hive or by "shaking out"
the combs. Such methods are unsuccessful because laying workers can
fly as well as their nonlaying sisters.

Colonies in an apiary are often of different strengths, or popula-
tions, especially in the spring. Even those with good queens may be
slow in gaining size because of a heavy loss of bees during the winter.
You can help the smaller colonies by adding frames of sealed or emerg-
ing brood and bees from the larger ones. Before making such a transfer,
find the queen in the larger colony or make sure she is not on any comb
being transferred. Add one or more frames with brood and bees, giving
one for each four frames covered by bees in the smaller colony. On a
nice, warm day when the bees are flying well, you can use another
method to help the small colony. Shake the bees from several frames
of brood directly in front of, and close to, the entrance of the weak
colony. Select combs from a large colony after locating the queen. The
young bees will enter the colony with little or no resistance. The older
bees that have previously flown will return to their original colony.

A swarm can also be used to strengthen a weak colony rather than
to start a new one. Collect the swarm in a container, such as a card-
board box, from which you can easily dump it. Place an excluder, with
an empty deep super above it, over the frames of the weak colony.
Smoke both the colony and the swarm and dump the swarm bees into
the empty super. Continue to smoke the bees enough so that they move
down through the excluder. Find and remove the swarm queen, remove
the excluder and super, and replace the hive cover.

128

These methods of helping weaker colonies do two things for you.
They reduce the size of the large colonies and aid in swarm prevention.
They also produce colonies of more equal strength that can be manipu-
lated more uniformly. Honey production can be improved by bringing
the colonies into a nectar flow neither weak nor so big that they are
ready to swarm. Brood added to package colonies will also help them
to reach full strength much faster than colonies not given such help.

Transferring Bees

Many publications have been written about transferring bees from
primitive hives, buildings, and trees to modern hives. They usually
suggest tearing open the colony and fitting the combs into new frames.
Another method uses a screen cone or bee escape over the flight hole so
that bees can come out but not reenter the hole. The displaced bees are
supposed to enter a hive located beside the entrance.

Transferring bees is no job for the beginner, and it is not worth-
while for the experienced who can obtain all the bees they need by di-
viding their colonies. Rather than risk the possibility of being seriously
stung for little reward, you should resist the temptation to transfer a
colony and, instead, should kill the bees or leave them alone. If you
want to try removing bees from a building, do the job for a fee, not
[just for the bees and any honey in the colony. You might consider
transferring bees as a sport or a form of recreation, but it is not a good
way to begin beekeeping or to increase your number of colonies.

Trapping Pollen

Trapped pollen is of value for feeding bees. It will become increas-
ingly important as natural sources of pollen become scarcer and as more
colonies are used for spring pollination of crops such as apples. A
market has developed for pollen for use by commercial beekeepers to
feed their colonies.

Pollen traps vary in some features of design but all of the available
models have a double screen of 5-mesh hardware cloth that scrapes
some of the pollen pellets from the legs of incoming pollen-collecting
bees (Fig. 68). The pollen falls through another screen into a box or
tray where it is inaccessible to the colony and can be removed without
disturbing the bees. The traps remove only part of the incoming pollen
and they stimulate colonies to collect more. They probably reduce honey
production if used on the same colony for more than a week or two at
ia time. However, the value of the pollen for supplemental feeding can
■easily offset the loss of part of the honey crop from a few colonies.

129

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

The pollen should be collected from the traps at least three times per
week and dried or frozen for storage. If you wish to dry the pollen, use
shallow layers exposed to the air or heated at moderate temperatures,
not over 140°F. (60°C), in an oven. Ants, wax-moth larvae, and small
beetles are often found in the pollen. The ants can be discouraged by
use of sticky barriers or pans of oil surrounding the supports for the
hive (Fig. 68). Rain ruins pollen quickly and all traps seem to be vul-
nerable to it. In selecting a pollen trap, choose the design that will best
keep rain out and provide the maximum area of ventilation for the hive.
A plan for building a pollen trap is given on page 48.

Pollen trap and stand that fit beneath the hive. Bees enter through the wide
entrance and crawl upward into the hive through the double screen. The
pollen falls through the bottom screen and is removed on a tray from the
rear of the hive. (Modified from an original design by the Ontario Agricul-
tural College in Canada.) (Fig. 68)

130

Uniting Bees

Weak colonies are often liabilities instead of assets. This is espe-
cially true when they have poor queens or have been queenless so long
that laying workers are present. Such colonies will not make any honey
and are not good risks for wintering. They should be united with a
moderately strong colony with a good queen. Uniting two weak colonies
will not produce one strong colony.

Kill any queen present in the weak colony and place the hive, with-
iut a bottom board, above a single sheet of newspaper over the open

Jniting a small colony with a larger one by the paper method. (Fig. 69)

131

Miscellaneous Techniques in Beekeeping

top of the stronger colony (Fig. 69). Punch a few small slits in the
paper to make it easier for the bees to remove it. In hot weather wait
until late afternoon so the heat and lack of ventilation will not damage
the upper colony. The bees will remove the paper with little fighting
and the colonies will be united. Any colonies united in the fall should
be checked again before winter to be sure that the clusters are together
and that the hive has sufficient stores for winter.

Although the newspaper method is the safest way to unite bees and'
causes few losses of bees, colonies may be united without the precau-i
tions mentioned above. You can unite bees from several hives in the
same way as you can make divides and nuclei from frames of brood
and bees from several colonies. If none of the queens are of special
value, put all the bees together without finding or killing any queens.
The youngest queen is most likely to survive and only rarely will all of
the queens be killed. The united colony should be checked after a week
or two for the presence of the queen and its general condition and
arrangement. When colonies are united, the returning field bees from
the relocated hives are disoriented briefly. They soon join the united
colony and settle down with only minor problems.

132

DISEASES, PESTS,
J±2XU PESTICIDES
AFFECTING liOHSTEY BEES

The honey bee is subject to many diseases and pests as are other
insects and livestock. The diseases differ in their severity but all of
them can be prevented or controlled by proper management. Such man-
agement includes knowing and recognizing the symptoms of diseases,
inspecting colonies regularly, and applying control measures promptly
when disease is found. Drugs and antibiotics are effective in preventing
disease but cannot substitute for good management. They must be used
at the proper time and dosage to avoid contamination of honey.

The diseases of bees are usually divided into two classes — those
that attack the developing stages (the brood), and those that attack
adult bees. In general, the brood diseases are more serious and their
symptoms are more definite and distinctive than those of the adult
diseases. It takes experience and close observation to distinguish a dis-
eased larva or pupa from a healthy one, or one dead from other causes.
This experience can be gained only by frequent examination of the
combs of a colony. This is one of the reasons why the beginning bee-
keeper must open the colonies regularly.

Brood Diseases

American foulbrood. This disease, usually called AFB, has always
been a problem in beekeeping. It is caused by a bacterium, or germ,
called Bacillus larvae, which has a long-lived, resistant spore that can
remain dormant for more than 50 years in combs and honey. When
food containing spores is fed to a young larva, the spores germinate
land multiply until they kill the developing bee just after its cell is
sealed. Until that time no symptoms of the infection are visible except
perhaps a slight graying or dullness of the usually glistening white
immature insect. The infected bee dies as a larva stretched lengthwise
in the cell, or as a new pupa with the body features of an adult bee.
The capping of an infected cell may be slightly sunken and darker than
healthy ones around it. Adult bees often puncture the cappings of in-
jected cells and may remove them entirely. Since there are also holes

133

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

A dead larva im
fected with Amer-
ican foulbrooc
shown head on. H
shows the typical
melted appearance
even color, and
straight position iri
the cell. The celt
walls and cappings
were broken to ex-
pose the larva.

(Fig. 70)

in cells containing healthy larvae being capped, you must learn to dis-
tinguish them from abnormal ones. Worker, drone, and queen larvae
and pupae are all susceptible to American foulbrood.

The larva or pupa that dies of AFB always lies perfectly straight on
the lower side of the cell (Fig. 70). It loses its pearly white color and
rapidly turns light brown similar to the color of coffee with cream.
As it continues to decay and become dried, it turns dark brown and,
finally, it turns into a black dried scale on the lower side of the cell.
Other characteristic symptoms of American foulbrood are the some-
what glossy, uniform color of the dead larva or pupa, and the melted
look as the body and the body wall rot. Sometimes the bacteria make
the pupal tongue stick to the top of the cell. When this happens, the
tongue looks like a smooth, fine thread extending vertically across the
cell. However, many advanced cases of American foulbrood do not
show this symptom.

The bacteria rot the skin of the developing bee and turn the body
into a slimy mass that becomes stickier as it dries. This condition is
the basis for the "ropiness" test that can be used to aid in diagnosing the
disease. When making a diagnosis, you should carefully remove the
capping from a cell that appears abnormal, but do not touch its con-
tents until you have closely examined their color, position, and other
features. Only then should you touch the dead remains with a straw,
toothpick, or match stick. Do not use a hive tool for this purpose. Watch

134

to see what happens when you poke the remains. The larva or pupa with
AFB will often collapse into a rubbery mass. Stir it with the stick and
withdraw it slowly. If it strings or "ropes" out, see how far it will pull
out. More important however, is what happens when the string breaks.
If the cell is infected with American foulbrood, the mass on the stick
should look like a drop with no sign of the drawn-out string. The re-
mains left in the cell should be smooth with no sign of the drawn-out
piece. In contrast, a cell infected with European foulbrood usually
strings out and breaks off like a piece of dough or taffy.

