Keep Your Card in This Pocket
Books will be Issued only on presentation of proper
library cards.
Unless labeled otherwise, books may be retained
for two weeks. Borrowers finding books marked^ <$e/
iaced or mutilated are expected to report same" 'at
library desk; otherwise the last borrower will be held
responsible for all imperfections discovered.
The card holder is responsibk-for all books drawn
on mis card.
Penalty for over-due books 2c a day plus cost of
notices.
Lost cards and change of residence must be re-'
ported promptly.
Public Library
Kansas City, Mo.
TENSION , ENVELOPE CORP-
1148 00379 7529
Bel Canto
in Its Golden Age
in Its Go/den
A STUDY OF ITS TEACHING CONCEPTS
by
PHILIP A. DUEY
KING'S CROWN PRESS
Columbia University, Nemo York
Copyright 7p5/ by Philip A. Duey
King's Crown Press is an imprint established by Colum-
bia University Press for the purpose of making certain
scholarly material available at minimum cost. Toward
that end, the publishers have used standardized formats
incorporating every reasonable economy that does not in-
terfere with legibility. The author has assumed complete
responsibility for editorial style and for proofreading.
Published in Great Britain, Canada, and India
by Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press
London, Toronto and Bombay
Manufactured in the United States of America
PREFACE
AMONG the opinions presently held by music psychologists in re-
gard to singing there are three that are of paramount interest
both to the teacher and student of singing. The first is that no
evidence exists that anatomical and physiological studies of voice
production help in any way the process of learning to sing. The
second is that attempts to consciously control a certain muscle or
muscles become pitfalls for voice students. And the third is that it
is unnecessary for students of singing to go beyond the problem of
mechanics such as pose, breathing, mouth position, and so forth.
These opinions are not generally shared by singing teachers and
writers of singing methods.
It is common experience for voice students to be met with a
different set of rules and vocabulary in whatever studio they
chance to enter. Nor is much agreement to be found in the printed
pages of those who write on "How to Sing." Nearly all of them
go more or less into detail concerning the function of the muscles,
nerves, cartilages, and bones involved in voice production. Even
physicists and anatomists have come forth boldly in the past hun-
dred years to dogmatize on the whys and wherefores of proper
singing techniques. Scientific methods of voice production from
the hands of persons of little or no professional and artistic ability
have appeared regularly in print and enjoyed considerable popu-
larity largely because of the esoteric claims made therein. All of
which has led one psychological authority to say that there are
few areas "where one finds a greater profusion of impossible
ideas, or wilder clouds of mythology." 1
However, there is one period when the art of singing became
epitomized into a style and a technique that set the model for
correct singing throughout the Western World. This era was
that of the so-called bel canto, a term now generally used to de-
note that flowering of vocal lyricism which reached its peak during
the course of the eighteenth century in Italy. From her conserva-
tories this "Land of Song" poured forth a flood of singers and
teachers that not only made Italian musical terminology official in
vi PREFACE
all languages, but also established the Italian "maestro" as the
sine qua non wherever music was the subject of serious study, both
of which developments have persisted with remarkable tenacity to
our own day. Italian opera was their stock in trade and together
they placed that peculiarly unnatural exponent of the whole sys-
tem, the "castrato," in a state of eminence that reached at times a
point approaching veneration, and made the castrati the favorites
of court and salon throughout Europe. Bel canto was king and
generously lavished its vocal affluence upon all who came to be
astounded, by its technical accomplishments or to be overcome by
the sheer beauty of its tone.
Why should this subject be investigated? There are adequate
reasons. In the first place the story of singing has never been told. 2
This chapter of the history of music has yet to be carefully investi-
gated and chronicled. And since the history of all vital human
activity, in which singing is certainly to be included, has long since
been justified, we may safely assume that the history of singing
deserves telling. Besides, the term bel canto has been given a
rather loose application. One of America's most highly regarded
voice teachers has defined it as C( that magic system which every
self-respecting teacher of singing professes to teach and which
every self-respecting newspaper critic says is an extinct art" 8
An English authority says, "In modern usage the phrase has be-
come studio cant, for there is no school of bel canto." * The term
does not appear in the dictionaries until after 1900, and those that
do define it usually say that it denotes the method of singing de-
veloped in Italy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries which
emphasized beauty of tone and vocal technique. Yet the expression
as a specialized term, with particular meaning apart from con-
text, does not seem to appear in print until after 1850.
The most important reason for investigation, however, is the
fact that the two cardinal principles of bel canto, virtuosity and
beauty of tone, still remain among the prime requisites of good
singing today. Therefore an investigation which would throw
light on how they achieved these ends should be of value to student
and teacher alike.
As mentioned above, our own manuals on singing usually de-
vote a goodly share of their pages to the physiology and hygiene
PREFACE vii
involved in the vocal processes. Research which would reveal how
and to what extent these factors were integrated in the singing
method of the period under consideration should in turn reveal
pertinent guides for our own times. Artists and teachers involved
in creative endeavours have always returned again and again to
the masters to seek guidance and inspiration from the things they
said and did. In some respects, at least, bel canto is singing's fin-
est model. This study is an effort to find out some of the things
that were said and done about the art of singing during the pe-
riod of its greatest virtuosity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IT is a pleasure to express my gratitude to those who have been so
helpful during the course of this study. I am especially indebted to
Professors James L. Mursell, Harry R. Wilson, Howard Mur-
phy, Jane Dorsey Zimmerman, Herbert Walker, and Erling M.
Hunt, all of Teachers College, Columbia University. Doctors
Ross Golden, Samuel R. Detwiler, and Raymond C. Truex of the
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, gave
valuable specialized assistance, while Professors Paul Henry
Lang and Erich Hertzmann of the Department of Musicology,
Columbia University, were generous counselors. The library staffs
at Teachers College, the Columbia University Music Library, the
New York Public Library Music Division, and the New York
Academy of Medicine were all of great service. In addition to
these, I am grateful to teachers, classmates, and friends whose
assistance, interest, and good will have been the sustaining influ-
ence in making this project a reality.
CONTENTS
PART I: INTRODUCTION
I. THE PROBLEM I
II. DEFINITION OF TERMS 3
PART II: BACKGROUNDS
III. LARYNGOLOGY 13
IV. VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE l6oO 19
V. DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE PRIOR TO
1600 25
VI. THE CASTRATI 44
PART III: BEL CANTO PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
HYGIENIC FACTORS IN ITS DEVELOPMENT
VII. APPEARANCE AND POSE 60
VIII. BREATHING 74
IX. EAR TRAINING 9O
X. RESONATORS IO2
XI. VOICE REGISTERS 112
XII. VOCAL ORGANS 126
XIII. VOCAL HYGIENE 139
XIV. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS *5 2
IN FINE *55
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX 2I 7
PART I: INTRODUCTION
I. THE PROBLEM
ONE reads much and hears more about the vocal secrets of the
old Italian School of singing, commonly called bel canto. It in-
variably is described as the Golden Age of Song, a period when
the art of singing was supposed to be more highly developed
than at any time before or after. Its floruit is usually regarded
as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with a special Ros-
sinian flavor being added during the second and third decades
of the nineteenth century, followed by a rather rapid descent as
Romanticism triumphantly gained the upper hand and forced
into limbo all that remained of classic and rococo elements. The
aura of legend and mystery that has surrounded it since has
served to confound rather than assist in understanding it.
Another element of great significance in singing has been the
scientific study of the voice. An analysis of all the physiological
functions involved has been widely held to be not only useful but
also to be the only means to achieve vocal mastery. There is
no question that we know more today than ever before about
the mechanics of voice production, but instead of being an
aid, this knowledge appears only to have broadened the field
of controversy where the problem of correct singing is in-
volved.
This leads us to an interesting hypothesis. If the singers of
two or more centuries ago commanded and used a technique
which challenges or surpasses the abilities of our own perform-
ers, then the present emphasis on the mechanical study of voice
production is beside the point. The problem then becomes one of
finding out the extent to which physiological factors were studied
by those learning to sing according to this old Italian method.
Because of the close relationship of the care and preservation
of the voice to the study of singing at all times, it has been con-
sidered desirable to include vocal hygiene within the scope of
this study. Therefore within the limits as defined below (Chap-
2 THE PROBLEM
ter II), available sources will be examined with the purpose of
finding out to what extent physiological and hygienic factors
were emphasized in the old Italian method of singing known as
"Bel Canto."
II. DEFINITION OF TERMS
PHYSIOLOGY will be regarded in the strict sense of the word, as
having to do only with the function of the organs and tissues
used in the process of phonation. This is to insure the reader
against the introduction of anatomical matters concerned with
the structure of these organs or pathological considerations con-
cerned with their diseases.
Hygiene will be used in the sense of the care and preservation
of the voice. The object is to discover what means were taken to
insure a healthy state of the vocal processes.
Bel canto is not so easily defined. It will be necessary to place
some arbitrary limitations on our use of the term. There is no
standard definition although there does seem to be a usage which
has gradually found favor not only in music dictionaries but in
general lexicons as well. It runs like this: "Bel canto (It. 'beauti-
ful singing'), denotes the Italian vocal technique of the i8th
century with its emphasis on beauty of tone and brilliant vir-
tuosity, rather than dramatic expression or romantic emotion." *
This style of singing, along with the teaching methods used, are
regarded by many to have been lost in the myriad musical cross
currents of the nineteenth century. On the other hand it is not
uncommon to find teachers today who claim their method is that
of bel canto? and the popular musical journals sometimes dis-
cuss the term with no reference whatever to eighteenth century
Italian vocal style. 3 The voice student today reads or is told
that the bel canto style is the only way to sing and many a teacher
will say with assurance that his method is that of bel canto )
but when pressed for explanation, he adds many words but
throws little light upon the subject.
Some definitions speak of its application to the seventeenth
and eighteenth century Italian style of singing and add that in
the nineteenth century it came to be distinguished from the
Wagnerian declamatory style of dramatic vocalism. 4 It is of
no little interest to note that the definitions of bel canto in the
4 DEFINITION OF TERMS
present German lexicons extend a somewhat wider application
to the term. They admit that its standards of tone quality and
vocalization have been an integral part of the Italian methods
of singing from the seventeenth century to date. They also ad-
mit that the German style of singing has placed more emphasis
on dramatic and declamatory elements. However they make the
point that the German style of singing also calls for beautiful
tone and virtuosity. 5
All of these shades and varieties of opinions naturally invite
etymological investigation. Here, the first thing that strikes with
force is the fact that the term does not appear as a particularized
expression, out of context, during the period with which it is
most often associated, i.e., the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies. It becomes more astonishing to find that neither the
musical nor the general dictionaries see fit to include it until
after 1900. Even after this date, Grove's, the most compre-
hensive music dictionary in the English language, does not list
the term, nor does Vannes, 6 most comprehensive of all diction-
aries of musical terminology. Baker's dictionary 7 includes it in
the supplement of the 1905 edition, although it is not to be
found in the 1899 edition, and the first date given by Murray's
(Oxford) dictionary for its use is 1908. Riemann's Musik-
Lexicon, considered by many to rank first among all music dic-
tionaries, does not give it a listing until the eighth edition, in 1916.
These facts have led us to a considerable investigation of
books, periodicals, and dictionaries of the nineteenth century,
the results of which are clarifying, especially when set against
the great diversity of popular conceptions of bel canto. This re-
search is by no means complete, since it lies beyond the scope
of this study. Yet it seems not only useful but also pertinent to
offer a resume of these findings.
As is to be expected, Italy was the first country in which a
particularized connotation was given to bel canto. Already in
1819, Benelli speaks of the various ornamentations as being "le
bellezze del canto" ("the beauties of song"). 8 Costa says of
the Italian language that it is "la piu addatta al bel canto"
("the best adapted to beautiful singing." The accompanying
English translation renders "bel canto" as "vocal music."). 9
DEFINITION OF TERMS 5
He does not use the words bel canto except in a general sense
nor does he use them anywhere else in the text. In a testimonial
letter to the author, 10 Crescentini speaks of "il vostro bel metodo
di canto" and "bell'arte del canto." n Likewise Florino uses
identical expressions as well as others, viz., "la bell'arte del
canto," 12 "un bel metodo di canto," 13 "il bel metodo di
cantare," 14 and "nell'arte bella del canto." 15 Here again these
expressions are not used in a special sense but only in the course
of the text.
A more indicative use of the term turns up in the title given
to a collection of songs by Nicola Vaccai, 16 Dodlci Ariette per
Camera per I'Insegnamento del Bel-canto italiano. But even
here the author evidently is not concerned with the singing style
of previous centuries since all the songs are by Vaccai himself.
Indeed the title of this publication could very well be the inspira-
tion of the publishers or of Vaccai himself to aid in its promo-
tion. This may have been the first time bel canto was used in a
marked way. Speculation makes us wonder if this may not have
been the start of its specialized usage just as Caccini's Le Nuove
Musiche and Viadana's Centi Ecclesiastici Concerti . . . per
Basso Continuo, etc., furnished the nomenclature for new vo-
cal and accompanying styles two and a half centuries earlier.
Vaccai's publication enjoyed considerable popularity in Italy, a
second edition appearing in 1855. The twelve songs were writ-
ten during his stay in London, 1833 183 8. 17
By the i86o's the Italians began to realize the decadent state
of their singing and from here on they spoke with increasing
alarm about the deterioration of their old and honored vocal
traditions. Even though the words bel canto appear frequently,
still they are used only in a general sense. Lamperti writes at
the beginning of his Preface, 18 "It is a sad but undeniable truth
that singing is to be found today in a deplorable state of de-
cadence." Later he tells us that he is offering his treatise in order
to counterbalance present-day music, "used to the detriment of
bel canto." 19 The words bel canto are not set off in any way,
and it is interesting to note that in the edition translated into
English 20 these words are rendered simply as "good singing."
Biaggi 21 uses the term "colle grazie del nostro bel canto,"
6 DEFINITION OF TERMS
and again, "per la scuola complimentare e di bel canto," 22 but
still the words seem to have no specialized significance. In a re-
view of Lamperti's Nuova Guida, Ventura calls Italy "quest'alma
mater del bel canto," and says that Lamperti gives the causes
"del decadimento del bel canto." 23 The Dizionario della Lingua
Italiana 24 offers what may be the first definition of the term.
Under the word "bello" there are several hundred uses given
and among them is to be found the following: "Del vostro bel
cantar, me n'innamoro. ... II bel canto e lode special del
canto condotto con finita ornatura e con esattezza delicata."
("I am enamoured of your beautiful singing. . . . Bel canto is
special praise of singing performed with finished ornamentation
and sensitive exactitude.") Here we are given a rather clear
idea of what beautiful singing meant to the Italians in 1865.
Although there is still no particularized usage indicated, the
words "finita ornatura" and "esattezza delicata" are significant
in that they seem to point to a style of vocalism more often as-
sociated with previous centuries.
This sort of thinking, hinting at retrospection, is uppermost
in the mind of Perini, 25 who is very much concerned over the
inroads of the declamatory style of singing and suggests that
the way to restore beautiful singing to its former state of su-
premacy is to reunite "il canto fiorito e brillante a quello
declamato e parlante." He points out that this was done in the
seventeenth century when vocal virtuosity was integrated with
the monodic declamatory style of the Florentine Camarata.
Polidoro 2G goes further, complaining that hardly anyone is in-
terested in maintaining and propagating the real traditions of
beautiful singing. 27 He says that there are many more teachers
than before, but they spend their time teaching composition and
the piano rather than in the education of the voice. D'Arcais 28
says that in the days when "il bel canto italiano" was at its height
the attention of the pupils and the teachers was turned to
voice training rather than to the science of music itself. 29 All of
these last three, Perini, Polidoro, and D'Arcais, present a com-
mon point of view which associates "beautiful singing" with a
past era and express a conviction that the style of singing of
their own day is inferior to that which obtained in former times.
DEFINITION OF TERMS 7
There is the implication that the words bel canto no longer de-
scribe contemporary vocal practices, but that it would be de-
sirable to restore such qualities to their singing.
The evidence we are seeking turns up in another article by
Biaggi. 30 The author says that in William Tell Rossini com-
bines the dramatic feelings of the French and the instrumental
theories of the Germans with "il bel canto e la melodia degli
italiani" ("the bel canto and the melodic sense of the Italians").
The words bel canto are here set off in italics showing con-
clusively that by this time they were beginning to have a par-
ticularized connotation. Subsequent to this Biaggi italicises these
words in an article 31 bitterly criticising the vocal style of Wag-
ner's Lohengrin. In distinction to some of the others noted above,
he does not say anything about previous or lost vocal traditions.
Rather he sets off bel canto as a contemporary style of singing
peculiar to Italy and in which the Italians may justifiably take
pride.
It is important to note the growing concern of Italian au-
thors over the aggressions of the German stile parlante and
the corresponding fate of their own bel canto. The decadence of
singing appears to be a most popular subject to write about and
the Wagnerian style comes in for mounting criticism. Baci 32
says that the musical theatre in Italy is in a dreadful state be-
cause of the deterioration in singing and because it has become
saturated with melodrama, causing it to lose its essential vocal
character. He concludes that Italy can no longer be called the
first land of music.* 3 Lamperti 34 becomes sarcastic, saying that
whereas the celebrated masters of other lands always used to
come to Italy to study, now the Italians go to Germany, where
they are taught a pantheistic, chaotic, mathematical music based
on instrumentation which may be all right for the Germans, but
when written in Italy by Italians it becomes disfigured, hybrid,
and altogether incompatible to those who have been nourished
by the noble and chaste Italian melody. Carozzi 36 says, "To-
day these traditions of our bel canto are overthrown, not only
by the new direction of a dramatic opera based on declamation,
but by the deplorable condition of lyric art held in the clutches
of ignorance and of those 'in the trade,' " 3<5
8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
German manuals on singing of the nineteenth century reveal
unmistakably a heritage that came from the South. Not until
late in the century do the words bel canto appear but the Ger-
man equivalents are frequently in evidence before this time.
Mannstein 37 pays high tribute to the old Italian method (which
he says reigned from 1590 to 1790) and adds that there is
little hope that it will be revived either in Germany or Italy. 38
Mannstein's eighth chapter is headed by these words: u Vom
schonen Tone," and the first words are, "Beautiful tone is the
only material out of which the singer can construct his art." 3d
The Italians are called "the creators of beautiful sounds," 40
which the present generation of singers, even in Italy, has neg-
lected to cultivate. In an article on Gesangs-methadef*- Gassner
discusses the merits of the Italian method and places considera-
ble emphasis on the Italian ideal of beautiful sound 42 as the basis
of their method. He says also that now Italy lacks both singers
and teachers. 43 Nehrlich 44 says that beauty of sound is the "one"
and "all" of the old Italian method 45 and that it must be ad-
mitted that the best German singers are trained according to the
Italian method which is the basis of all true voice building. 46
Wieck, 47 the father of Clara Schumann, often mentions the
beauties of singing, beauty in tone, and supports the old Italian
method of singing over that of the present day, especially in
Germany. 48 In the Preface, Wieck says, "When I speak gen-
erally of singing, I mean only beautiful singing, which is the
basis for the best and most complete musical performance." 40
Sieber, 50 one of the most renowned of nineteenth century voice
teachers, devotes a section of his book to "development of beauti-
ful tones." 51
We would expect some sharp statements from Hanslick, the
confirmed anti-Wagnerian critic, and he does not disappoint us.
"While our budding opera singers soon lose their way in dra-
matic expression, the Italians develop first of all the independ-
ent beauty of the voice, the well-rounded technique of singing.
Above all they like a beautiful tone." 52 He insists that the inde-
pendence of "schonen Gesanges" must be established for only
after there is complete mastery over the voice is that loftier
dramatic expression made possible. Then, and only then, may
DEFINITION OF TERMS 9
one speak of the art of singing. 53 Beauty of sound, "Ton-
schonheit," is also considered the primary means of effective
singing by Haertinger 54 and Mendel uses the words "schone
Gesang" several times in his article on "Gesang," although they
are not set off from the rest of the text in any way. 65
In the 1878 edition of Klavier und Gesang ** Wieck echoes
the opinions of Hanslick, even going beyond the latter in his
disdain for the German singers and teachers of singing. 'There
triumphs now in our opera houses mostly lungs, bad taste, mon-
strous caricatures and foolish exaggerations, hence the most ob-
jectionable misuse of the human voices." 57 Especially does his
condemnation fall on the teachers who "have no feeling for
beauty," and who "do not know a natural, soulful, rich, forward-
produced tone from a cold, ugly, tight, forced, and throaty
one." 58
By the time Hugo Riemann, outstanding German musicologist,
brought out the first edition of his Musik-Lexikon the words
bel canto expressed, in epitome, what was meant by the Italian
ideals of proper singing to the Germans. While Riemann did not
give the term a separate entry, as has been done beginning with
the eighth edition, published in 1916, nevertheless in his article
on "Gesangskunst" he took over the Italian term and set it off
from the German text in Latin type, 60 indicating that it had be-
come by this time, even in Germany, an expression with a par-
ticular connotation. It is important to note that Bremer also sets
off the words in Latin type in his lexicon, published the same years
as Riemann's. 61 While Riemann implies that perhaps the old
Italian method was better than those of "our century," Bremer
names great teachers of both the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies whose schools were outstanding.
The birth of the Empire in 1870 furnished the wellspring for
a torrent of nationalism that succeeded mightily in stemming
the flow of cultural cross-currents in Germany. These had served
her well in past centuries especially where music was concerned.
But chauvinistic bombasts and art are not nurtured in common
soil and the course of singing over the past three-quarters of a
century has been duly influenced. The colossal music-dramas of
Richard Wagner were heaven-sent for those convinced that
io DEFINITION OF TERMS
Italian vocal style was too effete to express virile German senti-
ment Julius Hey, arch-exponent of Wagner's ideas in regard to
singing and selected by the latter as being best fitted to pro-
mote them, gave expression to the German vocal concepts in
an extensive four-volume work on the teaching of singing. 62 He
says that the faded traditions of the Italian bel canto do not
offer the slightest thing for the cultivation of the "Vaterlandis-
chen Sprachgesangs." 63 There are increasing signs from about
this time that German singing methods are considered sufficient
if not superior, and especially that German opera has supplanted
that of Italy. This statement may be read: u The era of Italian
opera finally appears to be ended," 64 and the editor of Allge-
meine Musik-Zeitung, Otto Lessmann, uses the term bel canto
with increasing frequency albeit with decreasing respect. 65 There
were those among the Germans who championed the Italian
singing method throughout, viz., Stockhausen, Goldschmidt and
Sieber. Stockhausen was a pupil of Garcia and Goldschmidt of
Stockhausen, while Sieber studied with Ronconi. Sieber brought
out a collection of songs by old Italian masters, one of the last
of a great number of his works, under the title // Bel Canto.**
In the preface Sieber comments on the state of singing in Ger-
many at about the time of Wagner's death. He says, "In our
time, when the most offensive shrieking under the extenuating
device of 'dramatic singing' has spread everywhere, when the
ignorant masses appear much more interested in how loud rather
than how beautiful the singing is, a collection of songs will per-
haps be welcome which as the title purports may assist in re-
storing bel canto to its rightful place." 67
French opposition to Italian singing style exhausted itself dur-
ing the Gluck-Piccini controversy of the eighteenth century
whereas at this same time Germany was drinking in all that
Italy had to offer. The nineteenth century saw just the reverse.
We have already noted the slow crystallization of a vocal style
diametrically opposed to Italian precepts in Germany, but France
accepted them wholeheartedly. Fetis says 68 of the effect of
Gluck's operas, that they substituted cries of a monotonous
languor instead of promoting among the French "the tradition
of the excellent Italian school of this epoch and retarded for
DEFINITION OF TERMS n
nearly thirty years the knowledge of the art of singing in
France." 69 Fetis comes pretty close to the French equivalent of
bel canto when in discussing Tosi's famous manual on singing
he calls it "la belle ecole du chant italien." 70 By the i88o's
France had also taken over the term and the French were using
it to denote the old Italian school. Boisson says, "The era of
Rossini was that when the Italian bel canto cast away its last
glory," 71 while Lavoix in the same year says practically the
same thing, but uses the Italian words, "The interpreters of
Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti were the last pupils of the mas-
ters of bel canto, or the art of singing of the eighteenth cen-
tury." 72
The English speaking countries offer little to add to our dis-
cussion. It seems important to note however that the term bel
canto began to appear both in America and England at almost
the identical time of its use in France and Germany. Dow makes
use of it to describe the Italian manner of singing 73 while Bach
calls Adelina Patti "the most eminent representative of bel
canto!' 74
This discussion of bel canto has run to considerable length.
Our efforts to trace its origin and usage have led us to uncover
the evidence listed above and since it should help to clarify a
number of uncertain facts in this area which has been almost to-
tally void of investigation, we believe it not to be out of order
to present the results even though they should have further cor-
roboration. The following conclusions would seem to be justi-
fied:
1. The term bel canto does not appear as such during the
period with which it is most often associated, i.e., the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries; this may be said with finality.
2. The words bel canto did not take on a special meaning until
the 1 8 60' sin Italy.
3. By 1880 the other countries had recognized this special
meaning to the extent that it began to appear in print in Ger-
many, France, England, and America.
4. Neither musical nor general dictionaries saw fit to attempt
definition until after 1900.
5. The conflict between the German "Sprechgesang" and
12 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Italian bel canto was an important factor in the latter's ety-
mology,
6. Present usage favors its application to the Italian singing
methods of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with its
emphasis on beauty of tone and virtuosity. It is in this last sense
that we limit our definition for the purposes of this study.
PART II: BACKGROUNDS
III. LARYNGOLOGY
THE most complete historical study of laryngology is that of
Holmes, 1 of which extensive use has been made here. The first
period that saw the emergence of what might be called a sci-
ence of anatomy and physiology was that commonly known as
the Hippocratic age, i.e., the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.
Such scientific knowledge was scanty indeed and in regard to
laryngeal action there was almost total ignorance. The fact that
air implemented voice was recognized, and that the tongue, pal-
ate, teeth and head cavities were instrumental in speech. 2 But
even these slender facts were not comprehended beyond the
Asclepiadae, a school of Greek physicians on the island of Kos,
from whom emanated the famous collection of writings named
after their most famous member, Hippocrates. Because of the
strong prejudices of priests and medicine-men their anatomical
inquiries were limited to the slaughter of animals in preparing
food and the incidents of warfare.
Aristotle, who had already begun his omnifarious scientific
investigations by the time of Hippocrates' death, did not sur-
pass his distinguished predecessor to any great extent in physio-
logical knowledge, although he pondered long and deeply over
the problem of voice production. In the De Anima he rational-
izes step by step and reaches the following definition :
Voice, then, is a sound made by a living animal, even then not with any part
of it taken at random. But since sound occurs only when something strikes
something else in a certain medium, and this medium is the air, it is natural
that only those things should have voice which admit the air. . . . The
throat is the instrument of respiration ; the reason for which this part exists
is the lung. ... So it is necessary that during respiration the air should be
breathed in. So the blow given to the air breathed in by the soul in these parts
[lungs and throat] against what is called the windpipe causes the voice. 8
In the De Audibilibus we are given a remarkably extended dis-
cussion of the physiological phenomena of phonation, 4 includ-
i 4 LARYNGOLOGY
ing the lungs, windpipe, mouth, breathing, breath control, diction,
etc. His comments here as well as in the Problems 5 disclose
opinions that, although of a speculative nature, are remarkably
consonant with those of today.
In order to find precise scientific information we are obliged
to traverse nearly five centuries to the prolific writings of the
greatest anatomist of antiquity, Galen (130-200 A.D.). Highly
educated and widely travelled for his day, this man, who was
also a philosopher, gathered into numerous treatises all the ana-
tomical, physiological and pathological knowledge of his time
together with many contributions from his own broad experi-
ence. His predecessors in the great Alexandrian school had
largely neglected the larynx and it is with complete justice that
Galen has been called the founder of laryngology. 6 The princi-
pal cartilages are described (i.e., the thyroid, arytenoid, and
cricoid) as is the external and internal musculature. The pneumo-
gastric and recurrent nerves receive careful attention although
the spinal accessory and superior laryngeal nerves are alluded
to only vaguely. It was Galen who gave the name glottis, or
tongue, to the vocal cords and says that it is like the tongue of
a pipe (reed) when looked at from above or below. 7 His com-
ments on phonation are of particular interest since his theories
were not successfully challenged until barely two hundred years
ago. Galen says, 8
"Voice could not be formed unless the passage is narrowed. For if the whole
should lie widely open . . , voice could in no way be produced ; for if the
breath pass out gently, expiration is made without sound ; but should it be
sent forward in the volume suddenly and with vehemence, what is called a
sigh occurs. In order, however, that the animal may emit voice it requires,
no doubt, the motion of the breath, but none the less the narrowing of the
channel in the larynx ; not a simple narrowing, but one which can by degrees
be constricted and by degrees relaxed. Such is what the body we are dealing
with effects accurately, and hence I call it the glottis or tongue of the larynx/'
Thus we see that Galen conceived changes in pitch and volume
to be dependent on the width of space between the vocal cords.
As we shall see, it was not until the experiments of Ferrein in
1741 that this theory was dethroned.
There were no contributions worthy of the name made to
LARYNGOLOGY 15
laryngology after Galen until the scientific method received re-
genesis under the stimulus of Humanism. The erudition of the
Arabs, while it added little or nothing to anatomical and physio-
logical knowledge, was the primary sustaining and transmitting
agent for all that Galen and his predecessors knew. The prac-
tice of performing human anatomies was not revived until the
fourteenth century, and even then was of rare occurrence.
It was not until after 1500 that progress was resumed. The
preceding two hundred years were concerned with making up
lost ground, especially that cultivated so thoroughly by Galen
long centuries ago. But about 1500 Berengarius of Pavia dis-
covered that the arytenoid cartilages were a pair instead of one
as described by the ancients. Vesalius (1514-1564) of Padua
made the most careful laryngeal dissections to date and with
the aid of nearly thirty woodcuts was able to give the cartilages
and muscles an extended description. Fallopius (15231563),
also of Padua, was the first to establish the nomenclature for
the cricoid cartilage (it had previously been called "innominata"
since the ancients gave it no name) and described the thyro-
arytenoid and crico-thyroid muscles more accurately than his col-
league, Vesalius.
The year 1600 has come to be associated with important de-
velopments in vocal music, the opera, oratorio, and monody
emerging approximately at that time. It is highly interesting to
note the simultaneous increased interest in the anatomy and
physiology of the larynx, in fact it would be logical to speculate
on a common cause for this coincidence. Battista Codronchi, 9
Hieronymus Fabricius 10( (1537-1619), Caspar Bauhinus n
(1550-1624), and Julius Casserius 12 (1545-1616) formed an
illustrious quartet each of whom brought forth, almost concur-
rently, works dealing in specific detail with the larynx. Codronchi
was the least important since his work leaned heavily on Galen
and was more in the nature of a popular treatment Bauhinus'
contribution was mostly confined to muscular nomenclature, but
the remaining two, both of Padua, made comprehensive studies
of the larynx in man and in animals giving details not mentioned
before. These were published with engravings, tho$$ of
being especially copious and carefully drawn,
16 LARYNGOLOGY
There remain only a few names to mention before we turn to
the theories of phonation that accompanied these anatomical
discoveries* The innervation of the larynx was better understood
after the investigation of Thomas Willis (1621-1675) of Ox-
ford. This brilliant English anatomist furnished the first defi-
nite description of the superior laryngeal nerve and the spinal
accessory, both of which had been almost totally neglected by
Galen and all after him. Another remarkable product of Padua,
the last and the greatest from this most celebrated seat of medi-
cal learning, John Baptist Morgagni (1682-1771), together
with Dominic Santorini of Venice, labored to correct the er-
rors of previous anatomists as well as to fill in the final details
in a picture that was complete except for some conjectures that
remained to be verified by the laryngoscope and high-speed mo-
tion picture cameras.
It should not be too surprising that Galen's theories of phona-
tion persisted so stubbornly into modern times. Only unproven
hypotheses were possible since no way had been devised to ob-
serve the larynx in action. The science of acoustics, too, was
stumbling along in its infancy and did not yet know how to be
of much assistance. Many were the theories of voice produc-
tion, some "fanciful and often conflicting," 13 but in general they
were concerned with two important principles, first, that of vi-
bration of columns of air as in organ pipes, and second, the vibra-
tion of the glottis itself. Even as great a scientific thinker and
anatomist as Leonardo da Vinci went far astray in his explana-
tion of pitch, comparing the throat to an organ pipe and con-
cluding "that the pitch of the human voice is dependent upon the
length and diameter of the trachea." 14 Although others shared
similar opinions, that which was most commonly held was in
substance the theory of Galen, viz., that phonation was effected
by bringing the vocal bands within a short distance of each other,
while the length and breadth of the rima glottidis determined
the pitch. All of the anatomists mentioned above reasoned, some-
times falsely, on the exact action of the cartilages and muscula-
ture of the larynx, but the aberrant dicta of Galen led them to
mistaken judgments.
LARYNGOLOGY 17
It remained for a musical theorist as well as a scientist to ex-
plode the theory that vocal pitch was dependent on the altera-
tion in size of the various respiratory canals. Marin Mersenne
(1588-1648) was one of the most erudite scholars of his time.
Philosophy could not long monopolize such a prolific mind, and
with his knowledge of mathematics, acoustics and musical in-
struments he was able to set aside once and for all the theory
that pitch in singing operated anything like an organ pipe. Know-
ing that a vibrating column of air has to be doubled to pro-
duce a sound an octave lower, and that two octaves or more are
common to the singing voice, he reasoned that such changes
were manifest impossibilities. He indicated that the solution was
to be found in the study of musical reeds and that the edges of
the glottis offered the most likely clue. 16
Perhaps no scientific theory of the ancients was maintained es-
sentially unchanged to such a late date as was Galen's theory of
voice production. For more than fifteen hundred years it per-
sisted, and as late as 1706 we find Dodart (1624-1707) pre-
senting a monograph 16 based on Galen. A diagram 17 shows the
position of the vocal cords in a wide ellipse which becomes nar-
rower as the pitch of the voice ascends. This is precisely as
Galen described glottal action in the second century A.D.
The year 1741 marks an important milestone in the physio-
logical understanding of the larynx, for in that year Antoine
Ferrein (1693-1769), professor of anatomy at the Jardin du
Roi, Paris, made "the first acoustic experiments on the natural
larynx, and by so doing he advanced the physiology of the or-
gan more than any other investigator, not excepting Galen." 18
By a number of experiments on the human larynx as well as
those of animals 19 he was able to show, first, that in order to
phonate the lips of the glottis had to come together, second, that
vibration of the lips was the essential factor since by touching
them the sound stopped, and third, that difference in tension
of the edges of the glottis caused the changes in pitch. He thus
demonstrated that the vocal bands function more like vibrating
strings and so he gave the name of cordes vocales or vocal cords
to the lips of the glottis, which term still remains in common
1 8 LARYNGOLOGY
usage. Although these conclusions of Ferrein were debated they
gained general acceptance and were by and large verified or cor-
rected in the nineteenth century.
It only remains to say that in 1800 many of the most impor-
tant functional matters pertaining to the larynx were still very
imperfectly understood. We have seen that anatomical discov-
eries were for all purposes generally complete, but the action
of the intrinsic muscles, those most immediately concerned with
phonation, were not yet clearly apprehended and the views held
rested on no clear demonstration. Nor was the knowledge of the
innervation of the larynx any more rounded.
From this brief historical survey of the anatomy and physi-
ology of laryngology two very important conclusions pertinent
to our study are brought forward :
1. Any emphasis on the physiological study of phonation in
the art of singing before 1800 was based on false or incomplete
theories.
2. The successful methods of teaching used were, perforce,
entirely empirical in nature.
IV. VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600
THE ancients went to great pains to preserve and protect their
voices. This may have been more the practice of orators even
than singers since rhetoric reached the extremes of sophistica-
tion among the Greeks and Romans. References to hygienic prac-
tices are by no means uncommon, especially to those used by
public speakers. We include such references in our study since
it is logical to assume that singers made use of the same devices
as the orators in the matter of vocal hygiene. Some of our sources
make this assumption entirely reasonable.
The art of rhetoric called for voices of the greatest suavity
and polish and recourse was made to a variety of emollients
and medicines to insure these ends. Servants were wont to ac-
company the orators, keeping in readiness medicated fluids from
which their masters now and then sipped. 1 Galen gives us a clear
account of the ingredients of these medicaments, almost all of
which are still employed. They include tragacanth, squill, turpen-
tine, styrax, horehound, myrrh, poppy-seeds, pepper, frankin-
cense, cassia, etc. These were mixed with wine or honey and were
sometimes boiled down, cooled, and made into lozenges to be
held under the tongue and dissolved. 2 Some thought it sufficient
merely to sip warm water. An injunction found in St. Jerome 3
would indicate that actors and singers were likewise accustomed
to the use of all these medicated fluids to sustain their voices. He
accuses certain of the church choirs of bedewing their mouths
and throats with sweet medicaments as if they belonged to a
theatrical company. That this kind of thing had been taken most
seriously in classical antiquity is indicated by the report that a
chorus member was poisoned when he sought to increase his
vocal ability by taking a fluid for this purpose. 4
Even in antiquity diet was considered as having a profound
effect on the voice. Singing immediately after eating was appar-
ently avoided; thus we read in the Problemata: "Why does it
spoil the voice to shout after food? We can see that all who
20 VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600
practice voice production such as actors, chorus-singers and the
like, perform their exercises in the morning and fasting." 5 And
again: "Neither choruses nor actors rehearse after breakfast
but when fasting." 6 Quintilian mentions the fact that an easy
digestion is essential both to the singer and orator. 7 Again in
the Problemata we read that lack of sleep makes the voice
rougher; 8 that drinking makes the voice lower 9 and more
cracked than the normal voice of the sober. 10
As to the precise foods helpful to clear vocalization we are
told that leeks, garlic, and even partridge produce smoothness
and thus clear out the larynx. 11 Singers were called "bean eat-
ers" because the pulse of leguminous vegetables was considered
salutary to the voice. 12 Eels and firm-fleshed fish were bene-
ficial, 18 as was the yolk of an egg. 14 Many kinds of food were
thought unwholesome for those dependent on the healthy state
of their throats. Various fruits were shunned, notably apples 15
and figs, especially when eaten in the middle of the day. 16 Nuts
were held to be peculiarly noxious for singers, 17 and actor and
singer alike carefully avoided cold drinks. 18
Those who used their voices as a means of livelihood were
strongly urged to give careful attention to their way of living.
We have already noted some opinions on drunkenness and lack
of sleep. Fevers and sore throat likewise were mentioned as
having ill effects. But that which was especially recommended
was a modest and careful way of life. Quintilian is particularly
solicitous over the care that one should take in order to preserve
vocal powers. Of course he is considered primarily with the ora-
tor but he makes pointed comparisons between the latter and
singers. He says:
In both cases physical robustness is essential to save the voice from dwindling
to the feeble shrillness that characterises the voices of eunuchs, women and
invalids, and the means for creating such robustness are to be found in walk-
ing, rubbing-down with oil, abstinence from sexual intercourse, an easy diges-
tion, and, in a word, in the simple life. 18
The ill effects of diseases of the throat are discussed as well as
bodily fatigue. A strong body is placed at a premium, for
VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600 21
while exercise, which gives strength in all cases, is equally necessary both for
orators and singing masters, it is a different kind of exercise which they re-
quire. For the orator is too much occupied by civil affairs to be able to allot
fixed times for taking a walk. . , . Nor is the same regime suitable as regards
food : for the orator needs a strong and enduring voice rather than one which
is soft and sweet. 20
Quintilian informs us that all authorities agree "that the voice
should not be overstrained in the years of transition between
boyhood and manhood, since at that period it is naturally
weak." 21 The implications here are plain. As part of their train-
ing routine singers were accustomed to observe the following:
regular physical exercise, careful eating habits, avoidance of vo-
cal strain, and simple living. Singing manuals of today prescribe
the same.
The medieval writers on music are almost totally void of refer-
ences to the care of the voice. Johannes de Muris (ca. 1250
1351) is the only one to suggest that the circumstances of health
affect singing. Under the heading, "What sort of errors arise
in singing and in how many ways they arise," we are told that they
come
from incapacity, from carelessness, from obstinacy, or indifference. It is from
incapacity that old people, boys, and those who are sick sing badly, and this
is pardonable, since natural weakness excuses such people. ... Due to
carelessness, drunken people sing badly. . . . People sing badly from indif-
ference if they are wearied by some labor. 22
De Muris does not offer advice such as we found in the writ-
ings of Aristotle and Quintilian. His observations are limited
to generalizations but they indicate plainly that he recognized
such things as fatigue, sickness, and drunkenness to be the cause
of bad singing and we may infer that the singers of his time were
not wholly lacking in suggestions to look after their health. It
must be said, however, that more than a thousand years had
elapsed between the careful and precise instructions of Quintilian
and the passing comments from the hand of De Muris. In the
following chapter 2S reasons will be offered to explain thi ex-
tended voi(J
22 VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600
The Renaissance offers little or nothing that was not men-
tioned by the ancients as to special hygienic care recommended
for singers. Just as Galen's theory of phonation remained in
v,ogue, so did the theories on physical care of the voice follow
the general precepts of Aristotle and Quintilian. Maffei gives
us ten rules for coloratura singing, the second of which says:
"Practice time is in the morning or four to five hours after a
meal, because, when the stomach is full, the windpipe and with
it the voice, do not possess the necessary purity and clarity for
practicing the 'gorga' [ornaments]." 24
It has already been mentioned that the treatise on the voice
by Codronchi 25 was not only a popularization but was also based
on the authority of the ancients. This is especially true of those
parts concerned with the care of the voice and because of this
"popular" quality, the work is most useful to us, since the author
seemingly does not bring his information under careful scientific
scrutiny. For this reason his comments may come nearer to rep-
resenting general beliefs and practices. That his opinions are
pertinent for our study we may safely assume since Codronchi
himself says, "I may be able somewhat by my skill to benefit
the singers themselves." 26 Weakness of the voice is caused by
general bodily weakness, fatigue, too much sleep especially after
eating, 27 and from weakness of muscles which move the throat. 28
Quintilian is quoted on the importance of bodily health for the
conservation and preservation of the voice, 29 by taking walks,
temperance, abstinence from love, and the use of ointments ; all
of which promote digestion, stronger breathing, open passages
and good elimination. It is bad to exercise the voice after eat-
ing, for the spirit is made hot by food and is disturbed by
indigestion. 30 Codronchi is especially careful to warn against over-
indulgence of cohabitation. He mentions the practice of infibula-
tion among ancient actors in order to prevent sexual indulgence
and thus save the voice, 31 and comments that in his time the cus-
tom of castration prevails for the same purpose. As an anaphro-
disiac he suggests the root of the "Bride of Hercules," 32 which
causes cessation of sexual functions, thus conquering the flesh.
Besides one should avoid evil thoughts, the sight or company of
women, and the reading of evil books. 33
VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600 23
Food and drink come in for considerable attention. So as not to
harm the voice one should refrain from eating caterpillars, chives,
headed vine, asparagus, basil, fennel, cumla y parsnips, artichokes,
ragwort, Nux myristica, galangal, pine nuts, Nuac avellana, pis-
tachios, Mala insana, and many more of such. Abstain also from
wine, meat and eggs while there is an excess of sexual activity; 34
also, cold drinks are bad and Galen is quoted as saying that it is
bad to take wine without food after exercise. 85
One should sleep on a hard bed but not on the back nor in a
reclining position. There is no general agreement about the use of
ointments, and Codronchi conjectures as to what kind of ointment
Quintilian used. 36 The use of baths among the ancient actors for
preservation of their voice is mentioned but the author says that
in his own time it would be difficult because of the lack of facilities.
There follow a great many details on medicaments and oint-
ments for the care of the voice. Galen, Aetius, Rasis and Avicenna
are cited as authorities and we offer one of the prescriptions con-
sidered as most important :
3 oz. juice of barley
2 oz. juice of sweet almonds
i oz. fresh butter
i oz. of the whitest sugar
6 oz. clear water of barley
Cook all together until a fourth part of it is gone (evaporated). Singers
may take six ounces of this in place of dinner (caena) and the same or a
smaller quantity in the morning.
In order to get relief from throat indisposition due to
catarrh, light, warming, drying medicine is recommended, e.g. :
". . . warm rose honey mixed with myrtle syrup, or licorice in
tragacanthus, which can be made into pills. If the matter in the
vocal organs is thick and clinging, use dried sedge (car ex) or
grapes with honey added; or yet a stronger medicine, hyssop,
pennyroyal (pulegium) and licorice." 8T
In his "Histoire du Chant" 38 A. De Martini offers some car-
dinal points 39 which were observed by the sixteenth century
singers. According to this author they ate only light foods and
shunned almonds, filberts, and other nuts because of the oils and
24 VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600
little irritants they possess. Singers of this time never ate before
singing and were always very sober they ate only vegetables and
the name "fabarri" (i.e., grass eaters, eaters of beans) was given
to them. Careful advice was suggested for drinking. Falsettists,
sopranos, and contraltos should be very temperate because wine
makes the voice heavy, thus robbing it of its resonance. Tenors
and basses, if young, and above all in the spring, should dilute their
wine because wine irritates the stomach and renders the mouth
dry and less sonorous. In the winter, on the contrary, it should be
drunk just as it comes from the vine-plant. As to the older singers,
they should drink only dry wine. Unfortunately De Martini does
not document this information.
From this study of vocal hygiene before the era of bel canto
two things are evident: First, that the essential requirements
for the care of the voice were apprehended by the ancients,
especially by the time of Quintilian (first century A.D.).
These included a careful diet, regular physical exercise, and
a modest way of living, all resulting in a strong, healthy body.
Even many of their therapeutic agents are still considered effica-
cious for the treatment of vocal indispositions. Second, little or
nothing of value was contributed by the Medieval and Renais-
sance eras, that which was added being more in the nature of un-
scientific popular theories and remedies.
V. DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING
TECHNIQUE PRIOR TO 1600 1
THE musical treatises of the ancients have very little to say
about singing technique. Since our own theorists are likewise
remiss we should not hold them too strictly to account. Philoso-
phers, grammarians, essayists, poets and the like are more likely
to comment here or write a paragraph there, and it is to such
sources that we turn.
Singing was an improvisatory art in the time of Homer and
Hesiod. The eighth book of the Odyssey gives us considerable
information on the singer. 2 The first lines of The Battle of the
Frogs and Mice 8 and the famous Contest of Homer and
Hesiod 4 show clearly the ex tempore nature of singing at that
time.
Both Plato and Aristotle imply that there was a considerable
vocal art in their day, i.e., fifth and fourth centuries B.C. The
former complains of the deterioration of music in the hands of
the professional musicians 5 due to their "disorderly tastes." 6 He
will not have them in his perfect state 7 since they must cater to
the prevailing vulgarities of the multitude. 8 The following quo-
tation not only is strong evidence of a considerable virtuosity
but also shows how strongly Plato disapproved :
For they (the muses) behold all these things jumbled together, and how, also
the poets rudely sunder rhythm and gesture from the tune, putting tuneless
words into meter, or leaving tune and rhythm without words, and using the
bare sound of harp or flute, wherein it is almost impossible to understand,
what is intended by this wordless rhythm and harmony. . . . Such methods,
as one ought to realize, are clownish in the extreme in mechanical accuracy
and the imitation of animal sounds, and consequently employ the pipe and the
harp without the accompaniment of dance and song; for the use of either
of these instruments by itself is the mark of the mountebank or boor. 9
Aristotle is no less a source of evidence for the existence of
virtuosity. In the Politics 10 he too complains of the undesirable
26 DEVELOPMENT OP SINGING TECHNIQUE
effects of elaborate performance technique. While he recom-
mends that the young should learn to sing because it will keep
them out of mischief and teach them to judge good music, yet
the practice of music should never interfere with the ideal of
becoming a good citizen. Says Aristotle: "Professional musicians
we speak of as vulgar people, and indeed we think it not manly
to perform music except when drunk or for fun." n Those who
study music should not "go on toiling at the exercises that aim
at professional competitions, not the wonderful and elaborate
performances which have now entered into the competitions." 12
In his Poetics, Aristotle takes care to define minutely the ele-
ments of tragedy with the exception of "melopoeia" 1S or "song-
making," which term he says "I use in the full, obvious sense of
the word" 14 He calls it the "most delightful" of all the "pleas-
urable accompaniments and embellishments of the Tragedy." 15
Overacting and vulgarity are condemned, 16 and as for delivery
he says: "It only made its appearance late in tragedy and
rhapsody, for at first the poets themselves acted their tragedies.
. . . Now delivery is a matter of voice, as to the mode in which
it should be used for each particular emotion; when it should be
loud, when low, when intermediate; and how the tones, that is,
shrill, deep and intermediate should be used; and what rhythms
are adapted to each subject. For there are three qualities that
are considered volume, harmony, rhythm. Those who use these
properly nearly always carry away the prizes in dramatic con-
tests ... as at the present day actors have greater influence
on the stage than the poets." 1T When actors (artists) have
greater influence than poets (composers), it is an age of virtu-
osity.
In the De Audibilibtts 18 there is considerable evidence that
vocal technique received more than passing attention. First of
all he explains the differences in voice quality :
We all breathe the same air, but we emit different sounds owing to the
difference in the organs involved through which the breath passes to the
region outside. These are the windpipe, lungs and the mouth. But the greatest
difference in sound is produced by the blows of the air and the shapes assumed
by the mouth. This is evident, for all the differences of voice arise from this
e, and we se.e the same people imitating the voices of hprses, frogs, night-
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 27
ingales, cranes, and almost every other kind of living creature, using the same
breath and the same windpipe, by driving the air from the mouth in differ-
ent ways. 19
This is a very clear and concise explanation of why each voice has
its own particular quality. Different shapes and sizes of the throat
modify the voice, but
It is not merely the difference in the organs but all the accidental properties
which cause a difference in the voices . . . [such as] in cases of catarrh and
drunkenness ... or if the breath is quite dry the voice becomes harder. . . .
The differences of organs and of accidental properties which belong to them
each produce corresponding voices. 20
This last sentence sums up the entire question. By "difference of
organs" he means physical or inherent differences, i.e., in size
and shape of lungs, throat, mouth, etc., and by "accidental
properties" he refers to disease, climate, drunkenness, rest, and
other things of circumstance. All of these are considered today
the most important things contributing to difference in voice
quality. The fact that the same voice will vary from one day
to the next is also noted. "The same people have not only some-
times a shriller and sometimes a deeper voice, but also one
harder or softer." 21
Breath control is noted : "If the lung is large and pliable it
can admit much air, and expel it again husbanding it as it wishes,
because of its softness and because it can easily contract." 22
Again, "For the swiftness of the breath makes the voice sharp
and its violence makes it hard." 23 Also,
And yet some people suppose that voices become hard owing to the harshness
of the windpipe, but they are in error. This no doubt makes some small con-
tribution, but so does the breath violently expelled by the lung. . . , Conse-
quently the breath in some cases comes out softly, and in others hard and
violent, since it is easy to see that the windpipe itself supplies only a small
force. . . . Some pipe softly and some harshly. This is clear from sensation
itself ; for if one strains the breath more violently, the voice immediately be-
comes harsher because of the violence, even if it is inclined to be soft. 2 *
In Book XI, "Problems of the Voice," and Book XII, "Prob-
lems Connected with Harmony," of the Problemata 2B there are
numerous comments that indicate a high development of virtu-
28 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
osity. Aristotle explains that in the olden days the songs were
sung by citizens, but in his time there were professional artists
who varied their songs continually,
for it is easier for one person alone to execute variations than for a number,
and for a professional artist than for those who have to preserve the char-
acter of the music. That is why they composed simpler chants for the latter.
. . . For the actor is a professional artist and imitator, but the chorus is less
capable of filling an imitation role. 26
This obtains, by and large, today, in our own choral organiza-
tions where the choruses of the operas, oratorios, etc., are per-
formed by comparatively less trained singers while highly trained
soloists sing the more difficult parts.
From the above citations attributed to Aristotle it is evident
that vocal technique had received no little attention as early as
the fourth century B.C. in Greece. By the beginning of the Chris-
tian era virtuosity was apparently even more important. Dio-
nysius of Halicarnassus was a highly esteemed scholar of his
time (fl. 30 B.C.-IO B.C.). In his remarkable work on literary
criticism and composition, De Compositione Verborum^ he
makes pointed comments and comparisons concerning vocal prac-
tices. In Chapter XI he mentions the high degree of skill de-
manded of professionals, the great variety of intervals used in
vocal music and very significantly says: "Music, further, -insists
that the words should be subordinated to the tune, and not the
tune to the words." 28
This is stout evidence of an advanced state of virtuosity. He
speaks of the "perfect mastery" that comes from long training
and which produces "effects with the utmost ease from sheer
force of habit." 29 And as a final warning to would-be artists, in
the final paragraph of the treatise he suggests daily exercises,
for "No rules ... can suffice to make experts of those who
are determined to dispense with study and practice. They who
are ready to undergo toil and hardship can alone decide whether
such rules are trivial and useless, or worthy of serious considera-
tion." 80
These observations of Dionysius may be considered highly
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 29
pertinent. They indicate the existence of a highly specialized
technique of such nature that its mastery required long and
arduous training. His statement that the words were to be kept
subordinate to the tune is most revealing. There have been
periods in the history of modern' singing, especially that of bel
canto, when the same might be truly said, and it is not nonexistent
at the present time. It also shows that a great change had taken
place since the earlier centuries when the text was considered far
more important in representation than the music.
Plutarch (46-120 A.D.), a widely travelled and liberally edu-
cated Greek of noble character and high ideals is a further source
for the existence of singing technique. His De Muslca S1 is an
interesting and curious collection of facts, theories and comments
on mythology, philosophy, science, history, etc., all in relation
to music. 32 According to this author music has undergone a
notable regression and he complains bitterly of its degenera-
tion from its once high and noble estate: "But our men of art,
contemning its ancient majesty, instead of that manly, grace,
heaven-born music, so acceptable to the Gods, have brought into
the theatres a sort of effeminate musical tattling, mere sound
without substance." 88
Plutarch relates how music declined in the hands of various
musicians, how they became "bewitched with the theatre's new
fangles and the innovations of multiplied notes," and "were
most depraved with diversity of notes and baneful innova-
tions." 84
He follows with further discussions of the difficulties in ac-
quiring the skill necessary for becoming a "most accurate mu-
sician" which, along with other statements of his, speak for
themselves.
A notable contemporary of Plutarch, Quintilian (A.D. 35-95)
places much emphasis on musical and vocal training in prepara-
tion for an oratorical career. He says :
The good qualities of the voice, like everything else, are improved by training
and impaired by neglect. But the training required by the orator is not the
same as that which is practised by the singing master, although the two
methods have many points in common. 85
30 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
Also,
while exercise which gives strength in all cases, is equally necessary both for
orators and singing-masters, it is a different kind of exercise which they re-
quire. For the orator . . . cannot tune his voice through all the notes of
the scale nor spare its exertion ... [he] needs a strong and enduring voice
rather than one which is soft and sweet, while the singer mellows all sounds
even the highest, by the modulations of his voice. . . . Consequently, we
[the orators] must not attempt to mellow our voice by coddling it. 86
The implications here are that singers regularly practiced scales
and avoided straining the voice. Our own singing manuals in-
variably prescribe the same.
The medieval centuries do not offer evidence of much virtu-
osity in singing. Entertainments, in which singing was preeminent,
had discredited itself to such a thorough extent in the waning
of the Roman Empire that the rising might of the Church made
the subservience of the performer to the music philosopher com-
plete. The early Church Fathers, notably St. Augustine and
Boethius, devote almost exclusively their rather lengthy treatises
on music to mathematical and abstract considerations of har-
mony, prosody, meter, and rhythm "in which the mind is raised
from the consideration of changeable numbers in inferior things
to unchangeable numbers in unchangeable truth itself." 37
Subsequent theorists fall in line, the performers being un-
flatteringly described as blind and ignorant beasts of habit while
the real musicians are the philosophers of music. 88 Already with
Boethius (ca. 524) the philosopher is the real musician, the
composer second and the performer a very poor third. When
we read, "But he is a musician who, in the light of reason, has
acquired the science of singing not through the servitude of per-
forming, but through the command of contemplation, " 39 it is
clear why the not inconsiderable vocal art and virtuosity of later
antiquity passed into limbo. Any art ruled over by such a dic-
tum must wither.
And wither it did. Nearly a thousand years passed before
the singing artist regained his position of importance. For at
least half of this time nothing worthy of the name of virtuosity
is evident. It is highly interesting to note that as the spirit of
Humanism began to assert itself, the art of singing starts on
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 31
its long regenesis. Expression is the first of the integral elements
of singing art to show itself. John Cotton who flourished about
noo, at the beginning of the so-called ''Twelfth Century
Renaissance" says under the heading, "Precepts for the Com-
posing of a Song" :
The first precept which we add for the making of a melody is that the song
should vary according to the sense of the words. ... If you wish to compose
a song at the request of young people, let it be youthful and sportive, but if for
elderly people, let it be slow and express gravity, . . . The composer can
be reproached if he brings in a mood of jollity in material that is sad, or a
mood of lamenting in happy material. 40
Also Johannes de Muris (ca. 1290-^. 1351) says:
If one recognizes the proper nature of a song, one will see that it is not
enough to sing what has already been devised by others, but either, perchance
by zeal of his own nature, or persuaded by the requests of other people, he
will be careful to set the text of the song with suitable notes. 41
And Marchettus of Padua (fl. 1270-1310) in his Lucidarium:
"The things that appear in the voice are signs of the feelings
that are in the mind." 42 By the time of Arnulfo of San Gilleno
(fifteenth century) the artist is again in command. Says he: "He
[the gifted singer] even takes music that was rough and in-
elegantly forged on its composer's anvil and . . . reduces it
to a more pleasing form, like one reminting money. . . . True
felicity distinguishes these men who excel in both ways, in na-
ture and in art." 43 Arnulfo represents a complete about-face
from Boethius and is a prophet of even still greater vocal tri-
umphs to come.
