THE
BETTER
HOMES
MAN UAL
bu
BLANCHE HALBERT
From the collection of the
j f d
o rre|inger
v Jjibrary
San Francisco, California
2006
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
HOME ECONOMICS SERIES
LYDIA J. ROBERTS
Editor
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
HOME ECONOMICS SERIES, pub
lished with the approval of the Board
of Trustees of the University, is designed as a
contribution to the teaching of home economics
in schools, colleges, and universities. The books
of the series cover in some measure the fields
included in the home economics courses given
at the University and may thus serve as texts
in corresponding courses in other universities.
Some are designed to present material in fields
where home economics closely touches other
lines of work, such as public health or certain
phases of the social sciences; and some make
available to-the general reader, and especially
to the educated home-maker, information often
limited to the classroom.
THE
BETTER HOMES
MANUAL
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY
NEW YORK
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON
THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI
THE COMMERCIAL PRESS, LIMITED
SHANGHAI
THE
BETTER HOMES
MANUAL
[PUBLISHED IN CO-OPERATION WITH BETTER HOMES IN AMERICA]
Edited by
BLANCHE HALBERT
Research Director, Better Homes in America
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO / ILLINOIS
COPYRIGHT 1931 BY BETTER HOMES IN AMERICA, INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PUBLISHED SEPTEMBER 193!
COMPOSED AND PRINTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A.
PREFACE
BY RAY LYMAN WILBUR
Secretary of the Interior and President of
Better Homes in America
Good public policy involves provision for informing the general public
on the practical details of house architecture, construction, and equip
ment, and each of the processes involved in the purchase or financing of
the house and the management of the home. This is a field in which sci
ence is making rapid progress and in which there are, therefore, new
processes to be brought to public attention, and where the results of large
numbers of studies and experiments should be made accessible to all
householders and homemakers.
In this Manual are assembled the best contemporary statements ob
tainable on home ownership and financing, the methods of keeping the
cost of the house down, points to be considered in the buying or building
of a home, the selection of the site, and the fitting of the house to its site,
the determination of architectural style and consideration of essentials in
planning as well as the choice of materials to be used and selection of
equipment for lighting, heating, ventilation, plumbing, and refrigeration,
and the finishing of floors and walls. These are matters on which many
government departments, state colleges, professional organizations, and
periodicals publish thousands of articles of varying merit. The house
holder or home builder may be easily perplexed or confused by the quan
tity of the available information or material, much of which is biased,
incomplete, or inadequate. Access, therefore, to the best of contemporary
advice on these subjects saves time and effort and conserves public re
sources.
Once the house is completed, and even before that time, problems of
the selection and arrangement of furniture, selection of draperies, cur
tains, and pictures must be considered; and the setting of the house with
reference to landscaping or the designing and planting of home grounds
requires consideration, so that home and community values may not be
impaired but actually enhanced. The solution of each of these important
problems of the home inevitably involves a consideration of standards of
housing and ideals of home life, on the one hand, and careful organization
vii
viii PREFACE
of economic resources through skilful budgeting and home management,
on the other. Each must be considered with reference to the whole pic
ture if the best effects are to be secured.
The purpose of this Manual is to assist the new generation of leaders in
home improvement — teachers of home economics, home-demonstration
leaders, members of home bureaus, and Better Homes committees as well
as home owners and homemakers — to have access to the best available
sources of information on each detail of home improvement.
INTRODUCTION
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director of Better Homes in America
The significance of the home is indicated by examination of the effects
of environment upon human character and activities. Each individual at
birth is gifted with actual or potential qualities which can be traced to
heredity. Each is a unique combination of such traits or qualities, and to
this unique pattern of traits and tendencies he owes his individuality.
From the very beginning of life, however, he is subject to influences from
his environment, and these influences to a large extent determine his
development.
A simple analogy from the plant kingdom may make this clear. For
it is possible to select seeds from the best plants — seeds which embody the
type of heredity desired such as large and vigorous growth or flowers and
fruits of particular color, size, and quality. If environment played no
part in the life of the vegetable kingdom, all such seeds when planted
would result in plants of high quality. The careful horticulturist, how
ever, realizes that it is necessary to pay careful attention to the kind of
environment in which such seeds shall be placed. If the soil is too dry, the
seeds will not germinate or the plant will be stunted. If too continuously
moist, the plant may rot. The most vigorous growth is secured through
proper combinations of soil, moisture, climate, and fertilization. A whole
some development of even the best selected seed thus may be prevented
by improper or unfortunate conditions of environment.
The same is true of human beings. Children of the best heredity or of
the best native endowment may be prevented from the high develop
ment which is their due by unfortunate circumstances of their upbringing
that is to say, by undesirable environing conditions. On the other
hand, the children of average hereditary stock may do better than those
of good stock if the conditions of growth are more fortunate. This book
is not concerned with the social control of heredity but deals with the
selection, cultivation, and control of the more important environing fac
tors in the lives of children and adults.
The home is the environment in which the life and development of the
child are primarily determined. In the early years practically all the life
x INTRODUCTION
of the child is lived in the home, and even in adult years men or women
who work outside of the home spend from one-third to one-half of their
time in the home. The homemaker spends the greater part of her time in
this environment. From the quantitative point of view, therefore, the
home is the most important of human environments, and if its influences
are good the prospects for development on the part of each of its members
likewise will be good.
So far we have spoken of the home as if it were one environment, but
it is probably made up of hundreds or thousands of influences some of
which are amenable to elimination, cultivation, or control. Its influences
comprise each detail in the actual physical environment — the design of
the house, each article of equipment, the pictures on the walls, the books
and magazines upon the table, the arrangement of furnishings, as well as
the backgrounds, interests, ideals, and attitudes of each member of the
family. The influences of the home invariably comprise subtle and in
tangible factors as well as physical factors. The making-over of home in
fluences, therefore, must involve conscious selection of attitudes and
ideals as well as of furnishings, pictures, equipment, or other factors pri
marily physical.
The improvement of homes is a primary means to the development of
individual character. It is, however, of tremendous sociological impor
tance as well, because through the conscious selection of environing fac
tors in homes which are the chief environment of children it becomes pos
sible in the long run to redirect the trends of civilization. Wherever
homes can succeed in helping each child to realize its hereditary potential,
i.e., to develop physical health, mental stability and alertness, emotional
control, and interest in life's higher values in just so far as his native equip
ment may permit, social institutions will inevitably reflect these qualities
and standards. For the boys and girls influenced and trained in their
home environment to do their best with the abilities with which they were
endowed by heredity will demand standards in business and public life
as high as those which have been cultivated in their homes. Herein lies
great promise for human development even in the absence of social con
trol of heredity.
The home because of its universality has been taken too much for
granted and subjected to relatively little study. Families have drifted
into home ownership or tenancy with only the meager knowledge of the
subject which they could pick up from their own earlier lives and con
tacts with friends and business associates. The inevitable result has been
INTRODUCTION xi
that most families are dwelling under conditions ill adapted to their needs
and far from ideal. Health is injured by defects in house design, equip
ment, or maintenance which could be easily remedied. Life and limb are
endangered by defects which could be eliminated with slight expenditure
of time or money. Precious hours are needlessly wasted at housework
which could be saved by intelligent re-routing of activities, better arrange
ment of equipment, or installation of labor-saving devices. Rest and com
fort may be missed through lack of appreciation of the ways through
which they can be attained, and the fine values of beauty and privacy so
essential to individual growth and development may be missed through
a failure to appreciate their importance and the possibility of incorporat
ing them even in the most humble dwelling.
The solution of the urgent problem of home improvement is twofold :
It involves reaching the householders of the present with information
adapted to their interests and needs, and cultivation of initiative in coping
with the problems which they face. It demands also the cultivation of
trained leadership through our public schools, normal schools, and col
leges, through which each present and future homemaker or householder
may be helped to the detailed and specific information needed. With
every family the problem is to determine what are the next steps which
should be taken in the improvement of existing conditions — but those
next steps should be determined with reference to ultimate goals. Advice
and help are needed.
Much waste of time, energy, and family resources has been caused by
ignorance of the best ways of going about the purchase and planning, the
repair, or the management of a house. From the point of view of the indi
vidual householder, building or purchase of a home may be the most im
portant investment of a lifetime. Viewed from the standpoint of public
welfare, conditions of housing are a matter of public concern, because
unfortunate mistakes in the design or construction of a single house, in
its placement, or mistakes in the selection of the site, may mar the entire
neighborhood, and affect the property values, tax rates, and the general
well-being of many citizens.
The home, however, should not be an end in itself but a means to the
fulfilment of high ideals, of happiness, of family life. Each member of
every family should have opportunity at all times to maintain sound
health, develop his personal capacities, and grow in character. The home
may be made a means, also, of providing opportunity for creative self-
expression in each of the arts in, which the individual -is interested or
xii INTRODUCTION
gifted, and may thus become a medium through which the deepest of
human interests are elicited and trained. Too narrow a conception of the
possibilities of the home may lead to moral lethargy; but the development
of an understanding of human potentials and of what homes may furnish
as a developmental center may provide opportunity for each member of a
household to discover himself and organize his life under the most favor
able conditions for mental and moral growth, for creative activity, and
for service to his community.
The conditions of housing and of home life have been shown to be a
matter of public concern. National progress is limited by present condi
tions of housing which injure health or thwart individual development.
Hence, our state and municipal governments have recognized their re
sponsibility by enacting laws governing health, building, and housing, in
order to establish certain minimum standards below which no house
should be permitted to fall. Civic progress requires a continuous upward
pressure upon these standards and frequent revision of the laws already
in operation. Within the past few years building laws have been supple
mented by zoning legislation in our cities and towns and provision for
the careful planning of the city as a unit, both to prevent conditions which
may hamper commerce and industry and to provide for the wholesome
development of residential districts in their relation to civic, cultural,
commercial, and industrial centers. The aim of city planning is to pro
vide a maximum of the amenities of life for all citizens. The home is no
longer construed to be an isolated unit, but is recognized as an important
factor in the social process. Through the study of housing legislation and
city planning the householder and the homemaker become increasingly
aware of their civic opportunities and responsibilities as home owners,
neighbors, and citizens. Through organizing local civic groups to repre
sent their neighborhood and community at hearings where local or state
housing legislation is under consideration they may provide for the pro
tection of their districts, for orderly growth, and for increasing access to
the values of home and community life.
Many organizations are engaged in work of one sort or another for the
improvement of housing. These include departments of our municipal and
federal governments, extension departments of public and private colleges
and universities, and civic organizations on a local, state, or national basis
concerned with a wide range of problems in the field of architecture, home
and community beautification, home economics, slum elimination, city
planning, and the development of cultural opportunities and other re-
INTRODUCTION
Xlll
la ted subjects. Training for civic leadership involves an understanding of
all such community and national resources, so that they may be properly
co-ordinated for effective achievement and with a minimum waste of
community resources and effort. Through perfecting the service rendered
by these various agencies and through well-conceived researches to dis
cover the best available means to the fulfilment of home and community
ideals it is possible to speed up the process of home and community im
provement for rural districts and for cities. Bit by bit the difficult and
serious problems of slum elimination, of the protection of homes from
deleterious influences, and of promoting orderly development of residen
tial districts with individuality and quality in the architecture of houses
and in the community as a whole may be mastered. These problems will
not be solved, however, until every American citizen is able to dwell in a
home that is sanitary, convenient, and comfortable, attractive, whole
some, free from influences that thwart development, and conducive in
every way to the fulfilment of high ideals.
In a nation with vast economic resources, relative prosperity, and high
ideals of popular representation in government, such an ideal is not vision
ary. Even though a century or two may be necessary for its accomplish
ment, the beginnings may be made at once in framing a comprehensive
program and existing agencies may be used in a practical way to fulfil this
ideal step by step. Such a program involves the same kind of research,
judicious planning, and continuous painstaking activity that is involved
in our great industrial and engineering projects. Too generally sentimen-
talism and shortsightedness have dominated activities for social welfare.
The constructive genius displayed in business enterprises and the pro
fessional skill displayed in private, professional activity must be co
ordinated with a high conception of civic responsibility, with patient and
well-devised planning, and with a growing vision of the ultimate aim. It
is the privilege of every business and professional group and of every
citizen and householder to participate in this program for home improve
ment.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I. THE REQUIREMENTS FOR A GOOD HOME
CHAPTER PAGE
I. HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 3
Home Ownership. Herbert Hoover 3
Home Ownership and Home Financing. John M. Cries and
James S. Taylor 7
Choosing a Home Financing Agency. John M. Cries and Thomas
M. Curran 23
Building and Loan Amortization. Thomas M. Curran ... 36
Maintenance Costs and Other Expenses in Home Owning . . 40
When Is Home Ownership Inadvisable? 41
Home Ownership and the Wage Earner. William Green ... 43
Summary 48
References 49
II. THE COST OF THE HOUSE AND METHODS OF REDUCING IT . . 51
What Do Houses Cost? 51
Reducing the Cost of Houses . 56
Elimination of Waste in Home Building and Home Financing.
Arthur E. Wood 59
Reducing the Cost of the House by the Use of Factory-made
Parts. W. H. Ham 62
Reducing Costs by Standardization of Parts. Ernest Flagg . . 66
Other Opinions on Reducing the Cost of Houses 67
Fifty Ways To Lower Home-building Costs. Robert T. Jones . 74
Omitting the CeUar To Cut Building Costs 83
Summary 84.
References 85
III. THE HOME-SITE 87
Property Considerations in Selecting the Home Site. John M.
Cries and James S. Taylor 87
Thirty Things To Buy Besides "Frontage" 92
The Building Site Dictates the Architectural Style. H. E. Wichers 95
Fitting Your House to Its Site. /. Duncan Hunter . . . 100
Architecture and Landscape Architecture Should Be Interde
pendent. Rexford Newcomb • i°5
xv
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Consider the Home Grounds before Placing the House on the Lot.
M. E. Bottomley . 108
Placement for Sunshine. David Stone Kelsey in
Summary 115
References 117
IV. ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 119
Architecture 119
The Meaning of the Factors of Composition 119
Beauty in Architecture. Lewis Mumf or d 123
The Use of Materials in Architecture. Lewis Mumford . . . 125
Characteristics of English Style. Aymar Embury II . . . . 130
Characteristics of Italian Style. Aymar Embury II . . . . 132
What Makes Colonial — Colonial? 133
The Dutch Colonial. H. Simons 138
The Evolution of the Spanish House. Rexford Newcomb . . . 141
What Makes Spanish — Spanish? 145
The Use of Style in Architecture of Today. R. W. Sexton . . 148
The Future of Modernism 152
Present-Day Small-House Architecture. James S. Taylor . . 154
Architectural Design and Sound Construction. James Ford . . 156
The Duties of the Architect 160
Summary 166
References 166
V. HOUSE -PLANNING ESSENTIALS 1 70
The Plan of the House 170
What Is Good Planning? Arthur C. H olden 171
Planning the Small Home. Donn Barber 176
Considerations in Planning the Various Rooms 180
The Plan Service of the Architects' Small House Service Bureau.
James Ford 181
Blueprints 187
The Value of Specifications to the Owner. Philip G. Knobloch . 189
Planning and Equipping the Home for Children. James Ford . 194
Summary 201
References 202
VI. COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES . 204
The Importance of Good Building and the Uses of Materials.
C. Stanley Taylor 204
Use of Wood hi House Construction. Nelson S. Perkins . . . 210
Building Brick. Jordan A. Pugh 215
Hollow Tile and Cement Materials. Allen L. Churchill and
Leonard Wickenden 218
TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii
CHAPTER pAGE
Stucco Finishes 221
Fundamental Requirements of Concrete 224
Roofing Materials. M attack Price ......... 226
Insulation 230
Interior Woodwork. Frank A. Connolly 237
The Use of Wood as Finish-Flooring Materials. Robert T. Jones 240
Other Flooring Materials. Alexander Bond 242
Wall Plaster and Paint 244
New Building Materials 244
Some of the Essentials for Good Construction. James S. Taylor 247
Principles of Good Construction Practice. Arthur Holden and
Associates, and R. W. Sexton . 249
What Makes a Cheap House? Robert T. Jones 269
Forty Reasons Why Walls and Ceilings Crack 275
Winter Construction 276
Direct and Indirect Saving by Winter Construction .... 278
Duties of the Contractor 279
Summary 281
References 282
VII. HOME LIGHTING 287
Requirements for Good Home Lighting 287
House Wiring and Lighting 290
Minimum Wiring Standards 299
Safeguarding Vision in Lighting the Home. M. Luckiesh . . 302
What Home Owners Should Know about Electric Systems.
H. Vandervoort Walsh 305
Summary 308
References 308
VIII. HEATING, VENTILATION AND HUMIDITY 310
The Home Heating System. A. C. Willard ...... 310
Progress in Heating. A. S. A rmagnac 317
The Panel Heating System. Howard T. Fisher 319
Radiators. P. E. Pansier 320
The Painting of Steam and Hot- Water Radiators . . . .325
Auxiliary Heating by Electricity. Rollin C. Chapin . . . .328
What Is a Comfortable Temperature? 331
Ventilation and Humidity. R. H. Heilman 332
Condensation 335
Summary 33^
References . ' • • • 337
xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
IX. PLUMBING 340
Plumbing Terms 340
Plumbing Essentials. Robert T. Jones 342
The Importance of Selecting Good Plumbing Equipment. Norman
J. Rodder ^ .348
Progress in Fixture Design and Materials 35!
Faucets. Norman J. Rodder 352
Plumbing and Health 357
Summary 360
References 361
X. REFRIGERATION 362
Electric and Gas Refrigerators 362
Electric Refrigeration, Refrigerants, and the Cabinet. G. E. Miller 366
The Gas-Fired Refrigerator 37!
Ice Refrigeration and the Ice Cabinet. M. E. Pennington . . 373
Summary 379
References 379
XI. WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 381
Backgrounds. Mrs. Charles Bradley Sanders 381
Finishes for Rough and Smooth Plastered Walls 382
Other Treatments for Smooth Plastered Walls 388
Plastic Paint. Jeannette Kilham 389
Wallpaper and Fabricated Materials 390
New Wall Finishes and Decoration. Matlack Price .... 393
Paneled Walls of Wood. H. Vandenoort Walsh 395
Woodwork Finishes 400
Factors To Consider before Choosing Wall Color 403
The Approximate Reflection of Light from the Various Colors . 404
Floor Finishes 405
Types of Rugs. Elsie Richardson 410
Types of Linoleum and Cork-Composition Floor Coverings.
C. Stanley Taylor 412
Summary 416
References 417
XII. ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 419
Furniture and Architecture. R. W. Sexton . 419
Principles of Good Furniture Making. Ralph C. Erskine . . 421
Advantages and Disadvantages of Both Veneer and Solid Furni
ture Construction 426
Important Considerations in Furniture. Selection and Arrange
ment. Elsie Richardson 427
TABLE OF CONTENTS xix
CB*™ PAGE
Window Treatment 432
The Importance of Color 433
A Suggested List of Furnishings for the Seven-Room House.
Mrs. Charles Bradley Sanders . . .' . 434
Amounts and Approximate Percentages for Furniture and Equip
ment . 447
Modernism in Furniture. C. R. Richards 447
Summary ' 45o
References . . 4-!
XIII. THE KITCHEN t ... 455
Kitchen Planning. Greta Gray 455
Kitchen Floors, Walls, and Woodwork. Greta Gray . . . .457
Kitchen Ventilators. Elizabeth Hal-lam Bohn 458
Five Major Requirements for Kitchen Equipment. Hildegarde
Kneeland 462
Important Points To Consider in Selecting or Building Large
Equipment . 464
What To Look For in Selecting Stoves. S. Agnes Donham . . 466
Considerations in Selecting and Placing Equipment and Utensils 469
List of Kitchen Utensils with Suggestions for Grouping. Katharine
A. Fisher 473
A Demonstration Kitchen 475
The Herald-Tribune Kitchen. Gertrude Tennyson 475
Summary 480
References . 481
XIV. RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING WALLS, FLOORS, AND FURNI
TURE 483
Home Repair Jobs 483
Preparing Old Walls for New Finish 489
How To Finish Interior Woodwork 493
Refmishing Old Floors. Marion Bell 498
Furniture Refmishing. Marion L. Tucker 502
Upholstering Old Chairs and Couches. Daisy Deane Williamson 506
Summary 5°9
References 5°9
XV. HOUSING STANDARDS 511
Some of the Elements of Good Housing. John M. Cries and
James S.Taylor 511
Housing Standards with Particular Reference to the Health,
Safety and Welfare of Children. James Ford 516
xx TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Recommended Minimum Housing Standards. Morris Knowles . 527
References 530
XVI. DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 532
Essentials in Planning the Home Grounds. Furman Lloyd
Midford 532
Principles of Small-Property Design. M. E. Bottomley . . . 536
Lawn Making and Lawn Renovation. Furman Lloyd Mulford . 541
Foundation Planting. Furman Lloyd Mulford 544
Selection and Planting of Trees. Lewis C. Everard .... 546
Considerations in Planning the Flower Garden. H. W. Harvey . 551
Garden Walks. Hugh Findlay 555
Vegetable Gardens 559
Summary 560
References 561
XVII. RURAL HOMES 564
The Development of Better Farm Homes. Dr. Louise Stanley . 565
The Location of the Farm Home 569
Planning the Farmhouse 574
Considerations in Farmhouse Planning. H. E. Wickers . . . 574
Considerations in the Construction of the Rural Home. James S.
Taylor 578
A Better Homes Demonstration , 584
Summary 588
References 590
PART II. PROGRESS IN IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS
XVIII. OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 599
Main Defects in American Housing. Lawrence Veiller . . . 599
The Housing Problem of the Low-Income Groups. Lawson Purdy 604
A Standard for All New Dwellings 607
Twelve Housing Needs of American Cities. Harold S. Buttenheim 608
Public Responsibility for Housing. Thomas Adams and Wayne D.
Heydecker 609
Factors of Bad Housing That Contribute to 111 Health. James Ford 614
Bad Housing and Infant Mortality 619
Health and Housing. Wayne D. Heydecker 620
Summary 625
References 626
XIX. IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH CITY PLANNING AND
ZONING 628
Essential Features of City Planning 628
TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi
HAPTEE PAGE
City Planning and Housing. Harold S. Buttenheim .... 639
City Planning and the Standard City Planning Enabling Act.
Lester G. Chase 644
Housing and the Regional Plan. John Ihlder 646
Slums and the City Plan. Edith Elmer Wood 660
What Makes the City Beautiful? George B. Ford . . . . 665
What Is Zoning? 672
Zoning and Health. George C. Whip pie . . . .. . . . 677
Summary 689
References .> * k ............ 692
XX. IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH LEGISLATION . . 694
Housing Reform and Legislation. LAWRENCE VEILLER ... 694
Housing Legislation and Its Enforcement. James Ford . . . 697
The Inspection of Dwellings — Their Custody and Care. John
Ihlder 704
New York's New Housing Legislation 709
The New York Multiple Dwelling Law. Lawson Purdy ... 709
Summary ........... ... 713
References 7*4
XXI. IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH HOUSING DEVELOP
MENTS ........... .716
Housing Developments 7*6
Radburn. Louis Brownlow 7*8
The Amalgamated Clothing Workers Project 727
The Paul Lawrence Dunbar Apartments ....... 73 1
The Marshall Field Garden Apartment Homes 732
The Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments 73 2
Mariembnt, Ohio — a New Town Built To Produce Local Happi
ness. John Nolen -735
References 738
PART III. ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING AND
HOME-IMPROVEMENT WORK
XXII. GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS . 741
Better Homes in America. James Ford 74*
American Homemakers, Inc 74°
The National Housing Association 749
State and Local Housing Associations 749
City- and Regional-Planning Organizations 75 1
Bureaus, Offices, and Divisions of the United States Government
which Promote Home Improvement 75 1
xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
The Bureau of Standards. Henry D. Hubbard 752
The Division of Building and Housing. James S. Taylor . . 760
The Bureau of Home Economics of the United States Depart
ment of Agriculture. Rowena Schmidt Carpenter .... 765
Office of Cooperative Extension Work, Visual Instruction, and
Editorial Work. C, W. Warburton 768
The Division of Agricultural Engineering 769
The Bureau of Mines 769
INDEX 773
PART I
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR A GOOD HOME
CHAPTER I
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING
HOME OWNERSHIP1
BY HERBERT HOOVER
Buying or building a home requires the use of sound judgment in seeing
that the personal needs of the family are best met with the funds available.
It involves not only the carrying on of transactions of financing and buy
ing or building, but it involves the proper determination of location with
respect to school, to work, and to neighborhood.
Maintaining a high percentage of individual home-owners is one of the
searching tests that now challenge the people of the United States. The
present large proportion of families that own their homes is both the foun
dation of a sound economic and social system and a guarantee that our
society will continue to develop rationally as changing conditions demand.
A family that owns its home takes a pride in it, maintains it better,
gets more pleasure out of it, and has a more wholesome, healthful, and
happy atmosphere in which to bring up children. The home-owner has a
constructive aim in life. He works harder outside his home; he spends his
leisure more profitably; and he and his family live a finer life and enjoy
more of the comforts and cultivating influences of our modern civilization.
A husband and wife who own their home are more apt to save. They have
an interest in the advancement of a social system that permits the indi
vidual to store up the fruits of his labor. As direct taxpayers they take a
more active part in local government. Above all, the love of home is one
of the finest instincts and the greatest of inspirations of our people.
To-day, in the period of post-war recovery, when our National produc
tivity is increasing, we have the opportunity to make definite progress in
the right direction. Moreover, the development of the automobile has
given a great impulse to suburban life and an increasing possibility of
home ownership. Happily, a large section of the people is awake to the
1 Adapted from Foreword to How To Own Your Home (Washington: Better Homes
in America, 1929) and from "Home Building and Home Ownership," Child Welfare
Magazine, April, 1927.
3
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 5
problem, and an increasing number of business groups have publicly ac
knowledged their responsibility and interest in it. They realize that un-
FIG. 2. — First-floor plan
FIG. 3. — Second-floor plan
necessary barriers that may encompass a man determined to own his home
are hindrances to good community spirit and to good business. They see
that taking a neighborly interest in developing sound financing and other
6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
machinery for the use of home-seekers, and insisting on the observance of
honest, straightforward methods by those who deal with home-seekers is
not paternalism but good business and good citizenship. It is the "square
deal" — and it is not only right but essential that the cards should not be
stacked against the home-seeker.1
If our standards of housing are not to lag behind our improving stand
ards in the matter of food, clothing, education and recreation, we must
count first of all on the energy and resourcefulness of individual families
which determine to own their homes and have the character and ability
to save up the amount of a first payment. For the demand for attractive,
livable homes from families who can make a substantial first payment is
the most dependable force to insure the building of the right kind of
homes.
This demand can be encouraged and made more effective, from an eco
nomic point of view, by improved home financing facilities, especially in
the field of second mortgages, by increasing efficiency within the construc
tion industries, by improved layout of new residential areas, and by the
co-operation of local governments in assuring orderly civic development
through good city planning and zoning.
Rising standards for owned homes should tend to raise the standards of
rented homes, which we may consider auxiliary. We have ample evidence
that too great reliance on rented dwellings tends in the modern industrial
state to inadequate housing and the demand for state participation in
housing.
The large home-building program of the past five years has undoubtedly
been instrumental in the maintenance of stable employment and prosper
ous business conditions, and a continued demand for homes is always a
healthy factor in the general business situation.
When a family or a state or a nation does not pay enough attention to
the future consequences of its acts, it is in peril. Looking to the future is a
point of view which permeates a man's whole attitude and outlook on life.
The home-owner, or the man who sees home ownership just ahead, in
evitably has that point of view strengthened. While the home-owner's
judgment as to the future may be warped in some cases, at some times,
and there is always a need for liberality and thought and wisdom in meet-
1 Foreword to How To Own Your Home (Washington : Better Homes in America
1929).
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 7
ing changed conditions, surely, the greater the number of home-owners,
the greater confidence we may place in the future of our country.
Certain clear obligations rest upon us of the present generation. It be
hooves parents to achieve home ownership so far as they are able. We all
ought to promote better facilities for the use of others who are striving to
own their homes.1 ....
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING2
BY JOHN M. CRIES
Executive Secretary of the President's Conference on
Home Building and Home Ownership
AND
JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief of the Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
The great majority of people have a strong desire to own their homes.
Some, to be sure, are forced to move frequently from city to city, and
others have not yet saved up enough to make the first payment on the
purchase of a home. So there is always a need of houses to rent. But an
owned home with its many satisfactions is the ideal that most families
wish to secure for themselves
The home-owner is master of his dwelling. He cannot be ordered to
vacate, and the rent cannot be raised. He can make alterations as he
sees fit, and money spent for improvements adds to the value of his own
property. His family feels a sense of security, and finds a stimulant in
earning and saving to pay for the home and in making it attractive. Such
are the rewards that each year lead hundreds of thousands of American
families to buy or build homes for themselves.
It is believed that those who can afford to buy or build a home will
find help and encouragement in the following pages.
The buying or building of a home deserves serious consideration
It may take a few days or weeks to assemble the information any home-
seeker should have in hand before he takes the decisive step that will com
mit him to pay a large part of his annual income for ten or fifteen years
and which will probably determine the neighborhood in which his chil-
1 Child Welfare Magazine, April, 1927.
2 Adapted from How To Own Your Home (Washington: Better Homes in America,
1929), pp. 5-13, 29-32.
8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
dren will be reared. Would any man buy a partnership in a business with
less knowledge?
The pleasures and advantages of owning a home may be lost through
worry about overdue payments, poor construction, or an unpleasant
neighborhood. So it pays to make a careful decision and avoid such wor
ries.
It is hoped that those families who are not yet in a position to own a
home, but who want to take the step, will also find this information help
ful, for homes may be purchased on a small down payment and monthly
instalments like rent. A family that has saved up enough to make a first
payment and has paid its rent regularly when due has given good evidence
of its ability to pay for and own a home.
Preparations for home ownership cannot begin too early. The deter
mination to acquire a home some day, and the belief that owning one is a
normal part of a well-rounded life, are the first essentials, and can be
shared by children and their elders alike. Homes are usually bought from
savings. Habits of saving are best begun in early childhood; but adults
who have not already begun to save toward buying a home should start
at once. Again, a person cannot begin too young to observe the different
types and features of houses; such observation is useful in making a wise
purchase.
Many find the buying of a home the largest investment they ever make.
It is a very important step. A purchase made wisely may be the stepping-
stone to advancement and happiness, while a mistake may cause dis
couragement and a loss of all one's savings.
Most men and women who buy a house have never done it before, and
are usually unskilled, as people generally are in the things they do but
once or twice in a lifetime. But lack of experience should deter no one.
There is a story of a man who, many years ago, came to Broadway at
Times Square, and decided to wait until he believed it would be safe be
fore crossing the crowded street. Twenty years have passed, and he is still
waiting for absolute safety. The story of many a family that has been
ready to own a home is only too similar.
The prospective home-owner who uses his common sense in considering
the real needs of his family and his ability to pay, and who checks his own
judgment by consulting experienced persons, may go ahead with full con
fidence. He need not be frightened by the mistakes of heedless persons
who have been carried away by some novel feature and coaxed into a bad
bargain, or who have tried to buy beyond their means. While some risks
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 9
are involved, as is usually the case in obtaining anything worth while, the
danger of failure is relatively small when weighed against the advantages
of an owned home.
How much can one afford to pay for a home? — Every family must face
this question. Most people know what they would like in the way of a
home, and know that they could make payments at least equal to the
rent they are now paying. When they look over houses, or plans of houses,
they find some that cost too much and others that are too small or too
shabby to consider. The real problem lies in getting a satisfactory home,
one that will not absorb too much of the family's income nor yet be below
its general living standards. Before buying, the head of the family may
wisely ask himself:
1. What is the family's annual income; and what will it probably be next year
and the year after?
2. If business slackens, is he likely to lose his position or have his earnings re
duced?
3. Will anyone else in the family be able to earn an income?
4. What does the family now pay for rent each year?
5. How much of the income is being saved?
6. How much could the family afford to pay out each year in paying for a house,
and for the expenses that go with it?
The range of safe expenditure— It is a mistake to buy beyond one's
ability to pay, for that usually results in the loss of the home or in a most
discouraging struggle. The purchase should be safe; thus, if a family can
not pay $7,500 for a house, a $5,000 house may be within its means.
The amount that can be paid for a house depends partly on what inter
est rates are charged for the money borrowed to make the purchase and
the rate at which the principal is to be paid off. These fixed payments
must be met regularly, and they must be met from the family's income. It
is, therefore, always best to leave some margin of safety to provide for ill
ness or other emergency. While one may be too optimistic when an at
tractive house is in view, and count on increased income that he may never
receive, nearly every family can and should cut down other expenses when
the savings are to be invested in a home.
Percentage of income to devote to payments— -If a certain family pays a
sixth of its income for rent, it may be able to devote one-fourth or more to
buying and maintaining a house, for the amount thus used may include
both rent and savings. Rent, or payments on a home, may require any
where from one-eighth to one-third of the family income, depending on the
io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
special circumstances in each case. In addition to interest payments and
installments on the principal of a loan, allowance must be made for re
newals and repairs, taxes, special assessments, insurance, water tax, and
various accessories and improvements. Families accustomed to living in
apartments sometimes fail to allow for the cost of fuel for heating pur
poses
Where does money count for most? — Usually a house can be obtained
for less than the amount a family could pay if it were pressed to the limit.
Every family wants to spend its money so that it "goes the farthest," and
the exact amount to be spent on a home can be determined wisely only by
carefully checking over the family's needs and its expenses. There are,
first of all, the obvious budget items of food, shelter, and clothing. Proper
nutrition, especially, should not be neglected. In addition, there are ex
penses such as life insurance, doctors, hospitals, etc. If there are children,
it may be wise to send them away to school, to buy a piano for their use,
or to give them other advantages which cost money. Every family needs
a vacation and some recreation, and every family wants to contribute to
worthy causes. Phonographs and automobiles or new pieces of furniture
may be wanted before the house is paid for. Many other items of expense
cannot well be avoided. If the amount put into a house is out of propor
tion to other expenditures, the result is usually regretted.
In deciding how to spend money above the simple necessities of life it
is always best to note which expenditures have permanent value. Money
spent to provide education and wholesome outdoor life for children, for
instance, will help them throughout life, while certain expensive amuse
ments are harmful or less wholesome than the simpler forms of play.
Articles for the household that are useful or in good taste, again, may serve
for many years, whereas expensive foods are quickly eaten and soon for
gotten.
FINANCING PROBLEMS — SAVING, BORROWING AND PAYING BACK
The man who has enough cash to pay in full for a home has no worries
about financing. Most people, however, can pay only part of the price in
cash and are obliged to borrow the rest. It must always be remembered
that the more cash one can pay down on a house the better.
Borrowing money to buy a home is no disgrace. On the contrary, it is
normal and in many ways desirable. Many families in meeting payments
on a loan have learned the habit of saving, and have continued it as a step
toward financial independence.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING
ii
TABLE I*
HOME OWNERSHIP IN THE UNITED STATES: PERCENTAGE or FAMILIES OWNING
THEIR HOMES BY DIVISIONS AND STATES, 1900, 1910, AND 1920
[Figures from the Bureau of the Census]
DIVISION AND STATE
PER CENT OF FAMILIES OWNING
THEIR HOMES
DECREASE OR
INCREASE FROM
IQOO TO IQ20
1 900
IQIO
IQ2O
United States
46.1
.45-8
45-6
- 0.5
Geographic divisions:
New England
42.0
36.3
53-9
58.2
40.1
42.0
44-i
57-6
49-7
64-5
53-5
60. i
34-9
28.6
38-9
33-i
34-2
41.1
52-4
55-9
44-9
62.0
66.2
63.0
60.5
50-5
79-2
70.9
56.6
58-9
36.2
39-7
24.0
48.2
39-7
35-5
52-8
58-2
40.9
42.3
42.9
58.5
53-0
62.3
Si-o
58.4
33-i
28.3
37-2
30-9
35-o
41-5
51-2
54-7
44.0
61.6
64.4
61.7
58.4
50.9
75-i
67.9
59-°
59-i
40.6
43-9
25-2
Si-2
39-8
37-2
52-3
56-4
42.0
42.7
42.2
55-2
47-9
59 -6
49-8
57-5
34-8
31-1
37-6
30.7
38.3
45-2
51-6
54-8
43-8
58-9
63.6
60.7
58-1
49-5
65-3
61.5
57-4
56-9
44-7
49-9
30.3
5i-i
— 2.2
+ -9
- 1.6
- 1.8
t'l
- i-9
- 2.4
- 1.8
- 4-9
- 3-7
- 2.6
— .1
+ 2.5
- i-3
- 2.4
+ 4-i
+ 4-i
- .8
— i.i
— i.i
- 3-1
- 2.6
- 2.3
- 2.4
— i .0
-13-9
- 9-4
+ -8
— 2.O
+ 8.5 .
+ IO.2
+ 6.3
+ 2.9
Middle Atlantic
East north central
West north central
South Atlantic
East south central
West south central
Mountain. . . .
Pacific
New England:
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Middle Atlantic:
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
East north central:
Ohio
Indiana • •
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
West north central:
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota ....
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
South Atlantic:
Delaware
M^aryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
* How To Own Your Home, p. 3.
homes th
states
ma:
order.
and Michigan.
12
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
TABLE I — Continued
DIVISION AND STATE
PER CEN
T OF FAMILIES
THEIR HOMES
OWNING
DECREASE OR
INCREASE FROM
i goo
1910
IQ20
1900 TO 1920
South Atlantic — Continued
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
54-1
46.0
29.9
49-2
47.0
30.6
46.8
47-4
32.2
- 7-3
+ 1.4
+ 2.3
Georgia
30 o
3O 4
30 o
+ 0
Florida
46 i
AT. 7
42 . <;
- 3 6
East south central:
Kentucky
51 . 2
51 .4
51.6
+ -4
Tennessee
AC 8
46 7
47 7
+ 10
Alabama
33.9
34-9
35 -°
+ i.i
Mississippi
34 2
34 O
34 O
— . 2
West south central:
Arkansas
Louisiana
47-2
31 .0
46.4
32.0
45-i
33-7
— 2.1
+ 2.7
Oklahoma
">4 O
4C 4
AC C
- 8 *
Texas
46 3
4C i
42 8
— ^ tr
Mountain :
Montana.
Idaho
56.0
70.7
59-3
67.3
60.5
60.9
+ 4-5
- 9.8
Wyoming
:•} Q
CA i
CI Q
— 20
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
46.3
68.0
56.8
51-3
70-3
48 9
51-6
59-4
42.8
+ 5-3
- 8.6
— 14.0
Utah
67.5
64.6
60.0
— 7-5
Nevada
65.8
53-3
47-6
-18.2
Pacific :
Washington
Oregon
California
53-9
58.i
46.0
57-i
59-7
49-4
54-7
54-8
43-7
+ -8
- 3-3
- 2.3
Saving required. — Most families who buy a home must pay for it out
of their own savings.
Usually it is desirable for them to possess, free from obligation, at least
one-fifth, or 20 per cent, of the value of the house and lot in cash. While
arrangements often are made for a purchase with less, a larger cash pay
ment helps to insure a loan at a low rate of interest and one that can be
comfortably paid off.
In rapidly growing cities with increasing land values, the risks taken
by lenders are not so great, and it is generally easier to borrow up to a
larger percentage of the value of the property bought, although for the
purpose of a home an increase in land values may be of no advantage,
since one result is to increase taxes. After the first payment is made, a
family should be prepared to devote a certain amount of current savings
toward paying off the loan at regular intervals.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 13
Saving with a budget. — It is necessary to determine how much money
can be set aside to carry out the plan. Economy and saving are necessary.
What present expenses can be cut down? A definite plan for the future will
best furnish the basis for a division or "budget" of one's income. One way
is to make a table of the regular monthly expenditures, with the amount
necessary for each item, by the week, month, or year. The budget thus
made should be given a fair trial, and each item made to come within the
limit set for it. If funds are being continually borrowed from one purpose
to be spent for another, the budget loses its value.
Safety for savings. — Savings should be placed where they are fully safe
guarded, yet yield a fair rate of interest. In general, it is well to have
them in a financial institution which loans money on real estate, for pref
erence in loans is often given to stockholders and depositors. Building and
loan associations usually lend most of their available funds on real estate,
particularly to home-owners, and at the same time they pay a fair rate of
interest to depositors. Some banks, especially savings banks, loan largely
on real estate and maintain a real estate department for that purpose.
Where not to put savings. — Ingenious schemes are used by dishonest
companies to attract savings from the unwary home-seeker. Some prom
ise high dividends to investors, and also the chance to obta'n loans below
the market rate of interest. Such schemes are obviously not to be trusted.
A number of concerns advertise loans at a low rate of interest, when it
really turns out that interest is still charged on the full amount of the loan
even after half or three-quarters of it is paid off. This makes the real rate
very high. In some excellent building.and loan associations, however, the
nominal payment of interest at a fixed legal rate on the whole amount
results in quicker retirement of the loan.
Certain "loan trusts" that are run for the profit of the promoters have
advertised that they will lend money to home-buyers at 3 per cent. But
they pay no interest at all to depositors who are lured in by doubtful
promises of the chances of obtaining "cheap" loans. This method is un
businesslike. The first few customers, often "insiders" representing the
promoters, may obtain loans cheaply. But they do so only at the expense
of later depositors who may receive no interest at all on their deposits for
years, and who may not be able to borrow when they need funds, or before
the company goes out of business. Such a company, as has been said,
borrows money from its depositors and pays them no nterest; it lends the
money at 3 per cent. Thus, as long as it operates, it absorbs three times
as much for expenses and profit as an ordinary well-run building and loan
association. Many sound organizations of the latter type, for example,
i4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
pay 5 per cent interest on deposits and lend the money out again at 6 per
cent, retaining only i per cent as a charge for doing business.
•In every case an investor should note whether he will receive a fair rate
of interest if he should discontinue payments or withdraw his deposits at
any time; this should not bring a severe penalty. Plans which propose to
profit by the inability of any person to make payments are essentially un
sound.
It is a safe rule never to invest money in the stock or security of a
concern unless the management is in the hands of men known to be capa
ble and honest. High rates of interest and the safety required for invest
ment of savings intended for home-buying usually do not go together.
American people lose several hundred million dollars of their savings each
year by purchasing worthless securities promising large returns.
Speculation in lots. — One of the most common ways in which savings
are lost is through speculation in real estate. Buying a lot in an improved
section when one is ready to build is far different from buying a city or
suburban lot where streets have not been put through, and where no
water, gas, or sewer mains have been laid. Such a purchase is always in
the nature of a speculation. It is well to remember that taxes must be paid
on every lot and sometimes special assessments, too. The outgo in holding
a lot is certain; profits are uncertain. Money in a savings account, on the
other hand, keeps on earning interest for the depositor.
Policy loans unwise. — Some home-buyers have borrowed cash on their
life insurance policies in order to meet their first payment. This action is
almost always improvident. It deprives the borrowers' families of the full
protection the life insurance should secure them. The presidents of many
of the most important life insurance companies advise strongly against
policy loans, even though their companies assume no risks in making
them.
A loan on an insurance, policy, however, is not to be confused with an
ordinary real estate mortgage loan which an insurance company may
grant. Many of the companies which regard loans on policies as being
against the real interest of policyholders take pride in the number of their
mortgage loans to home-owners.
Mortgages.1 — First mortgages: Obtaining a loan with which to pay the
balance between the first cash payment and the total cost of a piece of
property is usually a simple matter when the amount paid down amounts
1 Mortgages and sources from which money may be borrowed are discussed more
fully on pp. 23-36.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 15
to 40 or 50 per cent of the whole purchase price. The problem becomes
harder as the proportion to be borrowed grows larger. No matter what
loans are required, it is always best for a person without experience in real-
estate matters to borrow from a responsible loaning institution, if only for
the benefit of its advice in the matter of the validity of the title, seeing
that all back taxes and special assessments are paid, that insurance is
kept up, that there are no mechanics' liens or other claims against the
property, and that the price paid is reasonable and the value of the prop
erty not likely to fall within a few years. The fees charged and services
rendered by different institutions in arranging a loan may differ substan
tially and may more than offset a difference in interest rates. In most
cases a loan from a good bank, building and loan association, or insurance
company is an assurance that it thinks the proposition sound.
When money is borrowed for the purchase of a home the lender gener
ally requires a mortgage or trust; that gives him the right to have the
property sold at auction in case promised payments on the interest or
principal of the loan are not made regularly. A first mortgage up to 50 or
60 per cent of the value of a house and lot is considered one of the safest
possible investments, and it should be easy to obtain such a loan from a
building and loan association, savings bank, insurance company, trust
company, or from some individual — perhaps the seller of the house.
Second mortgages: In many cases, however, it will not be possible for
the buyer to borrow all the money he requires on a first mortgage, and he
may have to borrow additional funds on a second mortgage or note. The
holder of the second mortgage takes more risk, consequently rates of inter
est on second mortgages usually run higher.
Bonuses or commissions of as much as 10 per cent are sometimes re
quired for placing a second mortgage.
The character of the home-seeker is often a deciding factor in his ability
to obtain a second mortgage on reasonable terms.
Discounts on second mortgages: The contractor who builds a house
may take such a mortgage himself and expect to sell it at a quarter or a
fifth less than its face value. This fact should be borne in mind, and the
contractor should charge less for the house if the buyer can pay cash.
Second mortgages are sometimes obtainable from companies which make
a speciality of such business, from employers, and from relatives, friends,
and other individuals with money to lend.
Lender must be honest. — The lender, if unscrupulous, may encourage the
purchase of an expensive piece of property when he is confident the buyer
1 6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
cannot meet the payments, so that he can foreclose the mortgage and buy
back the property himself at a forced sale, when prices may be low. This
is an additional reason for dealing with a responsible institution, which
will usually advise against a purchase beyond one's means.
Financing during building. — If the owner retains the title to his land
and pays the contractor as the work progresses, he may have to make
some special arrangement to borrow money before the house is complete.
He will, of course, have to pay interest on the sum so borrowed while he
is still paying rent, and he may consider the interest he pays during the
construction period as a part of the first cost of his house.
Borrowing from building and loan associations. — Building and loan asso
ciations will, in many cases, prove the best means of financing a home, for
they are often able to loan as much as 70 to 80 per cent of the real value
of a home, which is generally above the limit allowed by law for savings
banks and insurance companies. Such a loan, therefore, may. avoid the
added complications, disadvantages, and expenses that may be involved
in case both a first and second mortgage are required. Building and loan
associations are often especially helpful in providing means of financing
during the construction of a new home. They are usually organized with
the chief aim of assisting home-buyers and home-builders. Their system
of selling shares on which payments must be made weekly or monthly has
proved an invaluable aid to hundreds of thousands of future home-buyers
in accumulating savings and furnishes a sound and helpful scheme for
paying off the principal of loans.
The officers of these associations are generally able to give very good
advice to home-buyers and frequently help them to avoid unwise pur
chases. (For additional information, see pp. 29-31.)
Purchase where title does not pass at once. — In some states cases arise
where better terms can be made when the title does not pass to the buyer
as soon as he occupies the home, but remains with the seller for a few
months, until the cash payments amount to 25 or 30 per cent of the total
value of the property.
Agreements under these general circumstances assume a variety of
forms. It is especially important that the legal details be sound in every
respect and that the integrity of the seller be well established
Paying of the loan by installments. — No matter how little or how much
one has to borrow, it is good policy to pay off part of the loan at regular
intervals. This process of paying off the principal a little at a time is called
amortization. Thus, on a loan of $1,000 at 6 per cent interest, payments of
$10 a month, or $i 20 a year, will take care of the interest on the loan and
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 17
cancel the principal in less than twelve years, leaving the home free of
debt. The president of a large savings bank, who has also been president
of the savings bank section of the American Bankers' Association, states:
"Paying off a loan in installments is like attacking an army in detail. The
borrower, instead of having one large payment to look forward to, has a
succession of moderate payments, which can be easily met."
The payments agreed on for amortization are usually met regularly, so
that the loans are paid off steadily out of savings. This reduces the interest
charges and leaves the family much better off financially in case of death
or misfortune. Where no amortization is agreed to, on the other hand,
many loans are not reduced before they fall due, and savings have not
been built up to pay them off. Such loans sometimes drag along for a life
time, and may be foreclosed when they cause great distress. The prudent
course is to start paying off the loan as soon as the purchase is made.
Most building and loan associations provide that the loan may be paid off
sooner than its maturity if the borrower so desires, and without disad
vantage.
No mortgage on a home should be regarded as permanent, for if there
is a shortage of mortgage money when it falls due there may be difficulty
about renewing it. In the case of second mortgages, especially, this is
important, and they should be amortized as quickly as possible.
FINANCING TABLE
Table II recognizes the fact that families having the same annual in
come may not be able to devote the same amount toward the purchase of
a home. A family, for example, with several small children and perhaps
other dependents, living in a city may not be able to put much aside to
ward buying a home. Another family with the same income but with no
children or dependents, situated in a village where living costs are low,
can afford to pay out a very much larger proportion of its income toward
buying its home. The overlapping incomes in the table are thus necessary
to cover even ordinary differences in the amounts that families with the
same income will be able to spend toward a home after they have paid for
food, clothing, and other necessities.
The annual expenses involved in purchasing and maintaining a home
of a given price may also vary.
The table, therefore, does not attempt to set up arbitrary standards,
although it is fairly typical and should be useful as a basis from which to
start figuring.
i8
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
TABLE II
TABLE SHOWING INCOME, VALUE OF HOME, AND TYPICAL ANNUAL
EXPENSES FOR HOUSE AND LOT
SECTION I. — CASH PAYMENT OF 2O PER CENT OF TOTAL VALUE*
i. Value of house and lot. .
$3,000
$4,OOO
$5,ooo
$6,000
$7,000
$8,000
(9,000
(10,000
2 Annual income
(1,200
\ to
[1,800
I, 6OO
to
2,4OO
2,000
to
3,000
2,400
to
3,600
2,800
to
4,200
3,200
to
4,800
3,600
to
5,400
4,000
to
6,000
3. First cash payment (20
per cent of value)
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1, 600
1, 800
2,000
4. Amount of loan
5 . Interest and amortization
(i2| per cent of loan) . . .
2,400
3,200
4,000
4,800
5,600
6,400
7,200
8,000
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
6. Estimated taxes, insur
ance, and upkeep. »
7. Total annual expense. . .
120
1 60
20O
240
280
320
360
400
420
560
700
840
980
I.I2O
1,260
1,400
8. Savings included in above
total (first year)
150
2OO
250
300
350
400
450
500
9. Expenses comparable
with rent (first year)
270
360
450
540
630
720
810
900
,* Assuming an initial cash payment of 20 per cent of the total value, the annual cash outlay (item 7) in
this section is about as low as can ordinarily be arranged for the first few years. The financing charge might
be cut down later on, when part of the principal of the loan has been paid off, but the whole debt will be
canceled in about twelve years if the payments given in the table are continued regularly. (See General
Notes, pages 20-22.)
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING
TABLE II— Continued
SECTION II. — CASH PAYMENT OF 30 PER CENT OF TOTAL VALUEf
i. Value of house and lot. .
2 Annual income
&3,ooo
(1,200
to
[i,8o'o
900
2,100
$4,000
i, 600
to
2,400
1,200
2,800
$5,ooo
2,000
to
3,ooo
1,500
3,Soo
$6,000
2,400
to
3,600
1, 800
4,200
$7,000
2,800
to
4,200
2,100
4,900
S8,ooo
3,200
to
4,800
2,400
5,600
$9,000
3,6oo
to
5,400
2,700
6,300
(10,000
4,000
to
6,000
3,000
7,000
3. First cash payment (30
per cent of value)
4. Amount of loan
5. Interest and amortization
(12 percent of loan)
6. Estimated taxes, insur
ance, and upkeep
7. Total annual expenses. .
8. Savings included in above
total (first year)
9. Expenses comparable
with rent (first year)
252
1 20
336
1 60
420
200
504
240
588
280
672
320
756
360
840
400
372
126
496
168
620
2IO
744
252
868
294
992
336
1,116
378
1,240
420
246
328
410
492
574
656
738
820
t Assuming an initial cash payment of 30 per cent of the total value, the annual cash outlay (item 7)
in this section is about as low as can ordinarily be arranged for the first few years. The financing charges
might be cut down later on, when part of the principal of the loan has been paid off but the whole debt will
be canceled in about twelve years if the payments given in the table are continued regularly. (See General
Notes, pages 20-22.)
2O
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
TABLE II— Continued
SECTION III. CASH PAYMENT OF 40 PER CENT OF TOTAL VALUED
i. Value of house and lot. .
$3,000
$4,000
$5,ooo
$6,000
$7,000
$8,000
$9,000
$10,000
2. Annual income
(l,200
\ to
i, 600
to
2,000
to
2,400
to
2,800
to
3,200
to
3,600
to
4,000
to
[1,800
2,400
3,000
3,600
4,200
4,800
5,400
6,000
3. First cash payment (40
per cent of value)
1 ,200
i, 600
2,000
2,400
2,800
3,200
3,600
4,000
4. Amount of loan
5 . Interest and amortization
(12 per cent of loan) ....
1, 800
2,400
3,000
3,600
4,200
4,800
5,400
6,000
216
288
360
432
504
576
648
720
6. Estimated taxes, insur
ance, and upkeep
120
1 60
2OO
240
280
320
360
400
7. Total annual expenses. .
336
448
560
672
784
896
1, 008
1,120
8. Savings included in above
total (first year)
108
144
1 80
216
252
288
324
360
9. Expenses comparable
with rent (first year)
228
3<>4
380
456
532
608
684
760
i The total outlay (item 7) in this section is based on the assumption that a family able to pay 40 per
cent of the value of a home in cash will normally find it best to pay off the loan in installments, at least as
rapidly as in the preceding cases. (See General Notes, below.)
NOTES ON FINANCING TABLE
The table will not apply to every single case, but does indicate about how expensive
a home can usually be bought with a given income.
It shows cash expenditures only and does not outline a complete cost accounting sys
tem for home buying. The fact remains that the family takes charge of its own rent
bill, and reduces the loan each month untill finally the house and lot is owned free and
clear, whatever it may then be worth.
There is no calculation in the table for loss of interest on money used for the first payment, nor for loss
of interest on amortization payments that might have been deposited or invested elsewhere. It is also true,
nevertheless, that in most cases savings devoted to paying for a home would not be made if the family con
tinued to rent and had not entered into an obligation to save.
Nothing is charged for depreciation, but, on the other hand, no allowance is made for possible increase
in the value of the land.
If rents should rise generally there would be a further saving not accounted for in the table, and when
the debt is canceled in twelve or fourteen years the only expenses comparable with rent will be taxes, insur
ance, and upkeep.
ITEM i. Value of house and lot. — The value of the house and lot is the basis from
which other expenses in this table are computed.
For figuring probable expenses when a home is offered at an odd price, say $4,350, the necessary per
centages may be obtained readily from the last column in each section of the table by moving the decimal
point four places to the left. Thus, in Section I the total annual expenses (item 7) required are 14 per cent
of the value of the house and lot, and for the $4,350 house, in the case of a 20 per cent cash payment, would
be $4,350 by o.i4=$6og.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 21
ITEM 2. Annual income. — Of a number of families with the same income it is un
likely that any two picked at random will wish to spend the same amount for shelter.
It is for this reason that the income groups in the table are made to overlap. The size
of the family, its preferences as to location, the ages and number of children, varying
conditions between cities, and other circumstances make the problem one that each
family must solve for itself. No rule can be set up that will apply in all cases. It is as
sumed, however, in this table, that the value of the house and lot will lie between if
and 2\ times one's annual income, the ordinary proportion being around 2 times.
For example, a family has an income of $2,700 to start with. Then i§ by $2,700 =$4, 500; and aj by
$2,700 =$6,750. The family will, therefore, expect to occupy a house worth from $4,500 to $6,750.
To illustrate differences between families, it is apparent that one living in a' small town and able to have
a vegetable garden and keep pouLry might afford a more expensive home than a family with the same income
living on a smaller city or suburban lot with higher taxes, and with street car or railway fares added to the
cost of living.
ITEM 3. First cash payment. — Section I assumes a cash payment of 20 per cent of
the value of the house and lot. Sections II and III are based on cash payments of 30
and 40 per cent, respectively, and show how much the burden of financing is reduced
by a larger cash payment. As stated in the text on page 12, it is not always necessary
to have as much as. 20 per cent of the total value of the house and lot in hand to start
with, but with less it is harder to obtain loans at a low rate of interest, and the annual
financing charges become greater.
It should be remembered that in many communities there is at one time or another a shortage of money
available for loaning to home-owners, and lending institutions may be able to serve the public best by lending
first to those who have a large cash payment in hand. Again, where the price of homes is inflated, banks may
be serving the real interest of borrowers as well as of themselves by declining to make loans for a higher per
centage of current selling prices of homes.
ITEM 4. Amount of loan necessary.— The amount of the loan or loans required is
obviously the difference between items i and 3.
ITEM 5. Payments for interest and amortization. — In Section I this item amounts to
12! per cent of the amount loaned as shown in item 4. This is slightly higher than the
12 per cent given in Sections II and III, because, in the first case, a second mortgage
may be necessary, with less favorable interest rates or other terms. The sums paid for
financing may vary, as noted under the sections of the table, and according to local pre
vailing rates of interest and amortization required. It generally is considered best to pay
off indebtedness within fifteen years, or less, and the plan of payment should be arranged
on such a basis. This does not mean, however, that mortgages should not run for a
shorter period and be renewed when due. This may be best if interest rates are high at
the time the loan is made.
For most families, monthly payments are far more desirable than payments at
three- or six-month intervals.
Where a loan is obtained at 6 per cent interest, it can be paid off in less than twelve years by payments
each month of i per cent of the whole original loan, totaling 12 per cent each year If the loan is at 7 per
cent interest, then only a smaller part of the regular payments is left for paying off the prmcipal, and it will
take about twelve months longer to cancel the loan than when the interest rate is 6 per
One plan used by many banks and building and loan associations requires fixed monthly payments,
but all sums above interest on the outstanding loan are applied directly to reducing the pnncipaL The
cipal, therefore, decreases regularly and a larger proportion of the payments is used each month fo,
^nt"^
until the payments in excess of interest, which are applied toward "shares," and which draw compound
22 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
interest, amount to enough to pay off the loan. Although this plan may under certain circumstances be of
some disadvantage to the borrower, the net result to him, provided all goes well, is nearly the same as with
the plan described above. With the same monthly payments applied against the same loan, it would be re
tired in about the same number of months.
Sometimes the payments for amortization are applied directly to reducing the loan and are at a fixed
rate, say $250 a year for a $3,000 loan, and the interest payments, therefore, become steadily less. This plan
has the disadvantage, for many people, of requiring the largest payments at first, but it is safer than plans
which provide for gradually increasing total payments each year..
According to most schemes, it would be possible, after the first few years, to cut down the payments.
For instance, in the tables a new arrangement at the end of seven years might reduce financing charges one-
half or more, but this would mean that the loan would not be retired so soon.
ITEM 6. Taxes, insurance, and upkeep. — Local tax rates on real estate usually
amount to i^ to 2^ per cent of the market value of the property. Fire insurance rarely
amounts to one-half of i per cent of the value of the house alone; yearly upkeep is fre
quently estimated at i per cent of the value of the house itself; but .... it varies
greatly with the age and quality of the house and the attention that the owner himself
gives it. In any city the tax and insurance rates can easily be found out, and it is
beh'eved that many home-owners find their expenditures for item 6 amount to less than
the sums stated in the table. In each case in the table this item amounts to 4 per cent
of the value of the house and lot.
ITEM 7. Total annual expenses. — The sums in this item are obtained by adding the
amounts in items 5 and 6, so it follows that nothing is allowed under this heading for
water, fuel, gas and electricity bills, telephone, special assessments, or accessories and
improvements. Some of these are contingent expenses that do not have to be allowed
for when a family is renting, but may add to the value of the property.
The majority of people, while they are paying for a home, probably spend between
1 8 and 35 per cent of their income for the purposes of item 7.
In Section I, the sums in item 7 amount to 35 per cent of the minimum income given in each column for
item 2. This includes for the first year, 12^ per cent for savings and 22! per cent for items comparable with
rent. In Section III the sums in item 7 amount to 18.7 per cent of the larger incomes in item 2.
ITEM 8. Savings. — This item represents the amount that is paid out during the
first year on the principal of the loan, assuming that half of item 5 is paid for interest
and half for amortization. The annual savings grow larger progressively as the principal
of the debt becomes less.
The amount that can be saved for amortization varies with each case. Thus, a family of two with an in
come of $1,800 a year, having neither children nor relatives to support, can pay off a loan faster than a family
with several children and perhaps an aged parent to take care of.
ITEM 9. Expenses equivalent to rent. — The figures opposite this item equal item 7
minus item 8, or the difference between the total expenses for the home the first year,
and the amount of savings that is used toward paying off the loan. This item grows
smaller as item 8 increases, and, finally, when the home is paid for fully, the only ordi
nary expenses will be taxes, insurance, and upkeep.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 23
CHOOSING A HOME FINANCING AGENCY'
BY JOHN M. CRIES
Executive Secretary of the President's Conference
on Home Building and Home Ownership
AND
THOMAS M. CURRAN
U.S. Department of Commerce
In attaining home ownership most American families need some finan
cial assistance. The amount which must be borrowed represents in some
cases a relatively small but more often a large part of the outlay. Although
conditions vary from one section of the country to another, the extent to
which borrowing is necessary generally determines the financing method
employed, and for the purpose of discussing the various plans they use,
home buyers and home builders who borrow may be divided into three
groups, as follows :
THREE GROUPS OF BORROWERS
The first embraces those who can supply in cash 50 per cent or more of
the price of the home, and who can get the remainder on first mortgage2
from any of several different sources.
The second includes those whose cash resources are within the approxi
mate limits of from 25 to 40 per cent, and who borrow the amount needed
either on first mortgage (usually only from a building and loan associa
tion) or through the use of a first and a second mortgage.
The third comprises those who have but 10 or 15 per cent of the price,
who sometimes finance through mortgage agencies, but more frequently
by means of an installment purchase agreement.
FIRST GROUP
Families in the first group generally experience little difficulty in ob
taining the amount needed by placing a first mortgage on the property
acquired. Since there are a number of lending agencies anxious to make
conservative mortgage loans, the problem of these families often resolves
1 Adapted from Present Home Financing Methods (U.S. Department of Commerce,
Division of Building and Housing, 1928), pp. 1-12.
* In some localities a "deed of trust" is used in place of a mortgage. The instruments
are similar in that their effect is to pledge the property as security for the loan. One
important difference between the two is that, in many jurisdictions, in case of failure to
make payments a forced sale of the property may be effected more quickly under the
deed of trust.
24 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
itself into a mere question of choosing the one offering the most satisfac
tory service and terms.
BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS
The building and loan association is an important financing source for
families in this group. These organizations make a practice of lending
considerably more than half the property value where such loans are re
quired, and they are, therefore, discussed in connection with the second
group of borrowers.
LIFE-INSURANCE COMPANIES
Another source of funds for home buyers in the first group is the life-
insurance company. Prior to the war most of the larger companies did not
make housing loans to any considerable extent, preferring to invest their
funds in mortgages on large commercial structures, thus limiting the
number of their transactions and the amount of their investigational and
administrative work. With the housing shortage resulting from the war
and the need for broader channels of investments, however, many of these
companies entered the home-loan field and they have become an impor
tant factor in the business.
The loans of life insurance companies are placed through local agents —
banks, trust companies, mortgage companies, and individuals trained in
the work. These agents are permitted to accept applications only in con
nection with properties located in developed sections where values are
stabilized. The man seeking a loan to finance the purchase of a house lo
cated on an unimproved street or in a section where real estate does not
sell readily will not generally be able to obtain it from a life-insurance
company. Applications from borrowers on properties located in growing
communities and having the advantages of modern facilities, however, are
eagerly sought.
The applicant is required to supply the loan agent with information
bearing on the risk, on blanks furnished for the purpose. These forms call
for a variety of data, such as the location, size, and contour of the lot, the
condition of the building, the materials of which it is constructed, and its
heating, lighting, and plumbing system. The agent investigates the risk,
appraises the property, and reports to his company. His appraisal is in
variably a conservative one, and the borrower should not be surprised if
he learns that the home he has contracted to buy is valued for loan pur
poses at a figure somewhat below the price he has agreed to pay. This
valuation is not necessarily a reflection on the wisdom of the purchase,
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 25
for in determining the question of value a number of insurance companies
are inclined, to disregard certain items which are generally (and properly)
considered by buyers and sellers as legitimate elements of worth. As an
example of this, the appraisal policy of one of the largest companies in
the home-loan field may be cited. This company does not allow its agents
to include in their estimates of the cost of a building the builder's over
head expense, his carrying charges or profit. As a consequence of their
appraisal methods the loans of the more conservative companies, though
made up to 60 per cent of valuation, seldom represent more than 50 or 55
per cent of the cost of the property to the purchaser.
Insurance company loans run for periods as long as 1 5 years. Interest
is at the rate prevailing in the locality where the loan is made, and is usu
ally payable semiannually. In many cases the principal is required to be
curtailed regularly on interest dates. The contract of one large company
requires a payment of 3 per cent of the principal semiannually and gives
the borrower the option of making larger payments or of taking up the
entire loan after the third year. The plan of another company provides
for the payment of the loan and interest in equal monthly installments
over a period of 10 years. This company makes a life-insurance policy a
part of the mortgage agreement, so that if the borrower should die the
loan may be repaid from the insurance proceeds. In cases where such an
insurance policy is involved the home-owner who wishes to sell his prop
erty shortly after the mortgage is placed is usually required to obtain the
company's permission to transfer the loan to the new owner.
Insurance companies seldom lend their funds for construction pur
poses, and, therefore, where a family builds its home the money needed
during the construction period must be supplied from some other source.
The agent frequently arranges such a temporary loan, however, on the
basis of his company's willingness to take over the financing when the
structure is completed, and where banks and other financial institutions
act as agents they often advance their own funds for the building period,
after which the loan is transferred to the insurance company. Some addi
tional expense to the borrower is usually involved in these instances.
The insurance company loan has this important advantage: It is made
for a period sufficiently long to enable the borrower to repay it without the
necessity of renewing, and thus to avoid the inconvenience and expense
frequently incident to this process. Where amortization, or gradual re
payment of the principal, is provided for, interest charges are reduced
and the borrower is encouraged to get out of debt.
26 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
SAVINGS BANKS
A third lending agency, which often lends somewhat more than the
insurance company, is the savings bank. The type known as mutual sav
ings banks, found principally in the East, invest heavily in mortgages on
homes.
Applications for mortgage loans are made to the real-estate depart
ment of the bank or, where no separate department has been created, to
the officer appointed to pass on such applications. Appraisal methods
vary. Frequently an officer or committee of the bank visits the property
and determines its value by personal inspection. Under normal conditions
the valuation reached is not ordinarily greatly below the market value.
In making real-estate loans savings banks are generally restricted by
state laws which fix the maximum percentage of property value that they
may lend. In some states this maximum is 50 per cent; in others it is as
high as 60 per c^nt. These laws, however, do not necessarily determine
whether a bank's lending policy shall be liberal or conservative.
A bank located in a state permitting the higher ratio of mortgage loan
to value may be unwilling to lend up to the legal limit or may regard exist
ing prices as inflated and fix an appraisal value well under the selling price.
One restricted to 50 per cent loans may, however, appraise property at the
full selling price, and advance as much or more money on a given home
than the bank operating under the more liberal statute, whose policies or
appraisal methods are more conservative.
Savings bank loans are frequently made for short terms — for periods of
one, three, and five years — and are repayable in full at the end of the
term. An increasing number of banks are making long-term loans, how
ever, which are repayable in installments similar to those of building and
loan associations, which are discussed later, and of some of the life-insur
ance companies. Banks making the short-term "straight" loans are usu
ally willing to renew, but some of them make a charge for granting this
privilege. Where there has been undue depreciation of the property, such
as would result from the owner's failure to keep it in repair, or where its
value has been lessened through changes in the character of the neighbor
hood, difficulty may be encountered in renewing the loan, at least in its
full amount.
A number of savings banks do not lend for construction purposes, re
garding these loans as a greater risk than those predicated on the security
afforded by an existing building. Undoubtedly there is a larger element
of risk unless special precautions are taken. The home builder or his con-
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 27
tractor may build the house of materials inferior to those called for in the
plans and specifications on which the loan is based, or, through ignorance
or a desire to economize, may construct it poorly. Under such circum
stances the bank may find itself holding a mortgage on a home for a sum
which it would not consider lending if the loan were applied for on the
complete property. Banks making construction loans usually require the
owner or contractor to furnish a bond guaranteeing the completion of the
building according to plan, or advance the loan money in installments as
the work progresses and is inspected. Few losses are suffered where such
methods are followed.
It is possible for the home builder to finance through many savings
banks which do not make building loans, by obtaining credit from build
ing-material dealers for the construction period and using his available
cash to pay the labor cost. The bank then lends on the completed struc
ture and the building material is paid for with the loan funds.
Home-owners who want their loans to run five years or more frequently
find that the local savings bank makes its loans payable on demand or
advances funds for periods of but one, two, or three years, and home
owners who wish to amortize their loans often are unable to borrow from
a savings bank on this basis. Officials of some banks restrict their loans to
short terms because they feel that mortgage investments can not be readi
ly converted back into cash in case the institution needs the funds, and
therefore, plan to have these loans fall due at comparatively short inter
vals. Many savings banks make loans for terms of five years or longer,
however, and report that they can sell such mortgages readily when funds
are needed. Some savings banks and other banks which sell their loans
feel that they can not put them on an amortization basis, since the in
vestors buying them do not wish to accept small payments on the princi
pal, but a number of the institutions are solving this problem by retaining
the mortgages and selling investment certificates issued against them.
These banks receive the amortization payments on the various obliga
tions, reloan them, and add new mortgages to the group behind the cer
tificates to keep the security constant.
TRUST COMPANIES
A fourth source of funds for families in the group under discussion is the
trust company. In addition to large savings deposits, these institutions
have trust funds which are available for real-estate loans. Their lending
policies and methods are similar to those of savings banks. .
28 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
MORTGAGE COMPANIES
In most of the larger communities mortgage companies are an impor
tant factor in home financing. There are two classes of such companies —
those lending on first, or senior, mortgages and those lending on second,
or junior, mortgages. The latter group is discussed in a later section.
Because of the lack of uniformity in the policies and methods of mort
gage companies, no general statements can be made as to how they con
duct their lending operations. They are not generally so closely confined
in their activities by legal restrictions as are banks, trust companies, and
insurance companies, and the use they make of their funds, whether de
rived from the marketing of company stock, or the sale of their mortgage
investments or bonds issued against them, is therefore left more to their
own discretion. Companies selling mortgages, the repayment of which
they guarantee, and those whose investments are eligible for purchase by
savings banks and trustees, will be found the more conservative of this
class of lenders. These do not usually lend in excess of 50 per cent of their
valuations, at least in the case' of "straight" loans. Many of the other
companies make loans larger than 60 per cent of the sale price, but usu
ally charge a commission or a higher rate of interest than that borne by
more conservative first-mortgage paper. The loans of mortgage companies
are made for both short and long terms and on the amortized or straight
basis. Many of the companies devote a large percentage of their funds
to construction loans.
PRIVATE INVESTORS
Another group of lenders is made up of private investors. Unorganized
and operating separately, their practices are, of course, even less stand
ardized than those of mortgage companies. Frequently they are inclined
to follow the methods of lending institutions in their communities. Since
they are not handling the funds of others, however (except where they
act as trustees) they have greater freedom of action than most of the
institutions and are often found willing to advance a higher percentage of
property value than are banks, trust companies, or insurance companies,
especially where they have an opportunity to obtain an unusually favor
able return.
The home-owner who finances through an institution can usually de
pend on being able to renew his mortgage, especially if he has decreased
the loan principal by means of installment payments. There is frequently
less assurance of the permanence of the loan obtained from a private in-
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 29
vestor. A change in the plans or circumstances of the lender or his death
may result in an unexpected failure to renew the loan. This sometimes
creates an exceedingly embarrassing situation for the home-owner in a
community having limited mortgage facilities. In this connection it may
be mentioned that trustees sometimes have limited power in the matter
of extensions and renewals.
NATIONAL BANKS
National banks and many of the other commercial banks have not been
lending on real estate to any considerable extent, partly because of re
strictive federal and state laws. They have large savings resources, how
ever, and are, therefore, a potential source of funds for home-owners. A
law enacted in 1927 permits national banks to invest as much as one-half
of their savings deposits in realty loans for periods up to five years, and
many of them have commenced to devote a larger part of their assets to
real-estate lending.
SECOND GROUP
Families having in the neighborhood of from 25 to 40 per cent of the
amount needed to buy or build a home have fewer agencies to choose from
than families in the group heretofore discussed. In some of the states
which do not have laws restricting their lending on real estate there are
savings banks willing to advance the amount required, and in some com
munities mortgage companies will make such loans where the borrower
pays a commission or a higher rate of interest than that prevailing for
more conservative loans. The building and loan association, however, is
the most popular source of funds for families in this group.
BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS
The building and loan association1 is an organization created for the
promotion of thrift and home ownership. It accomplishes its worthy ob
jects by providing a method of saving and by lending its. funds for the
purchase and construction of homes
Various plans for obtaining funds are employed by the associations.
Under the plan in most common use members subscribe for "shares" and
make regular stated payments on them until the sum of these installment
' This is the name most widely used, but many other similar names have been
adopted by the various organizations throughout the country. The following are a few
examples: "Savings and loan association," "Building loan and savings association," and
"Loan and building association." In Massachusetts the associations are known as co
operative banks and in Louisiana as homestead associations.
3o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
payments, added to the dividends obtained through the lending opera
tions, equals the matured or face value of the shares. Some associations
require no share subscription but accept deposits in almost any amount
and at any time ; others derive funds from the sale of full-paid shares or
investment certificates. Frequently where their funds are insufficient to
supply the demand for loans, associations borrow for the purpose at a rate
lower than their own charge.
Building and loan associations usually pay a higher rate of return to
their depositors than is obtainable from other savings institutions, and
prospective home-owners who place their savings in the associations may
often accumulate sufficient funds to make the first payment on their
homes more quickly than is possible by any other method affording equal
safety.
Lending policies and methods differ among the associations. Applica
tions for loans usually are received only from members, but in many asso
ciations the home buyer may easily enter the membership and apply for
a loan at once. The loan-application forms frequently call not only for
data regarding the site and the existing or proposed building but also for
information as to the health, occupation, and income of the prospective
borrower. The element of personal responsibility is often given consider
able weight, especially where the loan applied for is large and the bor
rower's equity in the property small. In a number of associations the
application is examined by the board of directors, and if the proposition
appears sound on its face the appraisal officer or committee is instructed
to report on it, and title to the property is ordered examined. Appraisals
are usually made by personal inspection. As in the case of savings banks
and other institutions lending on real estate, the valuation reported de
pends somewhat on the attitude of the particular association toward the
existing realty market. Many building and loan associations appraise
property at the full market value and are willing to lend on the basis of
two-thirds or more of their appraisements. In some cases as much as 80
per cent of a fair valuation is loaned. The monthly amortization plan1
enables the associations to lend a very large percentage of property value
and yet provide a high degree of safety for their investments. They find
that these frequent payments on the loan more than offset depreciation
of the property and declines in market value.
Association loans are made for periods as long as 1 2 years. The interest
rate is often slightly higher than that asked by savings banks, trust com-
1 See Present Home Financing Methods, Appendix, p. 17 for amortization tables.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 31
panics and insurance companies, and a "premium," or commission, is
sometimes charged. The associations justify these higher charges by
calling attention to the fact that, as their loans are made for long periods,
the borrower is saved the expense of renewals. They also feel that in
making loans representing two-thirds or more of property value they per
form a greater service than do institutions lending not more than half the
amount of their appraisements and are, therefore, entitled to a higher re
turn. Borrowers seeking construction loans often find it to their advan
tage to pay the slightly higher rate asked by building and loan associa
tions, as most of these organizations are specialists in this type of lending
and their service and advice in connection with the building project fre
quently save the home builder much inconvenience and expense.
Many associations require the borrower to subscribe for shares
having a matured value equal to the amount of the loan. In such
associations the monthly payments cover interest on the debt and install
ment dues on the shares. Interest is calculated on the full amount of the
loan throughout its term, but the borrower is credited with dividends on
the amounts applied toward his shares. When the shares are matured
they are used to cancel the loan. Other associations apply the monthly
amortization payments directly against the loan and charge interest on
outstanding balances. The amount of interest paid by the borrower under
the first arrangement is, of course, larger than that paid under the second
where the dividend rate is lower than the interest rate.
SECOND MORTGAGE BORROWING
In communities having no building and loan associations and in those
where the associations and other agencies are unwilling to supply on first
mortgage from 60 to 75 per cent of the amount needed to acquire the
home, borrowers in the second group generally find it necessary to use
two loans, the first obtained from any one of the agencies previously men
tioned and the second from an individual or organization advancing funds
on second-mortgage security.
There are numerous private investors engaged in this kind of lending,
and a large part of the business is handled by organizations called "sec
ond," or "junior," mortgage companies. In Maryland and Pennsylvania
many of the building and loan associations make second-mortgage
loans.
As the legal rights of the second-mortgage lender are subordinate to
those of the lender on first-mortgage security, and as his risks are usually
32 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
greater, he charges more than the first-mortgage rate. The whole charge
is rarely made directly, however, for the reason that the maximum rates
permitted by the usury laws of most of the states are not high enough
to yield a return satisfactory to the second-mortgage agency. In order to
avoid violating the usury laws and yet obtain a rate which they consider
adequate to compensate them for the risk they assume, second-mortgage
lenders conduct a discount business, purchasing second-mortgage notes
at less than their face value. As an example of the operation of this meth
od of advancing funds, we may take the case where a note is purchased
from an opera tive or speculative builder who has accepted it from a home
buyer as part of the selling price of a property. Though the builder usu
ally adds to his price the amount of the anticipated discount and the
buyer, in effect, pays a usurious rate on the obligation transferred, the
second-mortgage agency does not violate the usury law.
However, much of the demand for second-mortgage funds comes from
operative builders who need the money for construction purposes and
from persons building their own homes. In order to obtain the business
of these two types of borrowers and yet make the transactions appear to
be note purchases, a considerable number* of second-mortgage lenders
grant loans through a third party whom they procure to act as the lender.
The borrower's note is executed in favor of this party, who indorses it to
the second-mortgage agency. The latter "discounts" the note, to obtain
an interest rate greater than the legal maximum, and turns the proceeds
over to the borrower. This is a mere subterfuge and the transaction is
tainted with usury. In those states which impose a light penalty on the
usurious lender, such as the loss of interest or part of it, this practice is
freely indulged in, however, and borrowers seldom attempt to take ad
vantage of its illegal feature.
As a rule, second-mortgage loans are made on the amortization basis.
Charges vary according to the locality, the demand for funds, the risk,
and the length of the loan period. Interest rates are usually i or 2 per
cent above the prevailing first-mortgage rates, where the state law per
mits, and discounts are quoted at from 4 to 10 per cent a year. Since the
borrower is usually required to curtail the loan periodically, and there
fore does not have the use of the whole amount for the entire loan period,
these discount rates are actually considerably higher. In fact, under the
usual regularly amortized loan the real discount rate is approximately
double the advertised rate. But, expressed entirely as an interest charge,
the rate paid by the borrower is even higher than the total of the combined
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 33
nominal interest rate and the actual discount rate, because "discount"
differs from "interest" in that it is paid at the beginning of the loan term
and not during the term or at the end of it. Thus, on a typical monthly
payment three-year second-mortgage loan bearing 7 per cent nominal
interest and a 15 per cent discount (5 per cent annually, so called) the rate
paid by the borrower is approximately 18 per cent a year.
In many communities the high rates charged for second-mortgage
funds have had a tendency to discourage home building. In some of these
communities this situation has been partly overcome by chambers of
commerce and other local groups.
In Gardner, Mass., a group of about 100 business men, cooperating
with the local chamber of commerce, agreed to become liable to the extent
of $1,000 each on second-mortgage-note indorsements of a committee
which they formed. No actual cash was required of the members of this
group, but by thus lending their credit they were able to obtain second-
mortgage funds for home-owners from a local bank at a low rate of inter
est and without a discount charge. Similar plans were used in several
other cities.
A second-mortgage company was formed in Providence, R. I., to pro
vide funds for periods of 50 months at a total discount of 5 per cent, cover
ing the whole term. This company helped to relieve the second-mortgage
situation in two ways. It loaned several hundred thousand dollars at
relatively low rates, and through its operations caused other local second-
mortgage agencies to reduce their charges.
In some sections lumber dealers assist in solving the problem, and at
the same time increase their sales, by indorsing the second-mortgage
notes of home builders who purchase material from them.
THIRD GROUP
THE THIRD MORTGAGE
The home buyer able to make but a 10 or 15 per cent cash payment can
sometimes obtain a second-mortgage loan large enough to bridge the gap
between his initial payment and first-mortgage loan and the selling price.
Where the transaction is handled by means of mortgages, however, the
buyer is frequently compelled to use three loans. The seller of the proper
ty as a rule holds the third mortgage and receives no principal payments
on it until the buyer has paid off the second. In order to facilitate sales,
many builders accept third-mortgage notes as a part of the purchase
price, but where they sell these notes they usually add an allowance, for
34 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the discount to the price of the property. In these instances the financing
charges borne by the home-owner are extremely heavy, as discounts on
third-mortgage notes are considerably larger than those on second-mort
gage paper. Buying a home from an individual or organization unwilling
or unable to hold the not'e and to allow the purchaser the full face value
thereof is therefore not to be recommended.
THE LAND CONTRACT
Another, and a more widely used, financing plan for home buyers in
the third group is founded on the land contract. This instrument is most
popular in the Middle Western States. It is simply an agreement between
the buyer and the seller of property under the terms of which the buyer
usually makes a small down payment and agrees to pay the full purchase
price in installments, frequently monthly. The seller does not immedi
ately pass the legal ownership of the property to the buyer, but agrees to
convey the title to him when a certain percentage of the purchase price,
say, 50 per cent, has been paid, at which time the buyer gives a mortgage
to the seller or to some third party supplying a loan for the unpaid bal
ance.1
It is said in favor of the land-contract sales method that it makes home
ownership possible for a large class of persons who might be unable to
buy in any other way. Many real-estate operators like it for the reason
that under it they retain the title until the buyer has a substantial equity,
and therefore are often in a better legal position than the holder of a mort
gage would be in cases where the buyer fails to live up to his agreement.
However, in many cases the land contract has disadvantages to both
parties concerned. It is pointed out that the seller may legally contract
to transfer title to property which he does not own when the contract is
executed, expecting to acquire it prior to the time agreed for the convey
ance, and that one who deals with an irresponsible seller contracting on
this basis and unable to acquire the property he has agreed to convey may
sustain a considerable loss. This situation has sometimes arisen in trans
actions involving the sale of building lots in new developments. While it
is true that the purchaser may often guard against such a contingency
by making sure that the seller has a good title and by recording the con-
1 In a number of states a land contract covering the difference between the down
payment and the first mortgage is often used in place of a second mortgage.
[NOTE. — Excellent amortization tables are included in the pamphlet Present Home
Financing Methods from which the foregoing information has been taken.]
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING
35
tract, it is not customary for buyers on land contract to obtain an abstract
of title or a certificate of title insurance prior to the time for actual trans-
SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE
HOW MUCH OF YOUR HOME DO YOU OWN ? —
SPACE INSIDE FRAME SHOWS TOT/L
COST OF HOUSE AND GROUNDS
*JO,000.°-0
MORTGAGE
owned by
the Bank
'5,000*^
MORTGAGE
owned by
investor.
'2500.°-'
NOTES- OWED TO
RELATIVE OR FRIEND
*500.°°
?2000*° OF YOUR
OWN MONEY
YOUR EQUITY.
CRACKS IN CLASS MARK OFF SIZE OF
INTEREST IN HOUSE OWNED BY OTHERS
YOUR EQUITY IS WHAT IS LEFT AFTER
OTHERS ARE REPAID.
FIG. 4. — The proportion of your house that you own is the part you have paid
for — your Equity. All the sections in this diagram except the lower right-hand corner
represent the shares which others own, although the title may be in your name. (Re
printed from Primer of Housing. Courtesy of Arthur Holden, and Workers Education
Bureau Press.)
fer of title, and in some states no provision is made for recording the con
tract.
Again, an unreliable seller might transfer the property to the buyer
encumbered with debts much larger than the amount due under the con-
36 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
tract, and in this instance the buyer would be compelled to assume obliga
tions not contemplated by his agreement in order to retain the property.
Such losses are often prevented by placing the deed in the hands of a bank
or similar institution, acting as a third party, which applies the buyer's
payments properly and delivers the deed to him at the time agreed upon.
Among disadvantages to real-estate men which cause many of them
not to enter into land contracts is the fact that a considerable amount of
capital which they may need for other purposes is tied up in financing the
purchaser. In some places real-estate operators are unable to borrow on
favorable terms on the strength of their land contracts, or are unable to
sell them at a satisfactory rate of discount. In some states sellers are
deterred from using the method because of the complicated and lengthy
legal procedure required in cases where the buyer defaults and the seller
wishes to regain possession of the property.
BUILDING AND LOAN AMORTIZATION
BY THOMAS M. CURRAN
U.S. Department of Commerce
Although for generations the building and loan associations of the
country have been lending funds for home buying and home building on
a scientific and widely known monthly repayment basis, there is consider
able misinformation current as to the proportion of the monthly payment
applied to interest. It is often thought that the interest portion is much
larger than it actually is, and, in fact, the idea is lodged in many minds
that "half the monthly payment is credited to interest and half to princi
pal."
This impression may have been originally obtained as a result of the
experience of borrowers who have dealt with organizations which have
misused the building and loan name and engaged in irregular practices.
Or, it may have resulted from a careless examination of published building
and loan tables like Table III, showing the retirement of a $1,000 six per
cent loan through monthly payments of $10 each over a period of about
139 months.
A glance at the "Payments" column and the "Interest" column, which
show entries of $120 in one and $60 in the other, might easily mislead the
layman into thinking that the interest is one-half the payment. Of course,
those familiar with building and loan financing understand that the divi
dends must be subtracted from the interest — which is actually gross inter
est — in order to find the net interest charge, and that the "Loan Out-
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING
TABLE III
$1,000 LOAN AT 6 PER CENT PAYABLE $10 MONTHLY
37
Month
Payments
Loan
Outstanding
Interest
Dividends
12
24
36
$I2O
1 2O
1 2O
$938-24
872.92
$60 . oo
6o.OO
$ 1.6615
5-4l6o
48
60
72
1 2O
1 2O
803 . 5 2
729.90
651.78
60.00
6o.OO
6o.OO
9.4005
13.6265
18.1110
84
1 2O
/iSr r»r»
6O.OO
22.8675
96
1 2O
2X7 *7->
OO.OO
27.9140
108 ....
1 2O
3°7-73
088 <7/-v
OO.OO
33-2685
120
132
1 2O
1 2O
I83.8I
OO.OO
6O.OO
38 . 9480
44.9740
I 3O
7O
/^ -45
51.3670
140
IO
4-32
-S-64
35-oo
5-00
33 13
4-95
5 1,400 — $5.64
$700.00
$305.6390
standing" column must be referred to in accounting for the disposition of
the $120 yearly payments. Thus, at the end of the first year the situation
is shown as follows:
Gross interest $60 . oo
Less dividends .... i . 66
Original principal $i ,000.00
Less loan outstanding. ... 938.34
Applied to principal. . $ 61 . 66
Net interest $58 . 34
Net interest $ 58.34
On principal 61 .66
Total payments $120.00
The family contemplating the purchase of a home is vitally interested
in knowing what part of its monthly payment is to be applied toward in
creasing its equity in the property. After considering taxes, repairs, and
other expenses incident to home ownership, the home seeker who gets the
impression that one-half, or nearly one-half, of each loan payment goes
to the financing institution as interest is likely to become discouraged at
the outset. Even if he has no erroneous ideas on the point, the mere con
viction that the amount applied to interest becomes less and less as the
months go on does not give him the same incentive to take the road to
ward home ownership that more exact knowledge would.
The average proportion of the monthly payment actually taken as
interest may be readily derived from Tables IV and V containing figures
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
in use by building and loan associations throughout the country. The
first is a 6 per cent table in use by associations employing the monthly
TABLE IV
$1,000 LOAN AT 6 PER CENT, PAYABLE $10 MONTHLY
Month
Total Payments
Applied to Interest
12
24
$I2O.OO
I 2O OO
$58-36
^4 ^6
36. .
I 2O . OO
co. =55
48
I 2O OO
46 2<
60
I 2O OO
41 71
72 .
I 2O OO
36 89
84
96
108
I 2O . OO
i 20.00
I 2O OO
31.76
26.32
20 52
1 20
I 2O OO
14 40
132
I 2O OO
7 89
139
70.65
1.44
$1,390-65
$390 . 65
TABLE V
$1,000 LOAN AT 7 PER CENT, PAYABLE $10.83 MONTHLY
6 PER CENT DIVIDENDS CREDITED SEMIANNUALLY
Month
Total Payments
Applied to
Interest
Dividends
Credited
12
$129 96
$70 oo
$ I 66
24
129 96
70 oo
< 42
36..