The odor of American foulbrood is distinctive but is not a reliable
indicator because people's sensitivities to odors vary so widely, and
the odor may be strong or weak. The odor is similar to that of old-
fashioned animal glues that are now rarely used. However, it is better
jto rely on your eyes to diagnose the disease.

The black scales resulting from infection with American foulbrood
blend with the color of dark combs and are difficult to recognize. To see
them, hold the comb so that sunlight strikes the lower side of the cells.
The faint outline of the scale and the slightly raised head portion of it
will then be evident. When examining combs of dead colonies, look for
any sign of scales. They may be the only disease symptom present in
ithe hive.

American foulbrood is spread by the exchange of infected honey
and combs between colonies, either by the beekeeper or by robber bees.
Infected colonies rarely recover and as they become weakened and die,
they are often robbed by bees from nearby colonies. Reduce the size of
the entrance of any weak colony, and close any dead colony and remove
it from the apiary. You must be certain that weak or dead colonies do
not have AFB before you exchange any combs or honey from them or
anite them with other colonies.

If you need help in inspecting your colonies or diagnosing disease, it
s available in most states on request from the Department of Agricul-
ture. The best time for inspection is the period from mid-March to
ibout June 1st, before the nectar flow begins. Samples of diseased comb
for laboratory examination can be sent to the Bee Pathology Laboratory,
Entomology Building A, Agricultural Research Center, U.S. Depart-
nent of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705. Select a sample of
brood comb about 5 inches square that contains large numbers of
iffected cells. Mail it in a strong cardboard or wooden box without an
lirtight wrapping. Samples that are crushed or moldy because of im-
>roper packing make diagnosis impossible.

Disease control is primarily the responsibility of each beekeeper,
vho must learn the symptoms of the diseases and inspect the colonies

135

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

carefully for the presence of American foulbrood. At the minimum
inspect your bees in the spring and the fall. It may also pay you t
inspect colonies before putting on the honey supers and when you r«
move honey. At least one of the latter two inspections is essential if yo
have previously lost any colonies to American foulbrood. Bee disease
are spread more often within beekeeping operations than between then
and lack of inspection is a major cause of such spread.

Most state laws require the burning of colonies of bees infecte<
with American foulbrood. The colony must be killed and all the con
tents of the hive burned, including bees, combs, frames, and hone)
(See page 122 for directions for killing bees.) The fire should be buil
in a pit and the ashes covered afterwards. The cover, bottom boarc
and hive bodies should be scraped and then scorched. A blowtorch o
weed burner is suitable for scorching small quantities of equipmenl
For large quantities, brush the inside surfaces with a mixture of one
half gasoline and one-half motor oil and stack the hive bodies four o
five high. Light the stacks and allow them to burn long enough to lightl;
char the wood. Place a cover over the stack to put out the fire. After
ward, separate the hive bodies and be sure that all the fire is out or i
may later burn up the equipment.

Many methods of saving and treating diseased colonies have beej
tried and found to be ineffective. These methods sometimes requir
more expense and labor than the value of the diseased colonies. Whei
not done properly, the treatments often spread disease. Inspection an(
prevention are the best methods of control. The two medicinal agent;
that are valuable for preventive feeding for American foulbrood an
sodium sulfathiazole and oxytetracycline HC1 (Terramycin). Neithe:
material kills the disease organism but they prevent its growth whet
present in low concentrations in the food fed to larvae.

Sulfathiazole is a stable material suitable for use in sugar syrup o)
honey. Use 14 teaspoon per gallon of feed. Higher dosages may be toxu
to the bees and are no more effective in controlling the disease. Sulfa
thiazole powder mixed with an equal volume of powdered sugar can b(
used at the rate of 1/2 teaspoon per colony and placed on one or two to{
bars in the brood nest.

Terramycin is relatively unstable in honey or syrup solutions and i;
best used as a dust in mixture with powdered sugar. It is available I
at least two forms and in three concentrations of the active ingredient
Terramycin TM-50D contains 50 grams active material per pound
Terramycin Animal Formula Soluble Powder (TAFSP), usuall)
called TM-25, contains 25 grams active material per pound, and Terra-
mycin Feed Premix (TM-10) contains 10 grams active material pel

136

pound. All of these compounds must be diluted with powdered sugar
for application to colonies of bees. A ready-to-feed mixture is also
available. The desired dosage of 200 milligrams per ounce feeding can
be achieved as follows:

Product Amount Amount

formulation of drug of sugar

10 g/lb. 2i/4 tsp. ( i/3 oz. ) 3 tbsp. ( 1 oz. )

25g/lb. 1 tsp. 0/6 oz.) 3 tbsp. (loz.)

50 g/lb. y2 tsp. (Via oz. ) 3 tbsp. ( 1 oz. )

For larger quantities, increase the amounts according to the number of
colonies to be fed, or follow directions supplied by the manufacturer.

Place 3 level tablespoon fuls of the drug-sugar mixture over the top
of the frames at the outer edge of the brood nest. The drug in this con-
centration is toxic to larvae and should be kept from contact with brood.
Do not increase the dosage for any reason, but decrease the amount of
the drug mixture given to weak colonies.

Any medicinal agents or mixtures should be applied only after
inspection in the spring at least 2 months before the main nectar flow.
They may be used again after the honey is removed in late summer
or during the fall. Use them with care at the proper dosages, and follow
the directions and precautions on the labels. The products are available
at beekeeping supply companies, livestock supply stores, and feed stores.

European foulbrood. This brood disease, usually called EFB, ap-
pears to be much less common than American foulbrood in the Midwest.
It is caused by a bacterium, Streptococcus pluton, that does not always
kill the infected larva but sometimes may kill large numbers of larvae
very rapidly. The disease and its symptoms are highly variable, prob-
ably because of the presence of several other organisms in the dead
and dying larvae. EFB does not usually kill the colony, but a heavy
infection will seriously reduce honey production. It is not necessary
for beekeepers to kill colonies infected with EFB, but it is essential to
be able to distinguish European from American foulbrood disease.

Larvae infected with EFB usually die while still coiled in the bottom
of the unsealed cell. This is distinctly different from what occurs with
AFB. In some instances the disease may also affect sealed larvae and,
rarely, pupae. When this happens, the larva usually dies in a partially
curled or distorted position, only rarely lying straight on the lower side
of the cell as it does when infected with American foulbrood. Affected
larvae are not always the same color, as with AFB, but may be yellow,
gray, or brown, or a mixture of these colors. The air tubes, or tracheae,

137

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

often remain visible in the larva infected with EFB. Their presence
helps to distinguish the disease from AFB, in which no tracheae can be
seen in the decaying brood. The odor of European foulbrood may be
described as being sour or similar to the odor of rotting fish. As with I
AFB, it is best not to use odor for diagnosis because of its variability!
and the differences in the ability of people to distinguish odors.

The typical consistency of EFB-infected larvae is doughlike. The
remains may be somewhat ropy but less slimy and elastic than those of
AFB-infected bees. When pulled out of the cell, the material reacts like
dough or taffy when the pieces separate. Dried scales in comb mayj
appear similar to those of American foulbrood if lying straight in the |
cells. However, most of them are turned or twisted in the cell and can
be easily removed, whereas the scales of AFB are difficult to remove.
Worker, drone, and queen larvae are all susceptible to EFB.

European foulbrood may be controlled by use of Terramycin in the
same way as American foulbrood. This dual control exerted by the
antibiotic makes it a good choice for preventive feeding where both
diseases are a threat. Honey bee strains vary in their resistance to
European foulbrood. When only one or a few colonies are affected,
they should be requeened with a different strain of bees. The organisms
associated with European foulbrood are usually present even in hives
that do not show symptoms of disease. The susceptibility of the particu-
lar strain of bees and, perhaps, nutritional factors bring about the ap-
pearance of the disease at damaging levels.

Sacbrood. Sacbrood disease is caused by a virus and is common
but rarely serious in the Midwest. Like European foulbrood, it must be
distinguished from American foulbrood.

The presence of sacbrood-infected larvae produces a spotted ap-'
pearance of the brood combs, a condition shared with all other brood'
diseases. The larvae die extended on the lower side of the sealed cells,
and after they die part or all of the cappings may be removed by the
adult bees. The skin of the dead larva does not rot as it does if the
larva has died of foulbrood. Instead, it remains tough and encloses
the watery contents like a sack, giving the disease its name. The head of
the dead larva darkens more rapidly than the rest of the body and
stays upright in the cell. It has been compared with the tip of a wooden
Dutch shoe (Fig. 71). The elevated head of the completely dried larva
remains readily visible in the cell. Such a scale is easily removed fror
the cell.

Sacbrood is most common in the spring, usually affecting only a few
cells in a comb. Occasionally a very susceptible queen may have large

138

Two larvae, in un-
capped cells, infec-
ted with sacbrood
disease. (Fig. 71)

• numbers of affected larvae. The disease usually requires no treatment.
In severe cases, the colony should be requeened with a young queen
from a different strain of bees.