In these latter centuries there was recognition of the funda-
mentals of voice production. In his Lucidarium, Marchettus of
Padua says that the voice is formed by the natural instruments
of the body of which there are six, i.e., the lungs, the throat, the
palate, the tongue, the front teeth and the lips:
First, the breath proceeds from the lungs; second, it passes through the
throat ; third, it strikes the palate ; fourth, it is divided by the tongue so that
it may be diversified; fifth, what a man pronounces is determined by the
touching of the tongue itself against the teeth ; sixth, it is controlled by the
lips. 44
32 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
Theodoricus de Campo (fl. 1450) says that nine parts pro-
duce the voice, viz., the two lips, the four principal teeth, the
plectrum (which may mean the uvula), the tongue, and the
palate. Adam de Fulda (ca. 1490) says, "Voice is the sound
formed by striking the teeth with the tongue as a plectrum, by
striking the two lips like cymbals, by the hollow of the throat
and the lungs which aid in the formation, and which, like a pair
of bellows take in and send out air." 45
In^^ur evaluation of these quotations we must keep in mind
that the function of the vocal bands as we now know it to be was
not yet discovered. However by this time the restrictions of inhi-
bitions against anatomies performed on the human body were
beginning to be brushed aside, which may account for the greater
anatomical interest manifest here. Also, since northern Italy was
the birthplace of modern anatomy in the early trecento, Padua
being famous for its medical school, it is not too surprising to
find Marchettus and Theodoricus writing as they did. It is al-
together possible that they witnessed some of the anatomies
that took place there.
There is evidence that these medieval theorists appreciated
the qualities of the human voice in the same general meanings
that we use today. Writing in the early years of the seventh cen-
tury, Isadore of Seville (570-636) has this to say about them:
"They are light and delicate, i.e., sharp, clear and penetrating,
as those of women, children and sick people, or full and ample,
as those of men . . . because of much breath coming out."
He classifies voices as (i) acuta, sharp, like a stringed in-
strument, (2) dura, hard, like thunder or a hammer against an
anvil, (3) aspera, raucous and not smooth (uneven and broken
up), (4) cocca, blind, i.e., it stops as soon as it is sounded (it is
dull and unresonant), (5) vinnola, delightful, i.e., sweet, soft,"
and flexible, and (6) perfect a, high, sweet, and clear. "The per-
fect voice is high, sweet and clear; it is high so as to be ade-
quate in the upper range; it is clear so as to fill the ears amply;
it is sweet so as to delight the spirits of the listeners. If any of
these is lacking the voice is not perfect." 46
Regino Prumensis speaks of the "vox perfecta" in the same
terms. 47 Unpleasant voices are often mentioned, and in highly
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 33
uncomplimentary terms. Such expressions as "neighing of
horses," "bellowing of bulls," and "braying of asses" are fre-
quently encountered and are strong indications that the medieval
audience was keenly aware of voice quality.
While breath control was not directly considered, there are a
number of references to the necessity of pausing for breath
and the problems of phrasing that arise therefrom. 48
Both the singing teacher and the pupil will take particular
interest in the fact that vocal registers were not only recog-
nized but discussed intelligently. John of Garland (ca. 1193-
ca. 1270) says:
It must be known that the human voice exists in three forms : it is a chest
voice, throat voice, or head voice. If it is a chest voice, then it is in the low
register ; it ought to be placed in the lowest part of a piece. If it is a throat
voice, it is in a middle position in relation to each, that is to the low and the
high. And just as far down the chest voice is in the low register, so the head
voice is high in the upper register. And, in regard to the way of singing,
chest voices ought to be placed in their proper place, that is in the lower part,
throat voices also ought always to have the middle place in the upper sec-
tions. 49
Jerome of Moravia (ca. 1250), a younger contemporary of
Garland, says in effect very much the same thing :
Speaking popularly, not of their real nature, certain voices are of the throat,
certain of the chest and certain actually of the head itself. We call chest
voices those that form the notes in the chest ; throat voices, those that form
notes in the throat, and head voices, those that form them in the head. Chest
voices are good for low tones ; throat voices for high tones ; head voices for
very high tones. For generally heavy and low voices are in the chest, light and
very high voices are in the head ; and medium voices between these, are from
the throat. 50
Similar classifications are in vogue today. It is quite usual to
speak of low, middle and high registers, or chest voice, middle
voice, and head voice. But the first two words of this last quo-
tation, "Speaking popularly," would seem to have special im-
portance for us as they certainly indicate that such a division of
the singing voice was well known and was generally accepted.
The personal appearance and manner of the singer was often
34 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
discussed. The singer is told that it is not necessary to move
the body around while singing. He should stand devout, hum-
ble and erect. Some singers bend and extend themselves, while
others look around to see if people are looking at them, but this
is dishonest. 51
As the spirit of the Renaissance emerged, the singer, along
with his contemporaries in the other arts, shared fully in the
urge for greater self-expression. This was of the greatest im-
portance and had been in mounting evidence throughout the
Gothic period. Singing artists have never been content to do
just what was set before them and no more, and the centuries
under discussion were no exception. Ecclesiastics were continu-
ally complaining about the corrupt practices of the singers. Al-
ready Hucbald (ca. 840-930) objects to overdone suaveness
even though the performer is sincere in his praise of the Lord. 52
John Cotton (ca. noo) remonstrates that many songs are
spoiled by bad singers of which there are so many "we can't
count them," 53 and adds that they introduce extraneous ele-
ments or elaborations which are extremely annoying. John of
Salisbury (1115-1180) apparently finds nothing but evil in con-
temporary performances. He says :
Music defiles the service of religion. For the admiring simple souls of the
congregation are of necessity depraved in the very presence of the Lord,
in the sacred recesses of the sanctuary itself by the riot of the wantoning
voice, by its eager ostentation, and by its womanish affectations in the mincing
of notes and sentences. 54
Johannes Gallicus (late twelfth century) writes about the
execrableness of "modern singers," 55 and later adds that they
are all committed to vain practices and do not catch the sweet
and angelic strains with the ear of the mind. 56 Johannes de Muris
has some very hard words to say about singers who do not know
enough to make a discant correctly but who try all the same to
sing in church and in so doing offend both the senses and the
intellect. 57 Elsewhere de Muris elaborates under the heading,
"What sort of errors arise in singing and in how many ways
they arise." 58 Adam de Fulda speaks of the necessity for rules
because "the practice of the performer has come to be extremely
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 35
bad." 59 Also, "They must take upon themselves certain grandi-
ose things in practice. Furthermore, some of them who hardly
understand the form of the notes, or have only the slightest skill
in the art, amend every song, mutilate, corrupt it, and make false
everything that is composed correctly." 60
But it remains for Arnulfo to hurl the last word in invective
against certain inept singers.
In the barking of their brawls they roar higher than the ass's braying, and
blare out more terrible than the uproar of beasts, and spew out bedlam. Dis-
canting opposite the rules, they never fail to create barbarism in music. . . .
They impudently offer themselves as able to make corrections, or to give
directions with authority. ... In an educated group of musicians they
spoil everything that is done very regularly because of their lack of training.
... It is impossible to force silence on these men, for even though they
become very unpopular they make more noise than ever. . . . These are truly
they whom the kingdom of music has irrevocably exiled from her boundaries,
rather they in whose faces the favor of outraged music has spat. 61
The bete noir responsible for much of this malpractice so
unanimously criticized by these ecclesiastics was the 'use of
descant in the divine service. Not that simple descant was ob-
jected to, but the elaborations of these opposing melodies
elaborations that were to reach unexpected complexities were
quite naturally opposed by the Church, which was bent on pre-
serving music as a most helpful adjutant to divine worship. Op-
posed were the singers, who saw and felt music primarily as
an art, and without their gradual assertion of independence
nourished by secularism, it is quite unlikely that the world would
have seen the great musical cultures which flowered during the
Gothic and Renaissance period. Woolridge says :
On the one hand was the great and powerful body of the clergy, endeavoring
by all means to preserve intact in public worship that elementary expression
of the congregational spirit which is contained in the music of the Church.
. . . On the other hand were the composers and descantors, at first of one
mind with the clergy, but later becoming by degrees more and more preoc-
cupied by the artistic problem, and employing more and more in their en-
richments of the service material essentially different in character from plain
song. 62
36 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
Paul Henry Lang says it more succinctly: "The Church be-
gan to realize that its monopoly on music was being seriously
challenged as the development of polyphony went forward on
a more universal basis than strictly liturgic aims could afford." 63
There was hardly an ecumenical council that did not pre-
scribe the limits of music and proscribe many of its practices.
There were not infrequent papal pronouncements to the same
end, one of the most notable being that of Pope John XXII
(1324-1325), in which the singers are described as "preferring
to devise methods of their own rather than to continue singing
in the old way," and consequently "their voices are incessantly
running to and fro, intoxicating the ear, not soothing it, while
the men themselves endeavor to convey by their gestures the
sentiment of the music which they utter." All of these things
they have decided to "cast entirely away, far from the house of
God," and no one henceforward "shall think himself at liberty
to attempt those methods, or methods like them." 64 This is sum-
mary language but its influence was short-lived.
Mankind has always tried to beautify and ornament his ef-
forts at self-expression, and although much of it has tended to-
ward the tawdry, its true and sound qualities have remained either
as masterpieces or as framework upon which masterpieces find ex-
pression. Even the might of the Church could not withstand a
stronger power which as Nietzsche says comes from "the folk
as a unity," and from which all cultures stem. The impotence
of any manner of opposition to such inherent primal forces is
clearly shown by the fact that vocal ornamentation not only con-
tinued in vogue, but expanded in usage and increased its demand
on the skill of the performers. Writing of the time of Pope
Urban V, ca. 1362, Ambros says: "The singer could no better
display his art than, when asked to improvise a descant to a
tenor at sight, to render it as richly and as expensively as he was
able." 65 Apparently after scarcely one generation, Pope John's
bull was already in limbo.
All languages of Western Europe had a word for it. In Latin
it was "cantus super librum" or "cantus a mente" ; in Italian it
was "contrapunto alia mente" ; in French "chant sur le liyre" ;
in German "Verzierungskunst." The English equivalent has
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 3?
been variously rendered as "art of ornamentation," "improviza-
tion," "diminution," "coloration," or "embellishment." By the
time of Tinctoris (ca. 1435-1511) these practices had been
sufficiently stylized so that he was able to define the term and ex-
plain its uses with accompanying examples. In order to get an
idea of the techniques of the day we quote substantially from his
Liber de Arte Contrapuncti:
Now both the simple and the diminished counterpoint occur in two ways,
that is, either written or mentally supplied. Counterpoint which is written is
generally called "resfacta." But the kind we supply mentally we simply call
"counterpoint" and those who perform it are popularly said to be singing
"over the book." The resfacta differs from the counterpoint especially in this
respect : that all parts of the resfacta, whether they are three or four or more,
are connected, so that the order and principle of the consonances of any part
must be observed with respect to the others, singly and altogether, as is clear
from the following example, which is in five parts, for of these, plainly,
first three, then four, and finally all five parts are in accord. [A five part
example follows.] But when two or three, four or more sing together "over
the book," one is not subject to another. But for any one of them, so far as
the principle and the arrangement of the consonances are concerned, it is
sufficient to make a consonance with a tenor. I do not think it blameworthy,
however, but extremely laudable, if, as they sing together, they produce
similar placing and progressions of consonances among themselves. For thus
they make an ensemble which is very full and smoth. 66
While the resfacta is of no little interest, that which com-
mands our attention is the "cantus a mente" which the singer
improvised as the music progressed and which provoked all the
ecclesiastical protestations and circumscriptions. As Tinctoris
describes the practice we cannot escape comparing it to the
twentieth century dixieland jazz bands, jam-sessions and even
boogie-woogie. Moreover it is here that our own vocal technique
in the narrow sense of skill and virtuosity finds its genesis.
This brings us to the sixteenth century which saw the Renais-
sance vocal idioms reach their synthetic culmination. That there
was a concomitant growth in the art of singing must be accepted
since the music demanded more and more of the singer and
participation grew both intensively and extensively. While these
vocal idioms placed the greatest emphasis on choral ensemble
3 8 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
there is a plethora of evidence at hand to show that toward the
end of the century at least, more and more emphasis was being
placed on the art of the individual performer. 67
The outward general appearance and conduct of the singer
while performing received increasing attention. "The singer must
sing with his voice, not with movements of the body,' 7 said Lan-
franco. 68 Maffei may be quoted to the same effect: "Nothing
should move while singing except the arytenoid cartilage. . . .
People look ugly if they shake their heads while singing from
the throat. . . . The singer should keep a mirror in front of
him so as to know of any ugly gesture (accents) which he has
made while singing." 69
Also Z^rlino: "The singer should not sing with movements
of the body or actions or gestures which produce laughter from
those who see and hear them as some do, moving so much that
they really seem to be dancing." 70 Zacconi, writing about two
decades later, goes into full detail. After offering advice on
dress and cleanliness, he says :
The singer must be young, refined, well-dressed, not entirely ignorant, not
hesitant of speech, nor sharp in speaking ; but gentle, courteous, clean, and
adorned [adorno] . He should not be a jester, given to ridiculing the com-
pany, or marked by any notable defect, for these things cause contempt for a
person. 71
After explaining why elderly people should not sing, he adds :
First the singer must be careful not to make gesticulations not only with his
body but with his mouth, turning now one way and now another, and not
to roll his eyes like a person bewitched . . . and good manners always please
more than anything else, for which reason I say that the straightforward and
modest singer always pleases the hearer more than the artificial and pretend-
ing one. If a person has a straight and beautiful mouth, or clean and sincere
eyes, does he wish to spoil these beauties by twisting them around ? Every one
ought to exhibit all the beautiful physical qualities which he has. . . . Sec-
ondly, singers should be careful not to fall into the error into which many
do fall in accommodating the voices and uttering musical figures with the
tremolo, as if this tremolo came from the head, although it has nothing to do
with the head. . . . There are some singers who don't know how to sing if
they do not hold the book with the head turned to the right or the left, and
others who handle their beards or clean their noses with their fingers, or lean
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 39
over with their hands on their faces. ... It is not well for the person who
is singing to play with his hands, with his feet, or with whatever is on the
table, or to handle them purposelessly or thoughtlessly. Some when they can-
not reach the figures in certain chords stretch their necks and arch their eye-
brows, so that it is apparent that they are pulled there by force. Some put
their faces down under their throats and look as if, while they are singing,
they want to hide their beards in their chests. After a singer has sung some-
thing ... he should not yawn or turn the pages, or count how many things
have now been sung, or otherwise show that he wants to be off for some affair
of his. 72
Generally speaking, this advice is still pertinent nowadays.
The problems concerned with breathing and breath control
were noted and discussed. Rossetti 73 is quite dogmatic in his ad-
vice. The singer must breathe easily and not with anxiety, the
breath must not seem to be drawn in violently. Breath must
not be taken before the final syllables of a two-syllable word ex-
cept where there are too many notes to a syllable. The breath
must strike the palate fully and the voice and breath must be
emitted uniformly. Johann Frosch (d. 1533) says that one pur-
pose of rests in music is to give the singer a chance to catch his
breath. 74 Ganassi says that the voice should proceed with a
medium amount of breath which can be increased or diminished
at will. 75 Maffei describes the proper handling of the breath as
* little by little pushing the breath with the voice, and taking
care that it shall not go out through the nose or the palate." 76
Zacconi says that "many singers have not large enough breath-
ing capacity, lose out trying to catch breatb and are obliged to
stop before the end of the passage." 77 Bovicelli also objects to
audible breathing "making more noise with the drawing of the
breath than with the voice," and speaks of ".those who through
weakness or fright take a breath every few notes." He adds that
breath must not be taken in the middle of a "passaggio" or ca-
denza and must be taken in time and with judgment. 78
There is no evidence at hand that the importance of ear-
training as such was recognized before the sixteenth century. But
the statements we find here leave no doubt that the services
rendered to a singer by a good ear were held to be of great
use. By the middle of the century Coclicus writes: "He [the
40 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
singer] will always bring to bear the judgment of his own ears
also. For the ears readily understand what is done correctly or
otherwise, and are the mistress of the true art of singing." 79
About the same time Vicentino, after discussing the difficulty and
importance of singing wide intervals with correct intonation,
says: "The music would be especially excellent if the singers
could utter the notes and the words at the same time in tone and
sing a composition as true as the organ plays it." 80 Now if the
singer cannot employ such exact intonation (tal giusta in-
tonatione)) at least they will spare no effort to agree as much as
they can in their ensemble (concerti}.^
Zarlino advises that "Singers should be careful to sing cor-
rectly those things which are written . . . intoning the notes
well, and putting them in their proper places, seeking to suit
them to the consonance." 82 In the list of requirements for per-
fection in music "perfection of hearing is presupposed," 83 and
he adds that "hearing when it has been purified, cannot easily
be deceived as to sound." Zacconi 84 discusses the difficulty of
singing wide intervals with just intonation and offers examples
from Josquin, Obrecht, and the madrigal Solo pensoso of Werth
which is shown as containing some strikingly difficult leaps, e.g.,
two successive fifths downward, a fifth followed by a sixth up-
ward, and a downward tenth with the melody then continuing
in downward direction. His remark that these intervals require
a skillful singer would seem to preclude the suggestion that they
were played and not sung. As to ornaments 85 they are much
easier learned from hearing than from written examples. Chest
voices are never off pitch like head voices or dull voices and
Zacconi prefers those who sing sharp rather than flat although
all voices with too false intonation must be rejected. 86
Just as we found vocal registers generally recognized among
the later medieval theorists, so in the sixteenth century there
are a substantial number of references to the same subject and
with the same general substance, i.e., there exist three practical
registers, high, middle, and low. The falsetto voice, however,
comes in for increasing mention and consideration. References
exist that Saint Bernard (1091-1153) said to sing "not with
high, lax voices in a womanish fashion, but, masculine in sound
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 41
and feeling." 87 His contemporary, Saint Raynard, Abbot of
Citeaux, 1 133-1151, writes to the same end : "It becomes men to
sing with a masculine voice, and not in a feminine manner, with
tinkling, or as is popularly said, with false voices to imitate
theatrical wantonness." 88 Gerbert reports a dialogue between
the Cistercian and the Clunian in which the former censures the
latter for having emasculated voices at Cluny; he says that these
voices are too light and effeminate and make for luxury con-
trary to the canon. 89
Ulrich gives us several references to what must be considered
as the use of the falsetto. Ornithoparcus speaks of descant as
harmony which must be produced with a voice like a girl's. 90
Fink, Hermann, says, "Let the descant be sung with a light and
penetrating voice." 91 Beurhusius describes descant as "the high-
est voice, melodiously turned to the very high sounds, and con-
sequently light and childlike." 92 And Maffei mentions the use of
a feigned voice "called falsetto" when there was a dearth of
sopranos. 93 Vicentino says that frequently sopranos are lacking
and suggests in that event for the soprano to "be dropped an
octave and become tenor and the contralto be like soprano with
changed voice [come soprano a voce mutata]." This author goes
on to suggest that one may compose masses, motets, madrigals,
etc., so that they can be sung "a voce piena," or "a voce mutata."
In the light of Vicentino's discussion, "a voce mutata" can only
mean "with falsetto voice." 94 Zacconi advises that when sing-
ing in the high register, the voice should not be forced if the
singer cannot reach it comfortably. It is better, he adds, to sing
notes falsetto or to omit them. 95
These references all point up a problem that faced the choir
directors of the Renaissance and became more acute as the six-
teenth century advanced. Every self-respecting court, monas-
tery, and church had its choir of singers which varied in sumptu-
ousness and quality with the fortunes of the sponsoring individ-
ual or institution. As music flourished both more widely and
more intensely, the supply of choir boys fell far short of the de-
mand and we read of incidents such as that of Orlando di Lasso
who after being abducted three times was allowed by his par-
ents to go into the service of Ferdinand Gonzaga, viceroy of
42 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE
Sicily, as a boy soprano. The chapel masters were forced to turn
to other sources, these being first the Falsettists, especially those
from Spain, and then, of far greater importance, the castrati. 96
There is a wealth of evidence to indicate the necessity for
and the existence of a considerable degree of vocal pedagogy in
the sixteenth century, even in the strict sense of the term, i.e., over
and beyond the ability to read the notes. The facility to handle
passages and intervals of wide range and with good tone
quality was an established precept for good performance. But
means used by the singing teachers to acquire the physical ability
to perform these elaborated and ornamented vocal melodies
are scarcely in evidence. We know that the singers were told
when and where to breathe but not how. There are no manuals
showing how the flexible voice was acquired. We can only say
ipso facto that the methods existed. Kuhn tries to show what
these methods were ; 97 however most of his sources to this point
postdate 1600. His quotation from Coclicus is only a general
statement to the effect that any boy who wishes to sing well must
find a teacher who also sings well. His other two sixteenth cen-
tury sources, Maffei and Conforto, assert that students may
learn to sing without the aid of a teacher by the use of their
books. Chrysander is more successful with his study of Zacconi, 98
in showing what actual methods may have been used, for as this
author says, Zacconi suggests that singers should practice on
all the vowels the various examples of ornamentation that he
gives as an aid to flexibility. But Zacconi's work comes at the
end of the century, and its circulation was not wide. For the most
part he offers only generalities and these tell what should be
done rather than what was done. Singers should not sing too
high, not too low, too loud nor too soft, too fast nor too slow.
They should have a satisfactory appearance and manners, should
not be entirely ignorant, should have a good chest for sufficient
breath, vocal agility, a good ear, know when and where to per-
form the colorations with good taste and these should not be
too simple nor too complex. The practice of the ornamented
passages, he suggests, will not be considered necessary by some
since nature has disposed the fortunate ones for such things,
but the less fortunately endowed can also become skilled singers
DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE 43
by hard study and much practice. While Zacconi remains our
best source for this period, yet the other writers cited above
offer general advice concerning the same points and usually to
the same end as has already been noted. Zacconi describes the
situation at the end of the sixteenth century thus: "Music has
always been, and still more with every hour is, embellished by
the diligence and effort of singers. It is made new, or changed,
not by means of figures which are always the same but with
graces and accents it is made to seem ever more beautiful." "
Here in essence we find described what was expected of the
skilled singer at the end of the sixteenth century. It was a highly
sophisticated art which afforded the means for technical display
but by the very nature of the music itself individual emotional
expression was lacking, or at least, was well circumscribed. The
next century was to see a complete change. 100
VI. THE CASTRATI
THEIR HISTORY IN SINGING
THIS study of bel canto would not be complete without giving
due consideration to the most important element in its develop-
ment, i.e., the castrato voice. The practical value of such a study
may be questioned since such a vocal phenomenon no longer ex-
ists. But the misunderstandings, legends, and prejudices that
prevail in this general area are so notable as to deserve and de-
mand careful appraisal. Moreover the effect on the vocal soloistic
art of these unnatural voices was most notable, an influence we
experience every time we hear a Handel opera or oratorio, or a
Bach cantata. Since the immediate source was physiological,
albeit artificial, it is pertinent to present a brief resume of the
subject. 1
The institution of castration has always been of more or less
importance in human affairs. Taboo and false modesty especially
in periods and countries under the influence of Christianity have
stood in the way of its frank and unbiased appreciation and
understanding. This particular aspect of the problem cannot be
discussed here for it would lead us into unrelated fields. What is
essential, however, for a true appraisal of the castrati is a real-
ization that the approach to this subject has been usually un-
sympathetic resulting in superficial and unfair judgments. Of the
great many criticisms levelled at the castrati as to character, men-
tality, initiative, and even morality, their history shows that
they are seldom more open to criticism in these respects than
* 'normal" people and especially than those who would discredit
them. Critics have never held a corner on the desirable human
virtues nor has criticism ever likely been free of bias.
The trail of mutilation, self or inflicted by others, appears
far back in myth and saga, and as the stream of history broad-
ens it assumes at times considerable influence. The Iliad of
Homer and the Theogeny of Hesiod both relate incidents relat-
ing to its status in the affairs of both men and the gods. The re-
THE CASTRATI 45
ligious cults of Asia Minor such as those headed by Mylitta,
Astarte, Artemis, and Attis all gave high standing to their
eunuch priests. The cult of Cybele, whose famous self-mutilated
priests, called "Galli," indulged in frenzied, orgiastic dances of
unbelievable intensity, was established in Greece by 400 B.C.,
and in Rome about two hundred years later. Here it joined hands
with the established Roman religion but retained its wild ritualis-
tic practices, especially that part played by the priests. As the
Roman empire crumbled this religion degenerated into fantastic
ritualistic depths.
Eunuchry found an established place at an early date in Chris-
tianity, the eunuchs always holding a position of respect. In Mat-
thew, chapter 19, verse 12, Jesus says: "For there are some
eunuchs which were made eunuchs of men; and there be eunuchs,
which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's
sake." In Luke, chapter 23, verse 29, we read, "For behold the
days are coming in which they shall say, Blessed are the barren."
Here as also in Matthew, chapter 18, verses 8-9, we find justi-
fication for, if not approval of, self-mutilation and these scrip-
tural lines were in all likelihood the basis for this rather com-
mon practice in subsequent centuries among the Christian
religious zealots. Origen, one of the most famous of the early
teachers of Christianity was a victim of self-mutilation because
of complete dedication to his religious duties. Many others fol-
lowed his bizarre example. However, Christian dogmas, with
their championship of the opposite principle of "Be ye fruitful
and multiply," soon began to hedge regarding castration, and
at the council of Nicea, 325 A.D., definite measures were taken
to curb the practice, allowing it to be done only by qualified
physicians. These decrees were never strictly enforced, but still
later only priests were allowed to perform or take part in such
an operation. The names of such prominent Church Fathers as
Saint Augustine, Gregory of Nazianus, Theodore (teacher of
Constantine), and Tertullian are to be found among those op-
posing castration.
There have been many studies of castration in modern times
from every conceivable point of view. 2 It has not always been
easy to get at the facts, and the period of bel canto is no ex-
46 THE CASTRATI
ception. The best known first-hand investigation was that of
Burney, made during his memorable travels to Italy and else-
where in 1770 and later. He was intent to get at the real situa-
tion, but after following many leads he was always told he could
get precise information elsewhere. Burney writes :
I inquired throughout Italy at what place boys were chiefly qualified for
singing by castration, but could get no certain intelligence. I was told at
Milan that it was Venice, at Venice that it was Bologna, but at Bologna the
fact was denied, and I was referred to Florence ; from Florence to Rome,
and from Rome I was sent to Naples. The operation is most certainly against
law in all these places, as well as against nature ; and all the Italians are so
much ashamed of it, that in every province they refer it to some other. 3
But Burney was not entirely unsuccessful in getting at least a
general conception of the situation. From reputable physicians,
British consuls, friends, and other sources including personal
observations, he was able to report that the conservatories never
actually performed the operations. However, beforehand, the
boy possessing a promising voice was brought to the conserva-
tory for a professional opinion concerning his talents and, if fa-
vorable, he was taken elsewhere for the actual operation. Veter-
inarians were a common agency and travellers report seeing signs
in Naples and other places, "Qui si castrano ragazzi," and in
Rome "Qui si castrano li soprani per li cappella papali." The
number of boys castrated has been estimated as high as four
thousand yearly during the heights of the professional produc-
tion of castrati in eighteenth century Italy. 4
In the affairs of state and society castration has always been
a fact with which to be reckoned. Its effect upon the individual
was soon learned and it was considered advantageous not only
to have docile slaves but also to prevent a warlike enemy from
propagation, especially those in line for enemy thrones. The su-
pervision of the harem was a strong reason for eunuchry and
this confidential position frequently enabled eunuchs to attain
great influence and power including promotion to the highest
offices. Herodotus says that they were especially prized for their
fidelity. 5 At any rate, the sordid profession of selling mutilated
African boys to Moslem harems has persisted to the present
generation.
THE CASTRATI 47
But it would seem that they enjoyed their greatest political
triumphs in the last centuries of the Western Roman Empire.
After Constantine they appear everywhere. They meddled in
the business of the Church and were vigorously attacked by the
Church fathers. Their influence upon Julian the Apostate caused
him to return to the Oriental cult of Astarte. Eutropius and
Scholasticus were among the more noted eunuchs to gain high
places of state while Narses, Hermias and Bagoas became mili-
tary leaders of renown. Claudianus is especially bitter against
them because of their trickery, wantonness and power while Lu-
cian in his Eunuchus, Petronius in his Satyricon, and Ovid in The
Art of Love are sources giving us vivid pictures of the times and
the role played by eunuchs. But the barbarian invasions put an
end to many of these customs and, with the final triumph of
Christianity, were considered a purifying influence. During the
medieval centuries scarcely a trace of eunuchry is to be found
in the Western World and not until the Renaissance do they
make a consequential reappearance. Here again it is interesting
to note that though their realm was musical, they often served
as confidants or emissaries of popes, kings, cardinals and minis-
ters.
We come now to that area of our subject with which we are
particularly concerned, viz., castration for the purpose of re-
tention of a high voice. While it was recognized at a very early
time that a eunuch usually possessed a voice of high range, yet
it is to be doubted if the motive of the operation was ever for
singing in these early times. On the other hand, eunuch slaves
were often called upon to entertain especially if they possessed
musical talent, and it is only natural to assume that their un-
usual vocal qualities were soon observed. Besides the term
"eunuch voice" was a common one from remote antiquity, the
connotation of which is not difficult to conjecture. But that this
result was ever the reason for anyone becoming a eunuch is to be
almost completely discounted until a somewhat later period. It
is of interest to note that the first use of castration for the pur-
pose of art was in the realm of the dance and pantomime in-
stead of singing. Saint Cyprian (200-258) says that the opera-
tion was performed in late boyhood in order to retain a lithe
4 8 THE CASTRATI
and supple body, but since according to Petronius^ these dancers
and pantomimists also sang, its effect on the voice must have
been evident. Infibulation was a much more widely practiced
custom in Rome both among heathen and Christians to delay
maturity among youthful singers, cytharists, and actors. 6
Bearing in mind the important part played by castration in
the Near Eastern religious cults as well as in their domestic and
civil life, it is not surprising to find eunuchs singing in the East-
ern Church long before they appeared in the Western branch.
Origen was probably the first castrated singing teacher to appear
in the Christian Church although we know that his act was not
motivated by musical ambition. But according to Sosomen (ca.
400-450) and the church historian Socrates (ca. 3 8 -45)
Briso, a eunuch of the Eastern emperor, was director and teacher
of singing in Constantinople in the fourth century and instructed
the eunuchs in the singing of hymns. Also according to the testi-
mony of Balsamon, a learned canonist, who wrote his Commen-
taries in 1170, eunuch singing was established in the Eastern
Church by that date. Balsamon's revealing statement is as fol-
lows: "First of all it must be no ted . . . that the body of singers
of former times consisted not only of eunuchs, as is the case to-
day, but also of those not of this sort." 7
Most of these eunuchs came from Constantinople and went as
singers and teachers wherever the Eastern Church was estab-
lished. Russian annals tell of the eunuch Manuel who, with two
other eunuchs wandered to Smolensk where they established them-
selves as music teachers in 1137. From the twelfth century on
we can safely say that eunuch singing was the rule in the Eastern
Church. 8
The first date of their appearance in the Western Church is
not definitely established nor do we know whether they came by
way of Constantinople, Spain, or directly from the Near East.
The growth of self-mutilation among Christian monks is thought
by some to have made their entrance easier. There is definite
evidence that castrati were used to sing in certain religious cele-
brations in Spain about 1557 and afterward, 9 and Fantoni 10
definitely hands the palm to Spain as being the first to use them. 11
As to the Sistine Chapel we know that at least by 1562 the
THE CASTRATI 49
castrate voice could be heard in its public performances, as Padre
Soto, a Spanish castrato, was entered on June 8 of that year.
The edict of Pope Paul IV, on July 30, 1555, paved the way
since it dismissed and excluded all married men from the Sistine
ranks. 12 A few years later the word "eunuch" begins to appear
regularly after the names of newly admitted singers. Pope Clem-
ent VIII, 1592-1602, has been widely quoted as justifying their
presence by the words, "ad honorem Dei." 13 After 1609 only
Italian castrati were trained as sopranists for the Sistine Chapel
and by 1625 the last falsettist in the choir had died.
Already in the latter half of the sixteenth century the castrati
had begun to consider their careers as that of singers and be-
cause of more careful study and training soon ousted the boy
singers and falsettists from the Italian choirs. When the opera
appeared they were already prepared, technically, and this
"Dramma per Musica" was not laggard in realizing that the
extraordinary vocal gifts of these "unnatural" ones were made
to order for its essential baroque characteristics. Together they
gave to the world a calibre of vocalism such as had never been
heard. Nor can it be heard today and probably never will again,
at least as long as society is controlled by its present religious
and moral precepts. Although their accomplishments were con-
sidered sensational, there was yet another side to the story and
it is a sordid one. For every one that gained fame and fortune,
hundreds were sacrificed by conscienceless guardians, teachers,
agents, and even parents, to drag out the rest of their days in a
drab and dreary world, usually of prejudice and unfriendliness.
At the very moment of -their greatest achievements, forces
were at work which were to destroy the castrati. Here we can
only consider in barest outline how this came about. The great-
est upsurge in natural sciences which followed close upon the
Renaissance brought forth a new era of rationalism in philosophy
with the thinking of Descartes, Locke, and Leibnitz in the van.
This led in turn to new conceptions of individual liberty and
freedom in which spirit the Enlightenment flourished and which
the eighteenth century philosophers carried forward to the
French Revolution. Part and parcel with the times was a wide-
spread growth of naturalistic sentiments summed up in Rous-
50 THE CASTRATI
seau's popular slogan "Return to Nature." This produced a
climate of opinion and feeling quite unwholesome for these arti-
ficial and "unnatural ones" in which they rapidly lost favor.
Even more directly the Opera Seria, the musical genre which
provided them their greatest opportunities, was nurturing in the
"Intermezzo" what proved to be a veritable fifth column for
the castrati. Introduced between the acts as comic relief, it re-
ceived such wholehearted approval that soon it achieved inde-
pendence and stood on its own feet as the "Opera Buffo." Deal-
ing with subjects of natural interest instead of the unrealities
and superficialities of the Opera Seria, it had no place for such
voices, and as its popularity increased the castrati were relegated
more and more to the sidelines. After some of Mozart's early
operas there were no more roles of consequence written for them
and their disappearance from the theatre was only a matter of
time.
The Italian church choirs continued to use the castrati all
through the nineteenth century and even into the twentieth, and
though they made their finest contributions to the Church in
the seventeenth century before the opera took away the better
singers, the written testimony of those who heard the great choirs
in Rome is almost universal in heaping praise upon their perform-
ances. Even the hypercritical, such as Burney, Mendelssohn, and
Spohr, while taking them to task for carelessness, indifference,
and at times faulty intonation, had. to admit the superb "eflects of
the Passion Week music, especially the renditions of the widely
famed "Miserere" of Allegri and the "Improperia" of Palestrina.
They were the chief factor in making the Sistine choir world
famous.
However, there can be no gainsaying the fact that definite de-
terioration had begun by 1800. Even in 1770 Burney was warned
not to expect too much from the papal singers and while their
performances moved him because of their delicacy and profound
expressiveness, yet he felt they lacked spirit and he seemed to see
signs of disintegration. Ludwig Spohr, writing in i8i6, 14 un-
favorably criticized their appearance, age, intonation, and care-
lessness, while Mendelssohn writes both favorably and unfavor-
ably. 16 Under the leadership of the devoted but retrospective
THE CASTRATI 51
Baini there was a renaissance of former excellence, but his death
in 1844 marks the beginning of the final descent of the castrati
and with them the glories of the Roman Church music.
Castration of young boys continued, although with increas-
ing rarity, up to 1870. In this year the emerging nationalism of a
seething continent culminated in the capture of Rome by the
Italian troops, the fall of the Napoleonic empire and the establish-
ment of the Third Republic in France, while in January of the
next year the German Empire was established. The long and
bitter struggle of the Church for temporal power thus came to a
close in total defeat and Pope Pius IX who was destined to suffer
this humiliation discontinued all papal functions including serv-
ices in the Sistine Chapel. His successor, Leo XIII (1878-1903),
called upon the soprano-castrato Mustafa to restore the choir but
the diminishing supply of singers was an insurmountable obstacle.
Moreover the moral sensibilities even in Italy itself revolted
against the renewal of castration which alone could have saved the
day. So strong was the feeling that existing castrati tried desper-
ately to hide their true circumstances by getting doctor's certifi-
cates to prove that they were born eunuchs or were otherwise the
victim of accidents beyond their control. Some insisted that they
were really falsettists and through influence obtained permission
to marry.
But the facts were common knowledge among the Romans and
these efforts only brought down such derision upon them that the
Church was obliged to take a hand through its official publica-
tions. It is not without pathos to find the last real resistance to
their abolition among the old singers themselves. Perhaps it was
an innate, well-founded pride in the vanished glories of their once
proud profession which made a few of these rally around their
last really great artist and leader, Mustafa, in spite of an opposi-
tion that included Pope Leo himself.
Perosi took over the Sistine choir from Mustafa in 1898 and
it was he who administered the "coup de grace." He strengthened
the soprano and contralto sections by the addition of boys and
falsettists as the castrati gradually passed out of the picture. Most
of the old ones were pensioned off; only three, Salvatori, Sebas-
tianelli, and Moreschi remained singing in both the Sistine and
52 THE CASTRATI
the Cappella Giulia. Moreschi, the last to survive, died in 1922,
and therewith ended once and probably for all time an art which
was so extraordinary in method as well as in results obtained.
Their end was ignominious when one considers the splendors once
lavished upon them and, far more important, their great contri-
bution to our musical heritage.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUELY
ADAPTABLE TO SINGING
Consideration of the castrati has usually been colored with a mix-
ture of curiosity, facetiousness, contempt and superiority. This
is due, first, to the fact that they cannot live up to the Christian
ideal of "be ye fruitful and multiply," 16 and second, to the physi-
cal development which resulted from their particular circum-
stances. As to the former we need to say only, in their defense,
that so-called "normal" human beings who have ever been guilty
of the entire gamut of moral irregularities are in exceeding ill-
grace to condemn the castrati for their abnormalities. But the
physical changes that come about as a direct result of castration
are of the utmost importance since these are the phenomena with
which we are concerned. f
When castration occurs before the glandular functioning of
the testicles has begun, certain abnormal physical developments
result. The body grows somewhat larger than otherwise and the
bony structure takes on feminine characteristics. The chest be-
comes round, measuring approximately the same from front to
back and side to side, while the muscles become softer, the skin
sallow and flabby, the body hairless, the hair on the head thicker
and the face beardless. Moreover, the mammary glands, ordi-
narily dormant in the male, develop in a marked way which fact
accounted much for the castrati being able to assume feminine
roles with such success on the stage. But of all the changes result-
ing from such an operation, that which occurs in the larynx is the
most remarkable and the most pertinent to our study. Due to the
delay in ossification of the entire skeleton the larynx remains for
a long time cartilaginous and along with this, as in women, there
was no growth comparable to the normal male Adam's apple.
This is not to say that there was no mutation whatever, but rather
THE CASTRATI 53
that it was a very slow and gradual change that extended through-
out most of their life. Moreover this mutation was only a fraction
of what would normally have occurred during the comparatively
short period of puberty. As this gradual change took place the
lower range of the boyish voice was extended, taking on a tenor
quality which due to greater physical strength was capable of far
greater volume and brilliance than the female voice. It was usual
for the soprano to change to mezzo and the mezzo to contralto
as they turned into middle and old age. Their uncommon flexibil-
ity was due to continuous and careful training begun usually at a
tender age and extending throughout this period of very slow mu-
tation. Their phenomenal capacity in singing long bravura pass-
ages and producing their famous messa di voce or "swell tone"
(i.e., crescendo and diminuendo) was due first to their abnormal
chest dimensions which allowed them to inhale a great amount of
air and second to the fact that the larynx was considerably smaller
than normal, thus allowing the voice to be produced with much
less expenditure of breath. Of course, the long years of continu-
ous study without any distracting outside influences or interests
had much bearing on their astounding faculty for performing
their fantastic vocal feats, but the fundamental facts concerning
their special physical qualifications, i.e., small larynx and large
chest capacity must be given prime consideration in accounting for
their vocal accomplishments. 17
As to their physical appearance, it is more or less true that as
Charles de Brosses says, "Most of them grew to be big and fat
like capons, with hips, buttocks, arms, breast, and neck round and
plump like women. When one meets them at a party, it is astonish-
ing, when they speak, to hear a small childish voice coming forth
from such giants." 18 Even Brosses who is not particularly preju-
diced in their favor had to admit in the next sentence that some of
them were very attractive in appearance and that they often
possessed real talent.
During the period of their popularity little objection is found
to their assumption of feminine roles and there are many state-
ments indicating that they accomplished remarkable results in
costume and make-up. The majority of the famous castrati made
their debuts in feminine impersonations: Farinelli, Gizziello,
5 4 THE CASTRATI
Caffarelli, Carestini, Marches!, Pachiarotti, Crescentini, Rauz-
zini, etc., while all the others enacted such parts frequently. 19 The
castrati singers in Saint Mark, Venice, were much in demand to
play female characters in the Venetian opera houses. Caffi praises
their appearance on the stage, especially that of the soprano,
Angeletti, "because of the beauty of his figure in feminine
dress." 20 Raguenet praises in glowing phrases the voices and the
singing of the castrati. He insisted that the chief advantage the
Italian Opera held over the French rested with the castrato
voice. He heard Ferini in the part of Sibaris in Themistocles at
Rome in 1 698, and said that there had probably never been a more
beautiful woman in the world. 21 Perhaps no more interesting evi-
dence as to their ability to delineate the weaker sex can be found
than in the memoirs of Casanova. In the fascinating account of
the "False Bellino," he recounts the very unusual circumstance in
which a female soprano, Theresa, realizing that greater oppor-
tunities existed for male sopranos, took the name of the young
castrato, Bellino, who had died very suddenly, and masqueraded
successfully for many years, singing with considerable acclaim
in various opera houses in Europe as "Castrato-primadonna."
According to Habock 22 this was done by a number of female
singers seeking theatrical careers. Another convincing piece of
evidence as to their ability as well as acceptability in feminine roles
turns up in a novelette, Sarrasine by Balzac. Here the author
chooses to make a castrato the "heroine" of the piece in which a
young sculptor becomes enamored of a castrato whom he has only
seen on the stage in feminine attire. Urged by friends to encourage
him for its humorous implications, the castrato carries on a flirta-
tion which gives rise to such a state of passion in the victim that
the true state of affairs has to be revealed. Whereupon the young
lover in a fit of anger tries to kill his deceiver but is killed instead
by the guards of the castrato's patron. The spectacle of men mas-
querading as women both on and off the stage was not uncommon
during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. For the most
part women were taboo in the theatre and men were obliged to
perform in their stead. The "harmless" tendency on the part of
both sexes to disguise themselves in the garb of the other is dis-
cussed by Goethe in his "Romischen Carnival." 53
THE CASTRATI 55
In masculine roles the castrati were less successful. Their gen-
eral physical characteristics marked them as too effeminate, and
their tendency to corpulence was decidedly against them. But as
Habock notes, 24 the present opera singers have little room to talk
since the husky dramatic sopranos, the buxom contraltos, the
smiling fat-faced tenors, and the all too corpulent basses are the
cause of many a funeral dirge among directors, agents and critics.
Very seldom does nature combine beauty with great talent, and
we are obliged to put up with youth and age, slimness and heft,
beauty and ugliness in our singers. Music is paramount and fan-
tasy is able to and does overcome reality.
Habock gives us a long list of quotations by eighteenth century
critics concerning the castrati that are both favorable and un-
favorable. 25 Here it seems pertinent to note some of these opin-
ions. Marcello (1770) was very scornful and derisive, but he
wrote in a satirical manner concerning all singers both men and
women. Grosley (1764) preferred women's or boys' voices and
could never understand why the Italians liked the evirato voice,
yet he relates how he was favorably impressed with the perform-
ance of a castrato in Hasses' opera Demofoonte at Naples in
1758. Rousseau 26 opposed them on moral grounds; he liked their
singing but said they were the most miserable actors in the world.
Algarotti (1775) found fault with them in general. Volkmann
(1770) discussed to some extent their unconventional life outside
the theatre but he took all singers and dancers to task for their
unorthodox ways. Sonetti (1777)' observed that male roles
should be played by men and female roles by women and not by a
creation that is neither man nor woman.
But that there were some excellent actors among them is amply
proven by some of their most vociferous critics. Sir Richard
Steele 27 describing a performance of Nicolini said that he "was
fully satisfied with the sight of an actor [Nicolini] who, by the
Grace and Propriety of his Action and Gesture, does Honour to
an Human Figure," and "sets off the Character he bears in an
Opera by his Action, as much as he does the Words of it by his
Voice. Every limb and every Finger, contributes to the Part he
acts, insomuch that a deaf man might go along with the Sense of
it." 28 Addison said, 29 "I am sorry to find by the Opera bills for
5 g THE CASTRATI
this day, that we are likely to lose the greatest performer in
dramatic Music, that is now living, or that perhaps ever appeared
upon the stage. I need not acquaint my readers that I am speaking
of Signer Nicolini." Galliard wrote, 30 "Nicolini who came the
first time into England about the year 1708 had both qualities
[i.e., singing and acting] more than any other that have come
here since. He acted to perfection and did not sing much inferior."
Marpurg, 31 concerning Senesino, Carestini, Romani, and Por-
porino, said "that they had gained their position of esteem not
only because of their singing art but also on account of their stage
deportment." Burney's account of individual singers often men-
tions their stage performances and their reputations as actors,
and Goethe 32 reports, "The castrati, disguised as ladies, play
their part ever better, to ever more satisfaction. . . . They play
with uncommon naturalness and good humor." 8S Schopenhauer
heard Crescentini in Vienna in 1804 and wrote, "This opera held
a great attraction in Crescentini, perhaps the most famous of all
castrati ... he sings with very much expression and, what one
would not expect, he is a good actor." 34 This phenomenal singer
was heard by Napoleon at Vienna during his campaign of 1805.
He so impressed the Emperor that after very substantial induce-
ment he went to Paris and had brilliant successes for the next six
years. Fetis gives us a vivid description of his singing the role of
Romeo in Romeo et Juliette and its profound effect upon his
audience including Napoleon. "Never was song and dramatic art
carried to such heights. The entrance of Romeo in the third act,
his prayer, his cries of despair, the aria Ombra adorata, aspetta,
all this made such an effect that Napoleon and all the spectators
gave way to tears and not knowing how to express his pleasure the
Emperor sent to him the decoration of the order of the cross of
iron, rank of chevalier/' 85
Perhaps no fairer judgment of the case for and against the
castrati can be found than that of Burney. Says he, "I must, how-
ever, in justice, as well as humanity, endeavor to remove some
prejudices which throw an unmerited contempt upon beings, who,
as they are by no means accountable for that imperfection under
which they labor, are entitled to all the pity and alleviation we
can bestow." From here he goes on to make the following points :
THE CASTRATI 57
They are not cowards and do not lack fortitude in times of danger; they
are not devoid of interest in literature or other serious study; they are not
deficient in mental ability, and, as for composition, and the theory of Music,
not only the best singers of the Pope's chapel ever since the beginning of the
last century [1600], but the best composers are among the soprani in that
service. 36
Such statements should go a long way to disabuse us of any pre-
possessed estimates concerning the character and artistic ability
of the eviratL Burney offers a wealth of historical, literary, and
musical data to bolster his opinions and the very fact that they
were expressed at the time (ca. 1770-1780) when the popularity
of the castrati was well on the wane and the moral indignation at
such an institution was about at its height, 37 they bear eloquent
testimony to the tolerance and open-mindedness of this eminent
musicographer.
Habock himself, after twenty years of research, came to the
following conclusions : the castrati were not above the average in
thoughtlessness and foolishness ; there is essentially no difference
in intellectual powers between them and normal men, nor is there
any indication of a loss of intellectual keenness after castration,
the cases of Origen, Narses, Abelard, etc., being cited; they have
often indicated unusual sagacity in diplomacy and on the field of
battle as well as great personal courage in duels ; as to the charge
of vanity, avarice, and cowardice, these are common to all men
everywhere although it must be said that as the castrati became
aware of their uniqueness they developed a keener sense of
shrewdness and oftentimes superiority.
Singers as a whole have never been considered paragons of
histrionics. One evening at the opera will convince even the
neophyte of the low estate of the singers' acting ability. This has
ever been the case and there are two important reasons account-
able. First, vocal skill is stressed throughout training, especially
in the earlier formative years. Oftentimes the histrionic aspect of
his art is not considered until the singer is ready to step upon the
concert stage or assume the responsibilities of an operatic role.
Second is the fact that singing is at best an artificial means of
emotional expression and is singularly inadequate for the broad
spectrum of human f eelinga that are part and parcel of successful
58 THE CASTRATI
dramaturgy. It is self-evident that very few passions lend them-
selves easily and naturally to such a formalized art as song. An
actor has a bag of tricks of great variety to which he can resort at
all times. He may shout, scream, growl, coo, or even reduce his
voice to a whisper. But the singer, regardless of the situation in
which he may find himself, must sing and sing correctly else his
voice may not last to the final curtain, not to mention the impli-
cations of continued vocal abuse with regard to his future career.
Tosi says, 38 "I don't know if a perfect Singer can at the same time
be a perfect Actor ; for the Mind being at once divided by two
different operations, he will probably incline more to one than the
other ; it being, however, much more difficult to sing well than to
act well, the Merit of the first is beyond the second. What a
Felicity would it be to possess both in a perfect Degree I"
By way of summation it can certainly be contended that from
these opinions expressed by a great variety of individuals, the
castrati were likely not far below nor much above the average in
personable, artistic, and intellectual qualities. For each case of
low morals, bad manners, inferior intelligence, lack of courage,
poor artistry, or any other uncomplimentary attributes, parallels
are easily noted among so-called "normal" human beings.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE CASTRATI ON SINGING
At the present day the acquirements of flexibility is not in great esteem, and
were it not, perhaps, for the venerable Handel, declamatory music would
reign alone. This is to be regretted for not only must the art suffer but also
the young fresh voices, to which the brilliant florid style is the most congenial.
. . . It would not be difficult to trace the causes for the decline of the florid
style. . . . Let it suffice, however, to mention, as one of the most important,
the disappearance of the race of great singers who, besides originating this
art, carried it to its highest point of excellence**
This statement by the most famous voice teacher of the nineteenth
century, in the fullness of years (he was in his eighty-ninth year ) ,
is appropriate praise for the art of the castrati. Moreover, it gives
credit where credit is due when it comes to establishing responsi-
bility for the precepts underlying bel canto. For it cannot be denied
that the castrati both as teachers and as singers were almost
entirely the direct and motivating agents in the foundation of
THE CASTRATI 59
everything that is meant by "the old Italian singing methods."
There is hardly a single vocal ornamentation that does not find its
genesis and development at their hands. All of seventeenth and
eighteenth century Europe looked to Italy for singers as well as
singing teachers and it has only been in the past quarter of a cen-
tury that singers have been able to attain consequential success
without the stamp of Italian training. It is true that during the
past century the Wagnerian declamatory style threatened for a
time to turn the tide against Italy, but even the mighty musical
colossus of the North abetted by a considerable amount of self-
criticism on the part of the Italians was at last turned back as the
forces of vocal lyricism rallied around their banner "Bel Canto.* 1
And this was the struggle that made the term famous. We have
already seen how it was never used in or associated with the cen-
turies and musical styles usually considered its own until after the
middle of the nineteenth century in Italy and the iSyo's in the rest
of Europe. It may be said without hesitation that the castrati
built their vocalism on a singularly firm basis to have withstood
the test of nearly four centuries of changing musical styles. We
still look to Italy as the Madonna of Song. The castrati provided
her with a halo.
PART III: BEL CANTO
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND HYGIENIC
FACTORS IN ITS DEVELOPMENT
VII. APPEARANCE AND POSE
What dignity and charm is contributed by the countenance which has a role
second only to the voiced-
Physical uncouthness may be such that no art can remedy it. 2
ITALIAN SOURCES
THE older music histories were accustomed to emphasize the de-
velopment in music genres in the period around 1600 as being a
sudden change, in fact a musical revolution. As long as musicology
shunned the scientific historical method such conclusions were to
be expected as superficial investigation shows monody, opera, and
oratorio to have made a meteoric appearance at the beginning of
the seventeenth century. Happily for us, present-day research is
such that we are now well disabused of such ingenuousness. While
it is not to be denied that this was a time of transition, the flux was
natural and orderly. The medieval liturgical dramas, mystery
plays, balletti, intermedi, sacre rappresentazioni, etc., all give us
a direct line of descent to oratorio and opera while the lute accom-
panied solo song and later the solo madrigal were well established
before the freer monodic style of Caccini. 3 Says Grout :
The mere composing of songs for solo voice with instrumental accompaniment
was nothing revolutionary. Not to mention the medieval troubadours and
minnesingers or the composers of the Ars Nova, the whole sixteenth century
furnishes examples. . . . Even in Italian polyphonic music of the sixteenth
century there was a constantly increasing tendency to give the highest voice
the character of a solo and to reduce the others to the function of accompani-
ment. 4
The need for a more sophisticated soloistic art brought out more
and more refinements in vocal practices as the century progressed.
As the bel canto period began there were no sudden changes but
APPEARANCE AND POSE 61
rather greater emphasis placed on those things which stressed the
dramatic elements of solo song.
As to the exterior physical attributes of singing the Italians
continued to emphasize in general the same factors observed in
earlier centuries. Durante says, "Do not make gestures with the
body.' J 5 In his recommendations for the performance of his opera,
Dafne, Da Gagliano asks that every step be with the music and
every gesture be in keeping with the nature of the music. 6 Diruta
suggests that the singer stand straight and with pleasing posture
avoiding improper movements of the mouth. 7 Cerone's advice is
as follows : "I say that a genuine and simple singer who is modest
will always please an audience better than one who is skillful and
apt but artificial.' ' 8
Scaletta urges pupils not to make ugly motions with the eyes,
mouth or body, 9 while Doni observes that some singers "make so
many affectations and prim movements with the mouth and the
eyes that it really seems that they are swooning with sweetness." 10
Donati counsels the singer always to hold the head high and
not arch the eyebrows n and a half century later Penna includes
among his rules to follow and snares to escape for those learning
the Canto Figurato: Rule 3, Singers should not twist around the
body, head, eyes, mouth, etc. 12
Our next source is one of the most important and one to whom
we shall have frequent recourse, viz., Pietro Francesco Tosi. 13
Being a castrato and famous both as singer and teacher we should
take special note of his advice. He says :
He [the master] should always make the scholar sing standing, that the
Voice may have all its organization free. Let him take care, whilst he sings,
that he get a graceful posture, and make an agreeable Appearance. Let him
rigorously correct all grimaces and tricks of the Head, of the body, and
particularly of the mouth; which ought to be composed in a manner (if the
sense of the "words permit it) rather inclined to a smile, than too much
gravity. 14
In singing divisions, i.e., bravura passages, "let him [the pupil]
be corrected if he marks them with the tongue, or with the chin,
or any other grimace of the head or body." 15 The pupil should
never be allowed "to hold the rnusick-paper, in singing, before his
62 APPEARANCE AND POSE
face, both that the sound of the voice may not be obstructed, and
to prevent him from being bashful." And the scholar should sing
often before people of distinction, "that by gradually losing his
fear, he may acquire an Assurance, but not boldness. Assurance
leads to a Fortune, and in a singer, becomes a Merit. On the
contrary, the Fearful is most unhappy. ... A timorous singer
is unhappy, like a Prodigal, who is miserably poor." 16
For practice apart from the teaching studio Tosi has this to
say:
When he [the scholar] studies his Lesson at Home, let him sometimes sing
before a looking glass, not to be enamoured with his own person, but to
avoid those convulsive motions of the Body, or of the Face (for so I call the
Grimaces of an affected Singer) which, when once they have took Footing,
never leave him. 17
Ecclesiastical singers were given more rigid advice, being told
"to avoid everything which can be offensive to others as peculiar
movements of the body, of the head, of the lips, of the throat." 4S
If there is a better source for the singing methods of bel canto
than the work of Tosi already mentioned, it is the highly im-
portant book of Giovanni Battista Mancini. 19 At the age of four-
teen he was a pupil of Leonardo Leo 20 and then studied in Bologna
with Bernacchi whose singing school has always been considered
one of the best. He went to the celebrated Padre Martini for
counterpoint studies and in 1757 was called to the imperial
Austrian court as singing teacher where he remained until his
death in 1800 at the age of eighty-four. His practical approach
to singing as revealed in his Riflessioni is the most voluminous and
detailed in existence for the bel canto period and we quote from
him at length, not only here but later.
Naturally pleasing physical features are a most important asset
according to Mancini.
A singer possessing a noble, sweet and pleasing face will be well received by
the public, though he may have a small degree of talent; while on the con-
trary, an expressive face with homely or harsh features will not be tolerated
unless the person is unexcelled in the art of singing. 21
That he taught by personal illustration is evident from the follow-
ing:
APPEARANCE AND POSE 63
As for myself I always acted with my pupils like a dancing master. I used
to call my pupils one by one in front of me and after having placed them in
the right position, "Son," I would say, "Look, observe, . . . raise your head
. . . don't lean it forward . . . nor backwards . . . but straight and nat-
ural." In that position your vocal organs remain relaxed and flexible, be-
cause if you lean your head forward it [the neck] will suddenly become tense ;
also if the head is leaned backwards. 22
And further,
The student does not only correct the defects of the voice through the teacher's
exposition, but also all the other defects. Defects of this second kind are bad
position of the mouth, wrinkling of the forehead, twisting of the eyes, contor-
tions of the neck and of the whole body, and things of this kind. To correct
these defects, I would have my student stand in front of me and sing his
lesson by heart. Such a position afforded two good results, one for me and one
for the pupil. For me it was easier to observe his defects, and it was exercis-
ing his memory also. Singing in this way, it was easier to correct his faults
because his mind was not occupied in reading his notes. 23
The singer is continually warned against incorrect facial ex-
pression and bodily movements. Again we read,
He [the singer] should be careful not to make contortions with his mouth,
and thus make himself look convulsed, and much less make contortions with
his body, like some singers, who in reaching a high tone, stand on their toes,
thinking this will help them. Instead it makes them appear ridiculous, and
they acquire unmendable habits. . . . Now if the faulty position of the
mouth, as I said, mars the beauty and expression of the voice, how much more
will it spoil the amiable features of the singer ? Features which are exposed at
that moment to a public which is there ready to praise or censure him? 2 *
Mancini writes with such direct simplicity and offers such com-
mon sense advice that one can hardly refrain from quoting him in
entirety. He insists that although a singer may have received from
nature "a good appearance and graceful movements of the arms
and hands," yet the use of these must be learned through study
and are
dictated by sane and mature judgment, or copied from actors of renown by
observing them in those special roles we are learning. The first thing of im-
portance is to learn to walk gracefully and naturally on and off the stage.