129 96
70 oo
9.40
48
60
129.96
1 20 06
70.00
70 oo
*3-63
18 ii
72
129 96
70 oo
22 87
84
129 96
70 oo
27 91
96..
129 96
70 oo
33 . 27
108
129. 96
70.00
38.95
1 20
I 29 96
70 oo
44 97
132
129 96
70 oo
CI T.J
140
7S 8l
46 64
38 08
$1,505-37
$816.64
$311-28*
* Includes credit of $5.64 due borrower.
reduction plan; the second is used by those having separate savings and
loan accounts and charging 7 per cent interest on the loan and crediting
dividends at 6 per cent on savings. Both types of loan are repaid in about
twelve years.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 39
By dividing the total interest ($390.65) by the number of monthly pay
ments (139) we find that the average monthly interest charge is $2.81—
more like one-quarter than one-half of the monthly payment of $10.
Subtracting the dividends ($311.28) from the total of the interest
column ($816.64) gives the net cost to the borrower ($505.36). Dividing
this net interest cost ($505.36) by the number of monthly payments (140),
we find that the average monthly interest charge is $3.61, exactly one-
third of the monthly payment of $10.83.
The practical application of the results of these calculations becomes
more evident when we deal with a typical undertaking. Assume a $5,000
building and loan obligation on a 6 per cent basis. The monthly payment
to the association is $50, and on the average the home-owner's equity
grows at the rate of $35.95 monthly. On the 7 per cent basis referred to,
the monthly payment is $54.15, and the average monthly credit toward
the equity is $36.10. How often do we see the advantages of amortization
presented to the home seeker in this way?
[NOTE. — In addition to the sources from which money may be borrowed for home
financing, arrangements have from time to time been made by employers to assist em
ployees who are desirous prospective home-owners in home financing. From a survey of
430 companies made by the U.S. Department of Labor, 196 reported an effort to en
courage employees in systematic saving, and many of these companies make specific
arrangements for home financing. One large mail-order house sells thrift certificates,
which bear 5 per cent interest, and any employee who is head of a family and who has
saved $500 may borrow money from the company for the purpose of financing a home.
Other arrangements also are made similar to the following one of a particular com
pany: Employees after three months' service are eligible to participate in a savings
plan whereby they may pay into a savings fund an amount not over 10 per cent of their
wages. The company pays at the end of each year one-half the amount paid by the
employees. This is credited to each employee's account during a period of five years at
which time the employee may withdraw his funds with 6 per cent interest. If he with
draws his money before five years he forfeits the corporation's funds of the incomplete
year. At the end of the sixth year after this plan had been established about one-fifth of
the employees who participated in the plan used the money for home financing.
Companies with no specified plan give advice and financial assistance in home buy
ing. Others encourage home ownership by making specific arrangements for financing
the second mortgage.
Such admirable efforts on the part of employers as those mentioned above which
assist workers in financing their homes undoubtedly encourage home ownership in a
greater number of families than those which have received the material help, for almost
every family has a strong desire for an owned home and a few good examples in a neigh
borhood of attractively owned homes will encourage saving for this most worthy pur
pose.]
40 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
MAINTENANCE COSTS AND OTHER EXPENSES
IN HOME OWNING
The actual money that is used for building or buying a home is not the
only cost in home financing. Every home requires certain expenditures
for repair and upkeep. In addition there are taxes, insurance, water costs,
miscellaneous items and improvements to be considered.
The amount of money for maintenance varies according to the quality
of materials and construction and the amount depends also upon the
family's inclination to make minor repairs of the house promptly ; for if
small repairs are neglected they often become large ones very rapidly.
No attempt, however, is made even to estimate the proportion of the cost
of the house that may be allotted to maintenance. Housing specialists
have suggested that in order to avoid a high maintenance cost that it is
well when building to eliminate those items, if possible, which need repair
frequently. If these items cannot be eliminated, it has been suggested
that particular emphasis should be given to them during construction in
order to eliminate as much repair as possible.
Dr. John M. Gries and James S. Taylor have discussed briefly in the
following paragraphs the usual maintenance costs and such items as
property taxes, special assessments, insurance, water taxes or rents, and
accessories.
In addition to payments on principal and interest of loans on a home, allowance
must be made for some or all of the following expenses: (a) Renewals and re
pairs, (b) property tax and special assessments, (c) insurance, (d) water tax or
rent, (e) accessories, and (/) improvements.
In addition to the above, some home-owners add in the interest which they
would otherwise receive on the amount of their cash payment or equity.
In considering annual expenses, maintenance is often neglected by those who
buy new homes. The amounts spent will depend largely on the owner's ability
and readiness to be his own repairman. After a few years certain parts of the
house will need to be repaired or renewed. The outside sash and trim of all
houses and the entire exterior of some will need repainting at intervals. This is
an expense which many home-buyers do not consider when they buy.
The interior walls will need repapering or repainting every few years.
Those who purchase an old house often fail to consider whether the roof must
be renewed. This may cost from $100 to $400.
There are many smaller items of expense which will be called for both in a
new house and in an old house. The prospective home-owner should consider
these expenses before deciding how much he can pay for the house.
The amount spent for renewals and repairs cannot be determined by any
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 41
fixed rule. Their cost depends partly on choosing the right workmen, and varies
with the quality of construction, the age of the house, and the alertness of the
owner in making minor repairs before more costly work is necessary.
A house that is maintained well and kept up to date with modern improve
ments might not decline appreciably in value over a long period of years while
another might become worthless within a short period.
In the purchase of a house it is well to find out the tax rate and the assessed
valuation, so that the amount of taxes to be paid each year may be estimated.
If the street is to be paved, or new water, sewer, or gas-mains, or electric
light lines are to be put in, there may be special assessments charged against the
property. It is well to find out which ones of these must be allowed for.
The rate of fire insurance may depend upon the materials used in building,
the fire protection afforded in construction, and the location of the house, but
it is rarely as much as one-half of i per cent of the value of the house. Insurance
is necessary not only to protect the mortgage holder but also the equity of the
owner. It is always required by the bank, trust company, or building associa
tion making a loan.
This tax is usually small but should be considered in estimating fixed ex
penses.
The purchaser of a new house usually finds that he must spend something
extra to make the house comfortable. As a rule he must buy screens for all
windows and some of the doors. In cold climates he frequently finds it advisable
to buy storm-windows and storm-doors, or at least to install weather-stripping.
Awnings, as a rule, must be purchased by the owner. Frequently $200 or more
must be spent on the house before it is in satisfactory condition.
The owner is likely to make certain improvements and changes that call for
expenditures. In a house of low cost many desirable features are omitted, and,
as a rule, the family insists on adding some of them. It may be decided, for
example, to put in partitions, if none have been installed, separating the coal-
bin, the fruit-closet, and the laundry from the rest of the cellar. This may cost
from $50 to $150. Other improvements often added are: Sleeping-porch, a
screened-in porch, tile in the bathroom, papering other rooms, sodding the yard,
and storm-windows or doors.1
WHEN IS HOME OWNERSHIP INADVISABLE?
Home ownership is without doubt desirable for the great majority of
families. There are families, however, whose incomes will not permit
them to finance their homes with safety, and families whose occupations
are of so uncertain a nature that they are compelled to move frequently
from place to place in order to find work. Also men and women engaged
in certain occupations and professions should be left free to accept better
1 In How To Own Your Home, pp. 27-28.
42 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
positions when offered them in other parts of the country. In great metro
politan centers it is often impossible to own a house conveniently near
the work of the family breadwinner.
On the other hand, there are many restless-minded families who go
about from city to city, from one part of the country to another, or from
house to house and apartment to apartment with no particular purpose
in mind. They doubtless would have been better off economically and
much happier if they had taken root in a particular community and helped
it to grow and prosper.
Some of the conditions which make home ownership inadvisable arc
discussed briefly in the following paragraphs by Horace F. Clark and
Frank A. Chase.
Whether a man is justified in building or buying depends upon many eco
nomic factors. It has frequently been said that all men are better off as home
owners, and in general this is true. There are many persons, however, who are
not in a position to hold property. The mobility of our urban population in
America is extraordinarily great. There is much moving around within the city.
It is well known that in some cities certain days are set aside as moving days, at
which time a large portion of the population vacates its former dwellings and
moves to new locations. Part of this moving is entirely unnecessary, being
caused by a spirit of restlessness and discontent, but a large part is due to the
desire to live in a place where rents are more equitable, where the neighborhood
contains a more congenial class of people, or to be nearer a business place, or
(which amounts to the same thing) to be nearer better transportation to and
from work. People who are renting homes have the opportunity to make such
adjustments when they find their first location unsatisfactory, whereas in case of
purchase it is necessary to dispose of the property perhaps at a loss, and always
with the expense of sale, or to put up with unsatisfactory conditions.
The external flow of population into and out of cities is also an element in the
housing situation. Men move to new locations because of changing occupations,
seeking better pay or better working conditions, or perhaps because their former
industry has passed its usefulness and gone out of existence.
Under what conditions should tenancy be encouraged? There are many
times when a family is better off not to own realty in a location where its mem
bers are not satisfied, or where they can no longer make a living. Each case
must be decided on its merits.
Examining the housing conditions of the entire United States, we find vast
differences among towns. Building and loan association men may be familiar
only with prosperous towns, but there are dying villages and static towns where
more houses are found than there are jobs. The leaders who founded these
towns failed in forecasting their future. Perhaps the only industry located in
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 43
the town has gone out of business, as in the sawmill towns of the North, and the
mining towns scattered throughout many parts of the country. A considerable
number of mining towns still contain houses adequate for a population of three
or four thousand people or more, while scarcely as many hundred people actually
live there. People continue to live in such places in the hope that they will
eventually "come back" when mining conditions change.
Such a surplus of houses causes rents to be so low that ownership is not a
paying investment. Money invested in houses must make a satisfactory return
with assured safety, or people will not undertake house ownership. Fortunately
these adverse conditions exist in only a comparatively few communities. In
many others, a live town has been inadequately planned for expansion, and this
acts to retard growth and unsettle values.
The true test of a housing shortage is whether or not all the people desiring
homes in a given city are able to get the kind that they want at a price within
their income. Vacant large houses are no index of the supply of small houses.
The rent, the amount of care necessary to keep up such places, are as definite
obstacles to their use as if they did not exist. Houses of the type that people can
afford to pay for, and that are satisfactory to live in, are the only kind that can
be considered in measuring the actual condition.1
HOME OWNERSHIP AND THE WAGE EARNER*
BY WILLIAM GREEN
President of the American Federation of Labor
In depressions of the past, the building industry has often been an
early help toward recovery. In 1921 construction took the lead toward an
upward movement and started to advance before industrial production
made its upturn. In 1924 the unchecked growth of building operations
helped to keep the country from sinking lower into business depression,
and the recovery came quickly
Of all branches of the building industry, by far the most important is
the construction of homes and apartments. From 1923 to 1028 between
41 and 46 per cent of all building was for this purpose. And it was home
building in the days of the 1921 depression that started up most rapidly
and did more than any other type of building to hasten business recovery.
Again in 1924 the advance in home building was the chief influence for
improvement.
' Taken by permission from Elements of the Modern Building and Loan Associations,
pp. 443-45, 1925. By permission of the Macmillan Co., publishers.
* Adapted from "Homes for Workers," North American Renew, CCXXXI (January,
44 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The present home-building programme starts a new precedent. Today
conditions are very different. In the years of high building activity which
made up the war deficit, homes and apartments were overbuilt. That is,
they were overbuilt for the groups of people who could afford new homes
at the present prices. Consequently the last two years have seen a decline
in home building amounting to 31 per cent in 1929, and in 1930 home
building has been 46 per cent below even 1929. Instead of being the
mainstay of the construction industry, home building has dropped to 23
per cent of all construction in 1930, as compared to 41 per cent and more
in former years. From far and near come tales of houses standing vacant
and apartments which can not be rented.
Obviously this side of the problem must be carefully considered. We
are starting on a home-building programme at a time when incomes are
reduced, and when there is apparently an oversupply of houses and apart
ments for certain groups of the population. There is another large group
of people, however, who need and want new homes — the wage earners.
Hundreds of thousands are living in quarters that are anything but suit
able for family life. They would gladly move into a better environment
if they could find houses and apartments within their means.
Here is a real need for better housing, a demand for homes which can
be a mainstay to the building industry. The problem is to construct
homes at reasonable prices, within the reach of working people. A home-
building programme which can accomplish this will indeed bring nation
wide benefit to American citizens as well as to the building industry.
Fifteen years ago it was as expensive to buy an automobile as it is to
buy a home today. Mass production was introduced and today thousands
of wage earners own their cars. Can we not hope for measures which will
reduce the cost of home building as the price of automobiles has been re
duced? At present it is not possible for the vast majority of wage earners
to own their homes, and most even have difficulty in finding modern
apartments with the equipment and surroundings which will make a suit
able environment for their children.
There is nothing more important in forming the character of the
American people than the home where our boys and girls grow up. Home
surroundings help to mold the moral fiber that is to measure up in the
tests of later years, or start the physical and mental defects which later
on bring downfall.
For working men and women particularly, a good home is all impor
tant. Because it can not be supplemented by clubs, travel, opportunities
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 45
for independent living, the workman's home is definitely the center of
family life, the formative influence for growing children. When we con
sider that 80 per cent of our 122,000,000 men, women and children are in
the wage-earner group, it is obvious that good homes for workers are a
matter of national significance.
The large majority of our citizenry come from workingmen's homes.
They are the group our industries depend on for steady and intelligent
work. They must bear the strain of sustained productive labor, often
under nerve-racking conditions of noise and speed and long hours. The
man who can keep his nerves steady, who does not lose his precision after
weeks, months, years of hard work, is the man our country wants and
counts on for responsible management of his part of the nation's work.
Growing children must have the environment that builds strong
bodies. Sunlight and fresh air, a safe place to play, with grass and trees if
possible, cleanliness and comfort at home, with running hot water and
bath — all these are necessary to build bone, muscle, nerves, and strength
which will carry through in later years. Dark rooms, foul air, cramped
surroundings, may be the start of lifelong physical defects. It makes all
the difference whether windows look out on an inner court or in to the open
air; whether children play in crowded rooms or outdoors in a playground.
No less essential are the other elements of environment. Beauty, neat
ness, the necessary comforts and conveniences, are part of that intangible
background which means so much in mental and spiritual growth and
reserve. The mother of. a wage-earner's family must be cook, seamstress,
laundry worker, nurse, companion to children and husband, and an
economist to expend the family income. She can not employ help to share
her responsibility. If this busy mother of the family is to keep clean cur
tains at the windows, tidy rooms, spotless linen and clothing, she must
have modern conveniences to help her. For the wage-earner's wife does
all her own housework, and often, when wages are low, she must supple
ment the family income by going out to work as well. She needs hot
water, electrical wiring, adequate heating in her home.
But in spite of the great need for homes for wage earners, there are
many old tenements in our cities where children grow up in dark inner
rooms; mill houses in many communities, which were hastily built to
provide for growing industries, still have no plumbing and even no water
supply, to say nothing of central heating, gas or electric light. Yet the
mental and physical health upon which the future of our nation depends
is conditioned by all these elements in the home environment.
46 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
When a workman chooses his home, he has many things to consider.
Probably the most dominating question is: How long can I keep my job?
Can a wage earner count on steady work long enough to pay instalments
on a purchase if he wants to buy a home? This question lies at the root
of our home-building programme to-day.
With the swift and ruthless changes in industrial employment which
have followed each other continually in practically all industries in the
last ten years, few workmen can be sure that they will hold their jobs even
for a year from now. New machines are introduced in one factory, and
500 are laid off; a new technique develops in another, and 50 or 60 lose
their jobs. These figures mount up into the hundreds of thousands as the
process of technical improvement spreads from plant to plant and indus
try to industry.
These are not rare happenings; they are going on continually as part
of the vast industrial changes we are passing through to-day. The 20,000
business failures that occurred last year have thrown thousands of wage
earners out of work. A job today is a very doubtful security indeed. Even
though our factories were producing 42 per cent more in 1929 than they
did in 1919, 514,000 fewer wage earners were at work manufacturing these
goods; 227,000 fewer were employed on the railroads transporting them,
and 122,000 fewer were mining coal to furnish fuel and power. These are
just a few figures to show the enormous number of workers who are losing
their jobs through increasing industrial efficiency.
Seasonal changes also lay off hundreds of thousands, and many do not
get their jobs back again when the next busy season comes. In 1929 in
the automobile trade, 150,000 workers were laid off in the dull season.
All these men lost an average of two months and many never got their
jobs back. In the clothing and textile industries, the dull season meant
32,000 jobs lost for two or three months.
Some of these workers, of course, find new work in the same city, and
near their homes. But a surprising number leave town and seek work
elsewhere. "I'm lucky this year," said a painter the other day. "Last year
I had to travel a hundred and twenty-five miles before I found a job."
And thousands are less lucky and have to travel farther. A bricklayer
who kept a record of his wanderings in search of work travelled one year
from Pennsylvania to Norfolk, Va., then to Washington, B.C., then back
to Philadelphia for a few weeks and on to Williamsport. Each time his job
lasted only a few months or less. Another year found him in Indiana and
Tennessee.
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 47
Unless you have been through it yourself, you have little idea of the
struggle to find and keep a job. With only a small savings account to fall
back on at best, the wage earner who loses his job is in dire straits, indeed.
A recent study shows that it takes on the average three months to find a
new job of any permanence, and during this time savings are needed for
food and bare essentials. How can a man invest in buying a home under
these circumstances? Payments which could not be met when they are
due would only bring the loss of all invested capital. Far better to buy a
car which is paid for in a year or eighteen months. At least it will be a
help in getting from place to place in search of work.
Two kinds of homes at low cost are urgently needed to meet the re
quirements of the modern age: (i) Homes which can be purchased on easy
terms, providing security for the investment involved, so that money
put into them can be withdrawn without great loss. (2) Apartments and
rented homes which will be equipped with modern comforts and appli
ances, and situated in suitable surroundings.
At present, although there are many wage earners, especially of the
more skilled group, whose jobs are more secure and who would like to own
their homes, it is impossible to finance the purchase without high interest
rates and difficult financial arrangements.
Compare for instance buying a car and buying a home. To buy a $500
car, you pay about $200 down, and after that $25 a month. At the end
of a year, the car is entirely paid for. A $1,000 car requires only $55 a
month for one year, with $340 down payment. Also, you can sell your car
easily if need arises or you can use it as security to borrow money.
But to buy even a $5,000 home involves many complicated problems.
First you must have at least $500 in cash. Then you may secure a first
mortgage for $3,000 at 6 per cent, but to raise the final $1,500 you will
have to take out a second mortgage, which with discounts will cost you
at least 18 per cent, and if you happen on a sharp real estate dealer, it may
cost you 30 per cent. To pay off these mortgages will take at least ten
years. For the first three years payments will be $69.50 a month, then
$30.30 for the next seven years, exceedingly difficult for a wage earner.
When you have finished payments, you will find that with the high dis
counts it has cost you $1,099 to borrow $4,5°°- In other words> vou have
paid $6,099 for your $5,000 home. In the mean time you will also have
taxes to pay. If you build your own home you have in addition fees for
title search, and all the difficulties of choosing materials and design, about
which you probably know practically nothing. Add to this the fact that
48 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
once you own your own home you would probably find it difficult to sell
without serious loss if you had to move. Is it any wonder that wage
earners buy cars instead?
Better financing methods would eliminate much of this difficulty and
expense. But no adequate programme for better homes for workers can
stop with a plan providing for the purchase of homes. What millions of
workers need in this country to-day is good homes to rent, either apart
ments or small houses. For until we succeed in stabilizing employment
and until workers' living standards are higher, there will be millions who
can not possibly afford to buy homes. They are the ones who suffer most
from the congested living quarters of our slums today. And it is a tragic
human waste that this should be so. For out of the families of many of
these workmen comes some of the finest material for our future citizen
ship.
Slums can be redeemed. This has been proved often enough, but in
most cases redeeming the slums has not meant better homes for workers.
Also experimental towns for workers in suburban districts are already
being tried. These homes have a little plot of ground with grass and trees
and a place for children to play, safe from motor traffic. Efforts to put
such homes at the disposal of workers are most praiseworthy. The prob
lem involves both the creation of homes in the suburbs and suitable houses
and apartments within the city, and the redemption of unwholesome liv
ing conditions now existing.
As we consider the home-building programme, let us not overlook the
essentials but get right to the root of the problem: That of creating good
homes for workers. To solve it will require the concentrated efforts of
those interested in finance, construction, real estate, labor, building mate
rials and many other groups. It has been possible to produce automobiles,
radios, furniture and other articles in mass. Is it not possible to produce
good homes on a scale which will make quantity consumption possible
and profitable for all concerned? The construction industry depends on
wage earners and small salaried workers for the rent or purchase of at
least two-thirds of all homes and apartments built in the United States.
If workers can afford better homes, there is no question of an increased
demand.
SUMMARY
There are many advantages of home owning over that of renting.
However, the United States Census Bureau reported only 45.6 per cent of
HOME OWNERSHIP AND HOME FINANCING 49
the families of the country as home-owners in 1920. One of the reasons for
a low per cent home ownership is undoubtedly difficulties in financing.
Since there are countless advantages to be derived from home owner
ship, it is probable that the great majority of families desire to own
their homes. There are always, however, some families who cannot
safely finance homes, and a few whose occupations and professions are
such that they cannot remain in a single community sufficiently long to
make ownership advisable.
Many families find the buying of a home to be the largest investment
they ever make. Before buying it is well to consider the following: (i) In
come — present and future, (2) the amount of money saved, (3) the amount
of rent paid annually, (4) the amount the family can well afford to pay
for both the home and its upkeep. If one-sixth of the income is used for
rent, it may be possible to use one-fourth or more to buy and maintain a
home, for the amount used may include both rent and savings. Usually
it is desirable to possess free from obligation one-fifth of the value of the
house and lot in cash before making the purchase.
Financing is one of the obstacles that stands in the way of home own
ing. Although the cost of houses has increased during the past fifteen
years, the number of sources from which money may be borrowed has
also increased. The smaller the amount of money on hand the fewer the
sources for borrowing, the higher the interest, and the greater the risk.
Homes are usually financed by (i) paying all cash, (2) paying part cash
and by raising the remainder on a first or on first and second mortgages,
(3) buying on the contract plan — paying a relatively small amount in
cash and the remainder in monthly instalments.
The costs during ownership should be considered before ownership is
decided upon. The most important of such costs are payments on the
loan, interest on the loan, taxes and insurance, extra assessments, upkeep,
and maintenance of the house.
REFERENCES
CHURCHILL, ALLEN L., and WICKENDEN, LEONARD. The House-Owner's Book.
New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1928.
Basis for borrowing, mortgages, building and loan associations (pp. 1-8).
CLARK, HORACE F. Appraising the Home. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1930.
Appraising lots (pp. 43-61); methods of appraising houses (pp. 96-104); appraising
from plans and specifications (pp. 165-91).
50 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
CLARK, HORACE F., and CHASE, FRANK A. Elements of the Modern Building and
Loan Associations. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927.
Making the loan (pp. 190-229); appraising the house and lot (pp. 232-43); associa
tion loans (pp. 248-66).
CRIES, JOHN M., and CURRAN, THOMAS M. Present Home Financing Methods.
U.S. Bureau of Standards, B.H. 12. Washington: Government Printing Of
fice, 1928. Pp. 23.
Discusses sources from which money may be borrowed, and analyzes loan plans.
CRIES, JOHN M., and TAYLOR, JAMES S. How To Own Your Home. Publication
No. 7, February, 1931. Washington: Better Homes in America, 1929. Pp.
32.
Presentation of home-ownership problems and how to meet them.
JONES, ROBERT T. "How To Figure the Cost of Owning a Home," Small Home,
X (August, 1930), 17-18, 42-43-
LESCARBOURA, AUSTIN C. Home-Owner's Handbook. New York: Scientific
American Publishing Co., 1924.
Methods of home financing; first and second mortgages, building and loan associa
tions (pp. 34-52).
OVERTON, JAMES. "Ten Reasons Why I Would Not Buy My Own Home,"
Magazine of Wall Street, XLII (May 19, 1928), 136-37.
A discussion of problems of a particular family which made home ownership inad
visable.
ROUSE, HARRY V. "Is Home Owning More Profitable than Renting?" Ibid.,
September, 1928, pp. 935, 967.
Author describes an actual comparison of two similar cases.
SIMONS, H. A. "The Building and Loan Association," Small Home, VIII
(April, 1928), 13, 36, 40.
Discusses plans of various associations.
WALSH, HAROLD VANDERVOORT. The Construction of the Small House. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923.
Contract system, building and loan associations, items of expenditure (pp. 262-65).
WOOD, ARTHUR EVANS. Community Problems. New York: Century Co., 1928.
Building and loan associations (pp. 75-77).
WYMAN, JOHN M. "Financing Small Homes through Local Building Loan
Associations," Building Age and National Builder, XL VIII (April, 1926),
232-33.
HOLDEN, ARTHUR C. Primer of Housing. Workers' Education Pamphlet Series,
No. ii. New York: Workers' Education Bureau Press, 1927. Pp. 48.
CHAPTER II
THE COST OF THE HOUSE AND METHODS OF
REDUCING IT
WHAT DO HOUSES COST?
Good houses cost more than many families can afford. Although hous
ing specialists for a number of years have been making recommendations
and suggestions for the reduction of house costs, many of which have been
used with some success, there are still a great number of families in this
country whose incomes are not large enough to permit home ownership.
The United States Census Bureau reported in 1920 only 45.6 per cent of
families as home-owners. High costs and difficulty in the financing of
homes undoubtedly are responsible in part for this low home ownership
that is reported by the Census. Since housing specialists maintain that a
safe price to pay for a house is one which is not over two or two and one-
half times the annual income it is obvious that families receiving much less
than $1,500 annually cannot afford a home that will include the necessary
standards for healthful and comfortable living, unless it is in the southern
states where building due to climatic conditions may be less expensive.
Better standards for more of the cheaper homes are now demanded, for no
family should be subjected to poor ventilation, lack of sunlight, conges
tion, and unsanitary conditions generally. With costs as they now are
families of low-income groups must necessarily live in the cast-off houses
of families with more money. The problem in housing, then, is the problem
of reducing costs and at the same time maintaining an acceptable stand
ard. Every house that is erected should be planned and built with every
consideration in mind for the health and comfort of the family that is to
occupy it. Although the family for whom the house is built may afford
a new home within a few years, the cast-off house doubtless will become
the home of some less prosperous and less fortunate family.
There are a number of methods which have been both tried and sug
gested by which costs may be reduced to some extent. Some of these are
mass production, the use of more factory-made parts, less expensive land,
less expensive improvements (sewerage facilities, water, electricity, gas,
improved streets and pavements), elimination of waste in all construction
Si
52 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
processes and in materials, better use of materials, standardization of
building materials and parts that make up the completed house, substi
tutes for costly materials, year-round construction, cheaper financing,
reduction of the cost of selling, reduction of fire losses,- uniformity of
building codes, and eliminations in planning and building the actual house
such as omitting the basement, fireplace, certain built-in equipment, etc.
(Some of these methods are discussed in the following pages of this chap
ter; references to others are included in the Bibliography.)
Little effort has been made to determine costs of dwelling houses for
the entire country, owing to the fact that costs of both materials and labor
differ widely in various sections. It has been stated that the cost of a
particular Colonial house built from as nearly identical materials as pos
sible varied as much as 35 per cent in different communities, owing largely
to varying material and labor costs and also to the varying profits de
manded by contractors. It is difficult also to compare a particular house
built in several places, as the requirements of owners will differ and the
grades of materials selected will not be identical.
Undoubtedly the most extensive compilations of costs of houses are
those prepared by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. This
Bureau collects information on the cost of residential as well as non-
residential buildings, the number of families provided for, and the average
cost of dwellings — single, two-family, and multi-family. These cost fig
ures, collected monthly by the Bureau, are based on costs submitted with
building permits.
Table VI, adapted from one which appeared in the April, 1931, Monthly
Labor Review, shows the average cost of dwellings, the index numbers of
cost of dwellings per family from 1921 to 192 9, based on the building per
mits of 257 identical cities in the United States.
The costs of houses reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics are those
costs stated by the builder who applies to the local authorities for a per
mit. Frequently there is some difference between the cost stated in the
permit and the actual cost of the building. However, these figures show
admirably, trends^ — the increase or decrease in cost over a period of years.
The Bureau, however, has not distributed costs per room or taken into
consideration the kinds of materials used such as brick, stucco, or wood,
etc. The table shows average costs of dwellings of every size and every
material.
This same Bureau has made another most interesting and useful study
on the distribution of the building dollar and the relative cost of materials
THE COST OF THE HOUSE
53
and labor in residential buildings. This study which is reported in some
detail in the Monthly Labor Review of January, 1929, has been based on
TABLE VI
YFAT*
AVERAGE COST OF NEW
DWELLINGS PER FAMILY
INDEX NUMBERS OF COST op
DWELLINGS PER FAMILY
One-Family
Dwellings
Two-Family
Dwellings
One-Family
Dwellings
Two-Family
Dwellings
1921
$3,972
$3,762
IOO.O
IOO.O
1922
4,134
3,801
104. 1
IOI.O
1923
4,203
4,159
105.8
no. 6
1924
4,317
4,336
108.7
iJ5-3
1925
4,618
4,421
116.3
ii7-5
1926
4,725
4,480
II9.O
119. i
1927
4,830
4,368
121. 6
116.1
1928
4,937
4,064
124.3
108.0
1929
4,9i5
4,020
123.7
106.9
1930
4,993
3,924
125-7
104-3
reports on residential building in three cities representing different types
of urban communities — Cincinnati, Ohio; Decatur, Illinois; and Wash
ington, B.C. The per cents used in Table VII are based on the average
TABLE VII
TOTAL
CLASS OF WORK
Material
Labor
Excavating and grading
Brick work
(Per Cent)
4-3
53 2
(Per Cent)
95-7
46.8
Carpenter work (builders' hardware,
lumber, and mill work)
Tile work
56.5
CC . 2
43-5
44.8
Concrete work
51.9
48.1
Electric wiring and fixtures
Plumbing
Heating
65-5
64.8
72.2
34-5
35-2
27.8
Painting
33-4
66.6
Papering
26.6
38.3
73-4
61.7
Roofing
Miscellaneous
54-8
74-8
45-2
25-2
costs reported by these three cities. Overhead expenses, finance charges,
profits, and cost of land are not included. The Bureau also has distributed
the cost, combining both material and labor among the various classes of
54
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
work that are essential in house building. Building materials represented
54 per cent of the dollar for residential building and labor 46 per cent.
The cost also has been distributed among the various classes of work
combining materials and labor in these same three cities and here is where
the building dollar goes (cf. Table VIII).
The United States Department of Commerce publishes in its monthly
publication, the Survey of Current Business, construction costs and build-
TABLE VIII
CLASS OF WORK
PER CENT OF TOTAL
COST CHARGEABLE TO
SPECIFIED CLASS OF
WORK
Total
Excavating and grading
Brick work
2.0
16.1
Carpenter work
32 7
Tile work
2 I
Concrete work
Electric wiring and fixtures
Heating
Plumbing
9-5
2.8
5-5
9-3
Plastering and lathing
8 6
Painting
Papering
Roofing
Miscellaneous
4-4
•9
2.2
4.O
Total
IOO.O
ing material prices for frame and brick houses. The figures included in
Table IX appear in the February and August, 1930, and the February,
1931, issues.
The table below shows building material price indexes representing the rela
tive cost of building materials entering into the construction of a 6-room frame
house and a 6-room brick house, from the United States Department of Com
merce, Bureau of Standards, Division of Building and Housing and Bureau of
Census, based on prices paid for material by contractors in some 60 cities of the
United States. The prices are weighted by the relative importance of each
commodity in the construction of a 6-room house.
Another distribution of the building dollar has been made of the cost
of nine houses averaging $15,000 by the Copper and Brass Research Asso
ciation. This distribution includes landscaping, builder's profit, archi
tect's fee, and financing (cf. Table X).1
1 From A Real Home — Suggestions to Home Builders. New York: Copper and Brass
Research Association, 1927.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE
55
Some effort has been made also to determine costs per cubic foot.
Table XI shows the average costs of houses of the Pittsburgh District.1
TABLE IX
BUILDING MATERIAL PRICES
(IST OF MONTH)
YEAR AND MONTH
Frame House
Brick House
Relative to 1913
19*3
100
IOO
1922 (monthly av.)
182
1 86
1923 (monthly av.) .
2O7
200
1924 (monthly av.)
1925 (monthly av.)
1926 (monthly av.)
1927 (monthly av.)
2OI
196
195
187
203
197
195
1 88
1928 (monthly av.)
178
183
1929 (monthly av.)
177
182
1930 (Jan.)
178
182
1931 (Jan.)
163
170
TABLE X
Cents Spent
Total in a $15,000
House
For excavating and grading
For masonry
1.8
0-4
$ 270
1 ,410
For stucco, plaster and tile work. . . .
For carpentry
For roofing
For flashings, downspouts and gut
ters
?
IO.6
27.2
5-4
o. 7
1,590
4,080
810
105
For plumbing
9-3
1,395
For heating
For electric wiring and fixtures
For hardware
7.0
2.7
2.O
1,050
405
300
For painting and glazing
4-5
675
For screens
0.9
135
Total for construction
81.5
$12,225
For landscaping
3.0
450
For builder's profit
9-4
1,410
For architect's fee
For financing
4-5
1.6
675
240
Total
100.0
$15,000
1 From the Pittsburgh Realtor, April 1 7, 1928. Although there are many, controversies
over the value of cubic-foot costs as a guide in estimating the cost of new houses, many
56 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The tables and compilations are merely indicative of the general
average of house costs, costs of materials and labor, of operations, and
costs per cubic foot. As before stated, costs vary so greatly between
city and city and district and district that only the most general informa
tion is obtainable.
TABLE XI
PEK Cu. FT.
1926-27
Cents
Ordinary frame, 4, 5 to 6 rooms, bath, hot-air heat 27-32
Frame — good construction, bath, laundry, hot-air heat,
yellow pine floors 32-37
Special — frame dwellings, all conveniences, hot-water heat,
hardwood floors 40-50
Class C type:
Small brick veneer, 5 to 6 rooms, bath, hot-air heat, hard
wood on first floor 33-38
Class B type:
Brick veneer, 6 to 8 rooms, all conveniences, hot-water
heat, hardwood first floor 42-47
Class A type:
Brick, tile backing, all conveniences, hardwood finish. . .55-65
[NOTE. — In addition to the information on costs of houses compiled by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, the Bureau also compiles wholesale price indexes for building materials
and information on union wage rates in the building industry. Information may be ob
tained also from the U.S. Department of Commerce on retail prices of building mate
rials.]
REDUCING THE COST OF HOUSES
Many suggestions have been made for reducing the cost of houses —
some of these have been actually tried out. The most important of the sug
gested methods are mentioned on pages 51-52 of this chapter. Undoubt-
architects depend upon this method. C. Stanley Taylor states in his article "Developing
Sketch Plans for Small Houses To Meet Budget Requirements," Architectural Forum,
luly, 1928: "In the New York district, which is probably the highest priced area in the
country for home building many offices have found that they never exceed sixty cents
per cubic foot for quality development of small houses embodying sound construction
systems and high grade materials in all details. Other offices frequently build within a
fifty cent limit, and occasionally some of the very best designers succeed in designing
houses that actually cost from forty to forty-five cents. The difference of a few cents
per cubic foot eveu in a small house rapidly amounts into dollars; . . . ."
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 57
edly, the most effective work that has been accomplished in reduction of
cost is the campaign conducted by the United States Department of
Commerce on the elimination of waste. Standardization and simplifica
tion of building materials— that is, the production and distribution of
fewer varieties and sizes of materials— have eliminated waste and reduced
cost.1 Many scientific investigations have been made, and extensive re
search has been conducted on both the manufacture and the use of ma
terials. Series of tests of brick and other types of masonry, tests of cement
and concrete, on the weathering of building stone, and other investigations
have been made that will not only result in better built but more eco
nomically-built homes.
One of the aims of the Division of Building and Housing of the Depart
ment of Commerce is to encourage better and more economic construc
tion. This Division also has carried on studies in home financing, particu
larly those financing problems involving extra charges for money-
bonuses and commissions — which frequently make home owning out of
the question. It also has assisted in preparing recommendations for mini
mum requirements for building codes. In certain cities unnecessary re
quirements are often made for building which result in a waste of both
material and labor. The Building Code Committee of the United States
Department of Commerce has made every effort to determine types and
quality of building material and construction that are safe and sound and
also economical. By the use of the requirements drawn up by this Com
mittee much waste may be prevented, for each year a number of com
munities adopt new building codes and in others old codes are revised.
A similar Committee on. Plumbing has also drawn up minimum require
ments. Experiments conducted continuing over several years were neces
sary to determine the best principles of design for plumbing systems.
Another method of eliminating waste and thus reducing cost is by
distributing more evenly building activity throughout the entire year. In
past years a large part of the building has been done during a period of
four or five months. This seasonal work results in unemployment among
workers during a part of the year, and it also affects the manufacturing
1 The number of sizes of building materials has been greatly reduced. The percent
ages of reduction in 1928 were as follows: Vitrified brick, 66 to 5; metal lath, 125 to 24;
rough and smooth face brick, 75 to 2; common brick, 44 to i; hollow building tile, 36
to 20; concrete building units, 115 to 14 (see Ray M. Hudson, "Simplified Practice
Achievements in the Building and Construction Field," Architectural Forum, October,
1928).
58 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
plants where building materials are produced. Mr. Hoover states in his
Foreword to Seasonal Operations in the Construction Industries:
Activity in construction bears a close relation to general industrial conditions.
The construction and equipment of new buildings result not only in the em
ployment of building trades labor but in production of lumber, cement, iron and
steel products, brick, sand and gravel, lime, hardware, paint, electrical equip
ment, furniture, textiles, and a variety of other materials. If building falls off,
there is bound to be slackening in many other lines of industry, resulting in
unemployment, decreased purchasing power of employees, and further depres
sion. The ebb and flow in the demand for construction, seasonally and between
different years, thus to a large degree affect our economic stability.
The need to eliminate the wastes of seasonal idleness has been brought forci
bly to the attention of the construction industries and the public by reason of
high labor costs and the failure of the building trades to attract young men into
their ranks. Lengthening the building season will mean greater production from
the men now engaged in the building trades and will also go far to attract capa
ble apprentices.
The use of short-length lumber whenever possible in the building of
homes is also an important factor in building economy. The National
Committee on Wood Utilization has outlined this economy in the follow
ing paragraphs :
Hundreds of thousands of small homes and farm structures are being built
in the United States every year, and wherever in their construction long lengths
of lumber are used when short lengths would serve the purpose just as well the
result is waste. The custom of demanding long lengths originated in the days
when the need for husbanding our forest products was less apparent than it is
to-day. But those times have passed, and with them must go the extravagant
habits unlimited supply created, for this wasteful practice is putting a drain on
our forests that, unless stopped, will eventually tend to raise the price of long-
length lumber and, so, to increase construction costs to all builders.
"Short-length lumber" is that which is less than 8 feet long. Pieces of 6 and 7
feet form part of the standard output of practically every saw and planing mill;
lengths of 4 and 5 feet are less frequently regarded as a salable portion of the
mill output; lengths of 2 and 3 feet are discarded except by those lumber manu
facturers who handle the more valuable species of wood or who have worked
up specialized markets for these pieces; yet all of this material is of high intrinsic
value as respects quality and accuracy of manufacture, is admirably suited to
many uses, and under present market conditions is economical. Notwithstand
ing which, lengths less than 8 feet seldom are specified in standard commercial
practice.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 59
The production of short lengths in saw and planing mills is as inevitable as
the production of sawdust, shavings, or bark. In the expansion of the demand
for this short lumber — often the finest clear wood in the log — lies economy for
the logger, the millman, and the consumer.
To the consumer the use of short lengths would mean an appreciable saving,
since it is the general practice of mills throughout the United States to quote
short lengths 15 to 35 per cent below the prices asked for standard lengths of
equal grade.
The industries of the United States manufacturing wood articles now absorb
about one-tenth of the present short-length lumber output of the mills. They
could without difficulty absorb five times as much; that is, 50 per cent of the
present short-length output. This would, however, still leave 50 per cent of the
present unavoidable production and all of the potential mill production of short
lengths for consumption in other avenues; and outlets for it lie chiefly in the
building and construction industries, inasmuch as they consume over two-thirds
of all softwood lumber sawn in the United States. In expansion of the demand
for short-length lumber for construction .work, then, lies the solution of the
short-length marketing problem.
Every year $2,000,000,000 is invested in small houses and farm buildings in
the United States. Employment of short-length lumber in these structures
would mean a saving to the small-home owners and farmers of tens of millions
of dollars annually. This is not guesswork; the survey on which this report is
based demonstrated its truth in actual computations, and the tables in which
these computations are summarized put the actual dollars-and-cents savings
squarely before the prospective home-owner through pointing out definite in
stances where the use of short-length lumber is feasible.1
ELIMINATION OF WASTE IN HOME BUILDING
AND HOME FINANCING2
BY ARTHUR E. WOOD
University of Michigan
There are large wastes in the building industry which could be elimi
nated by more efficient organization. The report of the committee on
waste of the Federated Engineering Societies rated the building industry
as second highest in a group of six large industries as regards the preva
lence of wasteful methods. Sixty-five per cent of the waste in this industry
was attributed by the committee to management, twenty-one per cent to
1 Adapted from The Marketing of Short-Length Lumber— First Report of the Construc
tion Subcommittee of the National Committee on Wood Utilization (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1926), pp. 1-4-
* Adapted from Community Problems (New York: Century Co., 1928), pp. 122-28.
60 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
labor, and fourteen per cent to other sources.1 The wastes of management
are largely due to unemployment prevailing in the industry, a considerable
part of which could be eliminated
In a foreword to a report on "Seasonal Operation in the Construction
Industries,"2 submitted by a comittee of President Harding's Conference
on Unemployment, Secretary Hoover 'wrote as follows:
In summary, the committee has well demonstrated the most important fact
that the seasonal character of the construction industries is to a considerable
extent a matter of custom and habit, not of climatic necessity. It gives recom
mendations of practical methods of solution through specified cooperative ac
tion of the trades and professions vitally interested in each locality — architects,
engineers, bankers, contractors, building material dealers and producers, real
estate men, and building trades labor. No solution is sought or suggested of
government regulation. The service of the committee has been to determine the
facts and to point a remedy that is consonant with our national conceptions
of individual and community initiative. The need is the development of local
consideration by these bodies of the problems in each community, with volun
tary action to uproot wasteful customs and habits. The service to be rendered
to our whole economic life by the elimination of these gigantic wastes and the
conscious planning to overcome these irregularities, the improved condition of
labor which is possible not only in actual construction but in the material
manufacturing industries, the lowered costs of production and of building which
could result therefrom, are great warranty for such cooperation.^
A second consideration relative to the reduction of housing costs has to
do with the enlargement of credit facilities Capital flows more free
ly to more profitable enterprises, such as the production of automobiles
and other luxuries. To meet this difficulty following the War, bills were
introduced into Congress authorizing the establishment of home loan
banks, analogous to the Federal farm loan banks; and also to allow the
savings and time deposits of national banks to be used for long-time loans
for home building. Without such legislation it is probable that the savings
banks in local communities could further home building more than they
sometimes do by diverting a larger part of their loans to this end; and
wherever law or custom interferes with this, the law or custom should be
changed. The availability of capital for this purpose naturally affects the
interest rate, which may be burdensome
1 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, September, 1921, p. 13.
2 U.S. Department of Commerce, "Elimination of Waste Series." Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1924.
3 Seasonal Operation in the Construction Industries, pp. vii-viii.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 61
One aspect of the matter concerns the usurious charges for second mort
gages. A recent survey of this matter covering practices in over 200 cities
showed that not only is second mortgage money hard to obtain, but that
a high bonus or discount is required for getting it.1 Rates, including bonus,
interest, and discount run from ten to twenty-five per cent on the original
loan. It is alleged, of course, that these high rates are necessitated by the
risks involved in such loans. But the amount of risk is probably overem
phasized. At any rate, it is natural that the money lender should make
the most of it Mr. Samuel N. Keep, chairman of the second mort
gage section of the National Association of Real Estate Boards, was
quoted as follows on the question of usurious interest rates:
Legislation is badly needed in many states to provide a usury law with teeth.
In several states the law fixes the usury rate, then, as a penalty for violation,
provides that the violator must forfeit any amount in excess of the maximum
rate. The result is that operators charge almost anything, and when they are
checked up and convicted simply return the excess amount. Needless to say,
they are seldom brought to task There is no question but that the high
rate scares out many a family anxious to build and own their own home. I see
examples of it daily.2
Large-scale production and the adoption of standard plans for varying
types of houses by employers and by commerical or philanthropic real
estate corporations should effect savings in home building. A wealth of
information is available here as a result of the work of the United States
Housing Corporation, and of the more recent efforts of some employers.
Also, important contributions toward the simplification and standardiza
tion of construction materials have been made by the Division of Building
and Housing in the United States Department of Commerce.3
The improvement of building codes looking toward a greater degree of
uniformity as between cities regarding construction materials and meas
urements would reduce to a considerable extent the expense of building.
A case in point is the prohibition by many communities of the use of
hollow tile as a substitute for brick. Safety requirements are often too
drastic, and express a lack of confidence of the people in the integrity and
wisdom of the builders. Again in this connection, the work of the Divi-
1 From material gathered and published by the Christian Science Monitor in June,
1925, and quoted in the Information Service, a publication of the Federal Council of
Churches of Christ in America, June 13, 1925-
2 Quoted in Information Service, June 13, 1925.
3 See Construction and Construction Materials. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1924.
62 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sion of Building and Housing of the United States Department of Com
merce has been most useful. It has drawn up a model building code, and
aims to secure its adoption by cities and towns.
A fundamental consideration in regard to housing costs has to do with
the policy of land control. People may build "castles in the air," but their
houses are of necessity set on the ground . It is the speculative element in the
cost of land that retards housing developments, and all but wrecked the
elaborate housing plans of Great Britain after the War. Various methods
exist by which cities are learning to exercise some degree of control over
land values, tending toward their stabilization. But aside from the special
features of city planning, such as excess condemnation and zoning, the
movement to lessen the burden of taxation upon improvements, and to
shift it progressively to land, is gaining some headway
Finally, it is clear that housing costs are much affected by Federal
policies in regard to the tariff on building materials, and in regard to
transportation rates and priority determinations relative to building
materials. Also, the expenses of the house-owner for fuel, light, and other
services are determined in part by the public attitude toward utility
companies which furnish these services
REDUCING THE COST OF THE HOUSE BY THE USE
OF FACTORY-MADE PARTS1
BY W. H. HAM
Bridgeport Housing Association
As an engineer who has spent thirty years studying building, and who
has passed through the various stages of thought as applied to the work
man's home, I have come to a conclusion which will strike the old builder
as heresy and the investor as visionary. But I am confident that it is
entirely practical, startlingly economical, and sound business, to establish
a manufacturing process whereby large, complete members of a house can
be fabricated in the shop, and very largely with machines. These large
parts could be transported by automobile truck and erected with derricks,
secured together by means of substantial anchors and bolts, so as to furnish
a house of greater strength and durability than the present type of frame
house. When these fabricated parts are assembled, the exterior can be
treated to a normal coating of veneer which will make of it a permanent
house — brick, stone, stucco; or shingles, clapboards, or sheathing.
Ample plants are available for the purpose, requiring only a small
1 Adapted from "Factory-made Homes," Survey, February 15, 1929.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 63
amount of alteration, and little if any machinery to be speciaUy designed.
I believe we are ready to fabricate a house without having to wait for the
tedious process of inventing machinery or developing new materials to be
used in this revolutionary process. I want to describe in some detail the
process which I recommend.
The first thing about a home is a hole in the ground. I believe we are
building four times too much cellar for our houses. I should recommend
a cellar under 25 per cent of the house and no cellar under the remainder.
But regardless of the size of the cellar, the foundation walls should be
built of materials fabricated at a shop. They should be hollow, large-size
shells, presumably made of concrete materials. They should be trans
ported by truck and erected with derricks without re-handling. These
shells should be filled with gross materials from the cellar excavation, so
as to give the foundation wall weight and frost-proofing in our northern
climates.
Revolution number two in my plan is to build the chimney in a single
piece, transport it by truck, and erect it with a derrick just as we do with
a large concrete telephone pole.
Next comes the house above the foundations. In the simple house, the
rooms all have six rectangular surfaces : Four sidewalls, ceiling, and floor.
The first element needed for a room is a floor, with the cellar ceiling, and
I am confident that our engineers are competent to build this in a shop,
full room-size for the smaller house, all finished, using the materials we
know, want, and have used for years. This unit can be transported with
out interference with traffic, and pass under most of our bridges without
difficulty.
Assume, then, that we have three or four rooms on the first floor, and
that we shall make an equal number of units in the factory, entirely com
pleted, transport them, lay them on their foundation, and secure them
to their foundation by proper fastening on all edges.
Next come the side walls of the rooms, divided into two classes. As
sume that we will be generous with sizes, building a workman's home
with one room twenty-four feet long. This, I think from my experience,
is excessive, but assume that we have a piece of finished material compris
ing an interior partition, twenty-four feet long, substantially eight feet
high, and six inches thick. This finished member of the building will
weigh about one thousand pounds. It will probably have one door, per
haps two, through the partition. I have no doubt that our engineers
would be entirely competent to design the framing for such a partition,
64 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
and a finished surface over the frame, making it sufficiently rigid to meet
all requirements of transportation, handling by derrick, and fastening
together at top, bottom, and both ends, with other members likewise
fabricated. This partition member should be made entirely finished, in
cluding the door with its trim and hardware, electric-light wiring, heating
and ventilating ducts, and surface paint, using materials that are avail
able in large quantities at moderate prices in the current market. Assume
that such a partition, very much smaller than the wing of an airplane, is
completed, and we ship it in the same way as we ship a large table for a
club, or an airplane wing, and handle it with a derrick of the right size and
kind, erect it in its proper position on the floor already laid, and bolt it to
other units sufficiently to provide for all stresses. We then have a finished
interior partition standing on a floor.
Let us assume an outer wall built in a factory and handled in much the
same way, except that the exterior surface is treated with a waterproof
material, ready to receive its veneer of brick, stucco, stone, or wood. This
partition, with its windows already installed, will be finished with shutters
on the outside, hung on proper hardware and closed for protection of the
glass, shade and screen on the inside, and protected with a panel, used for
the protection of windows, marked "return to the factory." All windows,
as well as doors, will have weather strips.
To continue with our house. Somewhere, either in the cellar or on the
first floor, we must establish a heating unit. This, in my opinion, in the
future will be developed in a systematized, standardized, grouped unit,
suitable for the number of rooms to be heated, any one of which may be
heated to any temperature within the range required for comfortable
living conditions by simply pressing a button. I think, for the working-
man's home, we will burn oil in a proper heating apparatus, and heat
with warmed air recirculating and under control for each room.
And now let us dare to be' really radical. Let us build a bathroom, in
cluding its finished interior walls, its fixtures set in place, tested and so
designed that we can hang it up like a bird-cage on a hook. That is to
say, we would take a structure substantially like an elevator cage and
put bathroom fixtures in it, all piped and ready for three connections, a
soil pipe (three inches in diameter only, rather than the four inches we are
now using), a hot- water pipe, and a cold-water pipe. Let us set this bath
room on a prepared foundation which is part of the four partitions coming
together under or directly on a floor as the case may be. The bathroom
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 65
will have one outside wall ready to be finished like the other outside walls
—three inside walls or partitions, and usually one door.
Stairs are now very largely made in the shop. Closets, like so many
coffins, in the future will surely be made entirely finished. The second
story will be finished as the first.
Then comes the roof. I have no doubt that the house of the future will
have an insulated exterior wall and an insulated roof. I believe the roof
can be made in large-size members, properly designed and waterproofed
at a factory, these being transported by truck and erected by derrick.
Now our house is completed. But I want to make it clear that I elimi
nate from my program any standardization which spoils the art of the
structure. I want to emphasize the fact that I do not believe in the suc
cess of stereotyped houses for workmen. We have never standardized the
family. We must have a variable home as to size, number of rooms, and
a variety of other elements. I am entirely in sympathy with the archi
tect's desire to stamp his work with his personal touch, and I am firmly
committed to the handling of the program in such a way that he will be
given opportunity to stamp these homes with his masterful stroke of de
sign and add those details which will give charm to these simple, home-like
cottages. No two bridges are alike, but all bridges are fabricated. No two
elevators need be alike, but all elevators are fabricated. Increasingly,
fabrication is taking place in the building business. Eventually the small
individual house, and a great number of grouped cottages in the form of a
city village (like those which have been built in Bridgeport), will be
processed through the manufacturing plant, with striking similarity to
the development of the Ford car.
The engineer, who has proceeded by leaps and bounds in this industrial
age, bringing about again and again a better product at a cheaper price,
must play his part in this program, just as he has in the manufacture of
the automobile.
As a result of such fabrication, I am confident the price of these houses
will be reduced more than 35 per cent. When this is accomplished, it will
then be possible for low-paid wage earners to live in proper homes. Slum
conditions in the small city will then be eliminated. A proper home in the
suburbs of our metropolitan areas will be available and a mortal blow will
be struck at the slum tenements in the congested areas of large cities.
66 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
REDUCING COSTS BY STANDARDIZATION OF PARTS1
By ERNEST FLAGG
Architect
The standardization of all parts which go to make up the completed
house, so that the different kinds may be interchangeable among them
selves, is a very important element of economy in building
The standardization of parts is a very different thing from the stand
ardization of plans. By standardization of plans is here meant the use of
the same design for a number of houses. Standardization makes for speed,
convenience, and economy; but standardization of plans also produces
monotony. Except under certain conditions, referred to later, the dupli
cation of houses, which all look as if they came out of the same mold, is a
thing to be avoided. It seems to indicate either woful poverty of inven
tion on the part of the builder or a lack of interest in anything but the
commercial side of his undertaking. Houses made in that way have no
individuality and are reduced to the status of the manufactured article,
turned out by machinery. Many attempts have been made to standardize
houses and even to have molds in which they could be cast by the dozen
or hundred, as occasion might require; but it is hard to think that taste
can sink so low as to make that method popular. No matter how good the
design may be, the continued repetition of it is deadly. To build in that
way is like attempting to make a poem with but a single couplet. The
couplet might be good, but the continued repetition of it would hardly be
satisfying.
Standardization of the various parts which enter into the construction
of houses, on the other hand, is a different matter; to do that does not lead
to monotony, but to simplicity and repose. Just as one can make an in
definite variety of words by using the same twenty-six letters, so one can
make an indefinite variety of houses, using standardized parts. Doors,
windows, moldings, columns, beams, rafters, stairs, dressers, and all the
other things that enter into the composition may be of uniform sizes and
patterns, but combined in an indefinite variety of ways, and the same is
true of building methods and processes. If a number of houses are to be
built at the same time, it is much more economical and convenient to buy
the things needed, or make them, in large quantities and use them inter
changeably, than to make them up piecemeal after a variety of patterns.
And even if there is but a single house to build, a considerable saving may
be had by making similar parts uniform.
1 Adapted from Small Houses (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), p. 92.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 67
When parts are to be standardized, one can well afford to devote more
time and care to their design than otherwise; in that case it pays to take
great pains to eliminate waste which otherwise would be many times mul
tiplied. When the parts of a house have been properly standardized, every
feature will have been so designed and adjusted as to call for the use of
stock sizes of materials, without cutting or waste. The sashes, for in
stance, will be arranged to receive panes of glass of commerical sizes,
walls will be spaced to permit of the use of standard lengths of lumber,
and so on. To do this will result not only in saving materials but time
also, which, in these days of high wages, is quite as important.
The standardizing, if properly done, will be applied to every detail of
the building no matter how small, and on every one something should be
saved. All these little economies, which though they may seem trifling
when considered separately, will amount to a great deal in the aggregate.
Moreover, this careful study of the parts saves trouble in erection, and in
many ways expedites, simplifies, and improves the work.
OTHER OPINIONS ON REDUCING
THE COST OF HOUSES1
Most of the effort thus far made towards reducing the cost of houses
has taken the direction of seeking to reduce the cost of the shell of the
house — as distinguished from the things that go into the house.
While the cost of the shell, or the building itself, is still the major part
of the cost of a house, the other elements that enter into this total cost
are quite substantial ones. According to Henry Wright the cost of the
shell of the ordinary house may be taken as from 45 per cent to 60 per
cent of the total cost. Moreover, according to Ernest P. Goodrich, Presi
dent of the Research Institute for Economic Housing, the cost of the
house itself is but 50 per cent of the total cost of a home— the remaining
cost being distributed as follows, 10 per cent for the land, 25 per cent for
the municipal improvements such as sewers, water, grading, gas, elec
tricity, streets and pavements, and 15 per cent for the cost of financing.
Lewis Mumford, who always writes in interesting fashion, in an article
in the Architectural Record,2 a few months ago, discussing this question of
"Mass Production and the Modern House," points out that "the two new
' Adapted from "Should Building Costs Be Reduced?" and "High Cost the Chief
Obstacle in Home Ownership," Housing, December, 193°, published by National F
ing Association.
2 January and February, 1930.
68 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
spots where mass production would take the place of present methods,
namely, in the shell itself, and in the assemblage of the parts, offer only a
minor field for reductions." As he says: "To cut the cost of the shell in
half is to lower the cost of the house a bare 10 per cent." He rightly adds:
"A good part of the total cost of housing is represented by factors which,
like the cost of money or land, are outside the province of factory produc
tion; or, like the numberless constituent parts of the house, are already
cheapened by mass production."
On the economic side of the problem and the important factor that a
man who has not sufficient earning capacity cannot afford to buy the best
home to live in, any more than he can buy the best of anything else, Mr.
Mumford says:
Plainly, the architect cannot solve by any magical incantations the problem
of supplying new houses to families whose income is not sufficient to cover the
annual charges. There is no answer to that question except .... in the form of
higher wages or state subsidy; although a wilful blindness to this fact is almost
enough to establish a person as a housing authority in the United States.
Summing up the possibilities of mass production as a means of reduc
ing the cost of houses and bringing them within the purchasing power of
the lower income group, Mr. Mumford says:
The new houses might well be better than the present ones — they could
scarcely be worse. But if better, they would not be radically cheaper; and since
a new cost, a cost that is excessive in the motor industry, namely, competitive
salesmanship, would be introduced, the final results promise nothing for the
solution of our real housing problem — the housing of the lower half of our in
come group, particularly of our unskilled workers. The manufactured house no
more faces this problem than the semi-manufactured house that we know to-day.
May it not be that what makes the high cost of living today is the cost
of high living, as pointed out by the late James J. Hill some years ago.
More and more the people of this country are demanding luxurious ways
of living. It has been often said that the laborer in America to-day enjoys
luxuries and comforts that kings and princes did not know a few centuries
ago, and the emphasis seems to be increasingly in this direction.
How many people who are about to buy a home consider first the ques
tion of its sanitation? How many ask about its light and assure themselves
that every room is afforded an abundance not only of light but of sun
shine? How many assure themselves that that light and sunshine is a
permanent possession and cannot be shut off by some other building that
may be put on the next lot? How many home purchasers consider or con-
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 69
cern themselves with whether their homes have cross ventilation in every
room, thus assuring to them moving air— one of the most important ele
ments in maintaining a healthful atmosphere in their homes? How many
home purchasers or home builders know anything about or care anything
about the extent to which the home is soundly constructed?
The things that catch the eye, the things that other people are having,
the black-tiled bathroom, the electric refrigeration, the new types of
equipment in dining room and pantry and elsewhere— these are the things
that the average home buyer and home builder thinks about and on which
he — or rather she — places emphasis
A New York builder of large experience in the building field, G. Richard
Davis, recently called attention to this factor in the rising cost of con
struction.
Mr. Davis said recently:
The demands made by tenants have greatly increased. In the average apart
ment house, for instance, room sizes are constantly changing, with a very strong
demand for larger living and bedrooms and for smaller dining rooms and kitch
ens. Living conditions have been changed since the great war.
The kitchenette is a product of necessity. We are adapting ourselves to
smaller kitchens and compact equipment. The electric ice machine is now asked
for in even the most modest priced apartments. Garbage incineration, sound
proofing partitions and floors, radio outlets, lighting switches and base plugs,
laundry and storage facilities, open fireplaces, enclosed radiators, showers,
chromium plated bathroom fittings, brass pipe, two-pipe modulated heating
systems, are all additions to the requirements of the average tenants of today, as
compared to twenty years ago.
These additions, improvements and betterments have all added to the cost
of building construction, and when one estimates the increased cost of a building
today as compared with two -decades ago this must be taken into consideration.
That what goes into the building has much to do with its cost was strik
ingly illustrated by an article in one of the architectural journals a few
months ago. That article described two very charming and attractive
high class residences that had been built, one on Long Island, the other a
few miles away in Westchester County. The house plans were practically
the same, almost identical. The houses were equally attractive in appear
ance, both were by the same firm of architects. But the house on Long
Island cost only $40,000 to build, whereas the house in Westchester cost
$70,000, and they were built within a few months of each other.
The architect gives a detailed analysis in contrasting columns of the
70 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
reasons for this difference in cost, which he finds lay chiefly in the "ex
tras" that the owner of the house wanted in the latter case. The cubic
contents of the houses were approximately equal. Both houses were well
built, and yet by sacrificing personal preferences to more typical demands,
the one house was built for almost half the cost of the other.
That the average family in the United States could afford to purchase
its own home, if it did not feel that other things such as radio sets and
automobiles were more desirable, is evidenced by a recent survey made by
the National Industrial Conference Board, contrasting a pre-war budget
and the cost of living with a budget recently compiled by the U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics from a systematic investigation of 100 workingmen's
families in Detroit.
The average income among these 100 Detroit families, practically all
derived from factory earnings, was $1,711.87. Under the pre-war budget
this income would have been divided in the following percentages : Food
43.1 per cent, housing 17.7 per cent, clothing 13.2 per cent, fuel and light
5.6 per cent, and sundries 20.4 per cent.
The Bureau of Labor investigation shows the income now divided
according to these percentages; food 32.3 per cent in place of 43.1 before
the War, housing 22.6 as compared with 17.7 in the earlier year; clothing
12.2 as compared with 13.2, fuel and light 6 as compared with 5.6, and
sundries 26.9 as compared with 20.4.
The conclusion reached from this study by the National Industrial
Conference Board is that there is a steady advance in living standards as
indicated by the decreased proportionate income required for food and
the marked increase in sundry expenditures, and the material increase in
the cost of housing. They infer that the latter is due largely to the in
creasing demand for modern baths and bathtubs, which they infer cannot
be obtained without price.
That the realtors of the country are aroused to the menace to their
business in the high cost of home ownership was made evident in an ad
dress delivered in Chicago some months ago by Leonard P. Reaume,
President of the National Association of Real Estate Boards. After call
ing attention to the fact that the greatest single business in the country
is the real estate industry, and that its function is to provide housing for
persons, for business, for commerce and manufactory, and that directly
and indirectly it employs about J of the country's labor, and that 1 5 per
cent of the total national income is devoted to its activities in new con-
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 71
struction, replacement and repairs, Mr. Reaume proceeded to call atten
tion to the importance of stimulating home ownership, and of removing
the present obstacles to it.
To his mind, notwithstanding all the advances that have been made
in business technique and new processes, there has been a retrogression in
the market for homes for persons of small means. As he says, while other
industries through improved technique and economies in manufacturing
have constantly reduced the price of their commodity and at the same
time improved its quality — thus bringing it within the reach of the great
masses of buyers — in the real estate industry they have pursued the
opposite course.
He illustrated this by pointing out that during the last 15 years, when
the Ford automobile has been cut in two in price and at least doubled in
efficiency, the single-family dwelling has doubled in price without a cor
responding increase in comfort, durability or beauty, and adds that be
cause the cost of home ownership has doubled during the last 1 5 years it
has been placed out of the reach of the great majority of our population.
He wisely says: "The instinct for home ownership is strong. It needs
little or no encouragement. It needs only economic opportunity to func
tion."
Taking the oft-quoted figures that 84 per cent of the family incomes in
the United States aggregate $2,000 or less and the figures of a survey
made in his own city of Detroit not long ago which showed that the aver
age family earnings were approximately $1,800, Mr. Reaume points out
that a family which earns the latter amount cannot afford to pay more
than $500 a year for housing and have sufficient funds left for food,
clothes, education, insurance, savings, care of children, and the other
normal requirements of civilized life.
He finds that $500 a year is not sufficient to buy a home with civi
lized conveniences and modern facilities upon any terms that a person can
pay to-day, and that the utmost that such a family can afford in the way
of a home is one costing approximately $4,500. But workingmen's homes
are not to be had for that price to-day; in most cities they cost $7,000,
$8,000 to $9,000. As he points out, such homes require a monthly pay
ment of $70 to $80, thus demanding half the total earnings of £ of the
people of the United States.
Mr. Reaume outlines 4 possible approaches to the problem of reducing
the cost of home ownership in the United States. These are the following:
First, reduction in the price of home sites; second, reduction of the cost of
72 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
building; third, reduction of taxes; fourth, reduction in cost of financing
the purchaser.
Taking up the first of these, Mr. Reaume points out that the preparation
of home sites by customary subdivision methods is exceedingly costly
and wasteful, and urges that this whole process should be brought under
some form of intelligent control and adjusted to the actual necessities of
the community at the moment. While deprecating Government control
or regulation, he urges a system of voluntary control which will overcome
these difficulties. He also urges more efficient methods of using land.
He calls attention to the fact that most subdividers make too many
paved streets which are expensive to construct and to maintain, rightly
calling attention to the fact that the automobile age requires wider and
fewer thoroughfares with elimination of as many cross streets as possible.
He points out that the old gridiron or checkerboard plan which has been
rightly held up to scorn by city planners for many years is no longer ade
quate for conditions as they exist to-day, and says that we could close
half of the cross streets in most of our cities without particular loss in
traffic efficiency, and estimates that the saving in the cost of a lot would
probably be as much as 15 per cent.
The new methods employed at Radburn of long blocks with cul-de-sacs
and separation of foot traffic from wheel traffic, with few cross streets,
strongly commend themselves to him, not only because they make homes
more desirable, but because they reduce the amount of land necessary for
homes by a good proportion and also reduce the cost of street and other
installations.
The second avenue of approach to reducing the cost of homes Mr.
Reaume finds in reducing the cost of building.
He rightly emphasizes the antiquated methods that are still employed
in home construction, pointing out that building materials are still being
made to fit the size of a man's hand, and are transported to the site and
assembled in the course of two or three months by the most expensive
methods of hand labor that the world has ever seen, and rightly contrasts
what would happen if automobiles were constructed in similar fashion.
He strongly urges, in place of these antiquated methods, the methods of
modern industry, of factory fabrication and mass production, and says
the layman can see no reason why a bathroom, for instance, should not be
manufactured as a unit and put into its place complete. He does not see
why wall sections cannot be developed which are complete both as to
exterior and interior, and insulation which could be fitted into place.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 73
To the old cry that standardization in the manufacture of houses will
result in monotonous dwellings, he very rightly calls attention to the fact
that we have monotonous and standardized homes at the present time,
and says that the great masses of homes in most American cities areas like
as two cracker boxes, and poorly built at that. Mr. Reaume sees no
reason, however, for assuming that fabrication processes applied to dwell
ings need necessarily result in monotony, pointing out that the automobile
industry probably makes more extensive use of mass production methods
than any other commodity, yet it is possible for the buyer to choose be
tween some 600 or 700 different models made by approximately 50 differ
ent companies — which he finds a wide enough range of choice for the taste
of any man. The same, to his mind, would be true of fabricated dwellings
produced for the masses. He urges that the whole construction industry
should study this problem.
A third direction in which Mr. Reaume sees possibilities of removing
present obstacles to home ownership is in the reduction of taxes — local,
state and federal. After pointing out that in the average city considerably
less than 20 per cent of the money expended by the local government and
taken from taxpayers may be said to benefit real estate, he asks the ques
tion why 80 to 90 per cent of the cost of local government should be
saddled on the man who elects to own his home.
A fourth means of removing the obstacles to home ownership Mr.
Reaume finds in reducing the cost of financing the purchaser. He says
if the financing costs of the home buyers are high it is due in large part to
some of the high costs, waste and risks which have been previously indi
cated, and wisely points out that the financing of homes cannot be made
cheap until many of the elements of risk and divided responsibility in the
building and selling of homes that now exist are removed, and finds cer
tain handicaps now existing in the laws of various states with respect to
junior financing whose removal might be helpful. The usury law of many
states makes second-mortgage business as he says virtually a bootleg
business. Other elements in the financing costs are recognized.
Mr. Reaume concludes his discussion of this subject with a plea to all
those who are interested in encouraging home ownership to consult to
gether to see if by some step the present obstacles to that desired end
can be removed, pointing out that we must not lose sight of the fact that
the home, in which we are all interested, is itself too costly at the present
time for 80 per cent of the American people to buy.
74 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
FIFTY WAYS TO LOWER HOME-BUILDING COSTS1
BY ROBERT T. JONES
Technical Director, Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc.
There are only two ways to erect your home at less expense. The first
is to get a contractor who will agree to build your home as you want it,
without reducing qualities, at a lower price. The second is to reduce your
requirements, to take less than you want, both as to quality and quantity.
These are the only ways to reduce costs. Your home will cost more or less,
depending upon what sort of a bargain you can drive with the man who
builds it, and the qualities of materials you use and to what extent your
home is completed.
Probably the oldest way to get lower prices for what you want is to
bargain for them. In building this is done by taking bids. Contractors
compete with each other for the privilege and profit of building your
house. If good contractors are selected for this purpose, everyone of whom
is competent to build a good house, this method is a wise and fair one to
follow. Then the comparison of prices is drawn between like things and
it is safe to rely on the low bid. But competition between high grade con
tractors and cheap contractors often puts the former in a position of dis
advantage. They cannot compete with the low prices quoted by the cheap
contractors because they will not do the grade of work that satisfies the
cheap contractors. Since you also do not want that kind of work, esti
mates should not be taken from poor contractors. We do not propose
that you lower costs of building by substituting inferior qualities of work
manship or materials, for that would not be true economy.
All this is on the presumption that you will have one general contractor
in charge of the building of your house. We believe this is the most satis
factory method for small home builders. You make your contractor re
sponsible for turning over to you a completed building in acceptable con
dition. He not only provides for completing the actual building, but may
be made responsible also for the heating, plumbing, electric wiring, and
electric fixtures, though some money can be saved by sub-letting contracts
for these last items. If sub-contracts are given to separate contractors,
choose them with the same care that you would exercise in selecting the
general contractor.
Some builders have tried the expedient of eliminating the general con
tractor altogether and letting all the various parts of the work to sub-
1 Adapted from "Fifty Ways To Lower Building Costs," Small Home, January and
February, 1926.
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 75
contractors. By this method the owner becomes his own general contrac
tor. He must make the sub-contractors accountable to him. He must
synchronize the different parts of the work, get the various sub-contrac
tors on the job at the proper time, adjust differences, buy materials, pay
for mistakes he makes, spend an amazing amount of time on the job. This
is generally not a good method unless the home builder is unusually
familiar with the buying of materials and the direction of labor, and is
able to solve the many problems that arise in building. This scheme of
building eliminates with the general contractor all of his skill, judgment,
and experience, which are worth a great deal. When the owner assumes
these responsibilities he also assumes the liabilities that go with them.
Let us repeat that we do not think it wise to dispense with the general con
tractor unless the owner is widely experienced in building.
Suppose then you have taken bids, compared what the contractors
and sub-contractors have to offer, picked the best ones, quality and price
considered, and the money they require to build the house the way the
specifications and drawings call for it, giving you just what you want, is
$1,000 too high? What can be done? To the solution of this problem can
be applied the second method of reducing cost. You can eliminate certain
items. You can cut down the qualities.
The first essential to a program of reducing the contractor's bid is to
know what the drawings and specifications call for. Go over the drawings
with great care. Be sure you know what is required. Then eliminate
what you do not need— partitions in the basement or attic, porches, fire
place, excess millwork. Get down to the basic facts.
Then you must study the specifications. Almost every clause of this
document charges you with a liability to pay. For example, floors may be
of oak, pine, maple, or other materials. And if of oak, then which one of
the five different grades? With your architect or contractor to help you,
you must decide, and with your decision will go certain increases or reduc
tions in total expense.
You do not require warning not to attempt to save money at the cost
of sound methods of construction or to use materials of a quality too low
for durability. That would be fatal, and this story does not advocate such
a course. But there are things about the house that you can do without
for the time being at least. Certainly also for the sake of owning your
own home you can get along with some of the more democratic materials
and finishes— the middle grades— durable but not luxurious materials.
The foUowing list is comprised of suggestions for keeping down costs.
Please remember that the values we give are only approximate. You will
76 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
have to verify them in your local market, as they will vary in different
localities. The figures we give are presumed to be average and could ordi
narily be anticipated in building a small house of two stories of about 750
square feet ground area.
1. It is not necessary to partition fully the basement. If partitions are
omitted at the time your home is built you can put them in afterward
yourself. Only enough to enclose the fuel bin are really needed. You may
save from $50 to $150 in this way.
2. Game rooms are popular. They make an interesting use of base
ment space. But the cost is high if the room is furnished at all well. $300
to $400 would not go far in a room of this sort. You can save it.
3. The fireplace has been called the heart of the home. Nevertheless
a home will run pretty well without it. If you can bring yourself to omit
it, the lowered cost of labor and material may amount to $300 or $400 —
perhaps more.
4. Many wooden houses are improved by the appearance of a brick
base course. A stucco house must have some kind of masonry course at
grade, and brick is often used for this. If you use brick then select a quali
ty that is within your means. The higher the base course, the more it
will cost. You may save from $50 to $i 50 through careful study of this item.
5. One of the most effective and easy ways to save money is to omit
the porch. In certain climates this would mean a sacrifice of comfort, but
often the porch is not absolutely essential. In any event it may be added
at a later time. The cost ranges between $200 and $500 or more, depend
ing upon design and size.
6. Glazing a porch is expensive for it requires not only the extra win
dow sash but also the wood trim and its painting, and more expensive
flooring than is used on an open porch. The whole additional expense may
run as high as $500. You can have the porch glazed later when your funds
will permit you to do so.
7. Screening the porch is an extra expense. Full length screens for the
windows cost more than half screens. Metal screen frames cost more than
those of wood. The wire used in making the screen cloth is of steel, either
painted or galvanized, or of copper or bronze. Qualities and durability
vary with the cost. Buy the grade of screen you can really afford.
8. The Building Code Committee of the United States Department of
Commerce has investigated foundations for small homes and has found it
generally true that a well-built nine-inch foundation wall of brick or con
crete is such an excellent device as to make the building of a thicker wall
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 77
unnecessary. You can decrease costs by using the thinner wall provided
it is soundly constructed. Thicker walls are required by some ordinances.
Peculiar soil conditions may make them necessary. But foundation walls
are often built unnecessarily thick.
9. The prices of brick, poured concrete, concrete blocks, or wall bear
ing tile for foundation work vary with the locality. Brick costs less than
concrete in some districts; concrete is less expensive in others; and so on.
Poured concrete and concrete blocks should be compared from the point
of view of price since conditions of the market and at the building site
may show that one of these materials has a real price advantage over the
other.
10. Most of our modern homes have full basements, yet it is fair to
inquire if this is always necessary. A full basement involves deeper
foundations and more excavating. A full basement is not an absolute
necessity. The saving involved in omitting it may amount to $600 or
$700 — often more. No matter how much basement you have, you may
put in the cement floors later if you cannot afford them now.
11. If the basement excavation is in clay, perhaps you can use the
excavation cut for one side of the concrete forms. There would be a saving
in doing so. Some building codes do not permit this. If the work is well
done, it is nevertheless quite satisfactory.
12. Tile is desirable for bathroom floors, but its greater usefulness does
not extend into wainscots and coves. Money spent for tile work must be
in keeping with your funds.
13. If you stucco the exterior of your home, be prepared to pay from
$150 to $250 more than for wood siding. If the stucco has an especially
modeled surface, expense is increased.
14. If you build of brick, the initial extra expense may run from $500
to $800 more than for the average wooden finished house. Remember,
however, that homes finished with exterior walls of masonry carry a better
fire insurance rate and there is a reduction in the cost of future painting.
Depreciation is lessened. Even though the initial cost of masonry walls
is more, the final cost is less. But you may not have the capital for a build
ing of this class.
15. Wooden shutters bear an important relation to fine appearance in
small homes. The improvement they add is out of all proportion to their
small cost. Even so, they are not essential to fine appearance and they
may be added later when you have more money. If the cost saved per
pair applied is $10, it is easy to see how $100 may be saved.
78 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
1 6. Almost all of the devices used to ornament the exterior of your
house carry with them an extra cost. When you add wrought iron railings
at the door or around the windows, there is an extra cost for the iron work
and also for placing it in position. The actual cost must necessarily de
pend upon how much of this is used. A wrought iron railing around the
door may readily cost more than $50.
17. Perhaps your inclinations are toward a bungalow, but your in
sistence on having all the rooms on one floor will almost certainly have
the effect of increasing expense. Two-story houses take less foundation
walls, less excavation, less roof.
1 8. The style of architecture of your house has an immediate bearing
on its cost. For with certain styles of architecture it is difficult to achieve
desired effects without going to added expense. If, to have a house at all,
it is necessary for you to cut down costs, then choose a simple type of
architecture. Rectangular houses generally cost less than those built from
plans of irregular shape.
19. Wide siding has a better appearance than narrow siding, but the
latter costs less. Various kinds of woods used for this purpose cost differ
ent sums. Ready stained shingles used for the side walls of frame houses
usually cost less than wide siding. Adjust this item to your pocketbook.
20. The initial cost of wood shingles for roofing is less than tile or slate,
although wood shingles are not as durable and they are less fire resisting.
Fire laws in some localities require that you use certain special types of
roofing materials. There are variations in prices and qualities for each
kind. High quality counts heavily, but do not attempt to buy variegated
tile with a wood shingle pocketbook. If you have wood shingles brush
coated, be prepared to pay from $25 to $50 more. If the shingles are
dipped the expense will be increased still more, but their durability will
be increased. It is better to omit such items as the porch, which can be
added at any time, and to spend the money saved on better materials
that count for permanent construction, including the roofing.
21. Fire stopping in frame walls is recommended by the National
Board of Fire Underwriters. It is designed to reduce losses by fire. In
stallation of fire stopping material involves an expense of from $75 to
$150. Whether or not you may omit it depends upon the location of your
building with respect to the fire limits and the extent of your home build
ing budget.
22. We are especially interested in good construction and earnestly
recommend that you insist upon it if you hope to make your dollars buy
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 79
full value. In this connection we think that all exterior wooden walls
should be insulated, wherever the house may be located, for insulation
performs a real service in fuel savings and in comfort. It is effective in
both hot and cold weather. You, therefore, cannot afford to omit insula
tion in regions of severe winters, but elsewhere it is relatively not so im
portant. An expense of from $75 to $350 is involved. Buy the type you
can afford.
23. Built-in fittings in the kitchen cost from $100 to $300, depending
upon their design, the finish, kind of wood used, and how extensively the
kitchen is fitted with them. It might be less expensive for you to do with
out built-in fittings, at least temporarily, substituting therefor the ready-
made devices of the kind. Unless the built-in fittings are extremely well
designed, the ready-made kitchen cabinets are preferable and they may
cost you less.
24. Extra built-in millwork such as bookcases, wardrobes, china
closets, costs heavily. They become real luxuries when means are limited.
The actual amount involved depends on how many of these conveniences
are used. And you can always buy them when you can afford them.
25. The graceful open stairway with its turned balusters and spiral
newel is a delight to the eye. It lends an appearance of quality to the
house. But stairs between partitions cost much less. A plaster parapet
at the side of the stair is less expensive than an open balustrade.
26. A built-in refrigerator with outside icing door and raised platform
is more expensive than a separate refrigerator not so advantageously
equipped. A refrigerator waste is also an extra expense. The type of
refrigerator must be selected with an eye to the limits of your purse. You
may save from $25 to $50 on this item.
27. To the mechanically inclined American the idea of an electric re
frigerator installed in the home is particularly intriguing. However, it is
not essential that this equipment, no matter how desirable, be installed at
first. It may be classed properly as one of the worth while devices you will
provide for your home when you have the money for it.
28. Perhaps you do not need to finish all the rooms just now. Omitting
the plaster, finish flooring, and wood trim in rooms not needed at first will
save something. It would be cheaper in the long run to have all the work
done at once, but your ready funds may not permit it.
29. When moldings, kitchen cabinets, doors, and sash are supplied from
"stock," they cost less than devices of this kind made to special designs.
If you are trying to keep down costs see what your contractor can get
8o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ready-made from his local lumber dealer's stock. "Special" millwork al
ways costs much more.
30. Hardwood floors cost more than those of soft wood. In every kind
of wood there are various grades with varying degrees of expense. For
example, as between the first and second grades of plain oak flooring, there
may be a difference of $50 or more in the cost of building your home. The
medium grades are durable, and if the millwork is well done, and you have
good workmanship with good painting, staining, and filling, appearances
will be fine.
31. The cost of wood trim varies as does the cost of flooring. Softwood
is less expensive than hardwood for interior finishing. Soft woods such as
fir and pine can be used to advantage and at a saving, especially if they
are painted. Some of the inexpensive woods, such as cypress or poplar,
stained or oiled, are beautiful. As between hardwood and soft-wood trim
for your home, there may be a difference of $50 to $100.
32. Before you have the woodwork finished, find out about the relative
expense of stain and varnish, painting, and enamel work. The finish of
stain and varnish costs less than paint. Paint costs less than enamel.
There may be a difference of $100 or more in the last two methods. If you
enamel only part of the house and paint or stain the remainder, your ex
pense will be decreased proportionally.
33. A bare plastered wall finished smooth is not a pleasing sight, espe
cially to the housewife who loves color and pattern. And yet here is a
part of your home making, that can be postponed. In the meantime if
walls settle a little and the plaster cracks, repairs can be made before
decorations are finally applied. The actual reduction in the total cost of
building is worth while, especially if you do not have the ready money.
34. The quality of glass used in your house will affect building costs
directly. Plate glass costs more than ordinary window glass. Mirrored
doors are an extravagance for anyone who must exercise strict economy.
French doors, however beautiful, cost money. Perhaps you can omit
them for the time being, especially from such openings as the one between
the hall and living room.
35. A clothes chute is certainly a convenience, but it could hardly be
called an absolute necessity. Properly built of metal and with self-closing
doors, it must cost $25.00 or more.
36. Like practically all the other materials that go into a house,
plumbing fixtures are manufactured in several materials — vitreous china,
solid porcelain, or iron coated with enamel. Each of these has its special
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 81
qualities, but the chinaware is more expensive than enameled iron. The
extra expense for chinaware is balanced by its advantages in the way of
appearance and ease of cleansing but the enameled iron is also durable
and costs less.
37. The simple leg tub has practically gone out of style, having been
displaced by the recess type, but the latter not only costs more in itself
but requires an extra expense in framing and plumbing. A recess tub may
cost as much as $50 more than a leg tub. In the different materials and
designs in which this fixture is offered there is a wide range of expense.
38. Lavatories cost more or less depending upon the size and style and
the material of which they are manufactured. Between a solid porcelain
lavatory and one in enameled iron there may be a difference of $50. The
substitution of an ordinary chain and plug waste device in place of the
"pop-up" waste may save $5.00.
39. There are a great many types of water-closets. They are obliged
to be made of vitreous chinaware. The simple ones are satisfactory if well
made. You can save $25 to $50 by selecting a simple and economical fix
ture of this kind.
40. The kitchen sink is usually made of enameled iron. Sinks with
aprons or with drainboards cast on are more expensive than those without
either or both of these. A wooden drainboard is less expensive than one
of enameled iron. Combination hot and cold-water faucets will cost from
$5 to $10 more than separate faucets.
41. In the laundry you may spend various sums for tubs depending on
what they are made of and their size and number.
42. Hot- water heaters present a fine opportunity for you to spend your
money or economize it, depending upon how easily you are satisfied.
Those types of hot-water heaters which operate so that there is always a
supply of hot 'water are certainly most convenient, but they cost more to
operate and the first cost of the equipment- is greater than for the type
which may be turned on from time to time as required. Costs vary with
the convenience afforded. Your plumber will demonstrate this for you.
43. There are several types of heating plants. All are satisfactory if
they are well designed and properly installed. Each one has special quali
ties which distinguish it from the others, and there are differences in costs
as well. Personal preferences are usually quite fixed in regard to the kind
of heating system that must be used, but you may not be able to buy the
particular kind of heating system you prefer. In order to have your house,
you must be prepared to take here, as elsewhere throughout the building,
82 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
what you can afford. We urge you not to buy a cheap heating device
whatever system you select.
44. A heat regulator should go into every home as a definite means of
maintaining even temperatures and of decreasing costs of fuel, but one
of these regulators costs from $50 to $150, and so may be outside of your
immediately available funds. You may have your house wired for this
and install it later on.
45. Since low radiators can be placed under windows they are in the
best position to overcome heat losses that take place through the win
dows. In this position they also leave wall space for furniture. These are
advantages the high type radiators do not have, but the high type costs
less. You are the one who must decide and who must pay the bills.
46. The equipment of the radiators is another item of variable expense.
For example, the valves may be of the ordinary kind, or they may be
"leakproof," which cost more, or you may have the "indicator" type.
Compare costs on this equipment. Take what you can afford.
47. Heating pipes should be insulated. The better they are insulated
the more satisfactory the heating, plant will work — the lower its cost of
operation — but the quality and expense of this insulation has a direct
influence on the initial cost of your home. Get a good job here even if you
have to wait for it.
48. Hardware represents an opportunity for you to exercise economy.
There is a wide difference between the appearance of an ordinary pressed
steel doorknob and one made of cast bronze in the form of a lever handle.
You must decide whether you will spend $100 for hardware, or $200.
49. Electric fixtures, like hardware, do not ordinarily represent a very
large percentage of the total building cost. Yet there is a difference in
quality and in design and finish, with which go differences in cost. Cast
brass fixtures must necessarily cost more than those spun from thin sheets
of this metal. There will be -a saving here if you are careful. Tastefully
designed fixtures may be obtained without excessive cost.
50. The cost of wiring your home will be affected directly by the num
ber of outlets for lighting fixtures and switches that are supplied. The
convenience afforded by numerous outlets should be recognized and yet
it is wholly possible to install more than is really necessary. The cost is
fixed by the rate per outlet. It will be seen that the omission of even two
or three at $4.00 per outlet would mean something.
The above are some practical ways to assist you in reducing the cost
of your home. If you will go over each one, preferably with a competent
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 83
local architect to help you, to see how you can make it apply to your build
ing, and then if you will learn from your contractor the amount of money
saved by each one, you will see just what the total sum saved amounts to.
Your savings may easily amount to as much as $1,000. Be sure to cut out
the nonessentials first, things that can be replaced later on. But never
reduce qualities or workmanship to a point where durability is threatened.
OMITTING THE CELLAR TO CUT BUILDING COSTS1
The millions of dollars invested in the cellars under American homes
have been described as "buried treasure." It has been estimated that over
two billion dollars have been spent in cellar construction. This means for
houses already built. And the busy estimators have figured it out that at
the present rate of home building there will be invested annually in new
homes over three hundred million dollars for cellars alone.
The first cellars in American homes were provided in districts where
rigorous winter weather demanded insulation of the first floor against the
penetrating of cold air. The most feasible method was realized to be the
provisions of at least a shallow air space beneath this floor and, as excava
tion was also necessary for foundations, it soon became customary to pro
vide full cellars which were also found useful for storage and partial re
frigeration purposes.
The advent of central heating plants, including hot air, steam, and hot
water systems, all- coal burning types, was the next step in the establish
ment of the cellar as a fixed habit in home planning. For the heating plant
was located there with the fuel supply.
During recent years the high cost of building materials and labor has
forced home builders as well as investment builders to consider ways and
means of reducing the cost of building. Rooms have grown smaller, ceiling
heights have been lowered, hallways cut down, beds and furniture built
in the walls and even the dining room is now being classed as an unneces
sary room.
A recent development in small house construction, along this line of
greater economy, has brought to light a big opportunity for saving— that
is the elimination of the basement, and the placing of a central heater
on the first floor of the house. According to some of the country's leading
architects, this represents a saving of at least 15 per cent of the total cost
of a small house. Until a few years ago, the builder of a small home was
forced either to build a basement to house his heating plant, or else to
1 In Small Home, November, 1925.
84 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
heat his home with stoves and fireplaces. Several of the leading heating
plant manufacturers have made a scientific study of ground floor central
heating plants, and there are now various forms of such heaters on the
market which heat five or six rooms very comfortably.
It will not do at all to build a cellar! ess house without taking into
consideration matters of ventilating the space underneath and removing
the top soil and following out other principles of sound building. While
the cellarless house is not a new idea in any sense of the word a good deal
of attention is nowadays being given to this type of home, because of the
fact that it offers one way of reducing the cost of a small home.