Other brood diseases. Another brood disease has become estab-
lished in many areas of the Midwest. It is called chalkbrood and is
caused by a fungus organism called Ascosphaera apis. The fungus kills
the larva after it is stretched out in the cell, turning it into a hard, white
mummy. It may be covered with small black spots, which are the

, reproductive bodies of the fungus. Such mummies can be seen in the
combs of infected colonies and on the landing boards of the hives where
they are often dropped by house-cleaning bees. The disease may become
severe in some colonies but is not expected to be a serious problem for
beekeepers. There are probably differences in resistance among strains
of bees, and requeening with a different strain may be of value in some

, cases. No control measures using drugs or chemicals are approved

; as yet.

Diseases too rare to discuss are parafoulbrood, a bacterial disease

j similar to European foulbrood, and stonebrood, caused by a fungus.
Plant poisoning of brood is also rare in the Midwest.

Chilled or starved brood may sometimes be confused with diseased

i brood. Such brood is usually found outside the cluster area of small
colonies and lacks most of the specific symptoms of the diseases because
all brood stages may be affected. When the weather warms or the colony
receives a new supply of food, the bees will quickly clean out all of the
dead brood.

139

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

Adult Bee Diseases

Adult bees suffer from several diseases that are usually found i
most colonies but rarely cause serious damage. In some other parts c
the world, a mite, Acarapis woodi, causes acarine disease when it infesl
the tracheae, or breathing tubes, of the bee's thorax. This mite has nc
been found in the United States or Canada, and both countries prohib
the importation of adult bees to prevent the introduction of acarin
disease. Several other species of mites infest honey bees in the Unite
States and elsewhere. Mites already present in the United States causi
damage to the bees, but the extent of such damage has not been mea
sured. Some mites found in honey bee colonies in other countries, par
ticularly in the tropics, cause serious injury to developing brood. Fo
this reason, importation of immature stages is no longer permitted i
order to prevent the accidental introduction of additional pests into thi
country.

Nosema disease. Nosema disease is an infection of the digestiv
organs of the adult bee by a single-celled organism, a protozoan calld
Nosema apis. Small numbers of infected bees may be found at almos
any time of year in apiaries throughout the United States. The natura
defenses of the individual and the colony against disease tend to keq
it under control. However, when the bees are confined to the hives b;l
poor spring weather, or subjected to stress from moving or special ma
nipulations, such as those for queen rearing and for shaking packag
bees, the disease may reach damaging levels. The lives of infected bee
are shortened, and affected colonies are weakened but rarely killed.

Nosema-infected colonies do not show any symptoms that are typi
cal of the disease. For this reason, positive diagnosis can be made onh
by examination of bees for the presence of spores of Nosema apis. Td
do this, ground-up abdomens or alimentary tracts must be examinee
under a microscope at 400 X magnification to detect the organism.

The disease is cyclical in its severity in the colony, with the greates
infection in late spring and the least in late summer or fall. It can b<i
controlled, at least in part, by feeding the antibiotic fumagillin (Fumidi
B). Complete control is difficult because of the chronic nature of thi;
infection in the bee's alimentary canal. The antibiotic must be available
to the bees for a considerable time to rid them of the organism. Th(
spores of the nosema organism are spread within and outside the colon)
with food and water. Infected bees soil the combs and spread infectior
within the colony. However, nosema infection does not cause dysentery
but bees suffering from dysentery may or may not have nosema disease.
Empty combs contaminated with spores may be heated to 120°F

140

(49°C.) for 24 hours to kill the spores. Treatment is not necessary
except where a serious problem exists. Control with fumagillin is most
effective in the fall when the normal level of the disease is lowest. Treat-
ment in the spring is less effective, and colonies generally overcome the
disease without help. Affected colonies may recover more quickly if given
frames of brood and bees from other colonies.

pans

eli

nttta

Dysentery. Although it is not a disease, dysentery is considered
here because so many beekeepers think of it as a disease symptom,
especially of nosema disease. Bees with dysentery are unable to hold
their waste products in their bodies and they release them in the hive or
close to it. The condition is recognized by the dark spots and streaks on
combs, on the exterior of the hive, and on the snow near the hive in late
winter (Fig. 72). Dysentery is caused by an excessive amount of water
n a bee's body. The consumption during the winter of coarsely granu-
ated honey or honey with a high water content is one cause of the
disease. Damp hive conditions may also contribute to the problem.
Good food and proper wintering conditions are important to prevent
he problem but there is no specific control for it once the bees are
ffected. The colony's recovery may be helped if it is given combs of
ow-moisture honey or fed heavy sugar syrup. Combs from colonies
with dysentery can be used safely in other colonies.

Dysentery of bees is indicated by the spotting of the hive and the snow
around it in late winter. (Fig. 72)

141

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

Paralysis. Paralysis is the name given to several similar ailments o:
bees caused by viruses. Affected bees often shake and twitch and ar<
unable to fly. In some cases the infected bees die within a day or two
in others, the life of the bee may only be shortened to about two-third:
its usual length. Normal bees may pull and bite the infected bees, caus
ing their bodies to be partially hairless and shiny. The abdomens o
such bees may also be enlarged. At present there are no special control*
except to requeen the colony with a queen from a totally unrelatec
strain of bees. There appear to be distinct differences in susceptibility
of different lines, races, and strains of honey bees to the viruses.

Other diseases of adult bees. Adult bees also suffer from othei
diseases such as septicemia and amoeba disease. Both are extremely rar<
and of little importance in the United States.

Pests of Honey Bees

Wax moths. The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, is a seri
ous pest of honey comb in most areas of the United States. The adul
moths are gray-brown and about ^4 incri long. In the daytime they arc
usually seen resting with their wings folded like a tent over their bodiei
(Fig. 73). When disturbed, the moths usually run rapidly before taking
flight. They lay their eggs on unprotected honey combs and in the cracks
between hive bodies of colonies of bees. The grayish-white larvae (Fig
74) are kept under control by the bees in normal colonies and do nc
harm. They may completely ruin the combs in weak or dead colonie;
and in stored equipment. Unless they are controlled, they feed on th(

Adult greater wa>
moths in a typica
resting position or
comb foundation.
(Fig. 73!

142

cocoons, cast skins, and pollen in the combs, and reduce them to a mass
of webs and waste products (Fig. 75). Keeping strong colonies and
fumigating stored equipment (see page 108) are the best ways to avoid
damage from wax moth.

Several other less common moth larvae are sometimes found in
combs. They usually feed only on the pollen in individual cells and are
rarely pests. Fumigation for greater wax moth controls all such moths.

Larvae of the

greater wax moth,

nearly full grown.

(Fig. 74)

A stored comb ruined by feeding of wax moth larvae. Cocoons are visible
among the webbing and on the frame top at the bottom of the illustration.

(Fig. 75)

143

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

Mice. Mice are a pest of stored combs and unoccupied combs in
bee hives, usually in the fall and winter. They chew the combs, eat
pollen, and build nests among the combs. In the late fall, hive entrances
should be reduced to y% inch in depth either by entrance cleats or by
reversing the bottom board to the shallow side. Excluders or tight covers
on stacks of stored combs will help to keep them mouse-free. Since
mice may chew into the supers, storage areas should be protected with
bait boxes containing an effective mouse poison. In apiaries where mice
are a serious problem, poison bait may be placed beneath the hives or in
bait boxes within an empty hive. Use all poisons with care, keep them
out of reach of children, and follow the directions on the labels.

Skunks. Skunks feed on bees at night by scratching at the front
of the hive and eating the bees as they come out to investigate the
disturbance. People rarely trap skunks for their pelts, and the animals
are increasing in numbers in many areas. It is not unusual to find sev-
eral in one apiary. The skunks weaken the colonies by eating large
numbers of bees and are most damaging in the fall and winter after
brood rearing has ceased. They also make the colonies mean and diffi-
cult to handle. If a colony suddenly stings more often and more bees
fly around your veil, look for scratching in the soil at the front corners
of the hives. Where skunks are numerous, they may dig enough to leave i
a trench in front of the hive. Their presence can also be detected by
fecal pellets that are composed largely of honey bee remains. Control
skunks by trapping or poisoning them according to recommendations
of your county agent or extension adviser.

Other pests of bees. Ants, toads, bears, birds, dragonflies, and other
animals prey on bees. Ants can be controlled by treating their nests
with an approved insecticide. Such materials are generally highly toxic <
to bees and should not be used close to the hives. Single colonies can
be placed on stands or benches protected by oil or sticky barriers. The
other pests are generally not a problem in the Midwest. However,
purple martins eat bees as well as other insects and may weaken colonies
in areas where there are large numbers of nesting sites. Woodpeckers
and flickers sometimes make holes in hives.

Human beings are often a serious pest of bees kept in outapiaries.
They may tip the hives over with their cars or by hand, shoot holes in
them, or steal honey and leave the hive covers off. Apiaries should be
visited regularly to watch for such damage. The problem may be
lessened by posting your name and address in the apiary in a conspic-
uous place.