The best place to learn this is at a dancing school. Dancing teaches one to
64 APPEARANCE AND POSE
move the feet and to carry the arms gracefully, to turn the head with ease
and move the whole body with elasticity and grace.
Fencing and horseback riding are strongly recommended by him
since they make the body strong, agile and robust. 25 The mask
should be cultivated because it is essential that the singer be able
to show any emotion or mood at will with the face.
One must have ease in changing from a sweet expression to a harsh one, from
tenderness to madness, from affection to disdain, etc. This is the most beauti-
ful part of the art of acting. The important thing is that these changes of ex-
pression must succeed each other with naturalness and at the exact moment. 26
In his counsel to the student of singing Mancini gives us a rare
blend of psychological and practical advice. He, in turn, seems
to have gotten his point of view from his own teacher whom he
does not identify but who was in all likelihood the great Bernacchi.
He says,
In closing this chapter [XII], it strikes me that I would prove my sincere
affection for studious youth, if I give them the advice given to me by a
valiant and loving teacher, a "souvenir" of the love and affection of the way
he taught me to sing and which I shall never forget as long as I live. "Never
allow yourself to be timid ; never be lazy ; never permit yourself to be stage
frightened when singing in public. One must have spirit, dash and life, other-
wise everything will be tame and lifeless." I know it is natural for a beginner
to be timid but the teacher should take care that when a pupil is able to sing
by himself, to allow him to sing once in a while in public. First let him sing
before a few friends, then little by little, have him sing before a more exacting
audience. 27
A word of caution against temerity, impetuousness, and for-
wardness is offered to those who might misunderstand his sugges-
tions concerning spirit, dash, and life, for modesty along with
art and knowledge will enable the singer "to earn a serious con-
sideration" from his audience.
Never forget to keep self-possession while you are singing. Never allow
yourself to wander or be careless. Since man is not always in the same mood,
but will sometimes feel joyful and vivacious, and other times sad and lowly,
he must be able to overcome the mood in which he finds himself, when the
moment comes for him to sing in public. He must make an effort to cheer
himself, and make himself pleasing by virtue if not by nature* Careless sing-
APPEARANCE AND POSE 65
ing is languid and uninteresting. Often we hear an audience wishing that
such a singer would end his song soon. On the other hand, when singing is
vivacious and jocund, it gives pleasure to the audience and such an atmosphere
makes both the singer and the audience happy and cheerful. Then we hear the
words da capo, da capo. An atmosphere of joy reflects more upon the heart of
a singer than upon the audience. It makes his rendition easier, because he has
gathered within himself all his thoughts. When his mind is in a happy mood,
he feels like singing, and takes such an interest in what he is doing, that his
mind runs always in advance of the following phrase, and it is just that ex-
cellent prevision which prepares him for the execution and makes his rendi-
tion easier and more graceful and appeals to the ear and heart of his audi-
ence. 28
There remains one further useful Italian source, viz., Vincenzo
Manfredini (1737-1799). His Regole Armoniche was first pub-
lished in 1775 but this edition contains little or nothing about
singing. However in the second edition 29 there was included an
important section on singing. 30 In essence the author echoes pre-
vious writers. Many singers have beautiful voices but lack the
ability and the means to move their hearers, for they sing "with-
out spirit, and without color, and they recite with such indolence
that they resemble plaster figures." 31 He suggests that the mouth
should be opened not too much nor too little, and the correct way
is to keep it open "as in the act of smiling; neither should one put
out his tongue on to one's lips." 32 Manfredini is quite precise in
his directions for correct posture.
When singing, one should always hold one's head firm and straight ; neither
should one make any unbefitting motions with one's shoulders, arms, or any
other part of one's body; on the contrary, one should hold oneself in a noble
posture, and sing while standing in order that the voice might come out more
easily, particularly when studying and when one must [make an effort] and
is anxious to [be successful in] being heard. 88
In completing our references to Italian sources it is only neces-
sary to add the unquestioned authority of the greatest Italian
opera librettist of the eighteenth century, and the most prolific of
all time, Metastasio. Throughout his letters, when a singer is
mentioned, there is usually an opinion expressed, favorable or
unfavorable, as to his appearance or personality. 84 One is forced
to the conclusion that this well-educated man, of the broadest
66 APPEARANCE AND POSE
experience in the theatre, placed great emphasis on these attri-
butes of successful public performance.
GERMAN SOURCES
Our first German source is none other than Heinrich Schiitz
( 1585 1672) , nor could we wish for one who commands greater
respect He discusses the question as to whether a singer should
use the face and general demeanor to aid in accomplishing desired
emotional effects. It is his opinion that the singer should rely on
the voice and vocal ornamentation to gain the proper expression,
this being spoiled by undesirable facial contortions. This sort of
singer should perform behind a curtain or, still better, in comedies,
as here he would have more opportunities to make use of such
talent. 35 After further direct and positive suggestions on the
art of singing, Schiitz sums up his argument :
In short, a singer should not sing through the nose. He should not stammer,
otherwise he is unintelligible. He should not have a speech impediment or
lisp, else he is scarcely half understood. Also he should not close the teeth
together, nor open the mouth too widely, nor stick out the tongue over the
lips, nor pout the lips, nor twist the mouth, nor move around the cheeks and
nose like long-tailed monkeys, nor knit the eyebrows, nor wrinkle the brow,
nor roll the head and eyes, nor wink with the latter, nor let the lips tremble,
etc. 36
These are a set of rather strict regulations for any singer.
There is no other important German source until Johann Mat-
theson (16811764), He is likewise precise in his rules for pos-
ture in singing. According to his advice a singer never succeeds as
well sitting as standing, moreover he should stand straight, not
leaning forward nor backward, for the carriage of the body, the
turning of the face, the movement of the hands, the manner of
holding the music (if singing from the notes) all contribute to the
advantage and good effect of the singer. If singing while sitting
one must sit "like a coachman on a box." 37 Speaking more directly
on appearance Mattheson says,
Many turn their faces, while singing, so far to the right that the audience on
the left cannot hear them at all. Another does the opposite, . . . Some
throw the head upward, which throws the tone up where there is no audience,
APPEARANCE AND POSE 67
others bend it down on the chest, singing into their beards, as a common ex-
pression says, thus losing the proper effect, be they otherwise capable as they
may. Many cannot keep their hands quiet, which would be best when they do
not know the proper gestures, believing that they must, if not making useless
gestures, give the unrequested beat in one way or another, which is a matter
that will never lead to the hearts of the audience. Many hold the music, either
due to nearsightedness which is to be excused, or habit, which is to be con-
demned, so close to the mouth and eyes, that the voice is stopped there and
heard clearly by nobody but the singer himself, especially in large churches, 88
Another authority is F. W. Marpurg (1718-1795), who ad-
vises us regarding posture in words similar to Schiitz and
Mattheson. He says that since one does not sit while singing in
concert, so must the student, if at all possible, stand during the
lesson, since sitting interferes with proper breathing. Moreover,
"He must stand up correctly and not hang his head to the ground
and thus constrict the throat." 89 Even though they may be beauti-
ful, a singer should not show his teeth, nor should he keep them
too close together. The mouth should be held still,
and one should not chew and the neck should not be bent outward or inward.
In addition to these the singer should, because of his own appearance, beware
of unusual grimaces . . . for the correction of which one should use a mirror
and take the advice of a good friend. Hereto belongs particularly the twisting
of one's head, the rolling of one's eyes, the nodding of one's head at each note,
the shaking of one's head, the shifting and making noise with the feet, the
placing of one's hand behind one's ear, the touching of one's mouth with
the hand, the distortion of the same, the shaking of the same when executing
a trill, and so on. Who can count all the grimaces? A decent posture; neither
too sweet nor too sour a face, neither too prankish an attitude nor too stern
an air, and neither too timid nor too free a behavior should be most earnestly
recommended to every singer, just as to every speaker. 40
Hiller (1728-1804) suggests that the singer's face should
bear the expression of a gentle smile with the mouth drawn
slightly to the sides and the lips held so as not to show the up-
per teeth and only partly showing the lower row with the teeth
apart about the width of the small finger. 41 After quoting Mat-
theson on the reasons for standing rather than sitting while sing-
ing, Hiller cautions the singer about his appearance :
68 APPEARANCE AND POSE
Careful attention must be paid to all improper motions of the body, such as
swaying to and fro, shuffling with one's feet, shaking one's head, etc., to all
grimaces of one's face, such as distortion of one's mouth, blinking with one's
eyes, and the like, because such things can otherwise become a habit. I knew
an Italian cantatrice who, while having a manner of singing not to be de-
spised, yet she had the unpleasantness of throwing her head back, of con-
stantly turning her eyes toward the ceiling, and of distorting her face to
such a degree that one could have believed she was having convulsions. In
order to safeguard oneself against such improprieties it is advisable to sing at
times in front of a mirror, and certainly to anyone who is anxious to appear
always with the most advantageous mien, no better advice can be given. 42
The directions given by Petri (1738-1808) are shorter but
to the same end as the foregoing German authorities. The singer
must stand properly and with a cheerful face. The mouth should
not be too wide nor too closed since this latter would interfere
with good diction. Neither the head nor the body should shake
and all or any uncomely behavior should be avoided. 43
The last of the German sources is Kuerzinger and he has the
least to say about appearance. Among the principal faults in
singing he includes, "When one sings through the nose, with set
teeth or the contrary like a 'miller's lion' with a mouth opened
too much and with similar bad habits, from which there originate
not only a visible disgust but also an inability to understand on
the part of the listeners." 44
FRENCH SOURCES
Only one of the French manuals offering suggestions concerning
the appearance and personality of the singer dates from the
seventeenth century. Jumilhac (1611-1682) was concerned first
of all with plain song but in contrast to the majority of his con-
temporaries his approach was also practical. According to this
writer the head and chin should not be lowered too much for this
will interfere with the articulation of the syllables and the clear
pronunciation of the words. Nor should the head and the neck be
elevated too much for this causes the voice to be hard and dry
with "too much strain on the nerves and arteries" ("trop grande
tension des nerfs et des arteres") . The neck and the mouth should
not be twisted and there must be given careful advice as to how all
these defects may be corrected in order that the voice will be-
APPEARANCE AND POSE 69
come as smooth, clear, distinct, and just as possible at the same
time keeping all other movements of the body within the bounds
of good taste and propriety. 45
Blanchet (1724-1778), though not a musician, had done con-
siderable research on the mechanism of the voice and published
his treatise on singing in I756. 46 Although his advice is offered
more from the standpoint of stage deportment only, it is never-
theless entirely pertinent. Movements of the arms and eyes, and
facial expressions, are most important. He suggests that these
may be slow or rapid, sustained or abrupt, varied or monoto-
nous, and their careful use are a necessity for good expression
and characterization, and render the greatest joy to the specta-
tors. The correct countenance together with eloquence in bodily
carriage all combine to give a great variety of the most subtle
qualities of action and style. 47
Antoine Bailleux (?-i79i) is mostly concerned with rudi-
ments and explanation of the various ornamentations. His hints
are brief and pointed.
One should, standing or seated, maintain a graceful posture, with the body
erect and head lifted without affectation. It is not necessary to gesticulate
while singing nor to make grimaces with the mouth, the eyes, and forehead.
It is not necessary to beat time with the head or the body. . . . The trouble
of beating the rhythm may be spared if one has the value of the notes and
the rhythm well implanted in the head. 48
In 1760, the great French composer and theorist, Jean Phi-
lippe Rameau (1683-1764), brought out his Code de musique
pratique. Among many practical suggestions he includes the fol-
lowing: the singer should stand during vocal exercises, keeping
the body at ease and without discomfort, making certain that
all parts of the body are without tension, for in no other way
can the voice be kept flexible and produce its most beautiful
sounds and sentiments necessary for perfect and natural per-
formance. 49 Rameau condemns the common practice of shaking
the head or the hands or even the whole body while executing
a trill and then sums up his discussion by saying that if a singer
possesses complete freedom of action, then nature can work
through him and perfection of performance is the result. 50
Raparlier's comments on pose and personality are almost
70 APPEARANCE AND POSE
word for word the same as those of Bailleux and need no further
comment. 51
Our next source, Martini (1741-1816), is not only brief but
repeats what others have said before him. The mouth should
be in a natural smiling position for if it is too nearly closed it will
interfere with pronunciation and hold back the voice. A mouth
that is, on the other hand, too widely open looks hideous and
strains the throat thus preventing facile voice production. If
the teacher cannot correct these faults the pupil should discon-
tinue his lessons. 52
Tomeoni (1757-1820) was one of the most influential voice
teachers in Paris toward the end of the bel canto period. Son of
an Italian voice teacher and singer, he came with his father in
1783 to Paris where he became famous as a teacher after the
Italian methods. He cautions the singer against abandoning him-
self to making faces or contorting the head, arms, and body in
interpreting his music. 53 The careful teacher will not allow the
pupils to beat time with the feet. "Several physical reasons pre-
vent the foot from beating the exact rhythm. The first is that re-
pose and correct poise of the body are necessary for the per-
formance of the music. Movement of the foot can only be contrary
to this." 64
Tomeoni advises the singer to beat rhythm with the hand un-
til the song is learned and then the indication of rhythm with
the head or the body should cease. 55
Another Italian singer transplanted in Paris had a very sub-
stantial influence on the art of singing in all of France. Mengozzi
(1758-1800), also a composer of operas, came to Paris in
1787 and at the time of the organization of the Conservatoire
de Musique was called as professor of voice. Before his death
he had prepared the material for the Methode de Chant used
by that institution. 56 Asserting that the scale is the most difficult
and the most necessary of all the vocal exercises Mengozzi gives
six rules for the proper pose.
In preparation for singing a good scale the pupil should, first, stand in a
naturally correct position and without making the slightest effort; second,
hold up the head without bending too far backward, for if the muscles of the
throat should be too tense they cannot move freely; third, the mouth should be
APPEARANCE AND POSE 71
somewhat smiling and comfortably open to the extent that the conformation
of the pupil will allow, resulting in the pronunciation without alteration of
the vowel which he should use to sing the scale ; fourth, it is necessary that the
pupil take heed, that in opening the mouth his features should not borrow
an unpleasant expression ; he should avoid also making any grimaces with the
mobile part of his face ; fifth, he should rest lightly the tongue behind the
lower teeth; sixth, the upper jaw should be perpendicular and moderately
apart from the lower jaw. 57
The author adds that the singer should remain immovable all
the while he is singing the scale.
ENGLISH SOURCES
The sources on appearance and pose in English are sparse, be-
ing scattered general comments. Burney (17261814) offers a
number of particular observations which indicate that he held
these qualities important in a singer. He heard Signora Lodi
sing at Munich in August, 1772: "The Lodi sung charmingly;
her voice and figure would make her a capital singer in a seri-
ous opera . . . she is admirable; having a pretty figure, a good
expression, and an exquisite manner of taking appoggiature." 5B
Earlier he had praised her singing but added, "One would wish
that she had as to person, a little less embonpoint." 59 Of Signora
Francesca Danzi, a German girl, Burney says that her "voice and
execution are brilliant: she has likewise a pretty figure." 60 His
comments on Signora Manservisi are : "Her figure is agreeable,
her voice, though not strong, is well-toned, and she has nothing
vulgar in her manner, sings in tune, and never gives offence." 61
While in Vienna in September, 1772, he heard Costanza and
wrote, "This singer is young, has good features, the embonpoint
charmant, and is upon the whole a fine figure." 62 These few
examples of Burney's observations indicate, in fact, that it was
usual with him to comment on the appearance and attitude of
those he saw perform.
There remain two English publications from which we may
quote. The first was written by Domenico Corri (1746-1825),
an Italian and former student of Porpora who came to Eng-
land in 1771 where he was active as a composer, publisher, and
singing-master. In his opinion the physical requisites of a good
72 APPEARANCE AND POSE
singer consist of "spacious lungs, muscular larynx, wide mouth,
with regular teeth; and, if added to these, an expressive coun-
tenance, it will greatly contribute to the perfection of a singer."
Also, good expression is derived "from great sensibility, which
portrays in the countenance every passion and feeling that affects
and stimulates the heart" 63 Gesualdo Lanza (1779-1859) was
also born in Italy, his father having been a singing teacher who
went to London where the son also established a material repu-
tation as a singing master. Lanza says, "The pupil should never
close his eyes when singing; the body must be kept perfectly
steady while singing; when shaking [i.e., trilling] on any note
the outside of the throat should not be perceived to move, for
by such movement a guzzling sound is produced." 64 Under the
heading "The Countenance," he says,
It has been advised by masters generally, that a singer should try and preserve
a smiling expression in the countenance when singing; but when this is
considered, it will appear to be wrong, and productive of bad effects ; for if
the mouth is always kept in such a position as to have the appearance of
smiling, many of the tones will be impaired, the real expression of the senti-
ment will be lost, and the style will suffer equally: Singers who possess a
fine set of teeth are anxious to show off this gift of nature to the best ad-
vantage, but how often do they sacrifice the tone sound and character of
words, to this vanity of the "bocca ridente." 65
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
With respect to appearance and pose the Italian authorities in
the seventeenth century are concerned only with the salient ex-
ternal factors of correct singing such as posture, facial expres-
sion, movements of the body and its various members, etc. As
we move into the eighteenth century, the advice to singers be-
comes more insistent, more personalized, more inclusive and
more detailed. Tosi and Mancini, especially, are quite incisive in
their directions both for the student and the public performer.
They not only tell us what should be done but they also reveal
how they accomplished these matters in the studio and outside.
Certain psychological factors are emphasized such as the men-
tal attitude of the student both in study and performance along
APPEARANCE AND POSE 73
with Its effect upon his outward appearance and thus upon the
auditors.
The remarkable feature about the advice in the German manu-
als on singing is that it is almost wholly concerned with what
the singer must not do. Very few positive suggestions are offered
and the distinct feeling is obtained that the singer must have
felt himself in more or less of a strait jacket, those actions
that are allowed being so limited and so carefully prescribed
that there is little opportunity for self-expression. All the "ver-
botens" of the Italians are here but only a few helpful direc-
tions are in evidence. All the instructions deal with the external
mechanics of appearance and posture.
While the French may also advise the singer what not to do,
they give their reasons at the same time as to why certain ac-
tions are improper. Also, the attitude is far more positive and,
true to the French philosophy of the eighteenth century, much
emphasis is placed on keeping out artificiality so that nature can
function in its own unhampered manner. Toward the end of the
eighteenth century two Italians, Tomeoni and Mengozzi, were
influential in directly transplanting the Italian method in Paris.
All the French writers, however, emphasize the importance of
an agreeable appearance for a successful singing career.
There is little or nothing indigenous to be found in England
that can contribute to an understanding of bel canto, except to
show the extent of Italian influence. Burney's comments deal
mostly with Italian singers and their manner of performing
while both Corri and Lanza were purveyors of precepts learned
in Italy. Attention should be called to Lanza's criticism of the
"bocca ridente" or smiling position of the mouth so frequently
recommended by others. We noted that Tosi had already ques-
tioned its efficacy for the expression of all sentiments. (See above,
page6i.)
VIII. BREATHING
He who knows how to breathe and pronounce correctly
knows how to sing well*
ITALIAN SOURCES
WE have already noted 2 that before 1600 breathing was thought
of in rather simple relationships to singing. Singers should not
breathe audibly, should take sufficient breath not to breathe in
the middle of a word, should breathe easily and be able to ex-
pend it at will. This is all well and good, but Caccini (ca. 1546-
1618) in the preface to his famed Nuove Musiche tells us why
control of the breath is so necessary for his u noble manner"
(nobile maniera) of singing which he calls "canto in sprezza-
tura." 3 Since there are so many effects employed, good breath-
ing is just as important as a good voice in order that the singer
may have the necessary freedom.
A man must have a command of breath to give the greater spirit to the in-
creasing and diminishing of the voice, to exclamations and other passions as
is related. Therefore let him take heed that [because of] spending much
breath upon such notes, it [the breath] do not afterward fail him in such
places as it is most needful . . . employing his breath in such a fashion so
that he commands all the best passionate graces used in this most worthy
manner of singing. 4
In his Arie Devote, Durante (1608) says that the singer must
breathe at such a time that the passages (passaggi) will be per-
fect, whether or not there are rests. 5 Cerone (1613) complains
of those singers who, not having enough breath, breathe before
the last note. In his opinion it is just as bad for a singer to con-
tinue without breathing in the proper places so that he must
continually gasp at the wrong time. 6 Donati (1636) is obviously
thinking of breath control when he speaks of singing from the
first note to the last with "fiato equale," i.e. equal breath. 7 For
florid passages he advises that they be sung slowly at first, re-
peating them always a little faster until the singer can be made
BREATHING 75
to establish the habit of singing them all on one breath. 8 But
Doni (ca. 1594-1647) tells us that "modern singers" put so
many notes on a syllable that they cannot possibly sing it in one
breath but have to break it up. 9
Tosi offers the singing teacher lucid suggestions and explana-
tions in regard to breathing.
Let him [the master] forbid the scholar to take breath in the middle of a
. word, because the dividing it in two is an error against Nature ; which must
not be followed if we would avoid being laughed at ... in long Divisions
it is not so rigorously required when it cannot be sung in one breath. . . .
The master may correct this fault in teaching the scholar to manage his
respiration, that he may always be provided with more breath than is needful ;
and may avoid undertaking what, for want of it, he cannot go through with.
Let him show, in all sorts of compositions, the proper place where to take
breath, and without fatigue ; because there are singers who give pain to the
hearer, as if they had an asthma taking breath every moment with difficulty,
as if they were breathing their last. 10
The comments of Vallara (1724) are barely worth mention-
ing. He says in rule 7 that the singer should not breathe after
every note, but sing three or four notes at least and then breathe. 11
Mancini is our most important Italian source on the use of
the breath in singing. He even goes so far as to show interest
in the physiological production of tone but his statements in this
respect are superficial generalizations of contemporary physio-
logical knowledge. The general belief, says Mancini, is that an
elevated chest and a well developed thorax with the capacity for
lots of noise are the essentials for becoming a good singer. He
agrees with those who say that the strength of the voice depends
on chest capacity and the force and velocity with which the air
can be expelled from the lungs; also, if the chest is larger, then
the windpipe and larynx are also larger, all of which qualities
combine to create greater strength of voice. But he warns that it
takes more than this to make a singer.
In the opinion of physiologists the lungs are the instruments which aid in
speaking and in singing with more or less force, according to the degree of
expansion of the lungs and chest and their ability to expel the exhaled air.
But then it is also their opinion that the lungs are not the real organs which
7 o BREATHING
form the voice in the throat. . . . The air from the lungs acts upon the
larynx in singing, just as it acts upon the head of a flute that is leaned to
the lips for playing. The lungs are not the actual organs of the voice ; they
merely furnish the material, the air. ... I conclude by saying that it is not
enough for one to have merely an elevated chest and a capacity for big noise
to become a successful singer. 12
In order to acquire the proper control and management of
the breath Mancini suggests very careful and simple singing ex-
ercises for the strengthening and development of the chest.
For those who cannot hold the breath so long and for those whose chests are
not so str6ng, the solfeggio should be written of only two notes in each
measure, and they must be two half notes (mlnime) giving to it a slow
movement, so that the voice may have time to expand ; the student must not
take breath between the first and second note. If the student can sustain
these two notes without too much effort, he may be permitted to sustain three
notes, but no more, so as to avoid weakening his chest. I conclude, that even
if a student were found with a very strong chest, he must nevertheless be
treated with the same precaution, and in order to favor the further develop-
ment of the chest, he may be allowed to sustain the notes longer only when
maturity has strengthened his vocal organs. ... In order to obtain a per-
fect control he will conserve his breath with good economy, and will accustom
the bellows of the voice in this way to support it, graduate it and take it back
at will, to attack and abandon a tone, and to breathe, all with insensible effort
or fatigue. I admit that this exercise will prove very painful and fatiguing at
first, but it will enable the singer to sing with easiness and delight in any style
of music. In this way he will acquire strength of the chest and ease in passing
from one tone to another. The voice will become established and he will be
able to sing to the heart of his audience. 13
If this author seems to be overly cautious and vigilant we must
remember that he had in mind the young castrato who often be-
gan his voice training as early as the age of seven. 14
The messa di voce or "swell tone," considered the most impor-
tant of all the ornamentations of the bel canto period, is only
acquired by proper use of the breath according to Mancini. The
student may not presume to execute this vocal ornament before
he has acquired the art to hold, reinforce, and take the breath back, because,
upon this depends whether he is able to give the start, and to graduate the
voice proportionately in value, and to retire it without apparent effort I then
BREATHING 77
will say, that if the student wishes to conceive the messa di voce without de-
fects, it will be necessary for him to not push his breath violently, but to start
it very quietly. 15
He urges the singer to economize the breath, using a very lit-
tle of it so that the first tone may be started with a soft voice
and very slowly graduated to its "full strength of loudness" from
where it should be gradually decreased by the same degrees to
the soft tone with which it began. From such an exercise he in-
sists that it will be found easy to sustain tones from the begin-
ning to the end and "will avoid that inconvenience which usually
happens to singers, of finding themselves exhausted at the end
of the tone." Mancini observes that to start the tone with too
much breath pressure causes it to go sharp at the beginning and
flat at the end "producing the most disagreeable effect upon
the listener." And as a final warning he advises the student only
to undertake the study of the messa di voce with the greatest
care, "otherwise he will run the risk of tiring his chest. This
study should be practiced daily, and many intervals of rest should
be allowed in the practice." 16
Mancini advises that the study of cadenzas should likewise be
approached very carefully and are not to be attempted until the
student has his voice well under control. At first the cadenza
should be quite short and the number of notes should be in-
creased only as the voice gains strength. "Continue in this way
until the cadenza reaches perfection," He also tells us that some
schools will not allow the student to attempt cadenzas until they
have reached a certain age, "fearing to harm their chests. This
retards them and has great disadvantage." 1T
It is of no little interest to note the importance that Mancini
attached to chest strength, or "la forza del petto." The singer
must possess chest strength in order to sing runs (volatina)
properly, 18 and arpeggios (arpeggiati) must at first be sung
slowly in order that the chest will not be overtaxed. Caution
must be observed "so that the student will be able to stand the
effort it costs the chest and throat." 19 The same care is solicited
in studying the cantar di sbalzo (literally, singing by leaps).
While this sort of vocal exercise calls for rapid execution, he
prescribes that it must be begun at a slow pace, quietly, and with
78 BREATHING
careful precision "in order that each tone be perfectly pitched
and pure." This exercise should be adjusted to the "age and
strength of the pupil" and not until he has become strong and
robust "must he be allowed to sing this exercise with increased
velocity. Thus he will finally be able to unfold and loosen his
voice, and perform the exercise in its required quick tempo." 20
We have seen that Tosi would allow breathing in the course
of long passages. Mancini, however, was adamant against such
practices saying that the volatina "must never be interrupted,
but carried through to the final tone in one breath." 21 He was
equally insistent about performing the arpeggiato. "One must
not break the melody by taking breath, for it can be rendered per-
fectly only by the insuring of the breath." 22
Mancini sums up his opinions concerning the importance of
the proper use of the breath in this statement. "One must acquire
through study the art to conserve, hold, save, and retake the
breath with perfect ease. Without such an acquisition, no agility
of any kind can be performed." 23
The l.ast of the eighteenth century Italians to discuss breath-
ing was Manfredini. According to this author, taking the breath
at the proper time and place is essential to correct and perfect
intonation. 24 The voice will deteriorate and may even be lost if
the singer does not know how to breathe, "that is, to take breath
in the requisite manner and at the proper time." 25 Ignorance
of how and when to breathe prevents many a singer from realiz-
ing his possibilities, therefore he should not neglect this rule
"which consists principally in the precept of taking breath with
great promptness and in such a manner that nobody can notice
it." 26 He advises that if necessary, the notes need not be held
out their full value if breath has to be taken in order to start
the next note in time, a most important rule in the author's
opinion. Manfredini allows more freedom in taking breath than
either Tosi or Mancini. "If, however, by the weakness of one's
voice or the nature of the song, one is sometimes obliged to take
breath in the middle of a word, then one takes breath at that
point but with great care so that the splitting of the word would
be the least perceptible as possible." 2T
He continues to say that breath should be taken somewhat fre-
BREATHING 79
quently so that enough will always be on hand for all the require-
ments of expression and ornamentation. In the next sentence this
author also advises against breathing in the middle of a word, a
cadenza or before a trill. u One should, however, carefully see to
it that one avoids not only taking breath in the middle of a
word, which, as has been said, should be done only in some special
cases, but not even after a trill; nor should breath be taken be-
fore having finished the sentiment of the phrase or before hav-
ing finished a cadence." 28 The very interesting observation is
added that there are other rules which vary with the student;
however, these are better taught by example rather than by the
written word. He adds that it is better for the student to hear
the master or other good singers in performance.
GERMAN SOURCES
The directions given by Calvisius (1612) for breathing are
brief. In rule 5 he says that the rhythm must not be broken be-
cause of taking a breath, and in rule 8 we are told that singers
must not breathe together except at rests. 29 Praetorius (1571-
1621) is even more terse. Among vocal vices he includes that of
breathing too often, 30 and later we read the simple comment
that some can hold a very long breath. 31 It is nearly a century
later before we find further advice and it also is concise. Printz
(16411717) suggests that, among other means, the singer will
avoid mistakes "if he takes breath before starting the figure
and knows the advantage of having a long breath." 32
With Mattheson we meet the first substantial German ap-
praisal of the importance of the breath in singing. When it comes
time to begin the cultivation of the voice the student must be
careful "to sing with restrained voice as long in one breath as
can be done without hardship." 33 More depends on the natural
size and condition of the lungs than on will, but even so,
diligent practice will produce the advantage that the breath will hold out
longer than usual, when the inhaled air is let out not at once nor too liberally,
but sparingly, little by little, being careful to hold it back and save it. This
is the art by which one singer can surpass another and which the Italian
artists know to perfection, whjl? other peoples pay little or no attention
to it. 34
8o BREATHING
In the next paragraph Mattheson explains how the voice can
be made strong by first singing softly, then medium followed by
loud and very loud tones, adding the very significant comment
that he has never known a German teacher to do these things,
either because of lack of interest or knowledge. Sufficient and
full breath should be taken into the lungs, "then with carefully
controlled distribution of the same, through the glottis and its
delicate cleft, the tone should be given its proper volume." 35
Later, this author tells us that in his opinion probably the first
and foremost impropriety in singing is the separation of words
and thoughts of a song through frequent and untimely breathing
which also interrupts the "figures." 36
Johann Friedrich Agricola (1720-1774) was the German
translator of Tosi's Observations which he published in Berlin
in I757* 37 Highly regarded in Germany and especially in Ber-
lin both as organist and singing teacher, 38 Agricola's work opens
with a rather lengthy preface in which is discussed the prevail-
ing physiological opinions on phonation. Our attention will be
confined to this preface since Tosi's text is considered along with
the Italian sources. In contrast to his discussion of other physio-
logical factors in singing Agricola has very little to say about
the breath. He says that because of the structure of the lungs and
the cartilaginous nature of the larynx the breath is always at our
command and it may be used with varying degrees of strength. 39
Marpurg tells us that the singer should not breathe too often
nor should he breathe in the middle of a phrase, i.e., a passage
expressing one idea. He also considers it incorrect to breathe
after a short note, in the middle of a word or between short
groupings of words that are grammatically connected.
In this connection it would be well if the master acquaints his pupils slightly
with the breaks of the melody as it is after these that one can draw in fresh
air most conveniently, although it is by no means necessary to draw breath
at every break, viz., when there is a succession of many short breaks which
amount to say, but half a bar. One should note, in general, that the best point
of time for drawing a breath is at any interruption of the progress of the song.
... If it is necessary to take a breath in the course of a long passage, then
one should weigh or consider all the foregoing circumstances in order to hit
or find the proper place. The prohibition of drawing a breath between a
trill and the following note is already of long standing. 40
BREATHING 81
Marpurg believes it a very good practice for the pupil, when at
home, to sing from time to time long passages with a single
breath "and this he should do now with a weak voice, now with
a moderate voice, and then with a loud voice." 41 He warns that
this should be accomplished not by blasting out the air but rather
by careful control so as to avoid all forcing. When practising
this exercise care should be taken to start with shorter passages
gradually increasing their length "in order to gradually procure
a long breath without causing injury to the lungs." 42
According to Hiller a singer should have command over vary-
ing degrees of loudness and softness of the voice and this may
be obtained by singing first with a forte tone, then with a half-
voice, then with soft tones. He observes that some people have
weak voices because of weak lungs and this may be improved
not only by exercise but also by encouragement. 43 He adds that
singing would be a very simple thing if there were but one tone
to each breath and anyone who cannot sing more "should cer-
tainly be advised against occupying himself with singing." And
since every beginner always wastes more breath than necessary,
"one of the main tasks of the singing master consists in accustom-
ing his pupils to economize with their breath right from the out-
set." 44
The approach to the problems of breathing recommended by
Petri is almost wholly concerned with the time and place to
breathe. After stern warnings against singing florid passages
with an aspirate "h" on each note the singer is advised to take
advantage of rests and ends of phrases for taking breath. In
long passages without rests it is necessary sometimes not to hold
the final note for its complete written value, and as for both
singers and players of wind instruments who do not wish to offend
the audience by gasping for breath or making gaps in the melody
Petri offers the following rules.
1. One should not delay the breath-taking to the last moment,
for otherwise there will result a gasping or panting for breath ;
on seeing or hearing this, the audience will become apprehensive
that the singer is choking and will think less about his song than
about his health.
2. One should, therefore, take a fresh breath 'betimes and
specifically on the last part of the unimportant notes in order
82 BREATHING
that the subsequent important ones may be performed stronger
and better.
3. In important measures, too, breath may be taken if one cuts
off a little of the end for breath-taking. For, in fact, their last
portion represents the weak part anyhow. If there is a syllable
of text for every note then a breath may be taken between words
unnoticed by the audience.
4. But if there is a long note before a rapid passage, then dur-
ing the course of the long note the tone may be made to die out,
a breath may be taken, and the voice enter softly so that the au-
dience will not realize that a fresh breath was taken.
5. When in rapid and running passages the short notes pro-
ceed uninterruptedly for so long a time that it would be impossi-
ble to execute them all with a single breath, then one can at times
leave out one or two short notes and feign short rests. Also if
one short note is repeated it is possible to omit one and make use
of that time for taking breath. "However, skilled instructors, if
they personally have full command of true singing, will best be
able to show the pupils these advantages in practice, i.e., in the
arias during the singing lessons." 45
Kuerzinger, on the other hand, is very brief. Among the prin-
cipal faults to be avoided in singing, the first is "when one,
through much too frequent, ill-timed breath-taking splits the
words and the ideas of the recital, and breaks or rends the run-
ning passages." 46
The last German source is the "Singing Method" by Johann
Baptist Lasser (1751-1805). Himself a singer, composer, and
director, he was married to a singer and spent all of his life in
and about Vienna. He is quite direct in his advice on breathing.
Diligent and frequent practice according to precept in singing
the scale will make it possible to sing more and longer on one
breath than before "because also in this matter much depends
on exercise and habit." 4T Air should not be inhaled rapidly nor
with noise and the singer should then be very economical with
the same, exhaling only so much as is necessary for the loudness
or softness of the tone. By means of this the lungs will gradually
become able to hold and retain more air than before, and the
singer will subsequently be able to sing longer and more with
BREATHING 83
one breath. Lasser insists that anyone can observe on himself
that a breath which is drawn rapidly and violently will not last
long, for ordinarily in this case, too much air will want to get
out again with the first note, "and besides even the listeners will
become uneasy or nervous when they hear the singer taking his
breath with so much difficulty and noise." 48
Fear is a very important factor in breath control according
to Lasser for the voice in this emotional state is no longer normal,
since fear "affects the lungs and the vocal organs with equal in-
tensity." 49 He adds that the teacher should take great pains to
guard his pupils from fear for great talent may be offset by
timidity and a pupil that gets upset because of a wrong move
is already half-lost. "A moderate amount of audacity, which,
however, should not degenerate into a reprehensible complacency
with one's own errors or defects, is most useful in this respect." 50
Breathing at rests and ends of phrases is recommended and this
author offers musical examples, after which the rather signifi-
cant statement is made that there can be no general rule as to
just where a breath can be taken, but a singer will soon find out
from experience where he can take a little from the value of
notes in order to breathe without interfering with the text. 5 *
FRENCH SOURCES
Bacilly (ca. i62$-ca. 1690) is the first of our French sources
on singing. He observes that breath is one of the natural gifts
necessary for singing and just as this seems to depend entirely on
the good constitution of the lungs, "it is certain that this can be
acquired and developed through exercise, just as the other ele-
ments of the art of song." 52 These comments are brief but to
the point.
Lack of sufficient breath can be responsible for defects in
voice quality, according to Jumilhac. 53 He adds that it is neces-
sary for some singers to breathe more often than at the rests or
pauses. This is permissible and should be done so that the sing-
ing will always be easy, for the breath should be managed in
such a way that the singer is always free to use his voice flexibly
in order to sing all the intervals, rhythms, cadences, etc., that
are to be found in the course of singing. We must keep in mind
84 BREATHING
that Jumilhac is only considered with plain-chant rather than a
soloistic art, 54
With Blanchet, however, we meet with considerable detail.
First he presents a simple description of the action of the chest,
lungs, and diaphragm in breathing and since the compression of
the air from the lungs is necessary to phonation, it is therefore
fundamental to singing. 55 He considers the voice to be far su-
perior to all other instruments in expressing human emotions
but before this can be done it is necessary to learn to manage the
breath well.
In order to inhale properly it is necessary to raise and expand the chest in the
manner of a swollen body: by this means one will fill all the cavities of the
lungs with air. In order to exhale properly it is necessary to let out this in-
haled air with more or less force, with more or less volume according to the
nature of the singing. 56
In subsequent pages Blanchet describes various graces and vocal
effects and explains how the singer should breathe to achieve
each of these. Moreover there are many nuances and passions
that one learns to express "with precision and truth" (avec
precision et verite}. Many singers are named whose success he
claims to be due to his method. Although the Italian singers
have sung with softer and higher voices than the French, the
latter who follow his precepts can sing just as well as the Italians
who have known for a long time the value of his method. 67
In the opinion of Rarneau perfect singing consists "in the man-
ner of letting out the air from the lungs easy and unrestrained." 58
Everything hinges on the breath. "Yes, all the perfections of
singing, all its difficulties, depend only on the air which leaves
the lungs." 59 We cannot control all the various changes that
take place in the different vocal organs as they follow their free
and natural movements. But we know only that we are "masters
of the breath and consequently it is for us to know how to con-
trol it so well that nothing can then mar the result." 60
Rameau warns against forcing the voice for when more breath
is forced out than is necessary for the tone the glottis is tight-
ened. If this is repeated often the edges of the glottis are tough-
ened an4 all flexibility is lost and a constraint or lack pf freedom
BREATHING 85
enters which is the real obstacle to beautiful tone as well as to
vocal flexibility. Then the tone becomes throaty, false, and the
voice trembles and can no longer perform any of the orna-
ments. 61
The beautiful sound of the mess a di voce (le son file) is at-
tributed by this author to the fact that the breath is controlled
and increased so gradually that the action of the glottis is so
easy as not to toughen it. 62 The force of the breath should be
in proportion to the loudness of the sound and this can only be
acquired "through frequent exercise" and never by a happy co-
incidence. This very precise control of the breath must become
so habitual that the singer need never think of it and therefore
may give his entire attention to the sentiments he wishes to ex-
press. 63 He advises the student that all the various vocal orna-
ments, i.e. trills, roulades, portamentos, etc. must be practised
on all degrees of loudness with more or less breath several times
a day, also with augmented and diminished breath on each so
that they may be performed with ease ; and always on one breath.
Such practice will make the performance easier and increase the
length of the breath. 64
The brief manual of Raparlier, including musical examples
as it does, prevents discussion in detail. In essence he repeats
what we have already read from others. Proper breathing is es-
sential to correct phrasing. Breath should be taken at rests and
when allowed by the meaning of the words. Breath should never
be taken between a noun and its adjective nor between the verb
and its object Words should not be broken and, most important
of all, proper inhalation and exhalation are necessary for the natu-
ral and correct performance of the ornaments of singing. 65
Besides its contribution to the maintenance of good health,
proper breathing strengthens the voice and makes the singing
clear, in the opinion of Martini. This, he says, calls for special
exercise and continual attention. First of all the chest must be
raised in order to hold as much air as possible. The habit must
be acquired of breathing promptly without making any disagree-
able sounds in the throat.
When, through taking of breath, the lungs are well filled with air, it is neces-
sary to exercise, the most car^fyl qont^ol in Allowing Just enough breath tQ
86 BREATHING
flow out to give vibration to the voice. This manner of breathing permits the
swelling or diminishing of the tone at will ; it increases the volume of the
voice in both the low and high ranges; it gives facility and smoothness in
difficult passages, as well as the ability to sing to the end long phrases ; and
even more it gives to the singers an unshakable self-confidence. 66
In a rather short chapter on breathing, Tomeoni also gives
us the same fundamental rules on breathing that we have met in
almost every one of our sources. Breathing is not permitted in
the middle of a word and should be done, if it is at all possible,
only at the end of a phrase. "If by chance one is obliged to inter-
rupt the phrase by breathing, it should then be done with enough
ingenuity and in such a manner as to be unnoticed by the audi-
ence." 67 The tendency, notable among the Italian singers, to
put the vowel sound "eh I" before words beginning with a con-
sonant, or, the consonants u n" and "h" before words beginning
with a vowel, is objected to most strongly. 68
Mengozzi offers an elementary yet succinct analysis of the
breathing process. After defining the terms "respiration," "in-
halation," and "exhalation" he notes the differences in breath-
ing for singing and for speaking as follows :
It should be noted that the action of breathing for singing differs in several
respects from breathing for speaking. When one breathes in order to speak or
to simply renew the air in the lungs, the first action is that of inhalation when
the body swells and the upper part moves forward a little; when it sinks, it
is the second action called exhalation. These two movements work slowly
when the body is in its normal state. On the contrary, in the action of breath-
ing for the purpose of singing, in inhaling, it is necessary to flatten the body
and make it rise again quickly, while swelling and lifting the chest. In exhal-
ing, the body should return very slowly to its normal position and the chest
should fall gradually in order to conserve and control, just as long as possible,
the air which one has inhaled ; it should only be allowed to escape slowly and
without agitation of the chest. It should, so to speak, slip away. 69
In an extended footnote to this statement, Mengozzi says that
the student cannot give too much attention to breathing for it
is all-important to singing. He suggests daily breathing exercises,
without singing, in taking breath and holding it as long as pos-
sible, following exactly the directions he has indicated as proper
for singing. In the beginning one should use moderation, but a
BREATHING 87
singer who does not practice breathing exercises will have to
breathe often, his breath will become exhausted and his tone
feeble and wavering. Without plenty of well controlled air the
voice has neither power nor timbre and correct phrasing is im-
possible.
Later in discussing the mise de voix, i.e., the messa di voce
or swell-tone, the necessity for the most careful control of the
breath is again stressed. Indeed, in his opinion those singers who
lack this skill will never advance beyond the stage of mediocrity.
A great amount of exercise is required but always, at first, in
moderation and never to the point of tiring the voice. 70
ENGLISH SOURCES
The essential part of the breath and the chest in singing was
noted at an early date in English literature, in fact the word
"breast" or "chest" was often used interchangeably with
"voice." 71 The English singing manuals have little enough to
say and even this little bit was almost wholly due to Italian influ-
ences. In his Treatise on singing, Anselm Bayly (1718 [19]
1794) admits that he made "considerable" use of Tosi's Obser-
vations and indeed this is quite evident. Six steps are listed as
important to the teaching of singing, the sixth being: "Taking
breath and supporting the voice."
Observe there can be no command of the voice without a perfect command
of the breath. This therefore should be gained by learning to draw up the
breath quick and without the least noise, fully into the chest or lungs after
the manner of holding the breath, and letting as little expire at a time as
possible. 72
This author then suggests ways of acquiring a long breath, such
as running up a slope. Temperance in eating and drinking malt
beverages is also strongly urged as of benefit.
Sir John Hawkins (17191789), an excellent musical scholar
for his time, has these words to say about breathing: "In sing-
ing, the sound is originally produced by the action of the lungs,
which are so essential an organ in this respect, that to have a
good breast was formerly a common periphrase to denote a
good singer." 7S
88 BREATHING
Tenducci (ca. 1736-180-?), another transplanted Italian
singing-master in England only offers one page of text, with
twenty-one rules, in his instruction book for singers, two of which
are concerned with breathing :
XIII. To rest or take breath between the Passages, and in proper Time ; that
is to say, to take it only when the Periods, or members of the Melody, are
ended; which Periods, or Portions of the Air, generally terminate on the
accented Parts of a Bar. And this Rule is the more necessary, as by dwelling
too long upon the last note of a musical Period, the Singer loses the Opper-
tunity \_sic] it affords of taking Breath, without breaking the Passages or even
being perceived by the Audience, XIV. That without the most urgent neces-
sity, of either a long Passage, or of an affecting Expression, Words must
never be broken, or divided. 74
Lanza is primarily concerned with the place to breathe rather
than how to breathe. After the comment that the breaking of
words is a common fault, he recommends that those who are
habitually short of breath may breathe between two words, the
first ending and the second beginning with a vowel. Breath should
be taken, whether the singer needs it or not, where the sense of
the words demands it in order that the significance of the text
will be evident to the audience. 75 His advice on how to take
breath is both elementary and brief.
It is a great fault that you should take breath so as to be heard audibly (except
where there is much passion to be expressed) as it excites the feeling that you
are in pain, and everything of this kind must be avoided, and to prevent this
it may be observed that the body should be kept erect, the head rather ele-
vated, and the throat on a line with the body, that there may be no angle or
curve in the windpipe to prevent the free entrance and exit of the air. All
occupations which require the body to lean forward, must be avoided by
singers. 76
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
All of the evidence gathered together in this chapter points to
the empirical nature of the breathing methods. All exercises were
considered from the standpoint of the skills that resulted. To
say that proper breathing and breath control were held to be
essential to the art of singing is indeed obvious. In fact, there
is remarkable unanimity of opinion in all the sources considered
above, regardless of the nationality of the authors, certain
BREATHING 89
words and phrases being repeated in essence if not word for word.
While it is true that many of these earlier writers on singing
were only concerned with the proper place and time to breathe,
already with Caccini we meet one who is very much interested
in the proper management of the breath while both Tosi and
Mancini tell how it can be accomplished. While Tosi merely says
that the singing master must show the pupil how, the latter sug-
gests a series of progressive singing exercises that will gradu-
ally strengthen the chest and afford the control necessary for
any demands that may face the singer. The messa di voce was
the great test for breath control and its practice was highly recom-
mended.
The earlier German writers, also, merely tell the singer where
and when to breathe and these directions are quite concise. With
Mattheson there is evident appreciation of breath control. What
is most significant is his contention that only the Italian singers
understand it and practice it to perfection, while all other sing-
ers ignore it. This remark plus the fact that Agricola translated
Tosi's book into German shows to what extent the Germans de-
pended on the Italians not only for singers but also for guidance
in the art of singing. Hiller says in his preface that Tosi's book
is the best for the student of singing. 77
From the available references the French appear to be the
most scientifically analytical about the singing process. They men-
tion the primary organs involved and give superficial descrip-
tions of their actions. All of this is largely concerned with the
control of the breath and how it can be acquired although the
statements made are often inaccurate as to the precise physio-
logical actions taking place. Much advice is offered, very much
as we have found among the Germans and Italians, about the
long and careful exercises necessary for the managements of the
breath before the singer can expect to cope with the demands of
his art. Blanchet's comparisons between the Italian and French
singers are of interest and the Italian background of both
Tomeoni and Mengozzi have already been noted.
Almost all the English ideas on breathing were borrowed
from Italy. Bayly frankly gives Tosi credit for his ideas while
Tenducci and Lanza were direct transmitters of Italian methods.
IX. EAR TRAINING
When the ear heard me, then it blessed me. 1
The ears are two music-rooms. 2
ITALIAN SOURCES
A PROPERLY trained ear was given a place of importance, hardly
subordinate to the voice itself, by the singing teachers of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This "supreme umpire," 3
if attuned in correct fashion, was held to be an absolutely nec-
essary adjutant to vocal artistry, without which the singer was
lost. Of an insidious nature was the fact that the ear could so
easily lead the singer astray in the event of its defectiveness or
lack of use. Artusi (d. 1613) would seem to give the ear pre-
eminence when he advises that those who have to recite 4 should
perform "more with the ear than with the voice." 5 When sing-
ing in concert or ensemble the performer must listen to be sure
he is not more prominent than the others. 6 For Guidotti a well in-
toned voice is equally as important as a beautiful voice if the
singer wishes to excel. 7 Here are the opinions of Caccini : "To
proceed in order thus will I say; that the primary and most im-
portant foundations of this art are the tuning of the voice in all
the keys not only that it be neither too low nor too high but
that a proper manner of sounding it should be used." 8
The next few lines explain what he means by "a proper man-
ner of sounding." Some singers sound the pitches by starting as
much as a third under, somewhat in the manner of a grace note .
while others "tune the said first note in its proper pitch." The
latter practice is recommended because in starting below the note,
some stay on it too long which is unpleasant to the listener.
Caccini is merely asking the singer to attack cleanly, without
"scooping," and to sing on pitch, which can only be accomplished
by having a good ear. 9 Diruta says that the ear is a necessity in
learning to sing 10 while Cerone considers the ear to be the rein
pf the mouth and adds, "The finished singer sings more with his
EAR TRAINING 91
ear than with his mouth." n The ability to sing the intervals cor-
rectly, whether easy or difficult, was held to be the first of the
four vocal skills to be required, the others being ornamentation,
elegance or charm and decorousness, and sweetness of voice, in
that order. 12 Avella states simply that the end of all the rules
of singing is to intone every song well. 13 Tosi is brief but positive :
Let the master do his utmost to make the scholar hit and sound the notes
perfectly in tune in Sol-fa-ing. One who has not a good Ear, should not
undertake either to instruct, or to sing ; it being intolerable to hear a Voice
perpetually rise and fall discordantly. Let the instructor reflect on it; for
one that sings out of tune loses all his other perfections. I can truly say, that,
except in some few professors, modern intonation is very bad. 14
As usual Mancini proves to be a fertile source of information
and opinion on ear training for here we get not only an evalua-
tion, but causes and remedies as well. "There is nothing worse
than to hear one singing out of pitch, and a throaty or nasal
voice is to be preferred to singing out of tune." 15 In his opinion, if
the voice is out of pitch it spoils the instrumental harmony and
singing out of pitch cannot be disguised or covered up. If Nature
has not endowed us with an ear, correction is impossible because
there is no way of modifying the imperfect organs of the ear as
one can modify the strings or air vibrations in instruments.
It is the stern duty of the teacher to examine and find out what causes the
dissonance. This is not difficult to do, but it requires wide experience. One
must go very slowly and observe every detail in order to discern causes. The
student should be tried at singing early in the morning before eating; and
during the day, when the sky is cloudy and also when it is serene ; when the
air is placid and tranquil, on windy and stormy days ; also soon after a full
meal. If on all these occasions he sings out of pitch without noticing it and
every possible correction is of no avail, then one can state with surety that
the fault comes from Nature herself, or from imperfect hearing. This defect
is impossible to correct and the student should be discharged at once. 16
Mancini says that there are a number of things that may cause
one to sing off pitch temporarily. Among them are weakness of
chest resulting from disease or a passing illness, or even digestive
disorders due to eating too much or at irregular times, or from
other like indispositions.
92 EAR TRAINING
Another cause for singing out of pitch is lack of concentration upon what one
is doing, failing to realize why he's taking his lesson. Also, it happens when
the student attacks a tone without the help of the teacher's voice, or of the
piano, or both before feeling perfectly sure of the pitch of the tone he is to
attack, 17
In his opinion muted instruments are a cause of singing off pitch.
Moreover, until a student is certain of his intonation he must
not be allowed to sing alone but rather should be given every
aid by striking the tone very loudly several times on the cembalo
and with the aid of the teacher's voice at the same time. Mancini
insists that every one knows that the help of the teacher's voice
is indispensable to insure success. "We conclude, then, that the
teacher's voice is of great help to the student who is not sure of
intonation and who with the aid of the accompaniment only
would never be sure of his tone."
This attention to the training of the ear is fundamental and
the teaching of skill in ornamentation should not be attempted
until this is established. 18 He suggests that a good and practical
way to insure correct intonation is to make the student under-
stand the exact distance between the notes of the scale as well as
in all wider intervals by showing him these differences in pitch.
The experienced teacher knows perfectly well which way is the easiest and
most natural to insure intonation. This demands time and persistent
effort. After the student has been tested as to his ability in intona-
tion, and after having found him to have a good ear, then, in order
to insure him, he must be kept Sol-fa-ing on graded tones ; first on the
ascending and then on the descending scales. All this work must be executed
with scrupulous attention, seeing that every tone is perfectly in pitch. Then,
a solfeggio must follow with notes forming the normal intervals. After these
obstacles are overcome the teacher must enforce the following rule : If the
student sings soprano, the teacher must help him to gain the high tones little
by little (as the age permits), for an extensive head register is essential for a
soprano voice. 19
Two other difficulties are mentioned which present pitch prob-
lems, to singers. One is the fact that string players like to tune
their instruments high because they sound better, which, of
course, presents a problem for singers. The other is the practice
of tuning keyboard instruments to the equal-tempered scale
EAR TRAINING 93
which of course are not the pitches the singer would naturally
sing. 20
Throughout the entire chapter on agility, i.e., chapter 12,
the importance of correct pitch and intonation is stressed. A
voice only moderately endowed with agility but with correct
intonation can, with careful study, master the ascending and de-
scending chromatic scales. He also emphasizes that when the pu-
pil has reached a certain stage the teacher must not delay hav-
ing him sing sustained solfeggios so that he will learn to pitch his
voice perfectly on every syllable. To accomplish this much pa-
tience is necessary on the part of the teacher and assiduous study
on the part of the student to the end that the many obstacles that
arise will be overcome. The slow solfeggio must never be sung
languidly and if such a passage be executed with precise intona-
tion it will bring credit both to the teacher and pupil. 21 In execut-
ing the Martellato 22 "the intonation must be perfect, so that
every hammered note will be distinct and perfectly pitched." 2S
In studying to perform the Arpeggiato, the teacher must "be
very particular that the student attacks each note at its right
pitch." 24 As to Cantar di sbalzo (i.e., singing by leaps),
The intonation may be perfect in the other styles, but it must be studied
again in order to accustom the voice to leap from the low tone to the high
and vice versa with perfect intonation. . . , The first note must be per-
fectly pitched in order to be able to leap over a number of tones without tak-
ing breath. . . . The establishment of perfect intonation . . . will allow
the student to enter with more certainty into the narrow path of this diffi-
cult style. 25 '
Mancini says in conclusion, "Each student, then, should recog-
nize without any doubt, that the beauty of every passage con-
sists in the perfect intonation of each tone." 26
Manfredini warns the singer possessing a good ear against de-
pending upon it wholly and thus neglecting to study and develop
basic musicianship with the result that time is not taken to per-
fect oneself. A singer may learn an aria just from hearing it and
be totally ignorant of music theory. This is one reason why
there are only a few great singers. On the other hand, unless a
singer possesses at least "a favorable ear," the teacher should
without delay advise him against undertaking the study of sing-
94 EAR TRAINING
ing, "because he certainly never would succeed in being a per-
fect singer." 2T Intonation is defined as the adjusting of the voice
correctly and precisely to each tone and each interval. It is a
most essential part of singing "because there is nothing in music
so displeasing as false intonation." 2S If a singer does not try to
sing too high nor too low and has had the requisite practice in
singing intervals, then he cannot fail to intone correctly, "pro-
vided, however, that there is always the absolute authority of
an ear capable and predisposed to music; this being the prin-
ciple requisite for the execution of a just and perfect intona-
tion." 29 Manfredini closes his chapter on singing by saying that
it is most difficult to succeed as a singer without being endowed
with natural gifts of a beautiful and flexible voice together with
a "good ear" (buon' orrechio).*
GERMAN SOURCES
Sliding up to a tone or "scooping" was more prevalent in the
early years of the bel canto period than later. We have al-
ready noted Caccini's comment on the practice of attacking a
tone as much as a third below but that in his opinion it was
best to sing the tone on its true pitch. 31 Praetorius does not in-
dicate his preference. Intonation to him is the beginning of a
song and while some say it is beginning with the right tone,
others say it is "beginning a second under the right tone and as-
cending to it; some say a third or a fourth under." 32 Nearly a
century elapses before we find another German reference to
intonation. Printz is brief and his remarks seem to imply that
he does not favor ascending to a tone from lower pitches. "At
the beginning of each song, each singer should learn his tone
either from the preamble by the organist or from the intonation
of the director, in order that he begin correctly and not make a
mistake right at the beginning." 33
Again we are forced to skip a considerable period, this time
a half century, before further evidence comes to light, but by
this time the problem of correct intonation was greatly clarified.
According to Marpurg a tone must be pure and firm (rein und
sicker seyn] . It is pure when it is attacked neither too high nor
too low. It is firm when it is begun without an aspiration and
EAR TRAINING 95
when it does not slide up from other notes. This sliding up to a
note is called "tone-seeking" (Tonsuchen).