SUMMARY
THE COST OF THE HOUSE
High costs of houses and difficulties in financing handicap home owner
ship. With costs as they now are, a family of a low-income group must
necessarily live in the cast-off house of a family with more money, and the
problem of housing becomes one of keeping the standard high for every
new house that is erected. Since the cost of a particular house varies con
siderably in the different sections of the country, little information has
been gathered on actual costs. The United States Department of Labor
has collected information on dwelling costs for a number of cities. These
cost figures compiled by the Bureau show decrease and increase in costs
over a period of years. Some information also is available on the cost of
each class of work necessary in building a home, cost per cubic foot,
and costs of building materials.
METHODS OF REDUCING COSTS
Many suggestions have been made for reducing the cost of houses.
Most methods, however, have not been sufficiently tried out to determine
their importance as factors for reducing costs. The best known of these
methods are the following: Mass production; standardization of building
materials; more factory-made parts; use of new building materials and
better use of old ones; elimination of waste in construction processes and
materials; less expensive improvements; cheaper financing; reducing the
cost of advertising in selling building materials and equipment; better
processes in construction; year-round building — overcoming irregularity
of employment; reducing the speculative element in cost of land; uni
formity in building codes and elimination of certain features in the indi-
THE COST OF THE HOUSE 85
vidual house, such as cellars, basement partitions, fireplaces, etc. Al
though the opinions of housing specialists differ as to the amount of cost
reduction by these suggestions and methods, processes and changes that
will net even a slight reduction are worthy of consideration.
The United States Department of Commerce through its elimination
of waste program has reduced the number of varieties of building materi
als, which has been a factor in cost reduction. By the use of the require
ments drawn up by the Building Code Committee waste also may be elim
inated. Some of the wastes occurring in the building industry are due
to management and to labor. The reduction of housing costs may also
be brought about through the enlargement of credit facilities and through
the elimination of the speculative element in cost of land.
REFERENCES
ARCHITECTS' SMALL HOUSE SERVICE BUREAU, INC. Small Home, V (August,
1925), 24-25.
Contains design and plan of six-room cellarless house.
ARONOVICI, CAROL. Housing and the Housing Problem. Chicago A. C. McClurg
& Co., 1920.
Land values (pp. 56-73).
ATTERBURY, GROSVENOR. The Economic Production of Workingmen's Homes.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1930. Pp. 39.
Report of the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs.
CHURCHILL, ALLEN L., and WICKENDEN, LEONARD. The House-Owner's Book.
New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1928.
GOODRICH, ERNEST P. "Methods of Reducing the Cost of Housing," National
Association of Real Estate Boards: Annals of Real Estate Practice, 1930. Chi
cago: The Association, 1930. Pp. 469-79.
GREGORY, JULIUS. "The Costs of Building a House," American Home, III
(March, 1930), 567, 602-6.
GRIES, JOHN M., and CURRAN, THOMAS M. Present Home Financing Methods.
U.S. Bureau of Standards, B.H. 12. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1928. Pp. 23.
GRIES, JOHN M., and TAYLOR, JAMES S. How To Own Your Home. Pub. No. 7,
February, 1931. Washington: Better Homes in America, 1929. Pp.32.
HAM, W. H. "Standardized Construction of Dwellings," Regional Survey of
New York and Its Environs, Vol. VI: Buildings, Their Uses and the Spaces
about Them. New York: Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1931.
Pp. 348-49.
86 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
JONES, ROBERT TAYLOR. Fifty Ways To Lower Home Building Costs. Minne
apolis: Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc., 1926. Pp. 13.
LAIST, THEODORE F. Building Material and Construction Costs. Chicago:
American Contractor, 1929. Pp. 94.
MUMFORD, LEWIS. "Mass-Production and the Modern House," Architectural
Record, LXVII (January-February, 1930), 13-20, 110-16.
NATIONAL HOUSING ASSOCIATION. Housing Problems in America. Proceedings
of the Ninth National Conference on Housing, Philadelphia, December 5-7,
1923. New York: The Association, 1924.
Addresses on various methods of reducing building costs including standardization,
unnecessary building-law requirements, irregularity of employment, and other sub
jects (pp. 30-106).
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. Building Permits in the Principal Cities of
the United States in 1929. Bull. 524. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1930. Pp. 109.
"Preventable Causes of Expense in Housing," Monthly Labor Review,
XVIII (February, 1924), 388-91.
Discussion of National Housing Conference papers (1923)
"Union Scales of Wages and Hours of Labor, 1913-1930," Monthly
Labor Review, XXXI (September, 1930), 690-713.
(DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE). Survey of Current Business (monthly
publication).
Indexes of construction costs — frame and brick houses.
WOOD, ARTHUR EVANS. Community Problems. New York: Century Co., 1928.
Second-mortgage rates, uniformity of building codes, speculative element in costs
of land, and other causes for high costs (pp. 122-28).
WRIGHT, HENRY. "The Road to Good Houses," Survey, LIV (May i, 1925),
165-68, 189.
CHAPTER III
THE HOME SITE
i. Selecting the Home Site
PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING
THE HOME SITE1
BY JOHN M. CRIES
Executive Secretary of the President's Conference
on Home Building and Home Ownership
AND
JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief of the Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
Basis for the choice. — One thing that a man should never forget when he
is buying a home is that the home will be the center of his family life prob
ably for many years. His children will be brought up in it and amidst its
surroundings. In it his wife must do most of her work, and in it both he
and his wife will spend most of their leisure time. He should, therefore,
look at the different properties available and see how they measure up by
these common-sense, practical standards. It is well for the family to pic
ture itself going through its daily routine in the new house — cooking,
cleaning, going to work, school, play, etc., at all seasons.
The mere fact that a showy mantelpiece is displayed, that a 4-inch
steel I-beam supports the floor, that a radio set has been installed, or that
several French plate glass mirrors are built in doors should not determine
the buyer's choice or induce him to pay an additional $500 for the
property.
List of considerations. — In making sure that he is acquiring a satisfac
tory home, a buyer, whether he realizes it or not, usually takes into
account most of the factors given below. Several of them do not apply in
the case of purchases in towns and cities of moderate size.
Before buying, one should consider:
1 From How To Own Your Home (Washington: Better Homes in America, 1929), pp.
14-18.
87
88 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
A. General location.
1. Low or high land values.
2. Transportation facilities: (a) To place of work and (&) to shopping
centers.
3. Protection offered to homes: (a) Private restrictions, (b) zoning ordi
nances and city planning, and (c) fire and police protection.
B. Specific location of the lot.
1. Character of the neighborhood.
2. Location with reference to schools and playgrounds for the children.
3. Desirable points for the lot: (a) Shade trees, shrubs, and planting; (b)
set of house with reference to sunlight and prevailing winds; and (c)
character of the soil and necessity for grading, filling, or draining.
C. Other safeguards in buying property.
1. Danger in buying a lot too long before building.
2. Extent of street and public utility improvements (paving, sidewalks/
water supply, sewerage, electricity, gas).
3. Possible assessments.
4. Proportion of lot value to total outlay.
5. Checking property values: (a) Land and (b} house.
6. Plan of house and quality of construction.
7. Steps taken in buying.
8. Examination of title.
General location. — Choosing the general location for a home is usually
a matter of compromise, but none the less important. A little forethought
may show the futility of searching for property in certain sections, or per
haps limit the choice to a given district, which will permit better use of the
time spent looking for the right lot.
Low or high land values: In larger cities one must decide between a
small lot in a more convenient and accessible location, where land values
are higher, or a larger lot farther away from the center, where land is not
so expensive. This problem is often closely bound up with that of a single
detached house as compared with a double house, or a house in a row.
Detached houses on large lots are preferable, but on narrow lots they fre
quently have middle rooms that depend for light and air on side yards
only 3 or 5 feet wide and may not be so desirable as good row or semi
detached houses.
A site with a yard, especially where grass can be grown, is particularly
desirable for families with children, and a space for a vegetable garden is
also one of the advantages that may go with a good-sized lot.
Transportation facilities: The general location of the home may depend
THE HOME SITE 89
largely on the part of the city in which the members of the family are
most likely to be employed. It should be either within walking distance
of the probable place of work or in reach of good transportation. The
mere promise that a trolley or bus line will be provided is not enough.
Ability to reach shopping centers is important for the housewife.
Protection for the home : If a city is zoned it is almost always safest to
buy in a residential district where there is safety from intrusion by
factories, public garages, and scattered stores.
If there is no zoning law, how about private restrictions? Are there
any restrictive clauses in the deed? In the deeds for all other houses in the
block? If even one or two lots near by are unrestricted, objectionable
buildings might be erected on them. Is there a requirement to build a
house of a certain minimum cost? Could that much be afforded? Are the
private restrictions such that a home will surely be protected? For what
period do the restrictions run? It often happens that the private restric
tions were made to run for, say, twenty-five years and they may be about
to expire, leaving the home unprotected. Verbal representations concern
ing other buildings in the neighborhood are of no binding force on their
owners.
The advantages of having a home within the jurisdiction of good fire
and police protection are obvious.
Specific location.— Within districts that meet the family's needs as to
general location, the task of choosing a site may be made easier if the
points that affect the price or desirability are kept in mind and can be
readily balanced against each other. Many people, for instance, object
to a street on which there is much noise from street cars, or on which there
is heavy truck traffic at night. Streets carrying through traffic are often
dangerous, especially to children.
Character of the neighborhood: While a family may think that it would
like to live close to relatives and friends, this factor should not be given
too much weight. Nevertheless, the general type of people living in the
neighborhood is important, especially if there are children in the family,
who should be brought up in the right kind of surroundings.
Schools, parks, and playgrounds: Where there are young children much
of the family's welfare and peace of mind may depend on being near, say,
within a half mile, of parks, playgrounds, and good schools. The oppor
tunity for wholesome outdoor play is the birthright that few care to see
their own children deprived of, and if playgrounds and schools are not
near by, additional cares and burdens are placed upon the mother.
90 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Desirable points for the lot: There is no denying the fact that most
people prefer a lot that is well set out with trees and shrubs and that can
be made neat and attractive. The set of the house with reference to pre
vailing winds and to the points of the compass may sometimes be a de
ciding factor.
Not only the size and shape of the lot but its location in the block de
serve attention. For instance, one side of a house may be made most un
pleasant if the kitchen or garage of a corner house next door is too close.
A corner lot has advantages, but it may be doubly assessed for street
improvements, and requires longer fences and sidewalks, which must be
cared for both in winter and summer.
In general, land that is well drained is best for residential purposes,
and a lot on firm, dry ground is better than one on marshy soil. House
foundations resting on filled-in soil almost invariably damage the house
by settling. The cost of foundations and cellar may vary greatly with the
character of the soil. Sometimes rock close to the surface makes a lot
more expensive to develop. Where grading or filling will be necessary, an
estimate of its cost should be obtained before the lot is bought and added
to the price asked for the land. Few people appreciate how much filling
may be necessary to bring a low lot up to the right level.
Buying a lot. — In many cases a family buys an improved lot and starts
building on it within a few weeks or months. This is vastly different, as
noted above, from buying several years in advance of building. While
there may be enough increase in land values, in the latter case, to give
some profit, a speculation is involved. The outgo for taxes is sure, and
there may be special assessments for street and other improvements,
which must all be added as part of the cost of the lot. There is also a
continual loss of interest on the money invested in the lot. Lots are fre
quently sold to innocent purchasers in a territory that will not be de
veloped for years. It is to be noted that some cities prohibit building
where sewers have not been installed. One should consider all the factors
mentioned in the preceding pages and obtain advice from some depend
able, reputable, local real estate dealer, not from some transient, or fly-by-
night promoter, who sells out to "suckers" and moves on.
How much to spend for the lot: The question of how much to spend for
the lot itself depends largely on whether or not it is "improved." Where
streets, curbing, sidewalks, water, electric, gas, and sewerage improve
ments have not been made, a lot may sometimes be obtained for less than
5 per cent of the total cost of the house and lot, and 10 per cent should
THE HOME SITE 91
probably be the upper limit. If all improvements have been made, the
cost of the lot frequently runs up to 20 per cent, but it should rarely ex
ceed 25 per cent. "Front-foot" values, as shown by recent genuine sales,
and assessed valuations may serve to check values.
The less expensive the lot the more money is left for the house itself,
and a well-constructed home on a cheap lot is far more desirable than an
unsatisfactory house on an expensive lot. Although a house that is very
much more expensive than its neighbors might be hard to sell at a good
price, a very cheap house may add nothing at all to the sale value of an
expensive lot.
Checking property values. — A fair appraisal of the house and lot should
be obtained from a disinterested third person. The intelligent man usu
ally wants a better guide than the price asked by the seller, who may either
consciously or unconsciously ask too much. The value of the house and
lot, or the lot alone, is determined largely by its desirability for a home.
The general and specific location, and the public improvements available
all have their influence. Their value can best be estimated by an expert.
An appraisal of the property by a building and loan association is gen
erally safe. Sometimes financial institutions will loan approximately 60
per cent of the value of the property. If they will not loan more than 40
per cent of the price asked, it may be assumed that the price is too high.
The judgment of dependable real estate dealers is always worth while.
Making the purchase.— Customs vary in different localities as to the
method of arranging a mortgage and completing the purchase of a piece
of property. In many places it is common to have a purchase offer or a
sales contract signed in advance of the actual transfer of the property.
In the purchase offer the buyer agrees to pay the holder a certain sum for
the property, provided certain conditions are complied with. When this
offer is accepted by the owner it can be used as a basis for arranging loans
with which to complete the transaction.
If the intended buyer makes a cash deposit with his offer it is particu
larly important that he should specify in it whether movable property,
such as window shades, gas fixtures, stoves, and other items are included,
and should state that risk from fire or elements is assumed by the owner
until the title passes. The offer should also be dependent on whether the
buyer obtains a satisfactory loan to get the money needed to pay for the
property, and on the owner's furnishing papers showing a good marketable
title, free from back taxes, liens, encumbrances, or objectionable ease
ments. It is important for a buyer not to bind himself until he is sure ex-
92 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
actly what he is to pay for and has made definite financing arrangements.
Otherwise he may suffer severe loss. The services of a good lawyer at the
time the purchase offer is made may be advisable.
Examination of title : One must be certain that the title to a piece of
property is good. The validity of a title may be insured by a guarantee
company, or its soundness assured by an abstract company or a competent
lawyer. In obtaining a loan a bank will insist on some such evidence that
the title is good. Some banks and building and loan associations include
a title search in the transaction. The buyer should satisfy himself that
the boundaries and corners of the lot are legally as represented to him.
In connection with the title it is well to note whether there are any
easements which might, for instance, grant a right of way to a Neighbor,
or allow a telephone company to place its poles upon or near the lot, or a
water company the right to run its mains across the property.
Sometimes the title to the house is taken out in the name of both
husband and wife.
THIRTY THINGS TO BUY BESIDES "FRONTAGE"1
If you want to' base your home-building project "on solid ground,"
literally as well as figuratively, you should "look beneath the surface" of
the real estate deal — figuratively as well as literally!
A home is more than just a house. By the same token, a proper home
site is more than just so much dirt. It may or may not have the qualities
that make it desirable as a permanent location for a dwelling, and profit
able as an investment in real property.
So here is a list of thirty items by which to judge whether the lot you
are thinking of buying is mere real estate or a good home site :
1. Buy the knowledge of a dependable real estate expert; that is,
patronize a dealer of high standing in the community.
2. Buy an appraisal. Consult a second disinterested real estate man
or a professional appraiser and pay him his relatively small fee for making
an analysis of the value of the property before you purchase it.
3. -Buy an absolutely clear title. You may require the seller to establish
his title to the property before you buy it, or you may employ a lawyer or
a title guarantee company to search the title for you. This is vitally im
portant and is worth the expense.
1 In Small Home (Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc.), January, 1927.
THE HOME SITE , 93
4. Buy exact boundaries. Don't take the seller's word as to property
lines, but see that they are accurately established at the time when the
title is searched.
5. Buy sunlight, not smoke and dust. If you are going to the trouble
of acquiring your own permanent home, you might just as well have it in
a location that is sure to be healthy for your children.
6. Buy exposure to the winds that prevail in summer. When looking
over the lot, keep in mind the house you intend to place on it and try to
see whether or not it will be comfortable.
7. Buy enough land. The minimum should be from 40 to 60 feet of
frontage. Old-style 25 and 28 and 3o-foot lots in crowded districts are
poor investments. The wider your lot, the greater your chances for a
price increase.
8. Buy solid earth. In filled-in tracts, or "made" land, there always is
a danger of poor drainage or a chance that the house will settle. Either
settling or bad drainage will damage the structure.
9. Buy high land. This is necessary if drainage is to be satisfactory.
A low lying lot may mean a waterproofing problem.
10. Buy level land. Filling a lot to bring it up to the desired level is
almost as costly as excavating.
11. Buy land of good shape. A lot of irregular outline may prove diffi
cult to sell.
12. Buy good soil. Remember that excavating in rock may prove
more expensive than you wish to undertake, that quicksand or other de
fects of the soil may result in damage to your house, but that under-sur-
f ace sand or gravel may be an advantage if it is of such quality that it can
be used for the mortar, plaster or stucco.
13. Buy land fully developed or already under development. It is
safer, though more expensive, than acreage which may be developed in
the distant future.
14. Buy water and gas mains, graded and paved streets, sewers, walks
and curbs already installed, or else add the estimated cost of taxes for
these improvements to the price of your lot. Property with all these
utilities in and fully paid for should not cost you more than 30 per cent
of the total investment you plan to make, though 20 per cent would be a
much safer figure. Land without these improvements should not cost
more than 10 per cent of the total.
15. Buy moderate taxation. If you have any choice as to the state,
94 » THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
county or city in which you intend to build your home, acquaint yourself
fully with the taxing policy of the authorities and estimate what the taxes
will add to the cost of maintaining your dwelling.
1 6. Buy good transportation to your work, church, schools and shop
ping centers. Measure the distance, not in miles, but in time it takes to
get there. The ideal home lot is three or four blocks from transportation
lines and stations.
17. Buy good collateral on a building loan; that is, choose a lot on
which a bank or building and loan association will advance you at least
50 or 60 per cent of its value. If they won't lend you more than 40 per
cent you may question whether or not you are paying too much.
1 8. Buy fire and police protection. See that your neighborhood is well
served by these city departments.
19. Buy partnership in the community. "Restricted residential dis
tricts" may serve as protection against persons with whom your family
won't care to associate, provided the restrictions are enforced and are
not merely temporary.
20. Buy the right to build according to your own standard of living.
The building restrictions may call for a more expensive house than you
can afford to build and maintain.
21. Buy a well-balanced investment. That is, don't put much more or
much less than one-fifth or one-fourth of your total funds into the lot.
The construction should cost you three or four times the purchase price
of the land.
22. Buy a sound investment, so far as you and your appraiser can
judge future values. Population and transportation are the two chief
elements in increasing home-site values. Be sure your property is in the
line of residential, not industrial or commercial, growth of the city.
23. Buy freedom from easements; investigate thoroughly to find out
whether or not any one has any right to lay pipes or erect poles or make
a right-of-way on your lot.
24. Buy good location within the block. Remember that a corner lot
may be double-assessed for streets and sidewalks and that it will require
longer fences. See that your lot is such that your neighbor's kitchen or
garage won't be a nuisance.
25. Buy a real share of parks, playgrounds and schools. An ideal loca
tion is about half a mile from these.
26. Buy freedom from traffic dangers and noises. A through street
THE HOME SITE 95
may prove a menace to your children and to the daily comfort and the
nightly slumber of the whole family.
27. Buy a chance at future favorable development. Examine the
chances of public utilities, parks or boulevards being brought closer to
your property in the future — and then be sure that such developments
would be to the advantage and not to the detriment of the property.
28. Buy "a sure thing." If at all possible, it would be well for you to
rent and live in a neighborhood for a year before undertaking to buy and
build there.
29. Buy beauty. Too many trees are better than too few; natural ob
jects of beauty will save you the cost of development and -will help you
dispose of the property advantageously when the time comes.
30. Buy a home, not a speculation. You would accept many things in
buying just to make money which you wouldn't consider if you were buy
ing for permanence. Set your ideal high — you probably will have to mod
ify it, but it's safer to modify a high ideal than a low one.
Of course, a home lot possessing all these thirty advantages may be
more than an ideal — it may be a physical as well as a financial impossi
bility in your town. But these are the things you should have in mind be
fore you buy. Don't let any one "talk you out of them."
2. Selecting the House for the Building Site and
Its Proper Placement
THE BUILDING SITE DICTATES THE
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE1
BY H. E. WICKERS
Professor of Architecture, Kansas State Agricultural College
The happy combinations of house and site, examples of which we all
can recall, are very seldom just "happen so's." They are the result of
someone's careful analysis and study. The designer received an inspira
tion that has gloriously materialized. He studied his plot, knowing that
all other elements were subject to it and could, within certain limits,
assume many positions or shapes. Thus, with the plot as his definite be
ginning, he based his whole design upon it. And rightly! One must start
with something. What can be more definite than the plot of ground upon
which the structure will stand? Further, it is individual in every case. It
is rarely a misfit and is expensive to radically change.
' Adapted from "Fitting a House to Its Site," American Architect, May 5, 1928.
96 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
So economics, too, arrays itself on the side of the man who says, "I'll
leave the plot alone as much as possible." The alteration of levels is ex
pensive. When one tears down the existing site and builds a new one to
fit a preconceived design for the house, he is confronted with the problem
of making the new site harmonize with the neighborhood. This is not al
ways an easy task. Further, it is costly, and, unless there is some defect
in the site as it exists, it is not advisable, however often demanded.
Even in this day a very large per cent of our house sites are forced to
receive preconceived ideas of plan and form, ideas that were decided upon
before the site was purchased. That this practice is harmful needs no jury
decision.
The problem of fitting the house to site, like most other "problems,"
tends to solve itself, if we can bring our thought to bear upon it free of
unbiased opinion and thus study and analyze it. By such careful study
we recognize the various elements that tend to push the lines of the design
this way or that; we learn to be swayed and guided by those existing ele
ments and let the building grow into the plot, shaped by them. This is,
after all, much the same process that the tree undergoes during its growth.
The trees of a western Kansas prairie are few; those that grow are low.
They stay close to the ground. There are many natural reasons why this
is so. Wouldn't it be wise to listen to the argument of the trees in this
case? Its logic is forceful, there must be something back of it. Suppose
we change to another climate where the trees grow tall and broad. The
forces of Nature, judging by the tree growth, will not destroy that which
stands up from the ground. It may be well to make use of this hint in any
house we build in such a location.
We find a tree on a hillside. In the example in mind, it is broad and
fairly tall. Its neighbor is tall and thin. The ground contour at their feet,
however, is similar. Their roots on the lower side are partially exposed
and in both cases these roots hold together a sort of terrace that is fairly
level on top. Clearly the tree has adapted itself to the environment and
judging by the appearance it would take much to move it. This should
hold a suggestion to be considered in connection with other elements that
present themselves in a hillside problem. Observation will present much
information in regard to any plot encountered that will not only be inter
esting but very helpful.
Simple intelligence can and will solve the problems of site. But in
telligence cannot operate without that which it operates on; namely, the
numerous facts about any given problem.
THE HOME SITE 97
The above does not mean that there is one and only one solution to any
site problem. There are usually several, any of which, if properly worked
out, may be excellent. The' possibilities of variety in houses and in sites
is unlimited and makes for a happy condition. It forces many of us to
think, whether we will or no.
There is no known law by which one may solve all site problems. A site
may belong to a type, but to say that a hillside house is thus and so is
wholly impossible, because hills have a happy characteristic of varying in
pitch; they may be wooded or bare, rough or smooth, with no two alike
in every respect. We may classify any plot to a general type and gain
thereby, but after that we must look to these individualities and peculi
arities for any special character that we may wish to give the house.
Probably the profile of a house for any given location is the most im
portant single factor because, after careful study, it .will be seen that the
other elements, such as materials, fenestration and plan, may be changed
to a marked degree and not materially derange the effect of a harmonious
profile. To be sure, the proper and pleasing arrangement of materials,
plan and fenestration add much to the house and cannot by any means be
forgotten. Yet it is possible to have all these in a well-built house, and
because the profile is wrong, the house will be a total misfit for a particular
site.
As previously stated, it may be possible to reduce any plot of ground
to the same general classification of many others, but each problem has,
nevertheless, some peculiarity which, if recognized, will lift a design at
once -out of the ordinary. It is in this manner that careful observation
contributes to the house by giving it and its site a feeling of unity and
individuality.
It is well to remember, when trying to fit peculiar situations, that cer
tain types of houses have already been developed to conform to the gen
eral characteristics of many different environments. There are types for
the heavy foliage background with irregular outline and plan. There are
prairie types with strong horizontal lines. There are hillside types which
recall the lines of the site and at the same time appear to be firmly rooted
into position. There are hilltop types with irregular skyline where the
house becomes a fitting climax for the site. There are orchard background
types where the ground may or may not be sloping. If the designer will
recognize to which of these classifications the site in question belongs, he
has limited it to a certain species. This will help materially in shaping the
lesser details in such a manner as to bring about the "house individual."
98 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
In any example of the heavy foliage background, the skyline will be
irregular in outline. The contour of the ground may be steeply sloping or
vary in degree to that which is practically flat. Perhaps the sharp irregu
larities of the plot itself will call for sudden steep slopes or a drop in the
roof level. In any given case, the profile of the building should recall in
some manner the profile of the background, accentuating it, possibly con
trasting with it, but nevertheless bringing about harmony.
There are many English houses that have been developed for sites
similar to those suggested. The Spanish, too, has been used in similar
locations. The Pennsylvania Dutch type of rambling Colonial work also
does well under such conditions when carefully shaped to the require
ments.
In the matter of materials, half timber is excellent, as are also stone,
brick and wood siding. Just how these should be used in each case should
be determined from the design in question.
If, from the above site, we should suddenly change our location to flat
prairie land, almost bare of trees with the horizon as a background,, we
have changed our environment radically. Here there is practically no
suggestion of the vertical. All is horizontal. The trees such as exist will
be short and most of them will have been carefully fostered by man.
From the far distance to the foreground will appear a series of low, slightly
curving, rolling lines, except in such instances where they have been
usurped by man.
It is not difficult to imagine a client desiring a house with strong verti
cal lines on such a plot. Neither is it difficult to see why such a combina
tion would ordinarily be out of place. If we bend our profile to the de
mands of the site, we must in some manner recall the background. Of
necessity, there will be some vertical lines if the house is of any size, but
these should be minimized as much as possible by the use of transitional
members in the form of garden walls, banks of shrubs and clipped gables.
In the matter of materials, half timber is seldom appropriate. Stone work
does well. Stucco is at its best in such surroundings, because it is plastic
and can be flowing in line. Wide siding accentuates the horizontal lines.
Steep roofs are rarely usable There are Spanish types that can be used
in such places very appropriately, as can also certain types of the English,
Colonial and French, the limiting feature in each case being the profile.
In trying to limit the hillside type to any particular outline, we are con
fronted by the great variety of hillsides, some of which have been sug
gested under the discussion of the heavy foliage background. The main
characteristics, however, are fairly definite. The line of hill, be it steep or
THE HOME SITE 99
gentle in slope, is definite. A house built upon it must not appear to be
restless. Battered walls help to obtain the desired effect. Shrubs properly
placed are fine. Proper terracing, however, is in the majority of instances
the most effective and is the method most often seen in Nature. The pro
file for the hillside will be influenced greatly by immediate surroundings.
On a wooded plot it might conform but little to the line of the hill, while
on a bare plot it would necessarily give much attention to it. Here, too,
the materials used would be determined by existing conditions. For the
wooded area, half timber used with shingles and siding would fit admi
rably, as would brick and stone. For the bare hillside, stone, brick and
FlG 5-_A successful hillside placement. This English style house is particularly
suited to its hillside location. (Courtesy of H. E. Wichers, Kansas State Agricultural
College.)
in some cases stucco could be made to look well. The material in every
case should be determined by the existing conditions and should, of course,
be secondary to profile.
The hilltop site presents still other problems together with suggestions
for their solution. Very little difficulty is encountered in making a house
in such a place appear solidly placed. Neither should the size of the house
bother greatly. The profile, again, is the thing. It is important because
a house in such a location is seen most often in outline.
Here, again, the degree of slope in the sides of the hill, the extent of the
area on top of the hill, together with the nature of the foliage, can and
will alter conditions in most every instance. It is possible to say that this
or that house is a hilltop type; but even ten or a dozen such designs would
not fit every new hilltop site. They might, however, help one to hit upo)
a scheme that will fit exceedingly well.
TOO THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The author has encountered still another distinct site type. Reducing
them to types does help to isolate characteristics. In the language of the
mathematician, it reduces the number of unknown factors, leaving, the
mind clear to solve for those that remain.
There is a very common type of site which is most often found in fairly
flat country. The ground may be gently sloping or flat; the trees are not
very high, perhaps about twenty or thirty feet. They have been planted.
They didn't just grow and are usually in rows or in regular order. The ho
rizon appears a long way off and may be disregarded. This site type is com
mon in our suburbs and farmsteads the country over. Such a site seems
made to order for our own Colonial architecture, especially the irregular
Pennsylvania Dutch Colonial and the squat and contented Dutch
Colonial. The Spanish, too, can be made to fit into such surroundings as
can the English, but these need careful adjustment, while the Colonial
types mentioned have already been acclimatized. The materials most often
seen are siding and stone, but stucco and brick, too, are not out of place.
Perhaps the latter type of site is the best understood of all house sites,
for in it we find the greatest number of really well-designed houses. Per
haps, too, almost any design, if not too vertical in line, can be made to
fit into such a background. Then, too, the Colonial is our heritage. We
build our Colonial house and then build the landscape to suit because in
the majority of instances we choose the level fertile site. So, building the
landscape means planting trees and shrubs and building fences.
The unusual site, however, is fast finding favor and needs careful study.
One cannot place Colonial houses on every site that exists, and in such
places we must remember that the lines Nature accentuated are "large
type" signs that it would be well to heed. For, by following Nature's
lead, we not only get valuable suggestions for the profile and mass, but
economic plan suggestions as well.
FITTING YOUR HOUSE TO ITS SITE'
BY J. DUNCAN HUNTER
Architect
To build the house is simple, to create the setting is from difficult to
impossible; and in all cases expensive and out of proportion to the cost of
the house. The natural setting should be preserved intact and the house
designed to fit. It is this lack of fitness which prevents the American com-
1 In Garden Magazine and Home Builder, April, 1925. No longer published; see
American Home.
THE HOME SITE 101
muhity from having the charm of the European village. In Europe, they
never think of the house without the setting or garden; while here in
America too often a house is a house and the garden a separate and dis
tinct thing, a fad for the wealthy. Gardens are expensive in America,
chiefly because we set up artificial standards in our domestic architecture.
We design houses that are entirely foreign to-their surroundings and then
we attempt to create a setting for them. In Europe they fit the house to
the setting and with very little gardening the effect is complete and
charming.
In America, we are prone to dwell upon minor details of the house with
but scant consideration for the scheme in general, its fitness to the setting
and to the community as a whole. We think in terms of the individual
house and parts of that house, whereas we should think in terms of the
vast open country or the complete village, that the parts may be properly
subordinated to the whole.
Often, and without real consideration, the owner decides he wants a
Colonial or some other type of house, perhaps he has seen an old Colonial
homestead set behind large trees on a large level plot with old outbuild
ings, fences and gardens, a real picture. Then he purchases a plot in a
community where hills, ravines, rock ledges and the great natural irregu
larities prevail, and can still picture nothing but the old Colonial home
stead as his home and insists upon that type. He feels that the lot is un
desirable and expensive to build on because of the natural ruggedness,
but "the neighborhood is good" is his excuse for buying it and because of
the irregularities the price was not high. He does not consider that the
natural setting determines the type and style of house more than any
other factor. He utterly fails to appreciate his diamond in the rough.
If the plot selected is one of those elevated above the street or with
ledge rock abounding, he immediately starts to work to level down the
plot for his Colonial house. He cuts down the trees, blasts out the rock
for his cellar, carts the material away and builds his home— very often
a white frame farmhouse. When the house is completed he starts work
on his garden. He removes all outcropping rocks, he fills in the ravines,
builds retaining walls to support the embankments, and makes a smooth
level lawn with a formal garden of old-fashioned flowers, sets out some
spindling saplings or some Christmas trees from a nursery and feels that
he has done something. He certainly has! To create a Colonial house
and a Colonial garden (so called) on such a rough plot meant much work
and expense.
102 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
But the result! Is it pleasing? It is not! It is flat, tame and uninter
esting. The commonplace effect of a level lot and smooth lawn. He has
destroyed the natural beauty of the plot, the irregular contour of the land.
The rugged beauty of outcropping rock is gone; and the priceless old
trees have been cut down as otherwise they would have been left elevated
on mounds that were too high or in ravines that were too low for the level
lawn. Further, even when the house and planting have acquired the
mellowness of age, the place does not fit in with the adjoining scenery and
no matter how well executed in itself, if it fails in this respect the result
can never be successful.
If, at the start, the Colonial type of house had been abandoned and an
irregular English cottage type selected, there would have been no ex
pensive grading and landscape construction work, the natural beauty of
the plot would have been taken advantage of without cost, the old trees
could have been saved and the finished result would have had a sense of
fitness that imparts the charm which no artificial circumstances can cre
ate.
Of course, the house would need to be properly designed, a rambling
irregular type that suits the natural site. And it should be constructed of
local and not foreign materials, so as to maintain a definite relation and
tie between the house and its setting.
An inspection trip through any of our suburban communities must
convince a careful observer that most of the houses are designed in the
haphazard manner, with little or no regard for their fitness to site and
community. We see Colonial frame farmhouses perched on top of rock
ledges which demand a "medieval castle" or a "lighthouse" type. We see a
"medieval castle" bristling with towers and pinnacles set on a broad level
plot of monotonous uniformity. We see houses built on the hillside with
deep cuts and fills to give a level plot for a Colonial house whereas an
irregular English type would have made a picture. We see plots that
once boasted rocky ravines below the street level and with fine old trees,
now as level as a parlor floor, and a nice white Colonial farmhouse with
center entrance built level with the street with no trees, no ravines, no
rocks — a bald, monotonous and commonplace affair.
With a plot of this type the ravines, rocks and trees should have been
left intact and a house of early English or medieval French type should
have been designed, with bridges thrown across the ravine from the street
level to a terrace at the first floor level of the house. The basement should
have been left entirely exposed and a sunken wild garden developed.
THE HOME SITE
103
It must be remembered that opinions and tastes not only vary, but
that they change also, often in a short space of time suffering a complete
reversal or refutation. One condemns what is not understood. One be
comes tired of the commonplace and longs for something interesting and
romantic. Many, who have a distinct dislike for the antique, become its
greatest advocates when they learn to understand and appreciate it.
FIG. 6. — This house has been designed to show rugged simplicity in harmony with its
natural, wooded background. (J. Duncan Hunter, architect.)
The decision to have a Colonial house should not be made merely be
cause of a liking for the neat prim appearance of the exterior, the for
mality of symmetry in design and bright interiors, the effect of a multitude
of large windows. Rather let the requirements of the lot determine the
type of house — at least the exterior masses and detail. The interior can
then be modified to reflect the individuality of the owner.
Often before the house is completed the owner, having decided upon
the type he thought he wished to build, without due consideration to the
requirements of the land and without thorough acquaintance with other
architectural types, condemns his own first judgment (when too- late) and
104 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
feels that he should tear down the house and start over. This is a bitter
disappointment, for, as a rule, one's "dream house" is built but once in a
lifetime and then often only after years of anticipation.
Unhappily, the notion is still current that four walls and a roof make
a house and that a lot is measured only by its width and depth, with
straight lines and square angles, that the value of the house is in propor
tion to the square feet of floor space it provides for living purposes and
that the value of the lot is in proportion to its frontage and to its ap
proach to a billiard-table level. Obviously, four walls and a roof do not
make a house, they make a box if well built. A regular rectangular, level
plot is not the most valuable nor the most desirable, but rather the least
so for a country house. The third dimension in the lot — that is, the con
tour — is of more importance than either frontage or depth. The more
irregular the lines of the lot and the more irregular the contour, the more
pleasing the result if the house be properly designed.
Of course, an irregular lot is difficult to handle; it requires a thorough
understanding of underlying principles and requirements and then much
study and work, but, the more difficult the problem, the greater the study
required; and the results are, in direct proportion to the amount of this
study, something that is distinctive, fitting and beautiful. That which
comes easy usually has no intrinsic merit.
It is for this reason that altered houses often possess greater artistic
merit than new ones. The conditions set up by the old building require
study and planning with the result that new ideas are born and something
of beauty created.
One thing, however, must not be lost sight of; you cannot expect a boy
to carry a man's load, and with difficult irregular lots, an architect of
ability is required. Further you cannot tie a man's feet and expect him
to walk, neither can you throttle an architect's imagination with a set of
obsolete dining room furniture which simply must be used in the house
or tie him up with "stock" doors and windows, and expect him to create
a masterpiece. The architect must overcome the difficulties of the irregu
lar lot and the requirements of the owner but he must have a free hand to
solve the problem in his own way.
This does not mean that the ideas, tastes, and requirements of the
owner are not to receive due consideration; quite the contrary, but they
must all be put through the melting pot, the dross burned off and the gold
retained, if there is any of the finer metal left after the refining process.
This is the function of the architect, his duty is not to prepare drawings,
THE HOME SITE 105
specifications and details, but to create through his powers of imagination.
The "mental picture" which the architect forms of the house and its en
tire ensemble is of greater importance than all of the work that follows
after. If it is poorly conceived, the results are doomed, for the house in its
relation to its surroundings, the many different angles and perspectives
involved, the effect of trees and other natural conditions, to say nothing
of the orientation and effect of sunshine and shadow, cannot be ade
quately portrayed on paper and one must fall back upon the mental pic
ture of the house and its setting during the translation of the picture into
building material.
ARCHITECTURE AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
SHOULD BE INTERDEPENDENT1
BY REXFORD NEWCOMB
Professor of History of Architecture, University of Illinois
Architecture and landscape architecture have, down through the ages,
gone hand in hand. How close this association has been, has not generally
been well understood in America or, if understood, not well remembered.
But the careful student of the history of architecture is cognizant of this
age-old association of two important phases of the human shelter problem,
and can point with assurance to the splendid cooperation between archi
tecture and landscape development in such lands as ancient Egypt, Japan,
China, and India. To come closer to our own time, thought, and feeling,
he can recall the landscape development of the atria of the Greek, Roman,
or Pompeiian house and the splendid planning of both the Roman metro
politan and provincial fora in relation to the public buildings which sur
rounded them. He can remember the lovely courtyards of Saracenic
Persia and the colorful patios and terraced gardens of Spain or North
Africa, the magnificent landscape setting of the villas and palaces of
Renaissance Italy, and the woodland entourage of the chateaux of France
and the manor houses of old England.
In the old days, apparently, it was not too much to expect the architect
to be also the landscape architect, and for ages these two arts were prac
ticed by the same artist, as indeed were often also the arts of painting and
sculpture. With our era of high specialization and the consequent segre
gation of related arts into what often proves to be almost water-tight
1 Adapted from "Modern Tendencies in Architecture and Their Influence upon
Landscape Architecture" (an address before the Annual Convention of Illinois Garden
Clubs, March 19, 1930).
io6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
compartments, a sad lack of sympathy and understanding has often
arisen between the practitioners of these arts and this, in turn, has all
too often wrought a serious divergence between the arts themselves.
In America, it appears to me, this hiatus is more pronounced than else
where. This is due, no doubt, to our peculiar educative and economic
system which provides more and more for specialized preparation and
segregated practice as time goes on, or it may come about from the pe
culiar American habit of doing just as we please, regardless of others.
While in some quarters there is a fine growing collaborative spirit be
tween the architect and the landscape architect, it is all too seldom that
anything that may be called a real collaboration takes place. Here is
usually what happens. The client calls in the architect and commissions
him to design the structure. This the architect does, to the best of his
ability, and often succeeding in admirable fashion. When the structure is
complete, the landscape architect is called in "to plant the grounds," as
the client says, and as anyone may guess, often has a difficult task at
harmonizing and making less obvious and objectionable mistakes that the
architect, due to his lack of knowledge of landscape procedure, often
makes in developing a site.
I hope we shall soon come to the time when the landscape architect
will be called in at the same time that the architect is called, and that the
problems of how best to develop the property, both architecturally and
from a landscape standpoint, will be studied concurrently. Certainly the
architect, as well as the landscape architect, would profit by such a col
laboration, and best of all, the client would come nearer getting what he
is paying for.
Often a tract is capable of several architectural treatments, but
susceptible of but one best landscape solution. Could the architect know
this solution, both through his own eyes and through those of his land
scape collaborator, how much more adequate and beautiful his .own
architectural solution might be.
On the other hand, I have found all too often a tendency upon the part
of the landscape architect to feel that his mission was to obliterate as
completely as possible the work of the architect, and the true function of
a landscape setting lost sight of. We see upon all hands really fine archi
tectural essays marred by indiscriminate planting of unsuitable material
that can do little but discredit both the architect and the gardener. Co
operation should be the keynote of all such matters, and cooperation
THE HOME SITE 107
early enough in the undertaking that it will actually accomplish the one
best solution.
The exposure to the sun, to prevailing winds, and winter storms is an
important consideration, both in the selection of a site and afterwards
in the utilization of it. While tastes vary with respect to the matter of
orientation, it is perhaps a good rule to remember that one should avoid
an arrangement that permits storms to beat at the exits, front or rear. In
summer one wants cooling breezes, but in winter he hopes to avoid them.
Often view or outlook is the making of a site otherwise quite uninterest
ing, and outlook has operated always to enhance the value of property.
Topography, the "lay of the land," largely determines the beauty of a
site and holds its possibilities for development by means of landscaping
effect. Moreover the more extreme types of topography actually dictate
the style of house, its lines and form. Historically this consideration, like
that of climate, has had a marked effect upon the development of archi
tectural form. The architectures of two lands as far different in spirit as
are those of Egypt and Switzerland may be cited to prove this contention.
Since a structure must always "belong" to the site, a study of the lines
of the house, in relation to these aspects of the site, is important. One can
do in a hilly situation that which a plain will not gracefully permit and
vice versa. Sloping contours beget similar architectural contours; broad,
horizontal terrains foretoken horizontal lines. Roof lines, by their direc
tion, may tie a house to its site, while planting affords a natural and
graceful transition between the vertical house walls and the more or less
horizontal plane of the ground.
Natural objects, like outcropping stones, fine old trees, a genial knoll
or a winding stream we may add to a picture that is already rich with
suggestion. But any site, no matter how fine, can, and often is, ruined by
injudicious development, the wrong placing of the house, the selection of a
house type that does not emphasize or fulfill the splendid suggestion
offered by the setting. In a sense, the site is to the house as the mounting
is to the diamond, except that in the case of the house we have the
mounting first. The task, then, is to select the gem (architectural) that
will best enhance the site. Then the site must be sufficiently modified by
the landscape architect to bring harmony out of the combination of
natural and man-made forms. These are essentially the central problems
involved in developing any site.
Once the type of plan adapted to the site is determined, and -the land-
io8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
scape development is predicted, one may proceed to the actual house plan,
always keeping in mind the purely architectural considerations which so
materially influence the success of the house.
CONSIDER THE HOME GROUNDS BEFORE
PLACING THE HOUSE ON THE LOT1
BY M. E. BOTTOMLEY
Professor of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois
The position of the house on the lot is of primary importance. It was
the custom in Colonial days to build houses very close to the street, thus
conserving all possible space in rear for flower and vegetable gardens.
In the nineteenth century in North America, the garden in rear gave way
to the large front lawn, often too big for the house and certainly wasteful
of space. Deep lawns will not improve a street unless it be very wide;
deep lawns along a narrow street only emphasize its narrowness. The
front yard which is wider than deep makes a lot appear wider than it
really is; the deep narrow yard makes it look narrower. Any enclosed
area appears larger than an open area because it is a unit with definite
boundaries and not a part of a larger space by comparison with which it
seems small. Whether a front yard is enclosed by hedge or fence will de
pend on the custom along the street. Strikingly different types of houses
or yards, though individually attractive, detract from the beauty of the
street. The appearance of size is not so much needed in the front as simple
dignity. In the past generation, it was the tendency to reduce the size of
front lawns and make way for more spacious back yards.
In many cities a minimum building line is established for each street;
in others, conformity to custom has created a line. Variation of a few
feet in this building line is often desirable to break the monotony along
the street.
The front yard's function is that of a foreground and a setting to the
house. The question then becomes, how much ground is needed to present
a house properly. The depth should certainly vary with the surroundings
— greater in suburban districts and much smaller where congestion occurs
and crowding is commonly seen. Everyone has experienced the feeling
of being too close to a building to see it; you needed to back away in
order to take in the entire structure without moving the head. The hori-
1 Adapted from The Design of Small Properties, pp. 5-14, 1929. By permission of
The Macmillan Co., publishers.
THE HOME SITE 109
zontal angle of vision for close-up objects is about forty- five degrees, con
sequently one should be about the same distance from a house as it is
wide to see it well. The angle of vision vertically is less than horizontally;
tall buildings, then, need deeper fore-grounds than low buildings. Enough
space is needed in front of any good building to present it to persons in
passing as one architectural unit.
In the set-back of the house from the street fewer mistakes are made
than in its location from the side boundaries. The house should seldom
if ever be placed in the center of the lot because this usually wastes space.
On one side of the house, and usually on the kitchen side, will be a drive
way. How much space is really necessary here? The drive itself need be
no wider than eight feet. In addition, a strong boundary hedge is desir
able on the property .... which, if planted in common with the neighbor,
requires only two feet but if planted one foot inside the line takes up
three feet of ground. A one-foot grass strip may well be planned between
hedge and drive. The house and drive should be separated by another
turf strip which will give room for a shrub at the house corner. Thus with
four feet a minimum distance from lot line to drive, eight feet for drive
itself and about three feet from it to the house, a total of fifteen feet
would seem to make a satisfactory development possible.
But the driveway might be reduced to seven feet; the bounding hedge
could be replaced by a wall or fence .... and the total distance from the
house to property line reduced to even ten feet on very narrow lots. The
minimum width on this service side of the house is not used on larger lots
because good appearance demands an ampleness in keeping with the re
mainder of the property. Grounds one hundred feet wide need sixteen
feet or more; on seventy-five-foot lots probably about fourteen will look
best; on fifty- and sixty-foot widths twelve or thirteen feet are sufficient.
By using the minimum space on the service side of the house, ground will
be gained on the living-room side which can be used to better advantage.
Next to the house, the garage is the important feature of the average
lot, so often thoughtlessly placed. Because of its prominence and the
necessary drive to it, the placing of this building may make or ruin
the whole design of the back yard. Many times the garage is placed too
far toward the rear. This results in a distance from the street too great
for backing out and a Y turn is made projecting nearly thirty feet across
the rear lawn. On a fifty-foot lot, this nearly cuts the back yard in two,
and on a seventy-five-foot width it is still a serious interference with better
uses of the space. To one who wishes to make only the front yard attrac-
no THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
tive and is willing to use the rear for ashes and a garage, this may be satis
factory.
Nowadays, most persons want more privacy than is found on the front
porch ; they want their living-quarters in the back yard as relatively spa
cious as their living room in the house. To obtain this, the rear yard must
be planned thoughtfully, and the garage in particular must be intelligently
placed. As the size of the garage cannot be reduced, obviously any reduc
tion must be in the driveway. To accomplish this, the garage will be
nearer to the street
Large lots can afford to give the room for a Y turn, but even here the
garage should be just far enough behind the house to allow the projection
of the turn to clear it Already there is some pavement here leading
to the kitchen and cellar entrances, and to this the drive joins, making one
general service area. If the same space can be used for walk, driveway and
drying-yard, less total area will be required, and the lawn will remain un
broken.
The drying-yard may be included in this general service area by the
use of a clothes-reel. Often the removable clothes-reel can be placed in
the kitchen side of the lawn and not interfere with its use for pleasure on
the other six days of the week. However, in households where the drying-
yard receives almost daily use, a permanent place is necessary. If the
garage is near the house, the drying-yard may be directly behind it. The
wire lines may run from the garage to a two-by-four piece supported on
two posts twenty or twenty-five feet away. This location has the further
advantage of privacy.
A common defect of house plans is the location of the coal-bin and coal-
window. The usual small house plan puts the kitchen and dining-room
next to the driveway and the livingroom on the other side of the house.
Then the fireplace and chimney are frequently on the outside of this liv
ingroom, which makes it seem logical to place the furnace and coal-bin
underneath and leaves the coal- window on the side away from the drive.
The inconvenience of this can readily be seen ; the coal- window should be
on the side by the driveway. .
Picture Mr. Home-owner when he returns one evening from his busi
ness. The coal company after an unexpected hard shower has delivered a
part of the winter fuel supply. The sun has come out again and Mr. Home
owner drives home exulting in the benefit this shower has bestowed on
his lawn and garden. With the first glance at the lawn, of which he was
so proud, his satisfaction changes to dismay. There on one side of the
THE HOME SITE in
lawn in the soft earth are the deep-cut ruts made by the heavy truck on
its way to the coal-window. Why had they sent coal on a day like this?
He had especially warned them to deliver his order after a long dry spell
because the window was not within reach of the driveway.
But on more sober thought even irate Mr. Home-owner could scarcely
blame the coal office. The weather had been dry for weeks and the rain
was very unexpected. Then the truth dawned upon him. Here was a
perfectly good drive on the opposite side of the house. Why was not the
coal-window here, too? Grocery, laundry and other trucks use this drive
to make their deliveries to the kitchen; the heaviest truck of all must
drive across the lawn. Just as the garage had been placed fifty feet behind
the house when it should have been twenty, so this location of the coal-
window showed the same faulty planning
PLACEMENT FOR SUNSHINE1
BY DAVID STONE KELSEY
Throughout the seven thousand years of known human history, be
tween the tropic of Cancer and the sixtieth northern parallel the vanguard
of human progress has ever been found. Notice the fortieth parallel.
Every turning-point in world history, every present-day commercially im
portant metropolis, and every politically influential capital is located
within a few hundred miles of this line!
Here the world's thinkers have been born and here made their marks.
But it would seem that always our last thought has been for the physical
advancement and comfort of men. For instance, balanced rations for
live-stock of all kinds were perfected, taught, and used decades before our
own children began to be properly fed. That simple, wonderfully effective
sun-trap, the ordinary cold-frame, was invented and applied to the vege
table kingdom a hundred years before sun-parlors for vegetable-eating
mortals were considered useful.
Do you ever reflect how few weeks of the fifty-two we northerners really
must avoid direct sun rays? In the latitude of Boston, June 20 to August
10 is about all — 50 days out of the 365, with many chilly mornings among
these. Eight months every year we live by sunshine — if we can get it.
Therefore, sunshine in every room in a building is one of its greatest
needs. The house wherein this chat is written is such an one. Facing
1 Adapted from "A Place in the Sun," House Beautiful, October, 1925. Reprinted
by permission from the House Beautiful magazine.
112
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
FIG. 7. — Here the house faces squarely east FIG. 8. — Here the plan is reversed so that
and the dining-room will have the morning the living-room will receive sun most of the
sun, but the porch is on the wrong side for a day, but the placing is not as yet ideal,
sunroom from September to May.
FIG. 9. — Herewith the house turned end to FIG. 10. — With this arrangement, by late
the street, the living-room is broad side to the February every window admits some sun
warming, welcome sun but there are still sev- daily,
eral windows that the sun does not reach in
winter.
THE HOME SITE II3
about 30 degrees south-to-east, its broadest side looks squarely toward
the winter sun. Early mornings, the same sun hits two sides. But more,
by late February, in bright weather, the sun shines into every window
daily — on each of the four sides in its turn. Even closets and storerooms,
having windows of their own, are so reached and purified. The relation
of this house to the points of the compass is seen in Figure 10.
By March 20, no matter in what state or latitude one lives, the angles
of the sun's rays — beginning due east at sunrise and ending due west-
daily sweep the full southern half-circle, 180 degrees. Yet if this house
were set facing squarely east— its northwest side thus being turned due
north — that whole north side would get no winter sun whatever. Equally
bad, in summer, its south side would be pounded all day by the sun;
whereas, set as indicated in this diagram, this sunny side, beginning soon
after 2 P.M., now stands in the shade nearly all the hot afternoons. Even
the southwest side of the house gets less sun as this angle, because it is a
slanting sun.
Finally, thus set, a house is as nearly oriented — turned squarely east —
as it can be, and will wholly avoid the hot, morning sun on its north side,
in summer.
Of course if one is so heedless as to crowd a dwelling-house vulgarly
close to the "veranda line," its front line must, to look passably well, con
form with that of the street. But given a deep, wide lot, to face one's
house so-and-so, just because the street is at that angle, is as silly as
was the Colonial notion — that every dwelling must be erected four-square
to the points of compass.
Now let us look at Figure 7 — a position of the house, facing east, com
monly referred to as "ideal" — and see if and wherein it really may be
bettered. True, the kitchen quarter is on the shady side for morning work,
and for afternoon leisure or callers, the front rooms are then on the shady
side. But the fine, roomy veranda is on the wrong side to be available as
a sun-parlor from September to May.
In these same months, one would be especially glad to get sunshine in
the living room, a dining room being closed most of the daylight hours,
but notice how the best rays of the winter sun strike squarely on only the
"closet" quarter of this house.
In Figure 8 the plan is reversed and the improvement in room arrange
ment partly corrects the above objections, and locates the ice-box where
it should be. Yet, taken as a whole, it, too, is far from ideal.
Figure 9 is much better. With the house set thus with its end toward
n4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the street, we have the living room turned broad side to the warming,
welcome winter sun. True, if one's house is squatted close to a neigh
bor's on the south line, his buildings will totally cut off the low-slanting,
winter sun — without doing this in summer, when needed. But assuming
a roomy lot, this position catches one-third more winter sun than either
Figure 7 or 8, the sole remaining objection being that there are still
several windows which the sun's smiles never touch, or reach only when
the accompanying summer heat forbids their use Figure 10 is the
best of all. This need not make present house-owners dissatisfied. It is
more than probable ideas herein suggested will cause them to rediscover
good features in their own dwellings which had previously caused dis
content. But each month a thousand couples plan and study to build,
rebuild, or build on, and probably 85 per cent of these could be better
advised than they are.
The diagrams here discussed by no means exhaust the possibilities,
nor can the best pretend to be omni-useful. Yet suggestive they are where
one normal-mindedly craves his physical "place in the sun."
And now a word of warning. For one to tilt his own house on a diagonal
(as in Figure 10) in a row of similar-sized houses on narrow lots — where
the others all regularly face the street, is worse than advertising one's indi
viduality to a ridiculous extreme; it is to offer a gross affront to neighbors,
ruining the appearance and layout of the whole street — considered as a
unit.
The house whose position suggested this article is situated 125 feet
back from the street-line, on a lot 120 feet front X 400 feet deep — con
taining more than an acre — and flanked by similar-sized lots each side.
Wide spaces, large trees, and landscape artistry — all contribute to a pic
ture suggesting pleasing individuality — not incongruity.
But for pity's sake, let us soon and forever have done with formal
rows of huddled holdings of real estate ! There are miles of smiling vistas
on perfect roads but ten minutes by automobile beyond these vulgar
sheepcotes where thoughtless thousands still huddle. There we can ex
press our individual preferences in the placing of our houses and capture
our full share of the sun's rays.
[NOTE. — As to the amount of sunlight that should be provided for each home, the
authors, Wayne D. Heydecker and Ernest P. Goodrich of "Sunlight and Daylight for
Urban Areas" state: "*...., The chief element in sunlight which is known to be effective
in killing disease germs is the short or ultra-violet rays, in which wave lengths rang-
THE HOME SITE 115
ing from 2900 A.U.1 to 3100 A.U. are known to be the most potent. Not much in
formation is available at present, however, as to the amount of exposure to those rays
which is necessary for health promoting results and for the destruction of germs; and
the problem is complicated by the fact that for the most part these rays will not pass
through ordinary glass of the kind that is at present in common use, nor will they kill
bacteria after passing through such glass to anything like the same extent as they will
where the exposure is to direct sunlight."
In regard to the minimum standard that should be set, the authors state : "What can
then be regarded as reasonable — reasonable from the standpoint of the amount of land
space required about buildings? The most obvious answer to this question, and the
one which would involve assumptions of least uncertainty would be a standard which
would call for approximately the same amount of land space per unit of building oc
cupied by a single family as is now called for in common practice in the residential areas
in the environs of New York. After considerable experimenting and calculating with
different periods of time, ranging from a few minutes to an hour of sunlight penetration
at noon on the shortest day of the year, it was believed, .... that one-half hour or its
equivalent of such penetration could be secured for each living and sleeping room with
out using more land per single family house than is now the common practice, — that
is without using more space per house than is at present used for each dwelling on the
usual 40' X 100' lots in blocks 200' X 600' on 60' streets and 100' avenues. This was then
taken as the basis of a practicable and workable standard the more exact statement of
which would be as follows : Every dwelling and tenement should be so located and so
planned as to provide in every living or sleeping room at least such an amount of direct
sunlight or its equivalent as would be supplied by the sun shining for one-half hour at
its maximum, or noon intensity through windows of the prevailing dwelling-house size,
facing South at the winter solstice, December 2ist" (Regional Survey of New York and
Its Environs, VII, 157, 158-159).]
SUMMARY
Consider the following before selecting the general location for the
home site: (i) land values, (2) future city growth, (3) transportation
facilities, (4) fire and police protection, (5) sanitation provisions, (6) zon
ing ordinances and building restrictions, (7) condition of streets and roads,
(8) desirability of section of the city.
Consider the following before selecting the specific location: (i) de
sirability of neighborhood, (2) nearness to schools and playgrounds, (3)
provisions for water and gas mains and sewage disposal, (4) condition of
streets, sidewalks, and alleys, (5) prevalence of nuisances including noise,
traffic dangers— particularly if there are children in the family.
Consider the following before selecting the individual lot: (i) character
of soil, (2) drainage, (3) shade trees and planting, (4) location with refer
ence to sunlight and prevailing winds, (5) cost: Proportion of total cost of
house and lot, (6) title to property, (7) method of buying.
The trend of the city's growth should influence to some -extent the
1 Angstrom Units.
n6
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
amount to be paid for the site, for although the site is to be selected for a
permanent home, the resale value of the property should be considered.
YOUR HOUSE ON
YOUR
House of your dreams
Fitting it onto the lot
that was sold to Papa
FIG. ii. — Lots are usually made 100 feet deep and as narrow as possible. The man
who buys has up to now troubled himself very little about the shape of his lot. Re
printed from Primer of House. (Courtesy of Arthur Holden and Workers Education
Bureau Press.)
Some ratio should exist between the cost of the house and the lot, although
it is better to build a cheap house on expensive property than vice versa.
It rarely is possible to obtain all the desirable points in selecting the home
site, and in deciding upon one of a number of lots the location and site
THE HOME SITE 117
should be finally selected which are best suited to the family's needs and
desires.
Even though the lot is ideally situated there are still many problems
to be considered in properly placing the house on the site for prevailing
winds, sunshine, view, and attractiveness. Sunshine in every room is most
desirable but not always easily obtainable. There is no known law by
which houses may be suited to sites. In placing for attractiveness the pro
file of the house undoubtedly is the most important consideration. Cer
tain types of houses, however, have been developed to conform to general
characteristics of many environments. The natural setting of a house
should be kept intact and the house designed for it.
REFERENCES
I. SELECTING THE HOME SITE
EMBURY, AYMAR II. The Livable House. New York: Moffat Yard & Co., 1917.
Requisites in considering the selection of site, buying the land, searching the title
(pp. 1-22).
GRAY, GRETA. House and Home. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1923.
Considerations in selection : soil, sun, and ventilation, accessibility to churches and
schools, building restrictions, costs (pp. 5-10).
GRIES, JOHN M., and TAYLOR, JAMES S. How To Own Your Home. Pub. No. 7,
February, 1931. Washington: Better Homes in America, 1929. Pp. 32.
General property considerations (pp. 14-18).
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926, The. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Press, 1926.
The site (pp. 43-46).
HOWE, Lois LILLEY. "The Site of a Small House," Small Home, IX (November,
1929), 5-6, 34-35. Minneapolis, Minn.: Architects' Small House Service Bu
reau, Inc.
ROBINSON, L. EUGENE. Domestic Architecture. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1921.
Considerations in selection : neighborhood, future of district, public utilities, near
ness to schools, churches, parks, value of natural advantages, urban and country sites
(pp. 40-49)-
WHITE, CHARLES ELMER. Successful Houses and How To Build Them. New
York: Macmillan Co., 1927.
Amount of land to buy, improvement of property, restrictions, future of district,
location of house on lot, inside and corner lots, soils, titles (pp. 9-23).
n8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
2. SELECTING THE HOUSE FOR THE BUILDING SITE
AND ITS PROPEE PLACEMENT
BOTTOMLEY, MYRL E. The Design of Small Properties. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1929.
Position of house on lot : effect of deep lawns, building lines, function of front yard,
side boundaries, driveways (pp. 5-10).
GOODNOW, RUBY Ross, and ADAMS, RAYNE. The Honest House. New York:
Century Co., 1914.
Topography of land, position of house, exposures (pp. 23-26).
HEYDECKER, WAYNE D., and GOODRICH, ERNEST P. "Sunlight and Daylight
for Urban Areas," Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, VII : Neigh
borhood and Community Planning. New York: Regional Plan of New York
and Its Environs, 1929. Pp. 141-209.
Opinion on need for sunlight in dwellings and planning in urban areas for sunlight.
KELSEY, DAVID STONE. "A Place in the Sun," House Beautiful, LVIII (October,
1925), 386, 410, 412.
Placing houses for sunshine. Contains diagrams showing good placement.
"Placing Our Houses on the Small Lot," House Beautiful, LI (June, 1922),
540-41.
Diagrams for placement on lot 70' X 100'; placement of house on corner lot 80' X 100';
on narrow lot 40' X 120'; house set end to street on lot so'Xioo'.
PRICE, CHARLES MATLACK. The Practical Book of Architecture. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1916.
Suitability of house to site (pp. 226-32).
RAMSEY, LEONIDAS W. Landscaping the Home Grounds. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1930.
Locating the house (pp. 34-40).
WALSH, HAROLD VANDERVOORT. The Construction of the Small House. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923.
Building the setting for the house (pp. 245-57).
CHAPTER IV
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
i. What Architecture Really Is
The purpose of this chapter is to include for consideration and study
those essential factors which influence architectural design. In so brief a
space only principles can be stated but by study of the books included in
the references at the end of the chapter sufficient knowledge of the subject
may be obtained to understand the principles of architectural design and
to appreciate architectural beauty. The study of houses of good design
and also the study of photographs and illustrations of well-designed and
attractive homes are of exceptional value in developing appreciation. A
list of books containing such illustrations has been included for this pur
pose.
THE MEANING OF THE FACTORS OF COMPOSITION1
BY ALAN K. LAING
Associate Professor of Architectural History,
University of Cincinnati
According to the late Professor Gaudet, architecture may be defined as
the art and science of building. The average person knows practically
nothing about either. Most of the human family gives but a cursory
glance at the buildings which line the streets of our cities, and if the ques
tion is asked them, "What do you think of such and such a building?"
their answer is shrouded in the fogs of vagueness. Even if they express
admiration for the building in question, they have but an indefinite idea
as to why they like it. It strikes some sympathetic chord in their being
and they are pleased. But the fact that there is even such a subconscious
basis for appreciation is a gratifying fact. It indicates that there is a nu
cleus upon which to build an intelligent appreciation of art arid architec
ture. Let us then take this nucleus, this sense of the fitness of things,
which is often termed taste, and think of it as the foundation of the edifice
of intelligent appreciation which we hope to erect. Now of what is the
1 Adapted from "What I Should Like Everybody To Know about Architecture,"
Architectural Progress, August, 1929.
119
120 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
main part of the structure of appreciation to consist? Shall it be a knowl
edge of architectural styles — Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic, Renais
sance and others? I do not think so. Architectural styles change with the
epochs of history. A building is not necessarily good because it has a
pleasing style of architecture. Being Gothic does not make a building
beautiful. We must take something more elemental than style for the
main part of our building — the factors of composition. In musical com
position there is proportion, balance, rhythm, harmony, contrast, dom
inance, unity. In literature these are essential considerations, likewise
in sculpture, in painting, in dancing. So in architecture we shall take
these factors, with the addition of truth and scale, as basic, permanent
and most important. In a brief space I shall try to explain the meaning
of each.
Were I speaking to those who expected to become architects, I should
place great emphasis upon truth in architecture. I should take time to
illustrate how the great and beautiful buildings of the world have ex
pressed clearly their purpose or function in their form. In brevity, it is
perhaps sufficient to point out that certain forms in building have come
to express very definitely certain social functions of mankind. It is not
difficult to recognize a church, nor a state capitol, nor a library, nor a
prison. The external aspect of each of these structures has been shaped
to express that which goes on inside them, and so firmly established are
the traditional forms that a departure is bewildering. If we entered a
building which appeared to be a library and found on the inside of it an
altar, choir and pews, great would be our surprise. So in a bank, in which
we expect to deposit our riches, we experience greater mental satisfaction
if the building is expressive of strength, security and enduring protection.
To go a step further in the matter of truth, external form should express
internal arrangement. Seeing a huge dome upon a building, as we ap
proach it, we have something of a shock if we find nothing but a flat ceiling
on the interior. If the exterior is pierced with great tall windows, we are
confident that we shall find a large and majestic room on the interior.
If we do not, disappointment follows. Lastly, should there not be truth
in the use of materials? Is there any reason for graining steel door frames
to give them the appearance of wood? What is the logic which leads men
to paint plaster to resemble marble? The deceit is obvious. Why not
frankly realize the limitations and ppssibilities of the material which is to
be used and design in conformity with the nature of that material? If
we cannot our artistic intelligence is indeed decadent.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 121
.... In architecture, our ideal of beauty is built up by what we have
hitherto observed. And in different classes of buildings we have different
ideals. Hearing the word "church," we form an image of a certain type
of structure. Now, if some church we actually see has a tower which
appears too high for the rest of the building we say that it is out of propor
tion with the building, just as we say that a nose is out of proportion with
a face when it is too long. Certain proportions for certain types of build
ing have become the composite ideal of man through centuries of repeti
tion and are therefore called good. Furthermore, this matter of propor
tion extends to every part of an edifice. The doors and windows involve
proportion, likewise the mouldings around the doors and windows, the
bands of ornament, the rooms on the interior. Proportion is everywhere
in art, and by intelligent observation one can develop a critical sense of
this factor.
Let us next consider balance. Probably because most of mankind is
well balanced — physically at least — man desires balance in external ob
jects. Balance is necessary to stability. In nature we observe an exquisite
balance in trees, in flowers, in broad landscapes. We see a delicate bal
ance in the sailing ship, in the airplane, and while a building rests upon a
more solid medium, nevertheless we want it to have balance, both in
mass and in interest. Lacking balance a thing cannot be perfect aestheti
cally.
Rhythm is in the internal and external world of man. There is rhythm
in the movement of the planetary system, in the waves of the sea, in the
change of the seasons, and in the daily life of the individual. Our times
of sleeping, of working, of eating conform to an established rhythm.
Rhythm is obviously a part of the arts. Havelock Ellis writes, "The
dance lies at the beginning of art and we find it also at the end." And
what is dancing but harmony of movement in measured beat or rhythm.
Thus in architecture as in the other arts rhythm is an essential. In the
Gothic cathedrals we are conscious of rhythm in the measured march of
the lofty piers down the majestic nave. In the temples of Greece we be
hold rhythm in the ordered regularity of the columns around the cella.
In the structures of the present day, in the dwelling house as in the sky
scraper, rhythm is necessary and may be found in the window spacing, in
the ornament, in the succession of stories, in the play of light and shade on
different planes, in the repetition of similar geometric forms.
The meaning of harmony is generally understood. If two people live
peacefully and sympathetically together they are said to be in harmony
122 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
with each other. In architecture there is harmony when the elements
seem to belong to one another, when they are related in shape, in color or
in design.
Contrast accentuates the importance of the elements in a composition.
Richness becomes more effective when contrasted with plainness; A
monumental entrance to a building would not be very monumental if
there were ten others adjoining it. It gains its monumentality by con
trast with less important elements.
This brings us to the factors of dominance and beauty. Imagine two
domes on a state capitol, exactly alike in size, shape and importance. The
result would be a division of interest and this division of interest would
destroy unity. With but one dome, however, there is no hesitation on the
part of the observer. The dome becomes the climax of the composition
and unifies the design, all else being subordinate to it.
Scale is the factor which enables one to form an estimate of size. It is
relative to the size of man. At Saint Peter's in Rome, although the vault
ing on the interior rises to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, one can
not realize its immensity unless the cathedral is filled with people. This
is because the elements commonly proportionate to the height of man are
in this structure exaggerated. There are not enough small elements, of
which the size is common knowledge, such as delicate ornament, balus
trades, doors, and life-size statues, with which we may compare the larger
elements. Lacking these units of measure, therefore, we cannot appreciate
the enormity of the large elements and there is a waste of effect. We are
not impressed as we otherwise should be.
In this brief space I have suggested the meaning of the factors of com
position. They form the main portion in our edifice of intelligent appreci
ation. With them we have a sound basis of judgment for all art. To this
main body we may advantageously add a knowledge of historic styles,
and in the acquisition of that knowledge we shall see how the styles
developed in accordance with the climate, materials and other influences
of each country, we shall see the logic of such development, and thus
armed we can observe the ludicrous combinations of style which are not
infrequently foisted upon the public in this supposed era of general en
lightenment. After all, it simply means that if we are to progress in art
and architecture the public must have a living interest in these subjects,
an interest which will constantly stimulate them to criticize with knowl
edge and appreciation. And if we do not criticise, if we do not de
mand buildings in which there is truth, beauty and reason, the mistress
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 123
art, the goddess of things lovely and great, will in sorrow and disdain de
part from her dwelling amid the mortals of earth.
NOTE: What is good architecture? "If a building answers the purpose for which
it is built, if its masses are grouped in an interesting and pleasing manner, if all its parts
are well-proportioned— are 'in scale,' as an architect would say— not only with regard
to themselves, but with regard to the surroundings of the building, and if the motives
are selected with good taste, then the complete structure will be a true expression of
architecture." (DsWiTT CLINTON POND, "For a Better Appreciation of the Art of
Architecture," Scribner's, February, 1923.)
BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE1
BY LEWIS MUMFORD
Architect
Less than a century ago, John Ruskin set everyone thinking freshly
about architecture. He discovered that buildings were alive; every stone
had a tongue, and every tongue could tell a story. Many of us are still
living by the enthusiasm that Ruskin awakened. We look forward to a
trip to Europe which will permit us to read for ourselves these histories in
stone — Westminster Abbey, Winchester Cathedral, the Belfry of Bruges,
Chartres, the remains of the Roman Colosseum, the great fragment of the
Parthenon. Ruskin taught us to see beyond the mere "sight"; he showed
that these buildings were the records of a community's life, its interests,
its tastes, its economic organization, its social order, its religion.
But art did not "stop short with the cultivated court of the Empress
Josephine." On the contrary, architecture is always with us, and a walk
around the corner or across the fields will bring us face to face with it.
What impression do the buildings that surround us make? Do they con
tribute, as Ruskin said architecture must, to our "mental health, power,
and pleasure"? Or is this the sort of miracle that architecture could work
only in the days when it built temples, baths, arcades, and gymnasia?
The answer is that architecture is always having a conscious or an uncon
scious effect upon us. If we botch our buildings, crowd them together, or
mistake their proper use, we cannot escape the results of our failure; if
we plan them, order them, and design them with skill and love and sin
cerity, we shall, inevitably, participate in their triumph. Walt Whitman
said that there were trees that seemed to drop a blessing when he passed
under them. Our buildings are always having the same effect; sometimes
1 Adapted from Architecture, pp. 9-13; American Library Association, "Reading
with a Purpose," No. 23 (1926).
i24 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
it is a blessing, sometimes a curse, sometimes a feeble, limp handshake,
with scarcely life enough in it to be positively bad.
Ruskin's great insight into medieval culture had in one respect a bad
effect upon our appreciation of architecture. He chose to call "architec
ture" only that part of building in which sculpture and painting were con
spicuously used. Architecture, for him, did not exist without decoration.
So a host of people now have the notion that architecture is something
that is added to the building, with a flourish, when the practical work of
building is done. In short, art is little more than the icing that is added
to the cake. This is a great error. A building may be plastered with
decoration and still be hideous or absurd; on the other hand, a structure
may be as lean and stark as a corn elevator, and still have some of the
massive grandeur of an Egyptian tomb.
The forces that change architecture from one style to another are new
materials, new modes of construction, and the rise of new social habits,
new modes of thinking and living. All these conditions affect the manner
in which the architect marshals a building together; and the style of any
period is the total result of these changes. It is as impossible to build in
the Elizabethan style nowadays as it would be for Mr. Bernard Shaw to
write the plays of Shakespeare. The tradition of using stone or glass may
be carried over from one century to another, likewise a mode of construc
tion, like the vault, the pointed arch, or the dome. For that matter, cer
tain proportions, like the height of a column to its width, may become
traditional. A style as a whole cannot be carried over, however, and to
build "in a style" is to build something dead and uninteresting, because
it is not related to the currents of our everyday life.
But do we not want beauty? Yes. And were not the buildings of the
past undeniably beautiful? Yes; many of them were. Why, then, should
we not bring them over to modern America? Why should we not have
Roman courthouses, Gothic colleges, Greek banks, Renaissance office
buildings, Tudor or Colonial cottages, or clever mixtures of all these
examples?
Beauty, unfortunately, cannot be captured by taking refuge in a
"style." Beauty is not something that can be aimed at directly: it is rath
er what follows when the architect's skill and taste and understanding are
devoted to fulfilling the immediate purposes of a building. Each building
has a purpose to express. Does it express it? Each building has a place
to fill. Does it fill it? Is it made for its site? Can it be seen? Can it be
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 125
approached? Does it mingle decently with its neighbors? Each building
has a function to serve. Does it serve it? Form and function, beauty and
use, are coupled together in every excellent piece of architecture. Lacking
one or another, a building is deformed. It is useless to deceive ourselves,
or to hide our impotence, by trying to fit modern functions into old forms,
or attempting to combine twentieth century "uses" with second century
"beauties."
At the bottom, then, architecture is not "style" but building
[NOTE. — ". . . . The architecture of a city is therefore a matter of supreme moment
to its welfare. If the architecture is ugly, it is impossible to keep the populace sensitive to
beauty. It degrades and vitiates the aesthetic sense, and tends to deaden the nobler
spiritual emotions that attend it. It adds to the misery, the stupidity, and the vicious-
ness of people. If, on the other hand, the architecture is uniformly good, it tones the
whole community life. Such is the uniform testimony from the 'model village' com
munities.
"Indeed, I think that we are not at all aware of the immense social asset that uni
formly good architecture would be. Fancy a city in which all of the buildings are beauti
ful, and trace the influence on the lives of the inhabitants. In the first place, it would
add greatly to the happiness of people, for, as has been observed, it is the normal func
tion of beauty to make us happy. Unless we have allowed ourselves to become diseased,
happiness will attend beauty as naturally as flowers turn to the sun" (Frederick M.
Padelford, "The Civic Control of Architecture," American Journal of Sociology, July
1908, 45-46).]
THE USE OF MATERIALS IN ARCHITECTURE1
BY LEWIS MUMFORD
Architect
All the great architectural forms were bound up, in their origin, with
certain materials; and they never completely escape this limitation. The
quarry gives us stone, the mine metals, the forest wood, the river bottom
mud, and seashells or limestone will give us lime to make plaster. Here
are the chief elements in all construction. What are their possibilities?
We hew and build the stone into walls or pillars and span the uprights
with a stone laid flat across. That is post-and-lintel construction. It is
the key to the simple, dignified architecture of ancient Egypt and Greece;
in its development it gives us the temple at Karnak and the Parthenon,
with the repetition of columns, the carefully studied horizontal and verti
cal lines, the mathematical proportions. If the space between the columns
1 Ibid., pp. 13-22.
126 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
grows too wide for a single stone to span it, we must arrange a group of
them together in an arch, so that one will hold the other in place; and if
this load grows too heavy, we must reinforce the columns with buttresses,
and balance thrust against thrust in a more complicated arrangement.
When we push this mode of building to the limit, we have the fourteenth
century French cathedral. As the shape of the building varies, we get
characteristic ways of enclosing the roof — the flat roof, the dome, the
gable. The form will depend largely upon the purpose of the building and
the climatic conditions, to say nothing of the materials — wood, slate,
copper, or thatch that may be at hand. A steep gabled roof is suitable,
for instance, when the building must shed snow all winter, or a flat roof
when, as in Palestine, the house-dweller at the end of a day climbs up to
the roof to get the cool air of evening.
If stone gives one type of construction, mud gives another. Let us
make big cubes of mud, dry them in the sun, and cement them together
with wet mud to form a solid wall : this gives us the mud hut of the primi
tive Egyptian or the adobe house of New Mexico. Reduce the size of the
cube, use clay, and bake it with fire in a kiln: it becomes a brick. The
brick is a more flexible kind of stone, and, in the lowlands, where wood
and stone are sometimes hard to find in the marshes or the grassy plains,
and clay is plentiful, as in the neighborhood of Amsterdam or London,
bricks will be the chief building material. If the clay is molded in a special
form, hollow in the inside, and keyed so that it may be joined to another
form, we call the stuff terra cotta: as such it is always used as a covering,
for unlike brick it cannot stand up under a load.
There is still another important form of masonry. Make a wooden
form to contain the foundations, the walls, and the horizontal supports
of the structure, and pour into this form a mixture of cement and sand,
reinforced with iron rods for greater strength. So built, the house be
comes a single stone, bearing the shape of the original mold : the name of
the construction is monolithic (single-stone) construction. The Romans
knew the secret of this method and applied it in various ways, using
bricks, for example, as the mold and concrete in the core. Their bridges,
roads, amphitheaters are still standing. It has the strength and simplicity
of stone; it has the flexibility of brick; it has a massiveness of its own; and,
in addition, since concrete can be poured into a mold, it makes possible
fresh external shapes, which may fit the inside of the building as the glove
fits the hand. Ferro-concrete, finally, need not be confined to flat surfaces
and right angles. Erich Mendelsohn, the German architect, has shown
how it can be modeled in the mass, as the sculptor models clay.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 127
Wood gives still another type of construction. It leads to frame con
struction; for, like steel, a relatively light piece of wood will carry a heavy
load when placed on end. Bind the frame together, form a box, fill the
intervening space with bark, and you have the Long House of the Iroquois
Indian; cover it with bamboo and thatch, and you have the simple
Japanese dwelling; make the timber a little more solid, to stand up
against heavy storms, and fill in the walls with clay or mud-and-twigs,
or with flint, or with brick, and you have the half- timber house of medieval
France, England, and Germany. Cover over a similar form with clap
boards, and you have one of the early forms of the American house.
The habit of building frame houses in America made the transition to
steel, for the framing of tall buildings, fairly easy, except for architects
who had been too thoroughly trained in the forms of pure masonry.
In stone construction, each stone bears directly the load above it:
take away a course of stones in the middle of the wall and the build
ing topples. In frame construction, on the other hand, the load is
distributed: no single part of the frame is essential, for the whole is
knitted together: the wall ceases to be a support and becomes a curtain,
and whereas a stone building could not possibly be lifted off its base and
transported, it would be as easy to do this with a skyscraper as with a
cottage, if we could have engines and rollers built on the same scale.
Structurally, the building is complete when the frame has been put to
gether. All other construction is merely to keep off the wind and the
weather and to divide the interior space into suitable rooms.
Steel is an excellent material when height or a wide span is demanded.
Its chief defects are that it rusts and conducts heat too easily; so it must
be painted repeatedly to guard against the first danger, and, to prevent
warping and buckling in a fire, it must be surrounded by a fire-proof,
non-conducting material.
The dominance of steel in American urban architecture today is an
exhibition of the way in which a technical achievement, the cheap manu
facture of iron and structural steel, has worked hand in hand with a
peculiar social situation — the concentration of a large part of the urban
population in skyscrapers, for the sake of the rise in ground rents. Steel
was in fact forced upon the architect by the business man. As a result, all
but a handful of our high buildings bear the prime marks of their origin :
they are rent-barracks, in which every detail is subordinated to the princi
pal purpose of utilizing each last square foot of land, each possible cubic
foot of enclosed air. Our skyscrapers are often as massive and powerful as
a mountain; they are often, also, as unformed and as crude as a slag-heap.
128 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
These are the essential materials and forms. They are, for architecture,
what words and letters are for language. Without them, there is no archi
tecture. What use we put them to, however, depends upon the human
purpose that the building must serve, the state of the arts, the taste and
training of the builder, and all sorts of local matters like the site itself, the
amount of sunlight available, the climate, and the very character of the
earth in which the foundations must be sunk. Architecture is both the
most human and the most earth-bound of the arts; and it reflects natural
conditions and human characteristics in every phase of its development.
Now, each of these basic materials lends itself to a peculiar heightening
of its effects, so as to give greater "health, power, and pleasure" to the
beholder.
Consider the stone mason. The quarry man, who merely shapes the
rough stone into a block has his mind filled, perhaps, with the legends of
the church and the memories of the countryside in which he grew up.
There comes a time when he is no longer content merely to hew the stone;
he wants also to shape it and to leave on it the imprint of his imagination:
with that he becomes a sculptor. In the medieval cathedrals, so easy was
it for the stone mason to pass into sculpture that scarcely a single surface
remains untouched by the sculptor's art: satires, histories, legends, chap
ters of the Bible — all these crystallized in the stones of the cathedral, to
make it a more complete expression of what the medieval man valued and
loved.
Henry Adams has described this process in great detail in his magnifi
cent book on Mont Saint Michel and Chartres. The same taste and skill,
however, were applied to the most modest burgher's house. What keeps
modern work done "in Gothic" from being alive is the fact that the skill
and education and religion, which made it possible for numerous men to
work on a common design, without having every detail marked down in
the draughting office, no longer exists; one could scarcely trust a Catholic,
a Baptist, and an Atheist to work their several wills upon a single church,
without a little guidance. The mason's art has become largely mechanical
reproduction. If the architect wants fresh and significant sculpture, he
must limit it to the work that may be done by a single artist. This is what
Mr. Bertram Goodhue did in the building of the Nebraska State Capitol;
it accounts for the relative success of its sculptural decoration.
Wood differs from stone in its decorative capacities. Wooden beams
and posts must not be carved too freely, or they will lose strength, and
wooden sheathing, like clapboards, can scarcely be carved at all. Trim
ming, turning in a lathe, staining, and painting are the chief decorative
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 129
resources of wood. These forms are common to the wooden buildings of
Japan, the Alpine hut, and the American wooden cottage. Concrete, on
the other hand, is a material that tends to present large unbroken sur
faces, and they must either create their own texture and color, or be
covered over, as the Romans so often covered their concrete, with a
veneer of marble. Finally, as an offset to these bare surfaces concrete
may be encrusted, at appropriate spots, with tile or mosaic, or the wide
wall surface may be painted or stuccoed.
Bricks, on the other hand, instead of having a pattern applied to them,
can form patterns of their own. By using the end or the side of the brick
(the header or the stretcher as the mason says) in various combinations
we may bond the material together to form a particular pattern and tex
ture; at times the pattern may be an elaborate geometrical design, ac
centuated by bricks of different colors. The use of overburnt bricks may
take away from the flat uniformity of surface; by jutting out the bricks at
intervals a similar effect may be produced. In Holland, England, and
Northern Italy there is a vast array of brickwork structures, whose deco
rative interest comes largely from this delicate self-ornamentation; and a
good deal of the charm of Georgian architecture in brick is due not so
much to the stereotyped classic details as to the quality and color of the
brick surfaces.
Finally, steel and glass present new resources. Steel can be bent and
laced together, for in general, only by casting will it take any other than
its structural shape. The earlier builders in the seventies, who used steel,
sought to mold it decoratively, as they did the girders in the oldest sec
tion of the Metropolitan Museum in New York. But the best steel work,
that of the Eads Bridge in St. Louis or the train hall of the Pennsylvania
Station in New York, for instance, does not attempt to achieve any other
effect from steel than that which follows from its structural interlacing.
As for glass, it must usually be applied or encrusted: within that limita
tion its range is almost infinite; and as the Exhibition of Decorative Art
in Paris in 1925 showed, its possibilities are far from being exhausted.
i3o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
2. Architectural Style1
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH STYLE3
BY AYMAR EMBURY II
Architect
.... Most of the large houses in England which date from 1725 or
later, and a very great proportion of the smaller houses in the cities or
suburban English villages, were designed in the Renaissance or Classic
styles, and in the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of
the nineteenth century, English architecture can hardly be distinguished
in certain of its phases from good American Colonial work, although
most American houses were built of wood, while most of the English
houses of the same period were built of brick. That this resemblance
should have existed is by no means extraordinary; America was then in
process of colonization, and then, as now, a large proportion of the
American mechanics came from England, and, accustomed to English
usages, naturally continued to build as they had been trained. Architects
at that time were few and far between, and carpenters and masons were
in most cases responsible for the design of American structures, while the
few architects who were in active practice used English books and had
acquired their knowledge of past work mainly from England. The simi
larity between English work during the reigns of the four Georges and the
American work of the same period is so marked that many writers on
architectural subjects have preferred to use the term "Georgian" for
American work as well as for English of that time, in preference to the
term "Colonial," the vernacular expression.
The architecture which we are accustomed to think of as English is not
this English Georgian, but the English cottage work, which began to take
its present form as early as the fifteenth century, and which has existed
up to the present day without substantial change. It is pre-eminently a
product of the soil, an art carried on, not by studious inquiry of architects
into form, color, and texture, but rather one developed by artisans whose
education was obtained entirely from local traditions. The processes used
1 The characteristics of the various architectural styles in domestic architecture are
discussed briefly. Most houses in America which are commonly classed as of English,
or of Spanish, or of Italian or other styles merely have dominant characteristics of these
styles. In fact, many houses are carelessly tagged English or Colonial or some other
style when they are a hodgepodge of a number of styles or perhaps lack definite char
acteristics of any style whatsoever.
2 Adapted from The Livable House (New York: Moffat, Yard & Co., 1917), pp. 58-
68.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 131
are always the simplest, the materials those at hand, and the forms those
customarily adapted to the peculiar location in which the houses were
built
The plans of most English houses are unquestionably bad— how bad
no one who has not studied the plans of even the capable modern archi
tects can conceive; and there is case after case in English work recently
constructed where the connection between the kitchen and the dining-
room is across the main entrance hall of the house, or where the living-
room must be traversed to reach the reception-room. Now it is probably
not true that a good plan means a poor exterior, yet it is unquestionably
true that the freedom with which the English treat their plans gives them
a much greater opportunity to design in a picturesque way. They think
nothing of stringing their houses out, room after room, without any hall
connecting them, of placing the kitchens twenty-five to forty feet from
the dining-rooms, and of reversing what we expect to be the order in
which rooms are placed. Nor do they attempt to design rooms without
jutting corners or of regular shapes, and in consequence they are enabled
to treat their facades with a diversity of motives practically unheard of
in American work, even where an attempt has been made to conform to
English ideals.
Another factor which makes it difficult to design successfully in the
English style is the difference between climatic conditions here and in
England; and while this difference is by no means so marked as between
this country and Italy, it is still considerable enough to have marked in
fluence upon design. As in Italy, the porches or piazzas are practically
absent from English work, and it is a very rare thing to see an English
house which has a covered terrace in any way resembling our piazza. As
in Italy, windows are usually much smaller than we find necessary here;
in the first place, because in England artificial heating arrangements in
the rural districts are poor and insufficient, so that large glass areas would
make the rooms cold in winter; and also since their summers are by no
means so hot as ours, they do not feel that large windows are at any time
necessary. As stated in the next article, in the case of the Italian houses,
a very important factor in the design of the facade is the size and the
spacing of the windows, and our architects find it most difficult to con
vince their clients that an English house must have small windows to be
truly successful. Now this is not because we wish to be archaeologically
correct, but because the high quality of English design depends upon
large plain wall surfaces, as well as upon broken and irregular plan, and
with the typical American plan with rooms of simple shapes and of fixed
132 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sizes and positions of openings it is next to impossible to secure the irreg
ular outline of the English work
The materials used in English work have also something to do with its
picturesqueness; we are accustomed here to build a brick house, or a
wood house, or a stucco house, making the whole house of wood, or
brick, or stucco, and this is due somewhat to the growth of an American
tradition dating from pre-Revolutionary times, although in the Dutch
settlements around New York it was not infrequent to find stone, brick,
stucco, and shingles used for wall coverings in the same small farm house.
In England not only was it customary to use a variety of materials for
different portions of the same house, but also to mix the materials in the
same portion; as, for example, the familiar "half timber" construction,
where brick and wood are used alternately, or where brick coigns are
used in a stucco wall, stone coigns in a brick wall, or stone introduced
into a stucco wall at angles, windows heads, etc. In some English houses
we even find the whole facade a sort of checker board of two different
materials, stone and brick in alternate squares, or chalk and black flint
used in patterns, so that the large plain surfaces customary in English
work become decorative mosaics. This playful and interesting treatment
is almost entirely absent from our American houses
CHARACTERISTICS OF ITALIAN STYLE1
BY AYMAR EMBURY II
Architect
Taking up .... Italian, the style which is perhaps of all the most
difficult to translate into terms suitable to the conditions existing
throughout the North, East, and West of the United States, we find that
in Italy the roofs are flat, the walls thick, and the windows small and deep
set. Italy has been for two thousand years a country where buildings of
practically every sort have been constructed of masonry, because the
supply of wood on the Italian peninsula was exhausted at a very early
date. The Italians, therefore, as early as the Roman times, sought to
economize wood to the utmost possible extent, and the exterior walls, the
floors, and the roof coverings were of masonry of some sort or another;
the walls usually of stone, or, in the cheaper work, of stone covered with
stucco; the floors of brick or of terra cotta, sometimes of cement, and the
roofs covered with tile.