144

Pesticides and Honey Bees

Toxicity of pesticides. Many materials that are used to control
insects, weeds, and plant diseases are toxic to honey bees. These pesti-
cides are placed in three groups in relation to their effects on bees.
Highly toxic materials are those that kill bees on contact during ap-
plication and for one or more days after treatment. Bees should be
moved from the area if highly toxic materials are used on plants the
bees are visiting. Among the materials in this group are the following:

aldicarb (Temik)

arsenicals

azinphosethyl (Ethyl Guthion)

azinphosmethyl (Guthion)

Azodrin

BHC

Bidrin
; Bomyl

carbaryl (Sevin)

carbofuran (Furadan)

chlorpyrifos (Dursban, Lorsban)

diazinon

dichlorvos (DDVP, Vapona)

dimethoate (Cygon, De-Fend)
[EPN

famphur (Famophos)

fensulfothion (Dasanit)

fenthion (Baytex)

Gardona

heptachlor

Imidan, Prolate

lindane

malathion, dilutea

malathion, low volume

Matacil

Mesurol

Metacide

methomide (Monitor)

methomyl (Lannate, Nudrin)

methyl parathion

Methyl Trithion

mevinphos ( Phosdrin ) b

Mobam

naled (Dibrom)b

parathion

phosphamidon (Dimecron)

propoxur (Baygon)

Zectran

Zinophos

a Kills bee primarily on contact.

b Short residual activity. Can usually be applied safely when bees are not in
flight. Do not apply over hives.

Moderately toxic materials can be used with limited damage to bees
if they are not applied over bees in the field or at the hives. Correct
dosage, timing, and method of application are essential. This group
includes the following:

i Abate

Banol

carbophenothion (Trithion)

chlordane
■ Ciodrin
| DDT

demeton (Systox)

disulfoton (Di-Syston)

endosulfan (Thiodan)

endothion

endrin

formetanate (Carzol)

methyl demeton (Meta Systox)

mirex

oxydemetonmethyl (Meta Systox

Perthane

phorate (Thimet)
phosalone (Zolone)
Pyramat
ronnel (Korlan)
tartar emetic

145

331

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

The greatest number of materials are included in the relatively
nontoxic group. These pesticides can be used around bees with few
precautions and a minimum of injury to bees. The following list in-
cludes some of the materials in this group:

allethrin ferbam (Fermate)

Aramite folpet (Phaltan)

Bacillus thuringicnsis Galecron, Fundal

binapacryl (Morocide) glyodin

Bordeaux mixture maneb

captan methoxychlor

chlorbenside Morestan

chlorobenzilate nabam

chloropropylate nicotine

copper compounds Omite

cryolite ovex

Dessin Plictran

dicofol (Kelthane) Polyram

Dilan pyrethrum

Dimite (DMC) rotenone

dinitrocyclohexylphenol sabadillaa

(DNOCHP) Strobane

dinocap (Karathane) sulfur

dinoseb (Premerge) Sulphenone

dioxathion (Delnav) tetradifon (Tedion)

dodine (Cyprex) toxaphene

Dyrene trichlorfon (Dylox, Proxol)

ethion zineb

fenson ziram

° Twenty-percent dust may cause bee losses.

Pesticides damage colonies in several ways. Most often they kill the
field bees without other effects on the colony. In some instances the
bees die in large numbers after returning to the hive. Many bees are
also lost in the field and the colony is weakened but not usually killed.
Sometimes materials are carried by the bees to the hive where they kill
brood and young bees in the colony. The entire colony may die when
this happens.

Methods of application. Losses from pesticides can be minimized
by cooperation among beekeepers, farmers, and spray operators. Several
basic principles should be followed to prevent losses of bees and to
avoid injury to people and farm animals. The first of these is to apply
the proper dosages and follow the recommendations on the label. The
method of application is also a factor to consider. Ground application
is generally safer than air application. The material and its formulation
play important roles in its toxicity to bees. In general, sprays are safer

146

than dusts, and emulsifiable concentrates are less toxic than wettable
powders. Materials applied as granules are the least hazardous. At
present there are no safe, effective repellents that can be used to keep
bees away from treated areas.

Proper timing of applications of pesticides allows the use of mod-
erately toxic materials on crops visited by bees. Bees visit different
crops at different times and for different periods during the day. The
timing of treatment of a crop should relate to these bee visits. Squashes,
pumpkins, and melons are attractive to bees early in the day but close
their blossoms in the afternoon. Afternoon and evening treatments,
after the flowers close, are safest for bees. Sweet corn sheds pollen
early and is visited by bees most heavily in the morning. Applications
of insecticides to sweet corn are least dangerous when made as late as
possible in the day, especially if the insecticide is kept off the tassels.
For most crops, pesticide applications are safest for bees if they are
made between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m.

The beekeeper's obligation. Beekeepers have responsibilities in
preventing losses to their bees and in learning to accept some damage,
especially in providing pollination services. In some areas, honey bee
losses must be anticipated and the risk weighed against the possible
returns from honey or pollination fees. Beekeepers should be familiar
with commonly used pesticides and their toxicity to bees. They should
know as much as possible about the relationships between their bees
and the nectar and pollen plants in their territory.

It is essential that the owners of bees can be located easily when a
nearby crop or the surrounding area is being treated with toxic mate-
rials. Therefore, a beekeeper should provide his or her name, address,
and telephone number to owners of land on which the bees are located.
This information should also be posted in the apiary in large, readable
letters. Beekeepers' organizations should compile directories of apiary
locations and their owners in each county, and make them available, to-
gether with marked maps, at the office of the county extension adviser
or county agent.

Beekeeper indemnification program. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture operates a beekeeper indemnity payment program
for losses of bees by pesticide applications. Beekeepers are reimbursed
for proven losses of bees from pesticides recommended by the Depart-
ment. To be eligible, beekeepers must register their bees before July 15
■ of each year with the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Ser-
vice (ASCS) office in their home counties. Such registration is in addi-
tion to any other required by the state. The program is authorized to

147

SI!
I

Diseases, Pests, and Pesticides Affecting Honey Bees

continue through the 1977 fiscal year but may be discontinued after that
time. For up-to-date information and registration forms, contact your
county ASCS office. Losses must be reported immediately so that an
inspection may be made of the damaged colonies.

Kit

148

:POLLI2KT.A.TIO:iSr
BY HOIMEY BEES

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains, the male sex cells of a
flower, from the anther where they are produced to the receptive sur-
face, or stigma, of the female organ of a flower. Since the honey bee
is the most important insect that transfers pollen between flowers and
between plants, the word "pollination" is often used to describe the
service of providing bees to pollinate crop plants. This service is now
more important than ever in the Midwest because the acreage of insect-
pollinated crops is large as compared with the number of all kinds of
bees (honey bees, bumble bees, and solitary bees) that are available to
provide pollination. In many states the estimated number of colonies
(hives) of bees has dropped drastically in recent years. For example,
in Illinois the estimated number of hives dropped from 101,000 in 1964
to 49,000 in 1974. These two figures are probably much more accurate
than some of the older, larger estimates that may have reflected state
pride more than reality. Because of the reduction in numbers of bees,
growers in any state can no longer assume that there are sufficient num-
bers of bees nearby to produce the best possible crop from insect-
pollinated plants.

Honey bees are good pollinators for many reasons. Their hairy-
bodies trap pollen and carry it between flowers. The bees require large
quantities of nectar and pollen to rear their young, and they visit
flowers regularly in large numbers to obtain these foods. In doing so,
they concentrate on one species of plant at a time and serve as good
pollinators for this reason. Their body size enables them to pollinate
flowers of many different shapes and sizes. The pollination potential
of the bees is increased because they can be managed to develop high
populations. The number of colonies can also be increased as needed
and the colonies can be moved to the most desirable location for polli-
nation purposes.

Honey bees are most active at temperatures between 60°F. (16°C.)
and 105 °F. (41 °C). Winds above 15 miles per hour reduce their activ-
ity and stop it completely at about 25 miles per hour. When conditions
for flight are not ideal, honey bees work close to their colonies. Although

149

Pollination by Honey Bees

they may fly as far as 5 miles in search of food, they usually go no
farther than 1 to li/2 miles in good weather. In unfavorable weather,
bees may visit only those plants nearest the hive. They also tend to<
work closer to the hive in areas where there are large numbers of at-
tractive plants in bloom.

The following midwestern crops must be pollinated by bees to pro-
duce fruit or seed:

Alfalfa

Apple

Apricot

Blackberry

Blueberry

Cherry

Clovers

Sweetclovers, white and yellow
True clovers

Alsike

Ladino

Red

White Dutch
Cranberry

Cucumber

Muskmelon, cantaloupe

Nectarine

Peach

Pear

Persimmon, native

Plum, prune

Pumpkin

Raspberry

Squash

Sunflower

Trefoil

Watermelon

The following crops set fruit or seed without insect visits but yields
and quality may be improved by honey bees:

Eggplant Okra

Grape Pepper

Lespedeza Soybean

Lima bean Strawberry

Honey bees visit several important crops but do not improve their
yields of fruit or seed. These include the following:

Field bean
Pea

String or snap bean
Sweet corn

The provision of bees for pollination of crop plants is a specialized
practice, not just a sideline of honey production. Beekeepers who sup-
ply bees for pollination must learn the skills of management that are
necessary for success in this phase of beekeeping. Such skills include
the development and selection of strong colonies that are able to pro-
vide the large force of field bees needed to do the job of transferring
pollen. This task of the beekeeper is hardest to accomplish for fruit
pollination early in the year. Each beekeeper or organization of bee-
keepers should set minimum standards for colony strength and size to
use as a basis for establishing prices and for providing the best possible
service. The number of bees, and not the number of hives, is the true

150

unit of measure, and growers need to be told and shown what standards
are being used to measure the honey bee colonies for pollination. For
example, colonies for apple pollination should be housed in a two-story
hive with a laying queen. There should be four or more frames with
brood and sufficient bees to cover them. There should also be a reserve
food supply of 10 pounds of honey or more. Colonies rented to pollinate
crops that bloom later in the year should be proportionately stronger,
with five or six frames with brood, approximately 600 to 800 square
inches. In the field, the colonies must be supered and examined at
intervals to keep them in suitable condition for pollination.