When one reads in the writing of some old singing-masters that the musicians
do not agree among themselves as to whether one should attack with the right
or just tone, or with a second, a third or a fourth, etc., lower or higher, then
one perceives from this that the defect of tone-searching or tone-groping
must have been considered a musical virtue in olden times. But in these days
of ours no other persons but little old women or grannies, children's nurses,
etc., are permitted to make easy for themselves the leap of a note in their
ditties. The singer must, with regard to intonation, take as a model the in-
struments which in turn must follow [copy] the vocal line. 34
Petri says that the study of an instrument is most helpful to
singers, especially if they are already familiar with it before they
have begun the study of voice. In this way their ears will have
become accustomed to pure tones (an reine Tone gewohnt sind).
The piano or flute is best for this purpose and to a lesser de-
gree the violin. Beginners on the latter seldom play in perfect
tune, therefore the ear is not helped as with the piano. 35 The
singer is advised to practise scales, ascending and descending,
frequently with a perfectly tuned piano or, if no piano is avail-
able, with a very purely played violin, a in order that the pupil
might be lead to a pure intonation right from the start." 36
Petri is of the opinion that a good ear is to a great extent a gift
of Nature. While diligence and training can assist and improve
upon Nature, there are some who have no ear at all, nor will they
ever acquire one.
These persons can be recognized in this way : if one sings to them some tone
which they are to sound or sing thereafter, one will, generally, notice that
those who after several lessons still remain in the [stage of] tone-seeking,
and are barely able to hit one out of ten best-tones, are for the most part
completely unfit for singing and have no musical ear at all. 37
The ear is the natural means of learning music in the opinion
of Kuerzinger, "as with the herdsmen and shepherds of old." It
is important to test the ear of the beginner as to "whether he
can catch at once and repeat exactly a few notes sung to him,
otherwise his ability may be not the best and all pains may be in
vain." 3S In contrast to Petri, this author considers the violin
96 EAR TRAINING
to be the best instrument to train the ear of the beginner. When
practising alone the beginner will learn to sing falsely * 'inasmuch
as the human voice is always apt to drop when not accompanied
with an instrument." 39
Lasser is the last of our German sources on ear-training. The
first quality of a good teacher is that he must have a good ear.
"A singing-master must have a fine ear; if he is wanting in this
or if he himself sings off pitch, how is he going to make others
sing truly?" 40 The first duty of the teacher is to test the ear of
his pupil. 41 No particular instrument is mentioned but it should
always be in perfect tune when used as an accompaniment. More-
over the slightest errors in pitch should be corrected at once. Since
there was no accepted standard of tuning, Lasser advises the
teachers to sing in a higher key.
In view of the fact that the pitch of the pianofortes, organs, and other in-
struments in the musical world is so variable, I would advise the master to
instruct his pupils much sooner according to a higher pitch, because to any
singer used to a lower pitch, it will then be difficult to sing at a higher pitch. 42
FRENCH SOURCES
Hearing and intelligence are combined, writes Bacilly, or rather
the correct interpretation of, and reaction to, what we hear de-
notes a good ear. His chapter on ear training is entitled "De
Toreille, ou Intelligence, a Pegard du Chant/' 43 in which the ear
is said to be the third gift of nature for good singing and is as
rare as the second, i.e., the healthiness of the throat. 44 The ear
is always our guide and without it the natural disposition of the
throat and the voice itself means nothing.
By means of it the voice corrects itself when it is off pitch ; sweetens itself
when it is hard ; modulates itself when it is too loud ; sustains itself when it
trembles. By means of it the throat is accustomed to note that which is wrong
and to pass over that which should be noted only slightly. That is to say by
means of it [the ear] one can well understand all that is practical in the Art
of correct singing; even one may say that with a good ear one can acquire a
voice and make it come out of almost nothing, by study and in every instance
with the help of a good teacher as I shall say in the following chapter. 45
With intelligence, or comprehension through the ear, one may
achieve that finesse of execution which singing requires. Bacilly
EAR TRAINING 97
goes on to apply this ''intelligence" to "chanter juste," i.e., sing-
ing on pitch, which some call singing the notes just as the com-
poser wrote them and in correct rhythm and on correct pitches.
If the singer lacks the ear to do these things, then a teacher who
possesses such "intelligence" is absolutely necessary, for with-
out him errors and faults will be augmented and made uncor-
rectable by wrong habits which then become second nature. 46
It is necessary to give constant attention by means of the ear
to the sound, interval, rhythm, key, voice quality, cadences, etc.,
says Jumilhac. By means of the ear we can bring reason to judge
that which is good. After repeating "the common proverb
which says that one should sing more with the ear than with
the mouth," 47 we are told that the ear is just as necessary to the
singer as the eye is to one who studies the stars or paints pic-
tures. Just as the eye discerns the colors of the painting, its com-
position, the perspective, the placing of the figures and their
postures, the lights, the shadows, and all combine with reason
to guide completely the hand and the brush,
in like manner it is the ear which recognizes and understands all the sounds
and all their intervals, their good or bad results, their consonances or dis-
sonances, their duration and rhythm, their cadences and their rests, their
softness or loudness, the harmony or discord of the different parts, and uni-
versally all the other factors which concern the sounds and voices which are
the subject of this study. 48
Jumilhac adds that hearing and reason join to accept that which is
suitable and to reject that which is not, thus leading the voice to
perform that which has been ordained.
A singing manual by an anonymous French author has the
following to say: "Finally there is nothing on which one should
depend so much in all this matter [i.e., singing] as the ear which
is over the rules of the art itself since it is it which must judge." 49
A singular approach to intonation in which the factor of hear-
ing is dispensed with is presented by Blanchet. Since the larynx
rises and falls as a singer sings high or low, one may learn to sing
with correct intonation, even though having a bad ear, by learning
to control this rising or falling action of the larynx. 50 In his opin-
ion hearing has no part in giving pitch to the sounds of the voice,
this being the result of the varying tension of the vocal bands. If
98 EAR TRAINING
one can learn to establish control over this tension, then correct
pitches may be sung. without depending on a poorly disposed ear
and one will have "an infallible guide" (tine regie infaillible) for
singing correct pitches. Blanchet continues to explain precisely
how this could be achieved, the end being that one could sing ex-
actly on pitch without accompaniment or the aid of other voices.
He continues :
The method which I have come to teach will contribute not a little in extend-
ing the realm of song and in increasing the talents of many people. Ladies who
have voices without an ear, are able by means of my rules to add to their
charms, assuring themselves against the afflictions of age and trusting to be
again charming when they have ceased to be so. 51
Rameau says that the ear must be somewhat accustomed to
harmony if the voice is to have freedom necessary to perform the
many graces, a fact easily confirmed "in all the able singers, of
which the number is infinitely greater in Italy than in France." 52
A keyboard instrument, either the harpsichord or organ, is rec-
ommended which may be sounded as the pupil executes the swell
tone or messa di voce. The accompaniment should be easy, and as
the singer swells and diminishes the tone the arpeggio based on
the tone being sung is to be played several times. 53 Rameau sug-
gests that this may be accomplished by starting on the lowest notes
of the voice and rising by half tones. In this way the ear of the
singer will be trained and according to this author it "is a primary
means of training the ear." 54
The importance of the ear cannot be overemphasized from the
beginning of voice study according to Lecuyer.
When one begins to sing, too much attention cannot be given to understand-
ing and making understood the interval and the differences that exist between
one sound and another. I cannot recommend too much singing with an instru-
ment for I am quite certain that if one sings falsely often and obstinately,
this comes from too little practice in hearing the accompaniment. 55
There are two ways to teach singing, declares Martini, one
with the violin, the other with the piano. The former is the better,
especially at the beginning of study since "a scholar taught with a
violin will sing his part with accuracy and precision." 56 After the
is well learned then he should sing it without the violin but
EAR TRAINING 99
with the piano accompaniment in order to hear the harmonic
background of his song.
Correct intonation is the first thing to be considered by the pupil and teacher.
One cannot bear to listen to false singing. This will happen sometimes be-
cause of a weak stomach but a scholar who at the end of a month does not
learn to recognize with certainty the sounds of an instrument or to sing in
unison with a voice of his range should be advised that his deficiency of hear-
ing is an obstacle because of which he can never sing nor consequently make
progress. 57
Mengozzi's comments on ear training are confined to proper
intonation or attack. The ear or the sense of hearing is not directly
mentioned, their part in the process only being implied. "One
should attack the tone cleanly and exactly, without preparation
and without reaching the sound by means of sliding." 5& Each
note of the scale should be executed in such a way that there will
be no sign of any breath heard before or after.
ENGLISH SOURCES
The English sources on ear training are so insignificant as hardly
to deserve consideration. The importance of a teacher or u living
tutor" is stressed in a small rudimentary manual by Turner.
I would not have you imagine that I propose anything I can say here, in
Dead Letters to be sufficient to instruct you in the Art of Singing, without
the assistance of a Living Tutor . . . for the meaning of Sound which we
are unacquainted with, cannot be communicated to us without our hearing
them. 59
Bayly emphasizes the importance of attacking each note "plain
and firm like one who walks and marches well, with his foot set
on the ground and lifted up without any shuffling and stamping."
This should be practised on both low and high tones, both soft
and loud, "af ter having collected the breath by inflating the breast
like a pair of bellows, and letting it out again gradually in respira-
tion." 60 Tenducci is indeed terse. It is necessary "to be exactly in
Tune; as without a perfect Intonation, it is needless to attempt
singing." 61 Corri gives considerably more attention to the train-
ing of the ear. Among the requisites for a good singer are, "First,
a singer ought to have a good ear, which is a most important
ioo EAR TRAINING
and indispensable requisite ; a gift without which no perfection can
be obtained." In his opinion a good ear is due to two things, first,
the natural acuteness of the ear because of the construction of the
auricular nerves, and second, the opportunity to hear good music
from childhood where the sounds become habitual and) like the
spoken language, are learned without study. Corri is much con-
cerned about the teaching of correct intonation and offers a sub-
stantial number of exercises to bring this about. 62
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
A good ear along with its correct use to insure exact intonation
was almost unanimously held to be the prime requisite for a singer
among all the writers in whatever country we have under survey.
This is understandable since a certain measure of artistry is pos-
sible even in a voice of mediocre abilities as long as the intonation
is good, while without it any attempts at singing are worse than
no attempts. All of the earlier Italian sources reiterate that a
singer must have a good ear which will serve as an ever present
guide, but not until we meet Tosi, Mancini, and Manfredini are
we given any suggestions as to how it is to be obtained. It is as-
sumed that anyone who presumes to teach must have a good ear
and it is the ear of the teacher which listens to the pupil and as-
sures him which tones are sung correctly. The pupil in turn be-
comes accustomed to that which is correct and sings accordingly.
Long years of study with assiduous practice are absolute requi-
sites.
The earlier German manuals speak of the necessity of good
intonation but the practice here seems to have been rather lenient
toward the attack, allowing for considerable scooping or sliding
up to the pitch. However by the time of Marpurg (1763) all
"Tonsuchen" was ruled out as it had been in Italy since the begin-
ning of the bel canto period. The use of a keyboard instrument
or a violin was regarded as a most important aid in developing
the ear and the teacher's advice was considered essential.
The French writers emphasize in general the same things noted
already by the Italians and Germans with a little more emphasis
placed on the part played by reason and judgment together with
consideration of a good ear as being a gift of Nature. The use -of
EAR TRAINING 101
an instrument and the part of the teacher are discussed very much
as we have noted above. Blanchet is the one exception but his
approach was wholly scientific and need not be given too much
weight. As for the English manuals, everything seems to have
been Italian in origin or inspiration.
X. RESONATORS
Ful wel she song tine service divyne,
Entuned in hir nose ful semely.*
ITALIAN SOURCES
THERE may have been an appreciation of the part played by the
cavities of the throat, mouth and head in reinforcing the sounds
produced by the vocal bands but the singing manuals do not have
much to say about it. The directions are mostly concerned with
the manner of opening the mouth so that a natural tone would
result, without the strain of its being too wide open or the nasal
quality which comes from the mouth being too closed. Durante
merely says to open the mouth when singing broad vowels and
narrow it on the closed ones, 2 while Donati recommends that the
singer hold the head high with the mouth half open. 3 Tosi is like-
wise brief. "If the Scholar should have any Defects, of the nose,
the Throat, or of the Ear, let him never sing but when the Master
Is by, or somebody that understands the profession, in order to
correct him, otherwise he will get an ill Habit, past all Remedy. 4
Mancini on the other hand is quite explicit. According to him
the prospective singer must know how to open the mouth because
upon this depends the clearness of the voice. He proposes to dwell
upon this topic and discuss the common defects because when these
are recognized, ways can be found to correct them. "The first fault
comes when one draws out the voice, without paying any attention
to the mouth, and thus opens it badly. Therefore the voice does
not come out clearly, sonorously and pretty.'' 5 Although this is
the most common fault and would seem to be a very easy one to
remedy, Mancini insists this is not the case. Many teachers con-
sider their duties at an end when they have told the pupil : "Aprite
la bocca" (open your mouth) , but this is just the beginning since
it is not only necessary to tell them many times, but also they must
be told patiently and pleasantly.
It is necessary for a pupil to know from the beginning how to open the mouth
correctly and to open it by the rules of art, and not merely to his fancy. Be
RESONATORS 103
it known that the rules for the opening of the mouth cannot be general, nor
can they be made universally the same for every individual. For every one
knows that each individual does not open his mouth in the same way. Some
have wide openings, some narrow, and others medium. Add to this the
irregularity of the teeth. . . . All these and other differences concerning the
organs of the voice compel the teacher to observe diligently in what size of the
opening of the mouth the voice comes out clearest, purest, and fullest. Thus
he determines the size of the opening for the correct position of the mouth.
Experience teaches that a mouth too widely open, or too closed besides look-
ing awkward and distorted, renders the voice rough and unpleasant. I am of
the opinion that to know well how to shape it can reasonably be kept as one
of the essentials most important to a singer. Without this knowledge, al-
though he may possess all the other abilities of the profession, he will never
be able to please, and will often render himself ridiculous and disgusting. 6
He continues that while there are many wrong positions of the
mouth the most common are when it is opened too widely and
when it is too closed. In the first case the strain in the fauces is
such as to cause throatiness and loss of that flexibility so necessary
to clear and facile singing. If not corrected the tone will have a
"suffocated, crude, and heavy quality." In the latter, three grave
consequences are the result. First the quality becomes doleful and
dead, second, the tone is forced into the nose, and third, the enun-
ciation is not clear. When the mouth is opened too widely the tone
does not come forward clearly and sonorously but remains in the
throat. When not open enough the tongue cannot function and
the enunciation "will sound mumbling and blubbering." Singing
with the teeth close and tight "is the greatest of all defects." It is
a traitor to the voice because it robs the singer of his tone and
enunciation. 7
According to this author experience proves that the opening
of the mouth is what directs and regulates the voice.
In fact, the resounding quality of the voice always depends upon the shaping
of the position of the mouth, when there is the natural strength of the chest
and a harmonious disposition of the vocal organs. Therefore, it will be useless
for a teacher to correct the pupil by merely saying, "You open your mouth too
much," or "too little," or "you sing with your teeth closed." The general
precepts are usually of little value just as the practical applications are good.
In giving the precise rules to a student, let the teacher not only tell him and
explain to him, but let him illustrate his meaning by making himself an
104 RESONATORS
example, by assuming the different positions of the mouth, the wrong as well
as the right. The student will then be able to know and choose which is the
correct one and why, through both seeing and hearing. Let the experienced
teacher follow this method and he will soon be convinced how much more
preferable are practical demonstrations to general rules. 8
Mancini adds that when his pupils opened their mouths incor-
rectly he would show them how to do it correctly.
The weight of evidence from a great number and variety of
pupils causes this teacher to arrive at a general rule: "Every
singer should shape his mouth, just as he shapes it when he smiles,
in such a manner that the upper teeth are perpendicularly and
moderately separated from the lower ones." 9
By following this rule Mancini claims always to have gotten
results ; moreover, he adds that it conforms to the methods taught
in the best schools. With this smiling position of the mouth he
maintains that the vowels a, e, and i can be sung while very slight
changes are necessary for o and u. For clear enunciation other
slight alterations have to be made. "But it is necessary that the
teacher observe carefully in which position [of the mouth] the
voice of the pupil comes out best and have him practice in that
position, in order that he may take advantage of his natural dis-
position and talents." 10
Singers are warned against the habit, often noticed, of sing-
ing low tones with lips almost closed and abnormally opened on
the high ones. This gives a very different character and quality
to each which is essentially wrong and also unwelcome to an
audience. 11
The throat must also act in harmony with this natural posi-
tion of the mouth. It must "unfold the voice with ease and also
clarify each vowel." The rough and suffocated voice results when
the singer does not open up and "does not sustain the voice by
the natural strength of the chest but thinks he will obtain a good
result by tightening the fauces." This, says Mancini, is all wrong
and absolutely harmful to the voice.
The voice cannot come out natural and spontaneous, if it finds the throat in a
strained position which impedes natural action. Therefore the student must
take the trouble to accustom his chest to give the voice with naturalness and
to use the throat smoothly and easily. If the union of these two parts [chest
RESONATORS 105
and throat] reaches the point of perfection, then the voice will be clear and
agreeable. But if these organs act discordantly, the voice will be defective and
the singing will be spoiled. 12
Manfredini gives almost word for word the same advice as
Mancini but without elaboration or discussion.
The rule governing the manner of opening one's mouth is most essential
because on it depends the formation of a clear voice as well as a pure and clear
pronunciation of the words. Yet, this most important rule is observed by
but few singers with exactitude, certainly because of carelessness of their
first teachers. . . . Now the mouth should, in singing, be opened neither
too much nor too little, and the correct way is to keep it open as in the act of
smiling ; neither should one put out the tongue onto the lips, which causes one
to sing through the nose and to enunciate lisping. 13
And later he says that a great many singers have the pernicious
faults of opening the mouth too little, of pronouncing badly,
and of failing to bring out the voice as required. But here in-
stead of blaming it on the carelessness of the early masters, he
says it is often due to having practiced solfeggi! too much. 14 It
is most interesting to read here also that the singer is advised
to use solfeggii not longer than a year and then follow with
nothing but vocalises. After a year of these, the singer should
sing with words, but only the very best compositions such as those
of Pergolesi, A. Scarlatti, Porpora, Sassone (Hasse), Marcello,
etc. In another year, making three years in all, the singer should
be able to sing impromptu, that is, at sight.
GERMAN SOURCES
Praetorius is the only seventeenth century writer of German
origin to comment on the vocal resonators and he is superficial
and brief. Among the vices of singers, some sing "through the
nose suppressing the voice in the throat." 15 Also some sing with
their teeth together. Almost a hundred years later (1714)
Printz, in discussing diction says the following:
In pronouncing vowels, the mouth must have the correct opening relative to
their sounds, which should not be changed to others. It would be awful if one
sang "Dius" instead of "Deus," "nuster" instead of "noster," "gretia" in-
stead of "gratia," etc. . . . The voice must not be formed between the lips
or in hollow cheeks, but in the throat. 16
io6 RESONATORS
Mattheson, as usual, takes a disparaging attitude toward the
German singers, comparing them unfavorably with the Italians
and French. According to him no one in the German singing
schools seems to care if the voice comes gratingly from the throat,
hindered by the tongue, or is formed between the cheeks and
the lips, all of which the French call "chanter de la gorge" which
they despise. After the tone is produced in the larynx then the
proper opening of the mouth and fauces will permit advanta-
geous passage. 17 Further discussing the production of the voice
he says that the soft palate, lips and teeth must make room and
in no way hinder the tone, "because they have no other duty than
to stand aside modestly." 18
Agricola, in his translation of Tosi's Observations, offers ex-
tended notes on the anatomical and physiological nature of the
process of phonation. As to the resonators he says that when
the sound is produced in the throat it goes out partly through
the mouth and partly through the nose, wherein it is reflected
and from which reflection arises the most important and pleasant
quality of the voice. He calls the nose a speech-arch or vault
(Sprachgewolbe) and stresses .its importance but says nothing
about the function of the sinuses to the same end. 19 In his
opinion anything that interferes with the free passage of the
air through the larynx or with its resounding in the mouth or
nose will cause the tone to deteriorate. Such obstruction may be
due to natural defects such as when the inner cavity of the nose
is not large enough, or if its interior is not perfectly constructed,
or if it is closed up because of a cold or through excessive use of
snuff, or if Its function is impaired through any other sickness.
But they [the obstructions] may also be caused by arbitrarily accepted in-
correct habits, e.g., if one retracts the tongue when it is not necessary, or
bends it, when it should really be in the mouth flat and straight, also when
one neglects to open the mouth wide enough, or clenches the teeth. The first
and second cases produce the so-called singing through the nose, and in the
third originates the singing in the throat [il cantar di gola] , and there may
be many other such defects. If they are casual or acquired habits, the causes
must be eliminated or one must try to give the correct position to the parts
of the mouth, which will correct the mistakes. 20
RESONATORS 107
The advice offered by Marpurg is quite similar to that which
we have already found. The singer should not open his mouth
so widely that the listeners are able to look down his throat but
it should be opened widely enough that the tone is not suffocated
in the throat or forced out through the nose. The cheeks should
not be made hollow, the teeth should not be set, and the tongue
should lie flat and straight in the mouth "in order not to be ob-
structive to the free passage of the tone." 21 Later he cautions the
performer against changing the shape of the mouth while singing
fermatas or figures and insists that as long as the figure lasts the
mouth should be kept in the position naturally required by the
vowel being sung. 22
"Clear is the voice when it comes out through the open mouth,
freely from the chest, without forcing and squeezing of the
throat." 23 So says Hiller and then goes on to enjoin the teacher
to see that the pupil does not set his teeth, which should be kept
apart so that the finger may conveniently be put between them.
In general the look or expression of a gentle smile during which
the mouth is drawn slightly to both sides is "the most proper
in singing and the most convenient for the production of a good
tone of one's voice." 24 Here is also repeated the warning that
if the tone is held back in the throat it will result- in the bad
habit of singing through the nose.
Among his many and varied works, Abbe Vogler wrote a very
short treatise on singing. In it he sees fit to repeat that the singer
must not sing through the nose, in the throat or with the mouth
opened too widely or too narrowly. 25 Petri merely says that the
singer should keep his mouth neither too open nor too closed, the
latter causing him to sing through the teeth, thus interfering
with pronunciation. 26 The same warning is given by Kuerzinger.
Among the chief faults in singing is to keep the mouth and teeth
too closed which causes poor enunciation and singing through the
nose. He seems to object to the mouth too widely opened only
because of its ugliness. 27
Aubigny offers slight elaborations on the proper use of the
resonators in singing. He says that good tone is achieved if the
mouth, on which success rests, is in the form of an ellipse, rather
io8 RESONATORS
than oval, and if the tongue is flat in back of the teeth so that the
tone may not be hindered by the throat, tongue, or teeth. The
natural relationship of the throat, mouth, and nose should not
be spoiled. 28 The position of the mouth is described as very im-
portant and the worst mistake is to sing with a throaty tone
(Halsstimme, chanter gros, or cantar di gola) produced by a
curved tongue in which the tone hits the upper gum and has a
repercussion which becomes very unpleasant. 29 The use of nasal
resonance is stressed and if the nasal passages are narrow it is
advisable to draw in fresh water morning and evening, this es-
pecially with young singers. 30
Lasser, our last German source, repeats that the teacher should
see that the pupil does not open his mouth too wide, but also that
it should not be closed so much as to make him sing through his
teeth. Putting wooden wedges into the mouth in order to keep
it open is not good "for the fact is that the opening of the mouth
is not quite the same with every vowel." 31
FRENCH SOURCES
Both throaty and nasal tone qualities are objectionable to
Jumilhac, and he blames these faults, along with many others,
on twisting the mouth or neck, holding the head too high or
too low, and on rigidity of all those parts of the body directly
allied with the singing process. 32 No remedy is suggested ex-
cept to sing with a natural pose that avoids all constraints, thus
making it possible for the voice to be free, clear, and accurate
in pitch. Bailleux warns against changing the shape of the mouth
while singing a tone and especially on the portamento. Moreover
the voice should not master those who sing but on the contrary
the voice should obey the singer right from the beginning. It
should come out full and natural, directly from the chest, "lest
in passing into the head or into the nose it degenerate into fal-
setto by its muffledness." 38
In his advice to the teacher Martini says that he should note
the position of the mouth and teeth of the pupil. A circular
mouth or a mouth too closed can only suffocate and stifle the
tone while serrated teeth hinder articulation by the tongue and
hold back the voice. On the other hand when the mouth is too
RESONATORS 109
widely opened the fauces and throat are constricted which in
turn prevents the tones from coming out easily. "The position
of the mouth should be natural and slightly smiling." 34 This au-
thor then adds, "The Master should also correct the pupils who
have the defect of singing in the nose or in the throat. If he
cannot succeed in doing this he should dismiss them." 85 There are
no suggestions as to how nasal or throaty tones may be eliminated.
The wrong position of the various parts that make up the
mouth is among the most vicious defects of singing in the opinion
of Mengozzi. Although the tone is not formed in the mouth,
it serves to modify the tone in such a way that the teacher is ad-
vised first of all to devote his particular attention to this matter.
Since Nature does not treat all alike, many pupils have malforma-
tions of nose, mouth, jaws, lips, teeth, etc., all of which call for
special care if there is to be compensation for these "natural
defects." He also advises the smiling position of the mouth with
the teeth comfortably apart in natural conformity with the gen-
eral physiognomy so that the vowel on which the exercise is be-
ing sung will be pure and remain unchanged. 86 Later Mengozzi
sees fit to emphasize this same thing. "In vocalizing the pupil
should always be certain to hold the mouth equally open and
above all never to move the chin nor the tongue." 37
ENGLISH SOURCES
The English sources are rather meager and in general repeat
the same advice already found in Italy, Germany, and France.
This is to be expected from Bayly who as we have already seen,
freely admitted the influence of Tosi. "Let the master carefully
instruct the scholar how to open his mouth that the tones may
come forth freely without any interruption of the throat, tongue
or lips." 38 And again he warns the "master" to see that both the
chest and head voice "come forth neat and clear, neither pass-
ing through the nose from the fault of heaving back the tongue
towards the passage, nor choaked [jiV] in the throat from the
fault of contracting the windpipe, which are two most insuffera-
ble defects in a speaker and singer." 39 As to vowels, diphthongs,
consonants, and words, the pupil must be taught to sing and
pronounce them with "the throat and mouth properly open,
no RESONATORS
and the lips shaped according to the nature of the vowels, that
the tones may proceed freely, and the vowels be heard distinctly
as in speaking." 40
Burney's comment concerning the Italian soprano, Costanza,
from Bologna, who was heard by him at Vienna on September i,
1772, is testimony to his approval of this free and unconstrained
manner of singing. He describes her voice as being "admirably
free from the nose, mouth or throat. There was such a round-
ness and dignity in all tones, that everything she did became in-
teresting; a few plain slow notes from her were more acceptable
to the audience than a whole elaborate air from anyone else." 41
Among his "necessary rules" for singers, Tenducci advises
the singer "to give as open and clear a Sound to the Vowels, as
the Nature of the Language in which the Student sings, will ad-
mit" 42 A stern warning is given never to incur "the disagreeable
Habit of singing in the Throat or through the Nose; un-
pardonable Faults in a Singer." 43
Only one English source remains to be considered. Lanza says
that the forming of the human voice is best done by sol-fa-ing.
"My manner of Sol-fa-ing is in the old style which Sig. Aprile
used." 44 There follows a description of the shape of the mouth
for each vowel with accompanying plates showing a young fe-
male singer with her mouth in the desirable positions. The ex-
pression is easy and natural with evidence of a smile and the
mouth comfortably opened. 45
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
The exponents of singing methods during the bel canto period
either ignored or took for granted the resonators in singing. They
were far more concerned with the free emission of the voice as
Nature intended. Great interest was shown in keeping the tongue,
teeth, and lips out of the way in order that the voice could come
forth free from all constraint and without being forced through
the nose. Mancini especially gives many details, both as to the
common errors and ways of correcting and avoiding them. Only
Aubigny, a German writer, places direct emphasis on resonance
in singing and his book comes at the extreme end of the period
under survey. Here again we find only the external mechanics
RESONATORS in
of singing emphasized, that is, the position of the mouth, tongue,
teeth, lips, etc., that is most conducive to ease in singing.
The remarkable thing is the almost unanimous agreement
upon the desirability and means of producing a free and natural
singing tone as well as faults to be eschewed. The same ad-
monitions and advice, sometimes almost word for word, are
found in these sources, regardless of their national origin or lan-
guage. It is stout evidence that there were generally accepted
standards during this era of the history of singing.
XL VOICE REGISTERS
His voice no touch of harmony admits
Irregularly deep, and shrill by fits.
The two extremes appear like man and wife.
Coupled together for the sake of strife*
ITALIAN SOURCES
WE have already found that the recognition of voice registers
long preceded the bel canto period. 2 Our survey reveals con-
tinued and increasing attention given to them as the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries pass. Caccini was offended by the fal-
setto voice and urged the singer to select a pitch "in which he
could sing in a full and natural voice in order to avoid falsetto.
. . . For from falsetto, this noble manner of singing 3 cannot
arise. This comes from a natural voice suitable to all the
chords." 4 Cerone not only prefers the chest voice over the head
voice but implies that this was the general preference. He says,
"I find that between head voices and chest voices, according to
common opinion, chest voices are better." 5 A statement by
Rognoni is difficult to interpret but shows his preference for the
chest tones. He says that the "gorga" must come from the chest
and not from the throat. 6 Delia Valle, on the other hand, de-
scribes Giovanni Luca as a falsettist and a great singer of
"gorge" and "passaggi," who sang as high as the stars. 7
In his directions to choir masters, Andrea di Modena says
that the song must be suited to the voices of the singers. If they
have head voices, high and piercing, the choir master must be-
gin with a very spirited voice (voce amai spiritosa). If they have
chest voices, throaty (gutturali) and low (basse), in order to
avoid shrillness the song should be begun at a lower pitch. If the
voices are mixed, it is advisable to begin with medium tone suited
to all. 8 In speaking of the range of voices, Santoro says that if
the compass exceeds fifteen notes (he apparently means two oc-
taves), it will be falsetto, 9 while both Nassarre and Vallara ad-
vise the singers not to sing in registers too high or too low, 10
VOICE REGISTERS 113
Tosi considers the use of the falsetto as a necessity for success-
ful singing.
A diligent master, knowing that a Soprano without the Falsetto, is con-
strained to sing within the narrow Compass of a few Notes, ought not only
to endeavour to help him to it, but also to leave no Means untried, so to
unite the feigned and the natural Voice, that they may not be distinguished;
for if they do not perfectly unite, the Voice will be of divers Registers, and
must consequently lose its Beauty. 11
According to this author the full or natural voice terminates
generally on C of the treble staff or sometimes D and above this
the feigned voice, or falsetto, "becomes of Use, as well in go-
ing up to the high Notes, as returning to the natural Voice; the
Difficulty consists in uniting them." If this is not solved the singer
is ruined. Again it is obvious here that Tosi is writing about the
castrato voice in which the registers could very well have func-
tioned in a different way. He adds that he has sometimes heard
a female soprano "entirely di petto" but among the male sex
"it would be a great Rarity, should they preserve it after having
past the age of Puberty." 12 The voce di testa, or head voice, is
described as having great volubility with "more of the high than
the lower notes, and has a quick Shake, but subject to be lost
for want of Strength." 13 An annotation by the English transla-
tor, Galliard (1687-1749), is of interest:
Voce di Petto is a full Voice, which comes from the Breast by Strength, and
is the most sonorous and expressive. Voce di Testa comes more from the
Throat, than from the Breast, and is capable of more Volubility. Falsetto
is a feigned Voice, which is entirely formed in the Throat, has more Volu-
bility than any, but of no Substance.
He defines "register" as "a Term taken from the different Stops
of an Organ." 14
Mancini does not agree entirely with the opinions of Tosi with
regard to registers. According to him the voice ordinarily divides
itself into two registers, one called chest register, and the other,
head register or falsetto. He agrees with Tosi that in rare cases
a singer may be found who sings only "di petto," but every other
student whether he be soprano, contralto, bass or tenor can easily
tell the difference between the registers merely by singing the
ii4 VOICE REGISTERS
scale. He also agrees with Tosi that the change occurs in the
soprano voice at about D In the treble clef while lower voices
will experience the change at successively lower pitches. Below
this place in their scale the "tones are sonorous and come out with
strength and clearness and without effort because they come from
the chest." The tone where the change occurs is weaker than the
other notes of the scale and can easily be recognized by an ex-
perienced teacher. 15 "The great art of the singer consists in ac-
quiring the ability to render imperceptible to the ear, the pass-
ing from the one register to the other." According to the au-
thor the ideal for any singer, and one most difficult to achieve,
was to unite the two, with each tone being of the best and purest
and with perfect quality throughout the whole range.
This is art and it is not easy to reach the goal. It takes study, work and
industry to correct the defects originated from the more or less strong con-
stitution of the vocal organs, and it requires ability and such a careful use of
the voice to render it equally sonorous and agreeable, that few students suc-
ceed. 16
Many teachers are at fault because of not knowing how to cor-
rect these difficulties and the offended student should bring com-
plaint against such a teacher. Mancini says that natural instincts
should be followed but that Nature should never be forced.
Moreover it is impossible to acquire virtuosity without the
registers being blended. In some singers this is more difficult
than others since Nature has not treated us all alike. First of all
he advises that the voice must be classified as to range so that it
will not be forced beyond the limit intended by Nature. Many
good voices have been ruined by neglect in this respect.
Art consists in one's ability to know what Nature intended one to be. When
once the gifts of Nature are known, cultivating them easily makes man
perfect. . . . The teacher must be careful not to betray their [V] pupils and
the pupils not to pay more attention to the teacher than to Nature, If this
point is overlooked, all the helps of the precepts of art will be completely
void, Take for instance a student who has a strong chest voice, and head
tones out of proportion, weak and feeble. In such a voice the break between
the two registers comes between C and D [treble clef]. . . . The way to
correct it is to have the pupil at once undertake and fix in his mind in his
daily study, to keep the chest tones back as much as he can and to force the
VOICE REGISTERS 115
voice little by little against the head just there where it seems to be most
unfriendly to him and thus fix it and develop it with the same strength that
the chest tones have already naturally developed, 17
The pupil is warned to keep under very careful control that
part of his voice which is naturally strong and robust and to
make strong that part of the voice which is by Nature weak. The
teacher is advised, after keeping the pupil on head tones until they
have more strength and flexibility, to have the pupil sing out the
chest voice with the usual fullness so as to see how they com-
pare. In the event that the desired evenness has not yet been
achieved both the teacher and pupil are urged not to give up
faith for by continuing in such a manner "the difficulty will in
time be completely mastered and all the other tones of the voice
will be benefited greatly by this exercise." 18 Mancini goes on to
say that this same rule should be followed in the reverse case,
that is, when the student has weak chest tones but a strong head
register. Then the latter must be held back until both registers
are even. "Arrived at this point, the student will be glad for
the achieved success of having the two registers blended, and
with patience and industry, he will then undertake the work that
leads to the acquisition of the "portamento di voce" so necessary
in every style of singing." 19
Teachers are warned that the registers must be perfectly
blended before there is any attempt to acquire agility. Much
harm could result from carelessness at this point in the training
of the pupil "because the agility would undoubtedly be uneven,
where the registers change, and thus be defective in strength and
clearness, and also out of proportion." 20 A perfect even scale
throughout the entire range is Mancini's ideal.
In our time [1774] teachers wish to enlarge the range, and by forcing Nature,
they bring out from the throat even a larger number of tones. Thus, today,
the tendency is to judge a singer's merits by the range of his voice. In my
opinion, however, the worth of a voice will always depend upon its evenness
of quality throughout the whole register, and perfect intonation. The strength
of the medium and chest tones must also be equivalent to those of the head, in
order to form an even register. The medium and low tones are naturally more
homogeneous, sonorous, and pleasing, because they come from the chest, while
the head tones are more difficult to perfect because they are more shrill. . . .
ii6 VOICE REGISTERS
Great care must be taken by the student to attack the high tones with the
required sweetness and proportion, in order that he can command his entire
range to perfection. 21
Like Mancini, Manfredini speaks only of two registers, and
calls the head voice and falsetto one and the same. The head-
ing for his section on the blending of registers is as follows:
u On combining the chest voice with the head voice, the latter be-
ing vulgarly called falsetto." 22 The chest voice rarely exceeds
twelve or thirteen tones according to this writer and sometimes
there are more tones in the head register than in the chest.
Therefore it is necessary not only to blend them but it must be done
in such a way "that the voice seems to consist of one register, that
is to say equal throughout.*' 2S This is achieved by causing the
uppermost chest tone, usually C of the treble clef, to be united
with the first note or tones of the falsetto, 24 in such a way that
the difference in the two is barely noticeable, or even better yet,
not noticeable. "This is to be accomplished not by forcing the
high chest tones but rather by reinforcing the low tones of the
falsetto, or else doing the opposite, if the chest tones should hap-
pen to be weaker and deficient, and the falsetto tones plentiful
and strong." 25 Manfredini adds that certain weak tones, either
of the chest or head registers, can always be strengthened if the
exercise be persistent but moderate. Vocal fatigue must be
avoided and the tones must never be forced for then the tones
will decline in strength and may even be lost.
GERMAN SOURCES
While Calvisius does not mention the word register, head voice,
or chest voice, he warns against forcing the high voice or re-
laxing the low voice. Voices shouldn't stay too much on the high
notes. 26 Praetorius mentions the "falsetto" as being a half tone
and forced; also it is one that is not bright nor loud. 27 Mattheson
is of the opinion that all voices including sopranos can sing fal-
setto. Tenors and basses get it by contracting and forcing the
throat, called "fistulieren." 28
Agricola, in his translation of Tosi's Observations, has added
some extensive notes especially with regard to voice registers. 29
First of all he disagrees with the Italian conception that the head
VOICE REGISTERS 117
voice and falsetto are the same and in order to prove his posi-
tion he presents a physiological and acoustical analysis of his
conception of the processes of phonation. 30 Next he offers some-
what speculative reasons for the differences in the three registers
and describes each. The chest voice is the strongest, therefore
the opening of the windpipe [glottis] is stronger, harder and
larger; also there is more movement of air, and putting all these
together it means "that' the chest voice can never sing as high as
the head voice" ( dass die Bruststimmen niemals so hoch sing en
konnten ah die Kopfstimmen). This speculation of Agricola's is
based on pre-Ferrein theories of voice production 31 and it leads
him to complications from which he can only extricate himself
by saying that human wisdom cannot judge since it is all manipu-
lated by Nature. But he insists that of two voices of the same
range, the one with a chest and the other with a head voice,
the glottis of the chest voice has to be a little larger although in-
distinguishable to the human eye. The possessor of the chest
voice is advised to sing more in the middle range while the head
voice should remain on the higher tones. An aria should be sung
about one tone lower by the former than by the latter.
While it is more difficult for the chest voice to execute rapid
passages than the head voice, Agricola insists that the opinion
that the chest voice is incapable of fast singing can be contra-
dicted by the great ability of certain singers. The awkwardness
in the rendition of fast notes by some chest voices is due to lazi-
ness and lack of practice. Many head voices do not sing the fast
passages with clarity, sliding over tones too feebly and softly,
due to the fact, Agricola says, that the windpipe is not suffici-
ently elastic to give each tone its proper accent and sharpness.
Trills and other little ornaments are usually harder for the chest
voice but with diligence and practice these may also be perfected.
This author warns that the head voice, due to the ease with
which it can perform them, may ruin them because of singing
flat, bleating or even singing a "third-trill" (Terzentriller).
The chest voice is more durable because the fibers of the glottis
are stronger, the windpipe is wider, and the lungs larger, hence
the singers with chest voices will keep them until a much later
age. Agricola mentions the singers Orsini (d. ca. 1750) and
u8 VOICE REGISTERS
Carestini (ca. 1705-^. 1760) as examples of chest voices that
maintained their beauty to an advanced age.
The properties of the head voice are held to be the result of
a more flexible and less elastic larynx, with a tighter windpipe
and less expandable lungs, Agricola says this should all be de-
duced from what has already been said about the chest voice
and need not be discussed further. 32
After repeating his contention that the Italians, including Tosi,
have often mistaken the head voice for the falsetto, Agricola
offers a detailed discussion of the "Fistel-stimme." It is better to
present his argument in his own words than to try to condense
and interpret them.
Most scientists as well as musicians describe falsetto tones, which may occur
in any voice in the highest and lowest notes, and the falsetto voice as a forced
voice. But how are these forced tones brought out? Let us first examine the
high falsetto tones. It is known that, exerting a certain perceptible force in
the throat when singing, many more high notes can be brought out than are
in the ordinary range of a voice. Whoever sings in his natural voice, no matter
what it may be, as high as he can without forcing, he will find that finally
there are no more tones to be heard and one would then believe that the
windpipe is completely closed, that no more air can corne out and therefore
no sounds can be produced. But if one makes a little more effort to sing a few
notes higher, it may be noticed that still higher tones are possible which,
however, unless artistically done, are a little different in sound than the
former, and it will be noticed that the air escaping from the glottis strikes
farther back in the roof of the mouth. There can be no other cause for the
production of these tones than this, that the entire 'head of the windpipe
[larynx] is stretched higher and drawn farther behind the cavern of the
palate and under the bones of the tongue [hyoid bone]. In this position the
glottis, which is stretched even more, begins anew to contract the still re-
maining opening as the tones grow higher until it closes completely and no
further tone can come out. Through this stretching upward of the head of the
windpipe, the length of the cavern of the mouth which adjusts itself to each
tone is still more shortened. Returning from these falsetto tones to the lower
tones, the singer who takes notice will observe that upon reaching a certain
tone, the head of the windpipe will again leave its high stretched position and
return to its original place. 33
The difficulty of changing from the natural voice to the
falsetto is discussed and diligent practise recommended to
VOICE REGISTERS 119
strengthen those tones where the change occurs. Women are
often not bothered with a break but with tenors and basses the
break is usually noticeable and sometimes very difficult to hide.
Some men sing nothing but falsetto tones and these are known
as falsettists, but "all and each of the natural voices, even if they
do not make a profession of falsetto singing, can produce some
falsetto tones in the higher range." 34 Agricola says that with
chest voices the falsetto usually begins in soprano on "g, in tenor
on "a and alto and bass are in the same proportion. But with
head voices falsetto tones usually start with d or e for sopranos
and e or f for tenors. Just as no two people are alike so does
each voice vary from every other in many little ways. The less
these changes and variations are understandable "the more we
must admire and honor in deepest humility the omnipotence and
wisdom of the Creator." 35
The advantages of joining the head voice and the falsetto
voice are stressed. The one tone where the change is made should
be equally strong and clear in either voice and it should be sung
in the lower voice when singing up the scale and vice versa
when singing down the scale. This is not possible for everyone,
"but it is artistic and naturally advantageous to those whose
voices sound equal throughout." 36
Agricola goes so far as to say that the lowest tones of the
voice are also falsetto. They are very few, are weaker than the
natural deep tones and are created by just the reverse process
as the high falsetto tones, i.e. by dropping the larynx. He ob-
serves that those who wish to produce these lower tones force-
fully usually have recourse to lowering the head and dropping
the jaw but this puts obstacles in the way of the free emission
of air from the mouth, therefore these tones cannot have the
strength and beauty of the natural tones. High voices trying to
produce such tones are in danger of being ruined. Moreover,
these tones cannot be heard well. "But the high falsetto tones of
many singers, who know how to use them, are just as strong and
beautiful as the natural high tones." 37
Marpurg has abbreviated the foregoing discussion by Agricola
on registers except that the head voice is entirely dispensed with.
120 VOICE REGISTERS
There exists only the natural or the chest voice and the artificial
or falsetto voice and one may sing in either of these on low or
high tones. In his opinion, singers should use the Italians as
models by bringing out all the tones in either voice purely and
clearly without nasal or throaty qualities. The falsetto and chest
tones must be perfectly joined and equally strong so that they
cannot be differentiated. Because of Agricola's important and
fundamental annotations to Tosi's text, Marpurg thinks these
should be translated into Italian. 38
Hiller also refers the reader who wishes to find a complete
discussion of registers to Agricola's annotations to Tosi's text.
He, too, says there are two voices, the chest or natural and the
falsetto or artificial. Whenever the term head voice is used it
may be assumed to be identical with the falsetto although fre-
quently with boys and often with young women the falsetto is
to be found as a natural voice. On the higher tones the differ-
ence is not so noticeable : "At least the joining of the falsetto with
the natural is here far easier and the change-over from one to
the other more difficult to observe." 89 The blending of these
two registers is interestingly discussed in the next paragraph.
By the addition of a few falsetto tones the range of the natural voice is ex-
tended. But the singer must see to it that one would not notice too much the
transition from one kind of voice to the other. The limits of the one must
still extend a couple of tones into the region of the other ; and the sopranist
who sings from c to e up as far as !L with the natural voice and then adds
the rest of the tones with the falsetto voice should be able to enter even as
early as f without any drop [in volume] of the voice being noted. Of course,
to give to the lower tones of the falsetto voice a fullness corresponding to that
of the chest voice causes a certain amount of difficulty. 40
Any singer should learn to use the falsetto which some call
the "fistula-voice" 41 according to Petri. The falsetto which is
called "head-voice" by the Mannheim school, should be equalized
with the chest voice so that the transition from one to the other
is unnoticeable. The falsetto is used when the singer is called
upon to perform an aria too high for his voice. Petri says it is
better to sing in falsetto voice than to transpose the aria down-
ward when the result is often "an unharmonious or ill-sounding
VOICE REGISTERS 121
reversion of the same." 42 Since the use of the falsetto is a neces-
sity, explicit directions are given for its acquisition* The singer
is advised to find out very carefully how high the natural voice
will go without forcing and how low the falsetto voice can be
used. The overlapping tones must be practiced slowly over and
over again within the range or compass of a fifth, until all the
tones are strengthened in either voice, and until the change-over
is unnoticeable. This change-over should not always occur at the
same place but should be used sometimes higher, and sometimes
lower. It is preferable to change too high than too low since the
chest voice can be retained in the higher tones whereas the fal-
setto voice gets too weak on the lowest notes and the transition is
therefore evident.
If I know, for instance, that I am able to go down to c with my falsetto
voice, then I ought to change over already at e or d, if I am descending; but
when ascending I should use my chest voice still as far as c or d. The high
basses thus become, through the falsetto, employable for singing the best
tenor arias, yvhich is of no small advantage at least in case of an emergency.
But still I must admit that only a few learn to use a good falsetto which is
not differentiated appreciably from the chest voice. 43
Aubigny discusses the problem of registers very much as the
foregoing sources and refers the reader to Tosi and Agricola.
Every voice consists of two kinds of tones, chest and head, the
former being lower and more natural. The main problem, says
Aubigny, is to unify these two and these naturally weak tones
where unification takes place may be fortified by careful and pa-
tient practise. It is harder to join these two voices in ascending
scales than in descending scales and the change is most difficult
for the alto voice. 44
Lasser also considers the head voice and the falsetto as one
and the same. When the teacher examines the voice of a pupil he
should try to find that place "where the chest voice ends and
the falsetto, or the so-called head voice begins." 45 Any teacher
of singing should easily be able to tell the difference between the
chest or natural voice and the falsetto or artificial voice. This
author says that some singers are able to produce ten or twelve
tones, or even more, with the chest voice but most ordinarily in
the soprano voice it ends with e or f, with the other voices pro-
122 VOICE REGISTERS
portionately lower. When a singer changes to falsetto in going
from f to g the difference is readily noticeable, "it being to use
the expression of the Italians as though one would pull two
different stops on the organ." 46 It therefore becomes evident to
Lasser why it is so necessary to join these two properly, an ac-
complishment just as difficult for some as it is easy for others, de-
pending on whether the vocal organs are flexible or rigid. The
ability to make such a transition as nearly imperceptible as pos-
sible "is achieved most certainly if one endeavors and accustoms
oneself to give or produce both the last tone of the chest voice
and the first of the falsetto voice in both ways." 47
FRENCH SOURCES
The French sources on vocal registers are few and even these
are not voluminous. Only one of these is by a native French-
man and his is only a passing comment on the falsetto voice which
he describes as being unnatural and forced. It is achieved by the
singer forcing his lungs, "just as one draws higher notes from a
flute by making the breath enter with more force," 48
The other two French sources are by authors of German and
Italian birth. The German, Martini (born Schwartzendorf ) , says
that each of us has three kinds of voices, the chest voice, or "voix
de poitrine" for making low tones, the throat voice, or "voix du
gosier" for making the most facile and brilliant tones, and the
head voice or "voix de tete" which produces the very high tones
but which can only be done easily in staccato*
The great difficulty consists in making imperceptible the passage from the
chest voice to the throat voice and from the throat voice to the head voice, in
such a manner that these three voices sound as one, that is to say, all the
tones in going through their area should have the same volume, the same
quality and the same facility. 49
The Italian, Mengozzi, is somewhat more explicit. He de-
fines the term register in reference to its use in organs and de-
scribes it as the difference in character of a certain group of tones
from that of another group of tones. As to vocal registers he
says :
VOICE REGISTERS 123
All the sounds proceeding from the chest, for example, form a particular di-
vision in the compass of the voice and this division is called register. As those
sounds from the chest differ in character from the sounds which have their
origin in the head, these latter, in their turn form another division or register
in the compass of the same voice. . . . We have, therefore, adopted the
word register from the Italians since it seems to us to explain in a concise
manner the different characters of sound which are found in the range of
voice. 50
According to Mengozzi, male singers have two registers, the
one, chest, and the other, head, improperly called falsetto. In
producing the chest tones, which sounds are always low and
medium in the voice, the impetus should be given by the chest,
while the head tones should be induced in the frontal sinus and
the nasal cavities. 51 It is so difficult for the bass voice to unite
the head or falsetto voice with the chest tones and those who
can do so are so rare, that this author does not consider it nec-
essary to discuss the problem. Baritones, on the contrary, are
advised to use the head voice beginning with f while the tenor
voice should start the head tones at a. 52
As for women's voices, Mengozzi says that the contralto cor-
responds to the bass voice in range, except that it is an octave
higher and has the same difficulty with head tones. The mezzo
or lower soprano voice has the same range as the baritone and
also can use the head voice. But the soprano has a two octave
range with three registers : first, the chest, from c to f ; second a
medium voice, the tones of which come from the upper part of
the larynx and extend from g to f ; and third, the head voice,
the tones of which come from the frontal sinuses and nasal cavi-
ties, and the compass being from f to c. Some very high voices
may go on up to g but "such a gift of nature is very rare." 58
These registers must be joined in such a way that the passing
from one into the other is insensible. In order to accomplish this
Mengozzi suggests singing a prolonged tone on the note where
the change occurs and cause it to pass over into the next higher
register and back again to the lower. This must be done "with-
out a certain very disagreeable break" (sans un certain hoquet
124 VOICE REGISTERS
Ires desagreable] which results when the inexperienced and un-
trained singer attempts such a passage. 54
ENGLISH SOURCES
There is very little to be found among the English writers on
singing concerning vocal registers. Bayly repeats the opinions of
Tosi in saying that the di petto (chest) and di testa (head) regis-
ters must be perfectly united so they "may not be distinguished,
both in going up to the highest artificial notes and in returning
to the real," for if they do not perfectly unite "the voice will be
of different sounds, or as Tosi says, diverse registers, and con-
sequently cannot be heard with delight." 55 Tenducci, the Italo-
Anglican voice teacher writes briefly :
RULE IX. Never to force the Voice, in order to extend its compass in the
Voce di petto upwards; but rather to cultivate the Voce di testa in what is
called Falsetto, in order to join it well and imperceptibly, to the Voce di petto
for fear of incurring the disagreeable Habit of singing in the Throat or
through the Nose ; unpardonable Faults in a Singer. 56
There is no attempt by either writer to explain or describe the
registers or to suggest how they may be united.
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
The early years of the bel canto period saw the Italians shun-
ning the head voice, generally considered by them to be un-
natural and false and hence it was given the name of falsetto.
This may have been due to the fact that the declamatory style
of the Nuove Musiche did not call for a wide vocal range. It
was not many decades before opinions began to change and by
the time of Tosi, the head voice was essential for anyone who
pretended to be a singer. Also by this time the necessity and
importance of blending the registers was fully recognized and
in the later works we are given careful instructions as to the
means of its achievement. Mancini is especially explicit and warns
that virtuosity, the one quality of singing most highly developed
in the age of bel canto, was impossible without the registers be-
ing perfectly blended, in fact, he is positive in saying the regis-
ters must be blended before there is any attempt to acquire agil-
VOICE REGISTERS 125
ity. The ideal voice was one of evenness in quality throughout
the entire range, with perfect intonation.
The Germans agree with the Italians until we come to Agricola
who insists that the head voice and the falsetto are not one and
the same and instead of there being only two registers, chest
and head or falsetto, there are three, chest, head, and falsetto.
His arguments as to why there are three registers and why high
voices differ from low ones seem to be of a speculative nature
since they, are based on inadequate investigation. While Agricola's
opinions on the registers were referred to by later writers in
Germany, they are unanimous in rejecting his separation of the
head and falsetto registers, all saying that the head and falsetto
tones are the same. All agree with the Italians both as to the de-
sirability of a perfect union of the registers and the means of
acquiring this end.
Neither the French nor the English sources are of much con-
sequence except to show that, for the most part, their ideas
directly stemmed from Italy. Even the German born Martini
borrowed and excerpted his work on singing from Hiller 57 who
was indebted to Tosi through Agricola. Two exceptions may be
noted here since Martini credits every voice with three registers,
chest, throat and head while Mengozzi attributes three regis-
ters to the soprano voice only, chest, middle, and head, all others
having but two. It should be added that the French and English
also stress the perfect union of the registers and that this can be
attained through careful, persistent, and proper vocal exercises.
XII. VOCAL ORGANS
The voice is nothing but beaten air.*
ITALIAN SOURCES
THE statements made by the Italian writers on singing during
the bel canto period concerning the actual physical organs of
phonation do not go much beyond the superficial. Moreover,
much the same thing had been said by the ancients and repeated
many times since. A table by Artusi lists as "natural instruments"
of music, the throat, palate, tongue, lips, teeth, and lungs. 2
Caccini mentions only the throat and this is in connection with
learning to execute the trill which was performed on one note
with a sort of bleating sound "by beating the throat on the
vowel." 8
Cerone gives us a naive explanation of voice production. After
saying that the necessary and natural instruments of voice are
the lungs and the throat, we are told that the air which the lungs
emit comes up with a certain force and strikes the uvula, thus
forming the voice. Plato, Priscianus, Saint Isadore, Rosetus, and
others are his sources. 4 Later he says that force of chest and
disposition of throat are required for singing vocal ornaments,
the first to carry song or passage to its proper end, and the sec-
ond to utter it easily and without labor. 5 Avella repeats that, ac-
cording to Albertus Magnus, the vocal organs are the throat,
tongue, palate, four front teeth, and two lips together, 6 while
Berardi merely says, "The voice is a striking of air which is
breathed, upon the vocal passage." 7
The opinions of Giovanni Bontempi should prove of particu-
lar interest since he was not only a castrato and a composer of
some eminence but was learned in the history of music as well,
especially as to what was then known about ancient music. He
defines voice as the sound made by any living thing, when the air,
driven out by the lungs is struck by the glottis. 8 Later we are
told that the voice comes out of the lungs, involves the wind-
VOCAL ORGANS 127
pipe, the muscles of the larynx, the scutiform or cricoid carti-
lage, 9 the membraneous body, the muscle which serves in swallow-
ing, and many other parts. Physiologists (Fisici) teach that the
principal instrument of the voice is the larynx, and that the glot-
tis, with the operation of thirty muscles, brings it forth and ex-
presses it. 10 We are further told that the size and shape of the
krynx and the windpipe affect the voice, but the following state-
ment is of real import.
The physiologists expound these differences, caused by position, passage,
shape, air, expiration, and all the conditions of the larynx; based on the im-
mutable foundation of incontestable reason. Our opinion is, that everything
which is derived from experience has no need of reasoning. If this is not ad-
mitted by the physiologists, it is their task to give another interpretation of it.
Now that this principle has been set forth for their attention, while they go on
investigating nature in order to find it out with reason, we, without philoso-
phising further upon it, shall be content to understand it with the teaching of
experience itself. 11
Tevo is important for at least one reason, that is, he was the
first musical authority to include a plate showing the cartilages
and musculature of the larynx in a musical text-book. First he
tells us that the instruments of the voice are the tongue, throat,
palate, two lips, four teeth, and lungs. 12 Then follows a reasona-
bly detailed description of the anatomy of those parts concerned
with phonation. The bronchia and trachea are barely described,
the upper part of the latter being the larynx. Five cartilages
necessary to formation of voice are listed: the thyroid or scuti-
form, cricoid or ring-form, two arytenoid and the epiglottis.
The position of each together with the attached muscles is ex-
plained, and the hyoid bone and tongue with their musculature
are also discussed. 13 The plate, as mentioned above, shows sim-
plified drawings of various cartilages, trachea, attachment of
tongue, hyoid bone, sternothyroid and cricothyroid muscles.