1 ibid., op. 48-52.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 133
The use of small windows was probably due to two causes: the first, a
desire for coolness in the summer time, which was obtained by construct
ing houses practically like cellars; the second, to the difficulty and the ex
pense attending the construction of wide openings in masonry walls
without steel. The use of large stones for lintels was of course common in
the Roman period, but it seems to have been confined chiefly to the public
buildings for either religious or civic purposes; and while it is true that
some of the largest single stones ever quarried are found in buildings of
the Roman epoch, it can be very readily understood that the expense of
quarrying such stones by hand, and with implements of bronze or poorly
tempered iron, was prohibitive for the dwelling house. These conditions
continued throughout the Middle Ages, and only with the introduction of
blasting powder was the quarrying of fairly large stones economically
possible, but by this time the tradition of small openings was pretty firmly
fixed. Of course large openings could be spanned by arches, but the con
struction of window frames for arched openings was difficult and conse
quently expensive, and arches themselves require skillful workmen, unless
mortar of a high quality is used. So while arched openings are by no
means uncommon in Italy, the typical Italian house has squareheaded
window and door openings, the wall above them supported on lintels.
The roofs were usually of slight pitch without usable space below them,
because rooms immediately under the roof would have been impossible of
occupancy in hot weather, and also because there was no necessity to
shed snow or heavy rains.
These were the factors which influenced the development of the Italian
style, and because in this country every one of them is different it can
readily be understood that the use of Italian architecture is more or less
of a tour de force, and a successful Italian house must either be very differ
ent in principle from its original or factors of comfort and convenience
must be sacrificed, which of course will not, in the livable house, be the
case.
WHAT MAKES COLONIAL— COLONIAL?1
When the Pilgrims first came to New England they did not build log
cabins. Modern research shows that this form of construction was typical
only of a later period — after the Revolution, when the first great pilgrim
age Westward from the Alleghenies began.
Some palisado-houses were built by the first settlers. They were not
unlike the English dwellings of Norman times, when growing trees or cut
1 Colonial Homes (The Home Builder's Library, Architects' Small House Service
Bureau, Inc., 1927).
134
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
logs planted upright were bent together until their tops met and then
were covered with thatch, sod, brush and mud to form a rude shelter. It
seems that sod huts and half-underground shanties also were used during
those first bitter years at Plymouth.
Soon these crude forms were discarded. The next step was the single-
story house of one or two rooms built of hewn or sawed lumber. This was
FIG. 12. — Typical New England Colonial style house with plans (Figs. 13-14) as it
has been modified to meet present-day needs. The central urn over the doorway which
made its appearance in the early Georgian period is used over and over in Colonial
architecture. (Copyright — the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc., House
Plan 6- A- 7 2.)
closely similar to the early forerunner of the English Cottage — for the
Pilgrims were Englishmen and the England they had left was essentially
medieval.
Their first framed house was a simple rectangle with steep gabled roof
of thatch. It was heated by a single fireplace with a great beam across its
opening, located at the end of a one-room house or in the center if there
were two rooms. The chimney was of wood and clay, for bricks and mor
tar were scarce. The spaces between the studs in the walls were filled with
sticks and clay.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 135
I ALT E.B.NATL
(LOCATION FOE.
-32-O" — [-OPEN POUCH
DINING HALL
e,OOM
ir-3"*iz-9"
J)Rv5T FLOOfc, PLAN
CEILING HEIGHT &-&"
FIG. 13. — First-floor plan. Ceiling height, 8 feet 6 inches
r
POSSIBLE LOCA-
1
iTlON FOU 5LELP-|
I ING POC.CH |
I I
FIG. 14.— Second-floor plan. Ceiling height, 8 feet
136 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
On the inside this filling was covered with boards in vertical-panel
effect. Light was supplied through sliding wooden frames covered with
oiled paper. On the outside the house was sheathed with wood.
At first, hand-split "shakes," which resembled modern shingles except
that they were longer, wider, thicker and more crudely fashioned, were
used. But within a few decades the Colonists discarded these for siding-
boards which were more economical and better in appearance. Several
types of boards were employed, but gradually drop-siding such as we use
today came into general acceptance, and this finish appears on many of
the fine old Colonial houses which are the models for modern homes in
this style.
Such was the basis of domestic architecture in the Northern United
States. The second step was the addition of a second story and the laying
out of two rooms downstairs and two above, with fireplace in the middle
of the house or, in the finer dwellings, with one at each end. Where the
owner could afford it the second story overhung the first and the first
decorative element that appeared in these buildings was a plainly carved
pendant or drop projecting downward from this overhang. Sometimes,
too, a curved or flat arch appeared over the doorway, the door itself con
sisting of two thicknesses of wide boards diagonally studded with
nails.
More room was obtained at first simply by tacking a lean-to onto the
rear or end. This later was carried up to the second story. Gabled dor
mers were poked through the roof to make the upstairs chambers larger
and lighter. But still there was no privacy — you'd have to go through
one room to reach another.
So the hallway was developed. Its earliest form was an interior entry-
vestibule called a porch. This was extended through the whole depth of
the house and a short run of stairs with a winder at top and bottom was
built in its rear. Gradually this was expanded into a hall-system inter
secting both floors, affording seclusion to each room and giving the arti
sans a chance for beautiful work in the carving and turning of newels,
balusters and stair-ends characteristic of the Colonial style.
From 1650 on, glass windows were common in the better homes. The
glass had to be imported and large sheets were more expensive than small
ones. So there were 24, 1 8 or 12 panes in each window, the common type
being the hinged casement sash with leaded panes either diamond or
oblong in shape. Gradually two or three sashes came to be grouped in
the same opening, except hi dormers, attics and gable-ends.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 137
But this left the downstairs hall dark. Builders experimented with
transoms and side-lights for nearly a century before the late-Colonial
treatment— a fanlight with or without narrow side lights— was perfected.
By 1670 thatch had been generally discarded in favor of handsplit
shingles. The first variation in the traditional gable was the flattening
of its peak to form a gambrel or curb. Mansard, hipped and pediment-
FIG. 15. — Commonly termed English Georgian style. (Copyright — Architects'
Small House Service Bureau, Inc., House Plan 6-F-io.)
gable designs later came into favor. And during the second and third
decades of the XVIIIth Century, when modillion cornices and columned
exterior porches began to be common, low balustrades appeared as orna
ments on roof-decks.
Now, when the American home had reached this stage, it constituted
a distinct architectural form, something which was different from any
domestic architecture developed in the Old World. It embodied a char
acter as simple, as dignified, as gaunt and unembellished, as practical,
and as uncompromising as the characters of the men who created it. That
is the New England Colonial style.
But it continued to change. Its two principal tendencies during the
i38 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
XVIIIth Century were in refinement of detail and organization of design.
The exterior porch with its Greek columns and pediment-gable is an
example of the former. By organization of design is meant that comers
and builders began to conceive of a house as a harmonious whole, not a
single unit to which an addition could be tacked on at any place desired.
Ideas for both of these developments were borrowed chiefly from
England and France, the sources of most of our domestic architecture.
THE DUTCH COLONIAL1
BY H. SIMONS
.... Originally the type rose only a story-and-a-half, and the stories
were low, too. There were four rooms on the ground floor, two on each
side of a fairly narrow hall, and two big chambers upstairs. Extensions
may have been added later to the ends and rear so as to provide a great
kitchen, a dining room, a musty forbidding parlor, a store-room and one
or two bedrooms downstairs and, if the householder were prosperous,
four bedrooms above for his numerous children.
Its exterior need not necessarily be of brick or white siding. The Dutch
men about Sleepy Hollow built with whatever materials came to hand —
stone, stucco, brick, big hand-split shingles called shakes, or boards. Some
of the mellowest of the old examples of the style are of yellowish-brown or
purple-red fieldstone. The stucco used there was greyish in color and
rough in texture from being applied much as a modern plasterer works his
material with a wood or a cork float. Frequently two or more materials
were combined in the same house; it is not rare to find in the old Knicker
bocker settlements a home with a stucco front, the back shingled, the
ends of stone, one addition covered with clap-boards and another built of
brick. So the modern copyist of this style may have all the variety he
wishes and still be accurate.
THE DUTCH NEW YORKERS
It is incorrect to assume that the Dutch New Yorkers were monopolists
of the curb or gambrel roof. They never built the high-peaked gables
typical of early New England dwellings. At first they covered their
homes with low, wide-spreading gable-roofs of single pitch. But when
the double-pitched gambrel came into style in Massachusetts, Pennsyl
vania, Maryland and Virginia, it was adopted by the settlers in the Hud
son Valley. There it continued in common, but timid use. When we say
that they applied this roof-style timidly, we mean that the Dutch build-
1 Adapted from "What Is a Dutch Colonial?" Small Home, January, 1926.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 139
ers did not vary the angles of the upper and lower slopes much: The effect
still was almost of flatness and the extra space provided for the second-
story rooms was not great.
Then how were these rooms made light and airy? Imperfectly, if at all.
Later generations of owners may have poked dormers through the roof.
Many homes of the sons or grandsons of the first pioneers had a row of
windows tucked in below the eaves. But in most of the old houses of this
style all the light and ventilation for the upstairs were provided by tiny
windows in the ends of the house and by not carrying the partitions of the
rooms fully up to the ceiling so that a draft could move through the whole
length of the house.
NONE REALLY DUTCH
How can the modern builder correct this severe defect? Only by using
the services of a skilled and sensitive architect. There are four devices by
means of which the Dutch Colonial style can be adapted to the hygienic
demands of the modern American family: i, recessed dormers; 2, a series
of small projecting dormers; 3, one long shed-like dormer; 4, one or more
secondary gables. None of these is really Dutch. Any of them is likely
to break up the quiet effect of the low gambrel roof which is one of the
happiest incidents of the style. So it takes more than a good builder to
keep the adaptation from being merely a distortion.
Wide eaves with a slight curve upward are typical of this style. So,
too, is the narrow piazza extending across the front or part of the front.
But this should be supported by rather slender square wooden pillars
instead of fat round ones. Small gabled or curved hoods over the en
trances do not belong to the Dutch Colonial; they are features of the
Pennsylvania Colonial type. But, even without this covering, the front
door is one of the most charming single details in Hudson Valley archi
tecture. It appears low and wide in comparison with modern millwork
and it usually consists of an arrangement of inset wood panels of interest
ing size and design. Its lowness permits of a fan-light above and there are
sidelights flanking the jambs, most often set between narrow, nicely
moulded, wooden pilasters. Both the woodwork and the glass are simply
treated; but there are unexpected graces in the carving and delightful
niceties in the leaded glazing. A good effect of contrast is obtained by sur
rounding the dark-wood door and its sidelights with white woodwork.
Windows are treated more plainly. They never are placed in pairs but
are spaced uniformly across the wall; their panes are small, as in all
Colonial types, and they are hung with stout wooden shutters. Crescent,
star-shaped or other odd-patterned saw-cuts appear in the upper halves
140 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
of the shutters, for this was another Dutch idea for ventilating and light
ing the interior.
One more exterior detail we must notice — the chimneys. These never
jut out from the walls, for the Hollander's fireplace was shallow. Nor do
the chimneys invariably come through the roof -ridge. Occasionally they
do so, but as likely as not they just happen through the roof without
FIG. 1 6. — Modification of Dutch Colonial house as commonly built to meet modern
requirements. Although its double-pitched roof and dormer windows are characteristic
of Dutch Colonial style, in the original Dutch Colonials the upper story windows
appeared only in the ends of the house. (Copyright — Architects' Small House Service
Bureau, Inc., House Plan 6-A-6o.)
much relation to general design. They are plain square brick affairs, sel
dom hooded, but frequently showing good craftsmanship in their caps.
Low ceilings impart coziness and familiarity to the rooms. In most in
stances the rafters are exposed and the ceiling itself consists of the under-
surface of the upstairs floor. The beams may or may not be painted, but
the panels between them are likely to be white.
Walls in old Dutch houses are treated in three ways: With plaster, with
wainscot and plastering or, but rarely, with floor-to-ceiling wood panels.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 141
Perhaps the combination of wainscoting and plaster is the most repre
sentative, although many of the antique interiors show all-plaster walls
with base-boards, chair-rails and cornices of wood. Writing of the famous
Lady Moody house, one observer noticed, "The walls are covered with
an exceedingly rough plaster, which would never pass inspection in a
modern house, but which, because of its very roughness, helped to
decorate the interior." Textured wall- treatments are in vogue again
now, and here is ample warrant for their incorporation in the Dutch
Colonial style.
Tiling is found here more rarely than might be expected. Rarely a
floor, less seldom a hearth, of square red blocks appears, and some fire
places are faced with Delft tile. But usually the mantel is. a veneer of
finely designed wood carving imposed over the big bricks of the fireplace
and forming a narrow shelf more than halfway up to the ceiling. Floors
generally are of wood. Recessed windows with window-seats are common.
Cross-corner closets with glass doors and shallow cupboards for the dis
play of china and pewter are typical old-fashioned touches. Generally
speaking, the wood-working shown in the old Dutch house is exceptional
for its workmanship and its fine proportions. For the rest, there are few
differences between the Dutch Colonial house and other American dwell
ings of the same period.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SPANISH HOUSE1
BY REXFORD NEWCOMB
Professor of History of Architecture,
University of Cincinnati
That variety of architecture which the world knows as "Spanish" goes
back in history a good many centuries. Indeed the beginnings that gave
rise to architectural expression in Spain were similar in character to those
which gave rise to building endeavors in other sun-lit lands of the Medi
terranean area. It is no "historic accident" that the Assyrian palace, the
Greek house, the Roman villa , and the Spanish residence were all disposed
around an open court. This similarity in plan, if not of detail or of decora^-
tion, is mute testimony of the influence of climate— the heat of the sun—
in these favored lands around the Classic Mediterranean. Thus the primi
tive impulse to produce an artificial shelter from the sun has operated to
give to all Mediterranean architecture a character the like of which the
world has witnessed in no other area.
' Adapted from The Spanish House for America (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co.,
1927), pp. 13-24-
i42 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Each of the early Mediterranean peoples developed a type of house
best suited to its own needs, and this long before any similar expression
in the Iberic peninsula — Spain — had time to evolve. Thus, by the time
that ships and navigation made possible the migration of peoples and the
exchange of ideas, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Greece, and Rome had
acquired civilized traits and an artistic prowess worth passing on to their
less-advanced brothers of the Mediterranean basin. The salient message
of all Mediterranean architecture is its reaction to climate, its essential
sunniness, its emphasis of light and shade. This quality is apparent in its
every line, be it plan, elevation, roof, or decoration.
The Spanish peninsula remained in the hands of the primitive Iberic
race until a time relatively late in history and was thus a virgin field at the
time when the Romans were ready to conquer the western Mediterranean.
With Roman domination came Roman institutions, Roman law, the Lat
in tongue, and the acquired Roman art, itself the appropriated heritage of
Classic Greece and ancient Etruria. Spanish art — and particularly Span
ish architecture — is therefore of assured Roman origin, round-arched,
rhythmic, and sun-loving, subsequent events introducing other wonder
fully interesting features.
Thus to-day Spain offers us an architecture the versatility of which is
perhaps matched in no other European country. Here we find fragments
of an ancient Iberic art; a wealth of Roman remains; bits, particularly in
the northwest, of Christian Visigothic architecture ; at Toledo and in the
sunny cities pf Andalusia, a wealth of Moorish handiwork; in many of the
important episcopal cities impressive Gothic piles, which in turn were
preceded by the forerunning Cluniac-Romanesque introduced from
France; and everywhere the record of the splendid, if exuberant, Renais
sance that followed hard upon the "Gothic of the Catholic kings," the
indelible evidence of a national rejoicing over the final triumph of the
Spanish cross at Granada and of the Spanish sword in newly-discovered
Peru and Mexico.
The type of house which emerged from the vicissitudes of Spanish
history is one eminently adapted to life in sunny lands and, like the town
houses of Greece and Rome, it turns a relatively "bleak and bare"
fachada (face) to the street, reserving its greatest interest and most joy
ous aspects for the interior, and particularly for the patio, which becomes
in the heat of summer, and during the sunny hours of the whole year, an
outdoor living room. This, then, is the whole spirit of the type of house
that, with the conquering of the New World, was introduced into the
Indies, South America, Mexico, and the Spanish areas of our own country.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 143
In each of these lands this type of house, evolved to meet the demands
of life in the home land, was exposed to a whole new set of environments.
As a result it took on various forms in the various colonies, showing here
a roof of deep-red tiles, there no visible roof at all, here a tile-plated and
colourful fachada, there the sparkling texture of whitewashed adobe (sun-
dried clay) plaster, here the time-honoured, round, rhythmic Roman
forms, there the inevitable influence of Aztec or Pueblo Indian handicraft.
Thus, while preserving its general sunny quality, the Spanish house in
the New World took on characteristics and evolved new details which,
while generally Hispanic in feeling, had only remote precedent in Spain
and in some cases no prototype at all. But this is only to be expected, for
any art that is alive responds to the demands and absorbs the character of
the race or the age that it serves. With the infiltration of ideas from the
splendid pre-Spanish Aztec culture, the Spanish house in Mexico took on
a decidedly Mexican character. Moreover, the wealth of the country and
the development of the tile industry at Puebla and other cities made
possible a lavish exterior use of colourful wall tiles, a material which in
Spain was more generally reserved for the cool interiors, patios and gar
dens. Thus, while domestic architecture in Mexico sacrificed much of the
old Spanish precision, finesse, and delicacy, it gained much in freshness,
spontaneity and naivete.
This Spanish-Mexican house was eventually carried by the colonizing
conquistadors into California, Arizona, and New Mexico, into Texas and
the Gulf Coast, and into Florida. In each of these colonies, more or less
isolated at the time, was developed a local variant of the Spanish-Mexican
type, which, as time went on, differed as much from the others as from its
prototypes in Mexico.
In California the settlement of the country by the monks of the
Franciscan Order and the architectural forms which these priests
and their Indian charges reared exerted an unmistakable influence upon
domestic architecture. Moreover, the remoteness from Mexico and the
corresponding scarcity of competent artisans, together with the enforced
employment of the crudest of materials, led to an extreme simplification
of forms and an utter minimization of detail. This was perhaps no handi
cap in a wonderfully clear and vibrant atmosphere, such as California
enjoys, and this very simplification of forms, in contrast to the exuberance
and lavishness which is everywhere so pronounced in Mexico, serves to
give early Californian domestic architecture its frugal, honest, and crafts-
manlike character.
Without much in the way of ornament and the employment of only the
144 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
simplest of structural expedients, Californian architecture had of necessity
to pay large attention to the proportion and form of these few expedients,
if beauty were to be accomplished. The fundamental simplicity and
well-proportioned masses of the old houses at San Diego, Santa Barbara,
Los Angeles, and Monterey constitute valuable object-lessons to those of
us who seek beauty of pure form unaided by the cloying sweetness of
lavish detail. While most of the important Californian houses retained
their arrangement around an enclosed patio, the treatment of the sur
rounding arcades of that patio became simple in the extreme. Here, how
ever, due to the manufacturing prowess of the mission fathers, good roof
ing tiles were available and almost invariably Californian houses and all
their appendages were covered with ruddy "Mission" tiles.
The "desert" situation of Arizona, on the other hand, and the proxim
ity of Arizona to Sonora, served to ally the architectural expressions of
these two provinces and to give to them a certain "desert" quality which
recalls, perhaps more forcefully than anything else to be encountered in
America, the desert forms of Moorish North Africa. Here the roofs, al
ways a "crowning glory" in California, become flat and refuse to figure
in the perspective.
The Spanish houses of New Mexico vary from their prototypes in
Mexico and Spain more than any other of the Spanish Colonial types.
When the Spaniards conquered New Mexico they found a sedentary
Indian population, already living in cities, who had developed an appro
priate native architecture. Therefore, when the conquistadors employed
the native artisans to build houses, there resulted a new type of house,
half-Spanish, half- Indian, entirely unlike anything developed in other
Spanish colonies.
The New Mexican houses, while typically Spanish in plan, were just as
typically Indian in mass and outline. The general forms resemble the
terraced Pueblo Indian houses, building up into picturesque, natural
masses. But while the pure Pueblo houses were terraced to several floors,
the New Mexican Spanish types remained uniformly low and never ex
ceeded two stories. The great charm of this type is found in the interesting
way in which it reflects the natural geologic forms of its environment, its
almost invariably good proportions, and its picturesque flowing lines.
The "flowing" quality of line which asserts itself not only in the eleva
tions but also in the plans of the older New Mexican types probably came
about through the Indian's appreciation of nature's disregard for right
lines. He therefore shows no respect for them nor for mathematical right
angles. Thus his plans, as well as his masses, show many pleasant little
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 145
inexactnesses which impart to the house a quality of life that no mathe
matically accurate structure can possibly have. There is a human friend
liness in these houses, the rounded and softened lines of which were
stroked into place by the bare palms of the Indian masons who were called
in to execute them.
Our notions of Texan domestic architecture of the Hispanic period
come to us largely through an examination of the habitations erected in
connection with the Franciscan missions in and around San Antonio.
Here the building materials varied from adobe bricks to random-rubble
stonework. It is to be noted that many of the apartments in the mission
houses, like the mission churches themselves, were crowned by tunnel
vaults of masonry. Like the Arizona types, architectural forms here par
took of a "desert" quality as charming as it is rare in America.
Saint Augustine, with its old houses, city gates, plaza, and fort, serves
to give us our main information regarding early Spanish architecture in
Florida. The projecting balconies and tinted stucco of the houses, the
"tropical," as opposed to the "desert", feeling experienced in so much*bf
our southwestern Hispanic work, high walls of stone festoons of Spanish
moss, lolling wind-blown palm trees, varicoloured awnings, the glint of
a wrought-iron gate or grille, low-lying strands of sand, blue-green or
saffron-coloured shutters: these are some of the elements that go to make
up the picture.
And thus it is wherever we seek the handiwork of the Spanish artisan,
in America or in Spain, his forms are always conceived with regard to the
contrasts afforded by brilliant sunlight or deep shadow. This then is the
message of Spain's architecture, and he who would build in this fascinat
ing vogue must appreciate and abide by the ruling spirit of this sun-
begotten style.
WHAT MAKES SPANISH— SPANISH?1
Terrific heat, a burnt and barren landscape, and insects make it im
possible to enjoy nature out-of-doors in most parts of Spain. So the
Spaniards try to bring nature inside the house.
This they do by means of the patio, the little rectangular courtyard or
garden that forms the center of the home. In it a few shade trees are
rooted in the ground or are set in tubs. . A tiny fountain is in the center and
little streams trickle out of it to the various garden patches. These are
laid out in geometrical pattern with walks of brick, tile or gravel between.
Iron or stone benches (concrete would do) are placed in shady nooks.
' From Spanish-Italian Homes ("Home Builders' Library," No. 5; Architects' Small
House Service Bureau, Inc., 1927), PP- I~2-
I46 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
We in this country need not hoard nature in this careful way. But any
house in the Spanish style may have at least a high wall of brick, stucco
or whitewashed wood, enclosing a small formal garden and giving a
feeling of seclusion.
The Spanish house is built around the patio. On three or four sides of
it, facing the garden, is an open arcade on the ground-floor with a deep
balcony above. The columns holding up the balcony and the smaller ones
supporting the roof may be round, or square, of stone or brick, plain or
sheathed with stucco. The wide arches between them may be of plain
stucco or stone.
While the balcony overhead is usually plain, the arcade on the ground-
floor is one of the most beautiful parts of the Spanish house. Its floor is
of stone, brick or tile. Concrete or flagstones may be used, but some color
is desirable. One of the most beautiful effects may be obtained by wain
scoting the wall with glazed tile.
Here the owner's love for color may have full expression, for the glazed
tfte was brought to Spain by the Mohammedan invaders from North
Africa. Their religion prevented the use of human or animal forms in any
design; so their tile were "arabesque" patterns of blue, yellow, vermilion,
earth-red, black, green and other colors. Above this wainscot band the
wall and ceiling of the arcade are plastered or stuccoed with a palm-
finished surface. The doorways may be plain openings in the thick walls
or they may be surrounded by bands of tile.
There is at least one entrance to the patio on each side. All these are
from various rooms, except one which leads through a hall to the street-
door.
The roof is as near flat as the local rain- and snow-fall will permit. It
is of terra cotta tile, varied in color. Its eaves — those overhanging the
balcony of the patio, as well as those on the exterior — are wide, with the
wooden roof-beams exposed.
Walls are thick, built of brick or small stone and covered, in forty-nine
cases out of fifty, with stucco. This may be white, cream, buff or pink and
should be rough with a palm-finished surface. Because of the Spaniard's
secretive character, he made no attempt to beautify the exterior of his
home, but concentrated the decoration inside.
Windows are tiny openings in the thick walls. They may be round,
square or oblong. Usually they have no trim at all, though sometimes
they are surrounded by stone and often they are shuttered or barred with
iron. There is only one street door. It, too, is usually quite plain — a
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 147
heavy, studded plank affair hung in a deep wall-opening—but sometimes
it is surrounded by heavy slabs of stone which may be sculptured.
Few Americans would care to present a house-front as severe as this
to the world. To make it more charming, an iron lantern may be fastened
over the entrance. Or the window-bars may be developed into grilles.
Or the second-story windows may be enlarged into doors opening out onto
little iron-work balconies.
Now, as to the rooms. They are low and lighted principally from the
garden side. Each one is a simple rectangle in shape, opening into the two
« HSf
FIG. 17. — Adapted from Spanish-style architecture with characteristic stucco finish,
tile roof, and patio. (Copyright — Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc., House
Plan 5-6-30.)
rooms on either side of it. It will be noticed that until now very little has
been said about wood. The truth is that the Spaniards used little exposed
wood in either the exteriors or the interiors of their homes.
Floors are of tile, usually red or black. Walls are rough-plastered and
present large surfaces which may be partly covered with cloth or leather
hangings. Fireplaces are rather plainly treated. Doorways between rooms
may be either arched or square-topped, without decorative treatment or
surrounded by glazed tile. One of the most charming details may be the
stairways, in which the risers are faced with coloured tile while the treads
are of wood.
i48 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Spanish interiors are not cluttered up with knick-knacks. Their feeling
is of substantial usefulness. The Spaniard's house keeps closely to his
needs, and in adapting the style to modern American living conditions
the owner and designer will do best if they follow that principle rather
than straining for picturesqueness.
THE USE OF STYLE IN ARCHITECTURE
OF TODAY1
BY R. W. SEXTON
For many years it has been the custom of architects in this country in
solving their modern problems of design to seek inspiration (to put it
mildly) from the styles and periods of the past. During the last ten or
fifteen years the practice has been carried to extremes. Our architects
have not only designed in the style of five or six centuries ago, but frankly
allowed their efforts to be labeled with a tag bearing the inscription,
"Designed in the style of the Romanesque," "the early English," or "the
Spanish," as the case might be. The public generally took to this idea; it
seemed to give a building a certain distinction if it could be associated
with some historic style. Real-estate operators were quick to recognize
the sales value of a house with a "period label," and owners of all kinds
of buildings, including house owners, fell in line with the demand for
period designs.
The result was that if a house did not bear sufficient evidence in its
design of the influence of some one period to allow the owner to apply to
it the name of one of the old historic styles, that house was considered of
poor design and lacking in architectural value. It can readily be seen that
progress in architecture in this country was seriously handicapped by this
custom. The question of style overshadowed all else, individuality being
entirely lost sight of.
But the practice was not without benefit. Believing that to be versed
in architecture only an acquaintance with the styles and periods was
necessary, the public immediately began reading up on architectural
history. Now, although one cannot by mere reading master the art of
architecture, it is true that a real appreciation of beauty in architecture
was developed almost overnight.
But the unfortunate part of it is that now, in line with the present-day
tendencies in standardization and mass thinking, we are attempting to
1 Adapted from "The House of To-Day," House Beautiful, June, 1930. Reprinted by
permission from the House Beautiful magazine.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 149
standardize beauty in architecture by means of the perpetuation of the
old styles and periods. Thus it has come about that the styles and periods
have exerted a tremendous influence on the design of our houses during'
the last decade or more, and still do to-day. In fact many architects be
lieve that they always will. G. Edwin Brumbaugh, a Philadelphia archi
tect, has expressed the opinion that, as houses are ideally the intimate
expression of the owners' education and culture, it is difficult to dis
associate them entirely from the history of art. He himself feels that an
entirely new art, with no trace of the romance of history, would not con-
FIG. 1 8.— Interesting architectural treatment is shown in this Santa Barbara house
which won a prize in a local architectural competition.
tinue to satisfy him day in and day out. Arthur C. Holden, an architect
of New York, believes that because home surroundings and habits of life
are deeply intertwined with the traditions of the family, anything which
appears to sever these roots is apt to be looked upon as questionably
radical, and therefore not desirable.
It is very evident that the architects are unanimous in the opinion that
the period idea has been carried too far. They do not advocate turning
our backs on precedent and tradition and the history of art, but they are
aware that it is far more important that the design of a house be in good
proportion, that it be appropriate to its site, and that it reflect the indi
viduality of the owner, than that it merely conform to the character of
150 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
any one of the historic styles. They still seek inspiration in the past, but
instead of being slavishly imitative they are learning to be interpretative.
Frank J. Forster, an architect who specializes in domestic architecture,
points out that the circular tower on one of his recent houses was inspired
by one on an old French farmhouse and that the oriel window portrays
strikingly the influence of an early English manor house. An architect,
I claim, must be possessed with originality and creative ability so to inter
pret these old motives that they become a harmonious part of his own
composition.
But there are those who still cling to a period appellation. Mr. Forster
admits that he found it difficult to label this house to the client's satisfac
tion. Actually it is a modern house, because it expresses the ideas of a
twentieth-century architect and is adapted to twentieth-century needs.
Admittedly there are French and English influences in certain details,
but they are minor elements in the design. Is it not in reality more dis
tinctive to describe a house as "of stone," "in the woods," "on the side of
a hill," and so on, than to revert to such a stereotyped description as
"a house designed in the Early English style"? Described in the former
terms, the imagination is aroused, but with the latter nomenclature you
are led merely to open your style book to page, say, 88, entitled "Early
English," and your interest ends there.
These more important considerations, therefore, of material and adap
tation to site are the ones that are being emphasized more and more
When our architect talks to us in terms of stone, brick, stucco, or wood,
we really can follow him more easily than when he refers to styles and
periods. It requires only a sense of the fitness of things to understand
him when he says that on a woody site, such as ours, a brick house would
look out of place; and we comprehend him immediately when he states
that a formal house would not be suitable for our lot on the side of a hill.
Thus as we free ourselves from the constraint of period design, we learn
that design is best developed from the plan, and not contrariwise, as has
been too often the case in the past. For when we logically work out our
floor plan, first to meet our needs and serve our requirements and to con
form to the contour of the land, and then from it develop a design that
shall reflect our personal tastes and harmonize with the natural landscape,
we find that this design bears but slight resemblance to the architecture
of the old styles and periods. The fact that so much of the countryside
of Northeastern America is characterized by irregularity of contour leads
us toward more informality in house design than was evident in the days
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 151
when period architecture flourished. This tendency is seen, too, in the
fact that so many architects report that their clients prefer stone to all
other materials. For with stone is associated most commonly a low
rambling house, rugged in its details, in which the relation of house to
site is strongly accented.
It is probably true that Colonial architecture is still the inspiration for
the greater part of domestic architecture in all sections of this country
to-day. I attribute this to the fact that, as we grow older as a nation, we
recognize in the Colonial many of the traditions which the early history
of this country records. In other words, we think of it as preeminently
American. Then, too, Colonial architecture may reflect English, Spanish,
French, or Dutch ancestry without detracting from its Americanism. We
find the Colonial of New England quite different from that of Pennsyl
vania, and the Colonial of Virginia and the Carolinas bears little resem
blance to that of California. But each suggests the traditions associated
with Colonial days of American history in its locality
Another reason for the popularity of the Colonial is the fact that this
style is not exclusively identified with any one material. There are old
Colonial houses of stone, brick, wood, and even cement. Hence the house
owner may build his house in his favorite material and still cast it in the
Colonial mould.
What of the future trends? Do we see another style dominating as the
Colonial does to-day? For there are some people who are convinced that
fashion is based on a cycle, claiming that it is fashion which dictates at
any given time the popularity of one style of architecture over all others.
I take a rather different stand. I believe that once we have shaken off
European influence it will never return. Now that we have drawn away
from a purely superficial conception of period architecture, we are revert
ing to tradition for the best that it can furnish us in the interpretation of
function and setting. Our domestic architecture will continue to bear a
certain resemblance, not to any one style, but to many styles, for some
time to come. But it will sparkle with original ideas as it has never done
before. New materials will allow new forms, and old materials will be
found to lend themselves to a new manner of expression.
And what of the house in the "modern style"? Perhaps, as Mr. Brum
baugh says, after we get thoroughly accustomed to the new manner of
design which is seen in shops and office buildings, the modern style, as we
choose to call it, can be extended generally to apartments and finally to
152 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
houses. But it looks like a hard pull. However, I foresee a distinctive
American style of domestic architecture which I believe is now in the
making. Just when it will materialize, I, of course, cannot predict. It
depends upon how soon we come to understand that architecture is much
more than a book of styles or patterns from which each owner selects the
design he likes best. We shall then realize that a house may be well de
signed even though it cannot be described as being in the style of any one
of the historic periods. And we shall then appreciate the fact that a
house, though bearing evidence of the influence of the past, may still be
truly modern because the individuality of its twentieth-century owner has
been reflected in a design created by a twentieth-century architect.
THE FUTURE OF MODERNISM
The architects of the country seem to be divided in their opinion of the
lasting influence of modernism in architecture. However, Thomas E.
Tallmadge, in his article "Will This Modernism Last?"1 states:
This modern art, already established in our skyscrapers, will in my opinion
soon affect the design of our homes. Pretty soon some distinguished architect
will build in the modern manner a distinguished house for a distinguished
client It will give courage, with its cachet of authority, to many a timid
client and impatient architect, and a flood of houses in the same manner will
follow. Thus will this modernism become fashionable and so established in the
well-fortified realm of domestic architecture.
.... In the first place, the thirty -year duration of an architectural fashion is
spent, if we agree that our present period of eclecticism began with the World's
Fair in 1893, and in the second place the great half -millennial cycle of the
Renaissance era has also reached its close.
There are other more practical and sensible reasons. Architects and de
signers are sick and tired of the Renaissance and the other historic styles. Ber
tram Goodhue, the idol of the drafting-room, shortly before his death abandoned
the Gothic and embraced the new faith. Hood, Corbett, Holabird, Walker,
brilliant young luminaries in the architectural galaxy and all of them Beaux
Arts men, seem to be converts. The development of new materials, particularly
steel and reenforced concrete, demands new forms of expression. The automo
bile, the aeroplane, the radio, the cinema, have changed the tenor of our lives,
and have brought in their train demands for new and strange buildings.
Ralph Adams Cram in an article by the same title2 believes that the
modernism will not last in itself but that it will leave an influence for good.
1 In House Beautiful, January, 1929.
3 In ibid. Reprinted by permission from House Beautiful magazine.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
153
A number of architects have shown unrestricted expression in house
design and although these most unique developments have not become
common to any locality they undoubtedly show new possibilities in both
planning and equipment.
The "Dymaxion House" model, planned by R. Buckminster Fuller, has
been designed to show the possibilities of mechanics. This project repre
sents three years of study. It is a large octagonal affair built on a mast.
FIG. 19. — An example of modern architecture in Berlin, Germany. The triangu
lar window space provides for ample sun and light. (Photograph by courtesy of Cop
per & Brass Research Association.)
The outside walls are hollow, triangular panes of casein. The doors are
inflated and roll up when a button is pressed. The air is filtered of dust
and odors and always properly heated and humidified. The floors are
also inflated. Mechanical devices reduce housework to a few minutes a
day. The various decks are connected with an elevator running through
the mast. The first story is a combination garage and hangar. The second
story provides for the living quarters and the top deck for recreation and
play. The idea of the project is to develop a factory-made house, which
will cost only three or four thousand dollars and which may be installed
within a few hours.1
1 For further information on the "Dymaxion House" see Housing, March, 1930.
iS4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Houses which move on axes to allow sunshine to enter all rooms have
been erected in some parts of the country. In Germany a spherical sun
light house set up on concrete posts twenty or more feet above the ground
has been erected. The designer believes that in addition to a maximum
amount of sunlight and unobstructed view such houses will allow for
much wider streets.
3. Design of Small Houses
PRESENT-DAY SMALL-HOUSE ARCHITECTURE1
BY JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief of the Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
American domestic architecture is on the mend. The more ex
pensive houses are usually, designed by architects who specialize
in that kind of work, and are acknowledged to be the best in the
world. More operative builders appreciate the importance of good archi
tectural service and employ architects on their staff or as consultants. By
means of deed restrictions and other forms of control or influence, they
obtain architectural harmony in neighborhoods. The Architects' Small
House Service Bureau, with its regional divisions, an offshot of the Ameri
can Institute of Architects, has done a great deal to set higher standards
in the small house field. Its work, together with that of material manu
facturers and some of the commercial plan services, has interested more
architects in the design of small houses, a specialty in itself, and this has
all been encouraged by the wider publication and use of stock plans.
Building trade papers, and home-building periodicals, which have had a
striking increase in circulation during the past few years, and the home-
building pages of newspapers, have done much splendid work in encourag
ing interest in good design, and in cultivating public taste. Fine work has
been done also by various local groups such as the Community Arts
Association in Santa Barbara, and the bodies which encourage adherence
to historic traditions in some eastern towns.
Particular styles come, and have their vogue, and give way to others,
in the construction of new houses in various cities. English and pseudo-
English houses, and steeper roof slopes than formerly are now popular in
many parts of the country, but many southern and western cities favor
Spanish and Italian types.
1 Adapted from "New Trends in Home Design" (address before Homebuilders' and
Subdividers' Section, National Association of Real Estate Boards, June 26, 1929).
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 155
Probably more small houses of good architecture are being put up now
than for a century past. In a desire to please prospective owners, efforts
to present something out of the ordinary have been directed more to
wards adaptations of historic and provincial styles than to the pure exer
cise of the imagination which produced the so-called gingerbread orna
mentation and other features of our lamented architectural dark ages,
which still cast their shadows among us.
The small builder's organization is likely to be weak on the matter of
design. We asked a prominent subdivider whose developments are noted
for their good appearance how he got around this.1 He pointed out that
"control of the color, general type of the house, and its height above the
grade line of the property and its relation to the adjoining houses is
almost as important as good design. The effect of the treatment of the
kitchen door on adjoining properties; the effect of the height of side ter
race and lawn on adjoining homes, and the effect of some particular design
upon the already-established design of other houses in the block all should
be given consideration. We have had considerable difficulty in the hide
ous combinations of colors and particularly roof colors of various types of
manufactured materials. There are a lot of fundamental things such as
trying to group together homes of fairly comparative costs, keeping
bungalows out of two-story house districts and two-story houses out of
bungalow districts which all has an effect on the general appearance of the
neighborhood. Also even if the houses are well designed there are always
certain types that are more adaptable to certain topography than other
types. Also frontages of houses on corner lots may seriously injure adjoin
ing houses. We always try on corner lots to require the house to present
a good front on both streets and give particular consideration to the
effect of any design or arrangement of the house as to entrances, kitchen
door, garage doors, etc., on the surrounding lots or houses."
Some of these things are matters that can be covered by rules laid down
in writing in deed restrictions. The same developer also tries to set a
good example. "In our own property," he states, "we have endeavored
to encourage good design by building houses of all sizes ourselves as a
standard, hoping in this way to force the other builders into good design
in order to compete with us. I must admit that the public as a whole is
generally not very discriminating as to design and the builder of houses
that are bad architecturally frequently finds he can sell his homes as
1 Mr. Taylor refers here to a study made of small houses by The Division of Building
and Housing, U.S. Department of Commerce.
156 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
rapidly as well-designed houses. This enters into the whole question of
improvement in public taste in general, which is a long slow process."
Beyond that he states: "I think the main difficulty in small houses is
due to the fact that many builders do not employ an architect but simply
build from their own plans or from sketches prepared by their boss car
penters. We have greatly improved the situation by encouraging the use
of architects and have been able as a rule to show builders in our district
that a good architect will not increase their cost but will get a better
looking house, frequently eliminating unnecessary ornamentation, de
pending more on good lines. In some instances with such builders we
had to volunteer them architectural services with their first few houses
in order to convince them of this. We retain the approval of the plans of
all houses, large or small, and really go to considerable expense, having
our own architectural department check these plans and make sugges
tions. I realize that such a method is not very practical for developers of
subdivisions who do not have their own architectural staff. Many of
these subdividers would not be competent to pass on plans and would
probably not want to go to the expense of having an architect pass on
them. The whole matter is largely an educational one."
Other outstanding subdividers use the same method, or employ outside
architects to pass upon all plans for homes in their subdivisions. In other
places architectural juries are set up. In some cases, the men on them are
merely residents whose architectural judgment is not likely to be of high
caliber, and in others there is sometimes complaint that the suggestions of
the architects who are members are too costly to carry out. The whole
situation is gradually working toward a point where more and more
architects are becoming qualified to render consulting architectural service
in connection with small houses, whether as full time members of a staff,
or on a free basis
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND
SOUND CONSTRUCTION1
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director, Better Homes in America, Inc.
This article concerns four propositions: First, that most of the houses
which are still being built in America are needlessly inconvenient and
ugly and that there is great waste from too rapid depreciation; second,
that convenience, comfort and beauty actually pay the owner in dollars
1 In American Building Association News, March, 1929.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 157
and cents, as well as in happiness; third, that soundness of construction is
of importance both to the home-owner and to the community, and fourth,
that builders and home-owners can and should be better informed than
they now are on the principles of architectural design and construction.
It does not require a trans-continental trip or a training in art to con
vince one that a large proportion of the houses built during the last half
century are either uninteresting or actually hideous from the architectural
point of view. The good taste displayed by our colonial ancestors in the
building of their own homes has made the American Colonial styles of
architecture famous throughout the world for their good proportions,
simplicity, and dignity. These homes were also built so well that when
well located they command high prices today, after two or three centuries
of use.
But in the nineteenth century especially, standards of architectural
design fell off. The more pretentious houses carried too much ornamenta
tion or "gingerbread," and the less pretentious homes were like dry goods
boxes — just four sides and a roof, homely rather than home-like, and
often positively ugly. Ordinarily these houses did not have the advantage
of an architect's services, but were designed as well as constructed by the
builder. Now and then one comes across whole villages in which every
third or fourth house displays the handiwork of the same man, who per
haps built a hexagonal tower on top of each box-like house or ornamented
his porches, dormers or gables in some peculiar manner. Such houses seem
as out of place today as bustles and mutton-leg sleeves. Yet, though we
can change our fashions in clothes rapidly and make them over or consign
them to the attic or to "charity," old houses are not so easily disposed of,
and remain to spoil our landscapes and to depress community values.
A peculiar feature of difficulty is the narrow lot so characteristic of
American cities and their suburbs. It is almost impossible to build a beau
tiful detached house on a lot that is only 25 feet wide and still allow ample
light and air at the sides. One essential principle of architectural beauty
is that the width of a house shall be greater than its height, for only in
this way will it fit in with the horizon line in a way that will please the eye.
But on the narrow lot the height almost inevitably exceeds the width, and
a street of such houses looks like a row of irregular teeth which need the
attention of a dentist.
As rural builders are apt to make use of the types of architecture which
are fashionable in cities, high narrow houses have been built all over the
farm districts of the western states, even though they cannot be justified
iS8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
by the excuse that the lot is narrow and that land is dear. When well
sheltered by trees such houses may, of course, be very homelike and
attractive, but it is much more difficult for nature to hide the mistakes
made by man in our cities. The result is that when we show our town to
visiting dignitaries or to our relatives we do not take them to the industrial
quarters or to the regions of modest homes, where the great majority of
our population live, but only to the residential quarters of the very well-
to-do, where houses by virtue of their size and the fortunate use of the
services of architect and landscape architect are likely to be much more
creditable.
Standards of construction declined at about the same period in which
architecture fell off, though perhaps a bit later, for the type of house with
the mansard roof was ordinarily well built and yet marked a decline in
architectural taste. The use of less enduring materials for the construc
tion of frame houses doubtless bore some relation to the progressive de
pletion of our forests, for as timber became more expensive the tendency
to use less of it and to use lower grades of lumber increased. But more
striking still was the factor of poor workmanship. For as our cities grew
rapidly following the industrial revolution, it became profitable for
builders to put up large numbers of houses to sell to any comer instead of
building houses to order. The desire to make quick profits outstripped
pride in craftsmanship and hence houses were slapped together, painted
up attractively, and equipped so that they would look well to intending
purchasers and sold before the period of depreciation had set in.
The speculative builder's chief interest was to unload as quickly as
possible so that he could get his capital free to build more houses. The
purchaser seldom knew the difference between a house that was well
built and one that was poorly built, or else had no choice, since all houses
were poorly built. After a year or two he would notice signs of poor con
struction, the roof would begin to leak, clapboards would spring loose,
coal bills would be unduly high from defects in the heating system, and
so on. Though the initial price which he paid for the house might not have
seemed excessive, his bills for up-keep were surprisingly high. Often his
income did not grow rapidly enough to make it possible for him to keep the
house in good repair. Whole neighborhoods suffered depreciation of
property values because of the failure of certain individuals to paint their
houses or to repair sagging porches, hanging gutters, and broken steps.
Sound construction as well as good design is therefore the concern of
the whole community. Civic interest should stimulate community leaders
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 159
to take measures which will protect their city or village from eye-sores
and from rapid depreciation. This, however, is merely the negative phase
of our program. For it is possible and desirable as well to undertake posi
tive measures for the development of civic beauty in residential sections.
Better Homes in America, Inc., which was established in 1922 with the
help of Herbert Hoover, who until now has served as president of its
Board of Directors, was organized largely for this very purpose. Its
primary interest is the promotion of single family housing and home own
ership, but with insistence everywhere that the homes to be built shall
be better homes in every sense of the word— better in design, in landscap
ing, in construction, in equipment, in furnishing and in the opportunities
that they offer for the development of wholesome home life
The programs promoted by Better Homes in America have been de
signed primarily to reach the consumers of houses rather than their pro
ducers. It takes time to convey the essential information to an entire
nation but unquestionably this and other movements are making im
portant contributions to the development of discrimination in buying
and to a demand on the part of home-owners and home buyers for better
architectural design and better construction.
The producers or builders of houses should, however, also be reached
and be helped to see their responsibility for the maintenance and develop
ment of high standards. This argument has been most effectively stated
by the secretary of the Massachusetts Association of Real Estate Boards,
Mr. Reginald Mott Hull, of Boston, in a recent address, as follows:
Good taste seems to me to be permanently good. Styles in architecture be
come popular and sometimes their popularity passes, but if a given style has
been developed with good line and proportion, and later its popularity passes,
the sum total of good taste has been increased and property built in that style
with good taste has acquired a value which will be permanent. On the other
hand, while bad taste is bad enough when the house is new, when it is old and
the fad has passed the depreciation in the property is accentuated, and in
creased, and the more houses that are badly built in that style, the more over
whelming is the ultimate loss.
One level-headed real estate man with whom I have discussed this matter
comes back at me with the remark, "The bad ones are sold," to which my reply
is that the public does not often have a chance to buy small houses built in good
taste.
Another reply is that everyone does not want the same kind of house, and the
fact that these houses in poor taste are bought is that somebody likes them. My
160 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
reply is that the public should have the choice between good styles, of architec
ture, but not between good and bad examples of a style, and I believe that given
the choice between a house of good architecture, or of bad, of the same price,
most people would take the good. Also, taste being a matter of individual de
velopment, the more well-designed houses there are on the market, the better
educated public taste would become.
From the standpoint of the purchaser of small houses an important matter is
the resale value. The man building a house of six rooms is likely to put a large
part or all of his savings into it. If in the future when he sells, the style has
changed and he has a house in bad taste as well, he is likely to lose money which
might have been saved. Any new house may catch a purchaser when the paint
is fresh, the lawn newly graded and the house is clean. It is in the old house,
run down and unpainted, where the contrast is strongest. Then, if in addition
to the depreciation there is bad architecture, little except land value is left.
If the well-designed house can be sold, re-sold and mortgaged better, self-
preservation will force the speculative builder to use good plans, good construc
tion and reasonable financing.
4. The Architect
THE DUTIES OF THE ARCHITECT1
The employment of a professional adviser has been proved of value
both economically and aesthetically.
Financially, the architect should be able to save his fee to the owner by
suggesting economies in planning, in construction, and in the use of the
materials which will not detract from the essential requirements. This
is due to his experience in handling similar work and his training and
familiarity with the building-market. Some of the simplest examples are
in the grouping of flues to save chimneys; or in the placing of the plumbing
fixtures on the different floors so as to save piping for supplies, wastes, and
vents; or again by specifying those materials which are most available or
wear best under local conditions.
From the artistic point of view the architect should either recommend
to the owner the type of design best suited to the individual and the
locality, or, if the owner has already determined in his own mind the
character of house to be erected, he should be able to point out and elimi
nate defects, and at the same time further develop the individuality to be
expressed, and emphasize the attractive features. His assistance in this
case is particularly valuable, for from flat drawings he can visualize the
1 From the House Beautiful Building Annual, 1925. (Boston: Atlantic Monthly
Press, 1925), pp. 1-4.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 161
house that is to be built; he senses the relationship of plans and elevations
and so does not unwittingly place a second-story fireplace over the
middle of the parlor ceiling, or make similarly awkward arrangements.
He can analyze the special effect of age or richness his client desires, and
point out how it may be produced by some small change in surface texture
or by modulation of color. The width of a stone joint, or the proportions
of a wood stair may signify as wide a difference between the best and
"good enough" as between a Corot and a chromo.
In selecting the architect, both his artistic qualifications and his busi
ness ability must be considered. The best way to determine them is by
judging the houses he has built and by talking to his former clients
The terms of employment should be frankly discussed at the beginning,
no matter how close a friendship already exists between the interested
parties. The amount of the fee and the services to be rendered should be
agreed upon, even to such details as the terms covering abandonment of
the project, or the point in the preparation of the drawings — say, when
the working-plans are started — after which the cost of redrawing radical
changes shall be paid for by the owner.
It will facilitate the work of the architect and all future dealings with
him if the owner can come to a definite and candid understanding not
only as to the terms of employment, but also as to the limitations of size,
quality, and cost for the new building. There is a common belief that an
architect will make a house cost more than the owner can afford to spend;
but this is not so. If the budget is carefully prepared, .... this can be
avoided; but all the facts must be faced as frankly as a patient would ex
plain his symptoms to his doctor, and the limit of expenditures must be
recognized from the beginning.
After the first conference of the owner with his architect, a clear under
standing should be had as to what services are to be expected from the
architect and what his remunerations are to be.
His commission may vary on a domestic design from 6 per cent (the
architect's minimum "living wage") for a house costing $10,000 or over,
without unusual features or much ornamentation, to 10 per cent or more
for a very small house, or for one where a great deal of special work is
involved. This sliding scale is necessary, as the time required by the de
signer and specification-writer is almost as great on a building costing
$10,000 as on one costing $15,000. There are no more types of doors and
windows to be drawn out with full-size sections, the detailed written
description of the materials is no more complicated, and the client will
162 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
expect as many hours of conference; for, after all, to him it is the most
important house in seven counties. Many architects who have reached
preeminence in domestic design charge 12 per cent or 15 per cent on all
their work, as the demand for their services justifies the increased rate.
On the other hand, if the owner does not wish to pay the customary com
mission he will get no more than he pays for
If unusual engineering requirements are involved, whether in the struc
ture or in the mechanical equipment — such as bridging quicksand or an
individual sewage-disposal system, requiring the advice of a specialist —
the additional fee is paid for by the owner; but this is not likely to occur
in a house of medium size.
In the purchase of furniture or special objects of art under the direction
of the architect, a fee of about 10 per cent is customary.
On completion of the preliminary sketches, one-fifth of the total esti
mated fee is due the architect; on completion of the working drawings
and specifications, an additional two-fifths; and the remaining two-fifths
as the work progresses.
If radical changes are made, causing the redrafting of plans already
prepared, or if the project is abandoned, the services of brain and hand
which have been rendered in good faith should be paid for. The basis
may be as outlined in the paragraph above, or on an hourly basis, as
shown by the architect's office books.
The architect's definite duties, aside from being the guide, philosopher,
and friend of the owner, are to consult with his client in preparing the
preliminary sketches and estimates; to make full working drawings and
specifications; to obtain estimates; and, after passing upon them with
the owner, to draw up the contracts. At all convenient times he is at the
service of his client for consultation. He must make small-scale and full-
size detail drawings; and the more of these included in the estimating
drawings the better. After the contract is signed he supervises the con
struction, and he certifies to the amount and time when payments are
due the contractor. Finally, after a last painstaking inspection, he passes
upon the completion of the building in relation to the contract, which
includes the written agreement, the drawings, and the specifications.
The architect is the agent of his client throughout the progress of the
work, and it is his duty to see that the owner's interests are protected, not
only in so far as the quality of the design or materials is concerned, but
also in drawing up the legal documents and checking the financial
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 163
arrangements. After the contract with the builder is signed by the owner,
the architect must act also as the expert who passes judgment as to
whether the agreement is being properly executed, and therefore he must
also pass on the relationship between the owner and the contractor as well
as on that between the builder and his subcontractors.
Occasionally a prospective home-builder will wish to employ an archi
tect with the idea that a few sketch plans and elevations are all that are
required; but it should be remembered that, in addition to this, it is
essential to have careful working-drawings and detailed specifications;
first, that the owner may know exactly what is contemplated, and may
get accurate information on the cost before the work starts; second, that
the estimators may figure closely; third, to avoid the danger of extras
at a later date; and fourth, to ensure the avoidance of mistakes or mis
understandings in the coordination of the many trades which will take
part in the construction.
No one would build an automobile from the beautiful colored drawing
and brief description in a magazine advertisement, or expect to create a
dressmaking triumph from a fashion plate if he knew nothing of mate
rials and fittings. Yet many a prospective house-owner will expect to
build his own home, a more expensive and permanent investment than
either car or cloak, from a small perspective and two sketch-plans, leav
ing the details to any stray carpenter. And it is those carefully studied
detail-sheets over which the architect must labor that give the final
touch of line and grace, of strength and character.
In describing the architect's duties, reference was made to preliminary
sketches in contradistinction to the working drawings.
Sketches or studies may be small and simple, but even then can serve
as an indication of the grouping of all the elements of the plan and the
essentials of the artistic treatment. These can be altered, amended, or
even redrawn with comparative ease. The very fact that the studies are
not precise leaves the imagination free and the mind more open to sug
gestions. It is like fitting a dress before the seams are sewed.
Working-drawings must be made on a larger scale, preferably with one-
quarter of an inch equaling one foot, or, as it is called, "quarter-scale."
With the preliminary sketches two floor diagrams and a freehand per
spective may suffice; but for working-drawings all the floor plans and the
roof, all the facades, and several sections should be drawn out with the
materials indicated, and with explicit dimensions noted on all the sheets.
164 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Details like the swing of doors, location of light fixtures and push buttons,
headroom under stairs, and rainwater conductors should at this stage all
have been carefully considered and noted. The working-drawings should
also include, even in the estimating stage, details of the exterior and
interior on the scale of \" or J" = i'.
Such sheets require much time and skilled labor. Changes which in
themselves appear slight may involve rearrangements of supports or
piping, doors or stairways, on each plan, section, and elevation, and cause
a considerable added expense to the architect. When plans are redrawn
at this stage owing to the client's new ideas, he should pay for the cost
of the unforeseen labor to which the architect has been put.
Specifications which accompany preliminary drawings need be only
one or two typewritten pages, listing the most important materials in the
walls, floors, and roof, and a line or two on the heating, plumbing, and
electric wiring. Working specifications, however, should cover explicitly
all the- materials which are to be included in the construction and the
method of installing and finishing them. For example, if brick walls are
called for, the common and face brick, their bonding and jointing must be
described; their protection during erection from frost, rain, and drought
and their pointing and cleaning-down noted; the character of the sand,
cement, lime, and coloring matter, and the method of mixing the mortar,
and the tests and restrictions must be fully covered; the preparation of
samples and the building in of door and window frames, outside brackets,
interior framing, nailing blocks for applied woodwork, flashing, and so
forth, all included, if the specifications are to be really complete.
The specifications should clearly differentiate which part of the work
belongs to any trade ; they should be arranged in the general sequence the
construction is to follow, and should be presented paragraph by para
graph, for ease of reference and to avoid misunderstandings on the job.1
After the contract is let, full-size details are prepared, by the architect,
of doors and windows, balusters, cornices, mantels, and the like. The true
artistic quality of the whole design may depend on these drawings,
whether it is the delicate refinement of the Colonial period or the daring
richness of the Spanish Renaissance. A crude entrance doorway may ruin
a well-proportioned house, or a charming fireplace may "make" a living
room.
Shop drawings, based on the architect's plans, are made by the con
tractor and may be called for from any one of the various trades as needed.
1 For further information on specifications see pp. 189-94.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 165
Their purpose is to show any particular information which should be
checked before actual execution is under way — such as a jointing schedule,
if there is a stone portico, or assembly sheets for metal work if there are
iron balconies, and similar diagrams depending on the scope of the work.
As soon as the contractor takes possession of the site, the architect's
supervision begins. This need not be continuous, as the importance of
inspection varies with each part of the construction. For instance, in
concrete work, each batch which is mixed and poured may be defective.
Unless both the contractor and his foreman are reliable and painstaking,
the architect must give almost constant supervision, because, the material
once poured, it is difficult to detect faults or remedy them if found. On
the other hand, in placing the floor timbers, a quarter of an hour's inspec
tion can check a week's work by the carpenter. A mistake in spacing or
sizes can be readily seen and the correction ordered.
The better the general contractor and the better his chance of making
a reasonable profit out of the job, the less need there is of a close and
critical supervision by the owner and architect. This is a consideration
the owner must bear in mind when placing the contract, not allowing
himself to be governed entirely by the prices submitted.
Inspection is by no means merely police duty. The architect and owner
should treat the contractor as an ally rather than as a natural enemy. A
friendly spirit of mutual give-and-take will expedite the work and stimu
late the builder to make minor concessions beyond the letter of the con
tract.
Payments by an owner are made only on the written recommendations
of the architect, who submits them monthly as the work progresses. Be
fore construction begins, the contractor should submit to the architect a
schedule showing how the total cost in the agreement is to be subdivided.
.... This itemized schedule serves to check the applications for pay
ment, which are subdivided in the same manner. For example, the amount
asked for on the value of the labor and material for brickwork incorpo
rated in the building, compared to the total amount originally assigned
to that trade in the schedule, can be checked approximately by comparing
the brickwork already completed with that required for the entire build
ing.
[NOTE.— The Illinois Society of Architects has divided the services of the architects
into five fundamental functions: (i) the making of preliminary studies which is in
reality the diagnosis of building problems, (2) preparation of the working drawings, (3)
preparation of specifications which cover all items of information, (4) detail drawings,
(5) general supervision of the work.]
i66 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
SUMMARY
Certain forms in building have come to express certain social functions.
Proportion, balance, rhythm and harmony, contrast and scale — all are
essential factors in the consideration of architecture. The forces that
change architecture from one style to another are new materials, new
modes of construction, and the rise of new social habits. Form and func
tion, beauty and use, are coupled together in every good piece of archi
tecture. The correct use of materials and forms which are also essential
for beauty vary with both locality and climate.
Each architectural style has its definite characteristics, although a
house of pure architectural style rarely is found. These various styles
which have been used in America have been adapted to meet the needs
in this country and adapted also for the section of the country in which
they are located. The styles most common in domestic architecture are
Colonials and adaptations of English, French, Spanish, and Italian. De
sign, however, is best developed from plan and not plan from design,
therefore if the house meets the family's needs and requirements, it often
does not even resemble a style. Few small houses are planned by archi
tects, but through the work of such organizations as the Architects' Small
House Service Bureau, better architectural service by operative builders,
and appreciation of the value of good architecture by the general public,
small-house architecture has improved.
The most satisfying houses architecturally, undoubtedly, are those
which are designed by architects. The important functions of the archi
tect are: (i) to make preliminary studies, (2) to prepare working-draw
ings, (3) to prepare specifications, (4) to prepare supplementary and de
tailed drawings, (5) to supervise the work generally.
REFERENCES
I. HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS (Committee on Education). The Sig
nificance of the Fine Arts. Boston: Marshall Jones Co.: 1926.
General information on architecture (pp. 183-242).
BARMAN, CHRISTIAN. Architecture. New York: Jonathan Cape & Harrison
Smith, 1929.
EDGELL, GEORGE HAROLD. The American Architecture of To-Day. New York:
C. Scribner's Sons, 1928.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 167
FENN, AMOR. Design and Tradition. London: Chapman & Hall, 1920.
Historic review of architecture: Discusses characteristics of Egyptian, Greek, Ro
man, Byzantine, Gothic, English, Early French, Romanesque, English Renaissance
(pp. 16-137).
FRANKL, PAUL T. New Dimensions. New York: Payson & Clarke, Ltd., 1928.
Modernism in American city architecture (pp. 52-57).
GOODNOW, RUBY Ross, and ADAMS, RAYNE. The Honest House. New York:
Century Co., 1914.
GREELEY, WILLIAM ROGER. The Essence of Architecture. New York: D. Van
Nostrand Co., 1927.
Discussion of principles governing architectural composition, proportion, unity, and
balance.
HAMLIN. TALBOT FAULKNER. The Enjoyment of Architecture. New York: C.
Scribner's Sons, 1921.
The architect's materials, treatment of walls, types of roofs, doorways, windows,
chimneys (pp. 73-110); the social value of architecture (pp. 298-333).
HITCHCOCK, HENRY RUSSELL. Modern Architecture. New York: Payson &
Clarke. Ltd.. 1929.
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
JONES, ROBERT T. (ed.). Small Homes of Architectural Distinction. New York:
Harper & Bros., 1929.
Contains designs and floor plans of houses from three to six rooms in size.
KIMBALL, SIDNEY FISKE. American Architecture. Indianapolis and New York:
Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1928.
KIMBALL, SIDNEY FISKE, and EDGELL, GEORGE HAROLD\ A History of Archi
tecture. New York: Harper & Bros., 1918.
Colonials in North and South; New England and Pennsylvania architecture after
the Revolution; Gothic revival (pp. 524-87). Excellent table included on periods of
architecture.
LETHABY, WILLIAM RICHARD. Form in Civilization: Collected Papers on Arts
and Labour. London: Oxford Univer ity Press, 1922.
Influence of architecture on all classes of people (pp. 7-16).
MEAD, MARCIA. Homes of Character. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1926.
MUMFORD, LEWIS. Architecture. Reading with a Purpose, No. 23. Chicago:
American Library Association, 1926.
"Form in Modern Architecture," Architecture, LX (September, De
cember, 1929), 125-28, 313-16.
Sticks and Stones: A study of American Architecture and Civilization.
New York: Boni & Liveright, 1924.
i68 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
POND, DEWITT CLINTON. "For a Better Appreciation of the Art of Architec
ture," Scribners, LXXIII (February, 1923), 251-56.
Excellent general article on what constitutes beauty in architecture and the need for
more attention to this art.
PRICE, CHARLES MATLACK. The A B C of Architecture. New York: E. P.
Button & Co., 1927.
Architectural terms (pp. 77-86); history of architecture (pp. 89-192).
ROBINSON, L. EUGENE. Domestic Architecture. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1921.
SEXTON, RANDOLPH WILLIAMS. Interior Architecture. New York: . Architectural
Book Publishing Co., 1927.
TALLMADGE, THOMAS EDDY. The Story of Architecture in America. New York:
W. W. Norton & Co., 1927.
WICKERS, H. E. The Design of the Kansas Home. Bull. 19. Manhattan: Kansas
State Agricultural College, 1927. Pp. 84.
YOUTZ, PHILIP N. Sounding Stones of Architecture. New York: W. W. Norton
& Co., 1929.
2. ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
ARCHITECTS' SMALL HOUSE SERVICE BUREAU, INC. Colonial Homes; English
Homes; Spanish Homes; Modern American Homes. Minneapolis: The Bu
reau, 1930.
Sixteen-page pamphlets: House designs and plans.
Architectural Forum, XLIV (March, 1926), 137-216.
Small-house reference number. Contains excellent information and also illustrations
of houses of various architectural styles.
CHANDLER, JOSEPH EVERETT. The Colonial House. New York: Robert Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
Excellent for characteristics of Colonial style and periods illustrating changes.
EMBURY, AYMUR II. The Livable House. (Out of print.) Livable House Series,
Vol. I. New York: Moffat Yard & Co., 1917.
The choice of styles; discusses Italian, English, and Colonials (pp. 35-81).
GARRISON, GEORGE RICHARD. Mexican Houses. New York: Architectural
Book Publishing Co., 1930.
NEWCOMB, REXFORD. The Spanish House for America: Its Design, Furnishing
and Garden. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1927.
PRICE, CHARLES MATLACK. The Practical Book of Architecture. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1916.
English derivations — early and modern (pp. 132-56). Discusses English influence
on American houses. Contains excellent photographs.
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 169
WHITE, CHARLES ELMER. Successful Houses and How To Build Them. New
York: Macmillan Co., 1927.
Style in architecture (pp. 25-42).
3. ILLUSTRATIONS FOR STUDY OF DESIGN
CHENEY, SHELDON. The New World Architecture. New York: Longmans,
Green & Co., 1930.
HUBBELL, LUCY EMBURY (ed.). The Book of Little Houses. Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927.
Excellent illustrations for the study of exterior designs.
JONES, ROBERT T. (ed.). Small Homes of Architectural Distinction. New York:
Harper & Bros., 1929.
MEAD, MARCIA. Homes of Character. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1926.
POWER, ETHEL B. The Smaller American House. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
1927.
Plans and illustrations of selected houses.
PRICE, CHARLES MATLACK. The Practical Book of Architecture. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1916.
SEXTON, RANDOLPH W. (comp.). American Country Houses of To-Day. New
York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1930.
Small Home (monthly publication). Minneapolis, Minn.: Architects' Small
House Service Bureau, Inc. (1200 Second Ave., S.).
Excellent for study of small-house design.
TAUT, BRUNO. Modern Architecture. London: The Studio, Ltd. (44 Leicester
Square, W.C. 2), 1929.
WEAVER, LAWRENCE. The "Country Life" Book of Cottages. London: Country
Life, 1919.
Excellent for architectural design.
WEYERHAUSER FOREST PRODUCTS. A Dozen Modern Small Houses. St. Paul,
Minn.: Weyerhauser Forest Products, 1922.
Folder containing four-page pamphlets. Illustrations of various styles.
CHAPTER V
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS
THE PLAN OF THE HOUSE
A competent architect should be capable not only of producing an
artistic and pleasing exterior design suitable for its particular site but he
should be able also to develop a convenient, attractive, and straight
forward house plan. It is obvious that the plan governs to a large extent
the exterior design and the particular architectural style. Too often the
prospective home-owner makes the mistake of visualizing the house plan
and the exterior design as unrelated while in reality they should be
developed together and each should express the other.1 After the site is
selected the plan doubtless should be the next consideration, and it should
be developed with the exterior design in mind. The first consideration in
developing the plan is obviously the amount of money to be spent. The
following then should be considered: (i) Size and make-up of the family;
(2) activities to be carried on in the household; (3) needs and desires of
individual members; (4) the site on which the house is to be built; (5)
beauty and attractiveness in development; (6) placement of furniture.
Some progress has been made in house-planning, particularly in the
planning of small and inexpensive homes. Scientific investigations and
experiments on ventilation and the value of sunlight, time studies and
1 In some of the new planning experiments the exterior design has been made sub
servient to comfort and convenience and the house has been built around the plan.
Such a project exhibited in Paris is described in the following paragraphs :
"What probably will be the most curious street in Paris for many years to come was
opened recently by the French Minister of Commerce, the Prefect of the Seine and the
Prefect of Police.
"The street consists entirely of houses built on the most approved principles of hy
giene and in the plans which recall some ultra-modern exposition of decorative art rather
than the staid, uniform apartment houses of Paris.
"Situated in a district of Auteuil, which has retained its century-old trees and still
boasts of many open spaces, the new. street has been named rue Mallet-Stevens, after
the distinguished French architect who designed this experiment in house construction.
"Seen from the outside the buildings present an entirely different aspect from
those in the surrounding streets. Balconies, windows in rows and sloping roofs have dis
appeared. Stories are undefined, some being higher or lower than the adjoining ones.
170
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 171
fatigue studies of household operations, and a better knowledge of the
requirements of individuals have raised the standards of houses. Many
are now being planned with consideration for cross ventilation in bed
rooms and kitchen, good circulation of air throughout, sunlight in every
room whenever possible, convenient arrangement of rooms, and wall and
floor finishes and built-in equipment that will eliminate all possible labor.
Consideration also is given to rooms that are pleasing in proportion and
with a desirable outlook.
WHAT IS GOOD PLANNING?1
BY ARTHUR C. HOLDEN
Architect
A well-planned home is a home so thought out and so put together that
the things that have to be done may be done with the least possible irrita
tion and monotony. At the same time the well-planned home should
stimulate those human faculties whose culture makes for racial progress.
Expressed in a few terse words, the ideal house is one where the vexations
that make the human spirit mean and ugly are lessened and those influ
ences which make the human spirit large and beautiful are increased. The
house that is really well planned should serve both these ends.
There is, however, apparently considerable confusion in the public
mind about the whole business of house planning. So many houses which
have been called beautiful have been found to be so utterly impractical,
Windows are of huge size, and more like those of some modern factory than of a private
home.
"The architect's idea was to make architecture subservient to comfort. The houses
are, as it were, built from inside outward. When the rooms are large and airy, the win
dows are proportionately wide and high. But there is nothing hideous about these
dwellings. The outer openings are painted in all colors blending harmoniously with the
gray of the walls.
"And once inside the houses of this queer street one realizes that the architect had
some far better purpose than building an elegant frontage. He built his house from the
inside out. He has tried to make a street of habitable dwellings, convenient, airy, full
of light, easy to work in, comfortable and harmonious.
"The oddness of the outside does not appear at all indoors. The doors, windows and
stairways are planned so as to give the maximum convenience. These houses are built
for living in, .... There is nothing superfluous" ("Cubist Houses in Paris," Housing,
March, 1928, published by the National Housing Association).
1 Adapted from "What Is Good Planning?" House Beautiful, January, 1930. Re
printed by permission from the House Beautiful magazine.
i72 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
and the usual run of houses which are considered practical are in reality
so tawdry and uninspiring that the public has well-nigh come to believe
that the two elements are irreconcilable.
It would be far nearer to the truth to admit that the business of design
ing our homes has been in the hands of people who have been incapable.
In spite of the twentieth century's progress in the development of great
steel-frame and reenforced-concrete structures, comparatively little prog
ress has been made in the design of homes for any except those who can
afford to pay well. Possibly the reason lies in the fact that the best brains
have been monopolized to design the larger buildings, and it has been left
to anyone at all to design the average run of homes. It has been assumed
that the man who put the house together could work out his own design.
If plans are a help to him and save him time, then get someone who knows
how to draw to make the plans. Teach a boy to draft and call him an
architect. Then, because everyone else is busy, let him design the homes
for the nation. The vast majority of homes are seemingly executed in
just this way.
Nevertheless there are forces at work which have already exerted a
great influence toward the improvement of home planning. It is naturally
worth our while to find out what these forces are so that we may use our
influence to encourage their growth. But there is more to it than that.
The public has been merely taking what it could get, principally because
it had very little idea that anything better was possible, and only con
fused ideas as to what good home planning really means. The public ap
parently has unbounded enthusiasm for what the radio and aeroplane
may accomplish, but expects very little in the way of home improvement,
except perhaps for the addition of some labor-saving machinery. It is just
this confusion and lack of information on the part of the public as to what
is possible as well as desirable in planning that keep the public at the mer
cy of bad planning.
' First of all most people think of good planning in too limited a sense.
Their idea of a house is likely to be favorable if that house escapes the
faults that have been causing them inconvenience. We all know what the
usual inconveniences are : Bad repair, cramped quarters, lack of sunlight,
and too much drudgery. When the average man or woman who has been
suffering because the, building was in bad repair walks into a new house
with paint that shines and fittings that glisten, ten to one he will take
the house just because of its newness. The family that has lived in
cramped quarters thinks principally of size and roominess, while the city
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS
FIG. 20. — The five-room cottage and floor plan (Fig. 21) which received the Better
Homes gold medal in the National Better Homes architectural competition of 1930.
Note the room arrangement providing opportunity for ample light and sun. (Photo
graph by Haight.) (Mrs. William Brown Meloney, founder of Better Homes of Amer
ica, donor of medal.)
FIG. 21.— Cottage on estate of Mr. William R. Dickinson, Hope Ranch Park,
Santa Barbara, Calif. (Reginald D. Johnson, architect.)
174 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
dweller who has been cooped up in a dark flat seeks anything with sun
light and space around it. Then again when the tired housewife finds a
home offered complete with a dishwasher and laundry machinery, she will
want it almost irrespective of other considerations.
It is not easy to describe a well-planned house. That is one reason why
so many people live in houses that are anything but well planned. A
family's method of living often determines the plan. Many types of ex
cellent plans are suitable only for establishments where servants can be
counted on. As we are primarily considering the small house, we shall
only say here that the man who wants a small house must forego certain
features, such as a central hall running through the house, or a broad
staircase, or an excessive number of rooms, which are naturally the part
of large-scale planning.
In the first place economy of space is most important. The halls should
provide access to the rooms in the most direct manner possible. At least
one bathroom should be easily reached from the second-floor hall. Bed
rooms should have cross ventilation. The living room should have access
to the view, the sunlight, and the prevailing breeze, and also access to
that part of the grounds where the out-of-door life is to be lived. The
dining room and the kitchen should have morning sun, if possible, and the
kitchen should have cross ventilation at all costs. It is desirable to have
the out-of-door terrace or porch so situated that there is direct access
from it to both the dining room and living room. It is ideal to have what
architects call circulation between living room, dining room, and outside
terrace, so that a person in each case may pass directly from one to either
of the other two.
The size of the living room can be increased by suppressing the hall or
omitting it altogether, so that one enters directly into the living room.
In this case the main entrance, the stairs, and the entrance to the other
rooms on the ground floor must be so arranged that the living room re
mains livable, and does not become merely a thoroughfare.
The situation of the kitchen is often exceedingly difficult in the small
house. The old idea was that, of course, the kitchen must be placed at the
back somewhere, but particularly since the days of the automobile the
rear has been found to be frequently the most livable part of the grounds,
so that modern planning is tending to put the kitchen at the side or even
in the front. This permits easy access from kitchen to front door without
wasteful hall space or without passing through dining room or living
room.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 175
The old idea of the rear yard as a proper place for the stable accustomed
us to placing the garage in the same location, in spite of the fact that the
problem is entirely different. For this reason miles of needless side roadways
have been built, and the privacy and desirability of the rear areas have
been destroyed. The only valid argument against placing the garage at
the front or side is that the doors when open are unsightly. As yet we have
not succeeded in working out a door treatment which will not tend to
throw the rest of the house out of scale, but the logic of the location on
the street front is incontrovertible.
It is almost incredible what a number of schemes of arrangement are
possible for the small house. We can do little more than touch on general
principles. First there is the square plan or short rectangle, which is com
pact and by some considered the most economical. Where there are four
principal rooms on the second floor each can have corner ventilation,
but through ventilation is not as good as in the Z plan or the "long" plan
unless the house is small, in which case of course three-sided ventilation
can be obtained without difficulty.
The long plan is generally the result of adding one or more wings to
the square types. One wing generally contains the service rooms. Diffi
culty is usually encountered in providing access to the wings. Long halls
are always undesirable. Only occasionally, and then only for some special
advantage to be gained, should they be tolerated in the small house.
Frequently a long plan is necessitated by reason of the narrow shape of the
lot. It is a sad commentary on the ingenuity of American real-estate
promoters that this difficulty is so prevalent. The plan is worked out on
the theory that there is light and air on all four sides, but the house is fre
quently placed within three or four feet of the lot line so that the interior
rooms are usually dark. There is no excuse for this type of plan. Where
land is so valuable that lots of forty feet minimum width are not economic
for the single house, it is best to recognize that an avowedly city type of
row house or multifamily dwelling is preferable. The real reason that this
narrow type persists is that building codes even in large cities still permit
frame houses to be built huddled closely together provided the wall is not
actually built on the lot line, in which case a masonry wall is usually
required.
Contrary to what might be expected, the L type of plan offers great
possibilities for small-house design. Small houses are frequently out of
proportion because, though the rooms are small, the ceilings must still be
sufficiently high for a man to live conveniently, while, at the same time,
176 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
for good design the roof lines have to be kept as low as possible. In the
informally heated houses of our ancestors the attics were low and snug
and no one worried about fresh air. Now, however, our houses are thor
oughly heated and we have more knowledge of hygiene. We cannot
therefore solve this problem so simply. But by placing the ridge of the
roof off centre we can maintain full headroom over most of the second floor
and at the same time reduce the height of the roof line. By placing an
L-shaped ridge over even a square plan very little headroom is lost and
dormers are only necessary for the legitimate purpose of cross ventilation.
PLANNING THE SMALL HOME1
BY DONN BARBER, A.I.A.*
.... It is quite extraordinary to note that in spite of a general apathy
toward things artistic, we are really making steady progress. Homes all
over the country are getting better and better in suitability, planning and
in execution. Individual examples are cropping up everywhere that are
full of charm and beauty and constructive promise, but taken as a whole
our houses as a real expression of satisfactory domestic architecture are
way below par.
The homes of a nation reflect more clearly its personality, its degree of
enlightenment and its position in the scheme of civilization than any other
form of building. That is, the home reflects the individual taste and
quality and character of its individual owner. Therefore homes collective
ly reflect the composite ideals of the people.
Home building in its innumerable phases is now being more broadly
considered and discussed in this country than at any time of which we
have any knowledge. Every detail of plan arrangement, type of construc
tion, character of finish, manner of decoration and furnishing is being
analyzed, exploited and continually spread before us in every periodical
and newspaper.
It is perhaps truer in architecture than in any other art that a little
knowledge is a dangerous thing. Few study the principles and practice of
this art to the point of having any adequate capacity to differentiate even
broadly between what is intrinsically good and what is bad.
Those who do not actually build new houses, buy and alter them, or
rent and redecorate them; so that it is high time that the serious study of
at least the elements of architecture should be required and taught as a
1 In Small Home, June, 1925.
2 Mr. Barber was, before his death, a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 177
part of every educational curriculum. Our children should be instructed
in the applied arts at an early age, and later in the history of art, so that
they may grow up with a clearer understanding, a more sympathetic
attitude toward man's age-long effort to express the beautiful in matters
of building and environment.
The planning and building of a home is a more involved process today
than it was a generation ago. The cost of labor and materials has become
vastly higher, in addition to which living conditions demand more in
tricate requirements in mechanical equipment generally comprehended
under the titles of heating, plumbing, and lighting, which combined, not
infrequently amount to one-quarter the total cost of the house.
After the price of the property and its necessary improvement has been
deducted from the total budget allowance, the remaining amount avail
able for the house should be divided by the probable cost per cubic foot
obtaining in the chosen locality for the type of house desired. This will
determine the volume in cubic feet of building that can be planned.
The arrangement, size and number of rooms obtainable within this
cubage should be thoroughly considered and studied, and should in all
cases be governed by the volume the cost permits rather than by precon
ceived ideals of living needs. If this principle is adhered to a great many
of the usual disappointments and tragedies of exceeding the budget will
be avoided. The sizes of rooms planned should be governed by compari
son with the rooms one is familiar with and lived in. If it is impossible to
obtain the number of rooms desired in the given cubage, it is better to
eliminate one or more rooms than to build rooms of small or impractical
size.
Every home should be composed of the fewest elements possible,
straightforward planning making convenience of paramount importance,
and living requirements reduced to the most direct and labor saving effort.
As we learn to live more sensibly so will we build more sensibly.
Houses should be seriously planned, and built with words, and paper
and pencil before venturing into the realm of construction. There is a
surprising lack of definite knowledge among laymen as to exact sizes and
dimensions of the things they see and use continually. Many amusing
tests built upon this fact will be called to mind, such as guessing the
height of a tall hat against the wall, or asking one to draw a picture of
the face of one's watch. People who intend to build a house should begin
observing and measuring; they should prepare a full notebook of their
178 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
observations, including the mistakes and successes in the houses of their
friends. It is not always the lack of money that makes houses stupid and
commonplace. It is often the want of foresight and the lack of applica
tion of ordinary common sense in planning. Few people build more than
one house in their lifetime; it should therefore be well and wisely built
with every precaution and care conceivable. There seems to be a wide
demand today the country over for houses containing three, four to five
and six rooms, that is, houses containing in general a living room, dining
room, kitchen, and one to three bedrooms
The small house problem has been broadly met on the Pacific Coast by
the bungalow type of house where it originated and has been developed.
The bungalow is an all-on-one-floor type of house and seems to appeal to
women who do their own work. The bungalow has advantages in certain
climates. Its principal disadvantage in our colder eastern climate seems
to be that the sleeping rooms are too near the ground. Bungalows seldom,
if ever, have cellars. In a northern climate some cellar space is essential
for various reasons; furnace, coal and storage space are required, also a
laundry. The natural place for these is in the cellar. People in northern
climates seem to prefer to sleep upstairs; ....
Bungalows are more expensive than two-story houses if given the same
number of rooms, for roofing surface, excavations and foundations, are
items of considerable cost, which automatically reduce in favor of the
two-story house.
The two-story house separates logically the living and service portion
of the house from the sleeping portion of the house. Its only disadvantage
is a staircase and hall space which have to be maintained and kept clean.
The hall space upstairs, however, may be kept small and can serve the
bedroom and bathroom conveniently. Bedrooms should have closets and
should have the beds placed against inside walls and plenty of windows.
The bathroom should have tile floors always, and wall if possible ; if not
tile, a substitute that can be easily washed and kept clean. A linen closet
should open from the hall.
Three bedrooms seem to be a minimum, one principal room, one for
children and a spare room that may be used for children or a servant, or
guest. A sleeping porch is a luxury and not necessary if the bedrooms have
plenty of windows. The living room should be of fair size and have a fire
place which eliminates the necessity of furnace heat till cold weather
comes.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 179
Kitchen should have outside door and a porch, however small, with
outside closet and ice box near outside door, or on porch.
Main floor should be at least three feet above. ground; cellar should be
not less than eight feet high in the clear and have steps to outside.
A mistake too often made in the designing of a small house is an at
tempt to imitate and reproduce in reduced dimensions elements that have
been found to contribute to the attractiveness of a large house. Reduc
tion in measurements and proportions of elements that have fixed human
scale results in dwarfing unnaturally a given composition. By a similar
process of reduction a full size man becomes in effect and personality a
dwarf rather than a child.
The practical elements accepted for human use and contact in house
designing, such as steps, doors, and heights of railings, and window sills,
and the like, must remain the same in general dimensions whether they
occur in a large house or in a small one. A small house should not be a
big thing built in a small way, but a small thing having a definite individu
ality built in a big way.
Fixed standards should be satisfied first of all. The amount of window
opening in a room, for instance, should have a direct bearing upon the
dimensions of the room to be lighted. There are generally accepted
standards of measurements used in furniturej that is, in the heights and
sizes of chairs, tables, beds and bureaus, as there are also standard
heights of sinks, wash basins, bath and wash tubs. The way to make a
house convenient, usable and suitable in scale is to be sure that all these
standards of practical measurements are satisfied and that sufficient living
space remains.
Then again every year produces an increasingly wider range of choice
in the selection of available materials for use in every department of
structure and finish. The market is flooded with newly-devised and mostly
patented processes, some worthy of serious consideration, while the great
er number continues in an experimental stage of development. These
latter if used at all should be chosen for having some proven history of
performance that insures unquestioned and permanent value.
Disappointments are possible even when the greatest caution is exer
cised in the use of true and tried combinations of known materials. It is
unwise, therefore, to experiment with innovations that are apt to compli
cate if not destroy the practical and lasting qualities of any adopted
scheme of construction.
i8o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Simplicity and directness in planning, using the fewest possible ele
ments capable of entering into any structure, should be striven for if
efficiency and ultimate -economy are to result.
CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING
THE VARIOUS ROOMS
LIVING ROOM
1. A rectangular-shaped room is more desirable than a square one as
it provides for a more convenient and pleasing furniture arrangement.
2. Plan for cross- ventilation, for sunshine, and also prevailing breeze.
3. Plan the living room for the best possible view that the building
site affords.
4. There should be direct access to the dining room, to an out-of-door
terrace, if one is included, and to outdoor living areas.
5. Plan wall space free from windows and doors for the pieces of furni
ture that require it.
6. Plan the room with the size of the family in mind, and the needs,
activities, and desires of its individual members.
THE DINING ROOM
1. The size of the dining room will depend upon the size of the family
and the family's custom of entertaining.
2. A space of three feet or more between the table and the wall or the
large pieces of furniture is desirable for ease in serving.
3. If the dining room is to provide for as many as six or eight per
sons, a room rectangular in shape is preferable to one that is square.
4. Plan for plenty of light, a view, and some sunshine if possible.
5. Easy access to the kitchen is essential.
6. Built-in cupboards, and pass closets to the kitchen, are particularly
desirable for small houses.
BEDROOMS
1. Cross- ventilation is an essential in good bedroom planning.
2. Plan the bedroom sufficiently large to allow for the necessary pieces
of furniture and additional free space.
3. Allow wall space free from windows and doors for beds, dressers,
chests, and other high pieces of furniture, and provide for a location for
the bed that will receive plenty of air and that will be such that the bed
may be easily reached from either side.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 181
4. Plan bedrooms for privacy and with direct access from the hall.
5. Provide for easy access to bathrooms.
6. An adequate closet should be planned for each bedroom and when
two persons occupy one room two closets are desirable.
KITCHENS
Miss Greta Gray has included the following considerations in kitchen
planning in the pamphlet Convenient Kitchens:1
1. First, last, and all the time, in planning and equipping a kitchen, think
about the work to be done in it.
2. If building or remodeling a kitchen, make it oblong and with no more
floor space than actually needed. A kitchen is a workroom. Spaciousness is
paid for in miles of extra steps.
3. Study the relation of the kitchen to the rest of the house. Make a direct
connection from kitchen to dining room in the' common wall between them. See
to it also that there is easy access to front and back doors, to the telephone, to
the stairs, to the cellar, and to the second floor.
4. Arrange for adequate ventilation in all weathers and for good lighting at
all work centers at night as well as during the day.
THE PLAN SERVICE OF THE ARCHITECTS'
SMALL HOUSE SERVICE BUREAU2
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director, Better Homes in America
Skilful designing and planning of small houses has recently been made
available to all American home builders. Until this past decade few but
the well-to-do have had access to the expert service of professional archi
tects because of the inability of others to pay for such service. Inexpen
sive homes in the past were designed by contractors, builders or owners or
else were built from stock plans which had been drawn by persons un
trained in the principles of design. One of the most significant indications
of progress in the past ten or fifteen years has been the insistence of lead
ing architects, magazines and newspapers that even the small home could
be made a thing of beauty, efficient in its arrangements and yet within the
reach of families of moderate incomes.
Professional and business organizations are increasingly broadening
their outlook with reference to civic responsibility. Their first interest
used to be the making of quick profits and all too frequently their mem-
1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1513, p. ii.
2 In American Building Association News, March, 1930.
182 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
bers have been willing to make large profits at the expense of their clients.
More recently, however, it has been recognized that it is the prerogative
of each business and profession to discover the needs of its clients and if
necessary help its patrons to raise their standards and create a demand for
quality.
President Hoover, during his service as Secretary of Commerce, was
responsible for the inauguration of hundreds of conferences among spe
cialized business groups which developed this idea of public responsibility
and interest in civic service through the daily business routine. For each
individual can usually make his greatest contribution to the general wel
fare through his daily activities. The codes of business and professional
ethics which have developed amazingly among our commercial organiza
tions in the past ten years are but an expression of this new constructive
tendency.
Architects are professionally trained in the principles of efficient design
and sound construction. Beauty of line and workmanship and practical
efficiency are the chief ideals inculcated in their training. Their original
interest may have been chiefly in monumental architecture, magnificent
public buildings which would be a source of community pride and inspira
tion for generations to come. But the developing recognition of civic
responsibility has led them to see the necessity of bringing beauty and
practical efficiency in architecture within the reach of the home builder
of modest income. It is greatly to their credit that through their national
professional organization, the American Institute of Architects, they have
established a national Bureau to educate public taste in small house
architecture and to bring good design and practical economic planning for
comfort and convenience, within the reach of virtually all builders and
owners of small homes.