The number of standard colonies that are needed per acre of crop
plants varies in relation to the attractiveness of the crop, the competi-
tion from surrounding sources of nectar and pollen, and the percentage
of flowers that must produce fruit or seed to provide an economic re-
turn. Most crops are adequately pollinated by one strong hive of bees
per acre. However, red clover grown for seed should have two or more
colonies per acre moved to the field as soon as it begins to bloom (Fig.
76). Alfalfa requires three to five colonies per acre. Hybrid cumumbers
grown at plant populations of 40,000 to 70,000 or more plants per acre
for machine harvest may require up to four hives per acre. The higher
number of hives may be needed where other cultivated plants or weeds
compete strongly for the attention of the bees.

Pollination of second-crop red clover for seed. Honey bees are effective pol-
linators of red clover in July and August when other clovers have ceased to
bloom. Illinois produces more red clover seed than any other state, about
one-sixth of the total production. (Fig. 76)

151

Pollination by Honey Bees

9 ">**, ^.J;*^

£^N&

ag&Si|

w* y^^- ^^

5$|

"'.""'iSr

m**5^

n *

^mJL4

3^9

Honey bee hives placed in groups in an apple orchard in southern Illinois.

(Fig. 77)

Bees for pollination should be placed within or beside the crop to be
pollinated. For apples, place groups of 5 to 15 hives at intervals of
200 to 300 yards (Fig. 77). They should be moved into the orchard at
10 to 25 percent bloom. For cucumbers and other cucurbits, bees should
be moved to the field when the first female flowers appear, not before.
Place the bees in a single group for small fields. For fields larger than
30 acres, place the bees in two or more groups at the edges of the field
but leave no more than %o mi'e between groups. Bees seem to work
better upwind from their hives than downwind, so it is probably worth-
while to locate more colonies on the downwind side of the field or
orchard than on the side from which the wind blows.

Bees need a nearby source of water such as a farm pond or a stock
tank with cork floats on which they can land. Water is important in
the early spring for brood rearing and later for cooling the hives. In
fruit pollination the bees benefit from full sun and shelter from the
wind. Later in the year, some afternoon shade is helpful.

Contracts for honey bee pollination services should be a regular
part of the business when more than a few hives are involved. Con-
tracts prevent problems that may arise from misunderstanding, and
they serve to emphasize the obligations and rights of both grower and
beekeeper. Contracts should include provisions relating to pesticide
usage, colony standards and the rights of the grower to examine the
colonies, rights of access by the beekeeper, pollination fees and time of
payment, and a statement about the timing of movements of bees to and
from the crop.

152

Colony rental fees vary in relation to the expenses involved and the
length of time the colonies are needed. The potential or actual honey
production of the rented colonies is also a factor in establishing prices
for summer-blooming crops, with higher prices for less productive
plant species. Additional moves and the movement of colonies by grow-
ers may increase or lower the price. The Honey Market News (see
page 94) publishes typical prices being charged for pollination services.

153

SELECTED SOURCES
OF IN"FOrtlvlA.TI03Sr
OUST BEEKEEPING
J±2<IJD EQUIPMENT

Books, Handbooks, and Manuals

Bailey, L. 1963. Infectious diseases of the honey-bee. Land Books, Ltd., London

176 p. Out of print.
Butler, C. G. 1974. The world of the honeybee. 3rd ed. Collins, London. 226 p.
Crane. E., ed. 1975. Honey : a comprehensive survey. Crane, Russak & Co., New

York. 608 p.
Dadant & Sons, ed. 1975. The hive and the honey bee. 4th ed. Dadant & Sons,

Inc., Hamilton, Illinois. 740 p.
Dade, H. A. 1962. Anatomy and dissection of the honeybee. Bee Research As-
sociation, London. 158 p. + 20 foldout plates.
Eckert, J. E, and F. R. Shaw. 1960. Beekeeping. The Macmillan Co., New York..

536 p.
Free, J. B. 1970. Insect pollination of crops. Academic Press, New York. 544 p.
Frisch, K. von. 1967. The dance language and orientation of bees. Belknap Press, •

Cambridge, Massachusetts. 566 p.
Frisch, K. von. 1971. Bees. Their vision, chemical senses, and language. 2nd ed.

Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 157 p.
Kelley, W. T. 1976. How to keep bees and sell honey. 8th ed. Walter T. Kelley

Co., Clarkson, Kentucky. 144 p.

Killion, C. E. 1951. Honey in the comb. Killion and Sons, Paris, Illinois. 114 p. >
Out of print.

Laidlaw, H. H., Jr., and J. E. Eckert. 1962. Queen rearing. University of Cali-
fornia Press, Berkeley. 165 p.

Lindauer, M. 1971. Communication among social bees. 3rd printing with appen-
dices. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 161 p.

Lovell, H. B. 1966. Honey plants manual. A. I. Root Company, Medina, Ohio.
64 p.

Lovell, J. H. 1926. Honey plants of North America. A. I. Root Company, Medina,
Ohio. 408 p. Out of print.

McGregor, S. E., ed. 1971. Beekeeping in the United States. U.S. Department
of Agriculture Handbook 335. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 147 p.

Morse, R. A. 1974. The complete guide to beekeeping. 2nd ed. E. P. Dutton &
Co., New York. 219 p.

Pellett, F. C. 1938. History of American beekeeping. Collegiate Press, Inc.,
Ames, Iowa. 213 p. Out of print.

Pellett, F. C. 1976. American honey plants. Dadant & Sons, Inc., Hamilton,
Illinois. 467 p. Reprint of 1947 edition.

154

Root, A. I., E. R. Root, H. H. Root, and J. A. Root. 1975. The ABC and XYZ
of bee culture. 36th ed. A. I. Root Company, Medina, Ohio. 726 p.

Root, H. H. 1951. Beeswax. Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., Brooklyn, New
York. 154 p. Out of print.

Snodgrass, R. E. 1956. Anatomy of the honey bee. Comstock Publishing Associ-
ates, Ithaca, New York. 334 p.

Wenner, A. M. 1971. The bee language controversy.. Educational Programs Im-
provement Corporation, Boulder, Colorado. 109 p.

White, J. W., Jr., M. L. Riethof, M. H. Subers, and I. Kushnir. 1962. Composi-
tion of American honeys. U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulle-
tin 1261. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 124 p.

Periodicals

American Bee Journal. Hamilton, Illinois 62341. Monthly.

Bee World. Hill House, Chalfont St. Peter, Gerrards Cross, Bucks., England

SL9 ONR. Quarterly.
Gleanings in Bee Culture. Medina, Ohio 44256. Monthly.
The Speedy Bee. Route 1, Box G-27, Jesup, Georgia 31545. Monthly newspaper.

Beekeeping Organizations

American Beekeeping Federation, Inc., Route 1, Box 68, Cannon Falls, Minnesota

55009.
American Honey Producers Association, Inc., Box 368, Minco, Oklahoma 73059.
Write to your extension beekeeping specialist or state apiary inspector for current

addresses for state and local beekeeping associations. In Illinois, write to

Extension Apiculturist, 107b Horticulture Field Laboratory, University of

Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801.

Beekeeping Supplies and Equipment

Dadant & Sons, Inc. Hamilton, Illinois 62341.
Chr. Graze KG. D-7057 Endersbach, West Germany.
Hubbard Apiaries. Onsted, Michigan 49265.
Walter T. Kelley Co. Clarkson, Kentucky 42726.
Leahy Manufacturing Co. Higginsville, Missouri 64037.
August Lotz Co. Boyd, Wisconsin 54726.

A. I. Root Co. Medina, Ohio 44256 and Council Bluffs, Iowa 51501.
For sources of package bees and queens consult current issues of beekeeping
magazines.

Apiary Inspection, Registration, and
Beekeeping Information

In most states, apiary inspection and registration are carried out by employees
of the state Department of Agriculture. They can provide information about
laws relating to bee diseases, registration, and movement of colonies. They
may also be able to provide inspection and diagnosis of bee disease samples
on request. For such services in Illinois, write the Chief Apiary Inspector,
522 South Jefferson, Paris, Illinois 61944.

155

Selected Sources of Information

Beekeeping and pollination information is available through the Cooperative
Extension Service at the college of agriculture of the land grant university
in each state. Extension apiculturists or entomologists are available in every
state. In Illinois, help is available from the Extension Apiculturist, 107b
Horticulture Field Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture publishes information about bees and bee-
keeping and provides laboratory diagnosis for adult and brood diseases of I
bees. Requests for information and samples for examination can be sent to
the Bioenvironmental Bee Laboratory, Agricultural Research Center, Belts-
ville, Maryland 20705.