There is nothing exceptionally detailed or remarkable about this
plate and its description except that it is found in a book de-
voted to music. The probability is that it had been taken from
a contemporary manual of anatomy. 14
Nassare also lists the lungs, windpipe, larynx, epiglottis, and
uvula as being the natural instruments forming sound. He con-
128 VOCAL ORGANS
siders the strength or weakness of the muscles as important be-
cause light, agile muscles moving the epiglottis can work very
quickly and since some people have less flexible muscles or a
heavier epiglottis the speed of motion is reduced. Also, the sing-
ing voice cannot produce such variations as can the fingers used
on artificial instruments because the internal muscles are weaker
than those of the fingers, and besides, the breath may falter. 15
Although Tosi ignores the whole problem of phonation,
Mancini sees fit to examine it in some detail. According to him,
the act of breathing causes a flux of air in the throat which forms
the voice. The lungs merely furnish the air, the real organs of
the voice being the larynx, glottis, uvula, tongue, soft palate, hard
palate, teeth and lips. By means of all these organs the voice is
given its many and diverse modulations, so that the better or-
ganized these are the more perfect, clear and strong the voice
will be. Mancini says that the manner in which the larynx com-
presses this air causes the various pitches of the voice, and in sing-
ing, these organs are in a continuous state of action and excite-
ment. But he holds that it is the larynx which carries the greatest
burden, the muscles of which contract strongly on high tones and
relax on lower ones. Mancini emphasizes that it is not enough for
a singer to have a big chest and the ability to make a big noise.
There must be a harmonious disposition of all the vocal organs,
and if there are imperfections by nature or as the result of dis-
ease, they will cause the voice to be imperfect. "The more per-
fect the organs of the voice, the more certainty the aspirant can
have of becoming a successful singer, if guided by an experienced
teacher." ie
If the teacher of singing in the eighteenth century followed
Mancini's advice, he was careful to see that there were no phys-
ical impediments in the way of a prospective singer. The teacher
was urged to examine the thyroid, and salivary glands, as well
as the tonsils to find if there were any swelling or hardening due
to disease, for if so, the larynx would not be free. The most care-
ful observations must be made that the uvula or soft palate was
free of growth or abnormal openings, that the tongue was flexi-
ble and the lips closed symmetrically, that a protruding chin did
VOCAL ORGANS 129
not mar the symmetry of the mouth, that the teeth were free
from irregularity and that the nose was neither too flat nor too
long. If the teacher found all these physical features favorably
disposed and harmonious as Nature intended, then the pupil could
be accepted with a fair chance of success. On the other hand, if
he were found to be too defective in one or several of the points
listed the teacher could not hope to make him a successful singer.
"Imperfect organs of voice are incurable and hence will inevita-
bly result in imperfect singing." The parents were also given the
responsibility of finding out the physical defects of the contingent
singer over and beyond those directly concerned with singing
because, even though they might not have any direct connection
with the vocal organs, they could nevertheless greatly influence
the success of the student. 17 Mancini speaks of the rare instances
when nature bestows all these gifts on one person ". . . so, it
seldom happens that we find one person gifted with all those
harmonious conditions of vocal organs that form a perfect
voice." But voices may be admired for a wide variety of quali-
ties for while some voices are strong, vigorous, and bright, others
are flexible and sweet; some are wide in range and sonorous while
others are admired because of purity of tone, evenness, and
color. 18
Arteaga offers a very few general comments on voice produc-
tion and these must be labeled unscientific. "Voice considered in
itself is nothing but air pushed upward by the lungs. This air,
coming through the canal which is called the trachea, being
thinned out through the slit of the glottis, and reverberating in
the cavity of the mouth, then comes out of the lips making a
noise or inarticulate sound." 19 He is equally indefinite when he
says that singing differs from speech by a certain agitation of
the larynx which changes its position upward or downward as
the pitch varies, also there is a reciprocal oscillation of the lips
of the glottis, like strings. 20 Manfredini does not say anything
about voice production per se. He only mentions the importance
of the pupil being endowed with a beautiful and flexible voice,
also the rarity of one singer possessing all the natural gifts con-
ducive to good singing. 21
130 VOCAL ORGANS
GERMAN SOURCES
Calvisius says simply that "the voice is formed in the throat, not
with lips nor cheeks." 22 Galen is the authority for the state-
ments of Praetorius. According to him the former showed the
innervation in the muscles of the larynx and when these hairlike
nerves were severed, loss of voice resulted. The windpipe was
also of service to the voice since it is a pipe or reed which goes
down from the mouth to the lungs and by means of it air is taken
in and expelled. However, the head of the windpipe or larynx is
considered the proper instrument of voice, which is produced in
a little opening of the larynx called the glottis or "little tongue."
The tighter it is, the higher the voice ; the more dilated, the lower
the voice. The various cartilages, three in number, plus the tongue
and teeth are also instruments of voice. 23 Kircher likewise re-
fers to Galen. He argues that since the pitch of pipes varies ac-
cording to size of opening, the larynx functions in the same man-
ner. Therefore the longer the glottis or the opening where the
striking of the air causes the sound, the lower the pitch. The
shorter and more closed they are, the higher the pitch; conse-
quently, those whose larynx is wide and long are accustomed to
sing with a deep, low voice; those whose larynx is tight and nar-
row, with a high, sharp voice. 24 In still another work he explains
that the voice is a species of sound, its material is air, its cause
the body of a living animal, its principal instrument the larynx,
especially that part which is called the glottis or epiglottis. 25 The
lungs, tongue, throat, lips, teeth, and palate are not the cause
of voice although they are instrumental in shaping it. 26
A rather detailed description of the vocal processes is offered
by Mattheson which is quite elementary, partly incorrect, and
obviously meant for the lay reader, at least as far as physio-
logical matters are concerned. He says the windpipe consists of
a number of rings of cartilage, one on top of the other, and
are connected by "thin-skinned movable bands" (dunn-hautige
bewegliche Bande). These cartilages are softer and somewhat
more flexible than bone but harder than sinews. The upper two
are smaller and by contracting form the head of the larynx and
are the glottis or little tongue, "the cleft of which, through very
VOCAL ORGANS 131
subtle openings and movements, produces the sound." 27 The
glottis is compared "to the spout of a small watering can (mit
der Mundung ernes Giess-Kannleins)^ and above it is another
'upper tongue' called the epiglottis/' "the substance of which may
be much softer, perhaps like parchment." 28 It is shaped like a
three-cornered leaf, raised toward the mouth and hollow on the
other side. The epiglottis contributes much to the finer and softer
adjustments of tone, especially in trills, turns, and other orna-
mentations, perhaps even more than the uvula,
notwithstanding it is certain that the glottis itself contributes most and
noblest, and therefore neither the lungs, nor the tongue, nor the throat nor
the palate are the real cause for the tone, much less the teeth and lips, all of
which have no part in it, except that the first produces the air and the others let
pass the tone, round, noble, correct, and unhindered, after it has been pro-
duced by the cleft of the little tongue on top of the larynx, by thirteen
muscles. Therefore the human glottis is the instrument most tuneful, most
pleasant, most perfect and correct, or better said, the only and sole correct
instrument amongst the large number of tools to produce sound, be they
produced artificially or by nature; because all these instruments, be they
wind or string, the violin excepted, are all faulty compared to the human
voice, even if they be tuned to the highest point of perfection. 29
It is most interesting to see how Agricola first gives us a very
careful description of phonation according to the principles of
Galen as further explained by Dodart, with which he seems to
agree and then proceeds to report the experiments of Ferrein in
detail and find room for agreement here also. 30 All natural
scientists, both old and new, agree that the human windpipe has
the acoustical qualities of a hollow tube in which sound can be
produced by air moving through a small opening, just as with wind
instruments. This glottis is in the larynx, which is entirely elastic,
because it is made up of cartilages and membranes, each of which
is elastic in itself. The text of Agricola follows :
The little opening of the windpipe, which is called rima glottldls is sur-
rounded by two of these upper cartilages and by two fixed bands [vocal cords]
which go forward from them [cartilages] in front, and it [rima glottidis] is
covered by another one [cartilage] which lies above it and which is, in front,
attached to the scutiform cartilage, but in the rear it is free, and therefore
i 3 2 VOCAL ORGANS
can open and close. This latter one is called epiglottis or throat-lid. All these
cartilages of the head of the windpipe are bound together by means of elastic
ligaments. But, so that the air which is necessary for the movement of these
cartilages and ligaments may always be present, therefore the lung is able,
not only to draw it [the air] in from the outside by way of the windpipe and
the many little branches which go out from it at the lower end into the whole
substance of the lung, but also to drive it [the air] out of it with many de-
grees of force. Since the above described opening of the windpipe, adjusted to
certain muscles, can be widened and drawn together so can it thus produce
high and low tones.
Both sides of the opening of the throat stand, at the most, about a line
or the tenth part of an inch from one another. Yet this very small opening
allows a person to produce comfortably with his voice twelve whole tones. It
follows then when one sings a whole tone or a major second higher or lower,
the opening of the throat is about %2 wider or narrower. The scientists
have demonstrated concerning this, that the voice can divide a whole tone at
the very least into a hundred small parts [tones] and therefore a human be-
ing who has the vocal range of twelve whole tones can produce 2400 different
pitches, which, nevertheless, his ear, developed to the finest point, must be
able to differentiate (as can be perceived if a string [violin] be made only a
hundredth part shorter). They [the scientists] have further shown that if
one does not take good care in this differentiation, the number of pitches
which a human being can produce become almost infinite since the opening
of the windpipe, as with a line, can be divided into an infinite number of
parts, which really happens when the sound of one tone changes gradually to
that of another, without the sound ceasing. For then the opening of the throat
itself draws together, thus its movement takes place through all degrees of
its width.
If one would sing a pitch too low, then the throat would become open to
such an extent that the air would find an entirely free passage through the
same. Then there would result no vibrating movement and, moreover, there
would be no sound. However, if one would sing a pitch too high, then the
opening of the throat would be entirely closed, the air could not go out, and
could therefore not produce a sound. 81
When one wishes to make sound intelligible, then the uvula,
palate, tongue, teeth and lips have to play a part, and "when
one wishes to sing, these movements which serve only to pro-
duce sound must be skillfully combined and remain in the most
friendly relationship." 32 According to the theory outlined above,
Agricola argues that the opening in. the glottis of the alto is
VOCAL ORGANS 133
larger than that of the soprano, with the tenor's larger than the
alto's and the bass's largest of all. If one sopranist has a range
both higher and lower than others, then his glottis must be capa-
ble of wider expansion and greater contraction than others. 33
Our author comes forth with an interesting piece of reasoning in
explaining the mutation of the male voice. It is due to the throat
muscles growing stronger, whereas because the muscles of the
castrato remain weak his voice does not change. But women ma-
ture and get stronger, yet their voices remain high, and here he
refuses to press his rationalizing and merely adds, "This ques-
tion we shall leave to the natural scientists for further investiga-
tion." 34 The arguments proving that the glottis widens as the
pitch descends and narrows as the pitch rises are repeated, 85
and then we are offered a full description of the experiments of
Ferrein 36 together with the conclusions of the latter. 37 The in-
teresting point here is that Agricola took so much care to ex-
plain and prove a theory of voice production which Ferrein had
already shown to be entirely incorrect. His real attitude toward
the whole problem of voice production is revealed in the follow-
ing statement :
While the natural scientists remain silent, it is not up to us, who do not con-
sider the organs of the voice from the point of view of the anatomist or
physician but from the point of view of the singer, to decide whether Mr.
Ferrein's discoveries through his many experiments are correct or not, as little
can be said against his conclusions derived therefrom. 38
The last of the German sources on voice production, Hiller,
has nothing to say about the actual mechanics of the larynx. He
is only concerned with keeping the mouth open, with the lips,
teeth, tongue and palate out of the way in order that the voice
may come "freely out of the chest" (frey aus der Ernst), and
thus produce a good tone. 39
FRENCH SOURCES
Mersenne accepts the dictum of Galen in saying that the open-
ing of the glottis is "somewhat like the figure of an oval," 40
while Jumilhac repeats the statement of Aristotle and many scien-
tists after him, that the voice "is produced by the air which is
i 3 4 VOCAL ORGANS
pushed from the lungs and chest and by ... the vibration
which is thus made by means of the larynx, glottis, palate, teeth
and lips." 41
A most inaccurate and unscientific explanation of voice pro-
duction is offered in Nouvelle Methode. All the inflections of
the voice as to pitch, clarity, volume, etc., depend on the uvula.
It not only opens the windpipe so that the air which forms the
voice can come out, but "it is upon the flexibility of the uvula
which depends all the variety of sounds of the voice." 42 Some-
what more accurate information is presented by Carre. After
saying that a voice is the gift of nature, this author adds that all
voices can be improved by exercise, faults may be corrected, voices
strengthened, etc.; "nevertheless, from nothing one can make
nothing." 43 His ideas on phonation are sketchy. Although the
throat is considered the principal vocal organ because "it is by
the diversity of movement of its cartilages that it produces the
diversity of sounds of the voice (c'est par la diversite du mouve-
ment de ses cartilages, qu'il produit la diversite des tons de la
voix)) nevertheless the windpipe (tr ache e-art ere} is "the most
proper organ of the voice (la plus propre organe de la voix}"
since it is maintained that "it is it which, in widening or narrow-
ing, with the arytenoid and the aid of the muscles of the larynx
and by means of the epiglottis, makes the voice of the soprano
or the bass, of the contra-bass or the contra-tenor." 44 When the
windpipe is smooth, clean, and correctly proportioned then the
voice is sweet and graceful, while the contrary causes it to be
heavy and discordant. This writer goes completely astray when
he says :
Finally it is certain that the uvula or the little cartilagenous membrane rest-
ing on the windpipe as the fingers on a flute or on a flageolet, when it is
correctly proportioned (that is to say when it is neither too large and heavy,
nor too small) , contributes greatly to the strength and beauty of the voice ; be-
cause, governing the amount of air in inhaling and exhaling, it sets forth the
voice, more or less, according to the cause and conditions, giving it its orna-
mentations, rhythms, cadences and trills." 45
There is some further discussion of the chest, muscles of the
chest, breathing, lips, jaws, teeth, mouth, tongue, palate, nares,
etc., but it is all very much in the manner of a layman.
VOCAL ORGANS 135
Blanchet cites the studies of the ancients, i.e., Aristotle, Cicero,
Pliny, and Quintilian as being evidence proving that we also
should study the voice. He considers such an investigation to
be a necessity for every one and especially for the singing master.
"He should not only reflect upon his own organs but still more
on those of his pupils and if he succeeds in understanding them
he will cause the most inept student to sing with success." 46 The
teacher, says Blanchet, cannot go too far in research of this
kind. The instrument of the voice is "extremely simple," and
consists of the lungs, windpipe and larynx, all of which cooper-
ate in forming the voice. He proposes to give a detailed descrip-
tion which turns out to be quite superficial. The larynx is made
up of different cartilages bound together and of some muscles
and is square on top and round on the bottom. 47 He is equally
bland in his "detailed" description of the glottis, which "is the
narrowest and the lowest part of the opening of the larynx; it
is a horizontal cleft terminated by two lips, one on the right and
the other on the left." 48 All these parts work together as follows :
the lung is united to the windpipe and the latter to the larynx
where the glottis is found. Blanchet offers a drawing which he
says will make "sensible to the eyes that which I have tried
to make sensible to the mind." 49 This figure is simple and shows
the lungs, trachea, larynx, and lips of the glottis. The view is
frontal and exterior, the larynx being very crudely drawn. What
purports to be the lips of the glottis seems to be cartilages. Ob-
viously the glottal lips could not be seen by an external-frontal
view which showed the various cartilages. After describing Fer-
rein's experiments, Blanchet compares the tuning of the violin
string to that caused by the action of the laryngeal muscles in
varying the tension of the vocal bands, also the action of the
violin bow on the string is compared to the action of ex-
piration on the vocal bands. The first causes pitch changes while
the latter changes the volume, and since the vocal bands are
capable of a considerable change in tension the singer may ex-
tend the range of his voice accordingly. "If the glottal lips could
be tightened ad infinitum, then one could produce an infinite
number of different sounds." 50 Differences in vocal range de-
pend on the thickness, length, and stiffness of the vocal bands
136 VOCAL ORGANS
and therefore, Blanchet argues, the voice that can sing through
eighteen different pitches has to have glottal lips that are eighteen
times as supple as one whose range would be limited to a single
degree of pitch. 51 This writer reduces the art of singing to
two principles, (i) "to cause the larynx to rise and fall prop-
erly' 1 (a faire monter et descendre a propos le larinx}^ and (2)
"to correct inhalation and exhalation" (a blen inspirer et
expirer) , 52
The opinions of Rameau are most interesting. "We cannot do
as we please with the larynx, windpipe, and glottis nor can we
see their different motions and changes at each sound we wish
to produce, but we know, at least, that it is not necessary to force
them in making these changes, that it is necessary to allow them
the freedom of following their natural movements." 53 As long
as the breath lasts one can feel the tones follow the opening of
the glottis, but if there is even a little concern about this glottal
action, then there is pinching instead of dilation and that which
one should feel at the opening of the throat is felt instead at
the bottom. This must be carefully watched in all singing exer-
cises. Moreover, the most ornamented singing can become natu-
ral to us when we observe the proper means of producing it cor-
rectly. 54
We have already mentioned that the study by Kempelen was
concerned with diction, and although it comes well toward the
end of the bel canto period (1791) some of his opinions should
be mentioned. "A little air, impelled by the lungs through the
cleft of the glottis, produces the voice; several obstacles such
as the tongue, teeth and the lips, oppose this resonant air caus-
ing the inflexion and the variety of sounds, each of which has its
proper significance." 55 Later we are warned that a complete
physiological study would go too far afield. Such a procedure,
he says, if applied to violin teaching, would begin by giving the
student a description of all the parts of that instrument, how
they are connected, the kinds of wood used in each, the con-
struction of the sounding board, strings, bridge, pegs, etc., as
well as the muscles and tendons used in fingering and all the
other complicated mechanics of violin-playing. 56 A general de-
scription of the organs of phonation and speech follow, with
VOCAL ORGANS 137
references to Galen, Dodart, and Ferrein. He repeats the theory
of the latter that the air from the lungs causes the bands of
the glottis to vibrate as the bow on a stringed instrument, 57 but
again he seems to return to Galen when he says that the voice
ceases when the glottis is too wide open or when it is too tightly
closed. 58
Our last French source, Mengozzi, says at the start :
A scientific definition of this organ [the voice] would not enter usefully into
the organization of a singing method; however, for the knowledge of the
different precepts which should be stated therein, it is necessary to establish
the principal ideas of the means which help in the action of the voice. 59
The palate, tongue, teeth and lips are held to be useful to the
mechanism of the voice, while the lungs, windpipe, larynx, fron-
tal and maxillary sinuses, and nasal passages all unite in its
formation or modification. A very elementary and brief descrip-
tion is offered of all members of the latter group and we quote
only his delineation of the larynx.
The larynx is one of the organs of breathing and the principal instrument of
the voice. It is the upper part of the windpipe and it has the form of a short
cylindrical canal which is opened by an oval cleft which is called the glottis.
By means of this cleft the air descends and rises when we breathe, sing or
speak. It has the faculty of being narrowed or widened at will and its more or
less full expansion produces all the variety of sounds of the human voice. The
glottis is protected by a very thin and very flexible cartilage called the
epiglottis. This cartilage is mobile and has the shape of a leaf of ivy. It is
inwardly concave and outwardly convex, and its chief purpose is to cover up
the glottis when necessary. 60
Mengozzi finishes by saying that all the parts mentioned have
direct connections and are necessary in the production and modi-
fication of the voice.
ENGLISH SOURCES
Only one of our English sources discusses the vocal organs per
se and this comes late in time, i8u. 61 Corri makes an interest-
ing statement as follows : "The late celebrated Dr. Arnold 62
very sensibly observed, that the anatomy of the voice would,
perhaps, never be clearly explained till some physician should
i 3 8 VOCAL ORGANS
study the subject who was also a good musician." 63 A short
description of the vocal organs follows which is quoted from
William Kitchiner, M.D. ( 1775-1827). 64 Corn, himself, merely
says, that the physical requisites of a good singer are "spacious
lungs, muscular larynx, wide mouth, with regular teeth." 65
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
The voice teachers of the bel canto period were apparently in-
terested in the processes of phonation but only to the extent of
repeating the long-standing statements of the natural scientists
or of giving simplified descriptions of current physiological trea-
tises. Their interest seems to be motivated more by curiosity than
by a desire to find information that would aid them in training
the singing voice. Bontempi, the most learned of the Italians,
takes a purely empirical attitude in eschewing what the physi-
ologists have to say and relying entirely upon experience. Mancini
was not so peremptory in denying physical influences. He ex-
amined the prospective student carefully, but only to find de-
fects that would preclude a successful singing career. The Ger-
mans must be considered somewhat more accurate in their
scientific statements. Kircher, Mattheson, and Agricola offer
progressively more and more detail but much of their arguments
are speculative and Agricola in the end admits that his responsi-
bility lies in considering the voice from the standpoint of the
singer and not the natural scientist.
Although there is also much speculation in evidence among
the French, they seem to be the most scientific in their analyses
of voice production. In Blanchet we have an arch-exponent of
the scientific study and control of the vocal processes, well in
advance of his time, even though he had little influence either
with his contemporaries or later. When he speaks of the ex-
treme simplicity of the vocal organs, skepticism enters and it
may be understood why he was suspect. More impressive are
Rameau's insistence on free vocal action and Mengozzi's state-
ment that scientific vocal definitions have no place in a singing
method. The English sources make no further contribution.
XIII. VOCAL HYGIENE
A discreet Person will never use such affected Expressions as, f l cannot sing
Today; I've got a deadly Cold' ; and in making his Excuse, falls a Cough-
ing. I can truly say, that I have never in my Life heard a Singer own the
Truth, and say, 'I'm very well today' : They reserve the unseasonable Con-
fession to the next Day, when they make no Difficulty to say, f ln all my Days
my Voice was never in better Order than it was Yesterday? 1
If singers don't watch their diet, they become beggars in old age?
The healthier the body, the sounder is the voice?
ITALIAN SOURCES
PROPER diet, regular sleep, and good physical care of the body
were already recognized as having a salutary effect on the voice
at the beginning of the bel canto period. These, as well as most
of the therapeutic agents in use had been known since antiquity 4
and the seventeenth and eighteenth century singing manuals re-
fer with some frequency to these hygienic practices which, by
and large, were considered important for singers. After a num-
ber of general comments on the importance of good health and
how best to maintain it, 5 Cerone suggests that singers should
exercise frequently, avoid satiety in eating and drinking, choose
light food, easy to digest, avoid spicy stew, cold oil, nuts, and
fruits with thick rind. As to drinking, trebles, falsettos and
contraltos must drink well-diluted wine while tenors and basses,
if they are young, should put a little water in their wine, espe-
cially in the summer-time. In winter they should drink pure wine
because, if watered, wine chills the stomach and tightens the
chest. Elderly singers should drink pure wine because they do
not have the natural heat of the stomach which young people
have, and there should be "little converse with Madame Venus,"
especially in spring and autumn. There follow remedies for
throat ailments: raw garlic, myrrh under the tongue, etc. 6
Uberto merely offers the general statement that according to
the teaching of the ancients, moderate eating and temperate liv-
ing were important for singers, 7 while Doni argues that if Nero,
1 40 VOCAL HYGIENE
the most luxury-loving and voluptuous of princes could abstain
from foods harmful to the voice, then present-day ( 1 647 ) singers
should be able to do likewise. On the contrary, he reports that
"modern" singers indulge in strong drink and all kinds of
luxuries so injurious to the voice as to cause him to blush. 8 A
rather similar regimen was recommended by Avella. Since a
good voice is the prerequisite for singing, it is necessary to main-
tain good health for one cannot have a good voice free of all
indispositions without good health. In order to conserve his
voice a singer should be free to go about in his own way. 9 One
should take rather strenuous exercise (usque ad sudorum until
one sweats) before eating, which should be done in moderation,
avoiding all coarse foods. 10 One must not begin to sing too high
nor too low for then the passages are injured and the windpipe
becomes inflamed.
Lorente suggests the following for the preservation of a voice
that is naturally good, clear, and sweet. Never begin singing
with violence of spirit for this endangers the passages, impedes
the windpipe, and puts the natural tone of the voice out of tune.
Constant use of the voice is recommended since this is very effec-
tive in purifying, conserving, purging, and perfecting the voice,
but this exercise should be undertaken before eating, or after
the food is digested. There follows the usual advice about moder-
ation in eating and drinking, also the kinds of food (light and
easy to digest) as well as how and when wine should be drunk
and by whom, in almost the same words used by Cerone and
others. Remedies for hoarseness, cough, catarrh, etc., used by
medical doctors are also given. Raw garlic clarifies the voice,
benzoin dissolved in water and drunk is good for roughness of
the throat and refines a husky voice, as does sweet-gum or gum
of the storax tree. Congestion of blood in the head may spoil
the voice and for this the singer should drink the fluid from
crocodile root (raiz del crocodilio) boiled in water, which treat-
ment causes nose bleeding. When a solo singer has to sneeze he
may put it off by rubbing the upper gum vigorously. "All these
remedies which we set forth here are very good and easy to
do, for the conservation of the human voice, using them with
moderation and with the advice of a medical doctor," u
VOCAL HYGIENE 141
Tosi only gives a few, but very pertinent, general maxims. "He
that studies Singing must consider that Praise or Disgrace de-
pends very much on his Voice which if he has a mind to preserve
he must abstain from all manner of Disorders, and all violent
Diversions. 12 . . . The best Time for Study is with the rising
of the Sun; but those who are obliged to study, must employ
all their Time which can be spared from their other necessary
Affairs. 13 . . . Let him [the singer] shun low and disreputable
Company, but, above all, such as abandon themselves to scandal-
ous Liberties." 14 Mancini is even more brief, his references to
vocal hygiene being more by implication than by direct advice.
The young singer should not be started out too early because he
is apt to associate himself with persons u not in love with moral
living." Such a mode of life "injures his health and ruins for-
ever chest and voice." 15 That he was aware of the effect of sick-
ness or intemperate eating is shown by the following statement :
"Among the temporary causes from which one sings out of pitch,
is weakening of chest resulting from disease or temporary illness,
or it is sometimes caused by indigestion, by eating too much or
at no regular time or from other similar disorders." 16 One feels
from these terse remarks of both Tosi and Mancini that they
regarded vocal hygiene and good health as being so obvious as
not to require extended discussion.
GERMAN SOURCES
Praetorius, the first of the German sources, writes about the
aid to health in general to be derived from daily vocal prac-
tice. It is wonderful exercise, good for health, and well-being,
works like a massage for athletes, warms internal organs, keeps
passages open and prevents superfluity or coagulation of hu-
mors. 17 All of his authorities on vocal hygiene are from an-
tiquity, viz., Scepsius, Pliny, Suetonius, Cicero and Quintilian. 18
Not until a century later do we find further comment on the
care of the voice. Printz only advises against singing too loudly.
"A singer should not shout excessively like a village sexton and
a farmer but should sing, although loud and with some strength,
pleasingly and delightfully." 19
According to Mattheson, the first duty of the student of sing-
I42 VOCAL HYGIENE
ing is to put the voice in good condition and preserve that
condition. "Whoever wishes to sing well must examine diligently
everything pertaining to the voice, must take care of it and
pause, practice, guide, direct, control, and preserve it." 20 He
adds that there are external and internal means of caring for
the voice, to eliminate roughness due to excessive humors, to
smooth out, moderate, strengthen, and preserve it. The ancients
made a special profession of this science but at the time Matthe-
son was writing (1739) scarcely any of the mrlic masters, with
the exception of the Italians, understood and profited by it. 21
Among the German singers I have not known a better vocalist than the re-
nowned concert master, Bimmler, who, when he had to sing in the evening,
did not eat in the middle of the day, taking only now and then some fennel, as
a tea, and practiced at the clavichord, singing his part with quiet, low voice,
and with so much concentration that he brought out every time, new, well-
selected ornamentations. 22
A very excellent English singer, Abel, is mentioned as having
maintained his voice until late age mostly due to his moderation
in eating and drinking.
Just as correct singing will cause the voice to develop and
improve, Mattheson says that it can be helped by a good diet
and now and then by a little medicine. The diet is up to the in-
dividual while the medicine may be left to the doctors. Singers
lack knowledge of their bodies (a great evil), and lack moder-
ation in living habits, but the Plenus Venter (full belly) is about
as helpful for singing as for studying. He considered wine, es-
pecially undiluted, to be harmful to the voice, as it contracts the
throat and injures the chest. Well-brewed beer is better for the
male voices than for the female and, finally, snuff and all fat
and rich foods must be avoided. The good teacher, while he is
not necessarily obliged to follow the same regimen, should know
all the dietary and living regulations for singers. "A good gen-
eral does not only think of giving orders to his soldiers, but also
looks after their welfare." 2S As to medicines, caution is urged
that, at least some of them be avoided or used sparingly as pos-
sible. Laxatives serve the best but julep and sweet lubricat-
ing syrups should never be used because, while, they produce a
certain smoothness, they leave the lungs and larynx coated
VOCAL HYGIENE 143
with a slimy, tough, unclean, slippery matter. Mattheson ad-
vises instead a little zwieback or a spoonful of vinegar because
they clean, sharpen, cool, and dry the throat. He knew a couple
of famous women singers,
one of whom only took biscuit, the other something sour such as lemon or the
like, when their throats were to be clean and they had to sing. Many who
thought otherwise and preferred raisins or something sweet were astonished
about such indelicate remedies, refused to imitate them, particularly with
regard to the sour, and always came out on the losing end. In this matter each
has to test the circumstances and the peculiarities of his temperament and
reject that which does not agree with him. 24
In a la^er book, Mattheson boils all this down to a few words.
Good singers must lead a simple life it is observed everywhere
that singers eat very sparingly on the day of performance. The
voice needs care Germany has produced many good basses
with beer-drinking, but wine is harmful since it contracts the
throat and larynx. 25
Marpurg warns that if a singer wishes to preserve his voice
he should avoid air that is impure, foggy, too cold, too hot, smoky,
and dusty. He should protect his chest well and stay out of the
north wind.
He should not . . . sing directly after eating, he should observe a reasonable
diet in eating and drinking and avoid everything bitter, pungent, salty, acid,
and harsh, or take these at least very moderately and rarely. Lastly, he should
neither sing too much nor shout because this makes the throat hoarse and
ruins the voice. 26
/
In his opinion schools should not give singing lessons from one
to two o'clock in the afternoon since it is not good to sing on a
full stomach. These should be shifted to some more suitable hour.
"The most convenient hours for practice in singing are the hours
of the morning." 27 When the boys' voices are changing, also
during the period of puberty with girls, exercises should be made
somewhat easier and with softer tone so that no harm may be
done. 28
After some very positive warnings against forcing the voice, 29
Hiller discusses f in detail the proper modus vivendi for singers.
Since high voices are more easily harmed than low voices, he
144 VOCAL HYGIENE
says that they must have more attention and care. Especially is
this true of boys between the ages of fifteen and seventeen. The
singer should not strain his voice at this mutation, least of all
he should try to sing high notes, which nature has begun to take
from him, by forcing, otherwise he takes the risk of losing his
voice entirely. The same consideration is required of girls' voices
at the age of fourteen or fifteen, if they wish to properly pre-
serve the voice. "But one does not need omit singing entirely:
it must only be done less often and with a moderate tone." 30
As to diet, Hiller says that anything deleterious to general
health harms the voice. The singer must avoid impure, cold, and
foggy air, especially in spring and autumn, so as to escape coughs
and head colds, and in general, anything that might cause hoarse-
ness. Smoke and dust are bad as are sharp, salty, sour, tart, fat,
and overly sweet foods, although if any of these are taken moder-
ately and not too often, no great harm will occur.
In short, moderation in eating and drinking, in which connection one should
watch not so much what one eats and drinks, as how much one eats and drinks,
together with a way of living that is good in all other respects, are for the
person who cares for his health, and for the singer who wants to preserve his
voice, of equal importance. 81
Further, we are told that habitually sitting, as some do, in a
stooped position with the abdomen pressed together is harmful
to the voice, as are too violent exercises such as rapid running,
excessive dancing, strenuous horse-back riding and the like. At
least one should not try to sing immediately after such excite-
ments or agitations, just as one should drink nothing, or very
little, after singing. Singing in the cold open air or in apart-
ments that are poorly ventilated or are too cold or too hot is
also harmful. 32 A careful singer will refuse to sing immediately
after eating "since the lungs have not all the freedom necessary
for taking breath when the stomach is full." 33 Hiller refers to
Marpurg's suggestion that lessons should not be given during
the hour of one to two in the afternoon and agrees with him
that the morning is the best time for singing practice, or at least
a few hours after eating.
The usual stern warnings against forcing the voice too high
ajid top loud, especially during the mutation years, are given
VOCAL HYGIENE 145
by Petri, as well as the penalties resulting therefrom. 34 The
singer should avoid cold and stormy weather, dust, smoke, and
fatty vapours, and this author takes to task the cantor who sends
his best singers out in all kinds of weather to sing at public af-
fairs. Also more ordinary voices should be trained for this kind
of work as well as other occasions in order that the best voices
need not sing too loud, too much, nor too long for their natural
strength. 35
Like Hiller, Petri is not radical with regard to diet. "The
singer should be careful, but not anxious, about his diet, for eat-
ing of unfavorable food is not so much harmful; it is rather its
excessive eating that is wrong. The healthier the body, the
sounder is the voice/' sc Strong beverages are most harmful to
the lungs and hence to the voice. One should not offer them to
a singer immediately after a performance. "How many have al-
ready gone to the cemetery in this manner! Could one not
better allow them to rest for a full hour, so that they could
fully regain a quiet pulse and free lungs ?" 3<r
According to this author the best foods for singers are those
containing little or no spices, salt, sugar, vinegar, and that are
not overly fat. Over-baked and cooked fats and butter are most
harmful, as are nuts and fresh wine, although if taken in moder-
ation the results are not too harmful. Singing lessons and exer-
cises or choir practice immediately after eating cause great
damage both to health and voice because the lungs should al-
ways be able to breathe freely before one undertakes to sing.
All violent exercises should be shunned such as climbing stairs,
horse-back riding, dancing, fencing, nor should one sing after
being excited by anger or other unruly passions*
Finally, after singing one should sit completely still for awhile without drink-
ing anything whether warm or cold. Later, one takes a very small sip, and
then after a few minutes one takes more, but however strong the thirst may
be, one should not satisfy it. Solomon says that preaching tires the body, but
I believe that singing fatigues the body much more, and that one should,
in this respect, exercise all possible care, lest one should do injury to the
health, and besides, ruin the voice at the same time. 88
If we wish to preserve the voice we should both eat and drink
non-phlegm producing foods and drink, according to Kuerzinger.
146 VOCAL HYGIENE
Cold and fatty foods as well as "guzzling" are very harmful to
the voice, and overheating from jumping, running, etc., will
finish off the voice pretty quickly, and especially gulping down
drinks while overheated and devouring victuals, fruit, cheese, and
sweet stuff.
There are excellent singers who take a little salad rather than anything
sweet ; for it is well known that sugar produces and increases phlegm. But
fresh eggs eaten raw, also tea from fennel or anise-seed is beneficial to one's
voice. A small glass of good wine for the soprano and an old brown beer,
where available, for the alto, can do no harm. 39
This author also warns the singer against forcing the voice, list-
ing it as one of the chief errors in singing. 40
The following points are made by Aubigny. The diet is most
important to a singer; there should be no greasy foods, nuts, al-
monds and milk. One should never sing after a meal. Clothing
should be worn that allows physical freedom, for the chest is a
delicate organ and should not be restricted by clothing. A singer
should accustom himself to changes in climate. 41 Too much
smoking is bad. 42
The advice of Lasser, the last German source, would seem
to be a fair resume of the general attitude of the German voice
teacher on the care of the voice. He says that the teacher should
enjoin upon the pupils that they carefully guard themselves
against any excess in eating and drinking, and against all other
excesses of whatever nature, against constant violent physical
exercises and against over-heating, for only a regular way of
living enables one to preserve the voice. Keeping the neck and
chest moderately protected during inclement winter weather is
necessary, but anyone who accustoms these parts to an over-
delicate and weakening care will quite certainly be more subject
to head colds, catarrh, and hoarseness. The hours of the fore-
noon are best for singing, but do not by any means exclude the
afternoon and evening. However, singing immediately after
eating is injurious to the voice and even harmful to health. 43
FRENCH SOURCES
Mersenne, the great French musical savant of the seventeenth
century, saw fit to stress the various means by which a singer
VOCAL HYGIENE 147
should attend to his voice. One way is bodily exercise, before
meals, until a good sweat is worked up, while a second is by sing-
ing as often as possible in the choirs of the church. The third
consists in abstinence from all sorts of immoderate pleasures
"and particularly from women as noted by Quintilian and Cor-
nelius Celsus . . ." 44 As to the selection of food he is less
specific since the varied circumstances of living oblige one to eat
whatever is at hand. However he considers leeks and onions to
be good for the voice because they clear the throat, and the same
is true of crushed cabbage seed mixed with a little sugar of
licorice, and of the syrup of tobacco ( ?). He cites the belief that
a leaden plate placed on the stomach makes the voice clear and
more agreeable. But he passes up all such extraordinary remedies
and customs which may be used by performers and preachers to
maintain their voices, and turns to the remedies for sickness, es-
pecially colds and inflammations which diminish the voice and
render it hoarse, rough and disagreeable. Barley water and lico-
rice with a little sugar is excellent to fight these inflammations.
If this is not available a decoction of figs, or some syrup of vio-
letts [sic], of waterlily, of iniubes ( ?) or of licorice; honey and
water seems to be helpful. The reader is referred to Condron-
chius 45 for further remedies and advice on diet. 46
Bacilly merely repeats the advice about singing in the morn-
ing before eating for then the voice is better disposed and there
is less danger of colds and hoarseness. 47 Carre on the other hand
offers detailed advice and arguments. After a lengthy harangue
on the benefits of wine 48 he finishes with the statement, "But
in order that it be just as beneficial to the voice as to the health,
it is necessary that one drink only in moderation, wisdom, and
discretion." 49 Then follows a tabulation of the ill effects of too
much wine which causes the voice (as well as all other organs)
to become weak and indisposed. 50 Nine rules are offered for those
who wish to preserve their voices for a long time, to always be
in good vocal state, and to avoid hoarseness. These "are abso-
lutely necessary" :
1. Never allow the feet to become cold, much less the head, and one must
take great pains to keep the latter covered during the night.
2, Avoid as much as possible intemperate air, above all that which is too
i 4 8 VOCAL HYGIENE
hot or too cold ; also the rays of the sun and of the moon, snow, winds, fogs,
the evening damp and morning dew, and generally everything that taints the
air.
3. Take care not to cry out too much nor to speak lengthily and with ardor.
4. Consume as little as possible of things that are cold and bitter, such as
radishes, salads, sour grapes, vinegar, oranges, lemons, apples, etc., and in
general of all kinds of fruits, or rough vegetables.
5. Never wash the mouth with, nor drink, water that is too cold and like-
wise beware of eating ice or snow.
6. Refrain, when at all possible, from the eating of oil or things containing
it, or the swallowing of it unnecessarily.
7. Refrain from eating nuts and from using their oil, also that which is
made from unripened olives.
8. Do not eat eels, because they are oily, slimy, and pituitous ; they cause
clogging and load the stomach.
9. Refrain from too much drinking, because the perfection of the voice
consists in a moderate dryness of its organs : the throat which is one of them,
is for that reason composed of a durable and cartilaginous substance, for the
purpose of helping the air thrust by the lungs, making the voice clearer,
louder, and more sonorous. 51
To these "absolutely necessary" rules Carre adds some fur-
ther precautionary advice. Take care in eating and drinking that
nothing falls down the windpipe as this causes violent coughing,
thus making the voice hoarse. Sneezing is just as bad and both
are unfortunate for the throat should not be excited especially
when one has to sing or speak in public; this disturbance often
lasts from morning till night. These and many other things which
are learned from experience are detrimental to the voice. Also
the voice naturally degenerates with age and as these organs
become weak and loose, the voice becomes lower, less sonorous
and loud than those of younger singers. 52
In the following chapter Carre discusses the causes of hoarse-
ness and laryngitis along with remedies for the same. The prin-
cipal causes are a chilled head, cold and wet feet, eating of
fruit and raw vegetables, oil in general, nuts especially old and
rancid ones, eels, excessive drinking, and the straining of the
voice in speaking or singing. A great number of remedies in
the nature of drugs, liquids, and medicines together with how
they are prepared, mixed, and applied, finishes the chapter, 53
VOCAL HYGIENE 149
Only a few general rules are offered by Martini. The voice
is the most beautiful, also the most fragile, of all instruments
and has disorders that are sometimes temporary and sometimes
incurable. Of all the prescriptions to preserve it "the best is to
refrain from all excesses, from all beverages that are too strong,
to protect oneself from too much heat and cold, and from pass-
ing too suddenly from one to the other; and from singing too
high, too loudly, and too long at a time," 54
The strictest precautionary measures for the care and preser-
vation of the voice are urged by Tomeoni. 55 Since the voice is a
most delicate and frail instrument and therefore susceptible to
deterioration and even complete loss, it is necessary to give it
the most serious care. Both virtuosi and amateurs should refrain
from doing anything harmful to it. According to Tomeoni this
includes all excesses of whatever kind, singing opposite an open
fire or in moving air, singing in a room where there is a carpet
or too much furniture, or which is too resonant (because the
former causes one to sing too loudly, the latter, to sing off pitch) ,
singing in the open air, before a mirror or too near a wall, or
immediately after eating. Those who have colds should avoid
singing entirely and should study harmony and accompanying
for the time being. All kinds of nuts, raw artichokes, and all the
fruits dried in the oven or in the sun are harmful and make the
voice rough and unpleasant. He cautions the teacher against al-
lowing a young voice to sing too high for too long a period of
time. "It is a young plant whose nature and kind are unknown,
and one must be content to water it daily with care so that it
may grow and expand until the time when its established charac-
ter will reveal the method of training that should be followed." 56
Further advice against tiring the chest and damaging the voice
of the child follows, especially during the years of mutation,
when it is very profitable to emphasize the corollary music studies
such as theory and piano. 57 Even the mature singer is urged to
learn his music, using only half-voice. 58
The eighth chapter of Mengozzi's Methode de Chant is en-
titled "On the Preservation of the Voice." In it he says, in es-
sence, what we have noted in preceding writers. The voice is
subject td indispositions and maladies that may end in the loss
1 50 VOCAL HYGIENE
of this organ of speech and song. In order to prevent this he
insists that it is necessary for those in the singing profession to
habituate themselves to a routine which will prevent as much as
possible such difficulties. First of all it is necessary to avoid pro-
longed singing of exercises that are either too high or too low,
at all times, as it is the middle ranges that are less tiring, and
when the voice tires, it is then time to stop. Even the practice of
another instrument for excessively long intervals does harm to
the voice. We are told that one should avoid too violent exer-
cises such as running, wrestling, fencing, and even lively and
prolonged dancing. Sitting at a table writing for too long in one
position is dangerous. Care should be taken not to change sud-
denly from hot to cold temperatures, and to avoid draughts,
since colds and inflammations of the head and throat are the
result. All excesses should be shunned and especially that of stay-
ing up at night for it is an absolute truth that immoderation de-
stroys the voice and the results of long planning and hard study
are then lost. 59
ENGLISH SOURCES
There is nothing to be found in the English singing manuals on
vocal hygiene. Tenducci warns against forcing the voice espe-
cially on high tones, and suggests that it is best to sing a little
at a time and often. 60 An anecdote by Kelly on a remedy for
sore throat is pertinent.
One day I was saying to him [Lord Howth] that I had a very bad sore
throat; he told me he had a never failing recipe for a sore throat. His direc-
tions were, just before going to bed, to get scalding water, and the finest
double-refined sugar, with two juicy lemons, and above all, some good old
Jamaica rum ; and when in bed, to take a good jorum of it, as hot as bearable.
'Why, my lord,' said I, 'Your prescription seems to be nothing more than
punch.' 'And what is better for a sore throat than good punch?' said his
Lordship ; 'good punch at night, and copious gargles of old Port by day, would
cure any mortal disease in life.' 61
COMPARISONS AND SUMMATIONS
It is obvious that all the writers of whatever nationality placed
great emphasis on the proper care of the voice. It is also ob-
VOCAL HYGIENE 151
vious that they were all in general agreement as to what this
care should be. While it is true that some seem to be over-
solicitous as to details of bodily care, diet, and methods of prac-
tice, it is however an indication of the seriousness with which
they considered the profession of the singer and the prepara-
tion necessary for such a career. The earlier Italians appear to
have been more solicitous in this respect while the eighteenth
century sources reveal, only in passing, their concern. Tosi and
Mancini are brief while Manfredini says nothing at all. The
Germans and French, on the other hand, are quite explicit for
the most part and, although extremes of physical caution and
diet are sometimes counselled, there is much good advice and
common sense to be found. The impression is gained that the
singing teachers of Germany and France found more resistance
to the moderations that were cautioned, because of the fact that
singing was not looked upon as the highly specialized art and
profession in these countries as it was in Italy. The more rigorous
climate of the north must be considered a factor in their insistence
on greater physical precautions. But there was general agreement
in all countries that moderation in eating, drinking, and living,
together with the avoidance of all vocal strain were the cardinal
tenets to be followed in the hygiene of the voice.
XIV. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
WITHIN the limits of this study the following conclusions appear
to be defensible :
1. Italy was the wellspring of everything concerned with the
art of singing. The writers of the singing manuals in other coun-
tries pay frequent homage to the singers and teachers of Italy.
In Germany we find Mattheson, Agricola, Hiller, Marpurg,
Petri, Lasser, and Aubigny acknowledging their debt to the
Italians. In France the list of authors includes Rameau, Martini,
Mengozzi, Blanchet, Tomeoni, and Fetis, while Burney, Bayly,
Corri, Lanza, and Tenducci, in England, testify clearly to the
influence from the south. It is of importance to note that Tomeoni
and Mengozzi in France and Corri, Lanza, and Tenducci in
England were all transplanted Italians while Tosi's Osservazioni
was translated into English, German, and French, and Mancini's
Rifiessioni was published in German and French editions. There
is no evidence of any counter-movement of German, French, or
English influences on the singing style of Italy.
2. The vocal pedagogy of the bel canto period was based on
empirical methods. There is a wealth of evidence that the sing-
ing experience of the teacher was a most important part of the
teaching method. All the great teachers in Italy had been sing-
ers and the two great writers, Tosi and Mancini, were famous
both as teachers and singers. Among the Germans, Mattheson,
Petri, and Hiller were singers and together with Marpurg and
Agricola were thorough students of the Italian opera and the
Italian methods of singing. Tomeoni and Mengozzi in France and
Tenducci, Corri, and Lanza in England were singers of note. The
teacher set himself up as an example to be observed and imitated
by the pupil, and further, the student was urged to see and study
the performances of actors as well as singers. The words of Bon-
tempi most accurately epitomize this attitude. "Our opinion is,
that everything which is derived from experience has no need of
reasoning. . . . We . . . shall be content to understand it
[singing] with the teaching of experience itself" (see above, p.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 153
127). Three-quarters of a century later Mancini wrote to the
same effect :
In giving the precise rules to a student let the teacher not only tell him and
explain to him, but let him illustrate his meaning by making himself an
example. . . . Let the experienced teacher follow this method and he will
soon be convinced how much more preferable are practical demonstrations to
general rules. (See above, pp. 103 f.)
3. There was, at all times, great stress placed upon the natu-
ral methods of singing, as well as the natural gifts necessary
before a person should even attempt to become a singer. These
latter included a pleasing appearance, adequate breathing ca-
pacity, no malformations of face, mouth, or body, a good ear,
etc. The posture must be natural, the tone must be produced
naturally, there must be no distortion of mouth or facial fea-
tures, and in short the entire process of singing must be free of
anything that might interfere with ease in the production of
the voice. Any kind of artificiality or affectation was looked upon
with scorn and was discouraged from the start.
4. Theories of phonation were based on incomplete or incor-
rect information. The anatomy of the throat was for all practical
purposes well understood but the physiology of the vocal or-
gans was by no means complete. Before the experiments of
Ferrein in 1741 the theories of phonation were based on the
incorrect speculations of Galen and even after this time there
is considerable doubt that Ferrein's theories were ever instru-
mental in affecting teaching methods. Even Agricola, who gives
the most complete exposition of phonation theories, both pre-
and post-Ferrein, of any of the authors of singing manuals, says :
It is not up to us, who do not consider the organs of the voice from the point
of view of the anatomist or physician but from the point of view of the singer,
to decide whether Mr. Ferrein's discoveries ... are correct or not. (See
above, p. I33-)
Most of the writers present simplified, superficial, and often in-
correct descriptions of the vocal organs that were apparently
included to satisfy the curious. Therefore it may be safely as-
sumed that physiological knowledge had little or nothing to do
with the vocal technique of the btl ctwto period.
154 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
5. There were no attempts at the conscious control of par-
ticular muscles. The singer was urged to keep a natural and free
muscular balance of all his physical faculties in order that they
could respond naturally and quickly to the sense and idea of the
music and the text. All the external mechanical forces as well as
the inward nervous and muscular controls were given a set of
relationships that encouraged their free and unhampered func-
tioning. These relationships were of the greatest aid in allow-
ing virtuosity to triumph and they enabled the artists of the
bel canto period to develop the technical skills for which they
were acclaimed. There was only one exception, Blanchet (see
above, pp. 97 f., 135 f.), who insisted that by muscular con-
trol of the larynx, even the tone-deaf could become perfect sing-
ers. His theories never gained recognition; moreover, he was
not a musician, but had conducted considerable research on phona-
tion.
6. On vocal hygiene, advice varied from the practical and use-
ful to the nonsensical, much as today. Although some writers
urged a regimen of living that amounted to pampering, the ma-
jority insisted that moderation and temperance in all things was
the best for singers. Whatever encouraged good health also en-
couraged good singing and it was unlikely that a sound voice
could be found in an unsound body. The greatest care was al-
ways taken to avoid overtaxing the voice and as a consequence
the voices usually retained their freshness and beauty to an ad-
vanced age. This is quite contrary to present-day conditions.
7. There was general agreement on the broad precepts of
singing, and more important, on the means by which' these ends
were to be reached. It is really notable to find the identical phrase
or sentence turning up in book after book, even in the different
languages. This made it possible for standards to be estab-
lished and to be maintained, a condition impossible at the pres-
ent time when there is almost a complete lack of agreement on
method. A few minor differences are to be found such as whether
a wind, string or keyboard instrument is best for developing the
ear, and what and how many vocal registers exist. But the means
of blending registers were agreed upon as was the necessity for
acquiring a good ear,
IN FINE
THE all-important question finally arises : What are the implica-
tions for the teacher and student of singing?
First of all, the popular conception that the teaching methods
of the bel canto period were secret and have been lost is proven
to be a myth. Too many teachers have trafficked thus, albeit claim-
ing at the same time to possess the secret themselves. Quite to
the contrary, the methods appear to be so obvious, easy, and
natural as to preclude the efficaciousness of the usual line of
nostrums peddled in the average studio. It is only by means of
the latter that pupils are held in a state bordering on hypnotism.
The evidence is at hand. All that is needed is the light of musico-
logical investigation on each aspect of bel canto. As far as this
study goes it reveals an amazingly direct and simple approach to
the business of singing.
It must be admitted that the particular vocal technique and
virtuosity of the bel canto artists may be Impossible to achieve
today. The peculiarly singular and unnatural gifts of the castrati
due to a bizarre custom now uncountenanced for the purposes of
the art of song lifted vocalisrn to an apogee no longer within
the realm of probability. But their twin ideals of beautiful tone
and florid line are still highly desirable in performance and when
achieved in substantial measure are greatly enjoyed even by the
musically unsophisticated. The means by which these were at-
tained is no secret. Granted that much of our music calls for
more declamatory, dramatic, and subjective treatment, still the
vocal masterpieces of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
will not reveal their true worth except when performed with the
lyrical and florid qualities of bel canto. The harrowing perform-
ances by oratorio soloists today are grim testimony that these
qualities are either misunderstood or totally ignored.
There were no short cuts or "open sesames" to the art of
singing. Lessons were begun at an early age and they were con-
tinued without interruption, although with the greatest care, un-
156 IN FINE
til mastery was reached. There was no attempt to make a voice
"big" unless it was meant by Nature to develop in that way. Voices
were noted for their sweetness, brilliance, vigor and virtuosity,
and performers were noted for their intelligence and taste, but
there was seldom mention of great volume and quantity. It is
safe to say that the shouting and bellowing so frequently heard
now would have received short shrift at the hands of the eight-
eenth century opera audience. As already noted, the methods .
were simple and direct. Once the prospective pupil was conceded
to have the necessary natural gifts, he was taught to sing easily
and naturally and by direct example from his teacher as well as
from artists already successful.
It may be argued that it is no longer possible for the would-be
artist to begin his training at such an early age nor can he study
under the circumstances that obtained in the conservatories of
eighteenth century Italy. This must be admitted, however : mod-
ern psychological studies have given strong evidence that long
years spent in formalized drill are no longer necessary for the
acquiring of advanced muscular techniques, and a great saving
in time may result when technical problems are taken from the
music itself. Another important time-saver would be the estab-
lishment of standardized precepts for the study of singing and
the scrapping of the great welter of utterly intangible and
thoroughly confusing theories that spring eternal in the voice
studios across the land. Perhaps no other one thing could con-
tribute so much to the raising of the calibre of vocalism today as
the acceptance of formulae and the methods of putting them into
practice.
In our opinion the methods of teaching voice in the bel canto
period are clearly delineated in the instruction manuals of the
times. The unexcelled vocal artistry of those performers and their
influence on singing throughout the Western World are more
than sufficient evidence that a sympathetic and thorough study of
the entire subject would indicate positive means for the restoring
of an improved art of singing in the studios, concert halls and
opera houses of today.
NOTES
PREFACE
1. James L. Mursell and Mabelle Glenn, The Psychology of School
Music Teaching, New York, Silver, Burdette Co., 1938, p. 278.
2. The reader is referred to W. J. Henderson, Early History of Sing-
ing, New York, 1921; G. Fantoni, Storia universale del canto, Milan,
1873. 2 vols. in i. These have been of little value in this study.
3. Francis Rogers, Article in Educational Department of Musical Amer-
ica, Dec. 25, 1940, p. 35-
4. L. J. DeBekker, Music and Musicians, New York, Nicholas Brown,
1925, P. 58.
II. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. Willi Apel, Cambridge, Harvard
University Press, 1944.
2. "The term is nowadays in use in the announcements of a large number
of singing masters, each of whom (and he alone) possesses the secrets of the
great Italian teachers." P. A. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music,
London, Oxford University Press, 1943, p. 85.
3. See Musical Courier, Jan. 15, 1946, pp. 14 f. Advertisements of voice
teachers in Sunday Music Section of New York Times, etc.
4. Cf. T. Baker, Dictionary of Musical Terms, 25th ed., New York,
G. Schirmer, 1939; Scholes, op. cit., pp. 85, 871.
5. Cf. Hugo Riemann, Musik-Lexikon, nth ed. Berlin, M. Hesse, 1929,
2 vols. ; Hans Moser, Musiklexikon, Berlin, M. Hess, 1935, 2 vols.
6. Rene Vannes, Essai de Terminologie Musicale, Paris, Eschig, 1925.
7. Cited above, note 4.
8. Benelli, Regole per il Canto Figurato, Dresden, 1819, 1 6.
9. Andrea Costa, Consider azione sopra UArte del Canto in Generale,
London, 1824, pp. 7 f.
10. F. Florino, Breve Metodo di Canto, Naples, 1840 [dedicated to Cre-
scentini] .
11. Ibid., p. i.
12. Ibid., p. 2.
13. Ibid., p. 4.
14. Ibid., p. 6.
15. Ibid., p. 7,
158 MOTES: CHAFJLER II
16. This collection was published in Milan shortly after Vaccai returned
from London in 1838. The exact date has not been established.
17. See Giulio Vaccai, Vita di Nicola Vaccai, Bologna, 1882, pp. 141 f.
1 8. Francesco Lamperti, Guida teorica-pratica-elementare per lo studio
del canto, Milan, Ricordi, 1864. "E una triste ma innegabile verita che il
canto trovasi oggigiorno in uno stato di deplorabile decadenza."
19. Op. cit., Preface, p. ix.
20. Francesco Lamperti, A Treatise on the Art of Singing, transl. by
J. C. Griffith, London, Ricordi, ca. 1877.
21. G. A. Biaggi, "Considerazioni della Musica Italiana," in Regio Isti-
tuto Musicale, Florence, 1865, pp. 41-55.
22. G. A. Biaggi, Pietro Romano, and Luigi Casamorata, "Relazione delle
commissione," in Regio Istituto Musicale, Florence, 1866, pp. 33-39. Report
signed July 7, 1865, p. 37.
23. La Scena, Trieste, May 4, 1865.
24. Ed. Tommaseo and Bellini, Turin, 1865, I, pt. 2, 920, entry 42.
25. Cesare Perini, "Quale sia il miglior metodo da adottarsi onde il bel
canto possa riottenere il suo primato in Italia. 5 * In La Scena, Trieste, Dec. 14,
21,28, 1 865, nos. 33,34,35-
26. F. I. Polidoro, "Alcuni pensieri sull'insegnamento del Canto." In La
Scena, Nov. 22, 1866, Trieste.
27. P. 117. "E doloroso a dirsi ... ma pur troppo e vero che pochi sono
coloro che conservano e propagano le vere tradizioni del bel canto."
28. M. Francesco D'Arcais, "Memoria sulla pratica conoscenza della
musica in tutto quello puo interessare Pesercizio dell'arte del canto." In
Regio Istituto Musicale, Florence, 1868, pp. 61-65.
29. Ibid., p. 62. "Le cure degli allievi e del maestri erano rivolte piu
alPeducazione della voce che alia scienza musicale propriamente detta."
30. G. A. Biaggi, "Della vita e delle opere di Gioacchino Rossini." In
Regio Istituto Musicale, Florence, 1869, pp. 1546.
31. G. A. Biaggi, "Del Melodramma e del Lohengrin di R. Wagner." In
Regio Istituto Musicale, "Luigi Cherubim," Atti dell' Accademia, 1872,
pp. 31-44- See p. 34, where the author says that this style abandons the
procedures of melodic discourse and bel canto. He echoes Rossini's laconic
comment: "abbaiamenti," Also attention may be called to Biaggi's preface
to the Vita di Nicola Vaccai (cited above) , pp. xv, xxiv.