The Architects' Small House Service Bureau of the United States, Inc.,
is a professional organization composed of many practicing architects
from the leading architectural offices of the country. The Bureau is con
trolled by the American Institute of Architects and endorsed by the
United States Department of Commerce. It is the only housing Bureau in
America, producing and offering plans for three, four, five and six-room
homes, that is so controlled and endorsed.
In purpose it is a public service, operating on practically a non-profit
making basis, to give the small home builder a square deal, and to improve
the architecture of a class of dwelling which seldom has the architect's
service.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 183
The Bureau offers a limited service. For those willing to use "stock
plans" prepared by architects, but none the less desirable because they
are "stock drawings," the Bureau provides many of the privileges of
architectural service at a price within the reach of all.
More than two hundred and fifty plans, including a wide variety of
types, materials and sizes of small homes are ready for use. These plans
are not the work of one, two or three architects. They represent the
cooperative study of many men. Even though they are "stock drawings"
they are quite as complete as would be produced by an individual prac
ticing architect. Because they are distributed in quantity, they can be
sold at a nominal charge.
Each plan is studied to provide modern conveniences, adequate living
accommodations, sound construction and good taste. Simplicity, elimina
tion of waste and extras, flexibility of plan to meet lot conditions and
many other essentials of good housing are given careful study.
Each plan is accompanied by a bill of materials listing all the quantities
to be used in the erection of the house. More than fifty printed pages of
specifications and two contract agreements accompany each plan. In
addition to these instruments of service, the Regional Bureaus provide
what is perhaps quite as valuable an aid to the -builder as the plans them
selves ; namely, professional counsel and advice, and at no extra charge
over the cost of the blue prints.
The Small House Service Bureau sells its service for an average cost of
approximately $6.00 per principal room. For this nominal charge home
builders may now secure dependable plans from an authoritative source,
and enjoy many of the privileges afforded those who build larger homes
at greater cost, and employ the services of an individual practicing
architect.
The Bureau does no individual designing. It recommends to all who
want homes larger than six rooms in size that the service of an individual
practicing architect be employed.
The following statement prepared by Robert T. Jones, Technical Di
rector of the Architects' Small House Service Bureau and editor of The
Small Home, explains clearly and forcibly the values of the service of
that Bureau:
Plans for small houses are not developed by guess work or by some strange
background of artistic sensibilities. They represent the hard work of an expert
to solve a problem. The problem is the home builder's requirements. When the
home builder tells what he wants that is the problem. The solution consists in
i84 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
answering those requirements. Now it takes much skill to do this well. It takes
long years of experience. It takes a knowledge of materials, workmanship, costs,
and it requires the power to assemble the necessary forms so that they will
have good architectural quality.
Many people, not knowing what the architect does, believe that the archi
tect, adds only the froth — whatever ornamental quality the house has — nothing
more. This is not the least important part of his work, but it proceeds from a
basis far more fundamental. As I have said, it begins with the knowledge of the
home builder's problem. That means the plan. The rooms have to be arranged
in an orderly manner, so that they will be commodious, comfortable, taking ad
vantage of the site and locality, providing for furniture, the circulation about
the house. Then those things have to be assembled so that the construction
is sound and without extravagance.
It is comparatively easy to assemble them if there is no question of cost, but
to get a rational plan within a limited expense budget requires study, and this
background of skill and experience of which I have spoken. Shifting these things
so that the balance will be fine, the massing of walls, openings, roofs, decorative
in themselves, without the necessity of added ornamentation, is the third part
that most people see first of all.
Now what does all this save the home builder. Simply this: It saves his in
vestment, for it assures him a marketable house. Disregarding all the satisfac
tion that comes from the feeling that a house bears the owner a good reputation
for fine taste, disregarding the satisfaction that results from living in a house
that is well planned, there is this perfectly tangible value of a marketable prop
erty and one that does not deteriorate either as to the durability of its con
struction or as to the soundness of its good taste.
We can be more specific. We can say that a set of working drawings, pro
duced as they should be, by a competent architect saves the home builder money
directly, for with such drawings the owner knows exactly what he is going to
get. With complete drawings and specifications it is unnecessary to make
changes, add or subtract matters, involving heavy expense for extras. Sketch
plans can at best tell only part of what is to be done, leaving much to the caprice
of the contractor. It is only human for him to supply no more than is required.
The complete working drawings thus take the guess work out of home building.
They are the basis for a contract providing for the delivery of a specific thing.
The peace of mind of the home builder is saved with a technical service such as
this behind his home building operations.
On the other hand, the incomplete working drawings leave whatever is in
complete to guess work, changes, dissatisfaction. Such plans are not made by
architects. Many of them show only the most casual knowledge of architectural
form and substance. Produced, as many of them are, apparently over night,
they cannot possibly contain the qualities which come from constant study and
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 185
careful development, which, from the architect's experience, must necessarily
take a number of days.
The building of a home is for most people the most important financial ex
perience of their lives. Rarely the small home builder spends more than once or
twice in his life sums ranging between $5,000 and $10,000. To do so without
an adequate buying scheme represented by a complete set of working drawings
and specifications is manifestly poor business policy.
All over the nation are seen houses built from sketch plans, from drawings
seen in books, pictures in magazines and newspapers. Almost invariably such
houses show that the careful consideration of the architect has been set aside to
the ultimate loss of the home builder. The finenesses of the plan, sound con
struction methods; massing of the architectural parts, and the more delicate
lines of cornices, moldings, and minor details of architecture cannot be material
ized from these small sketches. Every architect knows it. These sketches must
be appreciated only for their limited worth, that is, the exploitation of general
ideas, for they are nothing more.
If we had a nation of building mechanics capable of producing architecture to
its fullest extent and with unlimited time at their disposal, who were able to
materialize houses within the limited funds of home builders by the simple
process of going out and building from sketches, there would be no need for the
architect to make complete drawings. But the economics of house building is
not built on any such basis. We develop architects to design. They do not build.
We develop builders to build. They are not trained to design. To obtain a good
building manifestly requires the employment of both these factors— a competent
architect and a good builder. Their capacities do not cross. There is not enough
in the sketch plan to guide the hand of the most skilled builder.
So we say; make sure. Have complete plans. Do not be deluded with the
fallacy that complete working drawings are not essential.
In their trade circular entitled "Our Answers to Questions Home Builders
Ask" the Bureau outlines its recommendations and services in the following
terms:
Before you build your home you must know exactly how much it is going to
cost. No amount of guessing by the most expert guesser will give you this in
formation. The only way to find it out is to have contractors submit proposals
to build based on the definite plans and specifications of the house. This leaves
out the guesswork.
Building costs depend on local markets, the quality of materials, the finish
and equipment demanded, and the contractors who do the building. We have
found variations of as much as thirty per cent in the cost of houses built from
the same plans in the same town. We can give you broad, general estimates of
cost, but you will see how difficult it is for us to tell exactly how much it will cost
to build from a certain plan in your city, without knowing all the conditions im-
186 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
*
posed by yourself and by local markets, and the quality of the contractors you
employ.
In order to learn exactly how much it will cost you to build a home from a
Bureau design you may obtain the complete home building documents for fifteen
days on approval. You may submit them to different contractors for bids, and
thus learn exactly what they will charge to build the house for you, in your city,
finished and equipped as you desire it.
Obviously you will not care to keep the plans if the prices made by the con
tractors run above your means. Therefore in the following paragraph we offer
you an inexpensive method of getting these figures:
First, plans may be obtained on approval for a period of fifteen days, by
sending your check for the full amount of the service fee (explained later on).
Second, if you find the cost of building is more than you expected, and you
return the documents to us within the fifteen day period, not counting the time
they are in transit, a service charge of $5.50 will be deducted from your deposit,
and the balance returned to you. If the drawings or other documents are worn
or soiled we will deduct also a small replacement charge, at the following rates:
Blue prints, $3.00 a set; specifications, $1.00 each; quantity surveys, $2.00 each;
forms of agreements, isc each.
Third, if you decide to retain the drawings, your check in the full amount of
the service fee is accepted as payment in full. In other words, there is no charge
for taking the plans on approval if you keep them. You will see that the above
offer enables you at a very small cost to obtain home building estimates, and
thus to determine whether or not you can afford to build. We do not ask you
to buy the plans if you find you cannot afford to build from them.
Fourth, if the cost of construction runs higher than you expected, or if you
encounter any other difficulties, we ask you to discuss your problems with us.
It may be that we can offer suggestions that will enable you after all to build the
house you want.
When you purchase a set of Bureau documents you receive three complete
sets of blue prints, three sets of specifications, three quantity surveys, two forms
of contract agreements. Also, during the building of your home we stand by to
help you. Any questions you ask us by mail about materials and methods will
be answered promptly, without bias, fear, or favor. We maintain in our organiza
tion qualified experts who have devoted years of their lives to the building of
homes and who are competent to give you the information you ought to have.
There is no extra charge for this service. It is included in the fee you pay.
Our fee for service is based on the rate of $6.00 a principal room, with 5oc
more for packing and postage. Thus our charge in connection with a five-room
house is $30.50. By principal rooms we mean living room, dining room, kitchen
and bedrooms. Halls, vestibules, sewing rooms, porches, and bath rooms are
not counted.
Minor changes to meet your individual requirements or taste can often be
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 187
made in Bureau plans without injuring the durability of the construction or the
good design of the house. For example, such changes might be the re-location
of a door, the omission of a partition or fireplace, or the addition of a porch,
pantry or breakfast nook. Many houses shown with siding exteriors may readily
be finished in stucco, or shingles. It is decidedly in your interests that you dis
cuss such changes as you desire with us, to determine whether or not they are
practical and durable architecturally, and to enable u? to make necessary
changes in the working drawings.
The charge for making such revisions depends upon the amount of time re
quired by the draftsman. Often it is possible to estimate in advance what the
maximum extra expense will be.
If your lot faces North it is obvious that a plan designed for a lot facing South
will not give you the best exposure. This difficulty may be overcome by building
the house reversed. Any contractor of average ability can build a house re
versed from Bureau drawings without trouble, but we shall send you an addi
tional set of blue prints printed upside down showing the reversed room ar
rangement, which your contractor may find convenient to use in connection
with the original blue prints. There is no extra charge for the first set of re
versed prints.
Each home builder has his own individual requirements for plans which de
pend upon a number of conditions — the size of his family, his taste in archi
tecture, the amount of money he has to spend, the restrictions of his building
code, the size and exposure of the lot, and so on. If we were to place before you a
catalogue illustrating all our designs — almost four hundred altogether — of
many different types of exterior and arrangement of floor plan, your problem
of plan selection might only become more complicated.
Therefore if you will tell us something about your needs, we shall select illus
trations of the plans that approximate or meet your requirements, and forward
them to you promptly.
The Bureau does not design duplexes or apartment houses of any kind. It
does not undertake the remodeling of existing buildings or the drawing up of
plans to meet special requirements. Bureau service is strictly limited to stock
plans for single family residences of not more than six principal rooms. Larger
buildings and houses of unusual design have special problems which require the
personal attention of an individual architect, and cannot be handled through
the use of stock plans.
BLUEPRINTS1
To some people blueprints are puzzles so intricate or in such strange
language that, rather than attempt to find any order within the chaos
1 Adapted from "How To Read Blueprints," House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926
(Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1926), p. 24.
i88 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
that the many lines and symbols present to them, they leave the mat
ter to their architects
If they had made an effort to visualize the house in its complete form
according to the design and plans that the architect indicated in his draw
ings, they would have been spared many, if not all, of their disappoint
ments.
To read plans properly the home-builder must train himself to add the
third dimension which the drawings do not show. In the case of floor plans,
we have the length and the depth but not the height of the house; and
in the case of the elevations, the length or the width and the height but
not all three at once. The plan, in other words, shows what there would
be of the house if it were sliced open horizontally at any one of the floors
and looked down upon from a height. Perhaps the easiest way to under
stand the floor plan and see the relation of room to room, the location of
windows, doors, and so forth, is to trace with a pencil a route beginning
at the front door and so on throughout the house. Reduce yourself in
imagination to the size of the pencil point and assume an abundance of
curiosity about every square inch as you pass through it. Go through all
the openings shown on the plans, but think of them as doorways, and
erect walls for the partitions as you go. Try the doors and make sure
that they swing the most convenient way; sit in front of the fireplace and
see whether you find yourself in a passageway or in a comfortable, cozy
backwater; stand at the kitchen cabinet or at the sink and see whether
you have good light; see how far you have to walk to put away the dishes
or to get things from the icebox; think where the best views are; whether
you can see them from the living-room windows; and so forth, and so
forth. You can play this game almost indefinitely and should play it
until you have lived in every part of every room and put all the furniture
in its place.
To fit in your furniture cut diagrams of it out of cardboard at the same
scale at which the plans are drawn, which is usually what is called one-
eighth or one-quarter scale. One-eighth means that every eighth of an
inch is equal to one foot; one-quarter, that every quarter of an inch is
equal to one foot. Although an architect has a special scale to enable him
to read plans quickly, an ordinary rule can be used for this purpose. The
best way to get an idea of the actual size of the rooms, however, is to go
on a measuring expedition. Equip yourself with a six-foot rule and meas
ure your friends' living-rooms or dining-rooms or bathrooms, as the case
may be, until you find one that is approximately the size of yours, or one
that is the size you want yours to be.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 189
Elevations are misleading and do not give a true idea of the house as it
will appear, for they are drawn as if the eye of the observer were on a level
with the topmost line and at the same time on a level with the bottom
line. In reconstructing the house in imagination, translating it to a three-
dimensional mass of length, depth, and height, it is necessary to remember
that in perspective the eye will see much less of the roof and chimneys
than is shown on the elevation drawing.
THE VALUE OF SPECIFICATIONS
TO THE OWNER'
BY PHILIP G. KNOBLOCH
Architect
Plans, elevations, details, and specifications— what do they portray to
the individual who is about to build? What relation are they to the ven
ture that is to be the most thrilling and important undertaking he has
yet considered? Undoubtedly this is the first time that he has come in
contact with them.
He is naturally all interest, and makes a determined effort to learn
to understand the plans so that he can follow more readily his architect's
explanations. In this he is more or less successful so that when he receives
the final blue prints he can discuss them with some intelligence. He can
take the plans and point out the locations of various rooms, door open
ings, windows, read the different electric outlet symbols, pick out the
stairways and even locate the elusive but ever important closets.
He discovers in looking over the working drawings that among the many
dimensions and notes on the plans there is one on the basement plan that
calls for concrete floors; that on the first floor plans another calls for oak
floors and base; and that the bath on the second floor is noted to have tile
walls and composition floor. He can tell from the drawings about how his
house will appear, and from one of the details about what he can expect
in the way of built-in bookcases and so on. All this tells him that he is to
have all those items that are called for by drawing or by note, and up to
this point it is quite clear to him; until suddenly he remembers that he
had mentioned to his architect that he wanted the basement floors water
proofed, wide oak plank floors on the first floor, and colored tile in the
bath. He looks again at those notes but they do not mention anything
in detail that he can see. He decides that he must immediately consult
his architect so that these omissions can be caught before the blue prints
1 Adapted from "What the Specifications Really Say," Small Home, April, 1930.
i go
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
are distributed to the various contractors for their estimates. Rushing to
the architect he learns that all these details have been carefully covered in
the specifications. Then he remembers having heard that word mentioned
several times during past interviews. He also remembers his architect
having told him that the plans were all complete but a few hours more
work were still required to complete the specifications. Yes, he did receive
with his blue printed plans a fat roll of typed pages about letter head size.
FIG. 22. — Attractive five-room cottage with floor plan (Fig. 23) which won an award
in the Better Homes in America architectural competition. (Small house in Palos
Verdes, Estates, Calif. H. Roy Kelley, architect, Los Angeles.)
He remembered opening this roll, carelessly glancing at a paragraph or
two, and quickly deciding that this reading could wait until a later date.
He thought then that it would be rather dry reading, and guessed it
would probably be all right for the contractor to read it. He felt awfully
sorry for the contractor though, sorry that he had to wade his way
through those closely typed pages.
And the architect had just said that all the detailed information was
to be found on those pages ! That was news, so he did as the architect said
and turned the pages of the specifications until he located the heading of
"Tile." Reading a paragraph under this head he saw that the color was
specified, the kind of tile that was to be used, the grade required, and also
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS
191
the manner m which it was to be laid. In the same way he read about his
oak flooring, the widths desired, the thickness and method of installation.
He turned to the heading of "Waterproofing" and discovered a full ex
planation of the kind of waterproofing that was going into his basement
FIG. 23. — Floor plan of cottage shown in Fig. 22. (H. Roy Kelley, architect)
and the way it was to be applied. He read further headings and decided
that it would be of interest to look into these pages more thoroughly.
The more he read the more important these specifications became until
finally he admitted to himself they were a very vital adjunct to his plans.
And that they are without a doubt. I have had many clients who treated
the specifications in just this way.
They are, in short, a condensed form of record of everything that goes
192 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
into the job, of what the owner and architect want in the way of work to
be done, of materials to be furnished, and of the grade of workmanship
desired for the proposed new building. They contain information im
possible to show on the drawings, and enable the contractor to estimate
intelligently what materials are required and the grade that will be de
manded by the architect. They tell him where he can get special articles
and just what type of products he must use. He is informed that he must
estimate on only what is specified, and that no substitutions will be con
sidered except by permission of the owner through the architect's office.
The specifications are part of the completed plans and enter into the con
tract between owner and contractor. No set of plans can be complete with
out them, and a thorough and intelligent specification will protect the
owner throughout the work from many an unpleasant hour of dispute,
and will eliminate about 98 per cent of all misunderstanding.
For example, let us assume that at the time of preparing the plans the
owner had decided that he wanted walnut trim in a certain room and the
specifications were so written. Six months later when the trim was actu
ally being installed birch had been used by mistake and a dispute arose
as to the correctness of the wood used. Instead of wrangling, the specifi
cations were first consulted and all trouble avoided as they plainly called
for the walnut. But supposing there had been no specifications to consult,
what then? Could an amiable agreement have been reached, based on
the memories of owner, architect, and contractor of a decision made six
months before? Hardly. Innumerable questions of various sorts arise
throughout the job, and with the specifications to guard the owner trouble
will be avoided.
They protect the owner as I have outlined, and also aid the contractor,
as they insure him against unreasonable demands on the part of an owner
or architect. If something is forgotten, no demand can be made upon
the contractor to furnish the omission, as he need furnish nothing except
what has been called for. This all makes for harmony, which is really the
lubricant for the job. I have supervised many jobs and in cases of mis
understanding have always resorted to the specifications as the basis of
settling the dispute. Sometimes the contractor misinterprets the meaning
of a paragraph, sometimes the owner becomes unreasonable in his de
mands, but reference to the closely typed roll of specifications always
clarifies the matter. It is impossible to argue much when the point in
question is clearly defined in type.
As we open the bound pages of the specifications we find we have the
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 193
General Conditions to start with. These paragraphs tell the contractor
that he is to familiarize himself with the plans, elevations, and specifica
tions so that he will miss nothing, for we take no excuse later on, when he
has contracted for the job, that he had not seen this or that when he pre
pared his estimate. (The words estimate and bid mean the same.) The
contractor must base his estimate only on what we call for in the specifica
tions and show on the drawings. This is done so that all the bids are
figured on the same basis, and when bids arrive from the various contrac
tors we can compare them fairly for prices. Were one of the contractors
to substitute a product of his own thought, even though it be as good as
we specified, it would be manifestly unfair to the competitors to include
this item in his basic bid, especially should the substitution cost less. This
difference in cost would materially aid this contractor in lowering his bid.
At the same time it is our desire not to miss any opportunity of lessening
the total cost of the building for the owner, so we permit a contractor to
make his substitution under certain conditions. He must first refer the
item to the architect, and if acceptable he may state in his bid that the
substitution is an alternate and that if accepted by the owner so much
must be added or deducted from his estimate. By this method we have
his substitution as a separate item and it is not to be confused with the
basic bid. We also have the advantage, if a saving is practicable, of taking
that item into consideration.
Now just a word about extras. The word means just what it implies.
Any item or -product not shown or mentioned by the architect or owner
naturally has not been included in the contract price, and it would be
unfair and unreasonable to demand that the contractor furnish the item
without additional cost. This is called an extra. Extras are sometimes
due to incomplete plans or specifications and are the responsibility of
the architect and on the whole inexcusable as thoroughly drawn plans
and specifications will prevent them. Of course, if after the contract has
been signed and the work started the owner makes changes or additions
not originally shown or called for, they are legitimate extras, and must be
paid for. We also have the type of contractor who is constantly on the
alert for extras, but he is uncommon and of a poor rating usually. Many
prospective home builders, in talking to others who have built, hear about
these extras and dread their very possibility.
The high type contractor wants no extras any more than the owner or
architect. No matter how fairly the extra is figured the owner is likely to
feel that he is paying too much for it even though the architect assures
194 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
him that the price is correct. When the plans are complete and the speci
fications thorough, you have no worry with extras.
It might be well at this point to include a word about the number of
bids necessary for a fair price. This of course is outside the subject of
specifications but nevertheless very important. Naturally the owner can
invite as many contractors to bid as he wishes, but many years of trial
have proven that six bidders are sufficient. Your architect and yourself
can select six high type contractors who have a reputation for honesty,
reliability, and financial standing in their business, and whose buildings
already erected reflect their attitude toward their work. You will find
that bids from such men will be very close, as they figure on giving you a
complete and honest job, and in estimating are allowing enough to include
the highest type of craftsmanship. It is still true, even as in Aesop's
Fables, that after all you get just what you pay for.
*
PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE HOME
FOR CHILDREN1
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director, Better Homes in America
If we are to have social progress, children must be better endowed or
better trained than their parents. This means that opportunities for good
health and for physical, intellectual and moral growth must be superior
to those enjoyed by their parents.
The criteria to be used in gauging the homes in which children grow
up should be the same as those by which we test the school, the church
or the settlement house or playground. Whether the purpose of the in
dividual life is construed in terms of happiness, interest fulfilment or self
realization, progressive achievement of life's purpose is dependent upon
appreciation of values, free access to values, and active participation in
the creation of values.
Life's highest values since Plato have usually been expressed as Truth,
Beauty and Goodness — with subsequent Christian emphasis upon Good
ness. Mediating and contributory values of Love, Freedom, breadth and
depth of Self Expression, and Service inevitably command our greatest
attention. One who has his eyes exclusively on the goal inevitably stum
bles over some object in the foreground. The ultimate goal must, never
theless, be known and viewed from time to time in order to get sense of
1 Adapted from "Homes Equipped for Children," Proceedings of the Tenth National
Conference on Housing, National Housing Association.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 195
direction; and then attention may safely and wisely be concentrated
upon the objects which lie in the path just ahead.
With our goal in mind the function of the home is to serve as the initial
and chief training center of human beings during the most impressionable
years of- their lives. Here they learn the often difficult lesson of accom
modating their interests to those of others. Here chiefly they acquire
those interests which dominate their lives. Here they may grow in wis
dom, as well as in stature, and acquire an appreciation of life's values and
receive their apprenticeship in the cultivation and creation or develop
ment of knowledge, of beauty, and of character.
The homes in which our future citizens are to grow up must first be
judged with reference to standards of safety, healthfulness, convenience
and comfort. An unsafe home cuts life short or handicaps the child's de
velopment. A home that is unsafe, or insanitary, or inconvenient, or un
comfortable, may produce such constant irritation that life's energy is
focused chiefly upon annoying details rather than upon fundamentals. It
is indispensable that parents as well as children should be relieved of need
less irritations and drudgery. For, the attitudes of parents are imitated by
or reflected in the life of the child and may preclude wholesome rounded
development.
The first essential is that every growing child should be able to grow up
in a private dwelling, located in a convenient, quiet, attractive and
wholesome neighborhood. No tenement or apartment, even in the so-
called "model" class, can meet as well the deeper needs of childhood—
though it is admitted that such buildings may often be entirely adequate
for families in which there are no children.
The reason for insisting upon a private dwelling, preferably detached,
is that it can be made to provide sunshine and cross ventilation for every
room, and thus a maximum of the life-giving forces which Nature affords.
It also makes possible much more of privacy, independence and self ex
pression than are afforded by the multiple dwelling.
It makes possible also a backyard for play, and space for a garden,
which are among the fundamental requisites of early childhood. Home
ownership further facilitates cooperative activity for common ends on the
part of all members of the household, providing an apprenticeship in
cooperative social living and in citizenship, which is almost always missed
by the dwellers in the tenement or apartment districts of our cities.
Safety requirements of children involve adequate protection from fire
and accident. In building a private dwelling sound construction and ade-
I96 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
quate fire stopping must be taken into consideration. Small children
should not be obliged to sleep on a third floor which has only one means of
egress. But assuming that the house is safe and built in conformity with
the Veiller Model Housing Law, and that there is sound construction so
that there will be no danger from falling ceilings, insecure railings and
broken treads or boarding, there should still be certain additional require
ments for the safety of children. These would include a low handrail on
steep or winding stair-cases — such as may be found in old houses — a gate
at the top of each flight of stairs where there are very young children, and
screens around the radiators and fireplaces to prevent burning.
To provide for the health needs of growing children their bedrooms
and play rooms should be adequately sunned and easily aired. No house
is wholly satisfactory which does not have double exposure for each room;
for, otherwise, the air will become pocketed and stale. Sunshine is the
cheapest and most effective germicide and fortunately reaches the floor,
which is the area inhabited by the infant; dust is thus sterilized. But sun
shine also contributes greatly to cheerfulness and to efficient metabolism
and glowing health.
Children at all ages also should have the advantages of a sleeping porch
or sun porch, and of a backyard in which to play. The health values of
outdoor play are sufficiently obvious. Safety requires that the backyard
should be fenced — at least until the children are of school age — unless
many backyards are thrown together and a play director put in charge
of the play activities of all children. The fenced backyard makes it possi
ble for the mother, while engaged in her work in the kitchen, to supervise
her children's out-of-doors play and choose their play associates. But
the apartment house child is condemned to play altogether indoors or else
to run the physical and social risk of playing on the street out of sight of
its mother.
The health and safety of children have received more attention than
their convenience and comfort. Our homes and furniture have been built
for grown-ups rather than for children. To the infant who is just begin
ning to toddle, each room is a forest of table legs and chair legs, with many
tempting articles just beyond reach. His convenience and comfort are not
provided for, unless there is a comfortable low chair, stool or hassock for
his use in each room of the house.
In the dining room he is especially handicapped. Dr. John M. Gries
in his admirable article on "Homes Equipped for Children" in the April,
1927, issue of the Child Welfare Magazine, writes graphically on this sub
ject in the following words:
HOUSE-PLANNTNG ESSENTIALS 197
.... In the dining room it is undoubtedly preferable to have things high,
especially drawer knobs and door handles. Some children never meddle, and
others in the same family cannot be kept out of mischief. But just as they
should have their small-sized rockers in the living room, so should they have
dining chairs of the proper height. In some families the children eat at a side
table. This may be low with chairs to correspond, or it may be full height. In
this case the problem is the same as if they sat at the table with the grownups.
They too often graduate from the high-chair directly to a dining chair with the
addition of a hassock, box, or dictionary to raise their eyes above the level of
the table. But this is an awkward and inconvenient arrangement, and long
before the child is large enough, he is using the same height chair that his par
ents use. From that time until he is grown, he is told at every meal that his
table manners grow worse every day, and that he eats worse than he did when
he was a baby. This may be true. A man or woman who can conduct a spoonful
of soup or eat meat from a plate on a level with his or her chin, and not look like
a cartoon might be qualified to criticise a child's awkwardness. Poor table
manners are often directly traceable to low chairs, while knives, forks, spoons
and tumblers too large for small hands come in for their share.
There are many other things we should do for the child's comfort, and
for the parents' as well. A hall closet, which can be reached without going
through any room, is indispensable for outdoor things. A colleague of
mine has a rather large family; to take care of the problem of overshoes,
he built a box in his closet with a compartment for the overshoes of each
child and with the child's name properly attached on top of his own spe
cial cover. The bottom of that box was so designed that it could be re
moved, making it possible to clean it out periodically; for the overshoes
were usually muddy when thrown into the box.
There are many expedients of that sort which are useful and save an
immense amount of time and worry and, perhaps, quarreling. Low hooks
are also important, otherwise the child will jump for his coat and probably
break the hanger and perhaps tear the coat, or will throw it down on a
chair or on the floor rather than hang it up, if the hook is not within easy
reach.
There are other inconveniences; bathroom and kitchen fixtures are too
high for small children. A movable box seems to be the only expedient—
unless one can afford to put in a special bathroom for children or a special
place for children to wash in the kitchen— a box so constructed that it
will be safe for the child and can be easily put out of the way while the
child is at school.
The next desideratum is an adequate place in which to play and to keep
one's prized possessions. When parents say that children are always
i98 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
underfoot, it is usually because no adequate provision has been made for
this fundamental need of childhood.
Play is a child's chief means of experiencing life at its best and of train
ing for adult living through experimental verification of life's values. The
best of play gives scope to imagination, develops independence and re
sourcefulness, and ability to do an ever increasing number of things and
do them well. It is important that such constructive opportunities should
not needlessly be interfered with.
This means that the battalion of tin soldiers, or the sand village or the
electric train, must not be torn up every night; but allowed, within reason,
to be ever expanding projects, until abandoned from lack of interest. This
rule is consistent with orderliness — which can be taught simultaneously —
but with a minimum of interruption of the project. Low drawers and cup
boards within the child's reach are essential to store away all toys with
which he has finished; and, of course, such drawers must be so designed
that they may be opened easily and closed by the child himself. If the
family cannot afford a playroom, a corner of some other room may be
consecrated to this use. This playroom for growing children may be con
verted into a study when they reach high school age.
Another essential is a workshop where there can be a work bench and
shelves and an adequate assortment of tools to construct all sorts of
things in which the boy — or torn-boy girl — delights. That workshop
should be either in the basement or attic in the city home. In the country
there are sheds and barns which can be used, but the city boy is not so
privileged. If it is in the basement, it should be well sunned and dry.
Here the son will serve an apprenticeship to his father; or, rather, they
will work cooperatively in the pursuit of a common interest — a vastly im
portant thing. For, since the passing of the guild system — ever since the
industrial revolution — the boy has been deprived of an opportunity of
association with the father in his work. And in the present generation the
daughter may be deprived of association with her mother in the house
work of the family — due to the ever increasing cramping of the kitchen
and the multiplication of outside interests for the child.
In addition to the workshop, there should be the girl's sewing corner,
or corner where she can keep her doll nursery when she is quite young.
Studio equipment for drawing or painting is also essential. Low book
shelves which will hold the oversized books of the small child also are de
sirable, as such books can seldom be accommodated in the family library.
Of course, an open attic is the delight of any child's heart and makes
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 199
possible more extensive play operations than any ordinary playroom
would afford. The rural child is still more blessed because the sheds, barns
and stables each add to the scope and fun of his play. But, unfortunately,
in this generation many children have to be deprived of the joys of living
in the country — at least during nine months of the year.
If we paid more attention to the most fundamental of all housing
problems, that of industrial and residential decentralization, we would
have much more opportunity for providing these essentials for children.
No problem in the entire field is so important, to my mind, as that of per
suading industries to move out of our cities and of building suitable
residences in Garden Suburbs nearby.
The single-family suburban house makes possible a backyard and ga
rage which will partly take care of these fundamental needs of children.
The backyard can provide for all ages — from the youngest to the eldest
— and its equipment may range from the sand box of the younger children
to the targets for archery or the basket ball cages supplied for those who
are older. Swings, seesaws, horizontal bars, standards for high jumping
and apparatus for bean bags, quoits, clock golf or croquet can be provided
in a relatively small space.
The book entitled "Home Play," issued by the Playground and Rec
reation Association of America, shows how the equipment for both indoor
and outdoor play can be made at home at minimum cost. During Better
Homes Week of 1928, the Better Homes Committee of Erie County, in
cooperation with the Recreation Division of the City Planning Commis
sion of Buffalo, arranged for a demonstration of home playground equip
ment made in the homes of the city and also showed such equipment in
use. Similar demonstrations have been conducted in scores of other cities
during Better Homes Week through the cooperation of public recreation
departments with local Better Homes committees.
The more fundamental needs of childhood — safety and health and con
venience and comfort — have been examined. These are vastly important
and the basis on which our superstructure must be built. But the child
must also have continuous access to Truth and Beauty and Goodness.
There should be opportunity for close association of children with their
parents. Every home needs a library — not just one book, as a friend of
mine found in a house which he rented, furnished, in Washington. Origi
nal drawing and painting should be encouraged on the part of children at
all ages.
As for goodness, it is everywhere within reach; but the family should
200 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
recognize the need of providing "temptations to be good." A settlement
worker once inquired of me, "Why is it that the bad is so interesting and
the good so uninteresting?" It is because the good has been wrongly
presented. Cooperative activities on the part of the parents and children
will give them an opportunity to know each other very much better and
to share their interests, their knowledge and their wisdom.
One of the chief essentials for development, in both wisdom and good
ness, is privacy. Every child should have a room of its own. Though seri
ous harm may not be done by having the sons of the household sleep in
one room, and the daughters in another, when those rooms have adequate
ventilation, the practice is likely to interfere with sleep, which is one of the
essential factors in the production of good health. A restless child will
keep its roommate awake and the one who retires last or rises first may
cut short the other's sleep. This is perhaps less serious in the case of the
congregate sleeping porch because sleep there is more sound and the con
ditions are much more favorable to health.
Wherever possible the child should have a room of its own where it can
work and play without interruption. Independence, resourcefulness, and
individuality are essential for most effective living, but their development
is interfered with seriously by the necessity of enduring frequent inter
ruptions.
The need for privacy becomes still more apparent when the child
reaches the age when it must bring home lessons from school. The con
centration which is essential to success in intellectual pursuits can be
developed by some in spite of confusion and interruption, but, probably,
all children would be better off if they could do their lessons in complete
privacy.
It is erroneously assumed that education and schooling are synony
mous. But if children are to be trained to an efficiency greater than that of
their parents they must have opportunity not only to solve their school
problems in privacy, but also to read widely, to make things, to paint or
sketch; and, wherever such Oriental values are possible in this crowded
materialistic civilization of ours — to meditate.
Many a child probably misses life's deepest spiritual values because of
the fact that it has no opportunity for intimate discussion of the deeper
spiritual and moral problems of life with either parent except when other
children are around — "listening in." The deepest moments of life are in
evitably solitary and the child that does not have privacy may develop
into a stereotyped adult personality, crowd-minded, uninteresting and
devoid of the attributes which make for moral leadership.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 201
Homes equipped for children must therefore provide the equipment
and facilities which make for safety, health, convenience and comfort.
Comfort and convenience must be construed in terms of the child's age,
size and interests.
But if we aim to develop all innate capacities in our future citizens and
to give each one the opportunity to develop all of his given latent abilities,
we must not be content with mere health and comfort; but must provide
conditions favorable for intellectual, moral and spiritual growth.
Character is set by home conditions. Few are able to surmount such
conditions. Practically all of the impressions of the first six years of life
come from the home ; and, in the subsequent years, from one- third to one-
half of the life of the child is spent in the home environment. Moreover,
the child is in that environment during the most impressionable hours of
the day, namely, the early morning and late evening.
Unless therefore it has privacy and is surrounded with opportunity for
self-development, it may never develop broad interests, the habit of work
ing, things out to their logical conclusion, resourcefulness, or depth of inner
life. But if provided with the environment which we have outlined and
with wise parents, creative living becomes possible.
SUMMARY
It is well to consider the following objectives in planning a house:
(i) Amount of money to be spent; (2) health — good circulation of air
throughout, cross ventilation, and sunlight in all rooms if possible; (3)
comfort and convenience — easy access, particularly between living room
and dining room and dining room and kitchen, convenient location of
bathroom, built-in furniture and equipment, proper placing of stationary
equipment; (4) needs, activities, and desires of individual members of the
family; (5) privacy; (6) beauty— simplicity, well-proportioned rooms,
pleasing outlook, views and vistas.
The plan and exterior of the house should be developed together and
each should express the other. The architectural style is governed some
what by the house plan, for any style cannot be built around any plan.
The plan in turn is governed somewhat by the building site. Consider fur
niture placement while planning the house, particularly in small houses.
Provisions for the needs and desires of children which may be included
with little additional expense should not be overlooked in planning.
In regard to the various rooms it is well to consider the following:
(i) The living room should be sufficiently large to meet its particular
202 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
needs, provide for the placement of furniture, be well lighted and cheer
ful, with direct access to the dining room. (2) Bedrooms should be plan
ned with cross ventilation, close to the bath, opening into a hall, and
with sufficient wall space for a good location of the bed and necessary
furniture. (3) The dining room should be no larger than necessary — three
feet clear around the table is considered essential. Plenty of light and
direct communication with the kitchen are important. (4) Kitchens
should be planned around the operations conducted in them with no more
floor space than is actually needed. Provision should be made for cross
ventilation and easy access to dining room, front and back doors, tele
phone, and stairs to the second floor and basement.
REFERENCES
I. GENERAL INFORMATION ON ESSENTIALS
OF HOUSE-PLANNING
CHANDLER, JOSEPH EVERETT. The Colonial House. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
Information on planning Colonial houses.
FORD, JAMES. "The Home Should Be Equipped for Children," American Build
ing Association News, XLIX (June, 1929), 338-43, 379-80.
GRAY, GRETA. Convenient Kitchens. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bull. 1513. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 30.
House and Home. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1923.
Points on planning the various rooms (pp. 24-59).
GRIES, JOHN M. "Homes Equipped for Children," Child Welfare Magazine,
XXI (April, 1927), 359-6i.
HAMLIN, TALBOT FAULKNER. The Enjoyment of Architecture. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1921.
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926, The. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
Plans and elevations (pp. 24-32).
2. FLOOR PLANS AND DESIGNS
ARCHITECTS' SMALL HOUSE SERVICE BUREAU, INC. (Minneapolis, Minn.) :
Book of One Hundred Bungalows.
Four portfolios: Colonial Homes; English Homes; Modern American Homes;
Spanish Homes.
Help for the Man Who Wants To Build.
How to Plan, Finance and Build Your Home.
HOUSE-PLANNING ESSENTIALS 203
Your Future Home.
House Beautiful Homes. Boston: House Beautiful Publishing Co., 1922. Pp. 16.
A collection of designs for small houses.
Small Home (monthly magazine containing designs and floor plans).
HUBBELL, LUCY EMBURY (ed.). The Book of Little Houses. Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927.
Excellent for plans and illustrations of exteriors.
JONES, ROBERT T. (ed.). Small Homes of Architectural Distinction. New York:
Harper & Bros., 1929.
A book of plans designed by the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc.
POWER, ETHEL B. The Smaller American House. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
1927.
Plans and illustrations of selected houses.
WINSLOW, CARLETON MONROE, and BROWN, EDWARD FISHER (eds.). Small
House Designs. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Community Arts Association, 1924.
Plans and designs of small houses most suitable for the southwestern section of the
country.
Books and pamphlets of designs and plans are issued by the following:
AMERICAN FACE BRICK ASSOCIATION (130 N. Wells St., Chicago, 111.).
COMMON BRICK MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA (2121 Guarantee
Title Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio).
HOLLOW BUILDING TILE ASSOCIATION, THE (Conway Bldg., Chicago, 111.).
NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION (Transportation Bldg.,
Washington, B.C.).
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION (33 W. Grand Ave., Chicago, 111).
SOUTHERN PINE ASSOCIATION (Interstate Bank Bldg., New Orleans, La.).
STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE ASSOCIATION, THE (1400 Engineering Bldg., Chicago,
III.).
(Many state colleges issue bulletins on kitchen-planning.)
CHAPTER VI
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS AND
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
i. The Uses of Common Building Materials
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD BUILDING AND
THE USES OF MATERIALS1
BY C. STANLEY TAYLOR
President, Taylor, Rogers & Bliss, Inc.
Whatever style of house may be chosen and whatever its magnificence
or simplicity, the first essential is to build well and to be free from the
annoyances and unnecessary expenses which may follow the use of inade
quate or improper materials or methods of construction. It is rare, in
deed, that an expenditure of twenty to thirty thousand dollars for a home
must be spread out so thin that, in order to provide maximum volume,
inferior construction must be tolerated. Ten thousand dollars will build
the essential accommodations in bedrooms, living room, dining room and
kitchen which are needed by the average family. An expenditure of double
this amount obviously introduces considerations of quality construction,
and even of elements of luxury.
In this age of rapid change in which families frequently move about
from place to place a number of times within the life of a single generation,
the question very naturally arises as to whether or not it is worth while
to build with an eye to permanency. A century or two ago homes were
built to endure because there was every expectation that the family would
remain in the original homestead, not merely for a single generation, but
for many succeeding generations. It is interesting to note that homes
built with this idea in mind have actually survived the vicissitudes of time
and stand to-day, venerated for their design and for their superior con
struction. It is only when men began to build poorly that America be
came besmirched with ugly structures, which not only deteriorated rapid
ly but became out of style before a single generation had completed its
brief span of life.
To-day there are other reasons than the expectation of establishing a
1 Adapted from "Building for the Future," Country Life, April, 1929.
204
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 205
permanent homestead which warrant— in fact economically compel—
durable construction. The first of these is the costliness of modern build
ing, due to high labor costs and to the fact that the modern home demands
many relatively expensive conveniences and luxuries of which our fore
fathers never dreamed. A second factor is the cost of maintenance. It can
be easily demonstrated that over a period of years the expenditures for
keeping a poorly-constructed house in suitable condition are greater than
the added initial expenditure required to build well. A third factor, in
volving architectural design, is obsolescence. Buildings which are com
petently designed and well executed do not lose in style nor cease to be of
value. Good architecture survives style fads just as the paintings of the
old masters have not lost any of their value with the advent of the
modernist schools. The comparison to paintings may be further extended
because it is readily appreciated that a painting may be excellent in com
position, color, and theme and still not be satisfying unless its technical
qualities are on a high plane. So with buildings. They may be well de
signed, appropriate to their locality, and yet fail to retain their appeal if
they are executed in poor materials and with inadequate workmanship.
Obsolescence destroys value far more rapidly than ordinary wear and
tear, and under present conditions of building cost it is gross extravagance
to invite obsolescence, either by incompetent design or poor quality con
struction. With these thoughts in mind, it is well to give some serious
consideration to the various structural materials that are suitable for en
during homes. It may be noted here that this discussion will necessarily
cover all types of materials, because each type is durable if suitable grades
or qualities of materials are employed and are used intelligently. It is
thus not the material that is so important as the manner of its use and
the selection of grades which have the necessary qualities for fine resi
dential construction.
Wood construction has long predominated in the building of homes,
not only in this country, but all over the world where timber has been
available. Wood has endured not alone for generations, but for centuries.
Compared to other types of materials, it is still relatively the least ex
pensive in this country. When used in the form of solid timbers in the old
manner or when hewn and carved and carefully detailed, it may actually
be more expensive than other types handled in a more commonplace
manner. The advantages of wood hardly need repetition, but certain
features should be pointed out because they are seldom considered. When
employed as a structural material, wood has higher insulating properties
206 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL.
than any form of masonry. An inch of wood is roughly equivalent, as an
insulator, to six inches of solid brick masonry or concrete, and nine to ten
inches of solid stone masonry. For this reason, frame construction, with
a tight wood sheathing on the walls and roof, a layer of building paper,
and an outside surface of clapboards or wood shingles, will be as warm in
winter and as cool in summer as a masonry house with much thicker walls
and of correspondingly higher cost. Furthermore, wood is easily handled
and worked, and competent craftsmen can be more readily obtained for
this material than for any other, all of which contributes to economy.
Even unpainted wood of certain types will withstand weathering action
for years, as witnessed by the fine old Colonial homes on the eastern sea
board which have never felt the touch of the painter's brush. However,
paint, or some type of preservative stain, is nowadays universally em
ployed on wood construction. It adds to its permanency and introduces
opportunities for the use of colors not obtainable on masonry surfaces.
Certain precautions are necessary with wood construction to secure
durability and freedom from maintenance expense. These include the
proper ventilation of inclosed members to prevent dry rot, the elevation
of wood members above ground level on a suitable dry masonry founda
tion, and the employment of well-seasoned timbers and boarding of those
woods which time has demonstrated will last indefinitely. Exposed woods
should be painted or treated with a preservative which should also be a
stain, and of course the paint itself should be renewed from time to time
to restore its fresh appearance.
Turning to the masonry types of construction, the first which warrant
attention are those adaptable for use with a wood frame. These include
both brick and stone facings and stucco applied over wood. These ma
terials, when used in conjunction with a wood frame, depend for their
permanency on the structural frame rather than upon their own inherent
qualities; hence the things that have been said about wood apply with
equal force to these types of construction, with the exception that the
masonry facing introduces fire resisting qualities, eliminates repeated
painting, and changes the entire appearance of the structure to one of
solid masonry construction.
Brick construction is eminently suitable for all types of dwellings and
is the oldest of the synthetic structural materials that mankind has de
veloped. Brick walls are built in a number of ways, beginning with the
use of a brick facing over frame, which has already been mentioned, and
including a brick facing backed by hollow clay tile, hollow brick walls
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 207
(constructed by turning the brick on edge and leaving a hollow space
between the wythes) and solid brick construction, in which the entire
wall consists of only brick and mortar. Various qualities of brick con
struction are possible, depending upon three elements. The first is the
quality of the brick itself, which may range from the soft types of common
brick through the durable, hard-burned common bricks, to the almost
vitrified face bricks. The second is the quality of construction, including
the mortar and the method of laying. Moisture will penetrate through a
brick wall eight or even twelve inches thick during driving rains if the
mortar is porous and poorly used, and particularly if the bricks are not
thoroughly embedded in mortar, leaving gaps in the mortar joints where
water can collect. The third factor is the weight and thickness of the wall.
The weather tightness and durability of the brick wall are actually
more dependent on the workmanship and the mortar than upon the brick,
for almost all kinds of brick will withstand weathering for centuries. The
choice between common brick or face brick is purely a personal matter
and is influenced by the architectural style more than by considerations
of quality, for the better grades of common brick normally employed for
exterior facing have all the durability that any home building problem
could ever require. The face bricks have their value in developing special
colors and textures which cannot be obtained in any other material, and
face bricks are usually more uniform in size than common bricks.
Hollow tile is an important structural material which is not given as
much consideration by home builders as it deserves. Usually hollow tile
is used as a backing material with some form of masonry surfacing, either
stucco, brick, or stone. A hollow tile wall is fireproof, light in weight,
comparatively inexpensive, and has great insulating value due to the air
spaces between its faces. The most common type has a surface especially
prepared to receive stucco and this type of construction is exceedingly
durable; it is usually considered superior to stucco over a wood frame.
Hollow tile is also used with a brick facing and this is generally somewhat
less expensive and lighter in weight than walls of solid brick.
The manufacture of cut stone for use as a facing material has been
developed in recent years and now is sufficiently economical so that a
limestone or marble structure is not an extravagance. When these mate
rials are used, hollow tile is generally employed as the masonry backing
to carry the building loads. Hollow tile is also manufactured with a face
texture resembling that of face brick, and when cleverly handled, makes
an unusual wall of distinctive character. The larger units require some-
208 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
what different handling of the facade than would be customary with ordi
nary sizes of face brick, but a number of architects have achieved very
successful effects based upon the optical illusion produced by these units.
The effect, generally, is to diminish the apparent size of the structure be
cause our eyes are accustomed to the smaller sizes of brick as a unit for
estimating the scale of a building.
Concrete block is the next material which must be considered. Unfor
tunately, a few years ago the manufacturers of concrete blocks severely
1
FIG. 24. — Better Homes in America demonstration house. Stone is a satisfactory
building material even in small houses if a suitable setting is provided.
injured their own industry by attempting to reproduce the appearance of
a rough stone facing in an artificial material, with the result that concrete
block came to be considered as an inferior substitute of exceedingly ugly
character. Structurally, the hollow concrete block is excellent and its
more general use is warranted. It may be employed like hollow tile as a
backing for stucco, brick or stone. A few daring architects have recently
discovered that concrete block, produced with a smooth clean face with
square or even slightly chamfered edges, can be laid up to make a very
interesting wall, especially if whitewashed. George Washington's home at
Mount Vernon used wood, on the river-front side, shaped to resemble cut
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 209
stone in large blocks. The same effect is accomplished by the use of
hollow concrete blocks, with either flush or recessed joints, and the effect
of whitewashing is to restore an old Colonial or Georgian character which
is quite suitable for country homes.
Among the remaining structural materials for fine dwellings are rein
forced concrete and steel. Reinforced concrete has been little used for
this purpose because it is unnecessarily strong for the light loads of a
dwelling. Its extreme permanency and fireproof qualities make it de
sirable for the larger country estates, which will house valuable furnish
ings and works of art and which are so isolated as to require the utmost
fireproof protection that can be obtained. When reinforced concrete is
used for the structural frame and exterior walls, it is usually employed also
for the interior structural members, including the floors and even the roof.
Steel construction is the newest development in the home-building
field, and only recently has it become both practical and economical.
Many attempts have been made in the past to adapt the skyscraper steel
skeleton to residential buildings, but less than a year has elapsed since a
completely practical method of doing so has been found. Now a steel-
framed house can be erected rapidly and at comparatively low cost, using
members made of light steel shapes exactly corresponding to the wooden
members used in ordinary construction. One of the large steel companies
has entered this field and is manufacturing the structural elements needed
in homes of all sizes, and the system they have employed makes it possible
for the architect to design without any serious limitations upon his dimen
sions, proportions or loads. In fact, the architect can design as he had
been accustomed to with wood or masonry, and a steel frame can be
fabricated for the home and delivered to the site before the foundations
are ready. This development introduces the completely fireproof home
in which all the structural parts are of noncombustible materials. The
steel frame is used with an exterior facing material of masonry, such as
stucco or a brick or stone facing. The structural floors are of concrete laid
over steel beams, using a new type of reinforcing material that eliminates
the need for forms in pouring floors. The interior partitions have steel
studs and are plastered on either side, so that the structural members are
fully inclosed. Usually some type of insulating material is employed on
the exterior walls and roof, which may be a part of the stucco reinforcing
fabric or may consist of any of the standard types of insulating materials
which are generally used on the inner faces of the walls or between the
structural members.
2io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
[NOTE. — In some of the larger cities of this country as well as in England steel frame
houses have been erected. Steel frame construction will, it is believed, cut down con
siderably the length of time in building. However, every effort should be made in order
not to standardize houses where large-scale production is applied extensively. Pise de
terre, known as rammed earth construction, and also adobe construction are two of the
old building materials and processes which are still in use today. Adobe, which is a mix
ture of suitable clay, sand, and fiber (grass or roots), is used for the walls or is formed
into brick. Adobe houses are commonly found in the southwestern part of the country
and also in Mexico. For information on rammed earth construction see Rammed Earth
Walls for Buildings (Farmers' Bull. No. 1500, U.S. Department of Agriculture).
USE OF WOOD IN HOUSE CONSTRUCTION
BY NELSON. S. PERKINS
Construction Engineer, National Committee on Wood Utilization,
U.S. Department of Commerce
Selecting a suitable wood for any building use, no matter in what sec
tion of the country it is to be used, affords an opportunity for an extremely
wide choice of species and grades. How to restrict that choice in a practi
cal manner for a particular job is the question before the architect, engi
neer, or builder.
The suitableness of a wood depends first on the use requirements, and
then on the mechanical and physical properties such as strength, hard
ness, durability, and ability to hold paint, of the species and grades
involved.
The two general divisions of woods are the hardwoods, from the broad-
leaved trees such as oak, maple, birch, gum, and sycamore, and the so-
called softwoods from the conifers or needle-leaved trees such as the pines,
firs, cedars, spruces, and hemlocks.
This latter group furnishes the lumber for practically all house framing,
sheathing, subflooring, siding, shingles, and window sash and frames,
while hardwoods and also softwoods are used for finished flooring, wood
work and trim, paneling, and doors. In addition, oak and chestnut are
used occasionally for exposed beams and trusses as in clubhouses,
churches, and similar structures.
From the standpoint of volume used, by far the most important woods
for building are the yellow pines from the South and Douglas fir from the
Northwest. Practically all the softwoods, however, are used to some ex
tent in house construction.
It is generally impossible to choose the "best" wood for any service,
but one of the most suitable usually can be selected if we are familiar,
not only with species characteristics, but also with the structure of wood.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 211
WOOD STRUCTURE
Wood, like any form of plant life, is composed of minute cells. A tree
grows in height and diameter through the formation of new cells, under
the bark and at the tips of branches and roots. As new cells are formed in
the outer portion of the tree, some of the inner cells mature or "die" and
become filled with water and perhaps gum or resin or mineral matter.
Only an outside layer of the wood around the tree contains live cells and
constitutes what is known as "sapwood," while the inner portion, made
up of matured cells, is the heartwood. This heartwood, in practically
every species, is more durable, that is, more resistant against decay, than
the sapwood. This explains why the heartwood is frequently specified for
use in exposed locations.
Contrary, however, to what was once a popular notion, sapwood is just
as strong as heartwood of the same species, other things being equal.
DENSITY
The growth which a tree makes occurs during the spring and summer
months in the form of annual rings. In the spring the growth is rapid and
the new cells are large with thin walls. In the summer growth is retarded
and the new cells are smaller with thicker walls. The light spring wood
and dark summer wood thus formed each year together make up an
annual ring. The summer wood, having a thicker cell structure, has more
wood fiber per unit of volume than the spring wood, and hence is denser
and stronger.
Consequently the higher the percentage of summer wood in a piece of
wood, the stronger the piece. In such woods as Southern yellow pine and
Douglas fir, the percentage of summer wood is referred to as the density
of the wood and is a definite grading requirement in certain structural
timber grades.
GRADING
In 1925 under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Commerce the
lumber industry after several years' deliberation adopted simplified prac
tices published as American Lumber Standards. These standards, since
revised and improved, constitute minimum basic provisions for manu
facturing softwood lumber in standard grades. They are not purchase
specifications, however, and should not be used as such. They have re
sulted in lumber producers adopting standard manufacturing grades under
which, it is estimated, about 80 per cent of the softwood lumber now pro-
212 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
duced is graded. This means that the architect or builder can now specify
lumber with assurance under a standard nomenclature and standard sizes.
Moreover, the maximum defects, both as to size and as to number, per
mitted in similar grades for different species are as nearly alike as is prac
ticable in view of the varying inherent characteristics of the different
woods.
According to these American Lumber Standards softwood lumber is
classified as yard lumber, structural material, and factory and shop lum
ber.
Factory and shop lumber are intended for millwork plants where they
are remanufactured into various products, all serious defects being re
moved. Consequently it is of no special interest to the architect or the
builder.
Structural material is lumber graded on definite strength values as well
as on use of the entire piece. Not only are defects limited, but also the
location of defects and the slope of grain — a most important consideration
in any piece of wood to which engineering stresses are assigned. Its impor
tance lies chiefly in its application for heavy timber construction in
bridges, roof trusses, factory-type buildings, and such uses.
Yard lumber includes most of the lumber used for general building pur
poses. It is defined as lumber less than five inches in thickness and graded
in accordance with the number and size of defects, and also, except in
the lowest grades, upon the use of the entire piece.
Yard lumber is divided into the "select grades" (of good appearance
and finishing qualities and suitable for natural or paint finishes) and the
"common grades" (suitable for general utility and construction purposes).
The select grades, used for such purposes as interior and exterior trim,
siding, paneling, and finish flooring, are classified as follows:
A Select — practically clear lumber (free from defects)
B Select — has few minor blemishes or defects
Both of these grades are suitable for the highest type of work. In some
woods the A select grade is not marketed as such, the best grade being known
then as B and better and including the clear material which would other
wise grade as A select.
C Select — allows a limited number of small defects which can be covered with
paint
D Select — allows any number of defects or blemishes that will not detract from
a finish appearance when painted
In general, the A and B select grades are intended for "natural" fin
ishes, where for decorative purposes it is desired to have the grain of the
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 213
wood visible. The C and D select grades are best adapted for painted
finishes which will cover the minor defects permitted in the grades.
The common grades are produced in both "boards" and "dimension."
Boards include lumber less than 2 inches thick, and may be square
edged or worked to a pattern in such items as siding, flooring, and ceiling,
for which the select grades are also widely used.
Dimension, used as framing material in such sizes as 2X4's, 2X6's,
4X4's, etc., is manufactured in only three grades: No. i common, No. 2
common, and No. 3 common. But, whereas the common grades of
"boards" are based on their utility as a covering material, the common
grades of "dimension" are based more on allowable defects affecting the
strength and stiffness.
In general, No. i common lumber is sound and tight knotted — i.e.,
water tight. In dimension sizes it is widely used for floor joists, rafters,
and other parts requiring strength and stiffness.
Number 2 common allows larger and coarser defects, but may be con
sidered as grain-tight material and has other covering qualities. Num
ber 2 common "dimension" is suitable and widely used for studs, plates,
braces, etc., where the material is never stressed to its full capacity — in
other words, for utility requirements. Number 2 common may also be
used satisfactorily for floor joists if the span and loading are such that the
strength of the joist will be ample and stiffness is the governing factor. In
such cases No. 2 common will be more economical because it will provide
practically the same stiffness as No. i common material, although not so
much strength. Often it will be possible to use a larger-size joist in No. 2
common instead of in No. i common, thus getting equivalent strength but
greater stiffness, without increasing the cost.
Number 3 common, in some species, is suitable for permanent construc
tion for sheathing and subflooring. In other species, if No. 3 common is
used, care should be taken to remove any serious defects or taint of decay.
GRADE-MARKING
The question arises, naturally, how to recognize any grade of lumber
after you have ordered it. The answer is "grade marking." This plan,
developed largely through the efforts of the National Committee on Wood
Utilization and the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, has for
its purpose the stamping of each piece of lumber with the mark identifying
its species and grade. The plan has been pushed aggressively by the
more progressive manufacturers and their associations, and to-day grade-
marked lumber is an actuality; it is obtainable in most species. and grades
214 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
and in any locality, although as yet it is not always carried in retail stock.
Grade-marking is the consumer's best protection, although lumber as now
furnished under "certificates of inspection" from recognized lumber manu
facturers' associations will be equally reliable as to species and grade.
DRY LUMBER
Thorough seasoning or drying of lumber is probably the most essential
factor in obtaining satisfactory results from wood construction. Dry lum
ber should be demanded — but after it is received on a job, it should be
protected from the weather. This is especially true of millwork.
Shrinkage in wood is caused by moisture drying out of the wood fibers,
and expansion or swelling is caused by the fibers absorbing moisture. Ob
viously, if wood before being installed is dried or "seasoned" to the aver
age moisture content that it will have in the building, the subsequent
shrinkage will be minimized and, in fact, practically unnoticeable. Lum
ber for framing and exterior uses should be seasoned to a moisture content
of from 14 to 1 8 per cent, while wood for interior uses such as trim, floor
ing, or paneling should be kiln-dried down to about 8-10 per cent. Mois
ture content is the ratio of the weight of moisture (and other volatiles) in
the wood to the oven-dry weight of the wood.
DURABILITY AND DECAY
Dry lumber will not decay. Decay in wood is caused by attack of fungi
which require air, warmth, and moisture. Dry lumber will not support
fungus growth — one excellent reason, aside from its lack of shrinkage, for
insisting upon its use in building construction.
When wood is used near the ground, or when subjected continually to
moisture and dampness, as in the sills on the foundation wall, heartwood
of the more durable woods should be specified, or else the material should
be treated with a proved preservative such as creosote, zinc chloride, or
other salt. The use of wood thus treated was formerly confined to bridges,
wharves, and other heavy-duty services. During the past eighteen
months, however, the National Committee on Wood Utilization has
assisted in having treated lumber made available throughout Ohio and
elsewhere for those parts of residence and light-frame construction men
tioned above.
SELECTION
In specifying lumber, care should be taken to refer to the latest grading
rules of the lumber manufacturers' association under which the particular
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 215
kind of wood desired is produced. In addition, insist upon grade-marked
material to be assured of quality.
For further information the reader is referred to Light Frame House
Construction, Wood Construction, and other publications by the National
Committee on Wood Utilization, U.S. Department of Commerce.
BUILDING BRICK1
BY JORDAN A. PUGH
Common Brick Manufacturers' Association
In this country, in recent years, there has been a revival of interest in
the architectural details and history of many of the old brick buildings,
and it is not infrequent for architects to specify old-style handmade
bricks for special work in order faithfully to reproduce the spirit of these
older structures. A great deal of literature relating to the history of brick
has become available within the last few years, and many of these books
are illustrated with beautiful reproductions of noted older buildings.
Modern brickmaking is done by machinery, the clay being ground,
mixed with water, and forced through dies to make the required shapes.
Some of the modern plants have intricate machinery for actually setting
the brick in the kilns, and the finished product is in some localities loaded
into large "containers" which are placed on railroad cars, unloaded onto
trucks, and delivered at the site with the contents undisturbed.
The manufacturing process of firing bricks calls for temperatures of
approximately 1,800° F., applied for from two to three and four days and
even longer. This intense heat destroys all combustible materials, and the
chemical composition of different clays, so treated, results in a wide range
of colors and shades. Browns and reds predominate, but the colors range
through grays, creams, buffs, yellows, tans, reds, pinks, and purples.
Blues and greens are produced by the addition of chemicals. The textures
are varied, being smooth by die finishes, rough by wire cutting, or by sand
molding, or by the quality of the clay or shale itself, and there is also
a wide use of "clinkered" or "arch" brick which are those slightly dis
torted or roughened on the face by the action of high heats. Such bricks
are used in producing particular architectural effects.
This wide range of shapes, colors, and textures enables brick to be used
in the construction of almost any type of building and in such a manner as
to make the building harmonize with its surroundings. In recent years
the painting of brick by cement paint is of frequent occurrence while an
1 Prepared for this publication.
2i 6 . THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
effect of aging is produced by whitewashing the brick, the whitewash
being soon affected by the weather.
An intending builder, before selecting the brick for facing the house,
should make certain that the brick will harmonize with the design and
that the design will fit its environment. The individual who ordered a
"glazed yellow brick for facing a Colonial bungalow" had somewhat
scrambled ideas as to architectural requirements.
The selection of a mortar of proper color should also be carefully con
sidered inasmuch as from 10 to 20 per cent of wall surface consists of the
mortar. The mortar should harmonize with the color of the brick or
properly contrast with it.
Brick masonry must be "bonded" together, that is, the individual
brick units must be tied together at certain intervals by bricks laid in the
opposite direction — such bricks being called "headers." There are many
and varied types of bonding, and any standard work on brick contains
full illustrations. Patterns may be easily worked out with brick and
many may be found in pamphlets showing the design of brick fireplaces,
chimneys, and other details.
Garden walks, steps, and terraces are frequently paved with brick in
order to simulate construction usual in the larger Colonial estates, and
there is also an increasing use of brick inclosure walls and retaining walls.
The use of salmon brick is recommended in lining chimneys — this
because, of the fact that these bricks are underburned and therefore will
withstand heat action even more than the hard-burned brick. Salmon
brick are also recommended as a "backup" material in constructing brick
walls as they are more absorbent and therefore tend to absorb such slight
moisture as might penetrate through the facing material joints. However,
it is better not to try to use salmon brick unless the facing material is
distinctly different in color. They should never be exposed directly to
the weather, and this has at times occurred when the facing material was
of the same color as the salmon brick.
The United States Bureau of Standards (Division of Simplified Prac
tice), in cooperation with the American Institute of Architects and repre
sentatives of the brick industry, adopted the following dimensions as the
standard of size for both common and face brick : Length, 8 inches; width,
3! inches; thickness, 2\ inches, with permissible variations (plus or minus)
of \ inch in length and f inch in width and thickness. These variations
are due to the fact that different clays shrink to different degrees accord
ing to the amount of heat applied to them.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 217
As with all the other building materials, the principal factor in their
satisfactory use in construction is necessarily "workmanship." A perfect
building material imperfectly used would give imperfect results. In brick-
masonry work when all horizontal and vertical joints are well filled with
properly-mixed mortar the wall will give a satisfactory account of itself.
Specifications for proper construction may be obtained from the various
brick associations.
Roof members should be properly fastened to plates bolted to the tops
of the walls according to the directions contained in association brick
literature. When window and door frames are put in position the open
spaces around them should be filled with mortar and the openings calked
with suitable materials so as to prevent moisture penetration. It has hap
pened that when these precautions are not taken water entered the walls
at openings, and came through the walls farther away. In both frame and
brick construction care should be taken to seal open spaces around the
frames.
In case of flat roofs the "flashing" should be of sufficient height and
should be carried through the parapet wall which should, preferably, have
a coping of vitrified clay.
The danger from fire will be less if the furnace room is walled writh
brick and if the ceiling (over the furnace) is protected by some fireproof
material. Chimneys should always be lined with flue lining and frame
members should not be built into chimneys unless 8 inches of solid brick
come between the members and the flue proper. This precaution should
be taken to prevent a wood member from catching fire from heated gases
which may escape from the flue.
All exposed brick walls should be properly furred before being plas
tered. The use of furring (unless it is of hollow tile) leaves an open air
space between the brick walls and the plaster. This air space tends to in
sulate the house and make it dry and warmer in the winter and cooler in
summer. When this air space is open it also would have a tendency to act
as a flue in case of fire, so firestops should be inserted at floor levels to pre
vent the possible passage of flames up this hollow space. The same pre
caution is advisable in the construction of frame houses. A brick house
properly designed and with a' fireproof roof is practically immune from
catching fire from an adjacent building, and is regarded from an insurance
standpoint as the best class of risk.
In considering the heating of a house it should be borne in mind that
while brick walls in themselves have a high insulating value, much of the
218 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
heat losses occur not through the walls themselves but through the win
dow and door openings and by radiation through the window panes.
When construction calls for strong fireproof walls which will have a
low maintenance cost and which will not deteriorate in appearance with
age, brick naturally suggests itself for consideration, especially since the
cost is relatively low, being merely the difference between the cost of
frame and brick walls from the tops of foundations to the roof plates, the
other items of construction being the same.
A renewed interest is being shown in "reinforced brickwork," the rein
forcing being accomplished by inserting metal ro'ds in the wall during the
construction, on the same principle that rods are used in reinforced con
crete. Investigations of older examples of this construction, and more
recent experiments, indicate a wide field of usefulness for reinforced brick
work.
Brick being absolutely fireproof — having a wide range of colors and
textures — requiring no upkeep or painting expense, and being of reason
able first cost, naturally suggests itself as a proper construction material
for many projects.1
HOLLOW TILE AND CEMENT MATERIALS2
BY ALLEN L. CHURCHILL
AND
LEONARD WICKENDEN
HOLLOW TILE
The advantages of hollow tiles for building purposes are so obvious
that their growing popularity is in no way surprising. The air spaces in
the tiles form a protection against damp, and against heat in summer and
cold in winter; while the 'durability, low cost of maintenance, and fire
proof qualities already mentioned in connection with bricks are possessed
to an equal degree by hollow tile. Perhaps the ideal combination is that
of a hollow- tile building with a brick facing. This gives the desirable
insulation against dampness and extremes of temperature possessed by
1 Full details relating to the colors and textures of brick and information relating to
all phases of its use in construction may be had on application to the Division of Building
and Housing, U.S. Department of Commerce; the American Face Brick Association,
130 N. Wells St., Chicago; and the Common Brick Mfrs. Association, 2121 Guarantee
Title Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
2 Adapted from The House-Owner's Book (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1928),
pp. 32-42.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 219
hollow tile, together with the architectural effects of brick. It is, also,
possible to obtain a special type of hollow tile having a face similar in
character to the ordinary brick, and, with this type, effects very similar
to those obtained with face brick can be produced. The commonest finish
for a hollow- tile house is, however, stucco.
.... [Hollow tile] should be free from cracks and well burned, espe
cially when used for outside walls The relative size of voids and
shells is also of some importance. The void should not measure more than
four inches in width and the thickness of the webs and shells should not
be less than fifteen per cent of the width of the void. Where hollow tile is
used for inside partitions, it is not necessary to be quite so particular re
garding quality.
As regards the cost of hollow tile, the general public, as in the case of
brick, has an exaggerated idea of the expense involved. Moreover, the
slight extra cost over frame construction is usually more than offset by
the saving in repairs, painting, insurance and in fuel.
STUCCO
Stucco is a cement plaster, consisting of cement and sand, or cement,
sand and lime, mixed in varying proportions and applied to the outside
of a building either for decoration, or protection, or both (For ad
ditional information on stucco, see pp. 221-24.)
CEMENT AND CONCRETE
Portland cement is made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay
(or similar materials) in a kiln to such a temperature that fusion takes
place and clinkers are produced. These clinkers are ground to a fine
powder, and are usually mixed with about three per cent of gypsum. The
resulting powder consists chiefly of calcium and aluminum silicates. On
mixing with water, these compounds combine with it, chemically, forming
hydrated silicates of calcium and aluminum.
Lest it should be thought that an unnecessary incursion is being made
into pure chemistry, it may be said that a thorough understanding of the
statements contained above would enable the amateur to avoid more than
half the failures which follow his attempts at concrete construction. If
you contemplate working with Portland cement, even if only to the extent
of closing a crack in your cellar floor, grasp the fundamental fact: The
setting of concrete is not a process of "drying out"; it is the exact oppo
site — a process of hydration. Unless sufficient water is present concrete
220 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
will never, can never, set really hard and solid. Moreover, the setting is, in
reality, a very slow process, and concrete seldom reaches its maximum
hardness in less than a year. It is, however, during the first few days that
a sufficiency of moisture is so important, and after the concrete is mixed
and poured into the forms steps must be taken to keep it damp. It should
be protected with canvas, wet sand, or some other simple covering, and
both concrete and covering should be sprinkled with water sufficiently
often to keep the whole mass thoroughly damp for some days.
As regards the amount of water to be used in making up the mixture,
this will vary considerably according to the condition of the sand and
stone mixed with the cement. When the sand is very dry, more water will
be needed than when it is wet. The exact amount of water required, there
fore, is seldom given, and it is almost entirely a matter of personal judg
ment. This frequently presents difficulties to the amateur, and he nearly
always errs on the side of insufficiency. He finds it difficult to believe that
the sloppy mixture which he has prepared will ever set to the hard, stone-
like mass which he aims to produce, and he adds a little more cement to
"stiffen it up." This is often a fatal mistake and results in a soft concrete.
The consistency which gives the best results is that of a jelly. The mixture
is sometimes described as "quaky," which means that it will "shiver,"
just as a jelly does when it is jarred. It should be neither thin and watery,
nor yet so stiff that it will not flow.
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles, or small stones, and
water. All four constituents may be considered equally important. Ce
ment is manufactured under strict chemical control, and if you buy any
of the well-known brands you may have absolute confidence in its quality.
The important part played by water in concrete construction has already
been indicated, and on that point little more need be said, except as to the
quality of the water. One authority on concrete has made the statement
that water that is good enough for concrete is good enough to be drunk.
This may be carrying things a little too far, but it is necessary that the
water should be clean and free from suspended matter.
The importance of having good quality sand and stone is apparent.
Concrete may be looked upon as a mixture of these two materials bound
together by cement. It follows, therefore, that if the sand and stones are
soft and weak, the whole mixture will be soft and weak. Do not use sand
that powders easily when rubbed, or that contains appreciable amounts
of clay or other impurities, and choose pebbles that are hard, clean and
smooth, or broken stone from granite, trap-rock, or other hard rocks. If
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 221
sand or stones of this description are not available, make the best of poor
material by washing it thoroughly before use, so as to remove the clay
and other foreign matter.
The proportions of sand, stone, and cement recommended vary con
siderably according to the work to be done. An average mixture which
will be found suitable for most work around the home consists of one part
of cement, two of sand, and four of gravel or stone. This is known as a
1:2:4 mixture, and the proportions are given according to volume — not
weight. For foundations a i : 2\ : 5 mixture is frequently used, and in the
construction of roadways a i : 1^:3 or even i : i : ij mixture is preferred.
The general rule, in this connection, is that the greater the proportion of
cement the more water-proof and dense is the concrete, and, up to a cer
tain limit, the greater the proportion of sand and stone, the stronger is the
concrete. There must be sufficient cement to produce a thorough coating
of the sand and stone, as there will not be otherwise a perfect bond be
tween the different particles constituting the mixture. For the same
reason, the concrete must be very thoroughly mixed before use. For fac
ing walls, filling cracks and making repairs, generally, a mixture of cement
and sand, only, is used, usually in the proportion of i : 2.1
STUCCO FINISHES2
a) Classes. — The finish coats of stucco may be divided into three gen
eral groups according to the texture and method of application. These
are, first, dash finishes of the wet and dry type; second, the smooth fin
ishes comprising the various modifications of the float finish; and, third,
the exposed aggregate or surface treated concrete.
b) Wet dashes. — The wet-dash finishes include the "rough cast" or the
"pebble dash," which is obtained by throwing with a paddle a mixture of
cement grout and pebbles of a definite size against a fresh coat of mortar.
The "spatter" dash is obtained in very much the same manner as the
rough cast except that a very thin mixture of cement and coarse sand or
stone screenings is dashed against the fresh mortar. The "sand spray" or
"broom dash" is obtained by applying a creamy mixture of cement and
1 For additional information on concrete see Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
(Portland Cement Assoc.).
2 From Stucco Investigations at the U.S. Bureau of Standards with Recommendations for
Portland Cement Stucco Construction (Circular of the Bureau of Standards, No. 311,
1926), pp. 27-32. See this publication also for uses of stucco for construction purposes,
mixing and application, maintenance, and other information.
222 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sand with a whisk broom or a long fiber brush. The broom is dipped into
the grout and then struck across the forearm or a stick held in the left
hand, spraying the mixture on the finish coat of mortar.
All these finishes are of comparatively low cost and are readily executed
by workmen of ordinary skill. Owing to their rough texture they have the
advantage of hiding the fine shrinkage cracks which develop to a greater
or less extent in Portland cement stucco on hardening. These features
contribute to the widespread use of the wet-dash finishes, and for the
usual run of stucco work they are recommended.
There is considerable objection to the wet dashes because of their dull
and cold uniform cement color. This objection may be met by using the
white cement in the finish coat and dash or by tinting with mortar colors.
c) Dry dash. — The dry-dash finishes are generally obtained by throw
ing with considerable force clean pebbles, stone chips, or pieces of shell
against the finish coat before it has hardened. The aggregate should be
largely of one size and should be uniformly distributed over the surface.
The pieces may be pushed into place by the use of the float, but there
should be no rubbing of the surface after the pieces are embedded. This
finish is quite difficult to execute properly, but when well done it produces
an acceptable color and texture quite different in character from those of
the wet dashes.
d) Float finishes. — The sand-float finish is produced by carefully float
ing the finish coat after it has taken its initial hardening. A lean finish
coat is necessary, and it should be carefully straightened before floating
is started. After the stucco has well stiffened, water is dashed on it by
means of a brush and the final floating carried out until the sand tones pre
dominate. It is probably the most difficult of all the finishes to execute
and obtain acceptable surfaces. As the surface is smooth, imperfections
of workmanship and defects show very conspicuously, and this finish
should only be undertaken by workmen with considerable skill and ex
perience.
e) Textures. — In order to obtain finishes of a pleasing texture and to
avoid the monotony of the dashes and the difficulties of execution of the
float finishes, a number of finishes have been developed by specialists and
manufacturers of colored stucco. Color tones are introduced, and with
combination of colors and methods of finishing there are unlimited possi
bilities as to number of surface effects which can be devised. One of these
finishes has been named "floated rough cast." The wall is prepared for a
rough-cast finish, and then the high points are lightly smoothed off with a
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
223
plasterer's wood float. This finish lends itself readily to a two-color com
bination. First, the finish coat of one color is applied and partially floated
and while still plastic another color is dashed on and then the high points
smoothed off and the two colors blended together. Another has been
called the "sponge-float" finish and is produced by carefully working the
plastic finish coat with a softwood float drawing the float away from the
FIG. 25. — This six-room house built of hollow tile walls with an exterior finish of
stucco is comfortably placed on a 45-foot lot. (Copyright — Architects' Small House
Service Bureau, Inc., Plan 6-6-27.)
surface at random. The suction between the float and the stucco gives a
roughness of surface which is between the extremes of the roughness of
the wet dashes and the smoothness of the sand-float finish. When exe
cuted in colored stucco, it gives a very acceptable finish.
/) Exposed aggregate. — Although the name "exposed aggregate" has
been applied to the ordinary troweled or floated surface which is given a
final scrubbing treatment with brush and water or a cleaning with an acid
wash, the name will be used here in connection with a finish which
should be more properly designated as a surf ace- treated concrete. The ex
posed aggregate finish is obtained by applying a finish coat which in itself
224 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
is a concrete with miniature aggregate. The cement and fine sand bear a
definite relation to the coarse aggregate which predominates the mix. The
coarse particles have to be sized and proportioned to the fine material in
keeping with the architectural features of the building and in accordance
with the effect which it is desired to produce when the structure is viewed
from a given distance. Usually the coarse particles are of one size from
| to 1 inch and upward and are proportioned into the mix to give a maxi
mum density. This coating is applied and after it has stiffened the surface
film of cement and finer aggregate is removed by gentle brushing with a
wire brush and then the coat is left to harden and dry out. Next, it is
washed with dilute acid and clean water. By removing the cement and
fine particles the color of the surface is determined by the color of the
aggregate and its texture by the size and shape of the coarse particles.
While this treatment ranks first as a stucco finish, it is also the most
difficult of stuccowork to plan and execute. By the use of colored aggre
gates the most beautiful of color tones can be obtained and due to its
density and texture many of the common structural defects are elimi
nated. To carry out the work successfully requires the selection, grading,
and proportioning of the aggregate from a knowledge of size effect and
color tone, and to obtain a uniformity of appearance over the entire sur
face requires the highest type of workmanship in the application and fin
ishing of the coat.
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF CONCRETE1
Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water and inert materials
put in place in a plastic condition but hardening soon after due to the
process known as the hydration of the cement. Although concrete is
placed in a plastic condition and cannot be tested for quality at the time
of fabrication it is now practicable to produce concrete of any quality that
may.be necessary to meet the requirements of the work by proper control
of the proportioning, making and placing together with subsequent curing.
The fundamental requirements of hardened concrete are strength,
durability and economy. Fresh concrete must be workable, that is, it
must be of such a consistency and physical make-up that it can be readily
placed in the form without segregation of the materials and without re
quiring an excessive amount of spading to completely fill the form. Uni
formity in both the fresh and hardened concrete is necessary to secure
economy of materials, to facilitate handling and placing and to obtain uni-
1 From Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (Portland Cement Assoc., 1929).
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 225
formity in the completed structure. It is particularly important where
water tightness is required.
Most concrete is designed on the basis of compressive strength. How
ever, the flexural and tensile strength, the bond with steel reinforcement,
and the resistance to wear are in general governed by the same factors
which govern the compressive strength. The compressive strength, there
fore, may be used as an indication of these other qualities and, since the
test for compressive strength is comparatively simple, it is the test that is
most often adopted.
If structures are to give long service, the durability of the materials is
just as important as the strength. In much of the past practice this has
not been fully appreciated and too much emphasis has been placed on
strength and economy alone. The most important requirement for dura
bility of exposed concrete is water tightness. Durable concrete requires
sound, durable aggregates thoroughly incorporated in a cement paste
that is watertight.
While economy of materials is important, there are other factors
affecting the economy of concrete which seldom receives proper con
sideration. The amount of labor required in placing and finishing con
crete is a considerable item in the total cost. It can be reduced to a mini
mum by proportioning the materials to produce a plastic mixture that
can be placed easily under the particular conditions of the job. The most
economical concrete does not always result from the mix having the low
est cement factor nor the mix with the lowest cost for materials, but rather
from the mix for which total cost — materials, handling and placing — is the
lowest.
The workability required will be different for different classes of work
and will be determined by the methods of transporting and the details
of placing — width and depth of forms and spacing of reinforcement.
Plastic concrete may be regarded as a mass of aggregate particles, indi
vidually floated in a cement paste. This gives a mass that can be trans
ported without segregation and can be placed easily in such a manner
that when the forms are removed the hardened concrete will have smooth
surfaces, free from honeycombing. Concrete of such consistency will re
quire a minimum amount of finishing. In much of the practice in the past,
such concrete has not been obtained. This was largely due to the fact that
arbitrary mixtures were specified which did not permit adjustments in
the mix to suit the character of materials, the condition in which they
were measured or the placing requirements of the job. In the endeavor
226 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
to obtain workable mixtures, excess water was often added which almost
invariably resulted in segregation, porosity and low strength.
Uniformity is important since all parts of a structure designed for the
same strength should be made of concrete of the same quality. Moreover,
the best economy can be obtained only by the use of uniform batches of
concrete. Uniformity is best secured by using plastic concrete made
homogeneous by thorough mixing of uniformly measured quantities of
materials, including the water.
The above fundamental requirements can be obtained by attention to
each of the four major factors which determine concrete quality. These
are the use of suitable materials, correct proportioning, careful methods of
production, and protection during the curing period I
[NOTE. — The Building Code Committee of the U.S. Department of Commerce has
recommended standard specifications governing the use of concrete units (see Minimum
Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction; also Properties and Manufacture of Con
crete Building Units [U.S. Bureau of Standards], for materials and proportioning).]
ROOFING MATERIALS2
BY MATLACK PRICE
When it comes to choosing a roof the material may not, necessarily,
depend upon the wall material or the style of the house. You may have
such a keen preference for a certain kind of roof that you will choose a
type of house that will allow you to use that roof. In other words, the
relationship of roof to house is so important that the house itself may be
radically changed in favor of roofing material.
There are several broad divisions that may serve to clarify a brief dis
cussion of some of the principal roofing materials, as, for instance,, fire
proof and non-fireproof. Or, more exactly, the division into wood shingle,
composition shingle, tile and slate.
Although brick, stone and stucco houses may be topped with wood
shingle roofs, the all- wood structure most often calls for this material.
Fireproof roofing materials, it is true, are often enough seen on the frame
house, but not consistently, even if the roof is the part of any house most
likely to catch fire. If fire hazard is a matter of real concern, there are
plenty of artificial shingles, compounded largely of asbestos, and light
1 For information on selection of materials, proportioning, production, and protec
tion during curing period see ibid.
* Adapted from "Building and Equipping Your Home," Arts and Decoration, April,
1930. Reprinted by courtesy of the Arts and Decoration magazine.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 227
enough in weight to conform with light frame construction and side- walls
sheathed with clapboards or shingles.
Time was, of course, when shingles were split by hand, and it is only
within comparatively recent times that wood shingles have been offered
in extensive color ranges, thoroughly dip-stained before delivery. In these
creosote stains, the factory job of dipping soon proved to be far more
thorough and satisfactory than anything that could be done "on loca
tion," and it was not long before manufacturers of shingles were present
ing complete ranges of really beautiful colors, so that attractive har
monies are now easily effected in both roofs and side-walls of the house
entirely of wood construction.
Nature, left to herself, gives walls and roofs of shingle a weathered
color of silver gray, but this color changes, becoming yearly darker and
darker, until it is nearly black. One advantage of dip-stained shingles is
not only the obvious one of achieving any desired color immediately, but
also the advantage of permanence in the shingle itself as well as in the
color. Not that wood shingles au naturel are not still used. They are, and
with a constant demand for the hand-split kind, those large rugged-look
ing wood shingles that produce such authentic quaintness in the cottage
type of house, and in certain kinds of Colonial adaptations.
Wood shingles are in no danger of being out-moded by other types of
roofing — they will always serve well and faithfully, and treated with creo
sote stains they will also serve colorfully a large proportion of all the roofs
there are.
A question often asked has to do with wood shingles, and this question
is about the legitimacy of roofs in "thatched" effects, in which the shingles
are bent over curved eaves. The answer is that when the purpose is
frankly for decorative effect, and when everything else about the house
is in character with the English cottage type, a thatched effect is legiti
mate from a purely decorative point of view, and with due recognition of
the fact that actual thatch is a thing in itself, and that the shingle imita
tion is no more than a general approximation of the true thatch profile.
The popularity of hand-split shingles is simply a part of the general
swing back to authenticity in building materials as they were used in
older, sturdier days of building, before machine and mill finishes robbed
many materials of their most interesting characteristics. The hand-split
shingle is used more often for side-walls than, for roofs, and is used for
roofs where a rough and rugged effect is wanted. Cedar continues as the
leading wood for shingles, and cypress is also quite widely used. So essen-
228 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
tially is this old form of roofing material a part of home building that
competition of a variety of attractive fireproof roofings cannot diminish
the popularity of wood shingles. For certain types of houses they re
main the most appropriate of all roofing materials.
Among inexpensive roofings there are many shingles made on a fabric
base, and these are widely used on an economy basis rather than on their
comparative merits of appearance. From the architect's point of view,
the fabric shingle roof tends to lack texture as a whole. It lies too flat.
An essential of any roof should be an effective emphasis of its units, as
brought out by the thick butts of shingles, slates or tiles. When a shingle
is made synthetically, that is, compounded of asbestos and other materi
als, the architect, without being too exacting, demands that it be so de
signed that it will lie up in roofs that have not only color but texture.
This requirement has been admirably met by a number of composite
shingles, in which color, texture and form have been combined to provide
a roofing material virtually ideal. Lighter in weight than tile or slate,
asbestos composition shingles do not require extra-heavy roof framing.
.... The whole pageantry of autumn colors — reds, dull oranges, russet
browns — is included in the color ranges, with old blues and purples to in
troduce here and there as interesting accents. Some ranges include pearl
gray, red, buff and black.
Most of the asbestos shingles are of the same composition throughout,
while asphalt shingles are made, in the lighter grades, on a tough fabric
base; both types, in all their varieties, are so styled in attractive color
ranges as to be definitely a contribution to the esthetic side of building.
There are several makes of these shingles which have now been in service
over periods of time long enough to prove their wearing qualities as well
as their lasting beauty in blended harmonies of color.
Roofing tiles have at last come into their own and been warmly
approved by the most exacting architects. For many years, this roofing
material was technically in no need of criticism, while esthetically it made
the unfortunate mistake of kilning every unit with an identical color and
texture. The result was that a roof laid up in tile might, so far as appear
ances went, have been made of stamped metal and painted red or green.
These were the two colors, and the green was of a harsh and violent hue.
It was impossible to lay a roof with the charming accidents of color, not
to speak of the age-old weathering of the tile roofs that have for ages
captivated every visitor to European countries Now the English
type, exactly like the irregular, hand-made product of Elizabethan days,
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 229
is reproduced in this country, and tile-roofed houses in any type of English
architecture can be made authentic. Even the centuries of weathering
have been reproduced and so skilfully that it is very difficult to distinguish
one of these new shingle- tile roofs from an old roof brought over with
great trouble and expense from England.
It is the same with the Spanish or Mediterranean type of tile, some
times called the Roman tile. The whole effect of a Mediterranean house,
whether it derives from Spain or Italy, depends upon the subtle variations
in the range of mellow colors found in the roof tiles. There has never been
any real reason why roof tiles should not have been baked in variations of
color — but it has only been recently that manufacturers have realized the
architectural opportunity, as well as the necessity of doing so.
The roof of slate is one of the oldest and, from its nature, one of the
most satisfying of all roofs. It is a natural product, formed by hand,
and its beautiful range of color it owes also to nature. From the earliest
times men have roofed their homes with slate, wherever it was available,
and slate roofs laid hundreds of years ago are still in place.
For all that it has so long been, historically, a perfect roofing material,
slate as we now see it used on country houses was neglected, or, differently
stated, it was misused. During the i88o's builders had the idea that the
thing to do with slate was to split it as thin as its structure would possibly
allow, to cut its edges perfectly true and grade it for absolute uniformity
of color. If there were dull reds, purples, greens or blues, these were set
aside to use in absurd patterns for "fancy roofs." You have seen them on
the grander houses of that period on roofs bristling with lightning rods
and filigree iron cresting, the patterns generally based on monotonous
hexagons and the rest of the roof about as interesting as oilcloth.
Slate as an effectively rugged material, dowered by nature with an in
comparable range of beautiful color, came in with the new architectural
integrity, when architects began to use wood, brick, stone and other things
appropriately.
Slate is not an inexpensive roofing material, though no comparisons
should be made without due consideration of its everlasting permanence.
Generally it is used on houses of higher than average construction cost,
and obviously on houses of brick, stone or half-timber. It is harmonious
with .stucco but a frame house must be extra-substantially built to take
the weight.
Cost, after all, is relative and it would be a mistake to entertain any
cost prejudice in regard to slate. Architects and builders have roughly
23o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
estimated that a slate roof figures roughly two per cent of the total con
struction cost of the house. Against this there are to be considered its
absolute permanence and its protection against fire and weather and its
essential character and beauty. Each slate quarried out of the rock is
shaped by hand, no two exactly alike in color, and the color range is one
more beautiful and harmonious than any artist could create.
The choice of any roofing material, like the other factors for construc
tion by the prospective builder, will be predicated on various things, of
which cost is only one. Esthetically (rather than practically) speaking,.
cost should come last. The ideal roof is the one that is permanent, pro
tective, beautiful and architecturally in character with its house. The ar
chitect has ideals, but no illusions on the roofing question; the prospective
builder may learn much by consulting with him, and may, if he wishes,
make a personal examination of the various roofing materials now avail
able. And they are better and better looking than ever before.
INSULATION1
Thermal insulation is concerned with the problem of reducing the
transfer of heat from one region to another. The physical principles in
volved in the subject of insulation are thus identical with those involved
in the subject of heat transfer. Heat is transferred by three general
methods or modes, called, respectively, conduction, convection, and
radiation, which may operate either separately or in combination, depend
ing upon the particular conditions. In any case the flow of heat invariably
takes place from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature.