156

GhLOSS^RY

Abdomen — the last major body region of the bee, one of three

regions.
Acarine disease — - a disease of adult bees caused by a mite, Acarapis

woodi, infesting the tracheae. Not known to be present in North

America.
Adrenalin — a drug used for treatment of severe reactions to bee

stings; also called epinephrine.
Alimentary canal or tract — the passage in the bee's body that food

passes through from mouth to anus.
American foulbrood (AFB) — an infectious disease of immature

honey bees caused by a bacterium, Bacillus larvae.
Apiary — a place where bees are kept.
Apiculture ■ — beekeeping.

Balling — ■ the clustering of bees tightly around a queen bee, usually

in an attempt to kill her.
Bee blower — a portable machine that produces large volumes of

rapidly moving air to blow bees from combs.
Bee brush — a soft-bristled brush used for removing bees from combs.
Bee escape — a metal tube through which bees can move in only

one direction.
Bee space - — a }4- to ^-inch space through which a bee can move

freely; the space between the frames and exterior parts of a hive.

Bees will not build comb in it or seal it with propolis, thereby

allowing the frames to be removed easily.
Bee veil — a wire screen or cloth enclosure worn over the head and

neck to protect them from bee stings.
Beeswax — a substance secreted from glands on the bee's abdomen

that is used to construct comb.
Benzaldehyde — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs; a

component of oil of bitter almond. It has a smell that is pleasant to

humans.
Boardman feeder — see entrance feeder.
Bottom board — - the floor of a hive.

157

Glossary

Brood — the immature stages of the bee (egg, larva, and pupa)

considered together.
Brood chamber — the part of the hive in which young bees are

reared. It usually includes one or two hive bodies with combs.
Brood nest — the area within the combs in which young bees are

reared. It may include only part of one comb or many combs.
Burr comb — small pieces of comb built between combs and parts

of the hive.
Butyric anhydride — a liquid used to drive bees from honey combs.

It has an odor unpleasant for humans similar to that found in

rancid butter and perspiration.
Carniolan bee — a dark honey bee race originating in southeastern

Europe.
Castes — the different forms of adult female bees in a colony; workers

and queens.
Caucasian bee — a dark honey bee race originating in the Caucasus.
Cell — a single compartment in a honey comb.
Chunk honey — a piece or pieces of comb honey packed in a jar

with liquid extracted honey.
Cleansing flight — bee flight, after a period of confinement, to dis-
pose of feces or body wastes.
Colony — an entire honey bee family or social unit living together:

in a hive or other shelter.
Comb — a beeswax structure composed of two layers of horizontal

cells sharing their bases, usually within a wooden frame in a hive.

The words "comb" and "frame" are often used interchangeably;

for example, a frame of brood, a comb of brood.
Comb foundation — a sheet of beeswax embossed on each side with

the cell pattern.
Comb honey — honey in the sealed comb in which it was produced ;

also called section comb honey when produced in thin wooden

frames called sections, and bulk comb honey when produced in

shallow frames.
Creamed honey — finely granulated honey produced by adding fine

honey crystals to liquid honey.
Cucurbit — - a plant in the family Cucurbitaceae, which includes

squash, pumpkin, watermelon, muskmelon, and cucumber.
Cut comb honey — a portion of comb honey cut from a larger comb.

158

Division-board feeder — a waterproof, plastic or wooden syrup con-
tainer the size of a frame, used to feed bees within the hive.

Division screen — a wooden frame with two layers of wire screen
that serves to separate two colonies within the same hive, one above
the other.

Draw- — to shape and build, as to draw comb.

Drawn comb — a comb constructed on a sheet of foundation.

Drifting — the return of field bees to colonies other than their own.

Drone layer, drone-laying queen — a queen that is unable to lay

fertilized eggs because of failure to mate or lack of sufficient

spermatozoa; a queen whose eggs produce drones in worker cells.
Dysentery — - a malady of adult bees marked by an accumulation of

excess feces or waste products, and by their release in and near the

hive.

Entrance feeder — a wooden runway that fits into the hive entrance
so that bees may obtain syrup from a jar inverted into it.

Enzyme — an organic substance produced in plant or animal cells
that causes changes in other substances by catalytic action.

Epinephrine — see adrenalin.

Ethylene dibromide - — a liquid used to fumigate honey combs for
control of wax moth.

European foulbrood (EFB) • — an infectious disease of immature
honey bees caused by a bacterium, Streptococcus pluton.

Excluder — a thin grid of wire, wood and wire, sheet plastic, or sheet
zinc, with spaces wide enough for workers to pass through but not
queens or drones. It is used between hive bodies to confine queens
to one part of a hive.

Extracted honey — liquid honey removed from the comb by means
of an extractor or other methods of separation.

Extractor (honey extractor) — a hand- or power-driven device that

removes honey from the comb by centrifugal force.
Field bee (forager) — worker bee that collects nectar, pollen, water,

and propolis at locations outside the hive.
Foulbrood — a general name for infectious diseases of immature

bees that cause them to die and their remains to smell bad. The

term most often refers to American foulbrood.
Foundation — see comb foundation.

159

Glossary

Frame — a wooden rectangle that surrounds the comb and hangs
within the hive. It may be referred to as Hoffman, Langstrotb, or
self-spacing because of differences in size and widened end bars
that provide a bee space between the combs. The words "frame"
and "comb" are often used interchangeably; for example, a comb!
of brood, a frame of brood.

Fume board — a general name for any shallow wooden cover used
to hold repellents for driving bees from honey combs.

Fumigant — a material that acts as a disinfectant or pesticide in a
gaseous form when exposed to air.

Genetic or hereditary makeup — the characteristics of an individual
inherited from its parents.

Granulated honey — honey in which crystals of a sugar (dextrose)
have formed.

Granulation — the formation of sugar (dextrose) crystals in honey.

Head — the first major body region of an insect, bearing the eyes,
antennae, and mouthparts.

Hive — a wooden box or other container in which a honey bee col-
ony lives.

Hive body — a single wooden rim or shell that holds a set of frames.
When used for the brood nest, it is called a brood chamber; when
used above the brood nest for honey storage, it is called a super.
It may be of various widths and heights and adapted for comb
honey sections.

Hive cover — the roof or lid of a hive.

Hive loader — a mechanically operated boom and cradle for manip-
ulating hives and placing them on a truck.

Hive tool ■ — ■ a metal bar used to loosen frames and to separate the
parts of a hive.

Honey — a sweet, viscid fluid produced by honey bees from nectar
collected from flowers.

Honeydew — a sweet liquid, primarily plant sap, excreted by plant-
feeding insects and often collected by honey bees.

Honey flow — see nectar flow.

House bee — a young worker bee, 1 day to 2 weeks old, that works
only in the hive.

Hybrid bees — the offspring resulting from crosses of two or more
selected inbred lines (strains) of bees; the offspring of crosses be-
tween races of bees.

160

Inbreeding — - a breeding system that features mating of related indi-
viduals.
Inner cover — a thin wooden hive lid used beneath a telescoping

cover.
Italian bee - — a yellow honey bee race originating in Italy.
Langstroth hive — a hive with movable frames made possible by

the bee space around them. It was invented by L. L. Langstroth.
Larva, larvae — the grublike or wormlike immature form of an insect ;

the second stage in metamorphosis.
Laying worker — a worker bee that produces eggs that normally

develop into drones.
Legume — the common name for plants of the pea family, Legumi-

nosae, including clover, sweetclover, vetch, alfalfa, and many other

nectar and pollen plants.
Metamorphosis ■ — the series of changes through which an insect

passes from the egg to larva, pupa, and adult.
Nectar- — a sweet liquid secreted by plant glands (nectaries) usually

located in flowers, but also found on other parts of plants.
Nectar flow — the period when abundant nectar is available for

bees to produce honey for storage in the combs of the hive.

Nosema disease — an infectious disease of adult bees caused by a
protozoan, Nosema apis.

Nuc — abbreviation for nucleus.

Nuc box — a small hive used for housing a small colony or nucleus.

Nucleus, nuclei — a small colony of bees with a queen and enough
workers to cover two to five frames or combs.

Nurse bee — a young bee, usually 2 to 10 days old, that feeds and
cares for immature bees.

Outapiary — ■ an apiary located some distance from the beekeeper's
home.

Ovary- — -the egg-producing part of the female reproductive system.

Package bees - — 2 to 4 pounds of worker bees, usually with a queen,
in a screen-sided wooden cage with a can of sugar syrup for food.

Pallet — a cleated wooden stand on which supers are stacked for
bulk handling; also used to hold two to seven hives for moving,
especially for pollination service.

Paradichlorobenzene (PDB) — a white crystalline substance used
to fumigate combs and to repel wax moths.

161

Glossary

Paralysis — a disease of adult bees caused by a virus.

Pentachlorophenol (penta) — a liquid wood preservative used for
hive parts.