32. Adolfo Baci, "Osservazioni sul teatro di musica in Italia." In Regio
Istituto Musicale, "Luigi Cherubini," Atti dell' Accademia, 1872, pp. 58-
69, esp. p. 66.
33. Ibid., p. 67.
34. F. Lamperti, L'arte del Canto, Milan, 1883, p. 30,
35. G. N. Carozzi, Guida ant'igenica di ginnastica vocale, Milan, 1890*
NOTES: CHAPTER II 159
36. "Oggi queste tradizioni del nostro bel canto sono sbaragliate, e non
solo dal nuovo indirizzo del 1'opera drammatica basato sulla declamazi-
one, ma delle stesse condizioni deplorabili dell'arte lirica, caduta in balia
delPignoranza e del mestiere." Ibid., p. 3.
37. H. D. Mannstein [real name Steinmann], Geschichte, Geist und
Ausubiing des Gesanges von Gregor dem Grossen bis auf unsere Zeit f Leip-
zig, 1845-
38. Ibid., p. 139-
39. "Der schone Ton ist allein das Material, woraus der Sanger seine
Bildungen schaffen darf," p. 144.
40. ". . . die Schopfer des schonen Tones," p. 145.
41. F. S. Gassner, Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst, Stuttgart, 1849.
42. ". . . schongebildeten Ton."
43. Gassner, op. cit. f pp. 343~46.
44. C. F. Nehrlich, Die Singkunst, 2d ed., Leipzig, 1853.
45. ". . . die Klangschonheit ist ihr 'Ein' und 'alles.' "
46. Nehrlich, op. cit. t pp. 58 ff.
47. F. Wieck, Klavier und Gesang , Leipzig, 1853. '
48. Ibid., pp. 40-59,
49. "Wenn ich iiberhaupt vom Gesang spreche, so meine ich nur den
schonen Gesang, die Basis der feinsten und vollendetsten musikalischen
Darstellung," p. v. The words "schonen gesang" are to be noted here as they
are the German equivalent of bel canto.
50. F. Sieber, Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der Gesangskunst, Berlin, 1858.
51. "Bildung des schonen Tones/' Pp. 72-74.
52. "Wahrend unsere angehenden Opernsanger sofort auf den drama-
tischen Ausdruck losstenern, bilden die Italiener vor allem die selbstandige
Schonheit der Stimme, die allseitige Technik des Singens ; zuerst gilt ihnen
der schone Ton." Deutsche Musik-Zeitung, Vienna, May 12, 1860, p. 60.
53. Loc. cit.
54. Martin Haertinger, Das Grundgesetz der Stimmbildung fur den
Kunstgesang, Mainz, 1872, pp. 48., and elsewhere.
55. H. Mendel, Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon, Berlin, 1870-
1879, II vols. Cf. IV (1874), 212-24.
56. Cited above.
57. "Es triumphirt in unsern Opernhausern meist nur noch die Lunge,
Geschmacksrohheit, Unnatur, Karrikatur, sinnloses Outriren, somit der
verwerflichste Missbrauch der menschlichen Stimmen." p. 191.
58. "Sie haben kein Gefiihl fur's Schone, sie konnen nicht einmal einen
natiirlichen, seelischen, reizenden, vornliegenden Ton von einem kalten,
hasslichen, gepressten, forcirten, kehligen Ton uterscheiden." p. 192.
59* Hugo Riemann, Musik-Lexikon, Leipzig, 1882.
160 NOTES: CHAPTER III
60. Ibid., p. 304.
61. F. Bremer, Handlexikon der Musik, Leipzig, 1882. See "Gesangme-
thode."
62. Julius Hey, Deutscher Gesangs-Unterricht, Mainz, 1886. 4 parts.
63. Ibid., part 3, p. 160.
64. "Die Zeit der italienischen Oper scheint griindlich voriiber zu sein."
Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung, 1885, P 170.
65. Cf. Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung, 1885, p. 2O; 1888, pp. 127, 462;
1889, p. 409; 1890, pp. 45 ff-, ISO, 228; 1891, p. 130.
66. F. Sieber, II Bel Canto. 2 vols. Berlin, ca. 1887.
67. "In unserer Zeit, wo sich das widerwartigste Schreien aller Orten
unter der beschonigenden Devise 'dramatischen Gesanges/ breit macht, wo
die unkundige Menge viel mehr darauf zugeben scheint, wie laut als wie
schon gesungen wird, ist vielleicht eine Sammlung von Gesangen willkom-
men, welche wie der Titel besagt dazu beitragen mochte, dem bel
canto wieder zu seinem recht zu verhelfen."
68. F. J. Fetis, "Examen de 1'etat actuel de la Musique en France/' in
Revue Musicale, 1827, p. 444.
69. ". . . la tradition de Texcellente ecole italienne de cette epoque et
retarda de pres de trente ans la connaissance de Tart du chant en France."
'Loc. cit.
70. F. J. Fetis, Biographie Universelle, Brussels, 1844, VIII, 382. Article
on Tosi.
71. "L'epoque de Rossini a ete celle ou le beau chant italien a jete son
dernier eclat." A. C. E. Boisson, Petite Encyclopedic, 1884, H 82.
72. "Les interprets de Rossini, de Bellini, et de Donizetti furent les
derniers eleves des maitres du bel canto ou de Tart de chanter du XVIII
siecle." H. Lavoix, Histoire de la Musique, Paris, 1884, p. 299.
73. Sabrina H. Dow, Artistic Singing, Boston, 1883, Cf. pp. 42, 67, 69 ff.
74. A. B. Bach, Musical Education, London, 1884. Cf. p. 247 and pp.
150 if.
III. LARYNGOLOGY
1. Gordon Holmes, "History of the Progress of Laryngology from the
Earliest Times to the Present," in The Medical Press, London, July 15,
1885, p. 49, and subsequent issues to Sept. 9, 1885. This was translated into
German and published as a book in the following year. A more recent, but
less detailed treatment, based on the work of Holmes, is that of Jonathan
Wright, A History of Laryngology and Rhinology, Philadelphia, Lea and
Febiger, 1914. .
2. Holmes, op. cit., p. 49.
3- Aristotle, De Anima, transl. by W. S. Hett. Loeb Classical Library.
New York, Putnam, 1935, p. 42ob.
NOTES: CHAPTER IV 161
4. Aristotle, De Audibilibus, in Minor. Works, transl. by W. S. Hett.
Loeb Classical Library. New York, Putnam, 1936, pp. 8ooa-8o3a.
5. Aristotle, Problemata, transl. by E. S. Forster. Loeb Classical Library.
New York, Putnam, 1932. Book XI, "Problems on the Voice," and Book
XIX, "Problems connected with Harmony."
6. Holmes, op. dt., p. 72.
7. Ibid., pp. 72 ff.
8. Ibid., p. 73-
9. De Vitiis Vods, Francofonte, 1597.
10. Historia anatomica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1597; De Visione, Voce,
Auditu f Venice, 1600; De Voce, de Gulo, de Respiratione et ejus Instru-
mentis, Venice, 1601.
11. De Larynge Vods Organo Historia Anatomica, Ferrara, 1600.
12. De Vods Auditusque Organis Historiae, Ferrara, 1600.
13. Holmes, op. dt., p. 120.
14. Cf. M. S. Murrich and J. Playfair, Leonardo da Vind t the Anatomistj
Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins (Published for Carnegie Institute of
Washington) 1930, chap. 15, pp. 191-97.
15. Marin Mersenne, Harmonie Universelle f Paris, 1636. Cf. Prop. Ill,
XIII, XVI, and XXXVI of the part entitled, "De la voix, Des Parries qui
servent, a la former, de sa definition, de ses proprietez, e de Fouye."
1 6. Denis Dodart, "Memoire sur les causes de la voix de THornine," in
Memoires de I'Academie de Sdences, Paris, 1703, pp. 1-50.
17. 1 bid. , p. 42.
18. Holmes, op. dt. f p. 121.
19. Antoine Ferrein, "De la Formation de la Voix de l J Homme," in
Academie Roy ale des Sciences, Paris, 1741, pp. 40932.
IV. VOCAL HYGIENE BEFORE 1600
1. Synesius, in Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Graeca,
Vol.LXVI,col.ii48.
2. Cf. Holmes, op. *., p. 74.
3. St. Jerome, Commentary on Epistle to the Ephesians, III, 5:19, in
Migne, op. dt. f Series Latina, Vol. XXVI, col. 528.
4. Antiphon, Oratio de Choreuta.
5. Aristotle, Problemataj 9Olb.
6. Ibid., 904b.
7. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria f XI, iii, 19.
8. Aristotle, op. dt. f 9<x>a,
9. Ibid., 901 a.
10. Ibid., 9O4b.
1 62 NOTES: CHAPTER IV
12. Isidorus, "De Ecclesiasticis Officiis," ii, 12, in Migne, op. at., Vol.
LXXXIII, col. 792. Rabanus Maurus, "De Institutione Clericorum," ii, 48,
ibid., Vol. CVII, col. 362.
13. Clearchus apud Athenaeum, xiv, c. 19.
14. Beroaldus: Commentarius ad Suetonium. London, I54& In "Ne-
rone," p. 533-
15. Suetonius, Life of Nero, c. 20.
1 6. Athenaeus, iii, 18, 19. Here is an account of how the abstinence from
eating figs for eighteen years resulted in one person becoming a famous actor.
17. Ibid.,ii y 42.
1 8. Cicero, De Orator e, I, ii, 70.
19. Quintilian, op. cit., transl by H. E. Butler. Loeb Classical Library.
London, Heinemann, 1921. XI, iii, 19-20. (Henceforth, "Loeb Classical
Library" will be referred to simply as "Loeb.")
20. Ibid., XI, iii, 22-23.
21. Ibid., XI, iii, 28.
22. In Martin Gerbert, Scriptores Ecdesiastici de Musica Sacra. St.
Blasius, 1784, HI, 233.
23. See pp. 30 f.
24. Camillo Maffei, Delle lettere del S or Giov. Camilla Maffei da Solofra,
Libri due: Dove tra gll altri bellissimi d'apparar di cantar di Garganta, senza
maestro, Napoli, 1562. Quoted by Franz Habock, "Die Physiologischen
Grundlagen der Altitalienischen Gesangschule" in Musik (Die) VIII
(Sept., 1909), 343-
25. See pp. 15 f-
26. Op. cit., Introduction.
27. Ibid., Bk. I, chap. 13, p. 64.
28. Ibid., chap. 14, p. 68.
29. Ibid., Bk. II, chap, i, p. 88.
30. Ibid., p. 90.
31. Cites Celsus, Bk. 7, chap, 25.
32. I have not been able to identify this plant.
33. Ibid., p. 92.
34. Ibid., p. 93.
35. Ibid., pp. 98 f .
36. Ibid., pp. 93 f.
37. Ibid., p. 113-
38. In A. Lavignac, Encyclopedic de la Musique et Dictionnaire du Con-
servatoire, Paris, Libraire Delgrave, 1926, Part II, 871-904.
39. Ibid., p. 874.
NOTES: CHAPTER V 163
V. DEVELOPMENT OF SINGING TECHNIQUE PRIOR TO 1600
1. In this chapter extensive use has been made of the writer's master's
thesis, The Art of Singing in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1943-
2. Homer, The Odyssey, transl. by G. H. Palmer, Cambridge, Mass.,
Houghton, Mifflin, 1929. Cf. Book VIII, pp. II, 43-45, 63, 67, 262-67, and
ad passim.
3. Homeric Hymns, transl. by H. G. Evelyn-White (Loeb), London, W.
Heineman, 1914, p. 543.
4. Op. cit., pp. 566-97-
5. These were, in large measure, singers.
6. Plato, Laws, transl. by R. G. Bury (Loeb), New York, Putnam,
1926, p. 660.
7. Plato, Republic, transl. by Paul Shorey (Loeb), New York, 1930, pp.
568B, 595A, 607-8.
8. Laws, p. 659.
9. Laws, p. 669?.
10. Aristotle, Politics, transl. by H. Rockham (Loeb), New York, Put-
nam, 1932. Cf. pp. I337b-I342a.
11. Op.cit., I339b, 8.
12. Loc. cit.
13. Melopoeia included both composing and singing.
14. Aristotle, Poetics, transl. by W. H. Fyfe (Loeb), New York, Put-
nam, 1927, Book VI, pp. 1-7.
15. Loc. cit.
1 6. Cf. op. cit., ^. i46ib.
17. Aristotle, Rhetoric, transl. by J. H. Freese (Loeb), New York, Put-
nam, 1929, p. I403b.
1 8. Aristotle, De Audibilibus, in Minor Works, transl. by W. S. Hett
(Loeb), New York, Putnam, 1936.
19. I bid., p. 8ooa.
20. Ibid., p. 80 1 a.
21. 1 bid., p. 8b3a.
22. Ibid., p. 8oob.
23. Ibid., p. 8o3a.
24. Loc. cit.
25. Aristotle, Problemata, transl. by E. S. Forster (Loeb), New York,
Putnam, 1932.
26. Op. cit., p. 9i8b.
1 64 NOTES: CHAPTER V
27. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De Compositione Ferborum, ed. with
translation by W. Rhys Roberts, London, Macmillan, 1910.
28. Op. cit., p. 127.
29. Ibid., p. 269.
30. Ibid., p. 283.
31. Plutarch, Moralia, transL by several hands, ed. W. W. Goodwin,
Boston, 1870, 5 vols. (De Musica, 102-35).
32. Gustav Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, New York, 1940, p. 18,
says that the authenticity of his authorship is open to question.
33. De Musica, chap. 15.
34. Ibid., chap. 31.
35. Q'uintilian, Institutio Oratoria, transL by H. E. Butler (Loeb), Lon-
don, 1 92 1. XI, iii, 19.
36. Ibid., XI, iii, 22-24.
37. Augustine (Saint), De Musica, transL by R. Catesby Taliaferro,
Annapolis, St. John's Bookstore, 1939 Bk. VI, superscription, p. 148.
38. Cf. Martin Gerbert, Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra, St.
Blasius, St. Blasius Press, 1784, I, 38-39, 246; II, 25, 225, 233; HI, 120.
Boethius, De Institutione Musica, ed. G. Friedlein, Leipzig, 1867, I,
34-
39. "Is vero est musicus, qui ratione perpensa canendi scientiam non ser-
vitio operis sed imperio speculationis adsumpsit." Loc. cit.
40. Gerbert, op. cit., II, 253.
41. Ibid., Ill, 235-36.
42. Ibid., Ill, 68.
43. Ibid., Ill, 317-
44. Gerbert, op. cit., Ill, 68.
45. Gerbert, op. cit., Ill, 344.
46. E. De Coussemaker, Scriptorum de Musica Medii Aevi Nova Series,
Paris, A. Durand, 1864, I, 8.
47. Ibid., II, 2.
48. De Muris, in Gerbert, op. cit., Ill, 216, 236; "A Certain Carthusian
Monk" in Coussemaker, op. cit., II, 470; Philip de Vitry, in ibid., Ill, 45 ;
Simon Tunstede, in ibid., IV, 233 ; Adam de Fulda, in Gerbert, op. cit., Ill,
352.
49. Coussemaker, op. cit., I, 158.
50. Ibid., I, 93.
51. Cf. "A Certain Carthusian Monk," Coussemaker, op. cit., II, 446;
Simon Tunstede, ibid., IV, 259; Bull of Pope John XXII, in The Oxford
History of Music, Vol. I; "The Polyphonic Period," by H. E. Woolridge,
NOTES: CHAPTER V 165
London, Oxford University Press, 1929, p. 294; Ornithoparcus, "Of the
Ten Precepts Necessary for Every Singer," from Bowling's translation
(1609), reprinted in Hawkins, General History of the Science and Practice
of Music, London, 1776, II, 404 ff., precept #9.
52. Cf. Gerbert, op. cit., I, 173.
53. Ibid., II, 249*
54. Quoted in Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization, New
York, Norton, 1941, from Andre Pirro, p. 140.
55. Cf. Coussemaker, op, cit., IV, 344.
56. Ibid., 382.
57. Cf.IfaW.,11,193-
58. Cf. Gerbert, op. cit., Ill, 233-34.
59. Ibid., 352.
60. Loc. cit.
61. Gerbert, op. cit., Ill, 316.
62. The Oxford History of Music, Vol. I, "The Polyphonic Period . . .
330-1400," by H. E. Woolridge, London, Oxford University Press, 1929,
pp.293ff
63. Lang, op. cit., 140.
64. Cf. Oxford History, I, 294.
65. August W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, Breslau, 1862-1878, II,
345-
66. Coussemaker, op. cit., IV, 129. Bk. II, ch, 20 of the Liber.
67. Cf. Sammelbande der internationalen Musikgesellschaft, IX (1907-
1908), 538; Revue Musicale, June, 1932, p. 10; A. Schering, Beispiele,
#i66,p. 176.
68. G. W. Lanfranco, Scintille di Musica, Brescia, 1533, p. 33, cited in
Bernhard Ulrich, Die Grundsdtze der Stimmbildung wahrend der a capella-
Periode und zur Zeit des Aufkommens der Oper, 1474-1640, Leipzig, B.
& H., 1912, p. 112.
69. G. C. Maffei, Discorso della Voce, Naples, 1562, cited in Ulrich,
op. cit., pp. 33 f.
70. G. Zarlino, Istitutioni Harmoniche, Venetia, 1573, p. 240.
71. G. C. Zacconi, Prattica di Musica, Venetia, 1592, facing p. 54.
72. Op. cit., facing p. 55.
73. Bragio Rossetti, Libellus de rudimentis musicas, Verona, 1529, cited
in Ulrich, op. cit., pp. 59-63.
74. Johann Frosch, Rerum musicarum opusculum rarum ac insigne, Ar-
gentorati, 1535. Cf. ch. 19.
75. Cited in Ulrich, op. cit., p. 59.
1 66 NOTES: CHAPTER V
76. Ibid., p. 38.
77. Op. clt., facing p. 59.
78. Cf. G. B. Bovicelli, Regole, Passaggi di musica, Venice, 1594, cited in
Ulrich, op. cit., pp. 59-60.
79. A. P. Coclicus, Compendium Musices, Nuremberg, 1552, cited in
Ulrich, op. cit.j p. 9.
80. Organo here might mean any musical instrument, as Latin organum
usually does.
81. Nicola Vicentino, L'antica musica ridotto alia moderna prattica,
Rome, 1555. Facing p. 55.
82. G. Zarlino, op. cit.j p. 240.
83. Cf . op. tit., p. 425.
84. Op. cit.j pp. 43-44-
85- Op. tit., p. 58.
86. Cf . op. cit.j p. 59.
87. ". . . non fractis et remissis vocibus muliebre quiddam de more
sonantes, sed virili sonitu et affectu." Cf. S. Poisson, Traite theorique et
pratique du plain-chant, Paris, 1750, pp. 408-10; J. Bona, Opera Omnia,
Antwerp, 1723, p. 540.
88. "Viros de cet virili voce cantare, et non more femineo tinnulis, vel, ut
vulgo dicitur, falsis vocibus histrionicam imitari lasciviam," in Migne, Pat.
Lat., vol. CLXXXI, col. 1737.
89. M. Gerbert, De Cantu et Musica Sacra, San Blasianis, 1774, I, 318;
cf. also II, 206, for the comment of J. Busch (1400-1479), Abbot of the
Monastery Novum Opus. The text of Busch J s comment may be read in his
DeReformationeMonaster (no date), II, 502, 859, 863.
90. Op. cit.j p. 79.
91. Op. cit.j p. 80.
92. Op. tit., p. 79.
93- Op. V.,pp. 81 f.
94. Cf. Vicentino, op. cit., pp. 80 (so numbered, but should be p. 84),
92 f.; cf. also, O. Tigrini, II compendia della musica, Venetia, 1588, pp.
112-15.
95. Zacconi, op. cit., facing p. 56.
96. It has been the contention of the writer that $ie Spanish f alsettists were
really castrati masquerading as falsettists because of the ecclesiastical and
popular feelings against the institution of castration, feelings that were not
long in being reconciled.
97. Max Kuhn, Die Verzierungskunst in der Gesangs-Musik des id.-!?.
JahrhundertSj Leipzig, B. & H., 1902, ch. Ill, pp. 52 ff.
98. Friedrich Chrysander, Lodovici Zacconi als Lehrer des Kunstgesanges,
NOTES: CHAPTER VI 167
in Viertaljahrschrift fur Musikwissenschaft, VII (1891), pp. 337-96; IX,
(1893), 249-310; X (1894), 53 1-67.
99. "La musica estata bella sempre, et ogni hora piu per la dilligenza, et
per la studio che ci f anno i cantori si abellisce : la quale non si rinova, a si
muta per via delle figure, che sempre le sono d'una sorte ; ma con le gratie, et
gPaccenti la si fa parer sempre piu bella." Zacconi, op. cit., p. 58.
100. Other studies of the vocal art of the sixteenth century besides those of
Chrysander, Kuhn and Ulrich already cited are : Kurt Huber, Ivo de Vento,
1918, ch. 3, pp. 87 ff.; Giulio Silva, "The Beginning of the Art of 'Bel
Canto/" in Musical Quarterly, New York, VIII (1922), 53-68; Hugo
Goldschmidt, "Verzierungen, Veranderungen und Passaggien," in Monat-
shefte f. Musikgeschichte, 1891, pp. 110-28.
VI. THE CASTRATI
1. The castrati have been widely investigated in the following studies by
Franz Habock: Die Gesangskunst der Kastraten, Wien, Universal-Edition,
1923 ; Die Kastraten und ihre Gesangskunst, Stuttgart, Deutsche Verlags
Anstalt, 1927. The untimely death of the author in 1921 prevented further
planned publications. The present survey is based largely on these sources.
2. Perhaps the most complete is in the possession of The New York
Academy of Medicine. It consists of about 70 unpublished manuscripts which
were written during the 1930*5 by E. D. Cummings. His death in 1941 pre-
vented the completion of this monumental work.
3. C. Burney, f resent State of Music in France and Italy, London, 1771,
pp. 301 f.
4. Cf. Habock, op. cit., p. 238.
5. Herodotus, Book VIII (Urania), ch. 105.
6. Habock describes in detail the statue of an infibulated singer in the
Museo del Collegio Romano ; cf . op. cit., p. 72.
7. Theodorus Balsamon, Annotations to "Canones Sanctorum Patrum
qui in Trullo . . . convener lent," in Migne, Pat. Graeca., vol. CXXXVII,
col. 532.
8. For a recent commentary on the state of the eunuch in the Byzantine
world the reader is referred to Steven Runciman, Byzantine Civilization,
London, Edward Arnold & Co., 1923, pp. 703-4. The author says: "For a
boy to be really successful it might be wise to castrate him, for Byzantium
was the eunuch's paradise. Even the noblest parents were not above mutilat-
ing their sons to help their advancement, nor was there any disgrace in it."
9. Habock, op. cit., p. 149.
10. G. Fantoni, Storm Universale del Canto, Milan, 1873.
it. Although Habock believes they were used in Spain before 1557, he
1 68 NOTES: CHAPTER VI
considers the question still an open one as to whether the Italian or the
Spanish Church employed them first.
12. Palestrina was dismissed as a result of this edict.
13. The writer has been unable to find the exact source of this quotation.
It is quoted by the following: A. B. Marx, Gluck und die Oper, Berlin,
1863, p. 161; C. F. D. Schubart, Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst,
Vienna, 1806, p. 43; Habock, op. tit., p. 165; Francis Rogers, "The Male
Soprano" ^Musical Quarterly, V (July, 1919) , P- 4 J 4-
14. Ludwig Spohr, Autobiography, London, 1865, I, pp. 297 ff., p. 312;
II, pp. 35 if.
15. See letter to Fanny dated April 4, 1831 ; also letter to Zelter, dated
June 1 6, 1831. There are a number of editions available, one of the best
known being Felix Mendelssohn, Letters from Italy and Switzerland, transl.
by Lady Wallace, Philadelphia, 1863.
1 6. Those who wish to find a full discussion of this attitude toward the
problem are referred to Habock, op. cit., pp. 4-10.
17. The anatomical background of this problem is discussed in detail in
Habock, op. cit., ch. 3, pt. I, p. 75, under the title "Das Wachstum des Kehl-
kopfes." His sources extend from Aristotle, Historia Animalium, Bk. IX,
50, 63 ib, on down to those of J. Tandler and S. Gross, Vienna, 1907, con-
cerning members of the Skoptzi, a religious sect believing in self-mutilation.
They include dissections of the throats of castrati by different anatomists, e.g.
Dupuytens, Paris, 1811, who found the larynx to be about a third smaller
than normal, and W. Gruber, 1847, wno dissected the larynx of a 65-year-
old castrato and found it about a fourth smaller. One important general con-
clusion resulted from these researches, viz., the earlier the operation, the
higher the voice was likely to remain. Most of the soprani castrati were
operated on during the ages of 7 and 1 1 while those who suffered it later, 1 1-
14, were more likely to be mezzi or contralti.
1 8. "Us deviennent pour la plupart grands et gras comme des chapons,
avec des hanches, une croupe, les bras, la gorge, le cou rond et potele comme
des femmes. Quand on les rencontre dans une assemble, on est tout etonne,
lorsqu'ils parlent, d'entendre soirtir de ces colosses une petite voix d'enfant."
Charles de Brosses, Lettres familieres ecrites cfltalie en 1739-40, second
authentic ed., Paris, 1858, 2 vols., p. 239.
19. Cf. Habock, op. cit., p. 254.
20. Cf . Francisco Caffi, Storia della Musica Sacra nelli gia Cappella ducale
di S. Marco in Venezia dal 1318 al 1797. Venezia, 1854, II, 36 f.
21. Frangois Raguenet, Parallels des It aliens et des Frangois en ce qui
regarde la musique et les operas, Paris, 1702, pp. 75 ff. For a modern trans-
lation see Musical Quarterly, XXXII (July 1946), pp. 425 ff.
NOTES: CHAPTER VII 169
22. Habock, op. cit., pp. 257 f.
23. Goethe, Italidnische Reise, Stuttgart, 1862, 1, pp. 518 ff.
24. Habock, op. cit., p. 261.
25. Habock, op. cit., pp. 263 f.
26. Rousseau, Diet, de Musique, 1767.
27. Tatler, January 3, 1709.
28. Nicolini had sung in Italian while the rest of the English cast had
used a translation.
29. Spectator, June 4, 1712.
30. P. F. Tosi, Observations on the Florid Song, transl. by Mr. Galliard,
London, 1743 (original, Bologna, 1723). See note, p. 152.
31. F. W. Marpurg, Historisch-Kritische Beytrage, 1755, I, p. 36.
32. Goethe, op. cit., p. 413.
33. Cf. also op. cit., p. 607.
34. Schopenhauer, Reisetagebiicher, Leipzig, 1923, p. 268.
35. Fetis Biographie des Musiciens, II, p. 390.
36. Charles Burney, A General History of Music, new ed. New York,
1935, II, pp. 528 ff.
37. Especially in England where controversies had continually raged
round and about them.
38. Tosi, op. cit., p. 152.
39. Manuel Garcia, Hints on Singing, New York, 1894. Preface VI.
VII. APPEARANCE AND POSE
1. Cicero, Orator, XVIII, 60.
2. Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria, Bk. XI, iii, 12-13.
3. For detailed consideration the reader is referred to M. F. Bukofzer,
Music in the Baroque Era, New York, Norton, 1947, chaps. I, 2; D. J.
Grout, A Short History of Opera, New York, Columbia University Press,
I947 I 3-59- A more widely integrated discussion may be read in Lang,
op. cit., pp. 314-64.
4. Grout, op. cit., pp. 40 f. See also Revue Musicale, June, 1932, p. 10.
5. Durante, Arie Devote, 1608, in Ulrich, op. dt. f p. 33.
6. ". . . sopra tutto il canto sia pieno di maiesta, piu o meno secondo
1'altezza del concerto gesteggiando, avvertendo pero ch'ogni gesto e ogni
passo caschi su la misura del suono e del canto," M. Da Gagliano, Dedicatoria
a prefazione alia Dafne, 1608, in Angelo Solerti, Le origini del Melodramma,
Turin, 1903, p. 83.
7. Girolamo Diruta, // Transilvano, 1609, in Ulrich, op. cit., pp. 33 f.
8. ". . . digo que siempre a gradaran mas los que dan audiencia un puro
I?0 NOTES: CHAPTER VII
y simple Cantor que sec modesto, que el artificioso y diestro sieudo contrahe-
cho." Cerone, Melepeo, 1613, p. 67.
9. Scaletta, Scala di Musica, 5th ed., 1656, pp. 9> 23.
10. ". . . f anno tante smorfie, ed atti vezzosi son la bocca, e con gli occhi,
che, pare propriamente si svenghino per dolcezza." Doni, Trattati, 1635, in
Ulrich, op. cit., p. 48.
11. Donati, Motetti II, 1636, in Ulrich, op. cit., p. 34.
12. Penna, Primi Albori, 1684, P 49-
13. P. F. Tosi, Opinioni decantori antichi e moderni o sieno osservazioni
sopra il canto figurato, Bologna, 1723. Translations were published in Eng-
lish (1743), German (i757) French (i774)i while there have been re-
prints in Italian (1904) and English (1906).
14. Pp. 25 f. All page references here are to the reprint of the English
translation by Mr. Galliard, London, 1743-
15. Op. cit., p. 56.
1 6. Op. cit., pp. 6 1 f.
17. Op. cit., pp. 88 f.
1 8. Cantus diversi ex antipkonario Romano Anemone, 1777. Rule 9.
"fiviter tout ce que peut causer du degout aux autres, comme les mouvemens
\slc} extraordinaires du corps, de la tete, des livres, du gosier." Excellent
advice on use of the body and arms in gesture together with careful details
urging the performer to be natural, judiciously avoiding studied artificiality,
is offered by Planelli. One should use a mirror to test oneself and should
study painting and sculpture as models for learning proper gestures. Antonio
Planelli, Dell* opera in Musica, Naples, 1772. Pp. 152-82.
19. G. B. Mancini, Pensieri e riflessioni pratiche sul Canto Figurato,
3d ed., Milan, 1777. The first edition appeared in 1774. All references
throughout this study are to the translation by Buzzi. See Bibliography.
20. Cf . op. cit., pp. 249 f-
21. Op. cit., p. 56.
22. Op. cit. f p. 93.
23. Op. cit., pp. 97 f.
24. Op. cit., pp. 95 f .
25. Op. cit., p. 183-
26. Op. cit., p. 184.
27. Op. cit., pp. 1641.
28. Op. cit., pp. 165 f.
29. Vincenzo Manf redini, Re&ole Armonlche, 2d ed., Venice, 1 797-
30. Op. cit., pt. Ill, pp. 53-75-
31. ". . . senza gusto, e senza colorito; e recitano con tanta indolenza,
che sembran figure di stucco." Op. cit., p. 54,
NOTES: CHAPTER VII 171
32. "Come in atto di sorridere ; ne si ha da sporger la lingua sulle labbra,"
Op. "*., p. 59-
33. "Quando si canta va sempre tenuta la testa alta, ferma, e diritta; ne
va f atto nessun molto sconvenevole colle spalle, le braccia ; o altra parte del
corpo ; ma bisogna tenersi in una nobile attitudine, e cantare in piedi accio la
voce esca f uori piu f acilmente ; soprattutto quando si studia, e allorche si ha
impegno, e premura di farsi sentire." Op. cit., p. 66.
34. Cf. Charles Burney, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Abate
Metastasio, London, 1796, 3 vols.
35. Cf. J. Miiller-Blattau, Die Kompositionslehre Heinrich Schutzens,
Leipzig, 1926, p. 37.
36. "In Summa, ein Sanger soil nicht durch die Nasen singen. Er soil nicht
Stammlen, sonst ist er unverstandlich. Er soil nicht mit der Zung anstossen
oder lispeln, sonst versteht man ihn kaum halb. Er soil auch die Zahne nicht
zusammen schliessen, noch den mund zu weit auf thun, noch die Zung iiber die
Lefzen herausstrecken, noch die Lippen aufwerf en, noch den mund kriimmen,
noch die Wangen und Nasen verstellen wie die Meerkatzen, noch die Augen-
braunen zusammen schrumpfen, noch die Stirn runtzeln, noch den Kopf oder
die Augen darinnen herumdrehen, noch mit den selben blinzen, noch mit den
Lefzen zittern, etc." Op. cit., p. 39.
37. ". . . wie ein Kutscher auf dem Bock." Cf. Johann Mattheson, Der
Volkommene Capellmeister, Hamburg, 1739, pp. 98 f.
38. "Mancher wendet das Gesicht im Singen so weit zur rechten Hand,
dass ihn die Zuhorer auf der lincken Seite gar nicht vernehmen. Ein andrer
kehret es um. . . . Einige werffen bey dem Singen das Haupt im Nacken,
wodurch der Klang in die Hohe steiget, da kein Zuhorer ist; andre neigen
es fast auf die Brust herunter, singen im Barte, wie man sagt, und verfehlen
ebenfalls des wahren Zweckes dadurch, sie mogen sonst so fahig seyn, als sie
wollen. Viele konnen die Hande nicht still halten, welches wol, bey dem
Abgange guter Geberden, am besten ware; sondern rmissen, wenn sie ja
sonst keine alberne Bewegung damit machen, den ungebetenen Tact auf eine
und andre Art fxihren: welches doch eine Sache ist, die den Weg zu der
Zuhorer Hertzen nimmermehr bahnen wird. Die meisten aber halten die
Charteke, entweder aus Ubersichtigkeit, welche zu entschuldigen, oder aus
Gewohnheit, die zu tadeln, so nahe am Munde und vor die Augen, dass sich
die Stimme daran stosset, und von niemand, als dem singenden selbst, ab-
sonderlich in grossen Kirchen, deutlich vernommen werden kan." Op. cit.,
P. 99-
39. "Er muss dabey wohl aufgerichtet stehen, und nicht den Kopf zur
Erde hangen, und dadurch den Hals zudriicfcen." F. W. Marpurg, Anlei-
tung zur musik uberhaupt und zur Sinykunst \ni>e$$ndere, 1763, p. 10.
172 NOTES: CHAPTER VII
40. "zu deren Verbesserung der Spiegel und ein guter freund zu Rathe
gezogen werden muss, in Acht zu nehmen. Hieher gehoret besonders das
Verdrehen des Kopfes; die Verkehrung der Augen; das Nicken mit dera
Kopfe den jeder note; das Schiitteln mit dem Kopfe; das Wanken und
Poltern mit den Fussen ; das Legen der Hand hinters Ohr ; die Beriihrung des
Munder mit der Hand ; die Krummung desselben ; das Zittern desselben bey
einem Triller, und so weiter. Wer kann alle Grimassen zahlen : Eine anstan-
dige Leibestellung; weder ein zu susses noch zu saures Gesicht; weder ein
haselirendes noch zu ernsthaf tes Amtswesen ; und weder ein zu f urchtsames
noch zu freyes Betragen, ist, so wie jedern Redner, also auch jedem Sanger
aufs nachdriicklichste zu empf ehlen." Op. cit. t pp. 23 f .
41. J. A. Hiller, Anweisung zum Musikalisch-richngen Gesange, Leip-
zig, 1774. Cf. p. 6. It is harmful to the voice for a singer to sit habitually
"with a pressed together abdomen" (mit zusammengedrucktem Unterleibe).
Cf. op. cit^ p. 14.
42. "Auf alle unanstandige Bewegungen des Leibes, als hin und herwan-
ken, Scharren mit den Fussen, Schiitteln des Kopf's u. s. w. auf alle Grimas-
sen des Gesichts, als Verzerren des Mundes, Blinzen mit den Augen u. d. g.
muss man genau Achtung geben, weil man sich leicht so etwas angewohnt.
Ich habe eine italianische Sangerinn gekannt, die bey ihrer sonst sehr guten
Stimme, und bey ihrer nicht zu verachtenden Art zu singen, doch das
Unangenehme hatte, dass sie den Kopf zuriick warf , die Augen immer nach
der Decke richtete, und das Gesicht so verzog, dass man hatte glauben sollen,
sie bekame Convulsionen. Sich vor dergleichen unanstandigkeiten zu be-
wahren, giebt man den Rath, bisweilen vor dem Spiegel zu singen; und
gewiss, wem daran gelegen ist, stets mit der vortheilhaftsten Mine aufzutre-
ten, dem kann kein besserer Rath gegeben werden." Op. cit., p. 27.
43. Johann Samuel Petri, Anleitung zur praktischen Musik, Leipzig,
1782, cf. p. 197. An earlier edition in 1767, about one-third as large, is less
useful.
44. "Wenn man durch die Nase, mit zusammengebissenen Zahnen, oder
im Gegentheil wie ein Miillerlow mit gar zu sehr aufgesperrtem Maul und
dergleichen garstigen Umstanden singt, daraus nicht nur ein sichtbarer Eckel
bey den Zuhoren, sondern auch eine Unvernehmlichkeit im Verstand ent-
stehet." Ignaz F. X. Kuerzinger, Getreuer Unterricht zum singen mit
Manieren, Augsburg, 3d ed., 1793, p. 51.
45. P. Jumilhac, La Science et la pratique du plainchant, 2d ed., 1847.
This is a reprint of first edition, 1673, with added notes. Cf. p. 264.
46. Jean Blanchet, Uart, ou les principes philosophiques du chant, Paris,
1756. A similar treatise had been published a year earlier under the author-
NOTES: CHAPTER VII 173
ship of Jean Antoine Berard, an opera singer, but Blanchet claimed author-
ship, saying that he had sold the ms. to Berard. Eitner has established Blan-
chet's claims.
47. Cf . op. at., pp. 79 ff.
48. "On doit, debout ou assis, se tenir de bonne grace, le corps droit et la
tete elevee sans affection. II ne faut pas gesticuler en chantant ni faire des
grimaces de la bouche des yeux et du front. II ne faut pas marquer la mesure
de la tete ni du corps . . . On s'eviteroit la peine de battre la mesure, si on
avoit la valeur des nottes et le mouvement bien imprimes dans la tete."
Antoine Bailleux, Solfege pour apprendre fadlement la musique vocale, etc.,
3d ed., Paris, 1760, p. 122.
49. Jean Philippe Rameau, Code de Musique pratique ou methodes, etc.,
Paris, 1760. Cf. pp. 14 f.
50. Op. cit., p. 20.
51. Raparlier, Principes de musiquej les agrements du chant, Lille, 1772,
p. 30. Nothing further is known of this author.
52. Jean Paul Egide Martini, Melopee Moderne; ou, Uart du chant, re-
duit en printipes, Paris, ca. 1792. Cf. p. 4.
53. Florido Tomeoni, Theorie de la musique vocale, Paris, 1799. Cf . p. 87.
The reader interested in a discussion of stage fright and its cure is referred to
chap. 10, p. 76. The author places great emphasis on singing according to
Nature, i.e., naturally, and insists on the superiority of the Italian method.
In chap. 13, pp. 110-114, he discusses the advantages of having opera texts
translated into the vernacular.
54. "Plusieurs raisons physiques empechent le pied de battre exactement la
mesure; la principale est que le repos et P aplomb du corps sont necessaires
pour Pexecution de la musique ; le mouvement du pied ne peut que leur etre
contraire." Op. tit., p. 103.
55. Loc. cit., pp. 103 f.
56. B. Mengozzi, Methods de chant du Conservatoire de Musique, Paris,
1803.
57. "Pour se preparer a bien faire la gamme, 1'eleve doit se tenir, i: dans
une attitude naturellement droite, et sans faire le moindre effort; 2: II
tiendra la tete levee sans la pencher trop en arriere, car si les muscles de la
gorge etaient trop tendus, ils ne pourraient point agir librement; 3: La
bouche doit etre comme souriant et convenablement ouverte, autant du moins
que la conformation de celle de 1'eleve le comportera, afin de prononcer sans
Talterer, la voyelle sur laquelle il doit chanter la Gamme ; 4 : II faut que
Televe prenne garde qu'en ouvrant la bouche, sa physionomie n'emprunte un
caractere sinistre ; id doit eviter aussi de faire aucune grimace avec les parties
i 74 NOTES: CHAPTER VIII
mobiles du visage ; 5 : II doit appuyer legerement la langue derriere les dents
inferieures; 6: La machoire superieure doit etre perpendiculairement, et
mediocrement detachee de la machoire inferieure." Op. cit., pp. 8 f .
58. C. Burney, The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands
and United Provinces, London, 1775, 2d ed., corrected, I, p. 149.
59. Op. tit., I, p. 129.
60. Op. cit., I, p. 92.
61. Op. cit., I, p. 150.
62. Op. cit., I, p. 246.
63. Domenico Corri, T he Singer $ Preceptor, or Corris Treatise on Vocal
Music, London, 1811. Cf. pp. I, 4.
64. Gesualdo Lanza, Lanzas Elements of Singing in the Italian and
English Styles, London, 1813, 4 vols., I, p. 81.
65. Op. cit., Ill, p. 170.
VIIL BREATHING
1. "Chi sa ben respirare e sillabare, sapra ben cantare." According to
Francesco Lamperti this statement was written in his "Memoirs" by the
famous eighteenth century castrato and singing teacher, Pacchiarotti. Cf.
Lamperti, Guida teorico-pratica-elementare per lo studio del canto, Milan,
Ricordi, 1864, Preface. Manuel Garcia gives credit to Pellegrini Celoni,
Anna Maria. Cf. Garcia, Hints on Singing, London and New York, 1894,
p. 13. Steinmann offers a similar quotation credited to Pacchiarotti without
giving any source. It is as follows : "Project the voice well, breathe correctly,
pronounce clearly, and your song will be perfect." (Mettette ben la voce,
respirate bene, pronunciate chiaramente, ed il vostro canto sara perfetto.)
H. F. Steinmann, Die grosse Italienische Gesangschule, Dresden, 1848.
Intro., III.
2. P. 39.
3. This style of singing is described by Caccini as having "contempt" for
the strict rhythm of the music or the written note values, making some shorter
by half while others were made longer, according to the meaning (conceit)
or emphasis of the words. It marks the beginning of recitative and was one
of the most important stylistic features of the Nuove Musiche. Giulio Cac-
cini, Le Nuove Musiche, prefazione a cura di Francesco Vatielli, Roma,
Reale accademia d'ltalia, 1934. This is a reprint of the original 1601 edition.
Cf. pp. 8 f. This preface is also printed in Angelo Solerti, Le Origini del
Melodramma, Milan, 1903, pp. 53-75. Cf. p. 68.
4. "E di essa e pur necessario valersi per dar maggiore spirito al crescere e
scemare della voce, alia esclamazioni e tutti gli altri effetti che habbiamo
jnostrati; facciasi, che non gli venga meno poi ove e bisogne , , t
NOTES: CHAPTER VIII 175
valersi della respirazione per altro, che per mostrarsi padrone di tutti gli
affetti migliori, che occorono usarsi in si fatta nobilissima maniera di cantare."
G. Caccini, op. tit., pp. 8-9.
5. Cited in Ulrich, op. tit., p. 61.
6. Cf . Cerone, op. tit., p. 68.
7. Cf. Ulrich, op. cit. f p. 65.
8. Ibid., p. 128.
9. G. B. Doni, De Praestantia Musicae Veteris, Florence, 1647, P- IO 8-
There was not so much objection to the breaking up of long passages in the
following century, especially in the music of Handel. Note Tosi's comments
that follow.
10. P. F. Tosi, op. tit., pp. 24-25.
11. Francesco Maria Vallara, Primizie di canto fermo, Parma, 1724, p. 2.
12. G. B. Mancini, op. tit., pp. 53 f.
13. Ibid., pp. Ii2f.
14. Cf. C. Burney, Present State of Music in France and Italy. London,
1771, pp. 326 f. He speaks of the special care given to the young castrati at
the Conservatory of St. Onofrio in Naples.
15. Ibid., p. 1 20.
1 6. Ibid., p. 121.
17. Ibid., p. 145.
1 8. I bid., p. 154.
19. Cf. ibid., p. 157.
20. I bid., p. 161.
21. Ibid., p. 153.
22. Ibid., p. 157.
23. Ibid., p. 163.
24. Cf. V. Manf redini, op. tit., p. 59.
25. Ibid., p. 61.
26. ". . . la quale consiste principalmente nel prender fiato con gran
prontezza, e in un modo che nessun se ne possa accorgere." Ibid., p. 62.
27. "Se poi la debolezza della voce, o la qualita della cantilena, obbligasse
tavolta di dover prender fiato a mezza parola, si prenda anche cosi, ma con
gran cantela, affinche si faccia sentire men che si puo lo spezzamento delle
parole." Loc. tit.
28. "Bisogna pero osservare attentamente, non solo di non prender fiato a
mezza parola; lo che, come ho detto, puo farsi solamente in qualche caso
particolare, ma nemmeno dopo il trillo; ne prima di aver finito il senti-
mento di una cantilena, e di aver terminate una cadenza." Op. tit., pp.
62 f.
29. Cf. Forkel, Algemeine Geschichte der Musik, Leipzig, 1788-1801.
176 NOTES: CHAPTER VIII
Footnote, 65 ; Albert Allerup, Die Musica Practica des Johann Andreas
Herbst, Kassel, Barenreiter Verlag, 1931, pp. 32-34.
30. Cf. Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, Wolfenbuttel, 1619,
III, p. 82.
31. Cf. op. cit., Ill, p. 181.
32. "Wenn er vor der Figur Athem holet und den Vortheil einen langen
Athem zu haben weiss." Wolfgang Caspar Printz, Compendium Musicae
Signatoriae et Modulatoriae vocalis, Dresden, 1714, Pt. II, chap. 6, 1F 26, # 7.
33. ". . . mit gemassigter Stimme immer in einem Athem so lange wegzu-
singen, als nur ohne Beschwerlichkeit moglich ist." Mattheson, Vollkom-
mene Cap'mter, p. 97.
34. ". . . so kan man doch durch fleissige tJbung den Vortheil zu Wege
bringen, dass der Athem langer aushalte, als gewohnlich, wenn die eingezo-
gent Lufft nicht auf einmahl, oder nicht zu hauffig, sondern auf das spar-
samste nur nach und nach, wieder heraus gelassen wird, indem man sie mit
grosser Aufmercksamkeit in etwas zuriick und wol zu Rathe halt. Dieses
ist eine Kunst, durch welche ein S anger vor andern trefflich hervorragen kan,
und worauf sich die Welschen Ton-Kiinstler meisterlich verstehen ; andre
Volcker aber wenig oder gar nicht sich legen." Loc. cit.
35. ". . . alsdenn mit wolabgemessener Austheilung desselben, durch die
Glottis und ihre zarte Spalte, dem Ton seine rechte Gestalt gegeben werde."
Loc. cit.
36. Op. cit., p. in.
37. Johann Friedrich Agricola, Anleitung zur Singkunst. Aus dem italien-
ischen des Herrn Peter Franz Tosi, mit erlauterungen und zusatzen von
J. F. Agricola, Berlin, 1757.
38. Cf. Burney, Present State of Music in Germany, II, p. 91 f.
39- Op. cit., p. 25.
40. "Es ist allhier gut, dass der Meister seinen Schiiler mit den Einschnit-
ten der Melodie etwas bekannt machet, als nach welchen man am bequemsten
f rische Luf t einziehen kann : ob es gleich, wenn viele kurze Einschnitte, die
etwann nur einen halben Tact ausmachen, auf einander f olgen, im geringsten
nicht bey jedem nothig ist. Ueberhaupt kann gemerket werden, dass bey
jedem unterbrochnen Fortgange des Gesanges ... die beste Zeit Athem
zu holen ist. Wenn es nothig ist, solches in einer langen Passage zu thun, so
muss man alle vorhergehende Umstande gehorig erwagen, um den rechten
Ort zu treffen. Dass man zwischen einem triller und der folgenden Note
nicht Athem schopfen musse, ist schon vor langen Zeiten verboten gewesen."
Marpurg, Anleitung zur Musik, 1763, pp. 29 f.
41. ". . . und zwar bald mit schwacker, bald mit gemassigter und bald
mit starker stimme." Loc. cit.
NOTES: CHAPTER VIII 177
42. ". . . um sich nach und nach einen langen Athem zu verschoffen,
ohne der Lunge Schaden zuzufiigen." Cf. op. cit., p. 30.
43. Cf. Hiller, Anweisung zum musikalisch-richtigen Gesange, Leipzig,
1774, pp. 8 f.
44. ". . . es ist eine von den Hauptflichten eines Singmeister, seine Schiller
zur Ersparrung des Athems gleich Angangs zu gewohnen." Cf. op. cit., p. 9.
45. "Denn geschichte Lehrmeister werden in den ttbungstunden bey den
Arien ihren Schiilern in praxi diese Vortheile am besten zeigen konnen, wenn
sie des wahren Gesangs selbst machtig sind." Cf. Petri, Anleitung zur prak-
tischenMusik, 1782, pp. 192 ff.
46. "Wenn durch gar zu oft wiederholtes unzeitiges Athemholen die
Worte und Gedanken des Vortrages getrennet, und die Lauffe zerbrochen,
und zerrissen werden." Kuerzinger, Getreuer Unterricht, 1793, p. 51.
47. ". . . denn auch in diesem Stiicke kommt viel auf tJbung und
Gewohnheit an." J. B. Lasser, Vollstandige Anleitung zur Singkunst,
Munich, 1805, p. 60.
48. ". . . zudeme wird selbst den zuhorern dariiber bange, wenn sie den
Sanger so miihsam und mit Gerausche Athem holen horen." Loc. cit.
49. ". . . wirkt auf die Lunge und das Stimmwerkzeug gleichmachtig."
Loc. cit.
50. "Ein bischen Dreistigkeit, die aber nicht in eine strafliche Zufrieden-
heit mit seinen Fehlern ausartet, ist hierinn von besten Nutzen." Loc. cit.
51. Cf. op. cit., p. 62.
52. "II est constant qu'elle s'acquiert et s'augmente par I'exercise, aussi
bien que les autres circonstances du Chant." Benigne de Bacilly, Remarques
curieuses sur Fart de bien chanter, et particulierement pour ce qui re garde le
chant fran$ois, Paris, 1668, p. 50.
53. Jumilhac, La Science et la pratique du plain-chant, 1673. Cf. p. 263.
54. Cf . op. cit., pp. 266 f .
55. Blanchet, L'Art du chant, 1756. Cf. pp. 7 ff.
56. "Pour bien inspirer, il faut elever et elargir la poitrine, de maniere que
le ventre se gonfle: par cet artifice, on remplira d'air toute la cavite du
poumon. Pour bien expirer, il faut faire sortir Fair interieur avec plus ou
moins de force, avec plus ou moins de volume, selon le caractere du Chant."
Op .cit., p. 26.
57. From these statements it would seem that Blanchet borrowed his ideas
from the Italians and passed them on to his students.
58. ". . . dans la maniere de pouffer Fair des poumons sans gene et sans
contrainte." Rameau, Code de Musique, 1760, p. 15.
59. "Oui, toutes les perfections du chant, toutes ses difficultes, ne depen-
dent que du vent qui part des poumons." Op. cit., p. 16.
i 7 8 NOTES: CHAPTER VIII
60. a . . . maitres que du vent, et que par consequent c'est a nous de savoir
si bien le gouverner, que rien ne puisse en empecher 1'effet." Op. cit., p. 1 6.
61. Ibid. It is most important to mention a footnote which Rameau has
inserted here a propos the word "glotte" or glottis. He says, "I call the
glottis that which perhaps can, at times, be applied to other organs that are
contiguous; but this is of no consequence whatever with regard to that which
is of importance." ( J'attribue a la glotte ce qui pourroit peut-etre, en certain
cas, s'appliquer aux autres agens qui lui sont lies ; mais cela n'est d'aucune con-
sequence pour le fait dont il s'agit.) This betrays a very superficial under-
standing or appreciation of the physiological processes of singing.
62. Here again Rameau's misunderstanding of the process of phonation
leads him to say that the glottis becomes dilated. "C'est que la glotte se dilate
pour lors a 1'aise sans se roidir."
63. Cf. op. cit., pp, 1 6 f.
64. Cf. op. cit., p. 1 8.
65. Cf. Raparlier, Printipes de musique, 1772, p. 42.
66. "Lorsque par la respiration les poumons sont bien remplis d'air il f aut
le garder avec le plus grand management et n'en laisser sortie que la portion
necessaire pour donner de la vibration a la voix. Cette maniere de respirer
donne la force d'enfler et de diminuer les sons a volonte ; elle augmente le
volume de la voix dans les sons graves et dans les sons aigus ; elle procure de
la facilite et de la legerete dans les passages difficiles, ainsi que de la duree
pour pouvoir bien terminer les longues phrases de chant ; elle donne de plus
aux chanteurs une assurance imperturbable." -Martini, Melopee Moderne,
1792, p. 6.
67. "Si par hasard on etait oblige de suspendre le sens par la respiration, il
faudrait alors le faire avec beaucoup d'adresse et d'une maniere presque in-
sensible, afin que 1'auditeur ne s'en apercut pas." Tomeoni, Theorie de la
Musique Vocale, 1799, p. 25.
68. Cf. op. '/., pp. 26 ff.
69. "II faut observer que Faction de respirer pour chanter, differe en
quelque chose de la respiration pour parler. Quand on respire pour parler, on
pour renouveller simplement Tair des poumons, le premier mouvement est
celui de Inspiration, alors le ventre se gonfle et sa partie superieure s'avance
un peu ; ensuite il s'affaisse, c'est le second movement, celui de Texpiration :
ces deux mouvemens s'operent lentement, lorsque le corps est dans son etat
naturel. Au contraire, dans Faction de respirer pour chanter, en aspirant, il
faut aplatir le ventre et le faire remonter avec promptitude, en gonflant et
avancant la poitrine. Dans Fexpiration, le ventre doit revenir fort lentement
a son etat naturel et la poitrine s'abaisser a mesure, afin de conserver et de
menager, le plus longtems [sic] possible, 1'air que Ton a introduit dans les
poumons; on le doit le laisser echapper qu'avec lenteur, et sans donner de se-
NOTES: CHAPTER IX 179
cousses a la poitrine: il faut pour ainsi dire qu'il s'ecoule." Mengozzi,
Method e de Chant, 1803, p. 2.
70. Op. cit., pp. 9 f.
71. Cf. the statutes of Stoke-College, founded by Archbishop Parker,
1535, Strype's Parker, p. 9: "Which said queristers [choiristers] , after their
breasts [voices] are changed," etc. Cf. Fiddes' Life of PFolsey, Appendix,
p. 128: "Singing-men, well-breasted." Also Tussers Husbandrie, ca. 1550,
ed. P. Short, p. 155: "The better brest, the lesser rest, to serve the queer
[choir] now there, now here," i.e., the better the voice, the more the chorister
was called upon to sing. In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Sir Andrew says
of the Clown who has been asked to sing, "By my troth the foole has an
excellent breast." (II, iii, 22.) Also in Fletcher's, The Pilgrim, III, vi:
"Let's hear him sing, he has a fine breast."
72. Anselm Bayly, A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing, London,
I77I, P- 39-
73. Sir John Hawkins, A General History of the Science and Practice of
Music, London, 1776, note, Bk. 12, chap. 112.
74. Giusto Ferdinando Tenducci, Instruction of Mr. Tenducci, to his
Scholars, London, ca. 1785, p. I.
75. Cf. Lanza, Elements of Singing, III, p. 44 f.
76. Op. cit., Ill, p. 170. This is a direct quotation and indicates a lack of
ability on the author's part to express himself clearly in English.
77. Cf. also Hiller, Anweisung, footnote p. 165, where Tosi's book is
recommended as the best for the study of ornamentation,
IX. EAR TRAINING
1. Job, XXIX, ii.
2. Thomas Dekker, The Gull's Hornbook, III.
3. Cf. Tosi, Observations, p. 36.
4. ". . . recitare" the word includes reading aloud, singing, etc.
5. ". . . piu con le orecchio, che con la voce." Giovanni Maria Artusi,
Delle imperfettioni della Moderna Musica, Venetia, 1600, p. 2.
6. Op. cit., facing p. 3.
7. Allesandro Guidotti, Prefazione alia rappresentazione di Animo e
Corpo di Emilio de Cavalieri, 1600. In Solerti, Le Origini, p. 5.
8. "Per procedere adunque con ordine diro che i primi, e i piu importanti
fondamenti sono I'intonazione della voce in tutte le corde, non solo, che
nulla non manchi sotto, 6 cresca di vantaggio, ma habia la buona maniera,
come ella si debba intonare." Caccini, Le Nuove Musiche, p. 3.
9. These opinions of Caccini may also be found in Solerti, Le Origini del
Melodramma, p. 62.
10. Diruta, // Transilvano, 1609, Pt. II, Bk. 4, p. 24.
180 NOTES: CHAPTER IX
11. "El perfecto cantante mas canta con la oreja, que con la boca." Cerone,
Melopeo, 1613, p. 70.
12. Doni, De Praestantia Musicae Veteris, 1647, P- 99-
13. Avella, Regale di Musica j 1657, P- "2-
14. Tosi, Observations^. 19.
15. Mancini, Riflessioni, p. 61.
1 6. Op. cit., p. 63.
17. Op. cit. } pp. 63 t
1 8. Cf. op. V., pp. 66 f.
19. Cty. tit., p. 67. It is of interest to note Mancini J s use of the masculine
gender in speaking of sopranos. Even as late as 1777 the term soprano meant
the high castrate voice whereas the female soprano was usually called canta-
trice.
20. Cf . op. cit.j pp. 69 ff. The author goes into some detail and quotes Tosi
to explain the actual mathematical differences between CJ and D|?, etc.
21. Cf. op. tit.,?. 155.
22. The Martellato or the "Hammer" was a vocal ornament consisting of
a series of repeated staccato tones.
23. Op. cit.j p. 156.
24. Op. cit., p. 157.
25. Op. nY.,pp. 158 f.
26. Op. cit., p. 162.
27. ". . . perche certamente non arrivera mai ad essere un perfetto
cantante." Manfredini, Regale Armoniche, 1797, pp. 43 ff.
28. ". . . perche non v* e cosa nella musica, che dispiaccia tanto, quanto
una falsa intonazione." Op. cit., p. 59.