I. CONDUCTION
In solid materials heat is transferred by a process known as conduction,
the exact nature of which is not completely understood. The amount of
heat conducted from one region to another is proportional to the tempera
ture difference between the two regions in question. The ability to con
duct heat varies widely among different materials, metals being, in gener
al, far better heat conductors than nonmetallic substances. It therefore
follows that nonmetallic materials are, in general, better insulators than
metals. Gases, with two exceptions, are the poorest conductors of heat,
but, as will be discussed later, heat transfer through gases is usually com
plicated by other factors besides conduction.
1 Adapted from Thermal Insulation of Buildings (Circular of the U.S. Bureau of
Standards, No. 376, 1929), pp. i-io.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 231
The numerical measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat
is called its thermal conductivity, defined in customary units as the
amount of heat in B.t.u. (British thermal units) which will flow in one
hour through a uniform layer of material i square foot in area and i inch
in thickness, when the temperature difference between the surfaces of the
layer is maintained at i° F. A B.t.u. is the amount of heat necessary to
raise the temperature of i pound of water i° F. The insulating value or
thermal resistivity of a material is equal to the reciprocal (one divided by)
of its conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material itself, not depend
ing upon the size and shape of a particular piece of the material in ques
tion, providing the latter is of uniform structure. It is therefore incorrect
to speak of the conductivity of a wall or other structure but only of the
conductivity of the material or materials of which the structure is com
posed.
When dealing with a given body, such as a building wall, its insulating
value as a whole is measured inversely by a property known as conduct
ance, denned as the amount of heat flowing through the wall per unit
time and per unit area when the temperature difference between the sur
faces of the wall is i°. The insulating value or thermal resistance is equal
to the reciprocal of the conductance. The conductance of a wall depends
upon the conductivity, size, and arrangement of the materials of which
the wall is composed. If it consists of a single uniform material, its con
ductance is numerically equal to the conductivity of the material divided
by the thickness of the wall. If the wall is composed of parallel layers of
different materials, its conductance can be easily calculated from the
respective thicknesses of the layers and the conductivities of the materials
composing them. The insulating value of the wall is equal to the sum of
the respective insulating values of the different layers. If, on the other
hand, the wall does not consist simply of parallel layers, the calculation of
the insulating value from the conductivity and dimensions of the wall
components is much more difficult, and will not be discussed here.
2. CONVECTION
The transfer of heat in a liquid or gas is usually complicated by other
factors besides conduction. Conduction is always present, but the heat
transfer is ordinarily greatly increased by fluid motion called convection,
set up either automatically by reason of temperature differences or by
means of mechanical stirring or blowing. The former is called natural or
232 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
free convection and the latter forced convection. The exchange of heat
between the air in a room and the inside surface of the external wall is
one of the simplest examples of natural convection. The phenomenon of
convection is rather complicated and cannot be accurately expressed in
terms of simple laws like those of conduction; but as an approximation,
heat transfer by convection can be regarded as proportional to the
temperature difference.
3. RADIATION
The transfer of heat from one solid body to another through the inter
vening air or other fluid medium is still further complicated by radiation,
which results in a heat transfer practically independent of the presence of
the air. The process is the same as the transfer of heat from the sun to
the earth through the intervening space devoid of matter. Everybody is
familiar with the radiation of heat from an open fire, but it is not so gener
ally recognized that radiation plays a very important role in heat transfer
at ordinary temperatures. In fact, about one-half of the heat transfer
from a heated room to the inside surface of the exterior walls takes place
by direct radiation from interior objects and partition walls. The other
half is the result of convection in the air near the exterior walls.
AIR SPACES AS THERMAL INSULATORS
Although air is a very poor conductor of heat, the insulating value of an
ordinary air space is rather small, on account of the large transfer of heat
by convection and radiation. Radiation is largely responsible for the in
effectiveness of air spaces bounded by ordinary building materials, such
as are found in frame or other hollow walls. The low insulating value is
often erroneously attributed to convection; but, as a matter of fact, from
50 to 80 per cent of the heat transfer across air spaces of ordinary sizes
takes place by radiation. If the air spaces were bounded by bright metallic
surfaces, the transfer of heat by radiation would be greatly diminished,
since clean metallic surfaces are much poorer radiators than nonmetallic
surfaces, such as brick, stone, glass, wood, plaster, paper, etc.
The terms conductance and resistance (insulating value), as already
defined, can be applied to an air space as well as to a slab of solid material.
On account of the large effects of radiation and convection, however, the
insulating value of an air space is not proportional to its width (thickness),
as would be the case with a slab of uniform solid material. Furthermore,
the insulating value varies considerably with both mean temperature and
temperature difference. For spaces more than about three-fourths inch
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 233
wide the insulating value is practically constant, independent of the
width. Narrower spaces have less insulating value, and below about one-
half inch the insulating value is approximately proportional to the width.
Under average conditions the conductance of the vertical air spaces com
monly found in building walls is about i B.t.u. per hour, per square foot,
and per temperature difference of i° F. It will be seen later that this
figure corresponds to an insulating value approximately equivalent to a
one-third inch thickness of average insulating material.
INSULATING MATERIALS
A thermal insulator is essentially a material having a large percentage
of relatively small voids containing air. Little, if any, convection can take
place within such a material, and the solid portions effectively screen off
the radiation, so that the low conductivity of air is utilized to a much
greater extent than in an air space. Since every known solid material has
a greater thermal conductivity than air, it is evident that the conductivity
of air fixes the lower limit of the conductivity of insulating materials con
taining air. By exhausting the air from an insulating material the con
ductivity can be materially reduced, and although this principle is made
use of in certain types of thermos bottles and jars, it is impracticable on a
large scale.
The application of the term thermal conductivity has thus far been
restricted to uniform or homogeneous materials. Insulating materials are
obviously not homogeneous in the microscopic sense, but in a practical
sense they may be considered homogeneous, since their structure is fine
grained in comparison with the size of the specimens ordinarily dealt
with. Bearing this in mind, we may use the terms thermal conductivity
and insulating value in the same sense as they have been used in the case
of homogeneous materials.
Investigation has shown that the differences in the respective thermal
conductivities of the various light fibrous or cellular materials are not very
great. The conductivities of most materials manufactured and sold pri
marily as insulators fall within the range 0.25 to 0.35 B.t.u. per hour,
square foot, and temperature gradient of i° F. per inch thickness. Of such
insulators less than ij inches of the poorest material is equivalent in in
sulating value to i inch of the best. The better insulators approach fairly
closely to the ideal limit, since the thermal conductivity of air is only
slightly less than 0.2 B.t.u.
Commerical insulating materials can be divided into two general
234 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
groups — (i) fibrous materials either in loose form or fabricated into soft
flexible quilts confined between relatively thin layers of paper or textile
and (2) more or less rigid boards in which the components are bonded
together in some way. The differences in the respective insulating values
of materials within each group are usually so small that the average pur
chaser can neglect them. In fact, the tabulation of these small differences
often tends to obscure other far more important facts. In general, the
lighter the material per unit total volume the better its insulating value
per inch of thickness. Stiff fibrous insulating boards having considerable
structural strength are somewhat poorer insulators than lighter and looser
materials. Dense highly compressed wall boards made of wood or other
organic fiber are not as good insulators as less compressed boards of the
same general character. Heavy wall boards containing plaster in one
form or another are relatively poor insulators, although they are very
useful building materials, and, like building paper, may be valuable in
reducing infiltration of air through an otherwise porous wall.
INSULATION OF BUILDINGS
From the point of view of insulation only, the most important question
is the thickness of insulating material to be applied, rather than what
material to select, provided the choice is restricted to the class of cellular
or fibrous materials. No known material in a very thin layer can be ex
pected to provide an appreciable amount of insulation. On the other
hand, a relatively thick layer may not be economical, since relatively
little additional gain is made over some layer of intermediate thickness.
The selection of a material for a particular purpose must be governed
largely by the requirements of that purpose in a way of structural
strength, cost, fire hazard, etc. The real cost of an insulating material is
obviously not the cost per square foot of commerical thickness but rather
the cost per unit insulating value of the commerical thickness.
If a layer of insulating material is added to a wall, the insulating value
of the wall will be increased by an amount equal to the insulating value
of the layer of material added. The thicker the layer the greater will be
the insulating value of the resulting wall. The percentage increase in the
insulating value of the wall, however, will depend upon the original insu
lating value of the wall without insulation. The percentage increase in the
insulating value of an actual wall containing windows will also obviously
depend upon the amount of glass surface and the air leakage around
windows and doors, since these factors are unaffected by the addition of
insulating material.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 235
A great many types of walls and roofs are to be found in present-day
dwelling-house construction. The insulating value of one type or indi
vidual may be considerably different from that of another, but in an
actual building heat losses through and around windows and doors tend
to level out the effect of these differences in the properties of the walls
themselves to such an extent that there are no wide variations in the
amounts of fuel required to heat houses of various types of the same size
in the same locality, unless air leakage around windows and doors or
through very poorly constructed walls is excessive.
An estimate of the probable savings in fuel resulting from insulating or
weather stripping an ordinary dwelling house is given in Table XII. The
first part of the table gives the fuel saving expressed in per cent of fuel
which would have been required for a similar house without insulation or
weather stripping. In the second part of the table the savings are ex
pressed in per cent of fuel required for a house without insulation but
with weather stripped windows. The calculations were based on data on
heat transfer in building construction taken from the "Guide," published
by the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers. An aver
age insulating material (^ = 0.31) is assumed, but no commercial fibrous
or cellular insulating material departs far enough from this average value
to make a significant difference in the approximate figures in Table XII.
In taking into account the effect of windows and doors, it is assumed that
the aggregate area of such openings is equal to one-fifth of the total side-
wall surface, and that the heat loss through such openings is that corre
sponding to a 5-mile wind striking perpendicular to the wall. This
corresponds roughly to average conditions over a large part of the
country. Whenever insulation is involved, it is assumed that the insula
tion is applied to both walls and roof, and that the insulation is not sub
stituted for some other member which is present in the uninsulated con
struction.
The ranges in values correspond to the extremes in wall constructions
usually encountered in average dwelling houses. As a general rule, ordina
ry walls of solid masonry are somewhat less effective in retarding heat loss
than well-constructed frame or hollow tile walls. A somewhat greater per
centage saving in fuel is therefore obtained by insulating a solid masonry
wall than by applying the same insulation to a frame or hollow tile con
struction. Any house representing a considerable initial investment, par
ticularly one with solid masonry walls, should be insulated, since the cost
of insulation is a small proportion of the total, and the resulting additional
comfort and fuel saving is considerable.
236 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
It should be borne in mind that any calculations dependent on experi
mental values of air leakage around windows are subject to great uncer
tainty on account of the variability of the factors involved. A well-built
house without weather stripping may when new show less heat loss by air
leakage than has been assumed in calculating the fuel savings given in
TABLE XII
APPROXIMATE FUEL SAVINGS IN DWELLING HOUSES
(Expressed in percentage of fuel which would have been
required for similar house without insulation or
weather stripping)
SAVING
Per Cent
No insulation, weather stripped 15 to 20
Same, with double (storm) windows 25 to 30
| -inch insulation, not weather stripped 20 to 30
|-inch insulation, weather stripped About 40
|-inch insulation, with double windows About 50
i-inch insulation, not weather stripped 30 to 40
i -inch insulation, weather stripped About 50
i-inch insulation, with double windows About 60
(Expressed in percent age of fuel which would have been
required for similar house without insulation, but
with weather stripping)
SAVING
Per Cent
With double windows, no insulation 10 to 15
|-inch insulation only 25 to 35
^-inch insulation, with double windows 40 to 45
i-inch insulation only 35 to 45
i-inch insulation with double windows 50 to 55
Table XII. The gain resulting from weather stripping such a house would
be correspondingly less. It should also be realized that infiltration of air is
not necessarily disadvantageous, since a certain amount of ventilation is
necessary. In the ordinary dwelling house air leakage is relied upon to
furnish part of the ventilation, and it is unwise to attempt to prevent
such leakage altogether. It does not appear, however, that ordinary
weather stripping will reduce the air leakage to an excessively low value.
The calculations involving insulation are much more definite and cer
tain than those involving air leakage. The application of insulation re-
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 237
suits in a certain absolute saving which is independent of heat loss through
or around windows and doors. The per cent saving of fuel, however, is
still dependent upon the heat loss through the uninsulated openings.
In summer the effect of insulation is beneficial, but too much should
not be expected in this respect. Increasing the total insulating value of
a wall or roof will always tend to keep the building cooler during the hot
part of the day, but many other factors in addition to the insulating value
enter into the question in a rather complicated way. In general, thick
masonry walls having large heat-storing capacities are better than rela
tively thin insulated walls. The insulation of roofs is probably much more
effective than the insulation of walls, since the former have much greater
exposure to the sun.
[NOTE. — Some of the most common raw materials from which insulation board is
made are cornstalks, wheat straw, sugar cane, flax straw, wood-pulp tailings, wood
waste, spent licorice root.]
INTERIOR WOODWORK1
BY FRANK A. CONNOLLY
Interior woodwork should be the result of accurate millwork,
painstaking carpentry and careful selection of wood. There is a com
fort, a richness to the home warmly ornamented with wood that no
tapestry, no canvass or other ornamentation can impart. And such deco
ration, at once the most reasonable and the most effective way of giving
true character to the home, can be accomplished by the exercise of good
taste and the insistence upon careful workmanship.
Interior woodwork covers a gamut of items. There is the cabinet work,
the paneling, moldings, door and window frames, built-in arrangements
and stair parts. Hardware, decidedly not wood, becomes in a sense in
terior woodwork the moment it is installed in or applied to such wood
work; for besides its utility purposes it serves as further ornamentation
of the wood, and as such its installation should be carefully watched. The
same is true in a sense of glazing, whether it be doors, windows' or fan
lights.
There formerly has been considerable waste in the specification of mill-
work. This has been caused by designers being only superficially familiar
with millworking practices, and added to by the fact that heretofore there
has been inadequate standardization within the millwork industry. This
latter fault has been greatly relieved in all items except those few minor
1 In American Building Association News, April, 1930.
238 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ornamental wood items where individuality of production or specification
design is the main feature. Designers, also, have come recently to realize
that by improving specifications to conform more closely to mill facilities
and practices much waste and expense can be eliminated. There is scarce
ly an architect who cannot find it possible to readily discuss proposed de
signs with woodworking mills or mill representatives. Further, with the
existing wide range of stock material from which to choose, it is entirely
possible, by selecting from among stock patterns for various items to
develop a complete woodwork arrangement that will be individual and
distinctive.
In the selection of interior trim the few following rules, which are taken
from "Wood Construction," the handbook published by the National
Committee on Wood Utilization of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
are well to bear in mind :
1. It should be free from resin, sap stain and pitch pockets.
2. It should resist warping and be of good working qualities.
3. Standard interior trim should have no defects, unless in long lengths
where the defects may be eliminated by cutting, as it is applied to the job.
4. All interior trim should be run from carefully kiln-dried stock, to
insure against open joints, warping and twisting.
5. All wide- trim members, such as base and casing, should be backed
out, which is an advantage in fitting and, in addition, is somewhat of a
guarantee against warping.
6. All flat surfaces of trim should be fully sanded. This operation can
be done most effectively at the mill, eliminating the necessity of sanding
on the job. Raised grain on the face of sanded trim is a common fault, but
not a defect. It is the result of incorrect kiln-drying or incorrect handling
after manufacture and usually arises from the character of the storage
space where held ready for delivery. By all means, storage of trim on the
job where it will be exposed to the weather should be avoided.
A variety of woods may be had for interior ornamentation. These in
clude soft pine, yellow pine, oak, Douglas fir, maple, chestnut, gum, birch,
walnut, poplar, pecky or plain cypress, knotty pine, redwood and many
others. However, all of these woods are produced in the best ultimate
effects where the technique employed at the mill, including a knowledge
of proper speeds for tools in milling each wood, is good or is known to
meet a recognized standard.
Much of the interior woodwork is built up, principal members usually
being stiles, rails and panels, such as we find in doors, windows, cabinets,
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 239
etc. This necessitates the use of much glue and considerable progress has
been made in recent years in the improvement of waterproof glues. How
ever, there are methods of fitting panels between rails and stiles that over
come many glue weaknesses and weak points in wood that would take
volumes to discuss, and here we find another good reason for the architect
either selecting stock designs or consulting with those familiar with wood
working technique before attempting an individual and novel designing
scheme. While discussing stiles, it is well to remember that stile ends ex
posed, as we necessarily find them at the tops and bottoms of doors, are
a source of possible trouble. The grain ends form a ready receptacle for
moisture and a good application of white lead and oil is a very practical
means of eliminating the penetration of moisture.
As is known, stairs should not be built into the house. They should be
designed, assembled at the mill, and then installed. Risers and treads
must be fitted just so to the stringers and must then be wedged and glued
into place. The balustrade must be properly fitted in so that the dovetails
turned on their ends will carry real support for the balusters. The build
ing of a stairway is not simple carpentry; it is the creation of a product
that will maintain appearance and resist wear and disalignments of its
member parts in what is probably to be the most traveled passage in the
home. It requires sound engineering and true mechanic's skill.
Quality woodwork can generally be recognized by its clean-cut work
manship. Sharp contours of moldings and tight, trim fitting of cabinets,
doors, windows and other items are noticeable. And when such material
has been ordered and received care should be taken to keep it in the best
of condition. Wood intended for natural finish should be free from all
defects, and should be characterized by the absence of any bruises, sander
marks or raised grain. A slight blue sap stain may be permitted when it
is intended to paint the surface.
Upon receipt of material on a job it should be given a protective paint
coating on all exposed surfaces. Great care has been taken by the mill to
get it just so; the builder should keep it so. It should be stored where it is
not likely to be bruised or otherwise worn. Careful checking of widths and
heights against openings should be made and where necessary to trim
such trimming should be balanced between sides or surfaces and not
done, as in the case of doors, all at the hinge or all at the lock stile side.
Though labor charges for installation bear a large part of the expense
of interior woodwork, there is no extravagance in hiring a competent,
careful carpenter or cabinet worker and letting him take his time in put-
24o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ting in the woodwork. Such a man, though he may seem to be slow, will
make more real progress than the man who slaps material into place. This
has been one of the great handicaps of speculative building. An effort is
made to rush the job. Such houses are usually sold on the time. payment
plan. Woodwork is carelessly handled, allowed to become weather ex
posed, poorly selected and cut-out in installation, poorly matched and
fitted; the hardware is notched into place; the doors are planed on one
side or hung in openings into which they do not fit snugly and true and,
all in all, a poor, hurry-up job is done. What the buyer originally looks
upon as an investment soon becomes an upkeep extravagance. It loses
value. The purchaser loses interest. The underwriting loses security.
Dissatisfaction, lowered sale value, lessened demand ensue.
There is no stronger visual sales appeal than to be able to demonstrate
to the prospective purchaser, even in an old house, a well-done job of in
terior woodwork. It is not only beautifying, but its workmanship is con
vincing. In the eye of the prospect "if there is such selection of material,
such refined designing, such careful workmanship in these details, the
house must be a substantial and worthwhile structure." And there is
strong sales appeal in the substantial structure. Every house should be
"built for the ages," and interior woodwork is one of the tell-tale evidences
of whether such intention was in the mind of the builder. If it was, there
will always be a market for the house. If not, it will be just another house
to glut the market.
THE USE OF WOOD AS FINISH-
FLOORING MATERIALS1
BY ROBERT T. JONES
Technical Adviser, Architects' Small House
Service Bureau, Inc.
So far as houses are concerned the commonest floor is of wood. Let us
take that one first. We can have wooden floors of hard wood — oak, maple,
birch, and beech. Or we can have soft wood — pine, hemlock, fir, or red
wood, and some others. I have not included teak or walnut, or mahogany,
or a dozen other imported woods that make most magnificent floors, for
the simple reason that they cost more than the small home builder can
afford, beautiful as they are.
1 Adapted from "Variety in Finish Flooring," Small Home, March, 1930. For in
formation on subflooring see the article "The Backbone of the Floor," ibid., February,
1930, also written by Mr. Jones.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 241
Now, if you were to approach this matter very carefully you would
obtain technical documents that are prepared by wood flooring manu
facturers in which they state the qualities possessed by the various grades
of floors they manufacture. They are called grading rules. You would
find that every kind of ordinary wood flooring is manufactured in a num
ber of different grades. These grades are determined principally by the
appearance of the wood, by the number and kind of defects in it, and by
the average length of strips. The first grade has a surface practically free
of defects with an average length of approximately 5'. The second grade
admits slight imperfections like tiny worm holes or small tight knots. The
average length of these strips is 4'. The third grade will be of such a na
ture that it will make a sound floor without cutting, and the average
length of these pieces is 3'. Any of these grades may be obtained either in
flat sawed stock or quarter sawed.
One makes a choice on the basis of the appearance of the wood, the way
it is to be stained, and the kind of effect desired, and adjusts the grade to
his purse. For the inexpensive residences the middle grades are recom
mended and preferably the thickness known as y|".
Rather generally speaking there are two classes of pine, southern and
northern. Southern pine has a quality of grain that is distinctly marked
especially after it is stained. Hemlock is like this also. Northern pine
does not ordinarily have such a strong grain figure. So we find these kinds
with the elaborate graining used for finished floors and the others em
ployed principally for subfloors or floors over which linoleum or flexible
tiles are to be laid. Fir and redwood are used extensively where they will
be exposed to weather.
This much must be noted — if the finished floors are of soft wood they
must be quarter sawn. These woods when flat sawed turn up flakes of
wood growth that would splinter readily and wear badly if used as flooring.
On the other hand, soft woods of edge grain stock or quarter sawed wear
very well indeed. The hard woods are hard enough so that quarter sawing
is not necessary.
Again, any of these wooden floors may be obtained in various widths.
Ordinarily the common floor that most of us can afford is made of boards
that finish 2" across the face, but much wider boards can be used. Some
of these in very expensive woods are made of veneered stock. Some are of
solid wood impregnated with waterproofing so that they will not change in
form or volume with exposure to the air. We call these floors of wider
boards "plank" floors. They are extremely handsome, but they are also
. 242 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
somewhat costly. When they are used in random widths, fastened down
with screws to simulate the appearance of pegs, and keyed together with
dovetailed sections that fit into adjoining pieces of the boarding, they are
handsome indeed, giving us some of the qualities possessed by old English
floors.
Then there are block floors made of oak. Here thin strips of ordinary
flooring are jointed together very closely into small squares and fastened
on the back with metal bonds. These are laid in an asphalt mastic. The
resulting appearance is checkered. The old name for such flooring laid
in short lengths of individual pieces is parquetry. Thus there is a rather
. wide range of widths and shapes of wooden flooring from which the home
builder may make his selection.
Maple, birch, and beech are particularly fine when treated with one
of the new stain and lacquer finishes that have been perfected by coopera
tion between the maple flooring manufacturers and a paint maker. Previ
ously these woods were used principally where it was desired to get a very
light colored floor. The stains then available did not seem to penetrate
the wood satisfactorily, so dense and hard it was. The new stains are
available in practically every color under the sun, and the wood takes
them well. The delicate graining is brought out distinctly. These stains
may be used with other woods. And thus the home builder's choice of
wood for his flooring is decidedly widened. One has to see these floors to
appreciate their beauty. They represent a distinct contribution to beauti
ful home building.
OTHER FLOORING MATERIALS1
BY ALEXANDER BOND
The foundation of a room, the most used part of the building, the basis
for all decorative treatment — that is the floor.
In days gone by, floors were made almost entirely of wood, ends being
pegged with wooden pegs into the joists. Boards were wide and thick.
And now, by that queer quirk of style, the same type of flooring is one of
the latest to make its appearance, though the pegs are ornamental rather
than utilitarian.
The era of muddy painted floors and woodwork seems to be past. More
and more floors are being treated so that they may reflect life and beauty.
The efforts of master designers are being bent to make floors of all
1 "Floors Keep Step with Progress," American Builder and Building Age (formerly
Building Age), April, 1929.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 243
materials so beautiful and durable that the competition of other manu
facturers and materials may be met and conquered.
As a consequence, particularly within the past few years, great ad
vances have been made in flooring.
Borders of all sorts are now sold ready assembled, providing not only
an artistic effect but a lowering of cost in laying that is not the least satis
factory part of their use.
Newer materials have invaded the flooring market, many of them bas
ing much of their appeal on the richness of their coloring and the various
pleasing patterns in which they can be bought.
To-day linoleum, orice considered a kitchen material, has found itself,
through improved methods of manufacture and better design, invited to
the front of the house. Now it is used in entrance halls of the most ex
pensive houses, .... the breakfast nook and nursery particularly find it
a suitable material.
Rubber tiles have also come into widespread use, particularly in
kitchens. They also are being made in bright colors that harmonize with
the finest type of decoration.
Cement floors, far from presenting the cold gray surface of a few years
back, now revel in a riot of color. They can now be finished up to look
like gayly-colored tile, marked off into gay patterns of fascinating types
that suit them for all parts of the house.
Tile, too, has won a place as a flooring material that was hardly thought
of when its use was confined to bathrooms. Like the other flooring ma
terials, it is being used all over the house with effects undreamed of a
generation ago.
Slate, for centuries a roofing material, has found itself being employed
first for entrance walks, then for outside porches, later for enclosed porches,
and finally finds itself on the inside of the house, where it fits into many
a decorative scheme as if it had always been so used in this country.
Various kinds of composition flooring have come into wide use since
the beginning of the present century, ....
Other flooring materials are being used, too numerous to mention in a
short article such as this. They have in their entirety, however, opened
up a choice of flooring materials that is without rival in the history of
building. Not only the new, but the very oldest materials, have set a
style pace and a quality of product that were unthought of even as late
as the beginning of this century.
244 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Color, natural finishes, the realization of even the beauty of knotty and
stained cheaper grades of lumber, have all brought to the modern home a
floor beauty that answers every taste and suits every purse.
"What do you sell when you sell a building?" an enthusiastic flooring
dealer asked one day. "Floors, of course. When you sell a building you
sell it by the square foot of floor. Walls are built to surround the floor, a
roof to protect it, a foundation to support it!"
Discounting somewhat this enthusiasm, the fact remains that floors are
most subject to wear of any part of a structure, and for this reason should
receive most careful and thoughtful attention from the builder. The past
fifty years have been years of progress and of remarkable development in
the field.
WALL PLASTER AND PAINT
Excellent information on kinds of plastering, furring, function of lath
and kinds of lath, plastering materials, mixing and application, decorative
features of plaster, causes of cracks, softness and efflorescence, and other
topics may be obtained from Wall Plaster: Its Ingredients, Preparation,
and Properties (Circ. 151, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of
Standards), to be obtained from the Government Printing Office.
Most helpful information on paint materials, ready-mixed paints, var
nishes, paint mixed on the job, preparation of wood, brick, concrete,
plaster, and metal surfaces for painting, and other important subjects
may be obtained from the bulletin Painting on the Farm (U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1452 [1925]), obtained from the
Government Printing Office. Additional help may be obtained from Paint
and Varnish (Circ. 69, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Stand
ards), also obtained from the Government Printing Office.
NEW BUILDING MATERIALS
During the past ten or fifteen years many new materials and better
uses of old ones have been brought to the attention of the public. Through
research and experimentation hundreds of new materials have been put
on the markets — many of which have added to both the comfort and the
attractiveness of homes. The prospective home builder often is at a loss
to know which materials will be the most economical over a period of
years and which will be the best suited to his needs. Ernest P. Goodrich,
of the Research Institute for Economic Housing, discusses in the following
paragraphs from "The House of the Future," American Builder and Build
ing Age (formerly Building Age}, September, 1930, the opportunities
provided by the use of some of the new building materials:
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 245
New materials, easily erected, open opportunities which are just becoming
known. Manufacturers have begun to realize the importance of research and
development, and within a few years they have produced a wide variety of
materials which are certain to play a prominent part in the house of the future.
Mentioning just a few of these will give some hint of what we are to expect.
Some of them have not been completely worked out as yet, but definite steps
are being taken to have them available for marketing as soon as possible.
1. Cement blocks of normal concrete.
2. Light weight blocks produced from aerated concrete and light weight ag
gregates — "puffed rice" made of clay is one such material.
3. Large factory built sections, such as concrete lumber, T-stone units, large
gypsum units.
4. Steel frames with cork slab panels.
5. Compressed straw, reeds, rushes, and vegetable fibers made into large units
to be stuccoed on one side and plastered on the other.
6. Metal walls, floors, roofs, and ceilings (properly insulated, of course) made
of rustless steel, or various varieties of copper, bronze and aluminum.
7. Glass floors and walls, either transparent or opaque, of the non-shatterable
variety.
8. Glazed, aerated, large area, reinforced clay slabs.
9. Windows and window spandrel units with heating facilities. House parti
tions similar to metal office partitions now in use.
10. Large units of brick, in any size or shape.
As to the design of the future house, it seems likely that sufficient variations in
mass, pattern, color, texture, and shade will be obtainable from these materials
to permit just as much architectural beauty as is possible in the present type
house. The commercial buildings of the country are certainly creditable from
an architectural standpoint, and many of the features which J have mentioned
are being included in them.
Roger B. Whitman has discussed in his article "Ten Years of New
Ideas"1 the most important of the new materials and changes which the
last decade has brought about. He states:
Changes that affect the structural parts of a house are in the introduction of
new materials as well as in improvements in the old. Lumber is one example.
This was formerly produced with no exactness in size or in uniform standards
of quality; sizes are now precise, qualities are in established grades, seasoning is
definite, and each piece is marked for these characteristics and for identifica
tion. While an architect will have his opinion, it will be for the owner and his
family to decide whether the floors will have the resilience that comes with wood
construction throughout, or are to be of less resilient steel and concrete, using
1 House Beautiful, September, 1930. (Reprinted by permission from the House
Beautiful magazine.)
246 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
steel beams of a lightness appropriate to residence construction and covered with
a reinforced concrete slab, the finish flooring being the same in both cases.
There must also be a decision as to whether the casements are to be of wood
or metal, and if the latter, whether of steel or of bronze. Even the window glass
will be up for discussion, for in addition to the glass that has been standard for
a generation or two, plate glass must be thought of for its brilliancy and lack of
distortion, along with the special types of glass that permit the passage of ultra
violet rays
Wood lath is no longer the only base for plaster ; but if in place of it the owner
decides to use metal lath, he must be specific as to the kind and the weight, for
some is plain, some is stiffened with ribs that act as furring strips, and some is
combined with a heavy paper backing. There is also the possibility of plastering
on stiff sheets of fiberboard or on corkboard; materials that in addition to being
substitutes for lath serve the purpose of insulation.
In Heat-Proofing. — Here is opened a possibility that ten years ago was non
existent: The heat-proofing of a house for economy of fuel in the winter and the
keeping out of summer heat, but more vitally for the elimination of drafts, and,
as a result, the maintaining of even temperatures throughout the house during
the heating season. Heat-proofing calls for storm sash, metal weatherstripping
on all outside openings, and the insulation of roof and walls — that is, the incor
poration within these of a layer of material that will check the passage of heat
and of heated air. Storm sash is a known quantity, while with efficient weather-
stripping the choice will be between several non-corrosive metals. With insula
tion the choice is wide in material, in form, and in position: Animal, vegetable,
or mineral; in flexible blankets, semi-flexible and stiff sheets, or loose; to be be
neath the outer finish, within the stud and rafter spaces, and partly or complete
ly filling them, or on the inside walls. Selection of material and of method will
depend on the construction of the house, and will be affected by the protection
that is desired, by price, and by other factors. That his interests may be best
served, an owner can hardly reach a decision without a fair knowledge of the
entire situation.
The cellar of a house of ten and more years ago was strictly for practical
needs; but the modern owner can make as good use of it as of any other part of
the house. Through advanced methods of water-proofing a cellar can be tight
and dry even with a swamp or running stream beneath, while condensation from
the contact of damp air with chilled foundation walls can be prevented by linings
of insulating materials
The only floorings that were formerly to be considered were of wood, and in
small variety. Wood is still in greatest use, with an increase in the kinds that are
available as well as in their treatment and finish. One advance is a process of
impregnation through which wood, and especially oak, is rendered nearly im
mune to atmospheric changes; oak in wide planks, so greatly desired for certain
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 247
period designs, but unsatisfactory because of shrinkage, can now be laid with
good assurance of permanence. By another process, blocks for patterned floors
are laid in a cement that remains plastic, and through which a floor gains a
pleasant resilience. With improvements in grading, in seasoning, and in finish,
wood flooring has been generally bettered in appearance as well as in resistance
to wear. In addition there are new floorings, linoleum, tile, and plastic materials,
which are possible candidates for almost any room in the house.
The introduction of quick-drying lacquer a few years ago has resulted in the
speeding up of the drying and hardening of paints, enamels, and varnishes, the
benefit to the owner being a saving of time that permits redecoration in hours
rather than days. The length of life of paint, especially for exterior work, has
also been extended through the use of a metallic first coat that protects against
deterioration from light.
While the selection of materials and the making of specifications call for far
more effort on the part of the owner than formerly, he is immeasurably the
gainer, and finds his compensation in a degree of comfort, convenience, and serv
ice never before possible.
2. Good Construction Practices
SOME OF THE ESSENTIALS FOR GOOD CONSTRUCTION1
BY JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief of the Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
Since the amount that a family can afford to pay for a house is limited,
every detail of the house deserves consideration with respect to the return
in service or satisfaction from the expenditure involved.
Stability in the foundation and in the structure is a first requisite in
every new house, whatever its size or equipment, provided it is not strictly
a temporary affair. Cracks in the woodwork and plaster, doors that stick
and jam, and openings that let in rain and snow result inevitably if the
foundations settle or if the walls or framework become distorted. The
foundation wall itself should be at least eight inches thick if of solid con
crete. If of other materials, it may need to be thicker. It should extend
in depth below the frost line and have adequate footings whose width will
depend upon the bearing value of the local soil. If piers or posts are used
instead of foundation walls, corresponding precautions should be taken —
and no wooden foundation posts should be used without preservative
treatment to ward off decay and attacks by insects.
1 Adapted from "Some Problems of the Small Home," Journal of Home Economics,
May, 1930.
248 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The walls and framework of the house obviously should be substantial,
with all the important parts well tied together. Yet, after severe wind
storms, we learn of roofs that are blown off, because they merely rested
on the top of brick walls, without being anchored by ties to the masonry;
frame houses that get out of plumb because they did not have proper
diagonal bracing; and porches and ells that are wrenched loose because
they were not tied to the main structure. In regions subject to high winds,
frame houses without plaster to add weight and rigidity are in an espe
cially dangerous position, unless they are well anchored to the foundations.
The too common sagging roof line is generally a sign of the spreading of
side walls caused by the thrust of the rafters, a condition which might
have been avoided by using proper ties. Mistakes in design of interior
framework, resulting in unequal shrinkage, often result in distortion of
the whole frame and cracking of the plaster.
Diagonal sheathing is recommended as preferable to horizontal, except
for stucco houses, where it has been found that less cracking of stucco
occurs with horizontal sheathing and adequate corner bracing. Eight-
inch brick walls should have a row of headers at least every sixth course.1
Adequate protection from wind, rain, and snow is essential. Nothing
adds so much to the expense of keeping up a house or makes it run down
so fast as chronic leakage, and for this reason intersecting surfaces of the
roof, wall, window openings, and other danger points particularly should
be water-tight. Adequate protection against fire is important. In many
houses, there is a free passage for air from the cellar to the attic between
the studs in the outside walls. This means that a fire starting in the base
ment or on the first floor is given every opportunity to spread to the whole
house. It also gives cold air from the attic free play to chill the basement
and the side walls of rooms, and allows rats and mice to move about as
they please. The remedy is to insert masonry or some other incombustible
material, or 2X4 lumber, in these wall spaces at the floor and the top ceil
ing levels. Chimneys, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces, and stovepipes are fre
quently the sources of fires. Omission of flue lining and placing of com
bustible materials against chimneys are faults to be guarded against.2
1 "Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction," by the
Building Code Committee of the Department of Commerce, discusses such structural
details as are mentioned here.
2 Farmers' Bulletin 1230, of the Department of Agriculture, entitled "Chimneys and
Fireplaces," contains excellent material on such points and also tells how fireplaces may
be equipped so as to serve as warm-air heaters. Pamphlets of the Department of Agri
culture and the Bureau of Standards contain directions for protection against lightning.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 249
In connection with interior wall finish and heat insulation, the home
builder has a wide range of choices. In a frame house that is to be
sheathed, good waterproof building paper in the wall is probably the least
costly step toward assuring a warm house at reasonable expense. Weath
ers tripping around doors and windows comes next. Insulating materials
over the top floor ceiling joists, or under the roof, and in the walls, and
storm windows may all be used to advantage.1 It must be remembered
that it is relatively hard to add heat insulating materials in the walls after
the house is built, whereas weatherstripping, or heat insulation on the
attic floor or under the roof can be added at any time. The interior walls
may be finished with wood or metal lath and plaster, with plaster board,
a composition material that takes the place of lath and of the rough coat
of plaster; or with a wall board which can be used without further finish,
or decorated as desired; or interior walls may be ceiled with matched
lumber. Any of these can be surfaced with any of a wide variety of ma
terials.
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE2
BY ARTHUR HOLDEN AND ASSOCIATES, Architects
INTRODUCTION BY R. W. SEXTON
[The nineteen drawings, showing construction practice, which follow,
have been prepared by Arthur Holden and Associates.]
The following series of drawings have been prepared solely for the pur
pose of acquainting the public with some of the things that it should know
about home building. The details shown are not working drawings, but
illustrative drawings of standard construction practices. The man who
expects to have a good house should understand the component parts of
that house, and when he does understand the reason for doing things in
the correct way, he will not be satisfied with something that is inferior
and will himself use intelligent discretion instead of just accepting what
comes to him.
Better homes are going to be possible to the extent that the public
realizes its own responsibilities. After all it is the owner that dictates
what is done, and lack of understanding on the part of the public makes
it possible for those who build homes to produce inferior houses, boxes,
and cells to live in.
1 See pp. 230-37.
2 Adapted from Pocket Guide to Good Construction. New York: Own Your Home
Exposition, Inc., 1927.
250
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
THIS 5PACC FILLED
IN SOt-»P WITH BRICK
OR COMC8CTC A* A
•TIRE »TX>P
>ULATION OF
HEA
OCOTHE-R INSULATING
MATERIAL..
COMCRETC FOUNDATION
WALL. TROW EUEO FIN»iM
WOOD CEUt-AR
\A/IMDO\A/ FRAME
AND ,SA3H«~v
I TROWELED CEMENT
OR 2JV CEMENT IF
DAMPROOriNC, IS W5ED
TILE OR/MM
PIPE TO c/\e«iv
OFT
\- CONCRETE. FOOTINC.
-CONCRETE FOUNDATIONandCLAPBOARDS-
FIG. 26. — One of the chief reasons why many cheaply built homes deteriorate rapidly
is that they do not have proper foundation. Footings should be carried to a firm bearing
soil below frost, or to rock.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
251
BOIMMNC, PAPCfl.
i JOt*TS, SPIKED TO tTOOi
RIBBON BOARD TO
RCCCIVC OOISTS •
C.OM CRETE
LOCK TOR SHALLOW
C.OMCRETB FOOTiM^
CONCRETE BLOCK FOUNDATION-
FIG. 27. — Where easily procured, the use of concrete building blocks for foundations
will be a saving. Studs run through two stories with the second floor carried on a ribbon
(Balloon frame) is also an economy though not allowed in all localities.
252
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
DIAGONAL. SHE ATM INC,
ULOIHt, PAPER MCUO ^>
CCNCBCTt
-BRICK VENEER CONSTRUCTION-
FIG. 28. — Where brick veneer construction is used, it is important to provide air
space between sheathing and brick, also to insulate against air leakage due to shrinking
of the wood construction at all windows and doors. Brick veneer on the outside of
waterproofing on foundations is a wise protection.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
253
PLAN OP SiTOCCOEO E*TER1OR
A~r D.H. WINDOW
WITH StUCCO JAM 6 '
or S
EXTERIOR WA«-t-
AT D.H. WINDOW rRX»MC
WITH
// /
a du <, H/FLOO ij/ ' ' ")
/ / /
METAL tATH W|
METAL F
-BRICK FOUNDATION, STUCCO UPPER WALL-
FIG. 29. — Dependent upon local conditions, brick is also a good foundation material.
All joints should be thoroughly filled with mortar. Stucco on the exterior wall must be
very carefully applied. Its permanence will depend upon the skill of the individual
mechanic who does the work. Self-furring lath eliminates furring strips.
254
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ATTIC JOIIT&
PUATC ROUTED TO
U.C
feXRI
ON METAU LATH
STRIPS
HOUUOWT T. C. BLOCK}.
HOWLOWTILE
METAL OR. WOOD
BA5.C QCOOMO*
HOUUOWT I UC
BuocK
X.MCTAU LATH •• PUAiTtR.
DETAIL AT \A/INiOO>A/.
HOLLOW TILE CONSTRUCTION-
FIG. 30. — Hollow tile walls make a fine base for exterior stucco; they should never
theless, be furred on the inside before plaster is applied. Tile may also be laid with
the webs horizontal. Care should be taken to see that the roof plate is securely anchored
by bolts. '
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
255
WOOD OR. METAU
PtC!AU CCMCMT
BLOCK
C.OAT.S PLA&TER.
RUBBLE f>TONE WALL
WITH CONCRETE BACKING.
-CEMENT BLOCK AND RUBBLE STONE WALLS.
FIG. 31. — Economy in the use of stone depends upon whether it is plentiful in the
locality. Furring provides an air space for protection against dampness. Cement blocks
with special facings may be used without stucco. Avoid imitations of rough stone faces
or raised panels.
256
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
AMERICAN, COMMON OR
CUNNINC BOND.
EVERY SIXTH COUR5E MCAOCR5, THE.
ev,
ENCL15H E.ONP
I.NO
BRICK VENEER BACKED WITM
HOULOW TIUC BLOCKS.
DUTCH BOND Of2 ENGLISH,
CRO£>S BOND.
iAJViE AS ENC,UI5M BOWO EXCCPT THAT
J>TECTCHCH COWRiES ARC A UT C
CENTERED.
BR.ICW WAU.I
, WITH 1'Xie I
&PACC ^
WALL 8 TMKH
CAN
tE MAPC
WITH
WALL BACKED
•&PL.1T HOLLOW TILE
BRICK WALL BONDS and FURRING-
FIG. 32. — Brick walls depend for their attractiveness upon the bond or pattern in
which the brick is laid and also upon the method of finishing the mortar joints. All
brick walls should be furred before applying plaster.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
257
WOOD SHCATHINCi BEST WITH
PAPtB. INSULATION
6HINC.LE&.
WOOD SHTATHiN^ MAY BE OMITTED AND.
IN6OLATINQ BOARD USED DIRECT ON SHJD
WHEN CLAPBOARD OK. STUCCO ARC USEP.
II Cl_APE>OARD«>.
<f'-ro WCATHCR.
HAND SPLIT 5HINC.LE5. 5 'A. CLAP6OAROS.
2A" UONC,, |0"TO WEATHER.. *'£ TO WCATMCR.
lfa"5AWN
2.."
CALIFORNIAN.
-EXTERIOR WALL FINISHES-
FIG. 33. — Much of the beauty of the finished wall depends upon its texture and color.
Care must be taken, especially with stucco, not to carry either texture or color to ex
tremes.
'58
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
DOUBLE: LAP
or BUIL.DIMC,
PAPE.8
f
HALF SCREEN SLIOIMC, UP.
DOUBLE HUNC, WINDO
FRAME CONSTRUCTION
CASEMENT WINDOW/
TRAMEL CONSTRUCTIOM.
CPENiWC, OUT, 6CRCEN
-WINDOWS IN FRAME CONSTRUCTION
FIG. 34. — Window frames and sash are made at the mill. They must be properly
designed and well put together or else they may leak even though protected by weather
stripping. Use boiled linseed oil on channels in which sash runs.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
259
MULLION WINDOW FRAME-
IN &RICK WALL.
.rr: ~
~
TRA
MSON
2
:c
TRANSOM
WINDOW FRAME
IN RUBBLE:
WAUL
MOLLIOM
AND TI^AMSOM
WINDOW FRAME
IN FRAME WALL.
-METAL FRAMES and SASH
pIG 35.— Metal-frame casements may be built into either masonry or frame walls;
they must' be kept carefully painted. Sash may be glazed with window glass A or B
grade single or double thickness; or plate glass in | in., T8ff in., or £ in. thickness.
260
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
•SAWN AHINQLES .3 LAPS AMD
.SPACE BETWEEN.
CR.C\A/
PAPER
•FRAME CORNICE CONSTRUCTION-
FIG. 36. — There are many different types of cornice construction. Box gutters must
be carefully flashed. Shingles may be used either on laths or, in drj climates, on sheath
ing (roofers) with building paper beneath the shingles.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
261
OLD FA5HIONCD
WOOD COTTER.
5TRAP MANW ^SSVSa^Wt
-GUTTERS, LEADERS and VALLEYS-
FIG. 37. — The more durable the material used for gutters and flashings the longer the
life of the roof and the fewer the repairs. -Nine out of ten roof leaks are due to defective
flashings.
262
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
FIR.E CUAV
ri-uc
RAFTERS
MATERIAL.
OH UNDCflL SIDC OF RAFTERS.
GENERAL FRAMING AND FLASHING, AT CHIMNTY.
i
?OLU nip roR \
PAN liH Tl LCV
iPANIiH TICC'' CORNICE-'
CONSTRUCTION OF HIP R.OOF.
OR ASUEST05
5MINC.I.C ROOT
-THE ROOF
FIG. 38. — The roof, if faulty, is the place where the rain comes in and the heat goes
out. All angles and points where pipes or chimneys pass through must be carefully
flashed. Insulation under the attic floor or roof rafters is well worth while.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
263
FIR.C CLA1 CHiMNCY TO
FIRE CLAY
CHIMNEY POTS,
CEMENT
BR.ICK
STONE OR
CEMENT
BRICK CHIMNEY
RUBBLE STONE CHIMNEY
THIS CHIMNEY CAN ALSO BE BUILT
OT5TUCCO OR. 6RK-K,
FIRE CLAY
CHIMNEY
STUCCO
CHIMNEY.
BR.ICK, STUCCO OR'
5TONC CHIMNEY.
-CHIMNEYS-
FIG. 39. — Chimneys may add character to a house. If badly designed they may spoil
not only the appearance of the house but the usefulness of the open fireplace and lower
the efficiency of the heating apparatus. Fire-clay linings are indispensable.
264
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
LATH » PUAbTCR.
FIRE CLAY
fLOE
ft RICK ,
I 6PACC
.LATH »PI_A&TEB.
riR.ect.AY
ruuc UININC,
FINISHED
FLQOH
3MOKC 5HCUP*
CAST I DOM
PAMPER AT THROAT.
FIRE BRICK
FLOOR JOUT5 v^.
"FIREPLACE and CHIMNEY DETAILS-
FIG. 40. — The size of the fireplace opening depends upon the size of the individual
flue which serves the fireplace. Where damper and smoke chamber are wrongly placed
there is likely to be trouble with the drafts.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
265
5TUDS
BALLOON OR. BRACED
F*RAME CONSTRUCTION.
LIABILITY
FOft SHRINKAGE.
V. PLAT rOR.M
PRAM E .
ANOTHCR C,OOO-
FORM Of
CONSTRUCTION
FOR
PARTITIONS
BOARD TOR r
ALTERNATE TOR.
&ALLOON CONSTRUCTION,
MCT/M. IMV
fRIC,nr
POT
•INTERIOR BEARING and SOLID PARTITIONS -
FIG. 41. — Care must be taken to prevent uneven shrinkages in frame houses by cor
rectly arranged interior bearing partitions and the use of well-seasoned lumber.
266
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
HORIZONTAL
BRACING MAY
BE OFFSET
frMETAL CORNER
BEAD.
PLASTER ON WOOD LATH.
WHEW CLAPBOARDS ARC USED.
INSULATlrt^ 50ARt> N»Af AE OSCD
IN PLACE: or SMEATMINC,.
., STUCCO ^ r rc»RRINt,
/ xMfTA1-1-*™ / PAPER
| r x '/).' 5 PACE / / ^-SHEATH I M<<
»-«•«• ••'- - ~- -~* l ——^.~- ^»-S-
} STOOi WITM
f
*>-RON
V/AUU BOACPiTO
METAL LATH MORE
CONVEHICHT POR
COR.V&0
PLASTER.^ STUCCO ON
METAL. UATH.
-PLASTERING, INTERIOR WALLS
FIG. 42. — Plastering is a craft requiring skilled working of the material. Time must
be allowed for the plaster to dry out before applying trim or paint. Strips of metal lath
applied to interior corners where wood lath is used will prevent cracks.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS
267
3 WINDERS AT TUR.N
POfNTS
4 W INDER.b AT TURN.
THE l-fe DISTANCE POINT
SHOWS THE APPROXIMATE
POSITION OF PERSON.
TREADS TO BC EQUAU WIDTH.
CORRECT WINDERS
WRONG WINDERS
AVOID x i WINOECi.
IT PO 551 BLE , AVOI D WINDINC, STAIRCASES.
-STAIR CONSTRUCTION-
FIG. 43. — Well-constructed stairs are built up and fitted together. The treads must
be of hardwood. Many building codes prohibit the use of winders.
268
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
WINDOW rRAMC
iTOPBCA.0
WINPOW FRAME
STOOU
WINDOW TRIMMING.
MASON HV WAt-L.
JAMB
£>TOP.BEAD
WINPOW TRIMMINC,.
TRAMC WAUU,
PLA&TER
OULDE.D JAM»
TRIM STOP BEAD
.SADDLE.
MOULDEP DOOR.TR.IM.
WINDOW
•STOP BEAD
PLAIN DOOR, TRIM.
PL.ASTER
A> X-f^CTA L. CXDRMEt
BEAD.
WINDOW TR.IMMINC;.
WITH PLASTER JAMB.
DOOR JAMB, NO WOOD TRIM.
WINDOW and DOOR TRIMMING-
FIG. 44. — The beauty of the shadows cast by the moldings is responsible for the
"character" which well-designed trim gives to a house. In the best work backs of all
trim should be painted.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 269
The desire to understand the construction of the home by the public is
already responsible for a great improvement and it is our prophecy that
this type of educational work will go further and further until public in
terest for sound and practical building has been fully awakened and the
esthetic taste in relation to the knowledge of beauty and harmony in the
home has reached a higher standard.
3. Jerry Building
WHAT MAKES A CHEAP HOUSE P1
BY ROBERT T. JONES
Technical Director, Architects' Small House
Service Bureau, Inc.
Everyone knows the difference between inexpensiyeness that is arrived
at by careful selection of sound materials yet without extravagance, and
cheapness by which low costs are materialized through the use of inferior
materials and workmanship. What I propose to show is the kind of a
house one gets by this latter process. Even when two houses, one built
well and one built poorly, are viewed side by side when they are new, fresh
with paint, there is little to distinguish them superficially, though research
brings out many details of inferiority in the cheap house. Time brings
them all out.
The best way to materialize a cheap house is to employ a poor con
tractor. Here is one of the processes. Let us suppose the prospective home
builder gets four contractors to bid on plans and specifications he has se
cured from some source or other. Let us suppose furthermore that three
of the contractors are high grade builders who know their business and
have established reputations for high grade construction. We will say
that the fourth contractor is from the group that is pretty much un
known, perhaps one who has built quite recently a number of houses in
the neighborhood at surprisingly low cost. The bids come in and in the
course of time are opened, when it is found that the bids of the three
superior contractors run very closely together and the fourth is off by
itself. I have seen such circumstances as this, where there would not be
more than $200 or $300 separating the responsible builders, and the other
fellow would be $1,000 below the lowest of these three.
1 Adapted from "What Makes a Cheap House?" Small Home, July, 1930.
270 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
What does it mean? Does it mean that the high bids indicate that the
profits of the contractors who submitted them will be $1,000 greater than
the contractor who submitted the very low bid? Or do these high bids
indicate that these bidders are less efficient in business management, less
capable of getting the most for the construction money spent? Or is this
due to the devastating fact that the $1,000 difference is to be taken out of
the qualities of workmanship and materials indicated in the plans and
specifications? If this last proposition is true, and it is true in a great
many cases, the home builder who chooses that low-priced contractor does
not get what he expects to get, often does not even get full value for his
money. These houses built at these cut-throat prices are rarely worth
what they cost. It will be manifest that if the plans and specifications are
drawn so as to eliminate guess work, so that the contractors are all bidding
on the same thing, then the figure $1,000 below the others means just so
much essential quality taken out of durability, out of low cost of upkeep,
out of real, lasting value.
And that brings us to the real point of the story. Here are some of the
things that will not be supplied at the cheap price. And here also are some
of the things that happen to that flimsy construction.
First. — The building may not have a good foundation. The sand or
gravel used in mixing the concrete may not be clean, not enough cement
will have been used, too much water may be employed in the mix, the
footings, designed by guess and not by science, thin, not spread far
enough, not adjusted to changing weights in the walls. Separate footings
may not be prepared for the basement posts or columns that support the
superstructure. Concrete bases raised above the level of the basement
floor may not be devised for the setting of wooden posts. The wall may
not be made water tight. Footing drains may either not be installed
or not pitched properly. The backfill may not be made of well graded
material beginning with coarse stuff to insure wal drainage. The mortar
between the wall units may be thin, left unpointed on the outside
where it must be pointed.
Then what happens? The walls will crack from uneven settlements,
spring floods will come through the wa Is, the base of wooden posts not set
above the floor level will rot, plaster will crack, floors will sag.
Second. — The superstructure walls may not be good walls. If these
walls are of wood frame construction the braces and bridging that science
has shown to be essential for sound wooden walls will probably be omitted.
Sheathing will be put on crosswise instead of diagonally, in spite of the
fact that every capable contractor knows that diagonal sheathing is essen-
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 271
tial to the life of these walls. Two nails will be used at the base of studs
where four should be used. The walls may not be designed to eliminate
horizontal timber and consequent shrinkage to be followed by cracks and
settlements. If the walls are of masonry the mortar may be thin and
weak, the brick courses not straight, the bricks themselves not fully im
bedded in the mortar. Window frames set in these masonry walls may
not be caulked with oakum, or the exterior joints sealed with caulking
paste. Frames may not be secured in the masonry wall. Mortar joints
not pointed smoothly. If siding is used to finish the walls an inferior kind
of wood may be used, wood with knots, not thick enough, not accurately
mitred and nailed at the outside corners, the nails not set below the sur
face of the wood to receive putty. Adequate insulation may be omitted
from these walls, or if used may not be sealed tightly so as to be really
efficient. Sheathing paper may not be constructed so as to provide real
wind proofing nor tightly flashed about the openings. Proper metal flash
ings over window caps may be omitted.
Then the wall will get out of plumb, plaster will crack, the mortar will
wash out, the brick work will look crooked, ungainly — an offense to order.
Siding boards will crack. Pitchy knots and sap will ooze and stain the
paint. Cornices will open. Walls will be damp inside. Cold walls will col
lect condensation and heat will be lost. The furnace will be fired more
often. Burning fuel costs money which might have been saved if put into
the walls. The house will get old and cold before its time.
Third. — This cheap house may not have good beams or joists. Bracing
and bridging may be omitted. Inferior grades of lumber may be used with
sizes too small to support the load adequately. The joists may not be
doubled under partitions, or around chimney stacks, or around stair wells.
The plumbers and heaters and electric wirers may cut joists where they
desire without respect to consequences. Subfloors may not be laid diago
nally, again insufficient nailing will be evident.
If the floors sag and crack the plaster on them will certainly crack. If
the contractor uses 2X8's in place of 2X ID'S, as the architect required for
second story floor joists, he is saving one of many little items that must
go to make up the $1,000 difference. The saving may be important to
him, but one finds these savings afterwards in depreciations, in cracked
plaster. Heavy partitions not properly supported must make joists sag.
That cracks plaster. Light pieces of framing to support heavy loads can
not be seen when painted or plastered over, but they certainly show up
later on.
Fourth.— The cheap house may not have good plaster. The" lath may
272 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
be spaced too closely to get plaster keys. They space them that way to
save plaster. Some lath may have bark upon them or pitchy knots. They
may be twisted. They may not be thoroughly wet down before the plaster
is applied. There may be no metal reinforcements at angles and corners
or over wide expanses of ceiling. The plaster may not be forced thoroughly
onto the lath so as to squeeze between them and make the essential keys.
It may be too thin. It may not be finished straight and true. Tool marks
may show. It may not be run beyond the edge of casings so that rough
plaster shows around these margins. The plaster plane may not be furred
away from chimney stacks.
Common plastering would probably not be considered in the category
of the fine arts. But it is nevertheless true that fine plastering is by no
means common. In these cheap houses we recognize cheap plastering
from cracks, bulges, loose areas and, in time, areas fallen off. Poor lath
stain the plaster. Where reenforcements are omitted there will be cracks.
Rough places in the plaster always show. Plaster applied directly to
chimney stacks gets damp, discolors. Cracks show where chimney stacks
join the walls.
Fifth. — The cheap house may not get good roofing. Thin, flat sawed,
wooden shingles may be substituted for the thick, edge grain quality that
good contractors use. Light weight felt and asphalt composition shingles
may displace heavier weights in this type of roofing. Metal flashings may
not be turned under the siding or into the brick work. The rafters may be
too light. The drain troughs may be of light metal, not properly pitched
to drain.
Then the shingles will curl and let water down into the house, or they
will catch brands and there will be roof fires. The metal will rust. The
gutters will leak. The thin asphalt shingles will look like feathers on a
fowl in a gusty wind.
Sixth. — The painting may be inferior; put on too quickly, or in coats
that are too thick. Substitute ingredients may be used. The paint film
itself may be of poor quality and the workmanship hurried. It may not
be well brushed into the wood. The nails set below the surface will not be
puttied over. Sanding between the coats may be omitted.
One can tell a cheap painting job every time. Such paint films graze,
chip, fall off, peel. They collect soot and dust too quickly, knot holes and
nail heads show through. The varnish wears out too quickly. It is un
reasonable to expect the subcontractor who has to do his job in hurry up
time to wait long enough between coats to allow them to oxidize, or to
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 273
sand them carefully, or to keep the wind from blowing upon them, or to
struggle with the dust problem. Part of the $1,000 has to come out of
paint. It comes out of materials and proper workmanship.
Seventh. — These cheap houses may not have good millwork. The wood
finish then will be rough and splintery. Pieces that should be housed to
gether will only be nailed. There will be no attempt to match grain. Long
casing strips will not be lap jointed. Hammer marks will show. Doors and
drawers will not move freely. Stairways will be put together with nails
instead of with wedges and glue. Flooring strips will not be driven up
closely together. Pieces will not be selected to avoid over contrasts of
color. The floor will not be sanded carefully. The woodwork will not be
thoroughly kiln dried or handled in the building so as to get it in place
quickly from the kiln. It will be put on the walls before they are dried out.
Time must be saved. There is as much difference between grades of
millwork as there is between automobiles. The cheap contractor must
buy his millwork where it costs the least. He must put it in place quickly.
Of course it will be splintery; drawers will not slide readily; veneers will
peel off; stiles and rails will show open joints; cracks will appear between
the flooring strips; the wood in the cabinet work will shrink and fall apart.
Your cheap and inferior wood working mill can supply a bill of finished
work for a six-room house for more than $200 less than the good mill must
ask for it. Unless one is initiated he cannot tell the difference. To the
expert the difference is apparent at the very first. To the uninitiated the
difference shows up later on. That's the pity of it.
Eighth. — The cheap house may not have good plumbing. Joints be
tween pipes may not be tightly caulked. Faulty piping may be used.
Drains may not be properly pitched to avoid future stoppages. Cleanouts
may not be installed where drains change direction. If the frame work of
these cheap houses is not designed to take the horizontal runs without
cutting the joists, the plumber will have to cut them. Most of the time
they do get cut. In the cheap house they always get cut. The fixtures them
selves may be of low grade, rough enamel, inferior mechanisms, noisy.
Steel piping may be used where brass or copper should be employed. The
service water heater may be inefficient.
Then one looks for leaks and ruined decorations. The home owner
calls in the plumber to clean out stopped piping. He worries over fixtures
which he thought were to be the best. The hacked out joints may fail.
Ninth. — Your cheap house may not have good heating. One may pay
$200 for a warm air furnace or one may pay $600 for it. They have much
274 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the same external appearance. A cheap furnace may be too small. The
castings will be too light. The leads may not be taken off the bonnet pro
portional to the requirements of the rooms served. The radiators will not
be leak proof. Returns for recirculating the air may be inadequate, im
properly located. The casings may not set properly and may not be made
gas tight. And if the heater is for hot water or steam the pipes may be
too small, not properly pitched to drain. There may be an insufficient
amount of radiation, awkwardly set radiators, thin pipe covering or none,
inadequate insulation on the heater itself, the heater may be too small.
These inadequate house heaters installed may look like the finest job,
but when they leak gas and smoke they ruin draperies. When they must
be forced to keep the house warm the over heating warps casings, ruins
grates. Improperly pitched pipes make radiators knock. Undersized pipes
or those not designed for the load upon them make radiators heat uneven
ly or not at all. Omitted insulation throws heat into basements and is lost.
Tenth. — Your cheap house must have cheap hardware, cheap lighting
fixtures, insufficient outlets. Spun brass substituted for solid bronze may
be finished like brass or bronze and when new is undistinguishable from
the latter, but the finish wears off. The black wire screening that replaces
bronze must be replaced itself after a few years. The cheap house does not
have well-fitted storm sash. It does not have tile flue liners. It does not
have thick stucco planes. Good cement work is a rarity. Hundreds of
items like this make up the $1,000 difference.
As one reads over this list no doubt one can readily see that they are
principally matters concerned with workmanship, though in some cases of
inferior materials. Unless the house owner who builds the house is techni
cally trained and knows materials and workmanship, or unless, realizing
his inadequacies, on these subjects, he has someone on the job who does
know about these things — an architect — the cheap contractor can do his
worst almost without the home builder being aware of it. Thus, I say the
lowest bidder may be the most expensive one.
The man who offers to build the house for $1,000 less than the others is
no more efficient, has no better ability to buy his materials at lower cost,
probably does not figure to take any less profit on the building of the
house. He gets the job by under cutting the price with the intention of
getting out without loss by beating the game a little on every contract
and subcontract, on every item of workmanship and materials. There are
thousands of houses built like this in every large city of the land. The up
keep on these buildings is enormous. The strain on the underlying financ-
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 275
ing would make our mortgagees grow grey before their time if they could
know how thin is the margin of their security. When the home builder takes
a house like this, with its inflated future depreciation and high cost of up
keep, it is only fair to say to him that his house ownership will be more
expensive to him than paying rent.
FORTY REASONS WHY WALLS AND
CEILINGS CRACK1
Everyone is familiar with cracked walls and ceilings. Sometimes the
reasons for the cracks are evident to everyone, but at others the reasons
are not so plain to be seen. Sometimes the materials used are thought to
be at fault when the real underlying cause of failure is that good materials
have been used too sparingly or in a wrong manner. The best materials
in the world, used without taking into consideration the limits of their
strength, or not put together after ways that have been tried and proven,
will not give complete satisfaction.
It is unfortunately true that thousands of small homes have been built
and are being built which in a comparatively short time will deteriorate
outrageously. It is a waste of money to use good materials in an unwise
way. The jerry builder who puts these materials together so that they
do not stay put is really either making you the victim of his ignorance or
else at your expense is indulging in a form of legalized robbery.
Following are some of the reasons why walls and ceilings crack:
Building a house on a fill.
Failure to make the footings wide enough.
Failure to carry the footings below the frost line.
Width of footings not made proportional to the loads they carry. •
The posts in the basement not provided with separate footings.
Failure to provide a base raised above the basement floor line for the setting
of wooden posts.
Not enough cement used in the concrete.
Dirty sand or gravel used in the concrete.
Failure to protect beams and sills from rotting through dampness.
Setting floor joists one end on masonry and the other on wood.
Wooden beams used to support masonry over openings.
Mortar, plaster, or concrete work allowed to freeze before setting.
Braces omitted in wooden walls.
Sheathing omitted in wooden walls (excepting in "back plastered" construc
tion).
1 In Small Home, October, 1925.
276 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Drainage water from roof not carried away from foundations.
Floor joists too light.
Floor joists not bridged.
Supporting posts too small.
Cross-beams too light.
Subflooring omitted.
Wooden walls not framed so as to equalize shrinkage.
Poor materials used in plaster.
Plaster applied too thin.
Lath placed too close together.
Lath run behind studs at corners.
Metal reenforcement omitted in plaster at corners.
Metal reenforcement omitted where wooden walls join masonry.
Metal lath omitted on wide expanses of ceiling.
Plaster applied directly on masonry at chimney stack.
Plaster applied on lath that are too dry.
Too much cement in the stucco.
Stucco not kept wet until set.
Subsoil drainage not carried away from walls.
First coat of plaster not properly keyed to backing.
Floor joists placed too far apart.
Wood beams spanned too long between posts.
Failure to use double joists under unsupported partitions.
Too few nails used.
Rafters too light or too far apart.
Failure to erect trusses over wide, wooden openings.
You will see that most of the causes of cracks are based on an improper
use of materials. The home builder not being an expert may wisely ques
tion whether he can expect to avoid these consequences.
There are only two ways to do this. One is to employ a high-grade con
tractor who has a reputation for honest and intelligent dealings. The
other is to employ an architect to conserve your interests. The combina
tion of the two — good contractor and supervising architect — are a guar
antee that you will get your money's worth and that your home will cost
less in the long run.
4. Building in Winter
WINTER CONSTRUCTION1
With due precautions and proper equipment nearly all construction
work can be carried on in winter and at no great difference in cost. The
1 Adapted from Seasonal Operation in the Construction Industries (results of findings
of a committee of the President's Conference on Unemployment, U.S. Dept. of Com
merce, 1924), pp. 5-7.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 277
owner may often profit by saving interest on his investment and by secur
ing earlier use of the structure. Although equipment needed for protec
tion and artificial heat in winter construction requires some expenditure
and there may be some increase in overhead on the job due to delays from
winter storms, these items often may be offset by the saving in salaries
and the reduction in the contractor's general overhead. Labor in general
is more efficient as skilled workmen can be more easily obtained. Although
relative unit costs of labor in winter and summer vary with the class of
work, the cost in winter, especially under first-class management, may be
actually less than the cost at other seasons Building materials usu
ally can be obtained at somewhat reduced prices because of the smaller
demand.
As the methods of handling winter work develop, and as manufac
turers, supply dealers, and labor take more interest in encouraging winter
work, the cost can be appreciably reduced.
Home owners are the largest single class of property owners, and resi
dential building forms the largest single class of construction. The oppor
tunities of home owners and home builders to remedy present conditions
may be taken as an example of what building owners of all classes may do.
Repair work and new construction should be classed separately for a
number of reasons. Repair work of a minor character is usually paid for
on a time basis; that is, the owner pays a fixed rate per hour for the serv
ices of the men engaged. When this is done during a period of inactivity
in a given trade the most efficient workers are ordinarily available, and
they are able to do a better job in less time than less skilled men who
might perform the work during an active period.
Home owners from time to time employ building trades workers to do
outside and interior painting, to put on new roofs, to make alterations
and additions to plumbing systems, to overhaul and repair the heating
apparatus, and to do interior remodeling, such as changing partitions and
laying tile floors in bathrooms. They also require grading of grounds, the
construction of driveways, and erection or enlargement of garages and
other outbuildings. Then there are sidewalk repairs, laying of concrete
or masonry floors in the cellars, waterproofing, replacing awnings and
screens, and repairs to exterior woodwork. The time chosen by the owner
for such work is of importance to himself and to the community and bears
a close relation to the general cost of living.
The man who builds a home for himself wants to get the best possible
278 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
house for his money, and in some cases he has to defer building until his
savings accumulate. He is more vitally concerned in having his work
performed economically than almost any other class of owners, but in all
too many cases he "follows the crowd" and not only pays extra for the
privilege but has to put up with a slower and less satisfactory job. Most
home builders suffer from not having their plans and other arrangements
made in advance of the time when they are ready to go ahead. But the
number who consult their architect and contractor as to the best time to
go ahead is increasing; and as it increases, the construction industry is
able to render better service at less cost. The man who builds a house
serves his own interest and the public interest by starting work at the
right time. The right time usually means when other customers are not
rushing into the field. Since the building of the home requires only a few
months, it is not ordinarily difficult to plan the work with reference to
probable labor conditions
Those who build houses to sell or rent have similar reasons for wishing
to obtain the benefit of low building costs, but in communities where
there are fixed leasing dates or where there is a demand at some particular
time of the year, they must also take that into account
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SAVING BY
WINTER CONSTRUCTION1
The contractor who is faced with the possibility of continuing opera
tions during the winter months should ponder on the following statements
issued by the New York Building Congress:
1. The direct additional costs due to construction carried on in cold
weather are but a small percentage of the total cost of a building.
2. Such direct winter costs are more than offset by savings in other
ways.
The indirect savings which more than counterbalance winter costs may
be enumerated as follows :
1. Labor bonuses are eliminated.
2. Labor turnover is reduced.
3. Spread in overhead expense of contractors throughout the year re
duces organization and equipment costs.
4. Tendency of contractors to lower their margin of profit with the
idea in mind of securing sufficient work to keep their organizations intact
during the winter months.
1 From Akron Builders' Bulletin, December, 1925.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 279
5. Seasonal discounts on materials.
6. Seasonal rates by transportation companies in order to relieve the
congested periods.
7. Saving in interest and taxes on investments lying idle.
8. Earlier return on investment.
Contractors who still conform to old customs must now conform
themselves upon the possibilities for continuing work throughout the
winter months or lose out in the race with men who are more modern in
their ideas and practice.
5. The Contractor
DUTIES OF THE CONTRACTOR1
The man who is paid to construct the building, whether an old-fash
ioned craftsman or a soulless corporation, is referred to as the Contractor,
and it should be obvious that the more experienced, reliable, and pains
taking the builder, the more satisfactory the operation and the final re
sults will be.
In country districts, when the landholder calls on his neighbors to
assist in a barn-raising, and the heavy posts and trusses assembled on the
ground are hoisted into position in one afternoon, the most intimate rela
tion occurs between owner, contractor, and workman. At the other ex
treme is the two-family house in the suburbs, aiming at showiness and
built on speculation, where the contractor usually acts as the architect.
In this case a minimum original cost outweighs any consideration of per
manence, and the future owner is left to discover the faults of construction
as they make themselves known, one after another. Between these two
types lies the province of the average citizen.
For the homeowner the new construction is of grave and intimate im
portance, and, as he is not likely to be familiar with the details of con
struction, a relationship of mutual confidence with the builder is vital to
his peace of mind.
SELECTION
It is customary to select the contractor for building a house either
directly — when his character and ability are known to the owner — or else
on the basis of competitive estimates.
The first method is recommended where the owner knows he can main
tain a friendly relationship of give-and-take with a certain builder, and
1 Adapted from The House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926 (Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Press, 1926), pp. 7-8.
280 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
it is usually adopted where the number of builders from whom a choice
can be made is limited.
With the second method there are two procedures: (i) A limited num
ber of desirable firms may be invited to submit estimates. Because the
competition is restricted the bids will be moderate rather than remarkably
low, but the owner will find that the slight additional cost will be compen
sated by the friendly cooperation and reliability which may be expected
from a well-selected firm. (2) An unlimited competition may be held, in
which an inexperienced or unreliable contractor may submit the lowest
bid and, if accepted, future conflicts or inferior workmanship are bound to
follow. In common fairness no one should be allowed to give the time
required to figure plans and specifications if the owner does not want him
to do the work.
SUBCONTRACTORS
In the erection of the average house many trades take part. If it is a
simple wooden cottage in the country, the local carpenter and handy man
is usually competent to do the entire work, with the assistance now and
then of a plumber or a mason from a neighboring village. Trade unions,
hours of labor, and even the exact compliance with the contract and the
drawings count for but little under these circumstances.
In metropolitan districts the situation is much more complicated in
that each trade is highly organized and jealous of its prerogatives, special
ized labor and machinery are available, and all agreements must be care
fully drawn and scrupulously observed.
It is customary to employ one contractor for the general construction,
and allow him to select the more important subcontractors for the heat
ing, plumbing, and wiring, and his minor subcontractors for the masonry,
roofing, plastering, and painting. Thus the coordination of the work is
under one head and yet the responsibility for its completion is ensured
both by the general and subcontractors. Owing to the added responsi
bility for the general contractor, it is customary for him to include as part
of his profit, which is distributed through his bid, a commission on the
bids of the subcontractors; but where there is competition for the main
contract, he will cut his profit to a very small percentage.
If the owner employs the subcontractors directly for a few of the larger
items, the responsibility for their cooperation is largely shifted to the
architect, and his fee is correspondingly increased, since he is taking over
part of the general contractor's work. Often a better choice of mechanics
may be made in this way, and there is no danger of the builder "shopping
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 281
out" the subcontracts to undesirable firms. For small residences this
method is not advisable.
A successful combination of these methods may be economically em
ployed in projects of $20,000 or over, by the architect taking separate bids
on the heating, plumbing, and electric wiring and then allowing the general
contractor to take over these figures as an allowance to be included in his
estimate, with the understanding that the firms nominated by the owner
shall be employed to execute their parts of the work. This involves no
extra fee to the architect, and, if the general contractor submitted his bid
in competition, his commission or profit on the subcontractor's work
would be reduced to a minimum, as he knows that reputable firms will be
employed, and that he cannot pad his own figures if he wants to get the
job.
SUPERVISION
The architect's duties require him to follow the progress of the work
from the first excavation till the last workman is out of the house, and the
owner should also keep in close touch. Neglect of the contract require
ments or slovenly execution can be corrected before it is too late, and
where modifications are optional, such as the texture of the brickwork,
the color of the paint, or the exact location of a light fixture, the owner
can obtain what best suits his particular desires. He should remember,
however, two points. First, that he cannot demand changes from the con
tract drawings and specifications without readjustment of the cost; and
second, that his experience in technical matters is more limited than that
of his architect or contractor. A fussy and querulous owner may break
down the morale of an entire building-crew and their boss, but a tactful
and enthusiastic observer may stimulate the contractor to friendly con
cessions and the workmen to real craftsmanship.
If the progress is not satisfactory, a frank conference between owner
and contractor, in the architect's office, will often assist matters. It is best
to avoid discussions on the job in the presence of the workmen. Care
should also be taken that instructions be given to foremen or to the con
tractor himself, rather than to individual workmen. Orders for any
changes should go through the architect's hands and be confirmed in
writing
SUMMARY
Durable construction is an important consideration in building dwell
ings as (i) rebuilding is costly, (2) poor construction means high main
tenance cost, (3) dwellings poorly constructed if combined' with unde-
282 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sirable architectural design will soon become obsolete. Duration of con
struction does not depend so much upon kinds of materials as on grades
and manner of construction.
Wood, brick and brick veneer, stucco, hollow tile, concrete and stone
are the most common building materials used in house construction. Wood
has long predominated. Steel also is coming into use. Wood shingles, com
position shingles, tile, and slate are commonly used for roofing. The most
important consideration in insulation materials is the thickness of the ma
terial which is to be applied providing the choice is of those classes of cel
lular or fibrous materials. Interior woodwork includes cabinet work, in
terior paneling, molding, door and window frames, built-in arrangements,
and stair parts. Millwork is not only cheaper than specially-made wood
work but it is now being made most attractive and satisfactory. The most
common finish-flooring material is wood, but others of excellence are lino
leum, rubber tile, cement, slate, and various composition materials. New
building materials improved by extensive research and experimentation
easily and quickly erected are now on the market. Steel is one of the new
materials used in the house-building field, and the experiments in it indi
cate that the time in building is considerably lessened through the use of
factory-made members.
Poor foundations and walls, inferior beams and joists, poor plaster
work, leaky roofs, inferior painting, cheap millwork, and cheap plumbing
often make maintenance so expensive that ownership is a burden.
With proper equipment and precaution nearly all construction work
can be carried on in winter, and often at less cost.
REFERENCES
I. GENERAL INFORMATION ON BUILDING MATERIALS
AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
CHURCHILL, ALLEN L., and WICKENDEN, LEONARD. The House-Owner's Book.
New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1928.
Brief discussion of building materials and construction practices (pp. 1-95).
DAVISON, ROBERT L. "New Construction Methods," Architectural Record,
LXVI (October, 1929), 362-85.
GRAY, GRETA. House and Home. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1923.
Materials and construction (pp. 60-89).
GRIES, JOHN M. Construction. National Bureau of Economic Research, "Re
cent Economic Changes," I, 219-54. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1929.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 283
HERING, OSWALD C. Economy in Home Building. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
HOLDEN, ARTHUR C., and ASSOCIATES. Pocket Guide to Good Construction. New
York: Printed and distributed by the Devinne-Hallenbeck Co. for Own
Your Own Home Exposition, Inc., 1927. Pp. 47.
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston : Atlantic Month
ly Press, 1926.
KNOBLOCH, PHILIP G. "What the Specifications Really Say," Small Home,
April-December, 1930.
Discusses concrete, masonry, carpentry, and millwork, interior woodwork, roofing,
sheet metal, tile, and other subjects.
PERKINS, NELSON S. How To Judge a House. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Na
tional Committee on Wood Utilization. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1931. Pp. 85.
PHELAN, VINCENT B. The Care and Repair of the Home. U.S. Dept. of Com
merce, Division of Building and Housing. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1931.
TAYLOR, JAMES S. New Trends in Home Design. Washington: Bureau of
Standards, 1929. Pp. 25.
Mimeographed copy of an address before the National Association of Real Estate
Boards, Boston, Mass., June 26, 1929.
TUCKER, MILTON. Buying an Honest House. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
1930.
Information on materials and construction practices.
U.S. BUREAU or STANDARDS. List of Published Material Relating to Home Build
ing and Maintenance. Mimeographed Letter Circ. 287. Washington: The
Bureau, 1930. Pp. 21.
Materials for the Household. Circular of the Bureau of Standards, No.
70. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917. Pp. 259.
Discusses brick, hollow tile, floor tile, stucco, cement, concrete, and woods, with
description of kinds of wood, moisture absorption, and durability (pp. 14-114).
Recommended Minimum Requirements for Masonry Wall Construction.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1925. Pp. 57.
Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1923. Pp. 108.
VEILLER, LAWRENCE. A Model Housing Law. New York: Russell Sage Founda
tion, 1920.
WALSH, HAROLD VANDERVOORT. The Construction of the Small House. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923.
WHITE, CHARLES ELMER, JR. Successful Houses and How To Build Them. New
York: Macmillan Co., 1927.
284 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Publications on materials and construction may be obtained also from Amer
ican Face Brick Association, 130 N. Wells St., Chicago, 111.; Celotex Co., Chi
cago; Common Brick Manufacturers' Association, 2121 Guarantee Title Bldg.,
Cleveland, Ohio; Portland Cement Association, 33 W. Grand Ave., Chicago, 111. ;
Weyerhauser Forest Products, Merchants National Bank Bldg., St. Paul,
Minn.; and Copper and Brass Research Association, 25 Broadway, New York
City, and from many other manufacturers of materials.
2. WOOD AND LUMBER
HOLTMAN, DUDLEY F. Wood Construction. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1929.
Factors affecting use of wood in construction (pp. 1-45); principal woods used in
construction (pp. 115-39); light building construction (pp. 231-49).
NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. House Framing Details.
Washington: The Association, 1929. Pp. 29.
Frame-construction diagrams.
SOUTHERN PINE ASSOCIATION. Safe and Permanent Frame Construction. New
Orleans: The Association, n.d. Pp. 14.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. Light Frame House Construction. Issued in
cooperation with the National Committee on Wood Utilization of the De
partment of Commerce. Bull. 145. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1930. Pp. 216:
. (National Committee on Wood Utilization; obtainable from the
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. :
End-matched Softwood Lumber and Its Uses.
Grade Marking of Lumber for the Consumer's Protection.
The Marketing of Short-Length Lumber.
Seasoning, Handling, and Care of Lumber.
Treated Lumber: Its Uses and Economies.
Wall Boards and Insulating Boards.
For additional information on wood and lumber see also references in i. General
Information on Building Materials and Construction Practices.
3. BRICK
AMERICAN FACE BRICK ASSOCIATION. A Manual of Face Brick Construction.
Chicago: The Association, 1920. Pp. 115.
BRIGGS, HOWARD L., and CARVER, WILLIAM. Practical Bricklaying. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1924.
CARVER, WILLIAM. Brick: How To Build and Estimate. Cleveland: Common
Brick Manufacturers' Association of America, 1930. Pp. 95.
For additional information on brick see references in i . General Information on Build
ing Material and Construction Practices.
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS 285
4. CONCRETE, HOLLOW TILE, STUCCO, AND PLASTER
MCMILLAN, F. R. Concrete Primer. Detroit: American Concrete Institute,
1928. Pp.48.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR BETTER PLASTERING. Better Plastering for Modern
Homes. Chicago: The Council, n.d. Pp. 32.
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Foundation Watts and Basements of Concrete.
Chicago: The Association, n.d. Pp. 24.
STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE ASSOCIATION. Structural Clay Tile Manual. Chicago:
The Association, n.d. Pp. 62.
U.S. BUREAU or STANDARDS. Durability of Stucco and Plaster Construction.
Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards, No. 70. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1917. Pp. 74.
Stucco Investigations at the Bureau of Standards with Recommendations
for Portland Cement Stucco Construction. Circular of the Bureau of Standards,
No. 311. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 34.
Information on tests, materials, stucco construction, mixing, finishes, and main
tenance.
Wall Plaster: Its Ingredients, Preparation, and Properties. Circular of
the Bureau of Standards, No. 151. Washington: Government Printing Of
fice, 1924. Pp. 66.
See also references in i. General Information on Building Materials and Construction
Practices.
5. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
BETTS, M. C., and MILLER, T. A. H. Rammed Earth Walls for Building. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1500. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1926. Pp. 26.
Information on construction of rammed-earth houses.
BROWNE, F. L. Why Some Wood Surfaces Hold Paint Longer than Others. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Leaflet 62. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1930. Pp. 3.
CHRISLER, V. L. Transmission of Sound through Building Materials. Scientific
Papers of the Bureau of Standards, No. 552. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1927. Pp. 9.
CHRISLER, V. L., and SNYDER, W. F. Transmission of Sound through Wall and
Floor Structures. U.S. Bureau of Standards, Research Paper 48. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1929. Pp. 19.
HOLMAN, H. P. Painting on the Farm. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Fanners'
Bull. 1452. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1925. Pp. 33.
KENWORTHY, ROBERT K. The Chimney. Chicago: The Clay Products Associa
tion, n.d. Pp. 19.
Describes faulty chimney construction.
286 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
LONG, J. D. Adobe Construction. Agricultural Experiment Station Bull. 472.
Berkeley, Calif.: University of California, 1929. Pp. 56.
NATIONAL BOARD or FIRE UNDERWRITERS. Dwelling Houses: A Code of Sug
gestions for Construction and Fire Protection. New York: The Board, 1920.
Pp. 124.
A Standard Ordinance for Chimney Construction. Chicago: Clay Prod
ucts Association, 1927. Pp. 26.
NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. Wood Floors. Construc
tion Information Series. Washington: The Association, 1929. Pp. 29.
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Concrete Floors for Residences. New York:
The Association, n.d. Pp. 20.
TEESDALE, L. V. Preventing Cracks in New Wood Floors. U.S. Dept. of Agricul
ture, Leaflet 56. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1930. Pp. 5.
U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS. Construction of Chimneys and Fireplaces. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1649. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1930. Pp. 1 8.
Making Cellars Dry. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1572.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929. Pp. 29.
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Paint and Varnish. Circular of the Bureau of
Standards, No. 69. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917. Pp. 85.
Thermal Insulation of Buildings. Circular of the Bureau of Standards,
No. 376. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929. Pp. n.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. Seasonal Operation in the Construction In
dustries; Summary of Report and Recommendations of a Committee of the
President's Conference on Unemployment. Elimination of Waste Series. Wash
ington: Government Printing Office, 1924. Pp. 24.
CHAPTER VII
HOME LIGHTING
REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD HOME LIGHTING1
No hard and fast rules can be laid down as to what represents the
best practice in lighting the various rooms in the home; there are, how
ever, certain fundamentals which should be observed in order to secure
the best results. First, the light must be comfortable. It must not be
glaring or excessively brilliant as glare produces eyestrain and irritates
the entire system. Likewise extreme contrasts are objectionable as is
noticeable where very bright areas are adjacent to rather dark ones.
Second, the luminaires should be artistic and appropriate, in addition
to being utilitarian in character. The luminaires should not only exist
for the purpose of supplying light, but also should be as much a part
of the room decoration as are the draperies, carpet and furniture. As a
rule the simpler designs are more pleasing, while complicated and cum
bersome decorations which serve no really useful purpose should not be
tolerated. Third, advantage should be taken of the adaptability of mod
ern light sources to color modification, and the light should be toned to
suit the decorative scheme. Light is now produced so efficiently that color
effects can be secured at a reasonable cost.
Some essentials to consider in providing and improving the artificial
lighting of various rooms in homes have been gathered from a number of
sources for brief presentation.2 The rooms selected are those where eye-
strain will result from using the eyes without sufficient and proper il-
1 Adapted from Eyesight Conservation Survey (New York: Eyesight Conservation
Council of America, 1925), pp. 154-58.
2 A. L. Powell and R. E. Harrington, "Home Lighting: How To Make It Comfort
able and Effective," Illuminating Engineering Society Transactions, XIV, No. 8
(November, 1919), 394.
C. H. French and C. J. Van Gieson, "Gas and Electric Lighting in the Home," ibid.,
XI, No. 9 (December, 1916), 1068-82.
Thomas Schofield, "Home Lighting as Shown in a Model Apartment," ibid., IX,
No. 3 (1914), 292-306.
M. Luckiesh, "Residence Lighting," National Electric Light Association. Report of
Lighting Sales Bureau (1923), Part B.
287
288 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
lumination, and are those found in the majority of homes. Certain parts
of the home where light is required but where close work with the eyes is
usually not required, such as porches, halls, pantries, garages and base
ments, have purposely been omitted. These should not, however, be over
looked in the plans for the lighting.
LIVING ROOM
(1) Requirements. — Whether it is called the living room, parlor, library
or den the lighting of this room should receive special attention since this
is where the social life of the home is centered. The widely diversified uses
call for different combinations and arrangements of the lighting.
a) For general purposes the most comfortable and useful arrangement
is to have a medium intensity of general illumination supplemented
with more brilliant light sources at various points.
6) When used for large gatherings, it is desirable to have a relatively
high intensity of evenly distributed general illumination.
c) When used by only one or two persons it is often preferable to have
no general lighting with merely a certain area illuminated.
(2) Approved practice. — In most cases ceiling fixtures or concealed in
direct light sources should be used for general illumination, portable lamps
for local lighting, and wall brackets and portable lamps for decorative
effect.
a) Ceiling fixtures such as candelabras, semi-indirect bowls and show
ers should be shaded to softly diffuse the light and widely distribute
it to all parts of the room.
b) Portables. — There are innumerable styles of table lamps, desk lamps
and floor lamps suitable for reading, working at desks, sewing, play
ing games, music, etc. In selecting these, utility need not be sacri
ficed for attractiveness. They should be so shaded as to eliminate
glare completely.
c) Wall brackets and small decorative portables greatly assist in
artistic effect, but they should generally be restricted to this use
alone.
DINING ROOM
(i) Requirements. — In the dining room the requirements to be met are
particularly definite.
a) Good illumination on the table itself.
b) Soft but adequate illumination on the faces of the diners.
HOME LIGHTING 289
c) A lower intensity of illumination throughout the remainder of the
room.
(2) Approved practice. — The following fixtures can be used either singly
or in combination.
a) Domes should be of such shape and hung so as to conceal the light
source from the eyes of persons seated at the table.
b) The central candelabra is least effective in meeting the requirements
of dining room lighting. The light sources should be shaded to avoid1
glare and direct the light on the table.
c) Showers are satisfactory if great care is taken to suspend them at
the correct height and to shade them so that bare light sources are
not exposed to the eye.
d) Semi-indirect bowls are satisfactory from the standpoint of comfort
but they do not give the pleasing contrast of light and shade which
is desirable.
e) Portable lamps meet all the requirements provided they are
properly shaded.
/) Wall brackets are merely decorative and should be sufficiently
shaded so as not to annoy the diners.
KITCHEN
(1) Requirements. — Good, general illumination of daylight qualities
is required throughout the kitchen, because of the wide variety of work
that is done.1
(2) Approved practice. — The choice of fixtures depends upon the size
of the room.
a) In medium-sized kitchens an enclosed diffusing globe placed close
to the ceiling at the center is a satisfactory installation. Light
colored walls and ceilings are, however, essential.
b) In large kitchens two or more ceiling units may be necessary and
if local lighting in addition is required, properly-shaded wall-bracket
lamps over the sink or stove will be found useful.
BEDROOM
(i) Requirements. — A moderate intensity of general illumination
throughout the room with higher intensity of local lighting at certain de
sired points.
1 The various work surfaces also should be well lighted and lights so arranged that
all surfaces are free from shadows.