Pesticide — a general name for materials used to kill undesirable;

insects, plants, rodents, and other pests.
Pfund color grader — an instrument used to classify the color of

samples of liquid honey.
pH — a symbol for a measure of relative acidity or alkalinity of

solutions; values below 7 are acid, values above 7 are alkaline.
Pistil — the female part of a flower that includes the ovary, style,

and stigma.
Play flight — short flight in front of the hive taken by young bees

when they first leave the hive; an orientation flight.
Pollen — male sex cells, usually very small and powdery, produced

in the anthers of a flower.
Pollen basket ■ — an area on a bee's hind leg where pollen is packed

and carried with help from a central spine and surrounding hairs.
Pollen insert — a device placed in the hive entrance to apply live

pollen to outgoing bees for cross-pollination, as in apples.
Pollen substitute — a mixture of materials such as soy flour, casein,

brewers' yeast, and dried milk fed to bees to stimulate brood

rearing.

Pollen supplement — a mixture of pollen substitute and pollen fed
to bees to stimulate brood rearing.

Pollen trap — a device that removes pollen pellets from bees' legs as
they enter the hive.

Pollination — the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma,
the receptive surface of the female organ of a flower; in beekeep-
ing terms, pollination often refers to the service of providing bees
for pollination of crop plants.

Pollinator — an agent, such as an insect, that transfers pollen.

Pollinizer — a plant that furnishes pollen to another plant.

Propolis — plant resins collected from plants by bees to use in seal-
ing cracks and crevices in hives; bee glue.

Pupa, pupae — the inactive third stage in the complete metamor-
phosis of an insect. The adult body form is evident at this stage.

Queen-cage candy — a firm mixture of powdered sugar and liquid
invert sugar used in queen cages as food for the queen and her
attendant bees.

162

Queen excluder — see excluder.

Queenless colony — a honey bee colony without a queen.

Queenright colony — a honey bee colony with a queen.

Rabbet — a piece of wood or metal on which the frame ends hang in
the hive; a cutout area used as a frame rest.

Refractometer — an instrument for measuring the percent of soluble
solids in a solution, designed to read directly in percent moisture;
used for measuring the percent moisture in honey and nectar.

Reproductive system — the organs of the body, either male or fe-
male, concerned with producing offspring.

Requeening — removal of a queen from a colony and introduction
of a new one.

Robber bee — a field bee from one colony that takes, or tries to
take, honey from another colony.

Robbing — the stealing of honey from a colony by bees from another
colony.

Royal jelly- — a mixture of glandular secretions of worker bees fed
to developing queens.

Sacbrood — a virus disease of immature honey bees.

Scale colony — a hive that is maintained on a scale and whose weight
changes are measured and recorded daily or at other frequent
intervals.

Scout bee — a field bee that locates new sources of food, water, or
propolis, or a new home for a swarm.

Sealed brood — immature bees in their late larval and pupal stages

within capped cells of the comb.
Section comb honey — honey in sealed comb produced in thin

wooden frames called sections.

Sex alleles — hereditary characteristics of bees that, in part, deter-
mine the sex of the individual bee.

Slumgum — the refuse from melted combs after all or part of the
wax is removed.

Smoker — a steel container with an attached bellows in which burn-
ing materials furnish smoke to repel and subdue honey bees.

Social bees — bees that live in groups or colonies, such as bumble

bees, stingless bees, and honey bees.
Solar wax melter (solar extractor) — a glass-covered box used for

melting combs and cappings by heat from the sun.

163

Glossary

Solitary bees — bees that live alone and whose offspring individually

survive the winter, usually in an immature stage in a cell in the

ground or a variety of other sites.
Spiracles — the openings to an insect's internal breathing tubes, the

tracheae.
Stigma — the receptive surface of the female organ of a flower that

receives the pollen.
Super — a hive body used for honey storage above the brood chann

bers of a hive.
Supering — placing supers of comb or foundation on a hive, either

to give more room for brood rearing or for honey storage.
Supersedure — replacement by the bees of an established queen

with a new one without swarming.
Swarm - — a group of worker bees and a queen (usually the old one)

that leave the hive to establish a new colony; a word formerly used

to describe a hive or colony of bees.
Telescoping cover — a hive cover, used with an inner cover, that ex-
tends downward several inches on all four sides of a hive.
Thorax — the middle body region of an insect to which the wings

and legs are attached.
Trachea, tracheae — the breathing tube of an insect.
Transferring — ■ moving bees and comb from a natural nest in a

cavity or container to a movable frame hive.
Uncapping — ■ cutting a thin layer from a comb surface to remove

the wax covering from sealed cells of honey.
Uncapping knife — ■ a knife, usually heated, for cutting cappings

from honey comb.
Uniting — combining one honey bee colony with another.
Unsealed brood — eggs and larvae in open cells.
Virgin queen — an unmated queen.
Wax moth — an insect whose larvae feed on and destroy honey bee

combs.
Wired foundation — comb foundation manufactured with vertical

wires embedded in it for added strength.
Wiring — installing tinned wire in frames as support for combs.

lit,
:•■
ill

164

■1

"DEX

ne disease, 140
alin, 58
kjcan foulbrood (AFB), 62, 83-84, 103,
2 133-137
icba disease, 142
■SO, 130, 144

w: arrangement, 56-57; identification,
% 144, 147 ; location, 56-57, 98
Mr inspection, laws, 136, 155

fDlower, 81, 83; books, 154-155; brush,
4 dances, 15-17; escape, 80; gloves, 34;
image, 15-17; space, 20, 37, 52; spot-
in (feces), 57 ; stings, 58-59 ; waterer, 58 ;
eialso Drone bee, Queen bee, Worker

i>, 80

ftping: how to start, 52-53; organiza-
m, 155; periodicals, 155; supplies and
qipment, 155; terms, 157-164; when to
It, 52-53

•as nuisances, 57-58, 68, 73 ; as pollina-
I 149-150; confining to hive, 99-101,
I how to kill, 122 ; number in Illinois,

^jax: processing, 44-45, 111; secretion
■workers, 7, 70, 77; sources, 109-111;
ifes, 109
■dehyde, 80
>*-, bee, 81, 83
albee, 154-155
«-s' yeast, 47, 106

o: chamber, 23, 25; chilled, 139; dis-
is;, 83-84, 133-139; pattern, 62;
fifed, 139

■j nest : characteristics, 13, 64; han-
Utt, 64; location in hive, 13-14, 60, 76;
atjrn, 13, 62; size, 13-14; temperature,

•libee, 34

Ifebmb honey, 19, 79

iyft anhydride, 80

^esqueen introduction, 115
id: queen cage, 118
>$gs, 4, 45, 111
rfyl (Sevin), 122

Carbon dioxide fumigation, 108-109

Carniolan race, characteristics, 12

Caucasian race : characteristics, 12 ; drone
relations, 8

Chalkbrood, 139

Chunk honey, 19

Clothing, beekeeper's, 34

Cold starvation, 98

Colonies: dividing, 101-103; uniting, 128,
131-132

Colony: clustering temperature, 64; confin-
ing to hive, 99-101; dividing, 75, 101-103;
equalizing, 128; examining, 58-61, 66-67;
fall management, 80, 95-98; feeding, 66,
103-108; food reserves, 65, 69; inspecting
for disease, 52, 55, 62, 67; killing, 122;
movement in hive, 14, 67; moving, 102,
123-127; preparing for winter, 80, 95-98;
reversing, 67 ; space in spring, 65-66, 74 ;
spring management, 65-67, 70; standards
for pollination, 150-151 ; summer manage-
ment, 73-78 ; supering, 66, 76-78

Comb foundation, 7, 23-25, 29

Comb honey, 18-19, 24, 76, 86, 92, 108-109

Combs: care of stored, 99, 108-109; culling,
67; handling, 29, 60; rendering, 44

Communication: alarm, 15; by food and
odor, 15, 70; dances (language), 15-16;
presence of queen, 15

Confining bees to hive, 99-101

Creamed honey, 19, 90

Cut comb honey, 19, 23, 25, 79

Cyanide dust, 122

Dadant, Charles, 20

Dadant-depth frames, 41-42

Dadant-depth super, 23

Dances, bee, 15-17

Disease: acarine, 140; American foulbrood
(AFB), 62, 83-84, 103, 120, 133-137;
amoeba, 142; chalkbrood, 139; diagnosis
service, 135 ; drugs and antibiotics, 67, 96,
103, 120, 136-137, 138, 140-141; dysentery,
140-141; European foulbrood (EFB), 137-
138; nosema, 140-141; para foulbrood, 139;
paralysis, 142; sacbrood, 138-139; septi-
cemia, 142 ; stonebrood, 139

165

Index

Diseases: adult, 140-142; brood, 83-84, 133-
139 ; in purchased bees, 52, 55

Division screens, 95-96, 101

Divisions, making, 75, 101-103

Drifting of bees, 56-57

Drone bee : appearance, 3 ; congregation
(mating) areas, 8, 10; development, 8, 12;
diploid, 8; expulsion from hive, 8; in
worker-sized cells, 8; mating, 8, 9; num-
bers, 7