29. ". . . premesso pero sempre il dominio assoluto di un orrechio idoneo
e favorevole alia musica; essendo questo il requisite principale per eseguire
una giusta, e perf etta intonazione." Op. cit., p. 60.
30. Cf. op. cit., p. 75.
31. See above, p. 90.
32. Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, 1619, III, 181.
33. "Wenn ein Gesang angefangen werden soil, soil ein jeder Sanger
seinen Ton entweder -aus dem Preambuliren des Organisten, oder aus der
Intonation des Directoris erlernen, damit er recht anfange und nicht bald
anfangs einen Fehler begehe." W. C. Printz, Compendium Musicae Signa-
toriae, 1714, chap. 4, T 9.
34. "Wenn man in den Schriften einiger alten Sangmeister lieset, dass die
Musiker unter sich night einig sind, ob man mit dem rechten Ton, oder mit
einer Secunde, Terz oder Quarte, ec. tiefer oder hoher, intoniren solle: so
siehet man daraus, dass der Fehler des Tonsuchens vorzeiten fur eine musi-
NOTES: CHAPTER IX 181
kalische Tugend muss seyn gehalten worden. Heutiges Tages haben keine
andere Personen, als die alten Miitterchen, Kinderwarterinnen, u.s.w. die
Erlaubniss, sich den Sprung einer Note in ihren Liederchen auf solche Art
zu erleichtern. Der Vocalist muss, in Ansehung der Intonation, die Instru-
mente, die sonsten in einer andern Aussicht Copien der Singstimme seyn
miissen, zu seiner Vorschrift nehmen." F. W. Marpurg, Anleitung zur
Musik, 1763, pp. 21 f.
35. Cf. J. S. Petri, Anleitung zur practischen Musik, 1767, p. 196.
36. ". . . damit der Schiller bald anfanglich zu einer reinen Intonation
angefuhret werde." Op. tit., p. 197.
37. "Man lean sie also erkennen, wenn man ihnen Tone vorsingt, die sie
nachstimmen sollen, und da wird man gemeiniglich bemerken, dass die, die
nach etlichen Lehrstunden immer in Tonsuchen bleiben und unter zehn
Probetonen dennoch kaum einen treifen, sind meistentheils zum Gesange
ganz untiichtig, und haben gar kein musikalisches Gehor." Op. cit., p. 213.
38. "Ob er einige vorgesungene Noten sogleich fassen, und genau nach-
singen konne, sonst mochte es mit seiner Fahigkeit nicht zum besten
stehen, und alle Miihe vergebens seyn." I. F. X. Kuerzinger, Getreuer
Unterricht; p. 5.
39. ". . . massen die menschliche Stimme ohne Begleitung eines Instru-
ments stets zum sinken geneigt ist." Loc. cit. This difference of opinion as to
the use of the violin could be accounted for in two ways. Petri placed the
violin in the hands of the beginning student where the pitch would likely be
uncertain whereas Kuerzinger would have the teacher accompany the singer
with the violin and we are to assume that the intonation would likely be true.
Moreover, the latter was also a violinist and the title of his instruction book
was as follows: Getreuer Unterricht zum singen mit Manieren, und die
Violin zu spielen.
40. "Ein Singmeister muss ein feines Gehor haben, fehlt es ihm daran,
oder singt er selbst unrein, wie will er andere rein singen machen?" Lasser,
Vollstandige Anleitung ', p. 1 1.
41. "Er untersuche vor alien das Gehor . . . seiner Lehrlinge." Loc. cit.
42. "Da die Stimmung der Klaviere, Orgeln und Jnstrumente in der
musikalischen Welt so ungleich ist, so rathe ich dem Meister, viel lieber nach
hoherer Stimmung zu unterrichten, weil es jenem Sanger, der an die tiefere
Stimmung gewohnt ist, alsdann sauer wird, by einer hohern zu singen." Op.
cit., p. 12. There was no internationally accepted standard of pitch until a
half century or more later.
43. B. Bacilly, Remarques, chap. 9, pp. 5I-59^
44. "Disposition du Gosier." The first is the voice itself.
45. "C'est par elle que la Voix se rectise quand elle est fausse; s'adoucit
1 82 NOTES: CHAPTER IX
quand elle est rude ; se modere quand elle est trop forte ; se soutient quand
elle est tremblante. Cest par elle que le gosier s'accoutume a marquer ce qu'il
f aut, et a couler ce qu'il ne f aut marquer que legerement ; et pour tout dire,
c'est par elle que Ton paruient a bien comprendre tout ce qui se prattique dans
1'Art de bien Chanter ; mesme on peut dire qu'avec beaucoup d'Oreille, on
peut acquerir de la Voix, et la faire quasi sortir du neant, par le travail, et
sur tout estant seconde d'un bon maistre, comme je diray dans le Chapitre
suivant." Op, dt. t p. 54.
46. Op.cit.,vp. 55 ff.
47. ". . . le comrnun proverbe qui porte qu'il vaut mieux chanter de
1'oreille que de la bouche." See Cerone p. 90 f.
48. "De mesme c'est 1'oiiy qui connoist et discerne tous les sons, et tous
leurs intervalles, leur bonne ou mauvaise suite, leurs consonances ou dis-
sonances, leurs temps et leurs mesures, leurs cadences et leur silences, leur
ton modere ou excessif , 1'accord ou discord des diverses voix ; et universelle-
ment toutes les autres choses qui concernent les sons et les voix qui sont
1'object de cette science." Pierre Jumilhac, La Science et la pratique, pp.
259 f.
49. "Enfin il n'y a rien que Ton doive tout consulter en tout ceci que
1'oreille qui est audessus des Regies de PArt meme puisque c'est elle qui en
doit juger." Nouvelle Methode tres facile pour apprendre le plein-chant,
Rouen, 1719, p. 21.
50. Blanchet, UArt du Chant, 1756. Cf. chap. 7, pp. 37-41.
51. "La Methode que ju viens d'enseigner ne contribuera pas peu a etendre
1'empire du Chant, en multipliant les talens de bien des personnes : les Dames
qui ont de la voix sans avoir de 1'oreille, pourront avec le secours de me regies
ajouter a leurs charmes, s'assurer une ressource centre les disgraces de Tage,
et esperer d'etre encore agreables, quand elles auront cesse d'etre aimables."
Op. cit., pp. 1 02 ff. This smacks of quackery. Fetis says that Blanchet was not
a musician but had made researches on the vocal organs and their mechanism
all of which have been forgotten. Cf . F. J. Fetis, Biographie Universelle des
MusicienSj 2d ed., Paris, 1877, I) P* 435*
52. ". . . dans tous les habiles Chanteurs, dont le nombre est infiniment
plus grand en Italic qu'en France." Rameau, Code de Musique^ p. 19.
53. Cf. op. cit., p. 22.
54. ". . . un premier moyen de former 1'oreille." Op. cit. f p. 21.
55. "On ne scauroit avoir trop d'attention quand on commence a chanter,
a sentir et faire sentir Tintervale et les modifications qu'il y a d'un son a un
autre. Je ne puis trop recommander de chanter avec des instruments, car je
suis tres-persuade que si 1'on chante faux si souvent et avec tant d'obstination,
cela vient du peu d'habitude d'entendre des accompagnements." Lecuyer,
Principes de I' art du Chant, p. 6.
NOTES: CHAPTER X 183
56. "Un ficolier enseigne avec un Violon chantera sa partie avec justesse
et exactitude." J. P. E. Martini, Melopee Moderne, p. 4.
57. "La Justesse de Tintonation est le premier point dont doivent s'occuper
1'ficolier et le Maistre. On ne peut supporter d'entendre chanter faux. Get
accident arrive quelque fois par foiblesse [sic} d'estomac; mais un ficolier qui
au bout d'un mois ne sauroit saisir avec justesse les sons d'un instrument, ou
chanter a Punisson d'une voix de son diapason, doit etre averti que son defaut
d'oreille est un obstacle a ce qu'il puisse jamais chanter, et consequemment
faire des progres." Loc. cit.
58. "On doit attaquer le son franc et juste, sans preparer et sans arriver a
ce son par aucune trainee." Mengozzi, Methode de Chant, p. u.
59. W. Turner, Sound Anatomized in a Philosophical essay on Musick,
London, 1724, p. 40.
60. Cf. Bayly, A Practical Treatise on Singing, 1771, pp. 37 f. We have
noted the author's acknowledgment of his debt to Tosi's "Observations." See
above, p. 87.
61. Tenducci, Instruction, 1785. Rule III, p. 4.
62. Corri, The Singer s Preceptor, pp. 1-4, 12-29 includes many exercises
for the development of intonation.
X. RESONATORS
1. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 1. 122.
2. Durante, Arie Devote. Cf, Ulrich, op. cit., p. 48.
3. Donati, Motetti, Vol. II, Rule III. Cf. Ulrich, op. cit., p. 63.
4. Tosi, Observations, p. 88.
5. Mancini, Riflessioni, p. 89.
6. Ibid., pp. 90 f .
7. Ibid., pp. 91 f.
8. Ibid., pp. 92 f .
9. "Ogni cantante deve situar la sua bocca, come suol $ituarla, quando
naturalmente sorride, cioe in modo, che i denti di sopra siano perpendicolar-
mente, e mediocremente distacatti da quelli di sotto"Ibid., p. 93.
10. Ibid., p. 95-
11. Ibid., p. 161.
12. Ibid., p. 96.
13. "La maniera di aprir la bocca e una regola essenzialissima, dependendo
molto da essa il formar la voce chiara, e la schietta e chiara pronunzia delle
parole. Eppure questa regola tanto importante, pochi cantanti I'osservano
con esattezza, per trascuvaggine certamente dei primi loro maestri ... La
bocca dunque, cantando, non si deve aprire ne troppo, ne poco, ma una cosa
giusta, tenendola aperta come in atto di sorridere; ne si ha da sporger la.
1 84 NOTES: CHAPTER X
lingua sulle labbra, lo che fa can tare nel naso, e pronunziare da scilinguato."
V. Manfredini, Regole Armoniche, p. 59.
14. Cf. op. cit., p. 74.
15. ". . . dutch die Nasen und mit unterhaltung der Stimme in Halse."
Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, III, p. 182.
1 6. "Die Vocales wollen in der Pronunciation cine rechts ihnen zuko-
mende Eroffnung des Mundes haben und soil nicht eine in die andere veran-
dert werden.. Es stehet greulich wenn man Dius fur Deus, nuster fur noster,
gretia fur gratia u.s.f . singet. . . . Die Stimme soil nicht zwichen den Lip-
pen oder holen Backen sondern in der Kehle formiret werden." Printz, Com-
pendium, chap. 4, IT 4, 6.
17. Mattheson, Folk. Cap'mter, p. 97, T 21.
1 8. ". . . dem sie haben hiebey sonst keine Verrichtung, als nur, dass sie
fein bescheidentlich auf die Seite treten." Loc. dt. f T 22.
19. Agricola, Anleitung > pp. 26 f. ; note 14.
20. "Oder sie konnen auch durch willkuhrlich angenommene Fehler, z. e.
wenn man beym Singen die Zunge ohne Noth zuriick zieht, und krumm
macht, welche doch, so viel als moglich ist, platt und gerade im Munde biegen
sollte, ingleichen wenn man den Mund nicht weit genug erofnet oder die
Zahne zusammendriicket entstehen. Aus dem ersten und zweyten Falle
nimmt das sogenannte Singen durch die Nase, und aus dem dritten das Singen
in der Kehle [il cantar di gola] seinen Ursprung : und dieser Mangel konnen
noch viele andere mehr seyn. Sind es nun Naturfehler so konnen sie f reylich
nicht verbessert werden : sind es aber zuf allige oder angenommene Fehler ;
so darf man nur ihre Ursachen aus dem Wege raumen, oder den Theilen des
M'undes ihre rechte Stellung zu geben suchen : und hierdurch sind sie gar
wohl zu verbessern." Op. cit., p. 30.
21. ". . . um dem Tone nicht am freyen Durchgang hinderlich zu seyn."
Marpurg, Anleitung zur Musik, p. 23.
22. Our singers of florid passages today rarely observe such a rule. Cf.
op. cit., p. 37.
23. "Hell ist die Stimme, wenn sie durch den offenen Mund, ohne Zwang
und Driicken der Kehle, frey aus der Brust heraus kommt." Hiller, Anwei-
sung, p. 6.
24. ". . . die anstandigste beym Gesange, und die bequemste zur Hervor-
bringung eines guten Tons der Stimme." Loc. cit.
25. Abbe George Joseph Vogler, Stimmbildungskunst, Mannheim, 1776.
Cf.p.3-
26. Petri, Anleitung zur Pracktisches Musik. Cf. p. 197.
27. Kuerzinger, Getreuer Unterricht. Cf. p. 51.
28. Nina D' Aubigny von Engelbrunner, Briefe an Natalie iiber den
Gesang, 1803, p. 72.
NOTES: CHAPTER XI 185
29. Op. cit., p. 112.
30. Op. cit., pp. 114 f.
31. ". . . denn bey jedem Selbstlauter ist ja die Oeffnung desselben nicht
so ganz die namliche." Lasser, V ollstandige Anleitung, p. 12.
32. Jumilhac, La Science, pp. 263 f .
33. ". . . de crainte que passant dans la tete ou dans le nez elle ne
degenere en fausset par sa sourdite." Bailleux, Solfeges, p. 121.
34. "La position de la bouche doit etre naturelle et un peu riante." Mar-
tini, Melopee, p. 4.
35. "Le Maitre doit aussi corriger les Ecoliers qui ont le defaut de chanter
du nez ou de la gorge. S'il ne peut y reussir, il doit s'en separer." Loc. cit.
36. Cf. Mengozzi, Methode, pp. 8 f.
37. "En Vocalisant, Peleve doit faire attention a tenir tou jours la bouche
egalement ouverte, et sur tout a ne jamais mouvois ni le menton ni la langue."
Op. cit., p. II.
38. Bayly, A Practical Treatise j p. 31.
39- Ibid., p. 32.
40. Ibid., p. 34.
41. Burney, The Present State of Music in Germany, I, pp. 245 f.
42. Tenducci, Instruction, Rule IV, p. 4.
43. Ibid., Rule IX, loc. cit.
44. Lanza, Elements, I, p. 23.
45. Cf. ibid., I, pp. 36-48.
XI. VOICE REGISTERS
1. Charles Churchill, The Rosciad, I. 1003.
2. Cf . pp. 40 f.
3. Cf. p. 74.
4. ". . . nel quale possa cantare in voce piena e* naturale per i sf uggire le
voci finte . . . Ma dalle voci finte non pud nascere nobilita di buon canto che
nascera da una voce naturale comoda per tutte le corde." Caccini, Le Nuove
Musiche, pp. 8 f . Also in Solerti, Le Origini, pp. 68 f . Caccini is, in all likeli-
hood, speaking of the masculine voice.
5. Cerone, Melopeo, p. 326. It could be that in speaking of "head voice"
Cerone had in mind the falsetto voice.
. 6. F. Rognoni, Selva di varii passaggi seconds fuso moderno, 1620. In
Ulrich, op. cit., p. 121.
7. Delia Valle, Delia musica, in Solerti, op. cit., p. 162.
8. Andrea di Modena, Canto Harmonica, Moderna, 1690, p. 214.
9. F. S. Santoro, Scola di canto fermo, Naples, 1715, p. 2O.
10. Cf . Nassare, Escuela Musica, II, 436. Also Vallara, Primizie di canto
fermo, p. 4, Rule 14*
1 86 NOTES: CHAPTER XI
11. Tosi, Observations, p. 23.
12. Op. dt., pp. 23 f.
13. Loc. dt.
14. Op. dt., pp. 22 f.
15. Mancini, Riflessioni, pp. 58 f.
1 6. Ibid., pp. 59 f.
17. Ibid., pp. 109 f.
1 8. IfoW., p. HO.
19. I bid., pp. Iiof.
20. 7<f., p. 148.
21. Ibid., p. 68,
22. "Dell' unire la voce di petto colla voce di testa, la quale volgarmente
chiamasi falsett." Manfredini, Regole Armoniche, p. 61.
23. ". . . che la voce sembri tutta di un registro, che vuol dire tutta
equale." Loc. dt.
24. Manfredini uses the word "falsetto."
25. "Questa cosa si fa non sforzando le corde acute di petto, e rinforzando
piuttosto le corde basse del falsetto; o facendo il contrario, se le corde di
petto f ossero mai deboli, e mancanti ; e quelle di falsetto, abbondanti, e forti."
Loc. dt.
26. Cf. Seth Calvisius, Musicae artis, Jena, 1612. His eleven rules for
singing are quoted in Forkel, Algemeine Geschichte, II, 65^ ; also in Albert
Allerup, Die "Musica Practica" des Johann A. Herbst, Kassel, 1931, pp.
32 ff. Note rules 2, 4, and 6.
27. Cf. Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, III, 181.
28. Cf. M'attheson, Mithridat wider den Gift elner welschen Satyr, Ham-
burg, 1749, pp. I4of.
29. Cf. Agricola, Anleitung. All the discussion that follows will be found
on pp. 22, 31-37 under note "o."
30. Cf. below, pp. 131 S.
31. Cf. below, p. 131.
32. ". . . dass die Erofnung der Luftrohre geschmeidiger, und folglich
weniger elastich, die Luftrohre an sich selbst enger, und die Lunge nicht so
ausdehnbar ist, wird man aus der Beschreibung der Bruststimme schon hin-
langlich haben abnehmen konnen. Es ist also nicht nothig weiter etwas davon
zu gedenken." Op. dt., p. 34. It is difficult to follow the author's reasoning
here for the statement would seem to be a contradiction. Flexibility and
suppleness in the larynx should make it more elastic than less so, but his
theory that the head voice lacks the clarity and sharpness of the chest voice
must be made to appear reasonable.
33. "Die meisten Naturfciindiger sowohl als Tonkiinstler beschreiben die
NOTES: CHAPTER XI 187
Falsett-tone, welche bey jeder Stimme sowohl in der aussersten Hohe als in
der aussersten Tief e vorkommen konnen, durch gezwungene Tone, und eine
Falsettstimme durch gezwungene Stimme. Aber wie warden denn diese
gezwungenen Tone heraus gebracht? Wir wollen erstlich die Falsett-tone in
der Hohe untersuchen. Man weis, dass man durch einen gewissen fiihlbaren
zwang, den man dem Halse im Singen anthut, viel mehrere hohe Tone
heraus bringen kann, als sonst ordentlich der Umfang einer jeden Stimme
mit sich bringet. Wer mit seiner natiirlichen Stimme, es sey was fur eine es
wolle, so weit in die Hohe singt, als er ohne Zwang kommen kann, du wird
finden, dass ihm endlich keiner mehr anspricht; und denn konnte er glauben,
dass die Luftrohre nunmehr ganzlich verschlossen sey, dass sie folglich keine
Luft mehr heraus lassen, und also auch keinen Ton mehr angeben konne.
Bemuht er sich aber ein wenig, noch mehrere Tone hinauf zu singen ; so wird
er bemerken konnen, dass ihm noch einige hohere ausprechen werden, welche
aber, ohne Kunst anzuwenden, dem Laute nach etwas von den vorigen
unterschieden sind ; und er wird wahrnehmen, dass die aus der Glottis heraus
gehende Luft weiter hinten in der Tiefe des Gaumens anschlagt. Es kann
also fceine andere Ursache der Hervorbringung dieser Tone seyn, als diese,
dass der ganze Kopf der Luftrohre hoher gespannet, und weiter in das
Hinterste der Hohle des Gaumens, unter dem Zungenbeine, hinauf gezogen
wird. Die noch mehr gespannete Glottis f angt in dieser Lage von neuem an,
ihre noch iibrige Oefnung bey immer hoher steigenden Tonen zusammen
zu ziehen ; bis sie sich endlich ganz und gar schliesst, und weiter kein Ton
mehr heraus kommt. Durch dieses Hinaufspannen des Kopfes der Luftrohre
wird also auch die jedem Tone sich bequemende Lange der ganzen Hohle
des Mundes noch mehr verkiirzet. Geht man im Singen wieder mit dieser
Falsett-tonen nach der Tiefe zuriick; so wird einer der dabey auf sich
selbst Achtung giebt, finden, dass bey einem gewissen Tone, der Kopf der
Luftrohre, seine hoch gespannte Stellung auf einmal verlasst, und sich wieder
an seinen vorigen Ort setzet." Op .tit., pp. 34 f.
34. "Alle und jede natiirliche Stimmen, wenn sie auch nicht vom puren
Falsettsingen Profession machen, konnen in der Hohe einige Falsett-tone
angeben." Op. tit., p. 36.
35. ". . . je mehr ist unsere Schuldigkeit, die Allmacht und Weisheit des
Schopfers in tiefster Demuth zu bewundun, und zu verehren." Lor. tit.
36. "Es ist aber die Kunst und der natiirliche Vortheil derjenigen deren
Stimmen durch gehendes egal klingen." Op. tit., p. 37.
37. "Die Falsett-tone in der Hohe hingegen, sind bey vielen Sangern,
welche recht damit umzugehen wissen, eben so stark und schon als die
natiirlichen hohen Tone." Loc. tit.
38. Cf. Marpurg, Anleitung, pp. 19 f.
1 88 NOTES: CHAPTER XI
39. ". . . wenigstens ist hier die Verbindung der Falsetstimme mit der
natiirlichen weit leichter, und der Uebergang von einer zur andern schwerer
zu bemerken." Hiller, Anweisungj p. 10.
40. "Durch die Beyfugung einiger Falsettone wird der Umfang der
natiirlichen Stimme erweitert. Nur muss der Sanger darauf Acht haben, dass
man den Uebergang von einer Art der Stimme zur andern nicht zu sehr
gewahr werde. Die Grenzen der einen miissen sich noch bis auf ein paar Tone
ins Gebiete der andern erstrecken; und der Sopranist, der von c zu c bis ins a
mit du natiirlichen Stimme singt, und sodann mit der Falsetstimme die iibri-
gen Tone hinzu setzt, muss mit dieser auch schon in f eintreten konnen, ohne
dass man einen Abfall bemerkt. Es verursacht aber allerdings einige Schwie-
rigkeit, den untern Tonen des Falsets eine der Bruststimme gemasse
Starke zu geben." Op. cit., p. II.
41. From the fistula or pipe which sounds high.
42. ". . . eine unharmonische oder misslingende Verkehrung derselben."
Petri, Anleitung, p. 205. The author here is evidently concerned with the
true-tempered scale.
43. "Ich weiss z. e., ich kan bis c hinunter mit dem Falsett, so soil ich
mit e oder d schon wechseln, wenn ich absteige; im Aufsteigen aber bis
c oder d noch die Bruststimme gebrauchen. Die hohen Bassisten werden also
durch das Falsett zu den besten Tenorarien brauchbar, welches wenigstens
im Nothf alle von nicht geringem Vortheile ist. Aber doch gestehe ich, dass
wenige ein gutes Falsett lernen, das sich von der Bruststimme nicht merklich
unterscheide." Op. cit. f p. 206.
44. Cf. Aubigny, Brief e, pp. 92-1 oo.
45. ". . . wo die Bruststimme zu ende ist, und das Falsett, oder die
sogenannte Kopfstimme eintritt." Lasser, Vollstdndige Anleitung, p. 12.
46. ". . . wie wenn man [um mich des Ausdrucks der Italiener zu be-
dienen] auf der Orgel zwey verschiedene Register zieht." Op. cit., p. 13.
47. ". . . wird am zuverlassigsten erreichet, wenn man sich bemiihet und
gewohnet, sowohl den Letzten Ton der Bruststimme, als den ersten des
Falsetts auf beyde Arten anzugeben." Loc. dt.
48. ". . . tout comme on tire de la flute des tons plus hauts en y faisant
entrer le vent avec plus de force." Kempelen, Le Mecanisme de la parole,
p. 93 This book is a study in diction and need not be considered too seriously.
49. "La grande difficulte consiste a rendre imperceptible le passage de la
voix de poitrine a celle du gosier, et de celle du gosier a celle de tete, de
maniere que toutes ces trois voix n'en forment qu'une, c'est-a-dire, que tous
les tons en parcourant leur espace ayent la meme force, la meme qualite et la
meme facilite." Martini, Melopee Moderne, p. 5.
NOTES: CHAPTER XII 189
division particuliere dans Fetendue de la voix, et cette division s'apelle
Registre. Comme ces sons de Poitrine different pour le caractere des sons
qui prennent leur naissance dans la Tete, ceux ci a leur tour ferment une
autre division ou Registre dans Tetendue de la meme voix . . . Nous avons
done adopte le mot registre des Italiens parce qu'il nous a paru exprimer d'une
maniere concise les differens caracteres de son qui se trouve dans 1'etendue
de la voix." Mengozzi, Methode de Chant, p. 4, note 2.
51. Cf. loc. tit.
52. Ibid., p. 5. The actual pitches of these tones were probably from a
semi-tone to a whole-tone lower than the standard pitch of today.
53. Loc. tit.
54. Cf. op. cit. f pp. 12 f.
55. Bayly, Practical Treatise, pp. 32 f.
56. Tenducci, Instruction, p. 4.
57. Cf. articles on Martini in the music lexicons of Fetis, Mendel, and
Eitner.
XII. VOCAL ORGANS
1. "Vox nihil aliud quam ictus aer." Seneca, Naturales Quaestiones. BL
II, sec. 29.
2. Cf. Artusi, UArte del Contrapunto, p. I. Hippocrates and Aristotle
wrote to the same effect and many others after them.
3. "II trillo descritto de me sopra una cor da sola . . . cioe il commin-
ciarsi dalla prima semiminima eribattere ciascuna nota con la gola sopra la
vocale 'a/ fino all ultima breve." Caccini, La Nuove Musiche, p. 4. Playford,
in his free translation of Le Nuove Musiche sees fit to add that "some ob-
serve, that it is rather the shaking of the Uvula or Pallate on the throat in one
sound upon a note." In order to achieve this skill Playford says, "The most
surest [sic] and ready way is by imitation of those who are perfect in the
same," although some have learned by beating or shaking "with their Finger
upon their Throat, which by often practice came to do the same notes exactly
without." John Playford, An Introduction to the Skill of Music in Three
Books, I2th ed., London, 1694. Cf. pp. 43 f. Pp. 31-46 are a translation of
Le Nuove Musiche.
4. Cf . Cerone, Melopeo, pp. 324 f .
5. Op. cit., p. 551.
6. Avella, Regole di Musica, 1657. Cf. p. 43.
7. ". . . la voce e una ripercussione d'aria respirata all arteria vocale."
Berardi, Ragionamenti, p. 42.
8. Cf. Bontempi, Historia Musica, Perugia, 1695, p. 84.
9. One is forced to the conclusion that Bontempi regarded the terms
i 9 o NOTES: CHAPTER XII
"scutiform" and "cricoid" as interchangeable or else that either one cartilage
or the other is involved in each act of phonation.
10. Cf. op. cit., p. 109. There is apparent further lack of understanding
with regard to the glottis and the epiglottis.
11. "Espongono queste differenze i Fisici, cagionate dal sito, dal meato,
dalla figura, dall* aria, dalP espiratione, e da tutti i temperamenti della
laringe; fermate sopra gl'immobili fondamenti della incontestabile ragione.
La nostra opinione e, che tutto quello che si raccoglie dalF esperienza non
habbia indigenza di ragione. Se questa non venga dei Fisici ammessa, sara loro
ufficio il darne altra sentenza. Et essendo esposto questo gando la Natura per
ritrovarlo con la ragione, noi senza filosof arvi sopra saremo content! di cono-
scerle con rinsegnamento della propria esperienza." Op. cit., p, 1 10.
12. Cf. Zaccaria Tevo, // Musico Testore, Venezia, 1706, p, 32.
13. Cf. ibid., pp. 33 f.
14. Cf. ibid., facing p. 35.
15. Nassare, Escuela Musica, II, p. 432 f. These comments on voice pro-
duction can only be considered inept.
1 6. Cf. Mancini, Riflessioni, p. 54.
17. Ibid.,?. 55-
1 8. Ibid., p. 57.
19. "La voce considerata in se stessa non e altro, che Taria sospinta in su
dai polmoni, la quale introducendosi pel canale, che si chiama trachea, indi
assotigliandosi per la fessura della glottide, e nella cavita della bocca ripercuo-
tendosi, esce poi dalle labra formando un romore, o suono inarticolato."
Stefano Arteago, Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano dalla sua origine
fino al present e, Venezia, 1785, p. 61.
20. Ibid., p. 65.
21. Manfredini, Regole Armoniche. Cf. pp. 54, 75.
22. "Vox in gutture, non labijs vel buccis efformanda." Quoted in Forkel,
Algemeine Geschichte, II, 65^ ; also in Allerup, Die "Musica Practica' des
Johannes A. Herbst, p. 32.
23. Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, I, pp. 188 f.
24. Kircher, Magnes, sive de arte magnetica opus tripartium, pp. 843 f .
25. Kircher seems vague as to the distinction between the glottis and
epiglottis, and repeatedly combines the terms in this way as if he considered
them interchangeable.
26. Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, p. 20. It should be mentioned that
although Kircher was held in great respect by contemporaries, subsequent
scholars have gradually diminished his stature.
27. ". . . aus dessen Spalte, mittelst iiberaus subtiler Oeffnungen und
Bewegungen, der Klang hervorgebracht wirtt" Mattheson,
Capellmeister, p. 96,
NOTES: CHAPTER XII 191
28. ". . . dessen Substantz aber viel weicher seyn mag, etwa wie ein
Pergament." Loc. cit.
29. ". . . dennoch aber thut die Glottis selbst ganz gewiss das meiste und
vornehmste dabey : und ist also weder die Lunge, noch die Zunge, weder die
Gurgel, noch der Gaumen die rechte Ursache des Tones ; vielweniger sind es
die Zahne und Lefzen, welche alle keinen weitern Antheil daran haben, als
dass die erste den Wind hergibt, die andern aber, nachdem der Schall durch
die Spalte des Ziingleins oben an der Lufftrohre, mittelst dreizehn Musceln
gezeuget worden, fein hohl, vernehmlich, richtig, und ungehindert heraus
lassen. Es ist also die einzige menschliche Glottis das klangreicheste, ange-
nehmste, vollenkommenste und richtigste Instrument, oder besser zu sagen,
sie ist das einzige und allein richtige Instrument unter der grossen Menge
fclingender Werckzeuge, sie mogen durch Kunst verfertiget, oder von der
Natur hervorgebracht werden ; denn alle diese vom Winde getriebene oder
mit Saiten bezogene Instrumente, nur die Geigen ausgenommen, sind mit
einander falsch, gegen die menschliche Stimme zu rechnen, und wenn sie
auch auf das beste gestimmet waren." Loc. cit. The last statement is taken
from an article by Dodart in Memoir es de UAcad. Roy. de Sciences, 1700,
p. 1 6, entitled "Memoire sur les Causes de la voix de THornine." Mattheson
is incorrect in giving the pagination as p. 338. The process of phonation de-
scribed seems to be at least partly deduced from Dodart's Memoire. That he
really did so is further borne out by his comment on voice production in his
Mithridat, p. 142. Here he explains that high tones cause a moderate con-
traction of the windpipe and its sensitive organs while low tones result from
the opposite action. If the entire range were to be suddenly sung from bottom
to top the glottal opening would quickly contract, which, of course, is the
theory of Galen. He also compares the voice to the oboe saying that they are
"to some extent" alike.
30. The reader will find the following discussion in Agricola, Anleitung
zur Singkunstj pp. 25-42.
31. "Von zweenen dieser obern Knorpel, und zween davon vorwarts hin
abgehenden festen Bandern, wird die kleine Erofnung der Luftrohre, welche
rima glottidis heisst, umgeben, und von einem andern, weicher oben driiber
lieget, und vorn an dem schildformigen Knorpel befestiget, hinten aber frey
ist, und folglich auf und zugehen kann, bedecket. Dieser letztere wird
Epiglottis oder der Kehldeckel genennet. Alle diese Knorpel des Kopfes der
Luftrohre sind durch elastiche Ligamente mit einander verbunden. Damit
aber auch die zu der Bewegung dieser Knorpel und Ligamente nothige Luft
immer da sey: so ist die Lunge vermogend, dieselbe, durch den Canal der
Luftrohre, und die unten von ihm ab, und in die ganze Substanz der Lunge
hinein gehenden vielen kleinen Aestchen, nicht nur von aussen einzuziehen,
sondern auch mit vielen Grade.n der Starfce wfeck* heraus z,u treihen.
i 92 NOTES: CHAPTER XII
die jetzt beschriebene Erofnung der Luftrohre, vermittelst der dazu be-
stimmten Muskeln, erweitert und zusammen gezogen werden kann ; so kann
sie f olglich hohe und tiefe Tone angeben.
"Die beyden Seiten der Erofnung der Luftrohre stehen aufs hochste um
eine Linie, oder um den zehnten Theil eines Zolles von einander. Dieser sehr
kleinen Entfernung ungeachtet, kann doch ein Mensch mit seiner Stimme
ganz bequem zwolf ganze Tone angeben. Folglich wird, wenn ein solcher
einen ganzen Ton angiebt, oder eine grosse Secunde hoher oder defer singt, die
Erofnung der Luftrohre um %20 Theil von einem Zolle enger oder weiter.
Die Naturkiindiger haben aber auch noch iiber dieses erwiesen, das die Stimme
einen ganzen Ton wieder zum wenigsten in hundert andere ganz kleine Tone
eintheilen, und f olglich ein Mensch, der zwolf ganze Tone singen kann, 2400
verschiedene Tone herausbringen konne; welche alle noch durch ein, im
hochsten Grade, seines Gehor, (als welches wahrnehmen kann, wenn eine
Saite nur um den hunderten Theil kiirzer gemacht wird) mxissten unter-
schieden werden konnen. Sie haben noch weiter erwiesen, dass wenn man auf
diesen Unterscheid nicht mehr Acht haben will, die Anzahl der Tone, welche
ein Mensch hervorbringen kann, unendlich gross seyn wurde: weil sich die
Erofnung der Luftrohre, wie eine jede Linie, in unendlich viele unendlich
Heine Theile eintheilen lasst; welches auch wirklich geschieht, wenn die
Stimme von einem Tone nach und nach zum andern kommt, ohne dass der
Schall aufhoret Denn indem sich die Erofnung der Luftrohre zusam-
men zieht; so geschieht ihre Bewegung durch alle Puncte ihres Diame-
ters.
"Wenn man einen allzutiefen Ton hervorbringen will, so wird die Erof-
nung der Luftrohre dergestalt gross gemacht, dass die Luft durch dieselbe
einen ganz freyen Durchgang findet. Folglich gerath sie dadurch nicht mehr
in eine zitternde Bewegung, und folglich auch entsteht kein Schall mehr.
Wenn man aber einen allzuhohen Ton angeben will, so wird die Erofnung
der Luftrohre ganz verschlossen, die Luft findet keinen Ausgang mehr, und
kann also keinen Schall verursachen." Op. cit., pp. 25 f.
32. "Diese JBewegungen.nun mussen, wenn man singen will, mit jenen,
welche nur zur Hervorbringung des Tones dienen, aufs geschickteste verei-
niget werden, und in der freundschaftlichsten Verbindung stehen." Op. cit.,
p. 27-
33. Ibid., p. 28. Agricola also uses the masculine when speaking of a
soprano. Cf. p. 92, n. 19.
34. "Diese Frage wollen wir den Naturkiindigern zu weiterer Unter-
suchung iiberlassen," Ibid., p. 29.
35. Cf. iUJ.jp. 31-
36. Cf. i"Wrf v pp. 30 f.
37. Of. ci*.,pp. 37 ff.
NOTES: CHAPTER XII 193
38. "Uns, die wir Werkzeuge der Stimme hier, nicht sowohl als Anato-
misten oder Aerzte, sondern vielmehr als Sanger betrachten, kommt, bey
einem allgemeinen Stillschweigen der andern Naturkiindiger, iiber diesen
Punct, nicht zu, zu entscheiden, ob die, mit so vielen Versuchen bestarketen
Entdeckungen des Herrn Ferrein in alien Stiicken ihre Richtigkeit haben, oder
nicht : da sonst, wider seine daraus hergeleiteten Folgen, wenig einzuwenden
seyn wiirde." Ibid., p. 40.
39. J. A. Hiller, Anweisung, p. 6.
40. "Quasi la figure d'une oval." Marin Mersenne, Harmonie Uni-
verselle, Vol. II, prop. 3, p. 5.
41. ". . . est produit par Fair qui est pousse du poumon et de la poitrine,
et par . . . le battement, qui s'en fait par le moyen de 1'artere vocale du
larinx, de la glotte, du palais, des dents, et des levres." Jumilhac, La Science,
p. 46. Cf . also p. 48.
42. ". . . c'est de la flexibilite de la luette que depend toute la variete des
tons de la voix." Nouvelle Methode, p. 12. Further explanations are offered
as to why this is so but they are too naive to be considered. Eitner suggests
that the author was an ecclesiastic of the diocese of Rouen. This "singing
method" was a popular one since there were several editions over a period
of more than a century.
43. "Mais de rien on ne peut rien faire."
44. ". . . c'est elle qui en se dilatant, ou en s'etrecissant avec Taritenoide
a 1'aide des muscles du larynx, et par le moyen de L'epiglotte fait la voix de
superius ou de Basse-taille, de basse-contre ou de haute-contre" Renir Carre,
L,e Maistre des novices dans I' art du chanter, Paris, 1744, pp. 1 9 f.
45. "Enfin ou assure que la luette ou petite membrane cartilagineuse
posee sur la trachee-artere, comme les doigts sur une flute ou sur un flageolet,
lorsqu'elle est bien proportioned; c'est a dire lorsqu'elle n'est ni trop
grosse et pesante, ni trop petite, contribue infiniment a la force et
a la beaute de la voix; parce que reglant le volume d'air qui doit
entrer et celui qui doit fortir, elle articule plus ou moins la voix suivant le
sujet et les circonstances, lui donne ses agremens et mesure ses cadences ou
tremblemens." Loc. cit.
46. "II ne doit pas seulement reflechir sur ses organs ; mais encore sur ceux
de ses Ecoliers : s'il vient a bout de les connaitre . . . il parviendra a faire
chanter avec succes les sujets les plus ineptes." Blanchet, Uart du chant, p. 5.
We have already noted, pp. 97 f ., the unusual claims made by this author with
regard to ear training.
47. Ibid., pp. 6 f .
48. ". . . est la partie la plus etroite et la plus basse de Touverture du
larinx: c'est une fente horisontale tsniunee par c[eux levres, Tune a droit et
Tautre a gauche." Ibid., p. 7,
i 94 NOTES: CHAPTER XII
49. ". . . sensible auxyeux, ceque j'ai tache derendre sensible a Fesprit."
Loc. tit.
50. "Si les levres de la glotte pourvoient etre plus tendens a Finfini, Ton
pourroit en tirer une infinite de sons de differentes sortes." Ibid., p. 17.
51. Ibid., p. 23. Blanchet's theory of voice production appears to be sound,
based as it was on the experiments of Ferrein, but his speculation carries him
astray, as we have already seen in his insistence that pitch could be varied by
a conscious control of the rise and fall of the larynx. Cf. p. 498.
52. Cf. ibid.j chap. 7, pp. 37-41.
53. "Nous ne pouvons disposer du larynx, de la tr ache e-art ere, de la glotte,
nous ne voyons pas leurs differentes configurations, transformations, a chaque
son que nous voulons donner ; mais nous savons du moins qu'il ne f aut pas les
contraindre dans ces differences, qu'il faut leur laisser la liberte de suivre
leur mouvement natural." Rameau, Code de Musique Pratique, p. 16.
54. Ibid., p. 19. From these remarks it is obvious that Rameau was igno-
rant of or did not agree with the conclusions of Ferrein,
55. "Un peu d'air presse par les poumons a travers la fente etroite de la
glotte produit la voix; plusieurs obstacles que la langue, les dents, et les
levres opposent a cet air resonnant causent Finflexion et la variete des sons,
dont chacun a sa signification propre." Kempelen, Le mechanisme de la parole,
p. 27.
56. Ibid., p. 60.
57- IHd. f p. 83.
58. Ibid., p. 1 06.
59. "La definition philosophique de cet organe n'entrerait pas utilement
dans le plan d'une Methode de Chant; mais, pour Intelligence des differens
preceptes qui doivent y etre enonces, il est necessaire d'etablis les notions prin-
cipales des moyens qui contribuent a Faction de la voix." Mengozzi, Methode
de Chant, p. I.
60. "Le Larinx est un des organes de la respiration et le principal instru-
ment de la voix, c'est la partie superieure de la trachee-artere, il a la forme
d'un canal court et cylindrique qui est ouvert par une fente ovale qu'on appelle
Glotte; par cette fente Fair descend et remonte quand on respire, chante ou
parle : elle a la f aculte de s'etrecir ou de s'elargir a volonte, et sa plus ou moins
grande dilatation produit toutes les varietes des tons de la voix humaine : la
glotte est defendue par un cartilage tres mince et tres flexible, appelle epi-
fflotte; ce cartilage est mobile et a la forme d'une f euille de lierre, il est con-
cave interieurment et convexe superieurement ; sa principale attribution est de
recouvrir la glotte au besoin." Ibid., pp. i f.
6 1. It is included here only because the author, Corri, was trained in Italy
under Porpora and became one of the most influential singing teachers in
JCngland,
NOTES: CHAPTER XIII 195
62. Likely Dr. Samuel Arnold, d. 1802.
63. Corri, The Singer's Preceptor, p. 4.
64. His book, "Observations on Vocal Music" was published in 1821.
65. Op. cit., p. i.
XIII. VOCAL HYGIENE
1. Tosi, Observations on the Florid Song, p. 147.
2. Mattheson, Mithridat wider den Gift einer welschen Satyr, Hamburg,
p. 48.
3. Petri, Anleitung zur pracktischen Musik, p. 214.
4. Cf. above, pp. 19 f.
5. Cf. Cerone, Melopeo, pp. 37, 48-52, 60-61, 174.
6. Cf. ibid., pp. 327 ff.
7. Uberti, Contrast Musico, Rome, 1630; cf. p. 9.
8. Doni, De Praestantia, p. 100. It must be said that the information con-
cerning Nero was taken from Suetonius and might therefore be considered
legendary. A later statement of Doni's is of interest, in which he says that
the people of Asia Minor excel in sweetness of voice and aptitude for singing,
not only because of luxury and wealth and softness of spirit, and lively and
happy disposition, but because of the clemency of the sky and the excellence
of the water. Ibid., p. 104.
9. Avella quotes Celsus [fl: 1st c.] to the effect that for a voice to be
preserved it is necessary for a man to be now in his villa, now in the city, again
hunting, then fishing, and to rest from time to time. Cf. Avella, Reaole di
Musica, p. 127.
10. Ldc. cit. Again he refers to Medicina, Bk. I, of Celsus, where accord-
ing to Avella it is written that the singer should water his wine well and if
he is elderly he should drink natural and good wine; Middle-aged singers
will do well to take a little water along with wine, in order to prevent the
inflammation which is common at this age, especially in warm weather. In
winter, however, drink pure wine, not too strong, and abstain from debauch-
ery. It must be said here that Book I of the Medicina referred to does not
offer this advice particularly to singers but rather to all. Since Avella con-
siders good health requisite to good singing, he may be pardoned for the
liberties he has taken with the written word of Celsus. Since Cerone had al-
ready written to the same effect, it is possible that still earlier writers were
guilty of misrepresenting the text of Celsus.
11. "Todos estos remedies que aqui ponemos, son muy buenos, y faciles de
hazer, para conservacion de la vox humana ; usando de ellos con moderacion,
y consulta del docto Medico." Lorente, El Porque de la Musica. Cf. pp.
727 ff. There is nothing original in this work but it is interesting in that he
attaches a great cl$a] gf importance to good health for the singer.
196 NOTES: CHAPTER XIII
12. Tosi, op. cit., p. 80.
13. Op. cit., p. 89-
14. Op. dt tj p. 144. The reader is again referred to the quotation from
Tosi at the beginning of this chapter in which he advises the singer against
feigned indispositions.
15. Mancini, op. cit., p. 44.
1 6. Op. cit.,pp. 70 f.
17. Cf. Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, I, p. 188.
1 8. Cf. op. cit., pp. 189, 190, 198.
19. "Ein Sanger soil nicht ubermassig schreyen, wie die Dorff-Kiister und
Acker-Studenten, sondern zwar laut, und mit ziemlicher Starke, doch lie-
blich und anmuthig singen." Printz, Compendium, chap. 4, 1T 7.
20. "Wer aber wol singen will, der muss nothwendig alles, was zur
Stimmes gehoret, mit Fleiss untersuchen, ihrer schonen und warten, sie iiben,
lencken, regieren, zwingen und unterhalten." Mattheson, Vollkommene
Kapellmeister, p. 94, IF 3. Cf . also 1T 2.
21. Cf. op. dt tj p. 95,1F8.
22. "Unter den Teutchen Sangern habe ich keinen grossern Phonascum
gekannt, als den beruhmten Capellmeister Bimmler, welcher, wenn er des
Abends singen sollte, sich des Tages der gewohnlichen Mittags-Mahlzeit
enthielt, von Zeit zu Zeit etwas Fanchel, wie einen Thee, zu sich nahm, und
inzwischen bey dem Clavichord, mit gemahliger und gelinder Durch-smgung
seiner Partie sich stets iibte, auch solchen Fleiss darauf wandte dass er sie
allemahl auf eine neue Art, mit veranderten wolgewehlten Zierrathen
herausbrachte." Loc. cit.> 1f 9.
23. "Em guter Feldherr dencket nicht nur auf das Befehlen, sondern auch
auf das wehlen seiner Soldaten." Cf. op. dt. t p. 98, W 23, 24.
24. ". . . deren eine nur Biscuit, und die andre ein wenig saures, von
Citronen oder dergleichen zu sich nahm, wenn der Hals recht sauber seyn
und sich horen lassen sollte. Viele, die hierin eines andern Glaubens waren,
und sich lieber an Rosinen oder Zucker-Werck ergetzten, verwunderten
sich iiber solche unanstandige Mittel, wollten es, absonderlich mit der
Saure, nicht nachmachen, und kamen immer dabey zu kurtz. Es hat auch
in diesem Stucke ein jeder billig die Umstande und Eigenschafften seines
Temperaments zu priifen, und was ihm nicht dienlich ist, auszusetzen."
Loc. cit., 1T 26.
25. Cf. Mattheson, Mithridat, p. 46.
26. "Der Sanger muss . . . nicht gleich nach dem Essen singen, eine
vermunstige Diat im Essen und Trinken beobachten, und alles Bittre,
Scharfe, Salzige, Saure und Herbe meiden, oder wenigstens sehr massig und
selten geniessen, Endlich muss er weder zu viel singen, noch achreyen, weil
NOTES: CHAPTER XIII 197
solches die Kahle rauh machet, und die Stimme verdirbt." Marpurg, Anlei-
tung, p. 34.
27. "Die bequemsten Stunden zur Uebung im Singen sind die Morgen-
stunden." Loc. cit.
28. Op. cit., pp. 34 f.
29. Cf. Hiller, Anweisung, pp. 8 f., 12.
30. "Man braucht das Singen eben nicht ganz zu unterlassen : es muss nur
sparsamer und mit gemassigterm Tone geschehen." Op. tit., p. 13.
31. "Kurz, Massigkeit im Essen und Trinken, wobey man nicht so wohl
darauf siehet, was, als WIEVIEL man isst und trinkt, nebst einer in alien
iibrigen Stiicken, guten Lebensordnung, sind fur den Menschen, der seine
Gesundheit liebt, und fur den Sanger, der seine Stimme schonen will, von
gleicher Wichtigkeit." Op. cit., pp. 13 f.
32. Cf. op. cit., pp. 14 f, f 20.
33. ". . . dass bey vollem Magen die Lunge nicht alle Freiheit zum
Athemholen hat." Loc. cit., f 21.
34. Cf. Petri, Anleitung, p. 213.
35. Cf. op. cit., p. 214.
36. "In der Diat soil ein Sanger sorgfaltig seyn, ob gleich nicht angstlich,
denn nicht so wohl der Genuss eines nicht zutraglichen Nahrungsmittals, als
vielmehr sein zu reichlicher Genuss ist schadlich. Je gesiinder sein Korper
ist, desto fester ist seine Stimme." Loc. cit.
37. "Wie viele haben sich damit schon den Kirchhof geholt! Kan man
ihnen nicht eine gute Stunde Zeit lassen, erst vollfcommen zu ruhigem Pulse
und freyer Lunge zu kommen?" Loc. cit.
38. "Endlich nach vielem Singen soil man eine Zeitlang ganzlich ruhig
sizzen [ric], ohne etwas zu trinken, es sey warm oder kalt. Nachher nimt
man nur einen sehr kleinen Mund roll, und so fort nach einigen Minuten
ein mehrers zu sich, und wenn gleich der erste Durst noch so stark ware, so
soil man ihm nicht ein Geniige thun. Salomo sagt : Predigen macht den Leib
miide, aber ich glaube, dass Singen den Korper weit mehr angreift, und dass
man alle Vorsicht dabey brauchen miisse, urn seiner Gesundheit nicht Scha-
den zu thun, und seine Stimme nicht zu gleich mit zu verderben." Op. cit.,
p. 215.
39. "Es gibt trefliche Singer, die ehender etwas Salat, als von Zucker zu
sich nehmen ; wie es denn auch eine bekannte Sache, dass der Zucker Schleim
mache und vermehre. Aber f risch gelegte Eyer sogleich ungesotten ausgetrun-
ken, auch Thee mit Fenchel, oder Sternaniss ist der Stimme dienlich. Ein gut
Glaschen Wein fur den Sopran, und ein altes braunes Bier, wo es zu haben,
fur den Alt, kann nicht schaden." Kuerzinger, Getreuer Unterricht, p. 5.
40. Ibid., p. 52.
198 NOTES: CHAPTER XIII
41. This is contrary to the usual advice which urges the singer to protect
himself from inclement weather. Cf. above, p. 143.
42. Cf. Aubigny, Brief e, pp. 199-206.
43. Cf. Lasser, VMstandige Anleitung, p. 12.
44. "... & particulierement de celuy des femmes, comme Quintilian, &
Cornelius Celsus a remarque." Mersenne, Harmonie Universelle, II, 45.
45. Cf. above, pp. 22 f.
46. Cf. Mersenne, op. cit., pp. 45 f.
47. Bacilly, Remarques, p. 41.
48. Cf. Carre, Le Maistre, pp. 21-24.
49* "Mais pour qu'il soit utile tant pour la voix que pour la sante, il f aut
que Ton n'eu boive qu'avec moderation, sagesse, et discretion." Loc. cit.
50. Op. dt. t pp. 24 f.
51. "i. De ne se laisser jamais saisir de froid par les pieds, et encore moins
par la tete, qu'il f aut avoir grand soin de tenir couverte pendant la nuit.
"2. Evites tant que faire se peut les intemperies de Fair sur-tout le trop
grand chaud ou le trop grand froid ; les rayons du Soleil et de la Lune, la
neige, les vents, les brouillards, et le serein tant du soir que du matin, ne s'y
promenant jamais; et generalement tout ce qui peut infecter Tair.
"3. Prendre garde de ne pas trop crier, ni parler longtems \sic\ et avec
ardeur.
"4. N'user que le moins que Ton pourra des choses f roides et aigus, comme
raves, salads, verjus, vinaigre, oranges, citrons, pommes, etc. et en general de
toutes sortes de fruites, ou legumes cruds.
"5. Ne se point laver la bouche d'eau par trop froide ni n'en boire, se
gardant pareillement de manger de la glace ou de la neige.
"6. S'abstenir tant que Ton peut de manger de 1'huile, ou du moins choses
oii il en entre beaucoup, ou d'en avaler sans necessite.
"7. S'abstenir de manger des noix et d'user de leur huile ainsi que de celle
qui est faite d'olives avant leur maturite.
"8. Ne pas manger d'anguille ; parce qu'etant huileuse, gluante, et pitui-
teuse, elle engendre des obstructions et charge 1'estomac.
"9. S'abstenir de la trop grande boisson, parce que la perfection de la voix
consiste dans une secheresse mediocre de ses instrumens : le gosier qui en est
un, est pour cette raison compose d'une substance dure et cartilagineuse, afin
d'aider 1'air pousse par les poumons, a rendre la voix plus claire, plus eclatante,
et plus sonore." Op. cit. t pp. 25 f.
52. Loc. cit.
53- Op. cit., chap. 3, pp. 26-33.
54. ". . . la meilleure est de s'abstenir de toutes sortes d'exces; de toute
boisson trop forte ; de se garantir de la trop grande chaleur, et du trop grand
NOTES: CHAPTER XIII 199
f roid ; du passage trop subit de 1'une a 1'autre ; et de ne chanter ni trop haut,
ni trop fort, ni trop longtems [w] de suite." Martini, Melopee Moderne,
p. 5.
55. Floridio Tomeoni (1757? 1820) was the son of an Italian singer,
studied at the Naples Conservatory, came to Paris in 1783 and became famous
there as a teacher after the Italian method of singing. His Theorie de la
musique vocale, Paris, 1799, was highly regarded by Fetis and others.
56. "C'est une jeune plant e dont on ne connait point encore la nature on
Tespece, et qu'il faut se contenter d'arroser chaque jour avec sobriete, arm
de la laisser croitre et se developper, jusqu'au moment ou son caractere re-
connu indiquera les procedes de culture que Ton devra suivre alors." Tomeoni,
op. cit., pp. 64 f .
57. Ibid., pp. 65 ff.
58. Ibid., p. 1 08.
59. Cf. Mengozzi, Methode de Chant, pp. 84 f.
60. Cf. Tenducci, Instruction, Rules IX, XI, and XVII.
61. Michael Kelly, Reminiscences, London, 1862, II, 108 f.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WIDE use has been made of general reference works, as well as the music
dictionaries and encyclopedias in the different languages. These are well
known and it is not felt necessary to list them.
Adami (da Bolsena), Andrea (16631742). Osservazioni per ben regolare
il coro de i canton della Cappella pontificia. Rome, A. deRossi, 1711.
Addison, Joseph. The Spectator. June 4, 1712.
Affillard, Michel T. Principes tres-faciles pour bien apprendre la musique,
qui conduiront promptement ceux qui ont du naturel pour le chant jusqu'au
point de chanter toute sorte de musique proprement, & a livre ouvert;
par le Sr. I'Affillard. Amsterdam, E. Roger, 1717 (?).
Agricola, Johann Friedrich. Anleitung zur Singkunst, aus dem Italienischen
des Herrn Peter Franz Tosi mit erlauterungen und zusatzen von J. F.
Agricola. Berlin, 1757.
Algarotti, Francesco (Conte) (17121764). Saggio sopra Topera in musica.
Livonio, M. Coltellini, 1763.
Algier, J. La technique des anciens chanteurs italiens. Paris, Fischbacher,
1918.
Allerup, Albert. Die "Musica Practica" des Johann Andreas Herbst (1588-
1666) u. ihre entwicklungsgeschichtliche Bedeutung; ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte der deutschen Schulmusik. Kassel, Barenreiter-Verlag, 1931.
Ambros, August W. Geschichte der Musik. 4 vols. Breslau, 18621878.
Andrea di Modena. Canto Harmonico in cinque parti diviso, col quale si puo
arrivare alia perfetta cognitione del canto fermo. Modena, 1690.
Aristotle. De Anima transl. by W. S. Hett. Loeb Classical Library. New
York, Putnam, 1935.
De Audibilibus, in Minor Works, transl. by W. S. Hett. Loeb Classi-
cal Library. New York, Putnam, 1936.
Poetics, transl. by W. H. Fyfe. Loeb Classical Library. New York,
Putnam, 1927.
Politics, transl. by H. Rackham. Loeb Classical Library. New York,
Putnam, 1932.
Problemata, transl. by E. S. Forster, Book XI, "Problems on the
Voice," and Book XIX, "Problems connected with Harmony." Loeb
Classical Library. New York, Putnam, 1932.
- Rhetoric, transl. by J. H. Freese. Loeb Classical Library. New York,
Putnam, 1929.
202 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arlberg, Hjalmar (1869-?). Belcanto; der liickenlose Weg zur alt italien-
ischen Gesangstechnifc. Ein Wegweiser fur Lernende, Lehrende und
Dirigenten. Leipzig, B. & H., 1933.
Arteaga, Stefano. Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano dalla sua
origine fino al presente. Venetia, 1785.
Artusi, Giovanni Maria. Delle imperf ettioni della Moderna Musica. Venetia,
1600.
- L'arte del contrapunto. Venetia, 1598.
Aubigny von Engelbrunner (Nina D'). Brief e an Natalie iiber den Gesang,
als Beforderung der hauslichen Gliickseligkeit und des geselligen Ver-
gniigens. Leipzig, Voss und Comp., 1803.
Augustine (Saint). De Musica, transl. by R. C. Taliaferro. Annapolis,
St. John's Bookstore, 1939.
Avella, Giovanni d 1 . Regole di musica. Rome, F. Moneta, 1657.
Bach, Albert B. Musical Education & Vocal Culture. London, 1898.
- The Principles of Singing. London, 1897.
Baci, Adolfo. "Osservazioni sul teatro di musica in Italia," in Regio Istituto
Musicale. Florence, 1872.
Bacilly, Benigne de (i625?-i69O?). Remarques curieuses sur Tart de bien
chanter, et particulierement pour ce qui regarde le chant f rangois. Ouvrage
fort utile a ceux qui aspirent a la methode de chanter, sur tout a bien
prononcer les paroles avec toute la finesse & toute la force necessaire, & a
bien observer la quantite des syllabes, & ne point confondre les longues &
les brefves, suivant les regies qui en sont etablies dans ce traite. Paris, Chez
1'auteur, 1668.
Bailleux, Antoine (d. 1791). Solfeges pour apprendre facilement la musique
vocale. 3d ed.; Paris, Chez M. Bailleux, 1760.