290 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
(2) Approved practice. —
a) General illumination should be provided by a semi-indirect bowl or
adequately shaded unit so that there is no glare in the eyes of a per
son lying in bed, as in the case of an invalid.
b) Wall brackets on either side the dressing table and chiffonier are
most desirable. These may be mounted on the furniture and con
nected to an attachment receptacle, like portable lamps.
c) Portable lamps are useful in bedrooms on dressing tables arid tables
at the side of the bed.
BATHROOM
(1) Requirements. — For the bathroom of average size the lighting at the
mirror is the chief problem.
(2) Approved practice. — The proper way to light a bathroom is by two
wall brackets, one on each side of the mirror. It may be desirable to have
a central ceiling fixture for general illumination.
IMPROVING OLD INSTALLATIONS
One of the principal reasons why the light is so bad in many homes is
that no change has been made in the original installation to keep pace
with the rapid advancement in lighting practice. This is particularly true
in homes that are rented, inasmuch as the occupant quite naturally is
unwilling to make permanent changes which he cannot move away when
he leaves the house. It is possible, however, at very little expense to
greatly improve old lighting installations with removable equipment
which will remain the property of the buyer. The two principal ways in
which existing fixtures can be modified so that the advantages of modern
illumination may be enjoyed in a considerable measure are:
(1) By shading all bare lamps to reduce brightness and to eliminate
glares and shadows. This may be done by using glassware reflectors or
shades, enclosing globes or bowls.
(2) By the extensive use of portable table lamps, floor lamps and small
ornamental lamps. Some rooms can be adequately lighted by these alone.
HOUSE WIRING AND LIGHTING1
If you intend to wire your new or present home and you wish to secure
a maximum of convenience and satisfaction from the use of electricity,
1 Adapted from House Wiring and Lighting for Service. New York : Good House
keeping Institute, 1930.
HOME LIGHTING 291
you must look not only to your present but to your future needs. Study
carefully the wiring plans of your architect and do not hesitate to add any
outlets that you feel you may need in the future. Usually we rely too
much on the builder or on the architect, and give too little attention to our
actual wiring needs.
Remembering that electricity is not only a source of light, but is also
a source of heat and power, your planning problem may well be divided
into two parts. The first will have to do with the arrangement and nature
of your lighting, and the second with the provisions for heating and power
devices. The kind of lights, their location, and the type of fixtures will
depend largely on the decorative scheme you are following. The number
of receptacles for the connection of devices such as percolators, toasters,
grills, vacuum cleaners, etc., will depend on which of these you are plan
ning to use, and the location of the receptacles will depend upon the lay
out of your rooms and the arrangement of the furnishings.
Secure a floor plan which will show clearly the relationship of the rooms
in your home, and mark on this plan the location of the furniture that
you intend to use. A convenient way to do this is to cut small pieces of
cardboard to represent the various pieces of furniture, using the same
scale as is used for the floor plan. Shift these around on the plan until you
get an arrangement that suits you. If you follow this plan, you will find
that it is relatively easy to determine where you wish to place your light
ing fixtures and the receptacles for attaching devices. This procedure will
eliminate a thing that frequently occurs; namely, the placing of fixtures
and receptacles in locations that are either inaccessible or in the way of
furniture. Plan the wiring in this way for each room in the house, keeping
in mind just what devices you intend using. It is well to remember that
each year additional types of labor-savers appear on the market, and in
laying out the receptacles it is best to be liberal, particularly as the cost
of added wiring is usually in access of the cost of providing it initially.
When you have an idea of what you want, it will then be advisable to
call on your electrical contractor for his advice. A contractor who knows
his business can give valuable assistance in laying out your wiring. Be as
careful in choosing the man to do your electrical work as you are in
choosing your builder or plumber. There is just as much variation in the
class of work done in the electrical field as in any other, and, although
regulatory bodies such as municipal inspection authorities and fire under
writers prescribe certain standards that must be met in wiring homes,
there is a wide difference between the contractor who does his work so as
292 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
just to pass inspection, and the one who gives you the best. It is well to
be suspicious of the contractor whose only recommendation is the cheap
ness with which he can do the work. If you are not acquainted with the
contractors in your neighborhood, consult the local lighting company,
which doubtless can tell you who will do a satisfactory job.
After you have decided on your layout, it will then be time to choose
the type of construction. There are various kinds of house wiring, all of
them made necessary by the fact that the wires which actually carry the
electric current must be protected from injury. The class of wiring that is
considered the best for practically all conditions is the so-called rigid
conduit system. In this type of construction iron pipe similar to gas pip
ing, but specially treated against corrosion, is run between the walls and
ceilings from the fuse panels to the various outlets for fixtures and recep
tacles. The piping system is continuous between the outlets, which are
themselves specially-designed metal boxes. Insulated wires of the proper
size are drawn through the pipes and connected with the fixtures and
receptacles. This type of construction gives a maximum of protection and
is considered the best for a permanent installation, but is not generally
feasible for finished houses. Under certain conditions flexible metallic con
duit is used instead of the rigid type.
Another excellent system of wiring, particularly for finished buildings,
uses so-called flexible steel-armored conductor or cable. This consists of
insulated wires permanently encased in a double layer of steel armor that
is wound spirally around the conductors in such a way as to make the
whole fairly flexible. This armored conductor is pulled from the outlet to
outlet in walls or under floors and is entirely concealed. In completed
buildings this type of wiring can be installed, if done carefully, with prac
tically no marring of walls or woodwork. In finished rooms, where it is
not practical to run concealed wiring, it is still possible to get outlets for
lights, or device receptacles by using metal moldings on walls or ceilings.
This molding is unobtrusive and makes a very satisfactory installation.
In some localities it is permissible to use other types of wiring, such as
wiring in wood molding or so-called knob-and-cleat wiring in partitions
and under floors. These latter, however, are not generally considered the
best types of construction for homes.
The next step in your wiring plans is the choice of fixtures and fittings.
Almost always considerable thought is given to the selection of lighting
fixtures, for the form, style, and finish of these must harmonize with the
surroundings. Very few people, however, give a thought to the lamp
HOME LIGHTING 293
sockets, the switches, the device receptacles, etc., which are really a very
important part of the wiring system. To most of us one switch is just like
another, and a socket is s mply a socket. However, there is a wide enough
difference in the quality of fittings of this sort to warrant the prospective
purchaser in insisting that the contractor shall furnish those made by
manufacturers of experience and good reputation in this line.
.... It is just as true with house-wiring fittings as with most other
things, that a low initial cost may not mean the cheapest in the long run,
for the cost of replacing a defective switch, socket, or receptacle is usually
much more than the difference in first cost between one that will just pass
inspection and the best that can be purchased.
In wiring a house, as in many things in life, it is the attention to details
that makes for comfort and convenience. With the same class of materials
and the same grade of workmanship the actual wiring will be much the
same for one house as for another, but the results, in terms of usefulness
and satisfaction, will be in proportion to the attention given to the plan
ning of details. Every house has its individual wiring problems, and it
is not possible to give a master plan that will cover all cases. However,
the same things that make for convenience in one home can be used in
another, so that general suggestions may be applied to individual cases.
The company furnishing the electrical power usually owns and con
trols the service wiring outside the house, but the house owner has every
thing to do with the wiring inside the house. He can plan and operate it
as he chooses, so long as he stays within the rules and regulations formu
lated for his own and the community's protection by municipal and other
authorities having jurisdiction.
Although the meter that measures the current consumed is generally
installed by the lighting company, the mounting for it must be put in
place by the house builder. Right at this point it is possible, by using a
little care in the location of the meter, so to plan that many steps will be
saved for the housekeeper. Mount the meter at right angles to, or facing,
a cellar window that is accessible from the outside of the house, or in a
box or cabinet that can be built and secured to the outside of the building.
This arrangement will make it possible for the lighting company's repre
sentative to read the meter without disturbing the household or tracking
dirt through the rooms. If there are no cellar windows accessible from the
street, have the meter mounted where it can be reached readily and, pref
erably, close to the point at which the service enters the house. Such a
place frequently can be found in an extension or outside vestibule.
294 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
From the meter the main feed wires are carried to a distributing panel
and connected to the various wires that go to the fixtures and outlets
throughout the house. Each circuit is here equipped with fuses designed
to protect the wiring against excessive amounts of current. The distribut
ing, or fuse panel should always be placed so that it may be easily
reached when a fuse blows. In many houses the fuse panel is mounted on
a ceiling, where it is extremely difficult to get at, but there is no excuse
for this. Have the fuse panel mounted on a side wall high enough to be
out of reach of children, but convenient for those who may have to change
a fuse Frequently a better location than the cellar can be found for the
fuse panel — for example, space at the head of the cellar stairs or in the
pantry. In large houses having many circuits, it is generally desirable to
have more than one fuse panel — perhaps one on each floor, or one in each
section of the house. The fuse panel selected should be of the design in
which no live wires are exposed, for with this type fuses may be changed
without any danger. These safety fuse panels are most desirable, and for
his own protection the house owner should not countenance any other
kind. A simple arrangement that further adds to convenience is a light
so mounted that it will illuminate the face of the fuse panel. This should
be on a circuit by itself, so that it will not be affected if trouble occurs and
the fuses blow on any other circuits in the house. Another provision for
convenience, which apparently is not generally appreciated, is the labeling
of circuits and fuses so that they may be easily identified in case of trouble.
Any one who has attempted to replace a fuse in the darkness, standing on
a damp cellar floor, where the fuse panel was of the antiquated type with
exposed wires carrying current, will most appreciate the type of equip
ment we are suggesting.
From the fuse panel let us trace the circuits to the various parts of the
house and see what measures can be taken to get a maximum of conven
ience. Starting with the cellar, you will want sufficient lighting outlets on
the ceiling to give good general illumination and perhaps additional out
lets for wall brackets or drop lights near the work bench or storage
shelves. At least one of the cellar lights should be controlled from a switch
at the head of the cellar stairs. This is indeed a convenience and well
worth the slight extra cost of the switch and wiring. The cellar is fre
quently neglected from the standpoint of appliance outlets — or "conven
ience" outlets, as they are now being called, but this is unfortunate, for
sooner or later there is certain to be a need for them. For example, the
use of automatic furnace regulators is becoming more and more popular.
HOME LIGHTING 295
One type of these operates the furnace dampers by an electric motor,
which gets its current from the house service and, of course, an outlet
would be required for this. Again the handy man of the house would ap
preciate an outlet by his work bench for the connection of a motor oper
ated drill, lathe, or an electrically-heated soldering iron or glue pot. Then,
too, many oil burners for furnaces have an electric motor for which an
outlet is required. While you may not have all of these devices at this
time, it is well to look into the future and plan your wiring accordingly.
The laundry, being one of the work rooms of the house, should have
ample provision for the connection of labor-saving devices. A conven
ience outlet should be installed for the washing machine and, because it is
often desirable to be able to iron while the washer is in operation, at least
one additional outlet should be provided for the ironing machine or the
hand iron. The lighting outlets should allow for a ceiling fixture to give
general illumination, and perhaps for wall brackets placed high enough so
that they will be out of reach, but so located that more light will be had
over the work centers, particularly the ironing machine or ironing board.
Both for safety and convenience it is desirable to have these lights con
trolled by wall switches.
On the first floor of the house, also, it is possible through little things
to add to the convenience of your wiring. For example, you may have a
light over the front door or on the porch ceiling operated from a switch
mounted on the outside of the house just high enough to be out of reach
of prankish children. This arrangement will eliminate fumbling for key
holes in the dark, an annoyance unnecessarily suffered by most of us. The
same light can also be controlled by another switch indoors, so that it may
be used to welcome the visitor or light him safely on his way. It is now
quite a common practice to have the lower hall lights so wired that they
may be lit or extinguished either from the upper or lower hall. This is ac
complished by means of so-called "three-way" switches and a special ar
rangement of the connecting wire. It is not generally realized, however,
that this same idea can be used to advantage in many other rooms. When
you are going from one room to another — for example, from the living
room to the dining room and then to the kitchen — if the lighting circuits
have three-way switches, you can switch on the lights in the room ahead
of you and switch off those behind you without retracing your steps.
These three-way switches are truly step-savers and if the housewife real
ized their value from this standpoint, they would no doubt be much more
frequently used. It is generally desirable to have an outlet in the hall to
296 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
which the vacuum cleaner may be attached so as to eliminate the neces
sity for connecting it to a lighting fixture or else running the cord across
the floor to the adjacent rooms.
In the living room, outlets should, of course, be provided for portable
lamps. While the convenience of having enough of these is becoming more
appreciated, it is a fact that too few are provided in most homes. When
portable lights are used exclusively for illuminating the room, it is de
sirable to have the convenience outlets to which they are connected wired
to wall switches. This arrangement makes it possible to control the lights
from a central point, which is not only a convenience but permits quick
changes in the lighting effects. If you have a piano or phonograph oper
ated by an electric motor, it is desirable to have a conveniently located
outlet.
Almost every one is familiar with the many electrical appliances, such
as percolators, toasters, grills, and waffle irons which are so well suited
for use in the dining room. The maximum satisfaction from these will
not be realized, however, unless adequate convenience outlets are pro
vided to which they may be connected. One outlet is hardly enough,
because it is generally desirable to have two or more of these devices in use
at one time.
So many electrical devices are made for assisting the housewife in her
cooking and kitchen work that ample thought should be given to the pro
vision of facilities for the connection of these. There are electrically-oper
ated mixing and beating devices, electric fireless cook stoves, refrigerating
machines, dishwashing machines, and a host of cooking devices that may
be connected to convenience outlets. If an electric range is to be used,
heavier wiring will be necessary, as the current requirement is in excess
of that permissible on convenience outlets and their wiring. Your range
circuits should have a separate switch and fuses, and here you will find
it convenient to install a so-called "safety" switch and fuse box, so that
the fuses may be replaced easily and with absolute safety. Besides an
outlet for a ceiling light it is frequently desirable to have outlets for wall
brackets over the sink and other work centers so as to give a more con
centrated light at these points. Both winter and summer the kitchen
needs ventilation, and an electric fan or permanently installed fan ven
tilator unit will provide a satisfactory means of obtaining it
Electricity is finding extensive use in bedrooms, for devices as well as
for illumination. Curling irons, electric warming pads, milk bottle warm
ers, vibrators, etc., are conveniences for bedroom use. Portable lamps are
HOME LIGHTING 297
used frequently, and in some cases lighting fixtures are being attached to,
or built into, the furniture. Naturally, outlets must be provided if it is
planned to use any of these things. Both in the bedroom and bathroom,
it is a comfort to have an auxiliary electric heater to take away the chill
on cool mornings, especially when the house heating plant is not in oper
ation. There is one type of heater that may be built into the wall, and
this is a desirable form for the bathroom. Due consideration should be
given to the provision of lights in large closets and storerooms, controlled
by switches adjacent to the doors.
Care should be taken in the location of convenience outlets, otherwise
they may be convenient in name only. Those outlets to which devices are
to be attached will usually be most convenient if located at about elbow
height, eliminating the need for stooping. Such outlets are those used in
the kitchen, the laundry, for table devices in the dining room, and perhaps
for special purposes in some of the other rooms. Those outlets to which
more or less permanent connections are made, such as for floor lamps, are
better placed low, so that the connecting cords will be out of the way and
inconspicuous.
What constitutes good lighting for the kitchen? The foremost require
ment is that the quantity of light shall be sufficient for the accomplish
ment of work with accuracy, speed and comfort. The next is that the
source of light shall be so placed or located that there are no deep shadows
falling on the work. A further requirement, linked with the others, is that
the source of light itself shall not be so prominent that it attracts the eye
or produces an exceptionally bright spot or glare.
How can we obtain this good lighting? Obviously to get sufficient light
we must have enough light energy available at the source. In other words,
we must use lamps of sufficiently high candle power. To soften the shad
ows a diffusing shade or reflector should be used, and to shorten the shad
ows the source of light should be located as high above the work as pos
sible. To eliminate the disagreeable effect of exceptionally bright spots of
light which produce glare, the reflecting or diffusing globe should be of
such material or so designed that the lamp itself cannot be seen.
There are three general systems of lighting that are applicable to the
kitchen. The first of these is the so-called "direct" system in which fix
tures — or "luminaires" as they are sometimes called — are designed to
throw the major part of the light directly upon the surface of work to be
298 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
illuminated. This system is perhaps the most common and is exemplified
usually by a bell-shaped open-end shade or globe suspended from the ceil
ing or from a wall bracket. The second system uses a luminaire of such
design that no light is transmitted through it but all is reflected to jthe
ceiling, which in turn acts as a reflector to distribute the light to all parts
of the room. This is known as "indirect" lighting. With the third system,
a luminaire is used that permits some light to pass through it but still the
greater portion of the light is reflected to the ceiling as in the indirect sys
tem. This form of lighting is known as "semi-indirect." By a proper selec
tion and correct location of fixtures satisfactory illumination can be ob
tained in the majority of cases with any one of these three general sys
tems.
If the direct system is employed, the general illumination of the kitchen
may be obtained by having a central luminaire installed close to the
ceiling. In large kitchens, particularly those that are long and narrow,
two such fixtures will probably be necessary. It is important that the
luminaire be mounted close to the ceiling so as to eliminate long shadows
which result if the source of light is low. Generally speaking the major
part of the work in the average kitchen is done at work centers placed
along the wall, for example, the sink, the range and the kitchen cabinet.
At these points the worker has her face to the wall and her back to the
central luminaire. Now if the light source is hung low, her shadow will of
course fall on the work she is doing. Even with a well-designed central
fixture at the proper height the shadow cast by the worker may be deep
enough to require additional lighting at the work center. This can be
taken care of by installing another luminaire in the form of a drop light or
wall bracket over the sink, the range, or the kitchen cabinet where needed.
In this case an open glass shade with a diffusing bulb lamp will answer the
purpose satisfactorily. This auxiliary light should be high enough, at least
above the worker's head, and far enough from the wall so that the direct
glare will not be in the worker's eyes. An enclosed type central luminaire
and small deep shades of the open type for the individual lights over the
work units frequently make an effective arrangement.
For the direct system of lighting there are two general forms of globes
or shades, namely, the bell-shaped open type and the enclosed type. Both
of these are generally made of an opalescent glass in order to diffuse the
light. There are many different shapes of both the open and enclosed
types, the distribution of light being more or less dependent on the shape.
In the indirect system, which is dependent entirely on the ceiling and
HOME LIGHTING 299
wall surfaces for the diffusion and reflection of the light, it is necessary, of
course, to have these surfaces of such a character that sufficient light is
obtained on the work without the necessity of using lamps of excessively
high candle power. Experiments conducted by the laboratories of the
Edison Lamp Works of the General Electric Company show that the
reflection factor for ceilings tinted with various colors varies from 86 per
cent for flat white to 72 per cent for a flat silver grey. For sidewall tints
there is a variation of from 71 per cent for a flat ivory tan, to only 36 per
cent for a medium blue. These figures indicate the percentage of the light
falling on the ceiling or walls which is reflected to do useful lighting in the
room. Obviously if the indirect system of lighting is to be used the lighter
colors should be chosen for ceiling and walls to permit of economy in lamp
consumption, for with the darker colors appreciably more light must be
provided at the source in order to get the same effect on the work. What
has been said about the effect of color in the indirect system of lighting
applies just as well to the semi-indirect system which, as already stated,
depends to a large extent upon the reflection from ceilings and walls for
its effectiveness.
As previously stated the foremost requirement of good lighting in the
work rooms is that the quantity of light shall be adequate. Lighting ex
perts through many observations have determined just what illumination
is generally required for doing many different kinds of work. For the work
done in the kitchen it is usually considered that 8 to lo-foot-candles are
necessary. The foot-candle is a unit of illumination and represents the
light that would fall on a plane or surface one foot from a source of light of
one standard candle power. Eight- or ten-foot-candles' illumination is
equivalent to the light that would fall on a surface one foot from a light
source respectively of 8 and 10 candle power.
MINIMUM WIRING STANDARDS1
Outside entrances. — One ceiling or one side outlet. One single-pole
switch.
Porches. — One ceiling or one side outlet. One single-pole switch. One
convenience outlet, 18 in. from floor, if floor area is in excess of 100 sq.ft.
Vestibule. — One ceiling or side outlet and one single-pole switch if floor
area is in excess of 16 sq.ft.
Hall. — One ceiling outlet and one single-pole switch. If there are two
doorways more than 10 ft. apart, two three-way switches. Convenience
1 Recommended by the Electrical League of Cleveland (rev. 1928).
5f COND FLOOI^ PLAN
I
FIG. 45. — Wiring plan for a typical residence. From Home Lighting Fundamentals.
By permission of General Electric Company, Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio.
HOME LIGHTING 301
outlets — one for each 1 2 ft. of baseboard to be installed in wall or base
board approximately 1 2 ft. apart.
Stair hall. — One ceiling outlet and 2 three-way switches. Convenience
outlets — one for each 1 2 ft. of baseboard to be installed in wall or base
board approximately 12 ft. apart.
Living room. — One ceiling outlet if room is nearly square. If length is
more than if times the width 2 ceiling outlets, or 4 side bracket outlets
may be substituted for one ceiling outlet or 6 side bracket outlets may be
substituted for 2 ceiling outlets. For one doorway, one single-pole switch.
For 2 doorways more than 10 ft. apart, 2 three-way switches. Conven
ience outlets — one for each 12 ft. of baseboard to be installed in wall
or baseboard approximately 1 2 ft. apart.
Living room mantel. — Two side outlets in wall above mantel, or 2 con
venience outlets in mantel shelf.
Sun room. — One ceiling outlet. For one doorway, one single-pole
switch. For 2 doorways more than 10 ft. apart, 2 three-way switches.
Convenience outlets — one for each 12 ft. of baseboard to be installed
in wall or baseboard approximately 12 ft. apart.
Dining room. — One ceiling outlet. For one doorway, one single-pole
switch. For 2 doorways more than 10 ft. apart, 2 three-way switches.
Convenience outlets — one for each 12 ft. of baseboard to be installed
in wall or baseboard approximately 1 2 ft. apart.
Breakfast room. — One ceiling outlet. One single-pole switch. One du
plex convenience outlet just above level of table top.
Kitchen. — One ceiling outlet. For one doorway, one single-pole switch.
For 2 doorways more than 10 ft. apart, 2 three-way switches. One ceiling
or side outlet over sink controlled by switch or pull chain. One duplex
convenience outlet 4 ft. high near sink.
Refrigerator room. — One ceiling outlet. One single-pole switch. One
convenience outlet.
Rear hall. — One ceiling outlet. For one doorway, one single-pole
switch. For 2 doorways more than 10 ft. apart, 2 three-way switches.
Hall, second floor. — One ceiling or side outlet. Two three-way switches.
One convenience outlet 4 ft. from floor.
Bed rooms. — One ceiling outlet. One single-pole switch. Convenience
outlets — one for each 12 ft. of baseboard to be installed in wall or base
board approximately 1 2 ft. apart.
Closets. — One lighting outlet controlled either by pull chain or door
switch, if floor area is in excess of 10 sq. ft.
302 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Bath room.— Two side wall outlets, one on each side of mirror located
5 ft. from floor. One single-pole switch. One duplex convenience outlet at
right of lavatory 4 ft. from floor.
Basement. — One ceiling outlet at foot of stairs controlled by a switch
at the head of the stairs. One ceiling outlet located at or near the furnace.
One ceiling outlet over laundry trays. One outlet in ceiling, 3 ft. in front
of the center of laundry trays, for clothes washer. One convenience outlet.
NOTE. — The outlet for the clothes washer shall be equipped with a porcelain key
socket hung 5^ ft. from the floor.
Fruit room. — One lighting outlet.
Coal room. — One lighting outlet.
Garage. — Two ceiling outlets; one outside outlet; one duplex conven
ience outlet in center of rear wall, 4 ft. from floor.
[NOTE. — The Red Seal Plan of electric wiring inaugurated by the Society for Elec
trical Development is a service plan designed to help home builders. Red Seal installa
tion are built from materials which conform to the requirements of the National
Electric Code or any other code that has requirements in excess of the National Code.
It does not restrict the home builder to any product or any particular manufacturer.
The local electric league will plan the Red Seal layout. If the layout is adopted the
league will inspect the work in progress. Upon completion the Red Seal certificate is
issued to the building. (For additional information on the Red Seal Plan see "The Red
Seal Plan of Electric Wiring," Small Home, December, 1928).]
SAFEGUARDING VISION IN LIGHTING THE HOME'
BY M. LUCKIESH
There is plenty of evidence that good lighting aids vision and is an
economic asset. It should be observed that in most cases good lighting
costs no more than bad lighting. If we take into account the harm which
bad lighting does to the eyes, it is much more costly than adequate and
proper lighting. Eyesight is so important and so easily injured that too
much care cannot be exercised in its conservation.
Lighting conditions which cause eyestrain depend somewhat upon the
state of adaptation of the eye so it is difficult to define in measurable
quantities the limits of these conditions. Excessive brightness, like that
of the sun or of modern artificial light-sources, is annoying and harmful to
vision. The type of glare due to excessive brightness is blinding for some
time after the light-source is out of the field of vision and this temporary
blindness has been the cause of many accidents.
1 Adapted from an address before the Eyesight Conservation Council of America.
Published by the Council, 1925.
HOME LIGHTING 303
Excessive contrast, which in a sense is similar to the foregoing, causes
eyestrain. A brightness which is quite endurable amid light surroundings
may be quite discomforting amid dark surroundings. For example, a
lighted lantern outdoors on a dark night or a lighted match in a room
painted black is quite glaring; while a lighted incandescent lamp when
viewed against the bright sky in the daytime is not very glaring.
The light from a wall bracket, which may be viewed with comfort
against a light or medium gray wall, is likely to be glaring against a dark
background such as dark wallpaper or darkly finished woodwork. De
spite this,- brackets with frosted lamps are found in many homes installed
on a panelled background of dark woodwork or other wall-covering. A
decorative fixture which is too bright may be improved by providing
denser shades or lamps of lower intensity. In general, fixtures viewed
against dark backgrounds are glaring even though the brightness is very
low, but this is due to the fact that the contrast is too great. But there is
little in favor of dark backgrounds in the home, for they usually con
tribute toward a depressing effect.
Light may be glaring by virtue of its quantity, but there is a common
misconception regarding this. For example, complaints are often heard
that artificial lighting is too intense. The intensity of illumination out
doors is usually thousands of times greater than ordinarily encountered in
artificial lighting. Commonly, when a room is considered to be over-
lighted, the effect is merely glare from exposed light sources. Quantity of
light alone is not uncomfortable to vision when the eyes are adapted to the
proper level of illumination. When one enters a lighted room after long
exposure to darkness the eyes are blinded until they have time to become
adapted. Adaptation is an important factor in vision and by this function
the eyes are capable of operating satisfactorily throughout a very exten
sive range of brightnesses or illumination intensities. The brightnesses en
countered on a starlit night and those at noon on a sunny summer day
represent a range of millions. Under proper conditions the eye will func
tion comfortably throughout this tremendous range of illumination in
tensities.
Although the sky when viewed outdoors may not be annoying to the
eyes, it is not uncommon indoors to find a patch of sky seen through a
window to be very glaring. The eyes indoors are adapted to much lower
brightnesses than outdoors and the contrast between the patch of sky and
the adjacent walls is so great as to be annoying. This is a common cause
of eyestrain indoors.
3o4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Unshaded light-sources should not be tolerated. Even exposed frosted
lamps are glaring under most conditions. Shades should be dense enough
to reduce the brightness of the lamps. Even though the bright light
source is out of the ordinary field of view, it is annoying when reflected
from glossy paper, polished desk tops, blackboards, etc. For this reason
light should be emitted from a surface of low brightness. A practical solu
tion is to surround the light-sources with diffusing glass or to diffuse the
light by reflection from the ceiling.
Glossy paper is annoying because its smooth surface acts somewhat like
a mirror. This is another cause of eyestrain and is contributory to such
defects as nearsightedness. Where school children are required to read
fine print on glossy paper under glaring or insufficient lighting, nearsight
edness increases. The eyes of these young persons are immature and sus
ceptible to permanent defects. In the home these causes of eyestrain
should be eliminated before the decorative features of lighting are given
attention. The eyes may be misused under any conditions if knowledge
and care are not exercised and it is deplorable that such misuse is common.
It is an interesting fact that there is more eyestrain encountered under
glaring lighting conditions when the eyes are called upon for near work,
such as that of reading, than when they are merely in casual use. For
example, in the shade of a building with the eyes unshaded a large expanse
of sky may be only slightly glaring. However, as soon as the eyes are
concentrated upon a page of reading matter and are engaged in the effort
of reading, one becomes conscious of discomfort which in time may be
come unbearable unless the eyes are shaded. A similar effect may be
detected indoors; that is, glaring conditions become much more annoying
when the eyes are called upon for their best efforts.
The home and the school are natural and effective places for attacking
some of the evils which contribute toward eye trouble. The lighting
should be well done ; householders and teachers should apply the principles
of conserving vision; and in the home-economics courses lighting should
be given the attention it deserves.
Although it is not difficult to obtain fixtures which are thoroughly
satisfactory from the standpoint of the conservation of vision, there are
many in use which are a menace to eyesight. It is easy to state that all
lamps should be shaded from the field of view and to add certain facts
regarding the correct position in respect to the light-source, but these
simple statements do not appear to be effective. This suggests an interest
ing example of a misconception of art. The bespangled fixtures of the
HOME LIGHTING 305
Louis XIV period fitted appropriately the gorgeous splendor of that time.
Catering to our weakness — and his own — for copying bygone art instead
of creating new styles, the fixture designer reproduces those cut-glass fix
tures. As objects, they may be beautiful, and as fixtures used with candles
of a few centuries ago they would be delightfully scintillating. However,
quite unconscious of the law of appropriateness and of the enormously
greater brightnesses of modern light-sources, the architect, decorator, or
someone else places our modern lamps amid crystals of glass. The glitter
ing points of light are now a thousand times brighter than they were when
this period style was born. They are glaring and unbearable. They are
inartistic, despite the fidelity with which their dimensions and details have
been copied. Such errors are committed in the name of art, but the result
is no longer art.
The lighting problems in the home are not difficult to solve. The sub
ject has been given a great deal of attention by experts and simple direc
tions for various rooms are available.
WHAT HOME-OWNERS SHOULD KNOW
ABOUT ELECTRIC SYSTEMS1
BY H. VANDERVOORT WALSH
Assistant Professor of Architecture, Columbia University
Every year electricity is becoming more and more an integral part of
our homes, making our living easier and adding to our pleasures. And yet,
as obvious as this is, the average home-owner is less informed on the de
tails of this equipment than other parts of the house. The heating plant
and the plumbing are generally understood better. It is quite a bit easier
to visualize the water coming into the house through pipes than to think
of the strange power of electricity coming through overhead wires or un
derground conduits.
For the insulated and sheathed wires, the safety switches and fuses, and
the simple controls of this force, we pay only about two to three per cent
of the total cost of the house. Our lives are protected from any of its un
controlled antics, like setting fire to the house while we are asleep in the
night, by carefully made equipment and standard methods of installation.
Regulations issued by the Fire Underwriters, known as the National
Electric Code, are in part responsible for our safety. Inspection of the
work by insurance inspectors, agents of the local electric power company,
1 Adapted from "What Home Owners Should Know about Electric Systems," Arts
and Decoration, June, 1930. Reprinted by courtesy of the Arts and Decoration magazine.
306 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
and sometimes city inspectors, has established a check on the work of
the electric contractor that in general has protected our homes from
ravages of fire caused by sparks of electric energy. Every home-owner
should demand that the entire equipment, including service connections,
wiring, fixtures, and electrical apparatus be inspected by a representative
of the Bureau of Electricity of the National Board of Fire Underwriters,
and that no current be turned on until a certificate from the Board has
been turned over to him. In large cities the department of water supply,
gas and electricity also issues a certificate of electrical inspection. The
local electric power company usually sends around an inspector to check
up on the wiring before the current is let into the house. Safe materials
must be used by the electric contractor if he is required to conform to the
National Electric Code. Of course any system of inspection can break
down, if the inspectors are bought off, or are incompetent, but I do not
believe that there are many verified instances where properly certified in
stallations have been the cause of fires.
Trouble and fires usually start from installations made to existing sys
tems by amateur electricians like the local hardware dealer's son or some
handy man about the house who has purchased cheap and unapproved
equipment. Of all the parts of the house, the electrical equipment should
be tampered with the least by the home-owner. It is disturbing to see
what liberties people will take with electric wires, when they want to se
cure a light in some remote corner of a room, where no convenient outlet
has been provided
For this reason, all new homes should be generously wired. An outlet in
the middle of the room for a light or a few around the walls for side lights
may be installed, but the most important ones are the wall outlets to
which anything may be attached by merely inserting a plug. The finest
method of lighting a home to-day is to have enough wall outlets so that
portable lamps of different designs may be located at any point in the
room without having to use electric wires more than six feet in length.
The movable lamp, with its interesting base and artistic shade, is the
only medium of home lighting that is flexible enough to allow shifting and
changing until the best effects are obtained. People have discovered this
to be true, and that is the reason why, when enough wall outlets are not
installed, rooms are strung with wires.
Another type of outlet is very important to-day. It is called the power
outlet. In many communities a lower rate is charged by the electric power
company for current used to operate motors to run electric stokers and
HOME LIGHTING 307
oil burners, washing machines, electric ironers, electric refrigerators, sew
ing machines, vacuum cleaners, heaters, and the many other appliances
that lessen the labor about the home* and add to its comfort. Wisely have
some of the influential executives of power companies said that the lower
the rate can be made for the operation of such equipment, the more of
these devices will be made and used, and the more current in the long
run will be consumed by the public. Just at present though there is too
much indifference on the part of some electric power companies to en
courage the average home-owner in using power outlets in his home. Un
less the home-owner is informed by the architect or builder, no effort will
be put forth by the electric company to tell him to install two systems,
one with a meter for electric lights and another system with a meter for
power.
As it is true that a generous supply of light outlets should be located
throughout the rooms of the house, so it is true that there should be plenty
of power outlets. In general there ought to be one in the cellar to which
the motor that operates the oil burner or electric stoker may be attached,
one for the workshop bench in garage and cellar. In the kitchen there
should be at least three, one for the refrigerator, another for an electric
stove, and another for electrical food grinders and beaters. The laundry
needs at least two ; one for the washing machine and another for the iron
and mangle. In the dining room and the breakfast alcove should be a
power outlet for the operation of toasters, coffee percolator, table broilers,
etc. In bathrooms a power outlet is useful for the operation of electric
irons, curlers, massagers, water heaters, and similar devices. A general
distribution of outlets through halls serves as additional source of power.
On an average the cost of each outlet for lights, including the wall out
lets, switches, ceiling outlets, etc., is three dollars each. Power outlets
usually run higher, being about four dollars each. For very little more,
the wall outlets may be the duplex type ; a type into which two wires can
be plugged at once. This is worth while, since it provides additional places
into which to plug lights. Flexibility of arrangement is the thing to plan
for, and this improves conditions. After all, the good lighting of the home
depends upon locating the lights in the proper place with reference to the
furniture. As lighting is part of the decoration, and its success depends
upon many things not possible to work out ahead of time, the wall plugs
permit the shifting and adjustment of portable lamps to all parts of the
room until the correct place is found for them. This cannot be figured out
in advance in home decoration, and what is more, although a satisfactory
3o8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
arrangement of furniture may be found and it may be satisfying for sev
eral years, the desire for a change may creep into the mind of the lady of
the house, and a complete shifting of the furniture may be necessary after
a while.
[NOTE. — Progress in lighting: According to an estimate made by the National Elec
tric Light Association from records of electric-light companies 19,430,000, or 67 per
cent, of the 28,808,000 houses were wired and received electric service in 1929. At the
beginning of 1929 electric service was supplied to 7.2 per cent of the 6,315,050 farms. In
a paper prepared by a committee of the American Home Economics Association for the
World Power Conference, June, 1930, the following statement is made: "Every city
in the United States of 5,000 population or above now has electric service; 97 per cent of
all communities between 1,000 and 5,000; 50 per cent of all communities between 250
and 1,000; and more than 25 per cent of all hamlets of less than 250 population.]
SUMMARY
No hard and fast rules can be laid down as to what represents best
practice in lighting the various rooms of a house; however, the following
fundamentals should be observed: (i) Light should not be excessively
brilliant or glaring. Extreme contrasts are objectionable. (2) Luminaires
should be artistic and utilitarian in character. (3) Light should be toned
to fit decorative schemes. The living room requirements : Medium inten
sity for general illumination with more brilliant light-sources for various
points. The dining room: Good illumination on the table itself, soft but
adequate illumination on the faces of the diners, a lower intensity of
illumination through the remainder of the room. The kitchen: General
illumination throughout with each work surface adequately lighted. The
bedroom: A moderate intensity of general illumination throughout the
room with higher intensity of local lighting at certain areas.
As lighting conditions that cause eyestrain depend somewhat upon the
state of adaptation of the eye, it is difficult to define limits of these con
ditions. Excessive contrast, however, causes eyestrain. Usually when a
room is considered overlighted the effect is merely glare from exposed
light-sources. Unshaded light-sources should not be tolerated.
REFERENCES
CALDWELL, FRANK C. Modern Lighting. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930.
Lighting of residences (pp. 200-210).
COMMERY, E. W., and WEBB, H. H. Home Lighting Fundamentals. Bull. 47 A.
Cleveland: National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co., 1928. Pp. 34.
EDISON LIGHTING INSTITUTE (comp.). Lighting the Home. Harrison, N.J.;
Edison Lamp Works of the General Electric Co., n.d. Pp. 35.
Discusses types of lighting for various rooms.
HOME LIGHTING 309
EYESIGHT CONSERVATION COUNCIL. Eyesight Conservation Survey. Bull. 7. New
York: The Council, 1925. Pp. 216.
Principles of illumination (pp. 145-54).
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING INSTITUTE. House Wiring and Lighting for Service. New
York: Good Housekeeping, 1930. Pp. 12.
GRAY, GRETA. House and Home. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1923.
Lighting (pp. 124-30).
HERING, OSWALD C. Economy in Home Building. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
Suggestions for electric wiring (pp. 123-25).
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Press, 1926.
Electric wiring (pp. 115-16); lighting fixtures (p. 117).
ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOCIETY, NEW YORK. "Central Station Methods
for Securing High Lighting Standards in Old Homes," Transactions, XV (De
cember 30, 1920), 693-703. New York: The Society, 1920.
— . "Residence Lighting," ibid. (June 10, 1920), 268-82. New York: The
Society, 1920.
LUCKIESH, MATTHEW. Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Effects. New York: Mc
Graw-Hill Book Co., 1925.
Lighting the Home. New York: Century Co., 1920.
NATIONAL BOARD or FIRE UNDERWRITERS. National Electrical Code, 1930.
New York: The Board, 1930. Pp. 256.
NATIONAL ELECTRIC LIGHT ASSOCIATION. Better Lighting. More Power to the
Home Series, Booklet 2. New York: The Association, n.d. Pp. 32.
Wiring the House. More Power to the Home Series, Booklet i. New
York: The Association, n.d. Pp. 24.
NATIONAL LAMP WORKS. Better Lighting in the Home. Bull. 47. Cleveland:
National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co., 1926. Pp. 31.
"Outlets Where You Need Them," Small Home, July-October, 1930.
PERKINS, NELSON S. How To Judge a House. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Na
tional Committee on Wood Utilization. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1931. Pp. 85.
Electric wiring (pp. 75-80).
U.S. BUREAU or STANDARDS. Measurements for the Household. Circular of the
Bureau of Standards, No. 55. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1915. Pp. 149.
Discusses measurements and cost of light, fixtures, principles, and reading of electric
and gas meters (pp. 68-101).
WESTINGHOUSE LIGHTING INSTITUTE. The Framework of Home Lighting; Light
Decoration; Home Lighting of the Modern Period; Making Shades for Light;
The Style in Home Lighting. Home Lighting Course, New York: Westing-
house Lamp Co., 1931.
CHAPTER VIII
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY
i. Types of Heating Systems
THE HOME-HEATING SYSTEM1
BY A. C. WILLARD
Professor of Heating and Ventilation, Mechanical Engineering Department,
University of Illinois
.... It is amazing how completely the home-owners of this country
regard the heating plant as something entirely separate and distinct from
the house in which it is to be placed, and of which it is to become a part.
It is equally surprising to discover both from correspondence and
personal interviews just what the home-owners mean by "best" type of
heating systems. One owner is thinking largely in items of first cost,
another of operating expense of which fuel is only a part, another of
simplicity and "fool proofness," another of convenience, cleanliness, and
automatic operation, another of more uniform temperatures from floor to
ceiling and reasonable humidities.
And so it goes. We, on the receiving end for all these inquiries, feel like
the man who was asked, "How long is a fence?" Only our problem is by no
means as simple. Moreover, only a very inexperienced writer would
attempt to say that there is one "best" type of heating system which fits
all cases of home heating.
There are, however, certain facts that can be set down about home
heating which will materially assist the home-owner in making an intelli
gent selection of a heating system for his home. These facts are based on
the most outstanding results from the study of heating houses by various
systems at the University of Illinois during the past 10 or 12 years. This
study has been made in typical rooms subjected to severe winter weather
conditions in a special laboratory (Fig. 46) as well as in an actual residence
especially equipped for testing purposes. Here are the facts, in itemized
form, although preference in the order of presentation has no particular
significance.
i. The house. — The house structure itself should always receive con-
1 Adapted from "The Home Heating System," Successful Farming, September, 1930.
310
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 311
sideration and be kept clearly in mind when deciding upon a heating
system. A relatively small outlay on making suitable walls and window
FIG. 46. — Elevation section of laboratory testing plant. Erected by the University
of Illinois for the study of problems relating to direct steam and hot-water heating in
co-operation with the Institute of Boiler and Radiator Manufacturers and the Illinois
Master Plumbers Association. Note standard in center of test room for reading air
temperatures between floor and ceiling.
3i2 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
frames tight1 against the wind, and stopping all unnecessary air leakage
into the studding spaces of the outside walls of frame houses or others of
hollow wall construction will not only save fuel, but also add materially
to the comfort of the occupants and may affect both size and type of heat
ing system required.
A poorly constructed house which fails to keep out the wind cannot be
heated or made comfortable by any heating system, but to achieve even
partial success it will be necessary to have at least one direct heating unit,
such as a radiator or stove, in every room.
'2. The chimney. — Since it is impossible to burn any fuel without a
positive air supply under proper control, it is necessary to have a chimney.
The chimney, by virture of the draft which it creates, provides this air
supply. The chimney draft is caused by the vertical column of gas.
Since in any given house the chimney height is fixed, anything which
reduces the temperature of the flue gas reduces the draft. The chimney
must be straight and true, of full uniform size from top to bottom, with no
leaky joints and with no other openings either above or below the smoke
opening for the heating plant. Chimneys for domestic heating plants
should preferably pass up through the house and not be run as part of
exposed outside walls.
3. Direct and indirect systems. — There are two general types of heating
systems in use today, known as the direct and the indirect. The former
(Fig. 46) includes ordinary stoves and the more modern and familiar direct
steam and hot water radiators located right in the room to be heated.
Such systems not only warm up the air in the room, but also give off more
or less heat by radiation to the walls, the furniture, and the occupants.
The latter or indirect system (Fig. 47) has no heating surfaces in the
room, but instead supplies heated air through one or more registers. This
air mixes with and warms the air in the room to the desired temperature.
Furnaces placed in the basement, both of the "pipeless" and the more
satisfactory piped type, as well as "indirect" steam and hot-water radia
tors are used in such systems.
Fans are not necessary in any of these indirect systems in the average
home, but may be used if the owner desires to accelerate the air flow over
the indirect heating surfaces. When fans are used, somewhat lower heated
air temperatures are sufficient, since more air is sent into the rooms which
1 This does not refer to the use of thermal insulation or the use of weather-strips,
valuable as they may be when properly and intelligently applied, but merely to the
equivalent of good first-class construction.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 313
are to be warmed than would be the case with a gravity flow system.
There is no radiation effect in the actual rooms of the house when indirect
systems are used, and some people require a slightly higher air tempera
ture where there are no direct heating surfaces.
4. Floor and ceiling temperatures. — Any of the systems indicated in the
preceding sections is capable of heating a house to 70 degrees Fahrenheit
at the "breathing line" (an arbitrary level five feet above the floor), at
Door.
Ashp/'f must 6e kept c/e&r,
Top of thfs open/ny shoutf nof be above /ere/ of grer/e.
FIG. 47. — Section of elevation of a house, showing installation details for warm-air
heating system. Note location of the return air register and tapered transition fittings
to reduce friction of air flow.
which level temperatures are always taken in checking up a heating guar
antee. There may, however, be a great difference between the "breathing
line" temperature and the air temperature at other levels in the room.
Tests at the University of Illinois, in actual rooms, when it was zero out
side and 70 degrees at the breathing line showed temperatures as low as
60 degrees near the floor and 85 degrees near the ceiling. Even worse con
ditions at floor and ceiling may exist with stoves and "pipeless" furnaces,
although the "breathing" line temperature is maintained at 70 degrees in
all cases.
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Modern warm-air furnace heating systems (Fig. 48), and "indirect"
steam and hot- water systems, as well as direct steam and hot-water sys
tems (see note, Fig. 48) using long, low, narrow radiators, will maintain
much better air temperatures at floor and ceiling than those quoted at 60
and 85 degrees, respectively.
Such extreme conditions are intolerable and the home-owner will avoid
much dissatisfaction and argument, as well as much personal discomfort
ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION7
Te///s?gr
-4—4
A — L
Te/vpera'/'ts
"
64 .
40 S0 60 70
~e &/ffere/?ce /s? cfep. £
FIG. 48. — Curves of floor, breathing level, and ceiling temperatures for living-room
from research residence. Note air temperature difference between ceiling and floor in
creases rapidly as indoor-out-of-door temperature difference increases. Direct steam and
hot- water systems with long, low narrow radiators under windows may be operated with
smaller air temperature differences between ceiling and floor than shown in the chart.
by giving thoughtful consideration to the effect of type of heating system
and heating units in the rooms on the room air temperatures at floor and
ceiling, regardless of the fact that the system may maintain a "breathing
line" air temperature of 70 degrees. Here are the basic principles:
a) For indirect systems, the air supplied to the rooms for heating
should enter at a relatively low temperature even in coldest weather.
When it is zero outside, this temperature should never be above 175 de
grees at any register face, and better be 150 degrees. The air supply from
"pipeless" furnaces is usually heated far above these temperatures.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 315
b) For direct systems, the heating surface should not be highly heated
as is often the case with stoves. Even with direct steam radiators which
are usually somewhat above 212 degrees, much better results will be
secured with long, low, narrow radiators than with high radiators. Hot-
water radiators are seldom operated at water temperatures above 170
degrees with an open tank system, and maintain better room air tempera
tures at floor and ceiling than steam systems using radiators of the same
type. With pressure systems of hot-water heating water temperatures
may run to 220 degrees.
Experience has shown that the cheaper the heating system, the greater
the air temperature difference between floor and ceiling
5. Regulation, control, and flexibility. — The effect of type of heating
system on regulation and control of air temperatures throughout the house,
as well as on the flexibility and responsiveness of the system, is often given
too little consideration. Certain systems may be controlled from a central
point, such as the main heating unit, far better than others. Stoves, of
course, which are individual units in themselves and must be dealt with
separately, are hardly to be considered in this connection.
Unless a direct steam heating system is specially equipped, as with
vacuum air valves at each radiator, and the entire system is made air
tight, it will not be possible to regulate the temperature of the steam and
control house temperatures from the main unit. The ordinary steam sys
tem is "all on" or "all off," and it will generally overheat in mild weather,
unless especially .equipped with manual or automatic regulation of the
drafts to actually operate under vacuum conditions. Hence, the ordinary
direct steam heating system has little flexibility.
A direct hot-water heating system, on the other hand, as well as an
indirect warm-air heating system, is extremely flexible and the house
temperature may be controlled from the main unit by manual or auto
matic regulation of the drafts. In mild weather, very low water or air
temperatures may be maintained, and in severe weather very much
higher water or air temperatures corresponding to the weather conditions
may be maintained. So long as there is any fire in the main unit there is
heat in the hot water radiators, or in the air entering at the registers. The
warm-air furnace system is the most responsive of all systems, as a change
in fire intensity in the main unit is immediately reflected in the tempera
ture of the air passing through the system.
6. Operation and maintenance. — With hand-fired systems using solid
fuels, there is not much difference in the attendance required in operation
3i6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
where a single central heating unit is installed in the home. Stoves, of
course, require much more attendance depending upon the number in
stalled and in operation.
Mechanical coal stokers, which are now available and quite successful,
will materially reduce the amount of attendance required for any type of
heating system. Oil burning and gas burning equipment still further re
duces the amount of attendance, but the latter can only be considered
where a gas service is available. Special attention is directed to the fact
that when mechanical stokers, oil burners, and gas-fired equipment are
once installed, the operation of an entire system is dependent on the re
liability of the electric service usually essential in all such systems.
The maintenance of any heating system depends largely on the care
and attention given to the system and varies through wide limits. No sys
tem is absolutely foolproof, but a warm-air furnace system is practically
immune against freezing which, of course, is not true of steam and hot-
water systems. The fuel burning unit of any heating plant may be ruined
in a comparatively short time by careless firing and indifferent control
of drafts.
An exactly similar unit and type of heating system may last a lifetime
if carefully fired and properly regulated, so that the fire is never allowed
to "run away" with drafts left wide open. Uniformity of operation, mean
ing a fairly constant house temperature day and night, means long life
for the main unit, and more comfort for the occupants, and generally re
quires less fuel.
Throwing the drafts wide open and then allowing the plant to "run
wild" every morning is about as perfect an illustration of "what not
to do" with a heating plant as could possibly be found.
7. Installation and operation costs. — Selecting the type of heating sys
tem on the basis of installation cost alone may result in disappointment.
In general direct hot- water systems cost more to install than indirect
warm-air furnace heating systems with direct steam systems somewhere
in between. The range in cost of materials and labor for any one of the
three systems is probably greater than the difference between the cost of
any two successive systems listed above.
The range in cost just referred to has no reference to quality of mate
rials and labor, but to the differences in design and installation details
which may exist with any one type of system. The "best" of any one
type of system, including all automatic devices for regulation and con
trol, may cost much more than the "poorest" of some other type of sys
tem with no automatic devices for regulation and control.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 317
Operating costs do not vary greatly in the same house between the
three systems, provided the same fuel is used and the same degree of
automatic or manual control is provided, and we have a well-designed
plant in each case. Small differences in the overall efficiency of the heating
plant as a whole are of no great consequence since the only heat really lost
from the house is that left in the smoke gases at the top of the chimney,
assuming an inside chimney. Of course, if there is much difference in the
completeness with which a given fuel is burned, the efficiency of the main
unit becomes important.
In conclusion, it seems hardly necessary to add that the selection of
the "best" type of heating is not a simple matter, but depends on many
factors, the relative importance of which varies with the individual home
owner, his house, and its location.
PROGRESS IN HEATING1
BY A. S. ARMAGNAC
Editor, Heating and Ventilating Magazine
As late as 1926 a review of the heating industry for the previous fifty
years, published in a prominent American architectural journal, had not
one word to say about tubular radiation, light-weight brass and copper
radiators, viscous-fluid air filters or present-day" methods of concealing
radiators and humidifying the home. All of these advances have come
with astonishing rapidity.
To get a clear idea of the development of the industry it should be
stated that the progress since the World War, both in the design and
application of heating appliances, outweighs that of the entire previous
period.
Warm-air furnace heating, as we know, held the field for many years
before steam or water heating was even thought of. But the success of
radiator heat in some of the larger buildings in the centers of population
soon began to stir the imagination of the more affluent home-owners and
in the late 'yo's we begin to hear of occasional installations of steam and
water heating systems in homes.
For years steam and hot water ran neck and neck in popular favor. As
better methods of steam heating were adopted the hot- water people, not
to be outdone, developed methods for accelerating the flow of the water
and thereby secured an added efficiency for water heating which has
1 Adapted from "Heating Steps Forward," American Builder and Building Age
(formerly Building Age), April, 1929.
3i8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
enabled this method to hold its own in the face of the growing competi
tion of vapor heating. To-day vapor steam heating has gained such favor
as to be accepted as standard in many sections of the country.
In radiator-heated houses one seldom sees a radiator on an inside wall
and yet from the earliest days to the present time warm-air furnace sys
tems have continued to be installed with registers so located as to pre
clude any possibility of satisfactory heating. Since the advent of the
auxiliary warm-air furnace fan, installed in the furnace casing at the cold-
air inlet, there has opened a brand new field of usefulness for the warm-air
furnace. With the increased air pressure supplied by the fan it now is
possible to locate the registers in their proper places near the outside walls
and thus counteract the cold-air currents before, rather than after, they
enter the room.
Perhaps the most significant feature of the advance in heating methods
and, perhaps, the underlying cause of the new era, is the realization that
a house-heating system can be made one of the home's most attractive
features, instead of a necessary evil in the economy of life. No doubt this
is due in part to the advent of the oil burner, but not entirely. Much of
the credit for the improved status of radiator heating belongs to the light
weight heating surface of copper and brass and their alloys which has
made it possible to conceal the radiation, within narrow limits. For the
first time we saw heating surface, only a fraction of the size of cast-iron
radiators, concealed in partitions and in outside walls in such a way as to
provide fully as much heat as the larger units.
It is not too much to say that the new arrangement made possible by
concealed radiation transformed the whole picture of home heating. It
lent itself so readily to architectural treatment that the design of the
heating system has come to rank second only to the design of the house
itself. In places where exposed radiation is still necessary we have the
graceful tubular radiator at our disposal.
More recently there has come the development of still another type of
radiator designed to throw more heat out into the room and less toward
the ceiling, thereby securing equal effect where heat is most needed, while
actually condensing less steam. This heating surface is set flush with the
wall and secures its effect largely through its radiant heat. Its advocates
speak of it as the herald of the "era of useful heat."
When the oil burner reached its present state of development and the
gas burner, as well as the gas-fired boiler, established their places in the
house-heating field, they not only helped to usher in the era of heating
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 319
comfort, but they did an unexpected thing in freeing the basement from
its lowly place as a storeroom for coal and the endless array of household
impedimenta. Thereafter, the basement was able to assume a new role
as a playroom for the children or a billiard or a lounge room for the older
members of the family.
While methods of heat regulation were fairly well known to the indus
try before domestic oil burners became so popular, it is a fact that the
rise of such devices in systems using both oil and gas for fuel led the way
to the wide adoption of thermostatic control and other devices in the
home.
[NOTE. — Several makes of automatic stokers are on the market. Usually the fuel
which is placed in a hopper is carried to the under side of the grate by a conveyer
where it is pushed up through the center. The conveyer usually operates by an electric
motor. A draft is provided by a blower. The burning of the fuel starts from the top
and goes downward.]
THE PANEL HEATING SYSTEM1
BY HOWARD T. FISHER
There has recently been developed in England, and now first introduced
into this country in the British Embassy in Washington, a new type of
patented heating system consisting of concealed hot-water pipes placed
in the ceiling.2 While originally developed as the result of a desire to
eliminate exposed radiators and grills it was subsequently discovered that
radically new heating principles were involved offering decided advan
tages.
Principle of operation. — The basic arrangement is in all essentials simi
lar to a regular hot water heating system except that, instead of exposed
or concealed radiators, coils with welded joints and tested under high
pressure are placed in the ceiling just above its lower surface and buried
in the plaster, which is of a special type to prevent cracking. Hot water is
circulated at a relatively low temperature either by gravity or by pump.
By means of these coils the plaster is raised in temperature to a point
where the heat radiated from its lower surface is sufficient to warm the
room to the desired point. However, as the air cannot be warmed by con
vection, owing to the location of the source of heat at the top of the room,
and as radiant heat does not appreciably warm the air through which it
1 Adapted from "The Country House," Architectural Record, November, 1930.
2 Richard Crittall & Co., Ltd., of London, control the patents; Wolff & Munier, Inc.,
222 East 4ist Street, New York, are American agents.
320 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
passes, the air in the room is left at a relatively low temperature. The
comfort of the occupants does not depend primarily on the warmth of the
air but on the heat radiated by the ceiling, in the same way that a person
sitting in a protected sunny spot on a cold winter day may be adequately
warmed by the radiant heat of the sun although the air may be very cold.
The inventors claim that a room heated by the panel system will be en
tirely comfortable with the air at a temperature of only 62°, and further
that with the air heated above that point a sensation of serious overheat
ing will be experienced.1 The recent work of the New York State Com
mission on Ventilation has shown the dangers to health of overheating,
and the importance of a matter of even two or three degrees. This com
mission recommends that the air temperature be maintained as low as is
consistent with comfort, and panel heating may provide a means for com
fort at a temperature far below that possible with any other system of
heating.
At the present time, however, the development of the system is still in
its infancy and there are many questions yet to be answered. For ex
ample, just how is such radiant heat to be thermostatically controlled,
and how is the temperature of the air to be properly correlated with the
amount of radiant heat? How is a desirable air motion to be procured
when there are no convection currents?
RADIATORS2
BY P. E. FANSLER
President, Heating Journals, Inc.
In the heating system employing water, steam or vapor as a heating
medium, the boiler performs two functions — it contains the combustion
chamber, wherein the fuel is combusted, and its other function is the
transfer of the heat produced by combustion to the heating medium. The
piping conveys the heated medium to the radiators and their job is to
transfer heat from the medium to the air in the rooms.
In one sense the efficiency of a radiator may be 100 per cent, although,
obviously, it does not transfer all of the heat from the water or steam to
the air, the thought being that all of the heat lost by the steam or water
is transferred to the air in the room. However, the effectiveness of the
radiator may be very far from 100 per cent, and this is a matter of major
concern to the home-owner. By effectiveness we mean the degree to which
1 The humidity conditions accompanying these temperatures are not given in their
statement.
2 Adapted from "Heating the Small Home," Small Home, April, 1930.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 321
the heat transferred by the radiator becomes useful to the dwellers in the
home. You can see that if all of the heat taken from the radiator were
used to heat the stratum of air within a foot of the ceiling we would have
a sad state of affairs, for with no mechanical forces available, we would
have an excessively hot ceiling and, perhaps, a floor-line temperature far
too low for human comfort.
We might, therefore, define the effectiveness of a radiator as its ability,
first, to transfer heat to the air of the room at or near the floor line and,
second, to offset the effect of infiltrating cold air which enters, in largest
quantity, around the window frames.
It is remarkable how poorly and ineffectively the average home is
heated, and how large a factor is the improper selection and placement of
radiators. In planning radiation for a home, it usually is assumed that
each room is an isolated unit, and is considered without reference to other
rooms except that they contribute warm walls and other dividing parti
tions. If we have a radiator in such a room, it heats the air that touches
its surfaces, and this air thereby being rendered lighter per unit of volume,
will rise if there is an equal volume of colder air that can flow down and
replace it. As the coldest and densest air is along the floor line, theoreti
cally there will be set up a circulation around through the room.. In prac
tice, however, we usually find a "close" circuit being set up, the tendency
being for the air close to the floor to move very slowly to the radiator,
the principal and more active circulation being largely above the line of
the radiator top. Thus we have a definite and quite strong stream of heated
air rising above the radiator, diffusing and spreading to cover the entire
area of the room at the ceiling, and much higher temperatures and rate
of air movement than at the floor line.
Under these conditions it is difficult to imagine a heated volume much
below the mid-line of the radiator, and if this is one of the high type, the
inadequately heated lower portion of the room easily may be 3 ft. high.
Putting it the other way, it is quite obvious that the most effective radia
tor is that which delivers its heat at the lowest level; i.e., the lowest radia
tor of any given capacity. As a general thing, I would recommend a long,
low radiator under each window of a room rather than a large single (and
usually high) radiator under the largest window. There will be a much
better distribution of heat throughout the room, especially in the zone
occupied by the occupants — that is, the portion from the floor to about
the four-foot line (as it is more common for people to sit than to stand).
Thus far we have been discussing radiator performance based on the
322 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
air that is heated through transfer of heat from the steam or water,
through the iron of the radiator to the air that scrubs along the surfaces
of the radiator; in other words, to the heat transfer by convection. But
we cannot disregard the fact that a radiator actually radiates heat to no
small degree. Many people think of radiant energy as being emitted only
from a surface that is so hot that it may be said to be radiant — that is, at
least "red hot." If you pick up a white-hot coal from the fire and hold it
in a pair of tongs, you readily appreciate the fact that it is giving off energy
in a radiant form. This emission is at a tremendous rate, at first, because
the temperature of the white-hot surface is so far above the temperature
of any surface that can be "seen" from the piece of coal. This energy
travels from the surface of the piece of coal just as the light waves travel
from its surface. And, as the coal slowly changes color, first to bright,
and then to dull red, the rate of radiant emission decreases. Then comes
a time when you can see no sign of luminosity— the coal is jet black. But,
if you were to touch it with your fingers an ugly burn would result. Yes,
radiant energy still is being given off — at a lower rate, to be sure — and it
does not cease until the coal has become as cold as the objects surrounding
it. If it could be maintained, say by an internal source of heat, at 180°, it
would continue what we might call "low- temperature radiation" just as
long as heat was supplied. And it would act just as a radiator filled with
water at 180° does. However, the ordinary garden variety of radiator con
sists of many "sections" with curved surfaces, and as the emission always
is at right angles to the surface, you can see that the radiator will "radi
ate" heat — at a comparatively low rate — into almost every nook and
cranny of the room. So we must take account of this radiating ability.
First, we must look at the other end — the reception end — of the radia
tion phenomenon. If the radiator emits radiant energy, where does this
energy go to? It is absorbed, or reflected, or both, by every substance
upon which it strikes. If the object is a dull black almost all of the energy
that strikes its surface will be absorbed, and this heat absorption raises
the temperature of the object. If the object is a glossy white — enamel, for
instance — by far the greater part of this radiant energy will be reflected,
just as light is reflected by a mirror, and so it will pass into space until
some other body gets in the way.
So the radiant energy waves from the (comparatively) low-temperature
radiator travel out into the room, striking the furniture and the walls, and
the human beings in the room, and warming them all. Now, it is a curious
fact that the human being, just like the cat, prefers its heat in the radiant
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 323
form. Watch a man stand in front of a fireplace and turn himself about,
enjoying the sensation of receiving (comparatively) high-temperature
radiation from the flame. (Of course, I am not considering radiant energy
of a higher order than usually is available in the home.)
Now, as we put radiators in a room mainly for the purpose of making
its occupants comfortable it certainly would seem sensible to deliver the
requisite amount of heat to the room — and to them — in the form that will
give them the greatest comfort. Consequently, research having deter
mined these facts, radiators now are being designed to radiate heat more
effectively into the zone of occupation of the room
Because we are gaining a more comprehensive idea of these things,
radiator design is undergoing a rapid change, and the radiator of the near
future will not only heat the air of the room, by convection, at a lower
level, but will diffuse its radiant heat emission only through the lower
zone. That will mean, in the latter instance, larger surfaces facing the
room, occupying, possibly, all of the wall surfaces below all of the win
dows, instead of being concentrated in a single unit with little surface
"facing" the room.
The English have done considerable research in this problem, and have
developed both "panel" and "ceiling" heating. The latter is the "panel"
system applied to the ceiling instead of the wall. The "panel" system
utilizes comparatively large metal panels or containers of water or steam,
embedded in the walls, usually occupying spaces that are not useful for
other purposes, but effective as areas from which to emit radiant energy.
I may be too visionary to be practical, but I would carry these ideas
to the extreme and resort to low-temperature heating of the largest possi
ble area at the lowest possible level — and what would answer this purpose
better than the floor of the room? Make the floor of tile, or similar sub
stance, and heat it in any one of a number of possible ways, to a tempera
ture of 80° to 85° (which English research has shown to be the maximum
temperature that will be comfortable to the feet). Then heat will be
transferred to the air at the lowest possible level by convection, and the
zone between the floor and the four-foot line will be the warmest and most
comfortable to the human body. What a contrast in human comfort is
evidenced in the person standing on a floor at 85°, with a temperature of
70° at the kneeline, 68° at the breathing line, and the individual with his
feet on a 55° floor, his knees in a temperature of 60° and his head bathed
in 75° air.
There are several distinct tendencies in American practice today, not
324 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
all of them of interest to the owner of a small home. First, the trend to
ward radiator covers or grilles. This is a practice that may lead to troubles
for, if the application is not carefully done, the result may be detrimental.
It would require too much space to go into details; suffice it to say that
covers or shelves set down close to the top of the radiator, or of complete
metal enclosures with screen-covered openings at top and bottom, or of
enclosures in window recesses may reduce the heat-transmission efficiency
as much as 40 per cent. So you will see that this subject should be referred
to the heating engineer or to the well-informed heating contractor.
Again, there has come the development of radiators designed to be
placed behind the wall line, with grilles top and bottom. Obviously, this
treatment of a radiator places it in the category of those just described.
To overcome the reduced heat transmission, which is due to the fact that
the air-flow over the radiator surfaces is retarded by the screening and
reduced areas of the air channels, a very small electric motor and fan can
be used, and radiators with this equipment built integral are available.
While this class of equipment is expensive, largely on account of the re
stricted market, there is no reason why the owner of a small home cannot
have it, at least in the living and dining rooms, and thus get rid of the
usually unsightly radiator.
Then, there is the radiator designed for increased radiant effect, usu
ally installed below the windows and with its outer surface forming the
wall line. And we must not forget the new radiators made of metals other
than iron or steel — the copper and brass units, with fins, or plates, or, per
haps, tubes, like the automobile radiator. These are coming more and
more into use, as they can be used in front of or behind the wall line, and
in either case have a given transmission effect with a minimum of volume.
Above all things, make sure that radiators are ample in size to liberate
heat at the desired rate, as it is a simple thing to reduce emission by
slightly closing the valve. It is impossible, however, to get the desired
heating effect from an undersize radiator except by raising the tempera
ture of the water or steam, and often this is difficult, if not impossible.
Here, again, it pays to have a competent heating contractor, as he will
intelligently locate and size the radiators while a lower bidder and less
competent man may skimp on sizes and locate radiators where they can
be piped with the least amount of materials, regardless of the fact that
they will not show the same degree of effectiveness.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 325
THE PAINTING OF STEAM AND HOT- WATER RADIATORS1
For a number of years this subject has received considerable attention
from the public, and it is apparent that the essential facts have not always
been understood. The object of this note is to supply the more important
facts in the case.
We will state at the outset the principal conclusion, which will be ex
plained in more detail later, that repainting a radiator may, under other
wise identical conditions, cause it to transfer either more or less heat into
the room than before, so that the effect of repainting would be the same
as of putting in a different radiator, either larger or smaller as the case
may be.
The purpose of a heating system is to maintain the rooms in a house
at some temperature higher than that prevailing out-of-doors. The heat
which is developed by burning fuel is transferred to the rooms by means
of the radiators. A radiator neither creates nor destroys heat, and a large
radiator, while it can put more heat into a room than a small one, must be
supplied with all of the heat it puts in. In the sense that they ultimately
transfer all the heat supplied into the room, all radiators are 100 per cent
efficient. The word "efficiency" is, however, used in other ways, and it is
now customary to use it on all possible occasions, but it is hardly correct
to say that putting metallic paint on a radiator reduces its efficiency
when the effect is merely to reduce its capacity. The size of the radiators
in a house is only remotely connected with the amount of fuel required
for heating, and unless the radiators were so small as to make the whole
heating plant ineffective, no noticeable saving of fuel would be expected
to result from installing larger radiators.
It will appear that as far as their effect on the performance of radiators
is concerned, paints fall into two classes; first, those in which the pigment
consists of small flakes of metal, such as the aluminum and bronze paints,
most commonly used for painting radiators, which produce a metallic
appearance and will be called metallic paints; second, the white and
colored paints, in which the pigment consists, not of the metals but of
oxides or other compounds of the metals. Thus white lead paints, or
those containing compounds of zinc or other metals, will be called non-
metallic paints. These non-metallic paints are obtainable in practically
all colors, including white and black, while the metallic paints have the
color of the metal or alloy of which the flakes are composed.
After these preliminary explanations, we may proceed to consider
1 U.S. Bureau of Standards, Letter Circ. 263, 1929.
326 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
what kind of effects may be obtained by the use of various kinds of paint.
The heat emitted from a radiator is removed in two ways : First, the air
streaming past the radiator and rising from it is heated, and carries the
heat to other parts of the room; second, the hot surface of the radiator
emits heat by radiation just as the glowing electric and gas heaters do.
Most types of steam and hot- water "radiators" emit less than half their
heat by radiation, and evidently the name "radiator" although univer
sally used, is not a particularly appropriate one.
To take a concrete case, a particular sectional cast iron radiator if
painted with any non-metallic paint might transfer into the room, 180
Btu per hour for each square foot of its surface, if supplied with the neces
sary amount of heat from a boiler. (A British Thermal Unit or Btu is the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
by i° F.) The burning of one pound of good coal produces about 12,000
Btu and if the coal is used in a domestic heating plant, perhaps half of
this, or 6,000 Btu, might finally be transferred from the radiators into the
rooms. Most of the other half of the heat produced is inevitably lost via
the chimney.
The area of one section of a cast iron radiator is about 2 sq. ft. for
the smaller sections and up to 7 or 8 sq. ft. for the larger sections so that
a 10 section radiator would have a surface area between 20 and 80 sq. ft.
Of the 180 Btu per hour transferred, about -§- or 120 Btu would go to
heating the air which passes over the radiator. The 120 Btu transferred
directly to the air would not be increased or decreased by repainting the
radiator. The remaining 60 Btu not carried off by the air is emitted as
radiant energy. The amount of radiant energy which can be emitted per
hour by the hot surface is dependent upon the kind of paint used for the
last coat. It was assumed that the radiator was painted with non-metallic
paint. If it be repainted with a metallic paint, such as aluminum or
bronze, it will no longer be able to radiate 60 Btu per hour, but may be
able to radiate only 30 Btu, so that instead of transferring 1 80 Btu to the
room per hour, it can now transfer only 1 50 Btu. The coat of aluminum or
bronze paint is not an insulating covering like a covering of magnesia or
asbestos, but it has a similar effect, although for an entirely different
reason. The resulting reduction in heat emission is entirely due to the
reduction in the radiating power of the exposed surface, rather than to the
insignificant insulating value of the thin layer of paint. It is therefore
evident that undercoats of paint, regardless of kind, have no significant
effect on the performance of the radiator, except in the practically im-
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 327
possible case where the paint was thick enough to act as an insulating
covering. In repainting a radiator, it is therefore unnecessary to remove
the old paint. The effect of adding the metallic paint is equivalent to re
moving -J- of the radiator, or nearly 1 7 per cent, or as if one section out of
six had been removed.. Thus a radiator of five sections painted with white
or colored paint should be about as effective as another of six sections of
the same kind, painted with metallic paint, since each would transfer
the same amount of heat to the room, provided the necessary amount of
heat were supplied to each.
In the following applications, the numerical values given above will be
used as if they were exact, but it must be understood that they are merely
representative and would not apply exactly to any particular case except
by chance. The effect of painting on the capacity of a radiator depends
upon the size and design of the radiator. The reduction in capacity pro
duced by the application of aluminum paint is less for large radiators
than for small ones, especially so in the case of large radiators having
many columns or tubes per section. In a large tubular type radiator hav
ing 7 tubes per section, more than | of the heat is carried away by the air
directly, and painting with aluminum consequently reduces the capacity
of the radiator only about 10 per cent. If only the visible portions of a
radiator are painted with aluminum paint, the reduction in capacity is
also obviously less than if the entire surface is covered.
Application i. — Suppose a house in which all the radiators are painted
with aluminum paint, and that the radiator in one room is found to be too
small, so that when the other rooms are warm enough, this one is too cold.
If the radiator in this room is repainted with non-metallic paint either
white or colored, the heat emitted by it can be increased from 10 to 20
per cent without affecting conditions in the other rooms, although it will
be necessary to burn more fuel to supply the additional heat in the one
room. If the increase is sufficient the expense of installing a larger radiator
may thus be avoided.
Similarly, it is possible, by using bronze or aluminum paint on radia
tors in rooms which are overheated, and colored or white paints in rooms
not sufficiently heated, to improve conditions without going to the ex
pense of installing new radiators of larger or smaller sizes.
Application 2. — In installing radiators in a new house, somewhat small
er radiators may be installed if they are to be painted with colored paints,
rather than bronze or aluminum paints.
Application j. — If the radiators on a hot- water system are painted with
328 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
metallic paint, and are all too small, so that the water must be kept
hotter than is desired in order to heat the house, they may be repainted
with non-metallic paint, and it should then be possible to heat the house
with the water in the system not quite so hot. There will be no noticeable
saving of fuel.
Application 4. — Since basements are usually overheated so that much
of the heat supplied there is wasted, some economy can be affected by
painting the heater and pipes with metallic paint. This can not, however,
serve as anything more than a poor substitute for a covering of good insu
lating material, about an inch thick, which is capable of making an appre
ciable saving in the coal bill. The insulating material will remain effective
for years, while the paint becomes ineffective if covered with dust.
Application 5. — If a radiator is situated next to an outside wall, as
most of them are, it is evident that the heat supplied directly to this wall
is more or less wasted. Some slight economy may be obtained, therefore,
by using metallic paint on the side facing the wall and non-metallic paint
on the visible portions. The gain is not large enough to be important, but
on the other hand, in putting non-metallic paint over metallic, it is not
worth while to go to the trouble of repainting the side next the wall.
Results of emissive tests of paints for decreasing or increasing heat
radiation from surfaces, and a discussion of various applications of the
results found, are given in Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No.
254, which may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
AUXILIARY HEATING BY ELECTRICITY1
BY ROLLIN C. CHAPIN
Architect
The problem of maintaining warmth and comfort in the home on the
cool days before and after the regular heating season is a troublesome one
to many home-owners. How often, at such times, is one cold enough to
feel uncomfortable, and yet prefers to remain thus rather than go to the
bother of starting a furnace fire ! Oil burners and gas-fired heating plants
have simplified matters as far as elimination of dust and drudgery is con
cerned, but there are times perhaps when heat is needed in only one or
two rooms, in which case the operation of the entire heating system is
neither economical nor desirable.
1 Adapted from "Heating by Electricity," Small Home, May, 1930.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 329
The solution is auxiliary heating by electricity. There are now on the
market electric heaters of many types, adapted to meet the requirements
of every condition. They may be briefly classified as built-in wall heaters,
portable heaters and electric fireplace heaters. The heating unit is either
of the convection type or the radiant type. The former is the better
adapted for heating rooms to a uniform temperature throughout. It im
parts heat to the air and causes the air to circulate throughout the occu
pied space. This heat is of comparatively low intensity and does not in
jure objects in the room nor cause discomfort to the occupants. The radi
ant type radiates heat but does not cause the air to circulate. Like the
sun's rays, radiant heat warms only when it comes in contact with objects
in front of it. It is therefore suitable for a fireplace and for portable or
built-in heaters where intense heat close to the heater only is desired.
There are heaters which can produce either circulating or radiant heat,
so that either or both may be used.
The heater best adapted for general room heating is the built-in or wall
type. In houses to be constructed they may be easily installed if they are
planned for in advance and provision in the electric wiring is made for
outlets at the proper points. Each heater should be placed on a separate
circuit. Since they are set into the wall, they take up no space in the
room. The heating unit is covered by a metal grille or register face of neat
design, which may be finished to harmonize with walls or woodwork. The
snap of the switches on the face of the grille turns on the heat instantly.
The heat may be regulated by turning on one or more of the heating
units
If the house is already built, and wall heaters cannot be easily installed,
portable heaters are the ones to use. They are made in various sizes and
in many pleasing designs. Made usually of cast iron, or steel, finished in
colors harmonizing with the woodwork of the room, portable heaters
take their place creditably in the best-furnished rooms. They may be easily
placed in any part of the room or carried from room to room. Connection
must of course be made to wiring outlets. For the larger heaters, special
heavy duty receptacles and plugs are necessary.
Then there are the electric fireplace heaters. Whatever the heating
system, the open fireplace will ever maintain its place in the home, both
for its cheer and its decorative value. Probably to many the thought of an
open hearth without a genuine blazing log would never be tolerated.
Nevertheless, the fireplace heater is becoming a worthy substitute, and
it finds favor with many who desire the warmth and glow of the fireplace
33o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
without the dirt and work involved in a wood or coal fire. Moreover, no
flue is required, and thus no heat is lost through the chimney flue. Fire
place heaters may be had in several good designs. They are of cast iron
finished with cast bronze ornaments and hearth plate. For a Colonial or
Adam mantelpiece, there are Georgian and Adam designs which are ad
mirable. The radiant type of heat unit is usually employed, for this gives
a glowing warmth resembling that of a burning log. As on other heaters,
the heat may be regulated. A heavy duty receptacle such as that required
for an electric range is necessary.
A step further toward the reproduction by electricity of an actual
wood log fire, is the electric fireplace log. The log, of cast iron is an almost
exact imitation of an old oak log, with bark, knots, moss and even axe-
cuts reproduced. A heating element mounted under the log in an incon
spicuous position furnishes ample heat. Mechanical fans revolve when
the current is turned on giving the appearance of darting tongues of flame.
Lights and heating units are operated by a dual-control switch. To make
the illusion complete, an artificial ash slab is provided, giving the effect
of ashes dropping from the burning log. Still another design closely imi
tates a coal fire by the same method employed in the electric log. In both
the log and coal types, andirons of attractive design are provided.
In localities having no gas or where the gas rate is unusually high, elec
tric water heaters meet the need. Their convenience and cleanliness and
the absence of any care such as is necessary with gas, coal or oil make
them highly desirable. They are of the automatic tank storage heater
type, and may be had in sizes which will give any desired amount of hot
water. With full automatic control, which is a thermostatic device, no
attention whatever is required, and thus no heat is lost A less ex
pensive type is the manually controlled, which is turned on and off by a
switch located at any point in the house. A third type is the semi-auto
matic. It consists of a clock control which can be set for any desired
quantity of water. The clock winds itself and shuts off the water auto
matically.
For auxiliary heating, electrical heat is clean, safe, easy to control,
practically instantaneous, healthful and efficient. The cost of installation
is not high compared with other methods of heating, and the operating
cost consists of electric current only, repairs being rarely needed. For
homes in localities having mild winters electrical heat may well be de
pended upon entirely, but in the colder climates it is not as yet feasible
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 331
as a principal source of heat. The rapid progress being made in the devel
opment of electrical devices of every kind, however, promises the con
stantly increasing use of electricity for heating purposes.
2. Air Temperature, Ventilation, and Relative Humidity
WHAT IS A COMFORTABLE TEMPERATURE?
The American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, the
Public Health Service, and the United States Bureau of Mines have co
operated in making intensive investigations to determine the kind of
atmosphere best for human beings. Mr. P. E. Fansler in his article "The
Problem Faced by the Small Home Owner" in the series "Heating the
Small Home"1 discusses the results of this investigation. He states:
.... That particular effective temperature at which a maximum number of
people feel comfortable is called the "comfort line." While at rest, 97 per cent
of people have been found to be comfortable at 64° F. effective temperature.
Persons working at various rates are most comfortable at effective temperatures
below 64° F. The exact effective temperatures giving maximum comfort for
persons working at various rates have not as yet been determined by the re
search staff, but, from the best data available, they are as follows: At rest,
64° F.; light work, 62° F.; hard work, 60° F.
So we may take it as a scientifically established fact, that, in the average
home, the effective temperature should be 63° or 64°. Now, this sounds like a
pretty cold atmosphere, as we are used to talking about 70° to 72° as being neces
sary for human comfort. But the temperatures cited above, as determined
standards, are effective temperatures, and not the temperatures read from a
common dry-bulb thermometer. What then is "effective temperature?" It is
an experimentally determined scale, which is a true index of bodily comfort in
all combinations of temperature, humidity and air movement.
.... You will be just as comfortable at a thermometer of 66° F. if there is
enough humidity in the atmosphere, as you would be with the thermometer
reading 72° F. and the air very dry. As a matter of fact you will be very much
better off in the moist temperature and the furniture will not crack in the joints
and fall apart; also you can have plants growing in the living and dining rooms
— something impossible with the higher temperature-drier air.
In addition to these three major considerations, the research laboratory has
set down as important factors, dustiness, bacteria content, odors present, and
other injurious substances.
1 In Small Home, September, 1929.
332 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
VENTILATION AND HUMIDITY1
BY R. H. HEILMAN, M.E., E.E.,
Mellon Institute of Industrial Research
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the proper ventilation of the home is
the lack of knowledge of the exact nature of the atmospheric conditions
required to produce the desired effect. Health officers and physicians
throughout the country have been very much interested in this subject
and have conducted many investigations, especially in schoolroom venti
lation. Once the desired conditions have been accurately determined by
investigations or otherwise, the heating and ventilating engineer is capa
ble of producing the desired results.
However, much has been learned during the last few years in the sci
ence of ventilation. The old popular idea that the chemical composition
of the air was the all important factor has been disproved, and attention
has been given to many other factors of great importance. Among these
latter factors we have air supply, air temperature, relative humidity, air
motion, and air purity.
The chemical composition of the air in the home rarely becomes
changed enough to produce harmful effects to the occupants, since in gen
eral the oxygen content has to fall to 1 6 or 1 8 percent, and the carbon diox
ide content rise to one to two per cent before harmful effects are produced.
However, air which has been inhaled or made foul by breathing and by
the combustion products from gas fires produces bad effects upon the
body, both immediately and remotely. The immediate effects are dullness,
oppressive breathing, headache, and general discomfort. The remote ef
fects of foul air are a general lowering of bodily vigor and a vague weakness
and lack of tone. Many authorities believe that these symptoms are not
due to the changes in the chemical composition of the air (with the excep
tion of the products of combustion from fires) but that they are due to
excess temperatures, abnormal humidity, and lack of air movement, which
affect the rate of liberation of heat from the body, for the symptoms just
mentioned for foul air can be obtained with pure air heated to a tempera
ture approaching that of the human body. Experiments have also shown
that a group of subjects enclosed in an experimental chamber and suffer
ing from the familiar effects of bad ventilation can in no way be relieved
by permitting them to breathe fresh outside air admitted through a tube,
1 Adapted from "Healthful Ventilation" (radio talk broadcast from University of
Pittsburgh, 1929), Science for the Home Manager: A Series of Fourteen Radio Talks
(University of Pittsburgh, 1929).
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 333
but can be completely relieved by cooling the vitiated air of the chamber
in which they are imprisoned.
These foregoing facts indicate the relative importance of air tempera
ture, air movement, and relative humidity.
You are no doubt all familiar with the meaning of the terms air tem
perature and air movement. A word of explanation, however, on the
meaning of relative humidity may be of interest to some of you.
It is customary to express the conditions of the atmosphere with respect
to moisture in the form of a ratio, termed the hygrometric state of relative
humidity, which is defined as the ratio of the amount of moisture present
in a given volume of air to the amount required to saturate this volume
at the existing temperature. The relative humidity of the atmosphere in
the home can be readily determined by the use of a wet and dry-bulb
hygrometer. This instrument consists of two similar thermometers, hang
ing side by side, the bulb of one thermometer being dry and recording the
atmospheric temperature, while the other bulb is kept wet by surrounding
it with a piece of muslin connected to a wick immersed at its end in water.
Owing to the evaporation constantly taking place on the surface of the
wet bulb, heat is extracted from the mercury, and consequently the wet-
bulb thermometer shows a lower reading than the other, which is exposed
to the atmosphere. The relative humidity is readily determined from the
readings of the two thermometers and a simple table which is supplied
with the instrument. Relative humidity plays a very important part in
the home in helping to regulate the comfort of the occupants. A person's
feeling of warmth is not due alone to the temperature of the surrounding
air as registered by a dry-bulb thermometer, for dry air at a relatively high
temperature may feel cooler than air of considerably lower temperature
with a high moisture content. In the average home, the relative humidity
of the atmosphere is usually 25 per cent or less in the wintertime. This
low moisture content of the air results in rapid evaporation from the body
and the individual feels cold. A greater feeling of warmth is obtained
with a dry-bulb temperature of 75° and a relative humidity of 60 per cent
than with a dry-bulb temperature of 80° with a relative humidity of 15
per cent.
You can readily understand that it is therefore more economical to
lower the temperature of the house and raise the relative humidity, the
lower temperature requiring much less fuel.
The economy in fuel consumption resulting from higher relative hu
midities, however, is not the only benefit to be derived. Doctors now
334 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
trace common colds, grippe, influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, and tuber
culosis to the breathing of hot dry air in the home. The constant breath
ing of this hot dry air causes the mucous membranes of our noses and
throats to become dry and irritated, thus lowering our resistance and
making us supersensitive to dust and bacteria.
Ordinary attempts to increase the humidity, such as the placing of
pans of water on radiators or the usual water tanks in the furnace casing,
are generally of little benefit since they are not capable of evaporating
enough water to do much good. To maintain a relative humidity of 35 per
cent in a six-room house in zero weather, it is necessary to evaporate
twenty gallons of water a day. This allows for one change of air an hour.
To maintain the same humidity in the same house, with a 35 to 40° F.
temperature outdoors, requires seven gallons of water a day, allowing
for the same number of air changes an hour. To evaporate this
much water per day usually requires a special form of evaporator or
humidifier. Portable humidifiers which can be removed from room to
room have been on the market for some time.
Just recently there has been placed on the market a heating and venti
lating system for residences which automatically controls the relative
humidity to any degree desired. The other essentials of good heating and
ventilating of the home, such as air temperature, air motion, and air
purity, are also taken care of by this new equipment. Since this equip
ment represents the latest advance in the heating and ventilating of the
home, it may be of interest briefly to describe it here.
In this equipment, the warm air heating system is used. In this case
the air is heated directly in the furnace by means of gas burners which
automatically heat it to any desired temperature, the thermostat which
controls the temperature being placed in the living room or any room
desired.
Moisture is added to the warmed air by means of a humidifier. The
quantity of water evaporated is controlled by a float valve which regu
lates the level of the water surface, insuring a constant relative humidity
without the necessity of filling any pans by hand. The float valve can be
set to give any desired relative humidity. For a temperature of 70 degrees
F. a relative humidity of 35 to 45 per cent has proved to be very satisfac
tory.
Before the air is heated it is drawn through a filter, which consists of
a mass of fine wire, like steel wool, pressed into a two-inch thickness. This
filter removes the dirt and dust in the air, thus making it much more suit-
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 335
able for breathing and at the same time eliminating considerable dusting
and cleaning of furniture, draperies, and so on.
The warmed, humidified, and cleaned air is then carried by ducts to
every room and is distributed under pressure, without drafts and without
hot or cold zones. This positive circulation of warm air insures a uniform
heat in every room in the house. In the old hot-air systems there is usu
ally one room or more which is very hard to heat owing to the inability of
the gravity system to get sufficient warm air into the room.
Because of the fact that this equipment has been on the market for a
very short time, it is probable that few of you have seen it in operation.
I believe, however, that in the very near future many of the architects
and building contractors will recommend such systems for heating and
ventilating the home. While these systems at present are used only in
the winter for heating, they will, undoubtedly, be used eventually to cool
the home in the summer by substituting a cooling unit in place of the
present heating unit.
[NOTE i . — Humidity and death rate: Professor Ellsworth Huntington of Yale Univer
sity has shown in his analysis of weather reports in relation to 60,000,000 deaths that
a relative humidity of 80 per cent is associated with minimum death rates and that a
higher or lower humidity has shown an increase in death rates. See Ellsworth Hunting-
ton, Weather .and Health (National Research Council, 1930).]
[NOTE 2. — Air-cooling systems: There are on the market several systems and devices
by which air may be cooled — a centralized system used when there is a centralized
duct arrangement in heating and a unit system for the purpose of cooling individual
rooms. This latter device is guaranteed to reduce temperature 10° in a room with 600
sq. ft. or less of floor space. For information on air cooling devices see Howard T. Fisher,
"The Country House," Architectural Record, November, 1930, pp. 379-82.]
CONDENSATION
One of the inconveniences that results from the recommended relative
humidity for comfort and health is condensation. Mr. Howard T. Fisher
discusses remedies for condensation. He states in the following para
graphs taken from his article "The Country House":1
.... With well-insulated walls, however, condensation will occur only on the
windows, where it can be taken care of, or even largely eliminated except during
the coldest weather.
There is nothing inherently objectionable to condensation. In fact, to those
persons who appreciate the comfort of a high humidity its presence is a pleasing
indication that there is probably at least a fair amount of moisture in the at
mosphere. Condensation is, however, the cause of two just complaints: Win-
1 In Architectural Record, November, 1930.
336 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
dows covered with condensation cannot be seen through, and when the surplus
moisture of condensation runs down off the glass it forms pools of water on the
sills which may stain the curtains and walls. The latter objection can be
entirely removed by the provision of adequate condensation gutters to carry
off this water. Both objections can be reduced to a minimum by the use of
double glazing. In addition to largely preventing condensation this has the
further advantage that it reduces the total air infiltration and heat loss from the
building, thus saving fuel. Charts prepared by the University of Illinois show
that with an inside temperature of 69° and a humidity of 60 per cent condensa
tion will occur on single glass when the outside temperature is only 48°, but will
not occur on double glass until the temperature is as low as 19°. Or, expressing
this differently, with an outside temperature of 20° condensation will occur on
single glass when the humidity reaches 30 per cent, but will not occur on double
glass until it reaches 60 per cent. Even with zero weather outside double glazing
will permit a humidity of approximately 50 per cent unaccompanied by any
condensation whatever. The ultimate solution to the problem of condensation
as well as heat loss may be found in the vacuumized window pane.