Drone-laying queen, 10

Dysentery, 140-141

Embedder: electrical, 30, 42-44; spur, 29

Embedding board, 29, 42-44

Epinephrine, 58

Escape board, 80

Ethylene dibromide (EDB), 108

European foulbrood (EFB), 137-138

Excluder, 34, 44-45, 75-76, 95

Extracted (liquid) honey, 19, 76, 87-90, 92

Extracting honey, 84, 87-88

Extractors, honey, 87-88, 89

Fall management, 80, 95-98

Feeders, 104

Feeding: emergency methods, 104-106;

equipment, 54, 104; honey and sugar, 80,

103-106; package bees, 53-54; pollen and

pollen mixtures, 68, 106-108
Fermentation of honey, 79, 85, 89, 90
Foundation: embedding wires in, 29, 42, 44;

installing in frames, 24, 29; proper use, 7,

25, 74, 78; types, 23; use of full hive

bodies, 62, 76, 78
Frames : assembling, 27-28 ; handling 29, 60 ;

making, 39; number in hive, 61-62; types,

24; wiring, 28, 39,41-42
Fumagillin (Fumidil B), 140-141
Fume board, 80-81
Fumidil B (fumagillin), 140-141
Fumigation of combs, 84, 108-109

Gauntlets, 34
Gloves, 34
Granulated honey, 19

Hanging out, 74

Hive: assembly, 27, 37; buying used, 52
construction, 23, 36-39; entrances, 25, 37
96 ; equipment needed for one, 21, 23
fastening together, 25 ; identification, 120
loader, 57, 125; number of combs, 61-62
painting, 32, 39; parts, 21, 25; stand, 27
staples, 123-124; tool, 32; types, 20

Honey: acids, 18, 89; color, 76, 92
standards, 92; bulk comb, 19; chui
comb, 18-19, 76, 86, 92; composite
creamed, 19, 90; cut comb, 19, 23,
enzymes, 17-18; extracted (liquid),
87-90, 92 ; extracting, 84, 87-88 ; extr
87-88, 89; fermentation, 79, 85, i
flavor, 76 ; fumigation of comb hone
109; grades, 92; granulated, 19, 90?
ulation, 18-19, 89; heating, 89-90;
84; hydrogen peroxide, 18; hydrc
92-93; in brood nest, 13-14; labelir
92; making, 17-18; marketing,
moisture, 18, 79, 85, 90, 92; price si
94; processing by bees, 17-18, 77; {
sing by man, 84-90; processing equi
84-89; refractometer, 92-93; ren
from hive, 64, 79-84 ; sampling, 93 ; <
comb, 19, 23-24; stomach, 17; stora;
86-87, 89-90; straining, 89; sugar
sump, 89; types, 19; use by colon
yeasts, 89, 90

Honey Market News, 94, 153

Honey plants, 57, 69-72

Honey war, 1

Honeydew, 17, 72

Hydrogen peroxide in honey, 18

Hydrometer, honey, 92-93

Indemnification for bee losses, 147-14
Insecticides : to kill colonies, 122 ; tra

145-147
Inspection for disease : before buying

52, 55; before moving, 127; impor

62, 83, 135-136; timing, 67, 83-84, 96

135-136

Introducing queens, 54-55, 101, 113-11
Isopentyl acetate, 15
Italian race : characteristics, 12 ; dron

lations, 8

Killing bees in hives and buildings, 1Z

Labels for honey, 91-92

Langstroth hive, 20

Langstroth, L. L., 20

Language, bee, 15-17

Laws: bee disease, 136, 155; honey mai
ing, 91-92; importing bees, 140; inspec,
155; labeling, 91-92; moving permits,

Laying worker, 8, 128, 131

Learning by bees, 14-15

Loader, bee hive, 57, 125

Location of hives, 56-57

166

■; :ines, bee, 155
k 96, 144
ni|on bees, 140

g bees, 57, 102, 123-127

g screens, 99-101, 124

.-, 17, 65, 69, 76, 77, 78
- and pollen plants 57, 69-72
ia disease, 140-141
oxes, 37

is colonies (nuclei) : making, 75, 101-
starting with, 52-53, 55
loline, 118

izations, beekeeping, 155
tracycline HC1, 136

ge bees : feeding, 53-54 ; helping, 129 ;

tiling, 54-55 ; shaking, 83 ; size to buy,

starting with, 52, 53-55

, 37, 39, 84, 125

ichlorobenzene (PDB), 108-109

>ulbrood, 139

sis, 142

(paradichlorobenzene), 108-109

:hlorophenol, 27, 32

icals, beekeeping, 155
-■tide indemnification, 147-148
Ides, 99, 145-148
i>f bees, 96, 142-144

■ color grader, 92
lights, 5

■zed light, 14

1: collection, 70; feeding, 68, 95, 106-

■1 in brood nest, 13-14; storage, 49, 130;

m and trapping, 47-50, 106, 129-131;

»y colony, 7, 64, 68

Mtion: alfalfa, 151; apple, 151, 152;

■ specialty, 150; colony standards, 150-
I contracts, 152; cucumber, 151, 152;

m per acre, 151; Midwest crops, 150;

laiment of hives, 152; red clover, 151;

m.\ fees, 153; value and use of bees,

,:9-153

>|is, 5, 12, 37, 72-73

* bee: appearance, 3; cages, 115; clip-
ii, 27, 113; development, 9-10, 12; egg
l*S, 8, 10, 62; egg production, 10;
■rig, 62, 101; gland secretions, 15, 73;
■ling, 60, 111-119; introducing, 54-55,
31113-118; judging, 62; length of life,
3;narking, 111-113; mating, 9-10; rear-
i|34, 119; replacement by man, 114-115,

I 139, 142 ; replacement by workers,
-I; storing, 118-119; supersedure, 10, 73

Queen cage candy, 118

Queen cage syrup, 118

Queen cell cups, 9-10, 75

Queen cells, 10, 15, 34, 73, 75, 114, 116

Queen excluder, 34, 44-45, 75-76, 95

Queenless colony, saving, 127-128

Races of bees, 12, 112

Records : bee management, 121 ; financial,

121-122
Refractometer, honey, 92-93
Registration of bees, 147, 155
Removing honey, 64, 79-84
Repellents for removing honey, 80-81
Repelling bees, 127
Requeening, 83, 138, 139, 142
Reversing, 67

Robbing, 45, 65, 99, 103, 127, 135
Royal jelly, 10

Sacbrood, 138-139

Scale colony, 77

Screens for hives, 99-101, 124

Section comb honey, 19, 23-24, 79

Septicemia, 142

Sevin (carbaryl), 122

Sex alleles, 8, 62

Skunks, 144

Slumgum, 45, 111

Smoke: effect on bees, 59; preventing sting-
ing, 59; use, finding queen, 62; use, mov-
ing bees, 125 ; use, opening hive, 55, 59,
60-61, 66; use, removing honey, 80-81

Smoker: fuel, 59; sizes, 32; use, 59, 60-61,
62, 66, 80-81

Solar wax melter, 44-46, 111

Soy flour, 47, 106, 108

Spring management, 65-67, 70

Starvation, cold, 98

Stings: avoiding, 59; emergency treatment,
58-59; reaction to, 58; removing, 59

Stonebrood, 139

Sulfathiazole, 103, 120, 136

Summer management, 73-78

Supering, 66, 76-78

Supersedure, 10, 73

Supplies and equipment, 155

Support pins, 25, 29

Swarming: causes, 65, 73, 76; detection, 74-
75; odors, 15; prevention, 67, 74-75, 101,
129; timing, 73

Swarms: disease carried by, 120; hiving,
119-120; makeup, 73; selection of home,
17; starting with, 55

167

Index

Temperature : brood nest, 13 ; clustering, 13,
64; effect on flight, 149; effect on fumi-
gants, 108; honey granulation, 90; honey
processing, 87, 89-90; honey storage, 79,
86-87, 89-90, 109; pollen drying, 130;
spring inspection, 66 ; to kill Nosema, 140-
141 ; to kill wax moth, 109

Terramycin, 136-137, 138

Top entrance, 96

Transferring bees, 55, 129

Travel stain, 79

Uncapping, 87, 111

Uniting colonies, 128, 131-132

Veils: making, 50-51; types, 34; use, 34, 50

Water and bees, 56, 57-58, 78, 152

Wax, see Beeswax

Wax moth, 84, 108-109, 142-143

Wind: effect on flight, 16, 149, 152; pre
tion from, 56, 98, 152

Winter : losses of bees, 67, 98 ; prepara
for, 80, 95-98

Wiring board, 28, 39-42

Wiring frames, 28, 39, 41-42

Wood preservative, 27, 32, 39

Worker bee: abilities, 14; appearance
dances, 15-17; development, 4, 12; du
5; foraging, 17, 69, 73, 123, 149-!
glands, 7, 14; larvae, 4; length of life
metamorphosis, 4, 12 ; number in colon

168

Elbert R. Jaycox was educated in California, where he re-
ceived his Ph.D. in entomology from the University of Cali-
fornia, Davis. For several seasons, he worked in commercial
honey production and in the package bee and queen industry.
He was Supervisor of Apiary Inspection for the California
Department of Agriculture and later became Research Ento-
mologist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In 1963,
he moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
where he is Professor of Apiculture in the Departments of
Horticulture and Entomology. He teaches courses in bee
behavior and beekeeping, does research on bee behavior, and
serves as extension beekeeping specialist.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and
June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
JOHN B. CLAAR, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The Illinois Cooperative Extension Service
provides equal opportunities in programs and employment. (September,
1976) 10M— 9-76— 34696— MN

169

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