Balsamon, Theodorus. Annotations to Canones Sanctorum Patrum qui in
Trullo convenerunt. In Migne: Pat. Graeca., vol. CXXXVII, cols, 501-
Banchieri, Adriano. Cartella musicale nel canto figurato, fermo et con-
trapunto. Venice, 1614.
Bauhinus, Caspar. De Larynge Vocis Organo Historia Anatomica. Ferrara,
1600.
Bayly, Anselm (I7i8[i9]-i794). A practical treatise on singing and play-
ing with just expression and real elegance. Being an essay on I. Grammar.
II. Pronunciation; or, the art of just speaking. III. Singing its graces
their application. London, J. Ridley, 1771.
Beattie, James ( 1735-1803) . Essays : on poetry and music. Edinburgh, 1778.
Bedford, Arthur. The Great Abuse of Musick. London, 1711.
Benelli, Antonio Peregrino. Regole per il canto Figurato (in German and
Italian). In two parts. Dresden, 1819,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 203
Berard, Jean Antoine (ca. 1710-1772). L'art du chant. Paris, Dessaint &
Saillant, 1775.
Berardi, Angelo (d. 1693?). Ragionamenti musicali. Bologna, G. Monti,
1681.
Berlinische musikalische zeitung. "Historischen und kritischen inhalts." Ber-
lin, 1793-1794.
Bernard (Saint) of Clairvaux. Works. In Migne: Patrologiae Cursus Com-
pletus Series Latina, vols. CLXXXII-CLXXXIV.
Bernhard, Christoph (1628-1692). Die Kompositionslehre Heinrich Schiit-
zens in der Fassung seines Schiilers Christoph Bernhard. Eingeleitet und
herausgegeben von Josef Maria Miiller-Blattau. Leipzig, B. & H., 1926.
Beroaldus. Commentarius ad Suetonium. London, 1548.
Bertalotti, Angelo Michele (b. 1665). Regole facilissime per apprendre con
facilita, e prestezza li canti fermo, e figurato. Bologna, M. Silvani, 1698.
Biaggi, G. A. "Considerazioni della Musica Italiana," in Regie Istituto
Musicale. Florence, 1865.
"Delia vita e delle opere di Gioacchino Rossini/' in Regio Istituto
Musicale. Florence, 1869.
"Del Melodrama e del Lohengrin di R. Wagner," in Regio Istituto
Musicale. Florence, 1872.
Pietro Romano, and Luigi Casamorata. "Relazione delle commis-
sione," in Regio Istituto Musicale. Florence, 1866.
Bianchi, Giovanni Antonio ( 1686-1758) . De i vizj, e de i difetti del moderno
teatro e del modo di corregergli. Rome, 1753.
Blanchet, Jean (1724-1778). L'art, ou les principes philosophiques du chant.
2d ed. ; Paris, A. M. Lottin, 1756.
Bona, Joannis (1609-1672). Opera Omnia. Antwerp, 1723.
Bonnet, Jacques (16441724). Histoire de la musique. 4 vols. in 2. A la
Haye & a Francfut sur Meyn, 1743.
Bononcini, Giovanni Maria (1640-1678). Musico prattico. Bologna, G.
Monti, 1673.
Bontempi, Giovanni Andrea (1624-1705). Historia Musica. Perugia, 1695.
Bordier, Louis Charles (d. 1764). Nouvelle Methode de Musique. Paris,
Chez des Lauriers, 1760.
Bovicelli, Giovanni Battista. Regole, Passaggi di Musica. Venice, 1594.
Brosses, Le President de. Lettres Familieres ficrites D'ltalie en 1739 et 40.
2d authentic edition, 2 vols. Paris, 1858.
Brown, John ( 1752-1787) . Letters upon the poetry and music of the Italian
Opera. Edinburgh, 1789.
Bukofzer, M. F. Music in the Baroque Era. New York, Norton, 1947.
Burney, Charles (1726-1814) . A General History of Music. New ed. 2 vols.
New York, 1935.
204 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burney, Charles. Memoirs of the life and Writings of the Abate Metastasio.
3 vols. London, 1796.
Present State of Music in France and Italy. London, 1771.
The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and
United Provinces. 2 vols. London, 1775-
Caccini, Giulio. "Prefazione a L'Euridice (1600)." In Solerti, Angelo: Le
Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
"Dedicatoria e prefazione a Le Nuove Musiche ( 1601 ) ." In Solerti,
Angelo: Le Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Le Nuove Musiche. Prefazione a cura di Francesco Vatielli. Rome,
Reale accademia d'ltalia, 1934. See also Playford.
Caffi, Francesco. Storia della Musica Sacra nella gia cappella Ducale di San
Marco in Venezia, 1318 al 1797. 2 vols. Venezia, 1854.
Calvisius, Seth. Musicae artis praecepta nova et facilima [sic: f acilissima ?]
pro incipientibus conscripta. Jena, 1612. See also Forkel: Algemeine
Geschichte. II., p. 65.
Campion, Thomas (1567-1620). Campion's Works, ed. P. Vivian. Oxford,
1909.
Canivez, Josephus-Maria. Statuta Capitulorum Generalium Ordinis Cis-
terciensis ab anno 1116 ad 1786. 1, 1116-1120. Louvain, Revue d'histoire
ecclesiastique, 1933.
Cannuzio, Pietro de j . Regulae Florum Musicae. Also known as Petrus de
Canutiis. Florence, 1510.
Cantus diversi ex Antiphonario Romano Avenione, parts I and 2. 1777.
Carissimi Giacomo. Ars cantandi; das ist: Richtiger und ausfuhrlicher
weg die Jugend und dem rechten Grund in der Sing-Kunst zu unter-
richten; in welscher Sprach aufgesetzt; nunmehro von einem Music-
Freund in unsere Mutter-Sprach gebracht. Augspurg, J. Koppmayer,
1696.
Carozzi, G. N. Guida ant* igenica di ginnastica vocale. Milan, 1890.
Carre, R. (b. 1706). Le maistre des novices dans Tart du chanter. Paris, Le
Breton, 1744.
Casserius, Julius (1545-1616). De vocis auditusque organis historiae. Fer-
rara, 1600.
Castiglione, Baldassare (1478-1529). II Cortegiano. Venice, 1528.
Cattaneo, Giovanni (Conte). La Liber ta del can tare. Lucca, Benedini,
1752.
Celani, E. "I Cantori della Cappella Pontificia nei Secoli XVI-XVII." In
Rivista M usicale Italiana, 1907 (part i).
Celoni (Pellegrini Celoni), Anna Maria. Grammatica o siano regole di ben
cantare. Rome, 1810.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 205
Cerone, Domenico Pietro (1566-1625). El Melopeo y Maestro, tractado le
musica teorica y practica. Naples, 1613.
Chrysander, Friedrich. "Lodovici Zacconi als Lehrer des Kunstgesanges,"
in V.fM.W., VII (1891), 337-396; IX (1893), 249-310; X (1894),
531-567.
Cicero. Orator, transl. by H. M. HubbelL Cambridge, Harvard University
Press, 1939-
Clement, Jean M. B. (1743-1812). Anecdotes Dramatiques. 3 vols. Paris,
1775.
Coclicus, Adrianus Petit. Compendium Musices. Nuremberg, 1552.
Codronchi, Battista. De vitiis vocis libro duo, in quibus non solum vocis defi-
nitio traditur et explicatur, sed ilius differentae, instrumenta et causae
aperiuntur; ultimo de vocis conservatione, praeservatione ac vitiorum ejus
curatione tractatus. Francofonte, A. Wechelus, C. Marnius et Jo. Au-
brius, 1597.
Collier, Joel. See Veal, George.
Conforto, Giovanni Lucca (c. 1560-?), Breve et facile maniera d'essercitarsi
a far passagi. Rome, 1593 or 1603.
Im Faksimile mit tJbersetzung hrsg. von Johannes Wolf. Berlin,
M. Breslauer, 1922.
Conrad von Zabern (fl. 1470-1500?). De modo bene cantandi choralem
can turn. Summarized by Jul. Richter. In Monatshefte fur Musikge-
schichte, XX (1888), 95-106.
Corn, Domenico (1746-1825). The Singers Preceptor, or Corri's treatise
on vocal music. London, Chappell & Co., 1811.
Costa, Andrea. Considerazione sopra L'Arte del Canto in Generale. London,
1824.
Coussemaker, E. de. Scriptorum de Musica Aevi Nova Series. 4 vols. Paris,
A. Durand, 1864.
Cummings, E. .D. Unpublished manuscripts at the New York Academy of
Medicine on the History of Castration. Assembled before 1940,
DaGagliano, Marco. "Dedicatoria e prefazione alia Dafne (1608)." In
Solerti, Angelo: Le Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca,
1903.
D'Arcais, M. Francesco. "Memoria sulla pratica conoscenza della musica."
In Reffio Istituto Musicale. Florence, 1868.
David, Frangois (fl. ist half of i8th C.) Methode nouvelle; ou Principes
generaux pour apprendre facilement la musique et Tart de chanter. Paris,
M. de la Chevardiere, ca. 1760.
DeBekker, L. J. Music and Musicians. New York, Nicholas Brown, 1925.
Delia Valle, Pietro. "Della musica dell' eta nostra che non e punto inferiore
206 BIBLIOGRAPHY
anzi e migliore di quella dell' eta passata (1640)." In Solerti, Angelo:
Le Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Delle-Sedie, E. Arte e Fisiologia del Canto. Milan, 1876.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. De Compositione Verborum. Transl. and ed. by
W, Rhys Roberts. London, Macmillan, 1910.
Diruta, Girolamo. II Transilvano. 1597 (or 1612, 1625).
Dodart, Denis. "Memoire sur les causes de la voix de THomme," in Mem-
oires de TAcademie de Sciences. Paris, 1703.
Dolmetsch, Arnold (b, 1858). The interpretation of the music of the XVII
& XVIII centuries revealed by contemporary evidence. London, Novello,
1915-
Donati, Ignazio. Madrigali, 1636. Motetti, 1636.
Doni, Giovanni Battista (i 593 [4] -1647). Compendio del trattato de* generi
e de' modi della musica. Rome, 1635*
De praestantia musicae veteris libri tres totidem dialogis comprehensi.
Florence, 1647.
"Descrizione delle opere sulla musica." In Solerti, A, : Le Origini del
Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Dow, Sabrina H. Artistic Singing. Boston, 1883.
Durante, Ottavio, Arie Devote. Rome, 1608.
Fabricius, Hieronymus (1537-1619). De visione, Voce, Auditu. Venice,
1600. Another edition is entitled : De voce, de gula, de aespiratione et ejus
instruments Venice, 1601.
Fantoni, G. Storia universale del canto. Milan, 1873.
Ferrari, Giacomo Gotifredi. Breve trattato di canto Italiano. London,
Schulze & Dean, 1818.
Giacimo [we] G. Ferrari's celebrated instruction book for the voice,
with accompaniment for the piano forte. New York, E. Riley & Co., ca.
1835.
Ferrein, Antoine. "De la Formation de la Voix de THornine." In Academic
Royale des Sciences, Annee 1741, pp. 409 ff. Paris, 1741.
Fetis, F. J. "Examen de 1'etat actuel de la Musique en France." In Revue
Musicah. Paris, 1827.
Fincfc, Hermann. "Dber die Kunst des Singens, transl. by R. Schecht, Monat-
shefte fur M usikgeschichte, XI, 1879, 129-41.
Florino, F. Breve Metodo di Canto. Naples, 1840.
Forkel, Johann Nicolaus (1749-1818). Algemeine Geschichte der Musik.
2vols. Leipzig, 1788-1801.
Allgemeine litteratur der musik. Leipzig, 1792.
Frezza dalle Grotte, Giuseppe. II cantore ecclesiastico. Padova, Stamperia
del Seminario, 1698.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 207
Friderici, Daniel (1584-1638). Die Musica Figuralis des Magister Daniel
Friderici. Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1901.
Frosch, Johann (d. 1533). Rerum musicarum opusculum rarum ac insigne.
Argentorati, 1535.
Fuchs, Albert. Bel Canto-Arien, Cantatur und Canzonen. Braunschweig,
Litolf, 1901.
Galilei, Vincenzo (d. 1591). Dialogo di Vincentio Galilei, nobile fiorentino
della musica antica et della moderna. Fiorenza, 1581.
Ganassi, Silvestro. Opera Intitulata Fontegara, Laquale insegna a sonare di
flauto. Venice, 1535.
Garcia, Manuel Hints on Singing. London and New York, 1894.
Report by Frederic W. Root on his interview with Garcia. In The
Musical Herald ', August, 1894, P- 229.
Memoire sur la voix humaine presente a P Academic des sciences en
1840. Reimpression augmentee de quelques observations nouvelles sur les
sons simultanes et suivie du rapport de la commission de 1' Academic des
sciences. Avril, 1841. Paris, E. Duverger, 1847.
Garcia, Manuel del Popolo Vincente, Pere (1775-1832). 340 Exercises
composes pour ses fileves. Paris, 1868.
Gedanken. t)ber die welschen Tonkunstler. Halberstadt, 1751.
Gerbert, Martin (1720-1793). De cantu et musica sacra. San Blasianis,
I774-
Scriptoris Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra. 3 vols. St. Blasius, 1784.
Giustiniani, Vicenzo. "Discorso sopra la musica de'suoi tempi (1628)." In
Solerti, Angelo: Le Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca,
1903.
Glareanus, Henricus Loritus. Dodecachordon. Basil, 1547.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Italianische Reise. 2 vols. Stuttgart,
1862.
Goldschmidt, Hugo (1859-1920). Die Italianische Gesangsmethode des 17
Jahrs. Breslau, 1890.
Die Lehre von der vokalen Ornamentik. Charlottenburg, Paul
Lehsten, 1907.
"Verzierungen, Veranderungen u. Passaggien." In Monatshefte f.
Musikgeschichte, 1891, pp. 110-28.
Gondar, Ange. Le brigandage de la musique Italienne. 1777.
Gretry, Andre E. M. (1741-1813). Memoires, ou essai sur la musique. 3
vols. Paris, 1789.
Grout, Donald J. A Short History of the Opera. 2 vols. New York, Colum-
bia University Press, 1947.
Guidotti, Alessandro, "Prefazione alia rappresentazione di Anima e Corpo
208 BIBLIOGRAPHY
di Emilio de' Cavalieri (1600)." In Solerti, Angelo: Le origini del melo-
dramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Habock, Franz (d. 1921). Die Kastraten und ihre Gesangkunst. Stuttgart,
Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1927.
"Die Physiologischen Grundlagen der altitalienischen Gesangschule"
inDieMusik, VIII, September, 1909, pp. 337-47-
Haertinger, Martin, Das Grundgesetz der Stimmbildung fur den Kunst-
gesang. Mainz, 1872.
Hanslicfc, Eduard. Criticism in Deutsche Musik-Zeitung. Vienna, May 12,
i860, p. 60.
Hawkins, (Sir) John (1719-1789). A general history of the science and
practice of music, 5 vols. London, 1776.
Henderson, W. J. Early History of Singing. New York, Longmans, Green,
1921.
Hertel, Johann Wilhelm. Sammlung Musikalischer Schriften. Leipzig,
1757-1758.
Hey, Julius. Deutscher Gesangs-Unterricht, 4 parts. Mainz, 1886.
Hiller, Johann Adam (1728-1804). Anweisung zum musikalisch-richtigen
Gesange, mit hinlanglichen Exempeln erlautert. Includes 64 pp. of musical
examples. Leipzig, J. F. Junius, 1774.
Holmes, Gordon. "History of the Progress of Laryngology from the Earliest
Times to the Present." In The Medical Press. London, July 15, 1885,
p. 49, and subsequent issues to September 9, 1885.
Homer. The Odyssey, transl. by G. H. Palmer. Cambridge, Mass., Hough-
ton, Mifflin, 1929.
Homeric Hymns, transl. by H. G. Evelyn-White. Loeb Classical Library.
London, W. Heinemann, 1914.
Isidore (Saint) of Seville. "De Ecclesiasticis Officiis." In Migne : Patrologiae
Cursus Completus Series Latina, vol. LXXXIII, col. 737-826.
Jerome ( Saint ) . "Commentaries on the Epistle to the Ephesians." In Migne :
Patrologiae Cursus Completus Series Latina, vol. XXVI, col. 439-
554-
Jumilhac, Pierre Benoit de (1611-1682). La science et la pratique du plain-
chant. Paris, 1673.
Kelly, Michael (1762-1826). Reminiscences. 2 vols. London, 1826.
Kempelen, Wolfgang von. Le mecanisme de la parole, Vienna, J. V. Degan,
1791-
Kircher, Athanasius (1602-1680). Magnes: sive de arte magnetica opus
tripartium. Rome, 1641.
Phonurgia nova; sive, Conjugium mechanico-physicum artis. Campi-
donae, 1673.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 209
Musurgia Universalis sive Ars Magna Consoni et Dissoni in X
Libros Digesta. Rome, Corbelletti, 1650.
Kitchener, William (17751827). Observations on Vocal Music. London,
1821.
Klein, Hermann (b. 1856). The bel canto with particular reference to the
singing of Mozart. London, Oxford University Press, 1923.
Kuerzinger, Ignaz Franz Xaver. Getreuer Unterricht zum singen mit
Manieren, und die Violin zu spielen. 3d ed. Augsburg, J. J. Lotter und
Sohn, 1793.
Kuhn, Max (b. 1874). Die Verzierung-kunst in der Gesangs-musik des 16-
17 Jahrhundert, (1536-1650). Leipzig, B. & PL, 1902.
Labat, J. B. "Porpora et ses Eleves." In Oeuvres Litermres-musicales. 2 vols.,
esp. II, pp. 337-355. Paris, 1883.
Lacassagne, Joseph (1720?-! 780?). Traite general des elemens du chant.
Paris, L'auteur, 1766.
Lach, Robert (b. 1874). Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der ornamen-
talen Melopoie. Leipzig, C. F. Kahnt, 1913.
Lamperti, Francesco (1811-1892). L'arte del canto. Milan, Ricordi, ca.
1883.
Guida teorica-pratica-elementare per lo studio del canto. Milan,
Ricordi, 1864.
A Treatise on the Art of Singing, transl. by J. C. Griffith. London,
Ricordi, 1877.
Lamperti, G. B. (1839-1910). Vocal Wisdom, maxims of G. B. Lamperti,
ed. W. E. Brown. New York, W. E. Brown, 1931.
Landshoff, Ludwig. I classici del bel canto. Leipzig, Peters, 1927.
Lanfranco, Giovanni Maria. Scintille di Musica. Brescia, 1533.
Lang, Paul H. Music in Western Civilization. New York, Norton, 1941.
Lanza, Gesualdo (1779-1859). Lanza's Elements of Singing (in the Italian
and English styles). 4 vols. London, the Author, 1813.
Lasser, Johann Baptist (1751-1805). Vollstandige Anleitung zur Singkunst
sowohl fur den Sopran, als auch fur den Alt. Miinchen, Gedruckt mit
Hubschmannschen schrif ten, 1805.
Lavoix, H. Histoire de la Musique. Paris, 1884.
Lecuyer. Principes de Tart du chant, suivant les regies de la langue et de la
prosodie frangoise. Paris, Chez Fauteur, 1769.
Le Pileur d'Apligny. Traite sur la musique, et sur les moyens d'en perfec-
tionner Pexpression. Paris, 1779.
Lessmann, Otto (editor). Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung. 1885 an< i a & passim.
Lorente, Andres (1624-1703). El porque de la musica. Alcala de Henares,
1672.
210 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lyric muse revived in Europe, the, or a critical display of opera in all its
revolutions. Anon. London, 1768.
Mace, Thomas (i6i3?-i7O9?). Musick's Monument. London, 1676.
Mackenzie, Sir Morell. The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs, 7th ed. London,
Macmillan, 1890.
McMurrich, J. Playfair. Leonardo da Vinci, the Anatomist. Baltimore,
Williams & Wilkins, 1930.
MafEei, Giovanni Camillo. Discorso della Voce. Naples, 1562.
Magazin der musik, herausgang von Carl F. Cramer. Hamburg, 1783.
Mancini, Giovanni Battista (1716-1800). Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto
figurato, terza editione (rivedute, corrette, ed aumentate). Includes musi-
cal examples. Milano, Galeazzi, 1777.
Practical Reflections on the Figurative Art of Singing, transl. by
Pietro Buzzi. Boston, The Gorham Press, 1912.
Manfredini, Vincenzo (1737-1799). Difesa della musica moderna. Bologna,
1788.
Regole Armoniche. 2d ed. Venice, 1797.
Mannstein, H. F. See Steinmann, Heinrich Ferdinand.
Marcello, Benedetto. II teatro alia modo. Venice, I7ao(?).
Marinelli, Giulio Cesare. Via retta della voce corale. Bologna, 1671.
Marpurg, Friedrich Wilhelm (1718-1795). Anleitung zur Musik iiber-
haupt, und zur Singkunst besonders, mit Uebungsexempeln erlautert. Ber-
lin, A. Wever, 1763.
Martene, Edmond and U. Durand. Thesaurus Novus Anecdotorum. 5 vols.
Paris, 1717.
Martini, Jean Paul Egide (1741-1816). Melopee moderne; ou L'art du
chant, reduit en principes. Paris, Chez Naderman, ca. 1792.
Marx, A. B. Gluck und die Oper. Berlin, 1863.
Mastrigli, Leopold. La Decadenza del canto in Italia. Turin, 1897.
Mattheson, Johann (1681-1764). Der Vollkommene Capellmeister. Ham-
burg, 1739.
Mithridat wider den Gift einer welschen Satyr. Hamburg, 1749.
Maugars, Andre. Sa Biographic suive de sa Response faite a un curieux sur
le sentiment de la Musique d'ltalie, Escrite a Rome le premier Octobre,
*639, par Ernest Thoinau. Paris, 1865.
Mendelssohn, Felix. Letters from Italy and Switzerland, transl. by Lady
Wallace. Philadelphia, 1863.
Mengozzi, B. (1758-1800). Methode de chant du Conservatoire de
Musique, contenant les principes du chant, des exercices pour la voix, des
solfeges tires des meilleurs ouvrages anciens et modernes et des airs dans
tous les mouvements et les differens caracteres. Paris, 1803.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 211
Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648). Harmonic Universelle. Paris, 1636-1637.
Minoja, Ambrosio (1752-1825). Ueber den Gesang. Sendschreiben an B.
Asioli. Leipzig, Breitfcopf & Hartel, 1815.
Morley, Thomas (1557-1603). A plaine & easie introduction to practicall
musicke. London, 1608.
Miiller-Blattau, J. Die Kompositionslehre Heinrich Schiitzens. Leipzig,
1926.
Mursell, James L. The Psychology of Music. New York, Norton, 1937.
and Mabelle Glenn. The Psychology of School Music Teaching.
New York, Silver, Burdett Co., 1938.
Nares, James (1715-1783). A concise and easy treatise on singing. London,
J. Preston, ca. 1780.
Nassarre, Pablo (b. 1664). Escuela Musica. 2 vols. Zaragoza, 1723-1724.
Nehrlich, C. F. Die Singkunst. ad ed. Leipzig, 1853.
Northcott, Richard A. (1871-1931). Francesco Algarotti: a reprint of his
Essay on opera, and a sketch of his life. London, The Press Printers, Ltd.,
1917-
Nouvelle Methode. Tres facile pour apprendre le plein-chant. Rouen, 1719.
Odier, Louis (1748-1817). Epistola physiologica de elementariis musicae
sensationibus. Edinburgh, 1770.
Oudoux, Abbe. Methode nouvelle pour apprendre facilement le plain-chant.
Paris, 1776.
Pacchiarotti, Gaspare (1744-1821), with A. Calegari. Modi generali del
canto. Milan, 1836.
Penna, Lorenzo (1613-1693). Li primi albori musicali. Bologna, 1684.
Peri, Jacopo. "Dedicatoria e prefazione a L'Euridice (1600)." In Solerti,
Angelo: Le origini del melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Perini, Cesare. "Quale sia il miglior metodo da adottarsi onde il bel canto
possa riottenere il suo primato in Italia." In La Scena. Trieste, Dec. 14,
21, 28, 1865, nos. 33,34, 35-
Petri, Johann Samuel (1738-1808). Anleitung zur practischen musik, vor
neuangehende Sanger und instrumentspieler. Lauban, J. C. Wirthgen,
1767.
Pizzati, Giuseppe (1732-1803). La scienza de' suoni. Venezia, 1782.
Planelli, Antonio (1747-1803). Dell' opera in musica. Napoli, 1772.
Plato. Laws, transl. by R. G. Bury. Loeb Classical Library. New York, Put-
nam, 1930.
Playford, John (1623-1686). An Introduction to the Skill of Music in
Three Books. I2th ed. London, 1694.
Plutarch. Moralia, transl. by several hands, ed. by W, W. Goodwin. 5 vols.
De Musica, I, pp. 102-35. Boston, 1870,
2I2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Poisson, Leonard. Traite theorique et pratique du plain-chant. Paris, 1750.
Polidoro, F. I. "Alcuni pensieri sull* insegnamento del canto." In La Scena.
Trieste, Nov. 22, 1866.
Pollux, Julius. Onomasticon. 5 vols. Leipzig, 1824.
Ponzio, Pietro. Dialogo ove si tratta della theorica e prattica di musica.
Parma, 1595.
Praetorius, Michael Syntagma Musicum, Wolfenbiittel, 1619, reedited by
Dr. Eduard Bernoulli, Kahnt. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1916.
Prelleur, Peter (i8th C.). An introduction to singing or plain rules and
directions whereby any person may in a short time learn to sing any song
that is set to music. London, P. Thompson, i75-?
Printz, Wolfgang Caspar (1641-1717). Musica Modulatoria vocalis, oder
manierliche und zierliche Singkunst. Schweidnitz, 1678.
Compendium musicae signatoriae & modulatoriae vocalis, oder, Kur-
zer Begriff aller derjenigen Dinge, so einem, der die Vocal-Musik lernen
will, zu wissen von nothen seyn. Dresden, J. C. Miethen, 1714.
Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria, transl. by H. E. Butler. Loeb Classical Li-
brary. London, Heinemann, 1921.
Raguenet, Francois (i66o?-i722). Parallele des Italiens et des Frangois, en
ce qui regarde la musique et les operas. Paris, 1 702.
Rameau, Jean Philippe, Code de musique pratique ou Methodes. Paris, 1 760.
Raparlier. Principes de musique, les agreements du chant, et un Essai sur la
prononciation, Tarticulation et la prosodie de la langue frangoise. Lille,
1772.
Raynaldo, Theophilus. Opera Omnia. 19 vols. De Triplici Eunuchismo,
XIV, pp. 521-600. London, 1665.
Raynard (Saint). "Instituta Capituli Generalis Ordinis Cisterciensis." In
Migne: Pat. Lat., vol. CLXXXI, cols. 1726-1739-
Reese, Gustav. Music in the Middle Ages. New York, Norton, 1940.
Regio Istituto Musicale. Atti dell' Accademia. 3 vols. Firenze, 1863-1892.
Reichardt, Johann Friedrich (1752-1814). Briefe eines aufmerksam reisen-
den die musik betreffend. 2 vols. Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1774-1776.
Geist des Musikalischen Kunstmagazin. Berlin, 1791*
Reisch, Gregor (d. 1525). Margarita Philosophica. 1503.
Rogers, Francis. Discussion of bel canto in Educational Department of
Musical America, December 25, 1940, p. 35.
"The Male Soprano," In The Musical Quarterly, vol. V, July, 1919.
"What is 'Bel Canto' anyhow?" The Etude, vol. LXII, March,
April, May, 1944.
Rognoni, Francesco. Selva di varii passaggi secQfldo Tu$o moderno t Milan ?,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 213
Romita, Fiorenzo. Jus Musicae Liturgicae. Mariettus, 1936.
Rosner, Robert. Beniamino Gigli und die Kunst des Belcanto. Wien, C.
Haslinger qdm. Tobias, 1929.
Rossetti, Biagio. Libellus de rudimentis musices. Verone, 1529.
Rousseau, Jean (ad half, I7th C.). Methode claire, certaine et facile, pour
apprendre a chanter la musique. Amsterdam, P. & J. Blaeu, 1691.
Rousseau, J. J. Dictionary of Music, transl. by W. Waring. London, 177-?.
Rowley, Christopher E. The Voice; or the physiologist versus the singing
master. London, Office of "Music," 1898.
Runciman, Steven. Byzantine Civilization. London, Edward Arnold & Co.,
1923.
Sabbatini, Luigi Antonio (1739-1809). Elementi teorici della musica colla
pratica de medesimi, in duetti, e terzetti a canone accompagnati del basso,
ed eseguibili si a solo, che a piu voci. Rome, 17891790.
Salinas, Francisco de (1513-1590). De musica libri septem. Salamanticae,
1577-
Santoro, Fabio Sebastiano (b. 1671). Scola di canto fermo. Napoli, 1715.
Scaletta, Orazio (d. 1630). Scala di musica. Rome, 1656.
Scheibe, Johann Adolph (1708-1776). Critischer Musikus. Leipzig, 1745.
Schelle, Eduard (1816-1882). Die papstliche sangerschule in Rom gennant
die Sixtinische capelle. Wien, 1872.
Schleusingk, Johann Valentin. Musices choralis practicae medulla. Coloniae
Agrippinae, P. Metternich, 1657.
Schopenhauer, Arthur. Reisetagebiicher. Leipzig, 1923.
Schubart, C. F. D. (d. 1791). Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst, ed.
Ludwig S. Schubart. Vienna, 1806.
Sieber, F. II bel canto. 2 vols. Berlin, ca. 1887.
- Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der Gesangkunst. Berlin, 1858*
Signorelli, Mario. II tramonto del bel canto in Musica d'oggi. Milano,
Silva, Giulio. "The Beginnings of the art of *bel canto*; remarks on the
critical history of singing." In Musical Quarterly, VIII, no. I, 53-68.
New York, 1922.
Solerti, Angelo. Le origini del melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Spanuth, A. (1857-1920). "Wagner Gesang und ,bel canto." In Signale,
LXVI, no. 6, pp. 169-74.
Spohr, Louis (1784-1859). Autobiography. 2 vols.. London, 1865.
Steele, Sir Richard. The Tatler, January 3, 1709.
Steffani, Agostino (1654-1728). Send-schreiben, transl. by A. Werckmei-
ster. Quedlinburg und Aschersleben, 1 700.
Steinmann, Heinrich Ferdinand (1806-1872). Geschichte, Geist und Ausii-
2i 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
bung des Gesanges von Gregor dem Grossen bis auf unsere zeit. Leipzig,
Teubner, 1845.
Die grosse Italienische Gesangschule. Dresden, 1848.
Sturm, Johannes. Letter to Matthew Stiffelreuter. In Epistolae Classicae,
1563, Book III.
Symmes, Thomas ( 1678-1725) . Utile dulci. Or, a joco-serious dialogue con-
cerning regular singing. Boston, 1723.
Synesius. The Essays and Hymns of Synesius of Cyrene, transl. by Augustine
Fitzgerald. 2 vols. London, Oxford University Press, 1930.
"in Dionysius Petavius, c. II. In Migne, J. P.: Patrologiae Cursus
Completus, Series Graeca, vol. LXVI, col. 1148.
Taylor, David Clark (b. 1871). New light on the old Italian method; an
outline of the historical system of voice culture, with a plea for its revival.
New York, H. W. Gray, 1916.
Tenducci, Giusto Ferdinando (ca. 1736-180-?). Instruction of Mr. Ten-
ducci, to his scholars. London, Longman & Broderip, ca. 1785.
Tevo, Zaccaria (b. 1651), II musico testore. Venetia, 1706.
Thoinau, Ernest. See Maugars, Andre.
Tigrini, Orazio. II compendio della musica. Venetia, 1588.
Tomeoni, Florido (1755-1820). Le guide musical; ouvrage dont le plan
s'etend sur toutes les parties de la musique. Paris, ca. 1800.
Theorie de la musique vocale. Paris, 1 799.
Tosi, Pietro Francesco (c. i65o-c. 1731). Anleitung zur Singkunst. Aus
dem italienischen des herrn Peter Franz Tosi mit erlauterungen und
zusatzen von Johann Friedrich Agricola. Berlin, 1757.
Observations on the Florid Song, transl. by Mr. Galliard. London,
J. Wilcox, 1743.
Opinioni de cantori antichi e moderni o sieno osservazioni sopra il
canto figurato. Bologna, 1723.
Turner, William. Sound anatomized, in a philosophical essay on musick.
London, 1724.
Uberti, Grazioso (fl. ist half, I7th C.). Contrasto Musico. Rome, 1630.
Ulrich, Bernhard (1880-?). Die Grundsatze der Stimmbildung wahrend
der a capella-periode und zur zeit des aufkommens der oper, 1474-1640.
Leipzig, B. & H., 1912.
Die altitalienische gesangsmethode, die schule des belcanto, auf
grund der originalschriften zum ersten mal dargestellt. Leipzig, F. Kest-
ner & C. F. W. Siegel, 1933.
Vaccai, Giulio. Vita di Nicola Vaccai. Bologna, 1882.
Vaccai, Nicola (1790-1848). Dodici ariette per camera per Tinsegnamento
del bel-canto italiano. Milan, ca. 1840.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 215
Vallara, Francesco Maria. Primizie di canto fermo. Parma, 1724.
Veal, George (Joel Collier pseud.)- Musical Travels Through England.
London, 1785.
Ventura. Review of Lamperti's "Nuova Guida," in La Scena. Trieste, May
4, 1865-
Vesalius, Andreas. Icones Anatomicae. New York, New York Academy of
Medicine and the University of Munich, 1934.
Vicentino, Nicola (15111572). L'antica musica ridotta alia moderna prat-
tica. Rome, 1555.
Vicq-D'Azyr, Felix (17481794). Memoire sur la voix. See Memoires de
1' Academic royale des sciences de Paris, 1779, pp. 178-206.
Vitali, Filippo. Dedicatoria e prefazione alPAretusa (1620). In Solerti,
Angelo : Le Origini del Melodramma. Milan, Fratelli Bocca, 1903.
Vogler, Georg Joseph (Abbe). Georg Joseph Vogler's Stimmbildungskunst.
Mannheim, 1776.
Whistling, C. F. Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur, ed. A. Hofmeister,
3 vols.
Wieck, Friederich (17851873). Clavier und Gesang. Leipzig, 1853.
Klavier und Gesang. 2d ed. ; Leipzig, 1878.
Williams, Watkins. "A dialogue between a Cluniac and a Cistercian."
Journal of Theological Studies, 1930, pp. 164-175.
Wochentliche. Nachrichten und anmerkungen die musifc betreffend. July,
1766 June, 1768. 2 vols. Leipzig, 176668.
Wolf, Ernst Wilhelm (1735-1792). Auch eine Reise. Weimar, 1784.
Woolridge, H. E. The Polyphonic Period, in The Oxford History of Music,
Vol. I. London, Oxford University Press, 1929.
Wright, Jonathan. A History of Laryngology and Rhinology. Philadelphia,
Lea & Febiger, 1914.
Zabern, Conrad von. De Modo Bene Cantandi Choralem Cantum. Ma-
gonza, 1474.
Zacconi, Giulio Cesare (15551627). Prattica di Musica. Venetia, 1592.
Zarlino, GioseflFo (d. 1590). Istitutioni Harmoniche. Venetia, 1573.
Ziller, B. "Das Geheimnis des 'bel canto* (schongesang) , einige aufklarende
Worte fur Gesangfreunde, Gesangstudierende und Gesanglehrer." In All-
gemelne Musik-Zeitung, XXXII, no. 32, 33, pp. 53435 ; no. 37, pp.
591-92.
INDEX
Abelard, 57
Acoustics, 1 6, 17, 131
Adam de Fulda, 32, 34 f.
Addison, Joseph, 55 f .
Agreement on general precepts of sing-
ing, 154
Agricola, J. F., 80, 89, 106, 116-21, 125,
131, 132, 133, 138, 152, 153, 192
Albertus Magnus, 126
Alexandrian school, 14
Algarotti, F., 55
Ambros, A. W., 36
Angeletti (castrato), 54
Appearance of singer, 33 f., 38 f., 42, 60-
73
Aristotle, 13 f. ; definition of voice, 13;
description of phonation, 13 f.; on
hygiene, 19 if., 22; virtuosity, 25 ff. ;
breath control, 27, 133, 135, 189
Arnulfo of San Gilleno, 31, 35
Arpeggiatij 77, 78, 93
Ars Nova, 60
Arteaga, S., 129
Art of Love (Ovid), 47
Artusi, G. M., 90, 126
Arytenoid cartilage, 14, 15, 38, 126-38
(passim}
Asclepiadae, school of, 13
Aspirate vowels, 81, 86
Aubigny von Eugelbrunner, 107 f., no,
121, 146, 152
A veil a, G., 91, 126, 140, 195
Bach, Albert B., n
Baci, Adolfo, 7
Bacilly, B., 83, 96 f., 147
Bagoas (eunuch), 47
Bailleux, Antoine, 69, 108
Baini, Giuseppe, 51
Balletti, 60
Balsamon, 48
Battle of the Frogs and Mice, 25
Bauhinus, Caspar, 15
Bayly, Anselm, 87, 89, 99, 109, 124, 152
Bel canto, period, i ff. ; mystery sur-
rounding, i, 2-12; definition of, 3ff.;
confusion in us.e of term, 3 f.; listing
in dictionaries, 4, n; origins of term,
4fF; appearance of in German man-
uals and lexicons, 4, 9; deterioration
of, 5 if. ; French attitude toward, 10 f. ;
and Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti, u;
simultaneous appearance of term in
England, America, France and Ger-
many (about 1880), ii ; conclusions
concerning, nf. ; present usage, 12;
compared to ancient practices, 39 ; and
the castrati, 44 if., 58 f . ; struggle be-
tween German and Italian styles make
term famous, 59; 62, 70, 73, 100, no,
112, 124, 126, 136, 138, 139, 153 f-,
155 f. ; teaching methods of, not a
secret, 155; difficulty of achieving bel
canto techniques, 155, 158
Bellini, V., n
Benelli, A. P., and origins of bel canto f 4
Berengarius of Pavia, 15
Beurhusius, F., 41
Biaggi, G. A., 5 ff. ; criticism of Wagner-
ian style, 7
"Big" voices, not emphasized, 156
Blanchet, J., 69, 84, 89, 97 f., 101, 135 f.,
138, 152, 154, 193, 194
"Bocca ridente" (smiling mouth), 72, 73
Boethius, 30, 31
Boisson, A. C. B., n
Bontempi, G., 126 f., 138, 152, 189
Bovicelli, G. B., 39
Bravura singing, 61
Breath, 27, 32, 33, 39, 42, 53, 67, 74-89,
126-38 (passim]
Briso (eunuch), 48
Brosses, Charles de, 53
Burney, Charles, 46, 50, 56, 57, 71, no,
152
Caccini, Giulio, 5, 60, 74, 89, 90, 94, 112,
126, 174, 185
Cadenzas, practice of, 77, 79
Caffarelli (castrato), 54
Caffi, F., 54
Calvisius, Seth, 79, 116, 130
Cantor di sbalzo, 77 f., 93
Canto fiff-uraxtOj 61
218
"Canto in sprezzatura," 74
Cantus a mente, 36, 37
Cantus super librum, 36
Cappella Giulia, 52
Carestini (castrato), 54, 56, zx8
Carozzi, G. N., 7
Carre, R., 134, 147 f.
Casanova, G., 54
Casserius, Julius, 15
Castrati, 42, 167 f., 175; history of, 44-
52; Burney's reports, 46; professional
production of, 46 ; in music, 47 ff. ; in-
fibulation, 48; in the Eastern Church,
48; in the Western Church, 48 f.; in
Sistine Choir, 48 f.; in opera, 49 f.;
decline of, 49 ff. ; moral opposition to,
51; physiology of, 52 ff.; remarkable
vocal exploits, 53; comparison with
female voice, 53; feminine impersona-
tions, 53 f . ; list of famous, 53 f. ; give
Italian opera advantage over French,
54; not very successful in masculine
roles, 55; critical opinion, for and
against, 55 ff.; acting ability, 55 f., 57;
personal qualities other than singing,
57; influence on art of singing, s8f.;
voice registers of, 113
Castration, institution of, 44 ff.; and
Christianity, 45; in affairs of state,
46 f . ; in singing, 47 ff. ; and the dance,
47 f . ; in Near Eastern religious cults,
48 ; decline of, 49 ff.
Celsus, C., 147, 195
Cerone, D. P., 61, 74, 90 f., 112, 126, 139,
140, 185, 195
"Chant sur le livre? 36
Chest voice, 33, 40, 109, 112, 114 f., 117 ff.
t Choir boys, short supply of, 41 f .
Church, the, attitude toward music and
singers, 35 f.
Church Fathers, 30 f., 45, 47
Cicero, 135, 141
Clement VIII (Pope), 49
Climate, effect on singing, 27, 143 ff., 146,
147, I5of.
Coclicus, A. P., 39 f., 42
Codronchi, Battista, 15, 22 f., 147
Conforto, G. L., 42
Conservatoire de Musique, 70
Contest of Homer and Hesiod, 25
Contrapunto alia mente, 36
Corri, Domenico, 71, 73, 99 f., 137, 138,
152, 194
Costa, A., 4f.
Cotton, John, 31, 34
INDEX
Crescentini, Girolamo, 54, 56, 157; and
origin of bel canto, 5
Cricoid cartilage, 14, 15, 127
Da Gagliano, M., 61
Danzi, Signora Francisca, 71
D'Arcais, M. F., 6
De Anima (Aristotle), 13
De Audibilibus (Aristotle), 13, 26
De Compositione Verborum fDionysiusJ,
28
Delia Valle, Pietro, 112
De Martini, A., 23 f.
De Musica (Plutarch), 29
Descant, 35 ff., 41
Descartes, R., 49
Diction, 14, 25, 28, 29, 31, 55, 66, 68, 69,
105, *3$
Diet for singers, Aristotle, 19 f.; Quintil-
ian, 20 f.; Codronchi, 22 ff.; 87, 139-
51 (passim)
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 28 f.
Diruta, G., 61, 90
Disease, effect on singing, 27
Divisions, 61, 75
Dizionario delta Lingua Italiana, 6
Dodart, Denis, 17, 131, 137, 191
Donati, I., 61, 74, 102
Doni, G. B., 61, 75, 139
Donizetti, G., n
Dow, S., xi
Dramma per Musica, 49
Drinking, effect on voice, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 26, 27, 87, 139-51 (passim)
Durante, O., 61, 74, 102
Ear training, 39 f., 42, 90-101
Ecclesiastics, complaints against singers,
Empirical methods of teaching, 18, 42 f.,
fof-, 75, 79, 82, 88 f., 91, 92, 96, 99,
102 ff., 127, 133, 138, 152 f., 156
Enlightenment, the, 49 f.
Epiglottis, 126-38 (passim)
Eunuchry, 45 ff., 167
Eunuchus (Lucian), 47
Eunuch voice, 47
Eutropius (eunuch), 47
Expression, 31, 34, 35, 43; overdone, 61;
incorrect facial, 61 ff., 71 ; change of
facial, 64, 68, 69, 72, 88
"Fabarri," 24
Fabricius, Hieronymus, 15
Fallopius of Padua, 15
INDEX
Falsettists, 24, 41 f., 49, 51, 119 ff., 166
Falsetto voice, 40 ff., 108, 112 f., 186;
same as head voice, 113, 116; Agricola
disagrees, 117, 118 ff., 139
Fantoni, G., 48
Farinelli (castrato), 53
Fauces, 103, 106, 109
Fear, 62, 64; important factor in breath
control, 83
Fencing and horseback riding recom-
mended, 64
Ferrein, Antoine, 14; disproves theories
of Galen, 17 f., 117, 131, 133, 135, 137,
153, 194
Fetis, F. J., 10 f., 56, 152, 182
Finck, Hermann, 41
Fistel-stimme, 118, 120; see also Falsetto
voice
"Fistulieren," 116
Florentine Camarata, 6
Florino, F., and origins of bel canto, 5
Forcing the voice, 30, 41, 76 f., 8r, 84 f.,
107, 115, 116, 118, 124, 143 *> 146,
148 f., isof.
French Revolution, 49
Frosch, J., 39
Galen, 145., 22, 23, 130, 131, 133, 137,
153, 191; founder of laryngology, 14;
definition of voice, 14; theory of
phonation, 14 f. ; theories disproved by
Ferrein, 17; vocal hygiene, 19
"Galli," 45
Galliard, J. E., 56, 113
Ganassi, S., 39
Gassner, F. S., 8
German nationalism and singing, 9 f.
Gizziello (castrato), 53
Glands of throat, 128
Glottis, 17, 84, 117, 126 ff., 1306?.; named
by Galen, 14
Gluck-Piccini controversy, 10
Goethe, J. W., 54, 56
Golden Age of Song, i
Goldschmidt, Hugo, 10
"Gorga," 112
Gregory of Nazianus, 45
Grout, Donald J., 60
Guidotti, A., 90
Habock, F., 54 *> ^7
Haendel, G. F., 58
Haertinger, M. M. D., 9
Hanslick, E., 8 f.
Hasse, J. A., 55, 105
219
Hawkins, Sir John, 87
Head voice, 33, 40, 92, 109, 112, 114!,
117 ff.; same as falsetto, 113, 116;
Agricola disagrees, 117
Hermias (eunuch), 47
Herodotus, 46
Hesiod, 25, 44
Hey, Julius, 10
Hiller, J. A., 67 f., 81, 89, 107, 120, 125,
133, H3 f, H5, 153
Hippocrates, 13, 189
Holmes, Gordon, historian of laryn-
gology, 13, 160
Homer, 25, 44
Hucbald, 34
Humanism, 15, 30 f.
Hygiene, vocal, i, 139-51; definition of,
3; history of, 19 ff.; remedies, 19; diet,
19 f.; Quintilian on diet, rest, and
simple living, 20 f.; Codronchi, 22 f.;
conclusions, 24, 154
Iliad, 44
Infibulation, 22, 48
Intermedia 60
Intermezzo, 50
Intonation, 90 ff., 115; affected by ill-
ness, over-eating, etc., 91; causes of
poor intonation, 92 f . ; exact informa-
tion preferred, 94 f., 99; aid of in-
struments in, 94 ff., 98 f .
Isadore of Seville, 32, 126
Italian language, best adapted to sing-
ing, 4
Italian singing, 3 ; decadence of, 5 ff. ;
criticism by Italians, 6f.; effect on
German singing, 8 f. ; criticism by
Germans, 9f.; championship of, by
some Germans, 10; French opposition
to in i8th century, 10; acceptance of
in i9th century, iof.; repels German
style, 59 ; considered best by Germans,
80, 89, 106, 120; source of the art of
singing, 152
Jerome of Moravia, 33
Johannes de Muris, 31, 34; on vocal
hygiene, 21
Johannes Gallicus, 34
John of Garland, 33
John of Salisbury, 34
John XXII (Pope), 36
Julian the Apostate, 47
Jumilhac, P. B., 68, 83 f., 97, 108, 173
22O
Kelly, Michael, 150
Kempelen, W., 136
Kircher, A., 130, 138
Kitchiner, W., 138
Kuerzniger, I. F. X., 68, 82, 95, 107, 145
Lamperti, Francisco, 5 f., 7, 174
Lanfranco, G. W., 38
Lang, Paul Henry, 36
Lanza, G., 72, 73, 88, 89, no, 152
Laryngology, 13-18; Galen as founder
of, 14; part played by Arabs in, 15;
Humanism, stimulus of, 15; increased
interest in about 1600, 15
Laryngoscope, 16
Larynx, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 72, 75 f., 80,
106, 126-38 (passim) ; of castrati, 52 f.
Lasser, J. B., 82 f., 96, 108, 121 f., 146,
152
Lasso, O. di, 41 f.
Lavoix, H., n
Lecuyer, 98
Leibnitz, G. W., 49
Le Nuove Musiche, 5,, 74
Leo, Leonardo, 62
Leonardo da Vinci, 16
Leo XIII (Pope), 51
Lessmann, Otto, 10
Lips, 31, 32, 66, 106, 126-38 (passim)
Locke, John, 49
Lodi, Signora, 71
Lohengrin, 7
Lo rente, A., 140
Lucca, Giovanni, 112
Lucidarium (Marchettus), 31
Lungs, 13, 14, 26, 27, 31, 72, 75 f., 79,^o,
82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 117, 126-38 (passim)
Lute accompanied solo-song, 60
Maffei, Giovanni C., 22, 38, 39, 41, 42
Mancini, G. B., 62 ff., 72, 75 ff., 89, 91-
93, 100, 102-105, no, 113-16, 124,
128 f., 138, 141, 151, 153, *8o; singers
advised to observe actors, 63 ; to study
dancing, 63 f.
Manfredini, V., 65, 78 f., 93, 100, 105,
116, 129, 151
Mannheim school, 120
Mannstein, H. F., 8
Manservisi, Signora, 71
Manuel (eunuch), 48
Marcello, Benedetto, 54, 105
Marchesi (castrato), 54
Marchettus of Padua, 31, 32
INDEX
Marpurg, F. W., 67, 80 f., 94, 100, 107,
119 f., 143, 144, 152
Martellato, 93
Martini, Jean Paul, Egide, 70, 85 f., 98 f.,
108 f., 122, 125, 148, 152
Martini, Padre G. B., 62
Mattheson, Johann, 66 f., 79 f., 89, 106,
116, 130, 138, 141 ff., 152, 191
Medieval liturgical dramas, 60
Mendelssohn, F., 50, 168
Mengozzi, B., 70 f., 73, 86 f., 89, 99, 109,
122 f., 125, 137, 138, 149 f-, 153
Mersenne, Marin, 17, 133, 146 f.
Messa di voce, 53, 76 f., 80, 81; daily
practice of, 77, 85, 87, 89, 98
Metastasio, 65 f.
Mirror, use of to correct faults, 38, 62,
67, 68
Miserere of Allegri, 50
Modena, Andrea di, 112
Moreschi, last castrate, 51 f.
Morgagni, John Baptist, 16
Mouth, 14, 26, 27, 38, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67,
68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 102 ff., 106 ; smil-
ing mouth, 61, 65, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73,
104!; shape of, 107, 109 f.; most im-
portant (Mancini), 103 f.; too wide,
103, 106-109; too nearly closed, 103,
106-109; should not change shape,
while vocalizing, 107, 109
Mozart, W. A., 50
Mustafa, last great castrate artist, 51
Mystery plays, 60
Napoleon Bonaparte, 56
Narses (eunuch), 47, 57
Nassarre, Pablo, 112, 127
Naturalness in singing, 44, 49 f., 69, 70,
7i, 73, 75, 83, 84, 85, 91, 102 ff., 108 1,
*tf> *535 gifts of nature, 114, 128 f.,
134, 15*
Nehrlich, C. F., 8
Nero, 139, 195
Nicea,. council of, 45
Nicolini (castrato), 55
Nietzsche, 36
Nose, 39, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108-10
Odyssey, 25
Old Italian School of Singing, i f., 6, u,
59
Opera, 60
Opera Buffo, 50
INDEX
Opera Seria, 50
Oratorio, 6
Origen, 45, 48, 57
Ornamentation, vocal, 31, 34 f., 36 f., 40,
43, 43, 59, 14*
Ornithoparcus, 41
Orsini (castrato), 117
Pachiarotti (castrato), 54, 174
Palate, 13, 31, 32, 39, 106, 126-38
(passim)
Palestrina, G. P., 50
Passaggi, 74, 112
Passion Week music, 50
Patti, Adelina, n
Paul IV (Pope), 49
Penna, L., 61
Pergolesi, G. B., 105
Perini, Cesare, 6
Petri, J. S., 68, 81, 95, 107, 145, 152
Petronius, 47, 48
Phonation, theories of, Aristotle, i3f.;
Galen, 14 f.; persistence of Galen's
theories into modern times, i6f.; gen-
eral theories of, i6f.; Mersenne, 17;
Dodart, 17; Ferrein, 17; various
theories, 126-38; scientific analysis un-
necessary for singers, 127, 133, 136 f.,
138; based upon incomplete or incor-
rect data, 153
Physiological approach to singing, 75 f .,
80, 84, 126-38; by the French, 89;
Agricola, 106, 118
Physiological factors in singing, i, 126-
38
Physiology, definition of, 3
Plato, 25, 126
Playford^ John, 189
Pliny, 135, 141
Plutarch, 29
Pneumogastric nerve, 14
Poetics (Aristotle), 26
Polidoro, F. I., 6
Politics (Aristotle), 25
Porpora, N. A., 71, 105, 194
Porporino (castrato), 56
Portamento di voce^ 115
Pose, 60-73
Praetorius, M., 79, 94, 105, 116, 130, 141
Printz, W. C., 79, 94, 105, 141
Priscianus, 126
Problemata (Aristotle), 14, 19, 20, 27
Professional musicians, disorderly tastes
pf, 25 ; low estate of, 26, 28
221
Quality, voice, 32 f., no; and breathing,
83
Quintilian, 20 ff., 29, 135, 141, 147
Raguenet, F., 54
Rameau, J. P., 69, 84 f., 98, 136, 138, 152,
177
Raparlier, 69 f., 85
Rauzzini (castrato), 54
Recurrent nerve, 14
Regino Prumensis, 32 f.
Registers, 33, 40 f., 112-25; difficulties of
uniting, 113 if.; blending of, 113 ff.
Religious cults of Asia Minor, 44 f .
Renaissance vocal idioms culminate in
i6th century, 37; demands on singer,
37; caused development of solo sing-
ing, 37 f-
Resfacta, 37
Resonators, 102-11
Rhetoric, art of, 19
Riemann, Hugo, 4, 9
Rima glottidis, 16, 131
Rognoni, F., 112
Romani (castrato), 56
Rosetus, 126
Rossetti, 13, 39
Rossini, G., 7, n, 158, 160
Rousseau, J. J., 49 f.
Sacre r&ppresentazioni, 60
St. Augustine, 30, 45
St. Bernard, 40
St. Cyprian, 47 f.
St. Jerome, 19
St. Raynard, 41
Santo rini, Dominic, 16
Satyricon (Petronius), 47
Scaletta, O., 61
Scarlatti, A., 105
Scepsius, 141
Scholasticus (eunuch), 47
Schonen Gesanges, 8 f,, 159
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 56
Schiitz, Heinrich, 66
Scientific study of voice, i ; not practiced
in lei canto period, 154
Scooping (sliding), 90, 94 f., 99
Scutiform, see Thyroid cartilage
Senesino (castrato), 56
Sexual intercourse, abstinence from, 20,
23; lack of, save. YQice, 22, 139, 147
Shake, 113
r, F., 8, xq
222
Singers* acting ability, 57 f.
Singing after eating, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
142 ff., 147
Singing style, Wagnerian dramatic, 3, 7,
59; Italian, 3; German, 4; German
vs. Italian, 4, 6 ff., 10 ; stile parlante,
7; Italian criticism of, 7; effect on
German, 8; triumph of German dra-
matic over Italian, 10
Sistine Chapel, 48 ff. ; high praise of, 50,
5i
Socrates (church historian), 48
Solfeggi, should not be overdone, 105
Solo madrigal, 60
Sosomen, 48
Soto, Padre, 49
Spinal accessory nerve, 14, 16
Spohr, L., 50
Steele, Sir Richard, 55
Stile parlante, 7
Stockhausen, Julius, 10
Suetonius, 141, 195
Superior laryngeal nerve, 14, 16
Teaching methods of bel canto, empiri-
cal nature of, 18; not based on correct
theories of phonation before 1800, 18
Teeth, 13, 31, 32, 66, 67, 73, 103, 105, 106,
126-38 (passim)
Tenducci, G. F., 88, 89, 99, no, 124, 150,
152
Tertullian, 45
Tevo, Z., 127
Theodoricus de Campo, 32
Theoaeny (Hesiod), 44
Throat, 13, 19, 20, 27, 31, 72, 102, 105-
10, 126-38 (passim)
Throat register, 33
Thyroid cartilage, 14, 126-38 (passim)
Tinctoris, 37
Tomeoni, F., 70, 73, 86, 89, 149, 152, 199
Tone-seeking (Tonsuchen), 94 f., 100
Tongue, 13, 31, 32, 66, 71, 106-109, 126-
38 (passim)
Tosi, P. F., ii, 58, 6if., 72, 75, 78, 80,
8? 89, 91, 100, 102, 106, 109, 113 f.,
116, 118, 120, 121, 124, 125, 128, 141,
151, 152, 180, 196
Trachea, 16, 127
Tremolo, 38
INDEX
Trill, 79, 80, 85, 117, 126, 131, 134
Turner, William, 99
Uberti, G M 139
Urban V (Pope), 36
Uvula, 32, 126-38 (passim)
Vaccai, Giulio, 157
Vaccai, Nicola, 5
Vallara, F. M., 75, 112
Verxierungslkunst, 36
Vesalius of Padua, 15
Viadana, Ludovico, 5
Vicentino, N., 40, 41
Virtuosity, in antiquity, 25 ff. ; medieval,
30 f.; Renaissance, 37f., 42
Vocal cords, 14, 17, 97 f., 131
Vocal methods of bel canto not a secret,
155 f.
Vocal organs, described by Aristotle,
13 f.; by Galen, 14; other anatomists,
15 ff., 126-38 (passim}
Vocal pedagogy, in antiquity, 19 ff.,
28 ff. ; Renaissance, 42 f., ifaf.
Voce di petto, 113, 124
Voce di testa, 113, 124
Vogler, Abbe, 107
Voice, classification of, 32
Voice, definition of, 126; Aristotle, 13;
Galen, 14; Marchettus of Padua, 31;
Theodoricus de Campo, 32; Adam de
Fulda, 32
Voix de poitrine, 122 ^
Voix de Tete, 122
Voix du g osier, 122
Volatina, 77, 78
Vowels, 104
Wagner, R., 10
Wagnerian declamatory style, 3 f., 7, 59
Wieck, F., 8 f .
William Tell, 7
Willis, Thomas, 16
Windpipe, 14, 26, 27, 75, 117, 126-38
(passim)
Women, taboo on stage, 54
Woolridge, H. E., 35
Zacconi, G. C., 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 f.
Zarlino, G., 38, 40
130729
cl
is