Double glazing can be accomplished in a variety of ways, but the most im
portant requirement is air-tightness. Both sheets of glass may be set perma
nently in the same frame, but in this case the glazing should be done during
weather as dry as possible. For greatest efficiency the air space between the
glass should not be less than one inch in thickness. Even if the glazing is rela
tively air-tight, dirt will eventually filter in and the glass will require cleaning,
which will be difficult to accomplish unless provision is made for the easy re
moval of the glass. Where such double glazing is contemplated in connection
with steel sash it should be remembered that moisture may condense on the inte
rior surface of the metal even if the glass is double. It will usually be found more
satisfactory to provide entirely separate frames and glass, placed either inside
or outside of the regular window, and stored during the summer. These can be
made completely interchangeable with the screens, the same hinges or fasteners
being used for both and the putting up of the screens and taking down of the
winter sash accomplished at one operation. In order to get as air-tight a fit as
possible it may be worth while to use weather-stripping, perhaps of the cloth-
lined variety.
SUMMARY
The first consideration in satisfactory house heating is a good structure.
The two general types of heating are direct and indirect systems. Most
systems are capable of heating a house to 70° at the breathing line, but
there is often in cold weather a great difference between the breathing-
line temperature and the floor temperature. Experience has shown that
the cheaper the heating system the greater the air-temperature difference
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 337
between floor and ceiling. There is considerable difference in cost of
equipment and cost of installation of the various heating systems but the
cost of operation, providing the same fuel is used, varies little. The selec
tion of a type of heating depends upon the individual home-owner, the
house, and its location.
According to scientific research and experimentation the average home
temperature should be 63° or 64° with the proper amount of humidity.
By relative humidity is meant the ratio of the amount of moisture present
in a given volume of air to the amount required to saturate this volume
at the existing temperature. By ventilation is meant the natural or
mechanical replacement of vitiated air by fresh air.
REFERENCES
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Guide, 1931. New York: The Society, 1931.
Particularly useful for reference. Contains chapter on ventilation standards.
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338 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
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Operating a Home Heating Plant. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bull. 1194. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928. Pp. 18.
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. List of Publications and Articles Relating to Home
Heating Problems. Mimeographed Letter Circ. 284. Washington: The Bu
reau, 1930.
Materials for the Household. Circular of the Bureau, No. 70. Washing
ton: Government Printing Office, 1917. Pp. 259.
1 Publications to be obtained from the Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY 339
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Measurements for the Household. Circular of the
Bureau of Standards, No. 55. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1915. Pp. 149.
Heating value of fuels, comparison of heat insulators (pp. 55-64).
WALSH, HAROLD VANDERVOORT. Construction of the Small House. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons. 1923.
Discusses hot-air systems including furnaces with and without flues; steam, one-
and two-pipe furnace, vapor- vacuum system, and hot- water systems; also methods used
in calculating required size of heater (pp. 109-20).
For information on insulation and heat-proofing see references following the
chapter on "Building Materials and Common Construction Practices."
CHAPTER IX
PLUMBING
This chapter is not intended to give the reader a scientific knowledge of
plumbing or of the mechanical operation of plumbing equipment but to
indicate and emphasize those essentials and principles of importance to
the home-owner and to others who are interested.
PLUMBING TERMS1
The "plumbing" of a building, as the term is commonly used, includes
the pipes for distributing the water supply, the fixtures for using water,
and drainage pipes for removing waste water and sewage, together with
fittings and appurtenances of various kinds, all within or adjacent to the
building. The "service pipe," which forms the connection between the
water main and the building, and the "house sewer," which conveys the
waste water and sewage from the building to the street sewer or other
point of disposal, are included in the "plumbing system" of a building,
using the term in a broader sense. Connections for rain water are also
included if the water is discharged through a house sewer or a house drain.
The water supply and drainage system are mutually dependent. Drains
are needed to carry away the used water; water is needed to cleanse the
fixtures and transport solid wastes.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Plumbing. — Plumbing is the art of installing in buildings the pipes, fix
tures, and other apparatus for bringing in the water supply and removing
liquid and water-carried wastes.
Plumbing system. — The plumbing system of a building includes the
water supply distributing pipes; the fixtures and fixture traps; the soil,
waste, and vent pipes; the house drain and house sewer; the storm- water
drainage; with their devices, appurtenances, and connections all within
or adjacent to the building.
Water-service pipe. — The water-service pipe is the pipe from the water
main to the building served.
1 From Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing (subcommittee on plumb
ing of the Building Code Committee, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1929), p. 5. Ob
tainable from the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
340
PLUMBING 341
Water-distribution pipes. — The water-distribution pipes are those which
convey water from the service pipe to the plumbing fixtures.
Plumbing fixtures. — Plumbing fixtures are receptacles intended to re
ceive and discharge water, liquid, or water-carried wastes into a drainage
system with which they are connected.
Trap. — A trap is a fitting or device so constructed as to prevent the
passage of air or gas through a pipe without materially affecting the flow
of sewage or waste water through it.
Trap seal. — The trap seal is the vertical distance between the crown
weir and the dip of the trap.
Vent pipe. — A vent pipe is any pipe provided to ventilate a house-
drainage system and to prevent trap siphonage and back pressure.
Local ventilating pipe. — A local ventilating pipe is a pipe through which
foul air is removed from a room or fixture.
Soil pipe. — A soil pipe is any pipe which conveys the discharge of
water-closets, with or without the discharges from other fixtures, to the
house drain.
Waste pipe and special waste. — A waste pipe is any pipe which receives
the discharge of any fixture, except water-closets, and conveys the same
to the house drain, soil, or waste stacks. When such pipe does not connect
directly with a house drain or soil stack, it is termed a special waste.
Main. — The main of any system of horizontal, vertical, or continuous
piping is that part of such system which receives the wastes, vent or back
vents, from fixture outlets or traps, direct or through branch pipes.
Branch. — The branch of any system of piping is that part of the system
which extends horizontally at a slight grade, with or without lateral or
vertical extensions or vertical arms, from the main to receive fixture out
lets not directly connected to the main.
Stack. — Stack is a general term for any vertical line of soil, waste, or
vent piping.
House drain. — The house drain is that part of the lowest horizontal
piping of a house drainage system which receives the discharge from soil,
waste, and other drainage pipes inside the walls of any building and con
veys the same to the house sewer
House sewer. — The house sewer is that part of the horizontal piping of
a house drainage system extending from the house drain .... to its con
nection with the main sewer or cesspool and conveying the drainage of
but one building site.
342 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
PLUMBING ESSENTIALS1
BY ROBERT T. JONES
Technical Director, Architects' Small House
Service Bureau, Inc.
.... What can an architect say that will help the small home builder
to get a bounteous supply of water where he wants it, so that he will not
have to think of that part of the plumbing system again? In the first
place, he can make large use of brass pipe. There cannot be any argument
about this being the best material. The simple fact is that it does not
break down and does not rust. Furthermore, it does not become stopped
up with lime deposits. The other factor about it is extra cost. If you can
not afford brass pipe that is all there is to the question for you. But first
be sure you cannot afford it, for it is worth its cost and it is worth making
some sacrifice to get it. Steel pipes about the house heater and hot water
tank rust more rapidly than elsewhere. If one cannot do more at least
these should be of brass.
Enough about materials. What else can the architect offer on the sub
ject of water supply piping? This; install stops. Have you ever had the
faucets over your sink get out of order only to find that the simple task of
replacing gaskets or valve seats first required shutting off the water over
the whole house? It is a common experience. Stops, or inexpensive valves,
placed on the water supply to these fixtures eliminate this nuisance. If
you cannot afford even this little added expense then drip cocks can be
placed on the more important water lines in the basement. They will save
many occasions for annoyance. The cost is inconsiderable.
The hot water supply deserves careful study also, principally as to the
way the water is heated. The simplest arrangement is a coil or crook of
piping run over the house heater fire. Unbiased engineers have shown
that this is an expensive method of water heating for it cuts down the
efficiency of the house heater, especially when the weather is very cold,
for then it overheats the water without an appreciable effect on the
temperature in the house. Furthermore these pipes over the fire gradually
stop up with incrustations of lime, become less and less effective and fi
nally break, requiring costly replacements. Needless to say, they do not
work when the house heater is off and then an auxiliary gas water heater
is necessary. In a plan such as this the auxiliary heater is often a rudi
mentary affair that burns much gas and at best provides only an inter-
1 Adapted from "Plumbing— What You See and What You Don't," Small Home,
January, 1930.
PLUMBING 343
mittent supply of hot water. A much better scheme is provided in an
automatic hot water heater that works in all seasons. There are many
types of equipment of this sort, but fundamentally the best ones for small
houses are those that include the heating unit within the hot water stor
age tank itself, or else those that heat the water instantaneously. In the
former the tank is thoroughly insulated. With hot water in the tank there
is barely perceptible warmth in the outer jacket of the tank. The burner
operates under control of a thermostat, thus when water temperature
drops to a certain point the gas flame is turned on. It goes off when the
temperature rises to a fixed point.
There is a limit to the amount of hot water that can be drawn from this
outfit, for the production of water is not instantaneous. Yet there is a
full tank of water, enough for almost any case. This type of equipment is
especially recommended for homes having shower baths, for fluctuations
in the temperature of the water at the shower head are not so likely to be
marked as with the instantaneous type.
The instantaneous heater is recommended where there is a continuous
and heavy demand for hot water, as in a rather large house, and also for
the small house where hot water may be required infrequently. Here hot
water is produced only when the hot water faucet is open, thus if by
chance there should be no one at home through the day, there would be no
production of hot water at all, and the only expense entailed would be
that of keeping the small pilot light going. With the automatic instan
taneous hot water heater the supply of hot water is practically unlimited.
Now which will you take? A water heating plan that involves a furnace
coil that will need replacements, that will rob your heater, that will not
give you at any time all the hot water you may want and none in sum
mer, late spring, and early fall, with a cheap and inefficient auxiliary
heater that has to be turned on and off, is expensive to operate and thus
gets turned on principally only for the proverbial Saturday night? Or will
you add a little money to your first expenditures and get a boundless sup
ply of hot water all the year? It seems to me the answer is manifest. So
much for that, only buy a water heater that bears a guarantee backed by
a good name.
If you choose the storage water tank, have it of copper. The difference
in cost between a copper tank and a steel tank will be made up almost
before you know it by savings in fuel, and you will never have a rusted
out heater that has to be plugged to make it last a little longer, or else
replaced.
344 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Faucets, like every other mechanical device can be cheap and nearly
worthless or they can be elaborate to the point of magnificence. Design,
kind and amount of metal used, operating device, all of these take their
part in fixing the worth of the faucet. They can be of light metal with
poor plating and trouble-making working parts, or they may be of solid
brass or bronze with heavy nickel or chromium plating and working parts
that will stand a lot of abuse and, when worn, are easy to replace. The
renewable feature of any faucet is an extremely important part of it, for
when the faucet is closed against the water pressure there is bound to be
wear. A well-made faucet requires infrequent repairs and has an easy
method of making repairs.
As far as the finish is concerned, one has a choice of many metals;
nickel, chromium, silver and gold. The latter two, of course, are mani
festly extravagances. Of the nickel and chromium the former is brighter,
takes a very high polish. Chromium has a bluish-silver lustre quite un
obtrusive and beautiful. Chromium does not corrode with ordinary us
age and does not stain. It costs more and is worth it.
Looking through the catalogues of many manufacturers of faucets even
the architect is likely to be appalled at the multiplicity of different types
and designs and the different character of finishes. But he would begin
to make a choice by a process which I do not hesitate to recommend to
you. He would eliminate every type that was not backed by a high grade
manufacturer. The architect knows from long experience that when he
chooses a faucet from such a source, the manufacturer will be as insistent
as the owner that the faucet make good. If it does not, it will be replaced
and the owner will be satisfied. That is a basic principle underlying all
high grade manufacturing.
When it comes to making a choice as to design of faucets purely from
the point of view of appearance, taste is involved heavily. Personally I
like the unobtrusive kinds, and I prefer the all-metal types rather than
those of china. This is a matter of taste, although the metal ones are
clearly more permanent.
People generally prefer in the lavatory a combination faucet, so that
one may have tempered running water at that place. If rigorous economy
must be practiced, double faucets may be used.
The cheapest kind of stopper will be the rubber one with a chain on it.
The more modern one is a pop-up waste operated from a knob.
The kitchen sink should certainly have a swinging spout combination
PLUMBING 345
faucet with a metal or porcelain soap dish. Many who work in kitchens
also like a transfer valve on this faucet so that the water may be passed
through a rubber hose to spray china.
The shower head is another fitting to which it is worth while giving
some study. Plumbing catalogues are replete with them. The shower head
should be of cast brass, with a removable face so that it can be taken off
and cleaned. The whole head should be on a ball bearing. There should
be a mixing valve that will be a reasonable assurance against scalding.
Faucets for laundry trays and for hose connections can be of dull
brass, and provision should be made for hose connections in the basement,
preferably for both hot and cold water.
One thing more about the water supply and then we will be through
with this part of it. This is the water softener. From one point of view
perhaps this may be thought of as a luxury and perhaps it is. But it is
also an extremely satisfactory part of a complete plumbing installation.
It works by passing the service water directly through a mineral, which
has what the chemists call an affinity for the elements that harden water,
—the sulphates of magnesia and lime and the iron. The water passes
through the mineral, leaves these hardening or soap destroying elements
behind, and passes on otherwise unchanged and the water is softer and
cleaner and more pure than rain water. Operating costs are low.
That brings us to the sewage disposal system. City ordinances invari
ably define the exact methods and materials to be used so providing a
good contractor is employed there is not much an architect can add that
will be of service save the advice to include adequate cleanouts. A clean-
out is what its name implies — an opening in the drainage lines through
which the plumber may insert tools for the purpose of removing obstruc
tions. The rule is that they should be installed wherever the drainage lines
change direction. The practice is to use them far less frequently. The
argument in support of cleanouts will be manifest to all. A single job of
removing pipes that cannot be reached with the plumber's rod, because
of a change in direction of the piping, will cover the initial cost of clean
outs many times over.
One of the most important items in connection with the sewage dis
posal lines is the way they fit into the house framing, especially where
they must cross wooden joists. Many a joist has been utterly ruined by
injudicious cutting to accommodate a large pipe. These pipes should go
between the joists not through them
346 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
To have such matters worked out properly requires foresight and that
means practically the employment of an intelligent contractor who will
be considerate of your interests.
Now the third part in this trilogy about plumbing — the fixtures. Like
every other thing about the house there are two phases to this. One is
the quantity and the other is the quality. It is the disposition of those
who build very fine houses to be generous with the plumbing accommo
dations. The prospective home builder looking over the plans of houses
of larger size will be surprised at the magnificence that these more ex
pensive houses offer on this score. Many provide complete bathrooms
for every bedroom, with additional toilet facilities on the first floor. But
the man who must build from limited means will have to decide for him
self how far he can and should go in supplying like luxuries for his own
home.
It is no doubt quite true that the more commodiously a house is fitted
with plumbing fixtures the more readily it is sold. One has only to read
advertisements of houses for sale to see how true this is because these ad
vertisements in a very large number of cases make note of the fact that
there are two bathrooms or a bathroom and first floor toilet. Evidently
people think well of the convenience and comfort such installations afford.
But if one can not afford two bathrooms completely equipped he can
still go far toward getting practically equivalent accommodations by
putting the water-closet in a compartment separate from the other fixtures
and having a plan that contemplates the installation of tub and lavatory
in one room and a shower and lavatory in another. If the arrangement
of this equipment is such that they stand back to back, so that a single
drain pipe and vent through the roof will accommodate them all, a marked
economy is obtained.
It should be observed that there is a definite trend toward the inclusion
of some sort of a shower in houses even of the simplest kind. This may be
in connection with the tub or it may be in a separate compartment. A
shower head over the tub does very well and its economy speaks for itself,
but there is always some difficulty, which is not always overcome, of
making a water-tight joint between the wall and the tub. One must be
careful with a shower arrangement of this type, so that excess water is
not splashed on the wall. On the other hand, a shower compartment con
structed separately, made of metal throughout, both sides and base,
supplies its own protection from the point of view of waterproofing and
practically eliminates the whole problem of leakage.
PLUMBING 347
The manifold arrangement of showers, tubs and other fixtures in the
bathroom are such that it is impossible for me to go into much detail on
this score. Everyone knows they may all be placed in one single bath
room. But it has been shown quite clearly, as I have said before, that
when we put shower and lavatory in one room and bath and lavatory in
another, with water-closet convenient to both, we get a flexibility of
arrangement that commends itself to everyone.
Eventually, as a matter of course, fixtures must be selected. The mul
tiplicity of these is such as to carry an adequate discussion of them com
pletely beyond the possible confines of this article. One has only to know
that every one of these fixtures is offered in many designs and also in
many colors, as well as, of course, in many prices. The cheapest ware is
made of cast iron which has a glazed enamel surfacing. Another range of
expense includes fixtures made of burned clay with a glaze of porcelain.
The most expensive is solid porcelain throughout. The sewer fixture — the
water-closet — must be of porcelain. Plumbing ordinances require that.
The other fixtures may be obtained in any of the three wares, with price
ranges of the widest sort. The first quality in any of the glazed ware
shows a surface without defects.
The best way for a home builder to make sure of the fixtures that he
wants is to make a choice from a demonstration of the fixtures themselves.
Pictures and catalogues do not tell the story half as well as the fixtures
do themselves.
To give a very brief example of how even the simplest fixture may be
elaborated from a rudimentary type to one of the most elaborate order,
we may take the case of the kitchen sink. In the elementary form this is
the familiar vessel with a back on it reaching up the wall some six or eight
inches and with a flat metal rim around the edges supporting on one or
both sides a wooden drain board. The bottom of the sink is painted. With
the next step the metal flange or edge becomes a rolled rim. With the next
one the roll gives place to an apron which extends down to cover the bot
tom of the sink, all, of course, enameled. The next degree of excellence
finds a sink with the drain board cast integrally with the sink. This may
be on one side, either right or left, or on both sides. If china ware is sub
stituted in place of metal we get into new areas of expense. And if this
kitchen sink also includes integrally with it one of the modern dish
washers we have the final added touch of luxury. Color is an added
quality to be obtained in most of these types.
348 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
[NOTE. — The cost of plumbing of a house usually varies from 6 to 10 per cent of the
total cost. Mr. H. Vandervoort Walsh states the following: "The smallest system con
sists of one bathroom, two laundry tubs, and one kitchen sink; all of which costs about
$800. For every additional bathroom, drained into the same vertical soil pipe, about
$400 must be allowed. If, however, the additional bathroom must have a special drain
line of its own, it will cost about $525. A small wash room on the first floor will cost
about $150 These estimates are based upon union labor wages and average priced
fixtures, which run about as follows: Built-in bathtub — about $105. Lavatory — from
$40 to $60. Water-closet — $45~$8o. Built-in showers — about $225" ("Simpler and Bet
ter Plumbing," Arts and Decoration, April, 1930).]
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELECTING
GOOD PLUMBING EQUIPMENT1
BY NORMAN J. RADDER
Plumbing and Heating Industries Bureau
With the increased appreciation of the need for adequate plumbing
equipment has come an increase in the variety of styles and types of fix
tures available. This has had the unfortunate effect of confusing the
public. The impression prevails that a tub is a tub, no matter what the
price or by whom installed. The mystery surrounding plumbing has been
still further deepened by lack of salesmanship on the part of some general
contractors who have given prospective builders the impression that
building a home is a complicated operation which no one but an expert
can understand.
The truth is that the building of a house need not be a complicated
matter and should cause no regret to the owner either in the process of
construction or during the years that it is lived in, providing the owner
chooses his materials and fixtures carefully and wisely, heeds the advice
of experts, and deals only with responsible and established builders.
This advice applies with especial force to the man and woman who are
selecting the plumbing fixtures for a home. Could the millions of Ameri
cans who in years past have built homes stand before a microphone and
give their advice to the prospective builder, it would be unanimously
"Buy good plumbing fixtures."
This is the consensus of opinion on plumbing fixtures for three reasons.
In the first place, there is a direct relation between plumbing fixtures and
health; in the second place, inferior plumbing fixtures are not durable and
hence most expensive over a period of years, and last, the good fixture is
built for a lifetime of service and retains its beauty and luster indefinitely.
1 Adapted from "Building for Health," American Home, February, 1929.
PLUMBING 349
The relation between plumbing and health has been recognized by over
800 cities and 15 states which have enacted laws and ordinances regulating
the manner in which plumbing fixtures shall be installed. Unfortunately,
not all of these are enforced. However, the home-owner who deals with a
master plumber of established reputation will be safe whether there is a
city ordinance or not.
The typical sanitary ordinance outlines the methods by which connec
tions must be made, specifies the installation of waste lines, gives definite
rulings on the installation of traps and vents, and indicates how fixtures
should be installed.
Thus a sanitary code protects the home-owner against himself as well
as against an irresponsible plumber. By specifying the number and
manner in which traps and vents shall be connected, the home is pro
tected against sewer gas and against contamination of the water supply.
In this manner, forward-looking cities have done everything in their
power to guarantee to home-owners the full benefits from their plumbing
equipment and have endeavored to assure them of the minimum cost of
upkeep. Unfortunately, cities cannot regulate the quality of fixtures that
shall be installed. This is still left to the judgment of the individual build
ing his home. The result is that many who find that the cost of a home is
going to exceed their original estimate seek a place to cut costs and often
buy plumbing fixtures of inferior quality under the delusion that it is
economy.
In plumbing fixtures as in other things, the purchaser gets what he
pays for. Cheap plumbing fixtures do not have good enamel. The fixture
proper is also of a much cheaper and thinner material. If the purchaser
were to compare this cheaper grade of fixture with one of quality, he
would soon see the difference in the appearance. These fixtures do not
have the snow-white finish that the quality fixture has. They are of a
yellow shade with a poor grade of enamel that in time turns to a darker
yellow, chips easily and eventually becomes porous. When the enamel
surface is in this condition, it is very hard to clean and catches the filth
from the waste water, making it an ideal breeding place for dangerous
germs. Quality fixtures have a grade of enamel which retains its snow-
white finish. They are very easy to clean. These quality fixtures can be
purchased with an acid-resisting finish which will not become marred by
the acids contained in fruits, vegetables, and medicines.
Various grades of fixture trimmings such as faucets, traps, and waste
pipes are on the market. Here again, quality pays. Cheap faucets will
350 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
give trouble sooner or later. It will not be long before they will not shut
tight and this will lead to dripping of water which may discolor the enam
eled surface of the lavatory, tub, or sink.
If the home-owner tries to save money in buying cheap traps, he will
find himself defeated in a few years when the traps begin to corrode and
rust away. Cheap traps are made of thin metal that will not long resist
corrosion. Doubling the thickness of the metal from which the trap is
made will triple or quadruple resistance to corrosion. Furthermore, many
cheap traps have joints which are similarly short lived.
A word more should be said on the subject of traps. A trap is a device
or pipe bend under the lavatory, sink, or other fixture, with or without
enlargement, which retains a sufficient quantity of the water that passes
through it to prevent the passage of foul air back through the pipe and
into the room. There are many kinds of traps. The S trap, P trap, and
drum trap are in most common use.
The water standing in the trap is called a seal. It is effective when the
water is deep enough to close the pipe entirely and thus prevent the pas
sage of air from the drainage system back into the house. If it stands
lower, space is left above the water for the passage of foul air back
through the pipe, and the seal is "broken."
Under no circumstances should a sink, lavatory, bathtub, or laundry
tub be installed without a trap. If the trap is omitted, sewer gas will fill
the house. While doctors no longer regard sewer gas as the grave menace
to health that it was thought to be 25 years ago, still the fact remains that
sewer gas is vitiated air and, if breathed continually, will have an injurious
effect on health.
Neither is it true, as was formerly believed, that sewer air contains, to
a dangerous extent, the germs which cause diphtheria, typhoid, and many
intestinal diseases. The chance of direct bacterial infection from the air
from drains and sewers is extremely slight. It will, however, slowly and
insidiously cause a general languor, which incapacitates for sustained
effort. However, as indicated above, if the home-owner has purchased
good fixtures he will have good traps, and good traps will not allow sewer
gas to get into his house.
Fixtures that have their traps properly vented will also discharge the
waste water much faster and quieter than those that are not vented
properly. If the joints that connect the piping used in plumbing installa
tion are properly made, the life of the installation will be greatly in-
PLUMBING 351
creased. It is not uncommon to see houses in which the walls of the room
below the bathroom have been ruined by a leaky joint. Unquestionably
the material used and the workmanship in such installation was not of
standard quality.
The home-owner should never be satisfied with any thing less than pipes
of standard quality purchased from a master plumber of unquestionable
reputation. While the bugbear of sewer gas has been largely dispelled by
increased scientific knowledge, recent investigations have proved that
ground pollution occurs through leaks in soil pipes.
Leaking pipes, whether supply or waste pipes, are common causes for
dampness in a house, and dampness is one of the worst possible defects in
the home.
Properly-designed fixtures will eliminate another danger: They will not
allow the waste water to contaminate the fresh water supply — a serious
and deadly menace. The purchase of good plumbing pays big dividends
in comfort, convenience, health, and pride of ownership. When fixtures
of good quality are bought, the total cost of the plumbing fixtures and
installation is only 9.9 per cent of the total cost of the home. The first
cost is the last cost. If the fixtures are not wisely bought, however, they
will sooner or later break down under the strain of daily use and then
there will be the cost and inconvenience of repairs.
Furthermore, the home with the good plumbing fixtures has that great
est of all assets — complete sanitation. The prediction has been made that
not many years will pass before purchasers will demand not only a clear
legal title to a home, but also a certificate of sanitation — a certificate that
will leave no room for doubt that the plumbing equipment will protect
the family.
PROGRESS IN FIXTURE DESIGN AND MATERIALS
Extensive progress has been made in the use of materials for plumbing
fixtures and equipment. Sanitation doubtless is the greatest consideration
but comfort, labor-saving, and attractiveness are others of importance.
Vitreous china is most desirable for wash bowls and the most sanitary for
toilets. However, enameled iron is frequently used for both tubs and
bowls. The unit faucet, which mixes hot and cold water, is a convenience
and most satisfactory, for the kitchen. Chromium-plated faucets, al
though more expensive, will save energy spent in the care of fixtures, and
they are also attractive. Acid-proof enamel ware is a worth-while con-
352 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sideration for the kitchen sink where stains are common from fruits and
vegetables. Built-in bathtubs and pedestal bowls for the bathroom are
an advance over the old types.
Color in fixtures has been introduced during the past few years. The
choice of color is an individual matter, but since renewing fixtures is ex
pensive the selection of color should be such that will harmonize well
with a number of other colors in order that changes in color schemes,
particularly the color of walls, may not be handicapped or become too
difficult.
FAUCETS1
BY NORMAN J. RADDER
Plumbing and Heating Industries Bureau
Freedom from repairs — this is the ideal toward which the plumbing
brass industry has been striving. Designers have done their utmost to
attain simplicity and efficiency in the mechanical parts of the faucet.
A leak in a faucet starts when the faucet begins to drip. Hence, faucet
engineers began their task of improving the faucet with a study of what
causes faucets to drip, and therefore devoted their attention particularly
to an improvement and a strengthening of those parts of the faucet in
volved in this problem. Out of this research have come numerous im
provements in faucet seats, in the composition of the material out of
which faucet washers are made, in the mechanism for bringing the washer
down on the seat, etc.
There is only one thing with which the faucet engineers have found
themselves unable to cope — that is the abuse of the faucet by the person
using it. A faucet is abused when it is not completely turned off and
allowed to drip. The action of the water cuts the seat and wears crevices
in it just as a tiny stream trickling through a dike will wear a hole which
will assume dangerous proportions. Another common abuse of the faucet
is the application of too much pressure in closing it. This, too, damages
the washer and seat and has a tendency to throw the mechanism outof line.
Obviously, a faucet is only as good as the metal from which it is made.
Reputable manufacturers — those who sell their products through com
petent and established master plumbers — understand the metallurgical
problems involved in the manufacture of brass that will stand up under
the daily use in the home.
Manufacturers who do not hesitate to guarantee their faucets are ex
tremely careful about the brass mixture. In addition to a high copper con-
1 Adapted from "Some Facts about Faucets," Small Home, February, 1931.
PLUMBING 353
tent, the mixture must be such as to permit accurate machining and
insure against sand holes and other similar defects which are often caused
by the use of a haphazard mixture.
Years ago nickel was the standard plating for faucets. Nickel, how
ever, must be polished frequently in order to maintain its appearance.
After years of polishing, nickel loses its luster and eventually all the
plating is worn away and the brass shines through. The use of cheap
polishing compounds, which are invariably very abrasive, hastens this
wearing of the nickel. The polishing necessary to keep nickel is distasteful
to the housewife.
Thus, for a number of reasons the plumbing industry as well as the
housewife has hailed the use of chromium as a plating for faucets and
fittings.
Chromium is distinctively the metal of this labor-saving age. It needs
no daily polishing and scouring. Just an occasional wiping with a cloth
is all that chromium needs to retain its luster. Chromium is hard and
durable. It does not dull, corrode, or tarnish. Chromium is highly re
sistant to fruit and vegetable acids, gases, salt, air, and other elements
which dull and discolor most other metals and finishes. When properly
applied, it will give lasting service — just how long no one knows because
chromium has only recently come into general use.
Chromium-plated fixtures naturally cost more than nickel-plated
fittings because of the price of the plating solution and the more difficult
process of application.
Unfortunately for the public, there are ways to cheapen chromium
plating. A faucet may be given just a "flash" of chromium, that is, it may
be left in the chromium bath for only a short time. For the average
person, it will be difficult if not impossible to tell the inadequately coated
piece of chromium from the thoroughly coated fitting which has been in
the bath for half an hour and has been polished and buffed. Time alone
will tell
There are various kinds of handles for faucets. A handle may be of
metal and plated with any of the platings just mentioned or it may be of
china or of glass.
Handles are made in a variety of styles and shapes. Everyone, of
course, is familiar with the lever type of handle. This may be made of
metal, china, or glass.
The most popular type of handle is the four-arm handle, which, as
354 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the name indicates, has four arms which may be used for turning.
This is made in metal, china, and glass.
Some manufacturers make a three-arm handle and others make four-
arm handles with metal balls at the end, and a five-arm handle.
One manufacturer has introduced a radical change in handle construc
tion known as the handle with "finger-tip" control. Since one of the
prevalent abuses of the faucet is for the user to seize the handle and turn
off the water with all the strength he has in his hands, this manufacturer
reasons that if a faucet has a handle which can be manipulated with the
fingers only, the chances for damage to the faucet seat are greatly
lessened
We turn now to a detailed examination of the faucets made for different
types of fixtures.
Let us step into a modern kitchen with an up-to-date sink with two
deep compartments for washing and rinsing dishes and a roomy drain-
board.
We see on this type of sink a faucet utterly unknown to the housewives
of a generation ago. It is a faucet with a swinging spout through which
the housewife may draw hot water, cold water, or tempered water. The
swinging spout permits her to send the water into either compartment.
The compartments are eight inches deep and equipped with a clever
combination stopper and strainer. At the twist of the lever, the metal
stopper finds its seat and the water sent into the sink is kept in the com
partment. This device makes the dishpan and dishrag obsolete because
the deep compartment itself serves as a dishpan.
After the dishes have been washed, they may be rinsed with scalding
hot water from a hose and spray In some faucets, the hose is
attached to the swinging spout; while in other faucets, there is a separate
connection for the hose and the water is sent through either the hose or
the spout by the turning of a diverting valve.
The soap dish mounted on the faucet may be metal or of vitreous china.
Here again, as in many other things, the purchaser gets exactly what he
pays for. Quality faucets have either a chromium plated soap dish or a
dish made of genuine twice-fire vitreous china. Inferior faucets have a
china soap dish made out of second-rate clays fired at a low temperature.
These dishes will eventually show stains made by the acids in the soap,
or crazes, that is, hair-line cracks in the glaze.
Progressive manufacturers have spared no pains to make their best
PLUMBING 355
kitchen faucets the last word in efficiency and in construction. Recogniz
ing the fact that crevices are dirt-catchers, they have so constructed
their faucets that there are no inaccessible places
A triple faucet is made for use in districts where a connection for drink
ing water is needed in addition to the customary hot and cold water con
nection
The valves for the kitchen sink faucet may be entirely concealed behind
the wall
Most interesting, too, are the changes that have taken place in the
construction and design of faucets, escutcheons, and drains for lavatories.
They may be summarized as follows :
1. Beauty, distinction and symmetry of form and line, ....
2. The combination faucet which enables the user of the faucet to wash with
tempered water.
3. Concealment of valves.
4. The use of the pop-up drain control methods to replace the obsolete plug and
chain.
There are four advantages of the combination faucet: It enables the
person using the lavatory to wash in tempered water; washing in tempered
water results in a saving of hot water with consequent economy of gas or
whatever fuel is used to heat the water; there is more space on the slab
of the lavatory for toilet articles or other accessories; and there is less
metal to clean.
Economy of space on the lavatory slab is an advantage of the
combination faucet. More and more to-day the bathroom is being used
as a dressing room. The number of toilet articles and accessories produced
is constantly increasing. While the plumbing industry produces special
dressing tables that match lavatories and while some lavatories are made
with room at the side for use as a dressing table, the fact remains that
most people will continue to use the conventional lavatory for resting
toilet articles. When a combination faucet is used, practically the entire
slab is free for use as the person may wish.
There is still another way to get even more space on the lavatory slab.
This is by concealing the control valve in the wall and supplying tem
pered water through a china spout which is an integral part of the lava
tory. When this is done, only the pop-up drain control is on the lava
tory slab.
We turn now to the faucets and fittings available for bathtubs. Bath-
3$6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
room conditions and bathing habits differ. One arrangement of supply
and waste will prove most convenient and satisfactory to some; others
will prefer a different one. But all want fittings that are lasting and not
likely to get out of order. A good tub deserves a good supply and a good
waste. The importance of the latter is frequently overlooked by many
people who build or buy houses. A cheap waste is an inefficient waste; it
will drain the tub so slowly that most persons will become impatient while
waiting for it to drain. The ring around the tub which results will increase
the housewife's work of cleaning the tub.
The tub on legs is out-of-date and with it have gone exposed pipes for
the bathtub. All the supply pipes for the modern bathtub are concealed.
In conclusion, attention should be called to improvements in the in
ternal mechanism of the faucet. While years ago nearly all faucets were
Fuller faucets, today all faucets are compression faucets. A modification
of the compression faucet is very popular today. This quick compression
faucet closes with from one quarter to a half turn while the compression
faucet closes with one turn.
There are different ways in which this quick closing of the faucet is
attained. Some manufacturers use a thread with a steep pitch. Others
use a double thread. The double thread is said to have the additional ad
vantage of making the construction of the faucet more rugged and pre
venting possible wabbling of bath faucets with a long stem.
The compression faucet derived its name from the fact that it shuts off
the water when a composition washer is made to close on a metal seat.
The washer and the seat, therefore, are the two parts of the faucet which
receive the greatest amount of wear. All faucets are so constructed that
the washer may be easily replaced. It has taken more ingenuity, how
ever, to devise methods of making the seat renewable.
It is cheaper to make a faucet with an integral seat. When the seat of
a cheap faucet is damaged, it is possible to trim the worn edge away with
a special reseating tool, but usually this is as expensive as the purchase
of a new faucet.
All better grades of faucets have some kind of a renewable seat. Vari
ous manufacturers have attained this end in different ways. Some have
the seat in a barrel which easily slides out of the faucet. Others have a
kind of disc seat which is readily removable.
To minimize the effect of the grinding motion which takes place when
a washer is forced on the seat as the faucet is closed, some manufacturers
PLUMBING 357
have perfected a swivel movement in the part holding the washer. The
effect of the swivel device is to allow more play in the seating action and
to equalize wearing by preventing the washer from coming in contact
with the seat in the same way every time it is closed.
The advantage of all these improvements will be more readily apparent
when one remembers that damage to faucet seats results from failure to
close the faucet with consequent dripping of water and cutting of the seat
by the presence of foreign elements, such as metal, shavings, sand, etc.,
in the water.
The better faucets have anti-splashing devices built in the spout. There
is also a difference in washers. Cheap washers give trouble in the hot-
water faucet because they will swell up. When a faucet needs a new
washer, it pays to buy it from a plumbing contractor because good wash
ers will give many years of service.
PLUMBING AND HEALTH
A subcommittee on plumbing was appointed in 1921 under the Build
ing Code Committee of the United States Department of Commerce.
The purpose of this committee was to investigate the underlying princi
ples of plumbing in order to recommend minimum requirements for
plumbing codes and local ordinances. Most of the plumbing work of a
dwelling is regulated by local ordinances or codes in communities where
such exist, and is then passed upon by the local inspector. Many of these
codes lack uniformity, some are obsolete, and there are unaccountable
differences in regulation. There are at present a number of states that
have enacted plumbing laws. These hold plumbing practice to certain
main requirements. Several hundred cities also have adopted codes.
Health is the basis on which such legislation is enacted.
The purpose of this subcommittee has been to prepare minimum re
quirements based on good plumbing principles and to draft a code based
on these requirements. The relation of plumbing to health is discussed
briefly in the following paragraphs of the subcommittee's report:1
The work of the committee has emphasized the necessity of considering the
plumbing systems of buildings as intimately related to and forming an integral
part of public water-supply and sewerage systems. The number and character
of plumbing fixtures in a building are largely matters of individual choice, and
owners have not sufficiently considered their relation to features of public serv-
1 Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing (U.S. Dept. of Commerce).
Washington: Government Printing Office. 1929.
358 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ice. Plumbing fixtures are the terminals of water-supply systems, and, to a large
extent, control the quantity of water used. At the same time they are the be
ginnings of the sewerage system. The aggregate discharges from plumbing fix
tures determine the flow in sewers and the volume of sewage reaching the out
fall, this volume materially affecting the cost of any pumping or treatment of
the sewage. It is evident, therefore, that the public interest may well justify a
certain degree of governmental control over plumbing fixtures as affecting both
the quantity of water available for public use and the economical operation of
the sewerage system.
An important function of the house-drainage system is to carry away from
plumbing fixtures human excreta and wastes which may contain disease-pro
ducing bacteria. Because of the possible presence of such organisms sewage may
be dangerous and must be disposed of in such a manner that there will be no
chance of disease transmission. Sanitarians to-day place great emphasis on the
importance of sewage treatment and safe methods of ultimate sewage disposal.
The leakage of polluted water from the house-drainage system is insanitary
and dangerous. Leakage within the house may pollute the habitation and per
mit food infection through the medium of insects. Leakage in the ground out
side the house may pollute water supplies taken from neighboring wells or find
its way into or under the building. The maintenance of water seals between
fixtures and drains and the permanent tightness of plumbing systems are im
portant not only because they prevent the passage of air, but because they pre
vent the access of insects to the interior of the drains and sewers. If cockroaches,
water bugs, and other vermin can pass from drains to food, they may transport
disease germs, and thus be a bacteriological menace to health. It is therefore
important that the drainage system be tight and without danger of leakage.
L. 0. Howard, chief of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States De
partment of Agriculture, and C. W. Stiles, United States Public Health Service,
in personal conversation with the late chairman of the committee, are authority
for the statement that insects can and do pass from the interior of leaking drain
age systems to living quarters. Several other observers also report such oc
currences.
Another danger to be guarded against is the use of fixtures in which the water
supply and waste connections are so arranged that polluted waste water from
the fixtures may, under certain circumstances, return into the water-supply
pipes.
The line where the safe water supply ends and sewage begins is sometimes
very finely drawn. If faucets with open spouts discharge over plumbing fixtures
and if there is a break between the water supply and the waste pipe, self-pro
tection exists against possible pollution of the water-supply distributing system
by the back flow of waste water into it. Plumbing fixtures such as water-closets,
urinals, bidets, bathtubs, and lavatories with direct connections, secret
wastes and overflows, and combination cocks offer possible sources of pollution.
PLUMBING 359
The air in sewers and drains often contains gases resulting from the decom
position of excreta, soap, fats, and other wastes, together with gases from min
eral oils which may come from garages, streets, and industrial establishments.
Illuminating gas may also find its way into sewers through leakage. Among
these gases may be found methane, sulphuretted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide.
In large amounts those gases are poisonous to the human system, and there are
physiological objections to breathing them even in small quantities. Hence, the
air of sewers or drains should be kept from entering buildings intended for hu
man habitation or occupancy by the use of proper plumbing installations and by
suitable ventilation of the rooms or compartments in which the plumbing fix
tures are located. The smell of these gases and other emanations from decom
posing organic matter is naturally repugnant to human beings. It not only of
fends the sensibilities, but may produce shallow breathing, headache, and even
nausea.
In addition to the above facts, it is important to consider the bacteriological
aspects of sewer and drain air, a subject upon which there has been some mis
understanding. In recent years bacteriologists have made studies which have
thrown light upon this subject. They have shown by experiment that while
sewage often contains disease-producing bacteria derived from human excreta
and body wastes these bacteria are rarely found in the air which escapes from
sewers and drains. Hence, it has been argued by some that escaping sewer air
has no influence on health. The committee does not agree with this conclusion.
Health may be influenced by factors which do not cause specific diseases, for
there are chemical and physiological as well as bacteriological factors involved.
The investigations thus far made by bacteriologists should be considered to be
merely a beginning of larger and more complete investigations which will doubt
less be made as the science of bacteriology advances. The committee is of the
opinion, therefore, that until further light on this somewhat obscure subject has
been obtained the escape of sewer air from the house-drainage system, at fre
quent intervals or in considerable quantities, threatens the health of the build
ing's occupants.
This whole matter has a quantitative as well as a qualitative aspect. The
temporary losses of water seal in traps, which rarely occur and which are im
mediately replaced, do not involve any great danger to the health of the occu
pants, for in many cases the final drainage from the fixture will renew the seal
within a short time, but where a loss of seal is likely to be of frequent occurrence
and not readily replaced, or where breaks in the system admit sewer air con
tinually to a building, the health of the occupants is subject to the dangers here
tofore described.
For the above-mentioned reasons regulations governing the installation of
plumbing have been established by law in many places. These regulations have
been potent in improving living conditions throughout the country; in fact, they
have even set the standards for those places where plumbing is not under public
360 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
control. The knowledge now in possession of sanitarians in regard to the les
sened bacteriological dangers of sewer air leads logically to some simplification
in plumbing design, but it should not lead to an abandonment of practices neces
sary to protect buildings against the air of drains, which, in addition to its pos
sible danger, is .offensive to the smell.
The committee believes that good plumbing is a matter which concerns
health. Government has the right to protect the people's health, but people
also have rights, and plumbing regulations carried too far are unjust. Regula
tions which will not be supported by the courts fully and without question under
a liberal interpretation of the police power may be regarded as unjust. Sanitary
science, however, must be the guide to justice in this matter. The principles of
science change as knowledge advances, and it is proper, therefore, that plumbing
regulations be reviewed from time to time and, if necessary, revised.
SUMMARY
The plumbing of a building includes the pipes for distributing the
water supply, the fixtures for using water and drainage pipes for removing
waste together with fittings and appurtenances. Plumbing means the
installation of proper fixtures, and other apparatus for bringing in water
supply and removing liquid and water-carried wastes. Good plumbing
and plumbing fixtures usually result in a saving as they will require but
a small expenditure for upkeep. Brass pipes are desirable for the distri
bution of the water supply in the home. If brass is too expensive for the
entire water system, they should at least be used around the house heater
and hot-water tank. Stops or valves should be installed. The automatic
hot-water heater is one of the most desirable methods of heating water.
Consider design, metal, and operating device in selecting faucets. The
renewable feature of faucets should be considered as there is bound to be
wear. Chromium plate is desirable as it requires little care. For kitchen
sinks the swinging-spout type is desirable. The most desirable kitchen
sink is the one with sink and drainboards cast in one piece.
City ordinances usually define the exact methods and materials used
in the home for sewage disposal, outline the methods by which connec
tions must be made, specify the installation of waste lines, and give
definite rulings on the installation of traps and vents.
Considerable emphasis is placed by sanitarians on the importance of
sewage treatment and safe methods of disposal. Regulations governing
the installation of plumbing have been established in many places as
many cities have plumbing codes or local ordinances governing plumbing.
These regulations have been important in improving living conditions
PLUMBING 361
throughout the country and have been even instrumental in setting up
standards where codes do not exist.
REFERENCES
BABBITT, HAROLD E. Plumbing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1928.
CHURCHILL, ALLEN, and WICKENDEN, LEONARD. The House-Owner's Book.
New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1928.
Water supply and plumbing (pp. 224-68).
House Beautiful Building Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
Plumbing and plumbing fixtures (pp. 111-14).
LESCARBOURA, AUSTIN C. Home-Owners' Handbook. New York: Scientific
American Publishing Co., 1924.
Plumbing and plumbing fixtures (pp. 343-68).
STARBUCK, R. M. Modern Plumbing Illustrated. New York: Norman W. Hen
ley Publishing Co., 1926.
Excellent diagrams.
Standard Practical Plumbing. New York: Norman W. Henley Pub
lishing Co., 1926.
Plumbing for residences (pp. 208-15).
TUCKER, MILTON. Buying an Honest House. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
1930.
Equipment and fixtures (pp. 121-30).
U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS. Farm Plumbing, by GEORGE M. WARREN.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 14^6. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1924. Pp. 34.
Simple Plumbing Repairs in the Home, by GEORGE M. WARREN. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1460. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1925. Pp. 14.
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumb
ing. Elimination of Waste Series, B.H. 13. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1929. Pp. 280.
VEILLER, LAWRENCE. A Model Housing Law. New York: Russell Sage Foun
dation, 1920.
Plumbing and sanitation practices (sees. 48, 49, 78, 124).
WALSH, HAROLD VANDERVOORT. The Construction of the Small House. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923.
Essential features of good plumbing (pp. 94-108).
CHAPTER X
REFRIGERATION
ELECTRIC AND GAS REFRIGERATORS1
There are two general types of refrigerating systems, the compression
and the absorption type. In the usual compression type a small com
pressor, operated by an electric motor, is used to compress the vapor com
ing from the refrigerating coils to a pressure sufficiently high to cause it to
liquefy at ordinary temperatures, when heat is removed either by water
or air. The liquid is then readmitted through an expansion valve or
equivalent device to the refrigerating coils, where its evaporation at a low
pressure produces the cooling for which the machine is designed.
In the absorption type the vapor from the refrigerating coils is ab
sorbed in a suitable substance, such as water, or other liquid, or by a solid
which is capable of absorbing large quantities of vapor. Subsequently the
substance containing the absorbed vapor is heated, either electrically or
by a gas flame, and the vapor is driven off, then cooled and condensed to
a liquid, which is returned to the refrigerating coils. Machines of this type
have few or no moving parts, practically all of them are almost noiseless
in operation and, in contrast with many machines of the compression type,
require connection to a water supply for cooling. Some of the machines
using a liquid absorber are continuous in operation, the heat being applied
always to one part, while the liquid is caused to circulate. Others are of
the intermittent type, the heat being supplied for a time to one part, then
to another part, or to one part at intervals. Nearly all of the machines
now on the market are designed to provide for freezing ice cubes, and since
this feature is so very generally included, no further consideration of it
is required here.
A very large number of makes of refrigerating machines of the com
pression type have been put on the market. These have included such
variations as direct drive, belt drive, and gear drive ; reciprocating single or
multiple cylinder compressors, various types of rotary compressors; vari
ous refrigerants such as sulphur dioxide, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride,
1 From "Electric and Gas Refrigerators" (Letter Circ. 255; U.S. Dept. of Com
merce, Bureau of Standards, 1929).
362
REFRIGERATION 363
ammonia, volatile hydrocarbons, etc.; air or water cooling; refrigeration
by direct expansion or by the use of brine tanks, etc. Completely self-
contained and sealed machines of the compression type have also been
made. It is impracticable to discuss here the various merits and demerits
of the features which are often emphasized out of all proportion to their
importance, in advertising and by salesmen. The user of a machine is not
so much concerned with the kind of drive, refrigerant or absorbent used,
type of compressor or system of refrigeration as he is in the kind of service
the machine will give and what the service may cost over a period of
years. For example, there is no outstanding advantage in a machine with
a brine tank as compared with one of the direct expansion type, but the
success or failure of either will depend upon the quality of the whole
machine and not upon such a detail of design.
Knowledge of details of design of this kind is of value to the expert in
judging whether the machine is designed and made so that it can be ex
pected to have a reasonably long life and give satisfactory service during
its life. The fact that a machine has one or several features of design which
seem superior does not necessarily indicate that it will prove to be superior
to other machines having other features of design. For example, the re
frigerant used is a factor of minor importance as regards efficiency, since
machines can be designed to use any of the ordinary refrigerants effec
tively. Similarly either compression or absorption machines can give very
satisfactory service.
There have been instances where refrigerants which constituted a dis
tinct hazard to life or health have been used, but this does not apply to
the refrigerants now in general use. Again a poorly designed machine
might introduce a distinct fire or accident hazard. The purchaser of a
machine should, therefore, take into consideration evidence concerning
test and approval of the type by some disinterested authority.
Short-time tests of refrigerating machines unfortunately furnish only
incomplete information as to their relative merits. Such a test may dis
close obvious defects and will readily show the power or gas and water
consumption and the efficiency of the unit tested, when new. By oper
ating the machine under extreme conditions, e.g., at high room tempera
ture, it is possible to make an estimate of the margin of reserve in power,
cooling capacity and strength of parts above ordinary requirements, but
none of these tests gives information on the most important points,
namely, the durability and reliability in service of the average machine
under ordinary conditions.
364 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Some of the factors to which the prospective purchaser of a machine
should give attention are the following:
1. Standing of the manufacturer. — If the manufacturer does not remain
in business the machine is likely to become obsolete in a very short time,
since replacement of worn or defective parts may be difficult or impos
sible.
2. Record of the machine. — A machine in the experimental or develop
ment stage is a more speculative proposition than one which has stood
the test of service.
3. Noise. — Unless a machine runs quietly when new and continues to
do so, it will be unsatisfactory to most of its users.
4. Useful life. — The aggregate cost of refrigeration depends to a con
siderable extent upon the length of life of the machine, and upon the cost
of service and repairs. Very little information on this point is available,
and the purchaser must depend upon the reputation of the product and
such information as he can find in regard to durability.
5. Efficiency of the machine. — There are considerable differences in the
operating efficiencies of different machines, and figures on operating costs
can sometimes be obtained. If a machine is not well made or is allowed to
deteriorate, efficiency may be greatly reduced after a short period of use.
6. Insulation of the refrigerator. — The refrigerator should be well in
sulated, preferably with not less than a two-inch thickness of some good
insulating material. Refrigerators depending largely upon air spaces for
insulation or those with thin walls and doors are likely to require con
siderable power or fuel and water to keep them cold.
7. Air or water cooling. — If the machine is water cooled, the purchaser
should determine that his water supply is suitable for the purpose, so that
deposits from hard water will not be formed inside the machine, ulti
mately interfering with its functioning, and that the water supply is suf
ficient in quantity and not too expensive.
8. Servicing of machine. — Preference should be given to a machine
which could be easily and inexpensively serviced or repaired when neces
sary. A machine which could easily be removed entirely and replaced by
another would be classed as easily serviced. If attention such as oiling or
adjustments are required from time to time, the points requiring atten
tion should be few in number, and should be readily accessible where the
machine is to be installed, lest it suffer from neglect.
9. Quality of local service. — A machine obtained from a responsible
dealer, who is prepared to attend to adjustments and repairs promptly
when required, is to be preferred.
REFRIGERATION 365
10. Comparison of refrigeration by machines and by ice. — The purpose of
this section is not to make an exhaustive comparison between machine
refrigeration and ice refrigeration but merely to point out some of the
more obvious facts, which, if kept in mind, may enable the prospective
purchaser to avoid being puzzled or misled.
The owner of a refrigerating machine is free from whatever annoyance
accompanies frequent or irregular delivery of ice. The machine can be set
to maintain a lower temperature than is practicable with ice, so that left
overs can be kept a somewhat longer time before being thrown away.
Few subjects are more misunderstood by the public and by writers on
refrigeration than that of temperatures required for proper refrigeration.
Most writers draw a dead line at 50° F. and state, in effect, that useful
refrigeration is not obtained above that temperature. The facts are, how
ever, fairly simple and obvious. Time and temperature are equally essen
tial factors in decay. Most foods will remain palatable and wholesome if
kept as long as a day at a temperature as high as 60° F. If they are to be
kept for a week, 50° F. may not be low enough. If they are to be kept for
a month, the temperature must be still lower. In any case, most users
prefer to serve food while it is fresh ; there are very few who purchase a
refrigerator for the purpose of establishing a miniature cold storage plant
to preserve foods for considerable periods, and the possibility of keeping
foods for more than a limited time is of little practical importance. There
is, of course, a wide difference in the keeping qualities of various kinds of
foods. The user of a machine is usually less subject to loss from spoilage
of food, and in some cases there may be a considerable saving in this re
spect.
Either an ice-cooled refrigerator or a machine-cooled refrigerator tends
to maintain a dry atmosphere in the food compartments and thus to dry
out moist materials stored in them. The water from the melted ice carries
off material in solution thereby removing causes of odors.
The relative cost of refrigeration with ice and with a machine depends
very largely upon the useful life of the machine and the costs of repairs,
replacements and service. To make a comparison of costs, it is necessary
to estimate the probable life of the machine and then to estimate oper
ating costs, and costs of repairs, service, etc., over this period. To these
add the initial cost (including interest charges if desired) and divide the
total by the number of years to find the aggregate cost of refrigeration per
year. A similar estimate may be made for a refrigerator using ice. Such
computations indicate that a machine should have a useful life of at least
ten years in order that the cost of refrigeration by machine should not be
366 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
unduly high as compared with ice refrigeration. In many cases the oper
ating costs of a machine are lower than the cost of ice for a refrigerator of
comparable size, but this is rarely true of the aggregate cost of refrigera
tion, which means that the greater convenience and better service of
machine refrigeration are obtained at somewhat higher cost.
In many cases the purchaser of a machine compares its operating costs
for the first few months with those of his old refrigerator, which may have
had but little insulation when new and is almost certainly no better after
years of use. Such a comparison does not give a correct picture. It is true
that the reluctance of makers of ice refrigerators, until recently, to use
insulation, has been one of the important factors in popularizing the ma
chines, which are usually installed in well insulated boxes. On the other
hand, well-insulated refrigerators for ice are a comparatively recent de
velopment. As machines are usually set to maintain lower temperatures
than are obtained in iced refrigerators, they require more insulation. The
minimum requirement for any type of refrigerator is that the insulation
shall be sufficient to prevent the deposition of moisture on the outside of
the box, under all conditions in which it is to be used. Adequate insula
tion requires no secret formulas or knowledge not available to the public,
but only the use of a sufficient thickness (not less than 2 inches) of a good
insulating material, adequately protected from moisture. Recently, well-
insulated refrigerators for ice have been obtainable, and when such are
used, the public will have a better opportunity to compare refrigeration
by ice, with refrigeration by machine, on their respective merits.
[NOTE. — A national safety code for all types of mechanical refrigerators has recently
been approved by the American Standards Association. A technical committee repre
senting over forty national organizations has been working on the code for years.]
ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION, REFRIGERANTS,
AND THE CABINET1
BY G. E. MILLER
Electrical refrigeration for the home has made such rapid progress
and has so much of merit that it is the subject of keen interest to progres
sive housekeepers. To those who wish to investigate further, the following
general facts may be of assistance in the confusion of claim and counter
claim of zealous salesmen.
A complete apparatus or unit includes two essential parts, the ma-
1 Adapted from "Electrical Refrigeration for the Home," Journal of Home Econom
ics, June, 1926. (Revised for this publication.)
REFRIGERATION 367
chine by which the "cold" is produced, and the cabinet or box in which the
food is stored. These may be purchased and installed separately or com
bined. The character of both of these should be considered in choosing a
refrigerator, as well as efficiency, price, and cost of operation and mainte
nance.
The machine. — Since it is extremely difficult for the layman to judge the
technical points of a refrigerating machine, his best criterion is the reliabil
ity of the manufacturer and agent. Several manufacturers have been
making and selling electric refrigerators for a number of years and their
machines have proved commercially satisfactory. In buying a machine
the purchaser should inquire how long the manufacturer has been in busi
ness, how many machines of the model under consideration have been
sold, how long they have been in use, and how many are in use in the im
mediate vicinity or city; and he should examine into the facilities avail
able for emergency service and maintenance work in case the machine
needs attention. Ofttimes the reliability and business integrity of the
local selling agent, his ability to render prompt service when needed — for
example, on Sundays and holidays, as well as -week days — will be of first
importance in making a selection The older, better-known machines
are about on a par and of equal merit.
In the case of newer machines wrhich have not been on the market long
enough to meet the test of them, the manufacturer should be of such
financial strength and business integrity as to leave no doubt of his ability
to make good in marketing a new device.
Refrigerants. — The medium through which "cold" is produced within
the cabinet is called the refrigerant. Usually this is some liquid which will
not freeze except at a very low temperature and which, when driven by
electric power through the cooling system of the machine, makes the
moisture collect on the outside of the system in the form of ice crystals.
The refrigerants most commonly used in household machines are sulphur
dioxide, methyl chloride, and butane. The quantity used is small and,
when the equipment is properly installed, will last indefinitely. These re
frigerants are not explosive and are harmless.
The cabinet. — The necessity of a high-grade cabinet for proper pre
servation of food in the home is not generally appreciated. An examina
tion of many homes will reveal from basement to attic a real discrimina
tion in the selection of household furnishings and equipment. There is,
however, almost universally one exception — the ice box. A knowledge of
the basic requirements of refrigeration — of what is necessary to keep food
368 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
fit to eat in the home — is almost wholly lacking. How many people would
be willing to pay as much for an ice box as for the family piano? Which is
the more important to the happiness of the home?
Investigation has shown that a large percentage of boxes sold to-day
through the usual channels of trade are wholly unfit for the preservation
of food. Many have little or no effective heat-insulating material in their
construction. In wooden boxes, the cabinet work is often poorly done,
resulting in warped doors leaving large cracks around the edges, where the
cold leaks out and the heat leaks in. The hardware, latches, and hinges
are flimsy and of poor design, thus preventing a tight fit between door and
jamb. Manufacturers of electrical refrigerating equipment were among
the first to appreciate the necessity of high-grade construction and ade
quate insulation in cabinets, and have taken an advanced position by
insisting on a high-quality product.
Formerly most boxes were made of wood, but many are now made of
sheet metal instead. If the cabinet is of wood it is essential that this be
"treated" so that it will not absorb moisture, shrink, or crack.
The interior lining may be of metal covered with porcelain enamel or
similar protection against rust, and should be waterproof. Glass linings
have been used successfully. The highest-grade cabinets use a glazed
solid porcelain lining, similar to a solid porcelain bathtub. In large cabi
nets these linings are cast in two pieces and the joints cemented to make
them waterproof. Such a lining is easily cleaned and from a sanitary point
of view is unexcelled.
The feature of greatest importance in cabinet construction is the in
sulating material. Many years of experience in cold-storage plants have
demonstrated that solid sheet cork is about the best and most satisfactory
material for this purpose, though other insulating materials have been
used successfully. Two inches of sheet cork will provide satisfactory in
sulation. The purchaser should insist on knowing what is between the
inner and outer walls. A few coats of paint have often been used to cover
a multitude of sins of omission.
.... The coldest point inside a refrigerator cabinet should be approxi
mately 30° to 3 2° F. In hot weather the temperature of the air outside the
cabinet frequently runs from 90° to 100° F. That is, the range of difference
in temperature between the inside and outside of the cabinet is from 60°
to 70° F., or about as much as between the inside and outside of the house
in zero weather. Houses in cold climates have thick walls, are provided
with double doors and windows, and are otherwise protected against cold.
REFRIGERATION 369
Great quantities of heat are generated inside to make them comfortable.
One would not expect to be warm or even comfortable in a summer cot
tage or tent in zero weather. About one million ice boxes are sold annually
in this country. Thousands of them are of the "summer cottage" variety
and many belong to the "tent" colony. Eating perishable food which has
been stored for some time in one of these may result in one's not being
especially comfortable.
An electrical refrigerating machine is occasionally installed with an old
cabinet, but unless the cabinet is of the very highest quality of construc
tion, this is, generally speaking, a mistake. It makes no difference whether
a machine or ice is used in a poor box; the results as far as preservation of
food is concerned are in either case ineffective. An electrical refrigerating
machine has intelligence but no brains. It is automatic in operation and
will try to keep the box cold, but if the box has not sufficient insulation
to hold the cold, the machine will run too much of the time, thus in
creasing the cost of operating and shortening its useful life.
Suggestions for installation. — Where people own their homes, it is usually
desirable to install the machine in the basement or some other out-of-
the-way place where the sound and vibration will be less noticeable. The
cabinet should preferably be placed in a refrigerator room or other sepa
rate unheated space. The kitchen is not a good location for a cabinet; in
some climates the summer temperature there frequently rises to 90° or
even 100° F.
For use in a rented dwelling it would seem desirable to buy the self
contained units (machine installed within the cabinet) as these are not
rigidly attached and may be moved like any piece of heavy furniture.
The electric connection to a domestic refrigerating machine is best
made through a convenience outlet, as with washing-machines,vacuum
cleaners, flat irons, and all household electrical appliances; it is, however,
possible to connect through an ordinary lamp socket.
Cost of operation. — The average domestic refrigeration machines will
consume approximately 50 kilowatt hours of electricity per month, taking
the year through. Ordinarily, of course, more electricity will be used in
warm summer weather than in the winter. In midsummer the consump
tion may reach 75 units or more per month. If the cabinet is installed in a
kitchen, the seasonal variation in the use of electricity will not be so
great, but the average for the year is likely to be higher. In a northern
climate, with the cabinet installed in a separate, unheated room, the ma-
370 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
chine may not run at all for two months or more in midwinter. From the
above data, anyone who knows the cost of electricity in his community
can easily make a fair estimate of the cost of the electricity required to
operate a machine.
Cost of maintenance. — The selling price usually includes the cost of
servicing the equipment for a period ranging from three months to one
year. Manufacturers' practices differ as to the period thus allowed. There
are wide variations in maintenance costs between individual machines
just as there are in any other mechanical equipment, but data from vari
ous parts of the United States indicate that after the free service period
these should not average more than $5 a year.
Care of equipment. — An electrical refrigerator requires little attention
on the part1 of the owner. Usually this amounts only to putting a few
drops of oil in the motor bearings once a week during hot weather, less
frequently in cold weather. Some machines are now put out with bearings
guaranteed to operate a year without oiling; others are being put on the
market which require no oiling whatever.
When an electrical refrigerating machine is in service and properly ad
justed, it is continually freezing the moisture out of the air in the cabi
net. This forms a deposit of frost or ice on the cooling element, which will
continue to increase as long as the machine is in operation. Too great an
accumulation of this frost or ice will prevent a free circulation of air over
the cooling element, thus stopping proper refrigeration in the food storage
compartments, and perhaps causing foul odors. To avoid this, the cooling
element should be defrosted periodically. This operation requires only the
opening of the electric switch which controls the supply of electricity to
the motor, and allowing the machine thus to stand idle until the accumu
lated frost and ice melt off.
The interior of the cabinet should be periodically washed out as would
be done in any ice box. The drains, however, do not clog up but need
regular cleaning as where ice is used.
Electrical refrigerating devices for the household are automatic in their
operation and when properly installed and adjusted should require no at
tention except oiling, defrosting, and cleaning indicated.
Temperatures maintained. — The temperature maintained within the
cabinet of a good electric refrigerator depends entirely on the quality of
insulation in the cabinet, the temperature of the air surrounding the cabi
net, and the frequency with which the doors are opened.
REFRIGERATION 371
Any of the well-known machines installed on a cabinet with good in
sulation will maintain satisfactory temperatures in the warmest part of
the cabinet. The warmest point in the cabinet is the top of the food
compartment and that should never be over 50° F. The coldest point is
immediately under the cooling element and ranges from 30° to 35° F.
The working range of temperatures within the cabinet can, if desired,
be changed either up or down by adjusting the thermostat, ....
THE GAS-FIRED REFRIGERATOR1
Let us first consider what refrigeration is. "Cold" is merely the absence
of heat, and any means of absorbing heat which will lower the tempera
ture to between 40 and 50° will give us the refrigeration we require in the
home.
A piece of ice placed in the ice box absorbs heat by melting — changing
from a solid to a liquid at a low temperature. Certain substances known
as refrigerants, such as sulphur dioxide and ammonia, absorb heat by
vaporizing — changing from a liquid to a gas — at a low temperature. If,
then, we can permit this refrigerant to vaporize inside the chamber we
wish to cool, and then change it back to a liquid outside of that chamber,
we will have continuous refrigeration.
The electric machines accomplish this job by means of a compressor
driven by an electric motor. The refrigerant is put under a high pressure
in the compressor and it will then turn to a liquid at ordinary room tem
peratures. This liquid is then carried by a pipe to the freezing unit inside
of the refrigerator, where the pressure is reduced by a valve. As the liquid
refrigerant passes the valve it vaporizes, takes up heat in so doing, and
cools the box. The refrigerant, which is now in the form of a gas, is re
turned to the compressor through another pipe and the circulating oper
ation repeated.
The gas refrigerator makes use of a small boiler to raise the pressure
of the refrigerant, so that it can be changed back to a liquid at ordinary
temperatures. The major steps in the cycle of the gas-fired refrigerator
are as follows:
Ammonia dissolved in water is placed in the boiler and heat, from a
gas flame, applied. The ammonia is driven out of the water as a gas under
pressure, and is then condensed to a liquid. The liquid flows to the freez
ing unit and is vaporized, taking up heat and cooling the box.
1 Adapted from "How the Gas Refrigerator Works," Domestic Engineering, De
cember, 1928.
372 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The ammonia, now in the form of a gas, is absorbed again in cold
water and flows back to the boiler.
At the present time the operating cost of the gas refrigerator is slightly
higher than the electric, although less than the cost of ice. The gas re
frigerator, however, has no moving parts, which means that few repairs
will be necessary.
The "generator-absorber" contains "aqua-ammonia" (that is, water
and ammonia) . It is the same kind of solution known all over the world as
"household ammonia" and familiar to every housekeeper. For our pur
pose the percentage of ammonia is greater.
A gas burner is located under the "generator-absorber." The heat from
this burner causes the ammonia in the liquid to become vapor.
This vapor passes along to the "condenser," where it is cooled by cir
culating water. Under this treatment the vapor becomes liquid and
flows down into the "receiver."
This process continues until a sufficient quantity of the ammonia has
been "vaporized" out of the aqua-ammonia in the "generator-absorber."
The circulating water is then automatically discontinued in the con
denser, and diverted to the cooling coil of the "generator-absorber," and
the gas is automatically turned out.
When the "generator-absorber" has cooled down to a predetermined
point of temperature, the liquid ammonia refrigerant commences to pass
from the "receiver" through the expansion valve into the expansion coil.
This coil is located in the ice chamber of the refrigerator itself.
The evaporation of ammonia gas, from this liquid, draws the heat from
the refrigerator and its contents.
Cold is merely the absence of heat. This process of drawing out the
heat creates a perfectly dry cold atmosphere in the refrigerator.
The spent ammonia gas then passes back to the "generator-absorber" —
(which first generated the gas, and again, when its work has been ac
complished, re-absorbs it). Thus the whole process of refrigeration has
been completed; matters stand where they were in the beginning. The
"generator-absorber" is again in readiness to repeat the operation which
is automatically done as often as is necessary to provide the refrigeration
required.
REFRIGERATION 373
ICE REFRIGERATION AND THE ICE CABINET1
BY M. E. PENNINGTON
National Association of Ice Industries
While ice, for many years, has been an indispensable article in the good
conduct of households, only recently has its efficient utilization received
serious attention. Like the electric current and gas its benefits must be
made apparent through suitable appliances.
The old "ice box" is being definitely superseded by the scientifically
designed and constructed ice-cooled refrigerator in which are maintained
the temperatures designated by bacteriologists and biochemists as neces
sary for the proper preservation in the home of milk, fresh meats, fruits,
vegetables and the like. For example, the portion of the refrigerator re
ceiving the current of air just off the ice is less than 45° F. even when at
mospheric temperatures are continuously at 90° F. and the contiguous
sections are well below 50° F. Particular attention has been paid to ob
taining 45° F. or less for milk and delicate foods, since, more and more, we
learn that 45° F. is, for them, the crucial temperature line. For most
vegetables and fruits, however, temperatures from 50° F. to 55° F. are
adequate for household needs.
The modern refrigerator for ice has abandoned the so called "dead air
space" for insulation and has substituted from one to three inches of pure
corkboard or its equivalent. It has properly adjusted openings for air cir
culation and a "baffle" between the ice compartment and the food com
partment which guides the direction of the air movement.
There should be available a section of the wall of every refrigerator sold
that the purchaser may see for herself (i) the thickness and kind of in
sulator, (2) the entire absence of so called "dead air spaces," (3) the
presence, location and kind of waterproofing compound used to protect
the insulation from moisture, (4) the reasonable use of paper to protect
the surface of the insulator but not to be depended upon for insulation.
The primary requirements in choosing insulators for household refriger
ators are (i) high resistance to the passage of heat and (2) high resistance
to the absorption of moisture such as is exhibited by pure corkboard. The
heat resistance of balsam wool, dry-zero, and to a lesser degree insulite,
celotex, nu-wood, weatherwood, and flaxlinum, has permitted these mate
rials to function in refrigerator walls when properly waterproofed. The
1 Part of the following article has been adapted from Buying a Refrigerator (House
hold Refrigeration Bureau, National Association of Ice Industries, 193.0), and the re
mainder has been prepared by Dr. Pennington for this publication.
374 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
less the resistance to heat, the thicker the layer of insulator must be.
Therefore, the purchaser should insist upon knowing the name of the in
sulator and the thickness of it.
Regardless of other qualities, insulators used in refrigerators should be
strong enough to stand up without support. This requirement places
granulated cork, mineral wood, asbestos wool and similar substances in
the category of the unreliable insulators for household refrigerators. Re
frigerators containing them lose their efficiency too rapidly to be either
reliable or economical. Balsam wool, dry-zero and flaxlinum are manu
factured in panel form and, if properly protected against moisture ab
sorption, the slabs wear well. In flexible blanket form they are, with our
present methods of building, much less reliable.
Microscopic air spaces such as nature puts into corkboard are our most
efficient insulators. But man cannot build such tiny, tight spaces into
walls and what man terms "dead air spaces" soon become almost value
less in a household refrigerator. For example, a refrigerator with air space
and paper in its walls melted 28 pounds of ice per day and gave a tem
perature in the top of the food compartment of 62.8° F. A similar re
frigerator with two inches of good insulation under exactly the same con
ditions melted 25 pounds of ice per day and maintained a temperature of
51.9° F. on the top shelf.
Too often the "bargains" advertised at low prices, or the sales of re
frigerators put on to attract customers, are based on air and paper cabi
nets without any real insulation. The salesmen have been known to
justify their statements by quotations from government bulletins in which
were set forth laboratory experiments but they were not applicable to
refrigerators of which fact the salesmen may have been ignorant.
Of course, the initial cost of air and paper is much less than the cost of
a good insulator. But such refrigerators, in spite of good icing, do not
protect foods. They soon acquire wet walls, melt ice extravagantly and
increase running costs beyond all reason.
Some refrigerator walls appear thick because some manufacturers have
alternated air spaces with layers of insulation. Or, they have left a space
next to the inside lining. Such walls will not wear well because they are
not air tight and so water will condense in them even when both inside
lining and outside sheathing are steel. When an insulator is wet — or even
damp — heat can go through it easily. Protecting against water absorption
is a difficult part of refrigerator construction.
Atmospheric air is sure to get into the walls and it always carries more
REFRIGERATION 375
or less moisture which condenses when it penetrates to a cold part of the
wall, especially the part near the inside lining since that is coldest. There
fore, a coating of some good water resisting compound, such as odorless
asphalt, should be applied to all surfaces. If this asphalt binds the self-
supporting insulator firmly to the interior lining on the one side and to the
outer sheathing on the other, the insulator will be kept dry and stay in
place for many years. Such construction, also, is an efficient way of elim
inating air spaces. Because of the difficulty in applying hot asphalt to
such surfaces, heavy paper impregnated with odorless asphalt is often
used to cover or wrap the slab of insulation.
The lining of a refrigerator should be porcelain or vitreous porcelain on
steel if the purchaser can afford it. At lower cost one can now obtain good
white enamel-on-steel linings which wear well if well made.
Whether of porcelain or enamel, the inside lining should extend un
broken around the ends and back of the refrigerator and the top and bot
tom should be put on with well-made locked seams. The old type of L
lining which necessitated separate fitted pieces for the lining of the ice
compartment is undesirable and is rapidly being replaced by linings of the
"one piece" type. The enamel metal linings have seams in them. It is the
aim of the conscientious manufacturer to make these seams as air tight as
possible and they are constantly improving their work.
The vitreous porcelain is truly in one piece and so is better able to
protect the walls against moisture. The old-fashioned L type of porcelain
lining is much less desirable than the continuous type now much used.
All corners should be rounded to facilitate cleaning. Formerly only
porcelain could have rounded corners but now enameled linings have
them.
The purchaser is especially interested in the openings to carry the air
to and from the ice ; in the construction of the baffle because of its influ
ence on air circulation; and in the amount of food space. When buying,
be sure that the refrigerator is up to date in these items.
Unless there is abundant and continuous circulation of air, the food will
not be well kept. To obtain good air circulation we must have (i) the
surface of the ice unobstructed, (2) a large opening for the air to escape
from the ice compartment, (3) a guide to direct the cold air all the way
down to the floor of the refrigerator and all the way up above the top
shelf.
Since we must have an open, uncovered ice surface to most rapidly and
efficiently absorb heat and food odors, it is obvious that appliances in
376 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
which the ice floats in water or is encased in metal over which the passing
air is to be cooled decrease refrigerating efficiency.
Almost without exception those refrigerators so designed and con
structed that they cool and deliver drinking water through a faucet have
food compartment temperatures which are too high for the adequate pro
tection of food. It is better to put drinking water into bottles, lightly
stoppered, and set them into the well-iced refrigerator in the milk or food
compartment.
In the middle of the floor of the ice compartment in the side icer re
frigerator there should be an opening having an area at least one quarter
of the total area. In refrigerators having from five to eight cubic feet of
food space this cold air outlet is usually from six to eight inches wide and
from 10 to 12 inches long. It is well, when selecting a refrigerator, to re
move the ice rack and measure this opening because if it is too small, the
refrigerator will not function properly. There should be a space between
the ice rack and the walls of the ice compartment that the cold air may
fall easily to the floor of the compartment and so through the hole. The
surface of the ice rack should stand at least one and one half inches above
the bottom of the ice compartment. Otherwise, the flow of air is cramped
and, also, there is likely to be sweating of the surface of the metal ceiling
of the milk compartment.
Thus will the air, cooled by passing over the surface of the ice which is
never more than 32° F., find a ready exit into the space where the food is
kept.
The next item to be sure of is that the air traverses completely the body
of the refrigerator and cools every portion of it. A simple and efficient
method of guiding the cold air is to extend upward and downward the
partition which separates the ice compartment from the food compart
ment, and to put within this partition some insulator so that it is less cold
than all metal would be.
Such an extension we call a "baffle" and for the best results it should
reach to within five inches of the floor and six inches from the top of the
refrigerator in cabinets of larger sizes. Then the air falling through the
large cold air down drop must continue to fall until it sweeps the floor
whereon stand the milk bottles and containers holding the most perishable
foods. Then it rises quite evenly, because it is picking up heat as it goes,
until it passes over the top of the baffle where there is plenty of space for
it to travel easily, and so over the surface of the ice again. The baffle must
be solid — that is, free from openings directly into the food compartment.
REFRIGERATION 377
If such exist, the circulation of air above the level of the ice will be very
sluggish and, consequently, the upper part of the refrigerator will be
warm. While this defect may not be felt when the refrigerator is full of
ice, it will be when the ice level falls.
We can easily see that the better the insulation and the better the
workmanship, the more space, provided the design of the interior is cor
rect, will a given amount of ice cool. From this knowledge we can properly
reason that a refrigerator having an unduly large proportion of its interior
space devoted to ice — such, for example, as 45 .to 50 per cent — is not so
economical a refrigerator nor, all other things being equal, so good a pur
chase as the refrigerator of the same total interior capacity which is prop
erly cooled with 30 to 40 per cent of that space devoted to ice. Given a
total capacity of 10 cu.ft., in the one case the housewife would have 6.5
cu. ft. for food space while, with the unduly large ice chamber, she would
have but 5 to 5.5 cu. ft. for food.
Recently the United States Bureau of Standards fixed the minimum
sizes of the door openings and the depth of the ice compartments,1 when
they are to accommodate 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150 pounds of ice, each
quantity to be in a single piece and each to conform to the standard sizes
for such weights.2 The most progressive and reliable refrigerator manu
facturers have adopted the recommendations of the Bureau of Standards
so that the purchaser, armed with the knowledge, can properly insist upon
being provided with such a refrigerator. Equipped when she goes to buy,
with a tape measure or a foot rule, she can for herself measure the height,
depth and width of the interior and so find the total cubic capacity. Then
removing the ice rack, she can measure the height, width and depth of the
ice compartment and so determine the proportion which its space bears
to the whole. Of course, she will measure the door opening3 to be sure it
conforms to the Bureau of Standards requirements.
The standardized ice compartments have given the wide awake re
frigerator manufacturer a chance to build systematized refrigerators
where, with the same amount of space devoted to ice, better building and
1 Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Division of Simplified Practice, Sim
plified Practice Recommendations R 109-29: Refrigerator Ice Compartments.
2 Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Division of Simplified Practice, Simpli
fied Practice Recommendations R 96-28: Ice Cake Sizes.
3 Door openings in clear:
25 Ib. 8" by 12" 75 Ib. 1 2" by 20" 150 Ib. 12" by 24"
50 Ib. 12" by 16" 100 Ib. 12" by 23"
378 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
better insulation will enable that ice to cool a greater and greater amount
of food space, as well as give longer wear and a more pleasing appearance.
For example, when the walls of the properly-built refrigerator contain
the equivalent of one inch of pure corkboard, 100 pounds of ice in a stand
ard size ice compartment can refrigerate about five cu. ft. of food space. If
the wall has the equivalent of one and one half inches of corkboard well
installed, the 100 pounds of ice within the same ice compartment can cool
from six to seven cu. ft. of food space. And when we have from two to
three inches of pure corkboard insulation, the food space which 100
pounds of ice can cool is a minimum of eight cu. ft.
The foregoing illustration shows the application of the information ob
tained by scientists working on the principles of economical and efficient
refrigerator construction, when the ice cut is constant. It applies in prin
ciple to the 75 and 50 pound cuts also.
Now let us see how the principle might apply if the purchaser had a
definite idea in her mind of the amount of food space which her family
required and wished to maintain the properly low temperatures neces
sary at a minimum expense for ice.
Should she need about five cu. ft. of refrigerated food space, she could
obtain it in a cabinet in which the ice compartment is dimensioned to hold
100 pounds of ice. Then the ice compartment would occupy about 40 per
cent of the total inside capacity. If, however, she selects a refrigerator
having more insulation and better construction, she can have the five cu. ft.
of space for food refrigerated with an ice compartment dimensioned for
75 pounds of ice. And with the very best of insulation and construction
she will find that five cu. ft. of food space can be refrigerated satisfactorily
by an ice compartment of 50 pounds' ice capacity as specified by the
Bureau of Standards. The space required for 50 pounds of ice when added
to the five feet of food space desired by the purchasing housewife gives a
total interior volume of about 7.5 cu. ft. of which the ice occupies about
30 per cent of the total insulated space.
Let the thrifty housewife remember, also, that ice must melt to cool
the ice compartment as well as the food compartment. But because no
foodstuffs of any kind should ever be put into the ice compartment, there
is no direct return for the ice unnecessarily melted to cool an ice compart
ment which is larger than it needs to be.
Chemists and bacteriologists working in their laboratories have as
certained that an average temperature not to exceed 45° F. in the milk
compartment and not to exceed 50° F. in the food compartment is ade-
REFRIGERATION 379
quate for the protection of foods in the home. These temperatures have
been broadcast far and wide so that the housewife is now familiar with
them and demands that her refrigerator gives them.
SUMMARY
The two general types of refrigerating systems are the compression and
the absorption type. A large number of makes of compression- type ma
chines are on the market. Most users are more interested in service, serv
ice cost, and machine cost than in refrigerants, kinds of drives, absorbents,
or systems of refrigeration. Consideration by the purchaser of the follow
ing factors is important: (i) Standing of the manufacturer, (2) record of
the machine, (3) noise, (4) length of life and cost of service and repairs,
(5) efficiency, (6) insulation of the refrigerator, (7) air or water cooling,
(8) servicing of the machine, (9) quality of local service, (10) comparison
of refrigeration by machines and by ice.
In buying a machine it is best to depend upon a reliable manufacturer
or agent. It is essential to have a high-grade cabinet as the preservation
of food is of exceptional importance.
In selecting ice cabinets insulation is of great importance. Adequate
insulation requires at least two inches of thickness of a good insulation
material, adequately protected from moisture. The insulators should
have high resistance to the passage of heat and high resistance to the ab
sorption of moisture. For linings, porcelains or vitreous porcelains on steel
are preferred. Less expensive linings are white enamel on steel linings.
Openings should be sufficiently large to carry the air to and from the ice.
The amount of food space and provision for air circulation is a consider
ation in buying. For good circulation: (i) The surface of the ice should
be unobstructed. (2) There should be a large opening for the air to escape
from the ice compartment. (3) There should be a guide to direct cold air.
Refrigerators should have cold-air outlets sufficiently large for proper op
eration, and air should traverse all portions of the refrigerator.
REFERENCES
GENERAL INFORMATION
ACKERMAN, W. T. Electric Household Refrigeration. Agricultural Experiment
Station Bull. 244. Durham: University of New Hampshire, 1929. Pp. 23.
AMERICAN GAS ASSOCIATION. Refrigeration with Gas — Why and How. New
York: The Association, 1925. Pp. 61.
380 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
BENNETT, ELIZABETH. Refrigerators, Their Selection, Use and Care. New York:
Butterick Publishing Co., 1928.
Includes list of mechanical and ice refrigerators.
BROOKHURST, J., and CARLSSON, V. "Keeping Food in the Home Refrigerator,"
Good Housekeeping, LXXXIII (July, 1926), 96.
JORDAN, RUTH. Care and Use of the Home Refrigerator for Food Preservation.
Extension Bull. .147. Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University, 1926. Pp. 8.
Factors in the Management of the Ice Cooled Refrigerator in the Home.
Agricultural Experiment Station Bull. 316. Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue Uni
versity, 1927. Pp. 32.
Miller, G. E. "Electrical Refrigeration for the Home," Journal of Home Eco
nomics, XVIII (June, 1926), 303-7.
NATIONAL ELECTRIC LIGHT ASSOCIATION. Electric Refrigeration. More Power
to the Home Series, Booklet 8. New York: The Association, n.d. Pp. 24.
PATTY, RALPH L. Cost of Electricity for the Home Electric Refrigerator. Agricul
tural Experiment Station Bull. 241. Brookings: South Dakota State Col
lege of Agriculture, 1929. Pp. 16.
PENNINGTON, M. E. Buying a Refrigerator (H.R.B. I2).1
The Care of the Home Refrigerator (H.R.B. 4).1
Cold Is the Absence of Heat (H.R.B. 8).1
How To Use a Good Refrigerator (H.R.B. io).1
Where To Place Food in the Household Refrigerator (H.R.B. 3).1
PEYSER, ETHEL R. "The Gas System of Refrigeration," House and Garden,
LI (February, 1927), 80, 168, 170.
Explanation of operation of gas-fired refrigerators of intermittent and continuous
types. Includes cost of operation.
U.S. BUREAU or HOME ECONOMICS. Household Refrigeration. Home Econom
ics Bibliography, No. 5. Washington: The Bureau, 1928. Pp. 24.
WHITTON, M. O. The New Servant. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page &
Co., 1927.
General information on electric refrigerators (pp. 213-26).
1 Published by the National Association of Ice Industries, Chicago, 111.
CHAPTER XI
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS
i. The Various Kinds of Wall Finish
BACKGROUNDS1
BY MRS. CHARLES BRADLEY SANDERS
Plain flat-tone2 paints, tints, wallpapers and commercial wall oilcloths
in a cloudy, allover3 pattern make the best backgrounds. For rooms facing
north, the best colors are the yellows, ranging from a cream color to a deep
pumpkin yellow. For rooms facing south, use light grays, which might
range to a deep putty color. In sunny rooms it is possible to use any colors
except those which fade easily. On the walls of rooms with northern or
eastern exposures, or a combination of both, use warm colors; southern
and western exposures demand cool tones. In the rooms of uncertain ex
posure, for example where windows on the west conflict with windows on
the east, use neutral tones, which are neither warm nor cool colors.
[NOTE: Although exposure doubtless is the most important factor which influences
the choice of color, such considerations as size and shape of rooms, type and size of
furniture, and individual preference also should be kept in mind.l
Warm Tones Neutrals Cool Tones
Red, light or dark Ivory Blues, light or dark
Rose, light or dark Cream Greens, light or dark
Pink, light or dark Buff Violets, light or dark
Brown, light or dark Putty Grays, light or dark
Orange, light or dark Tan Silver
Yellow, light or dark
Gold
The best way to treat adjoining rooms, with a wide doorway between,
is to have the walls of both rooms alike, preferably in a neutral color,
allover design paper, or plain flat-tone paint.
1 From How To Furnish the Small Home (Better Homes in America, 1929).
2 A flat-tone paint is a paint which contains more turpentine than oil and gives a
velvety, smooth finish to walls.
3 An allover design paper includes any of the mottled types or those showing a repeti
tion of a small, close design which lends a soft, cloudy appearance to walls as back
ground.
382 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
There are numerous types of finish for woodwork, such as paint, enamel,
stain, waxed or a rubbed finish, and each, in turn, is in good taste, provid
ing it is in harmony with either the furnishings or the wall decoration.
Where walls are lightly colored in either a paint or paper, it creates
greater harmony to paint the trim white, cream, or ivory. These colors
are suitable for Colonial houses, and are agreeable in living rooms, dining
rooms and bedrooms. Dark woodwork and light walls are not usually in
harmony, excepting in the case of all dark furniture; for example, if the
furniture is dark mahogany or walnut, and the house is not strictly of a
period j it would be permissible to have mahogany or walnut woodwork.
If the furniture is dark oak, woodwork of the same wood and tone would
be in harmony. Painting woodwork in any of the light tones creates
harmony with light painted or papered walls, while finishing the wood in
darker and natural tones makes a contrast, and should be used in con
nection with the more mellow-colored wall paints or papers.
Highly varnished light oak and pine woodwork is the most difficult and
trying to make harmonize with either walls or furniture, and should not
be considered. Mahogany, walnut, oak and all hardwoods should be fin
ished with either oil, wax or varnish, and rubbed down and finished dull.
This helps the woodwork to blend with the furniture and hangings.
FINISHES FOR ROUGH AND SMOOTH
PLASTERED WALLS1
Color, tone, and texture are the elements of the background treatment.
A familiar principle in their use is that the walls should be lighter than the
floor and darker than the ceiling. This customary treatment reflects the
out-of-door tonal relations of dark earth, lighter foliage, and luminous sky.
But no rule-of-thumb can be applied to so variable a problem; in a high-
ceiled room the proportions may appear favorably changed by darkening
the ceiling several shades below the tone of the walls.
The color and tone of the walls, as well as being in harmonious relation
to the furniture, should be chosen with reference to the exposure and size
of the rooms, the warmer buffs and yellows being in favor for rooms with
little sunlight, and lighter shades for small rooms than for spacious ones.
Neutral shades, such as buff, ivory, and gray, are safe enough, and often
form the most attractive possibility; but one should not rely too supinely
upon the neutrals, because equally suitable and infinitely richer effects
may be obtained through more original color-treatments.
1 Adapted from The House Beautiful Furnishing Annual, 1926 (Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926), pp. 12-15.
FIG. 49. — A rough-plaster finish requires few pictures or hangings for decorative
purposes. Interior of Santa Barbara State Teacher's College practice house.
384 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Of equal importance is the question of texture — will the effect sought
in the room we are planning be best secured through a smooth painted
wall, a rough plaster finish, the finer and less varied texture of wall paper,
or the richness of a textile? In general, a rough texture or pronounced
pattern on the wall diminishes the apparent size of a room. It absorbs the
light and makes one more conscious of the nearness of the walls, just as
a dark ceiling usually seems lower than a light one. An exception to this
statement is found in the skilful use of old-fashioned landscape papers,
which lend their distance and perspective to a small room. In general,
tone and texture which often pass unnoticed — through lack of conspicuous
qualities — tend to make the room seem larger than it would with a strik
ing wall-treatment. It is well to realize the importance of these and other
interlocking details which at first seem obvious and hardly worth men
tioning, for they should all be given consideration in choosing the wall-
treatment. Before making the final selection, the householder should
know the possibilities which lie before him
PLASTER WALLS AND PAINTED FINISHES1
Plaster walls may be varied by two means, texture and color, and with
the possible variations of these two qualities many different effects are
attainable. In many rooms the severity of plain plaster walls in neutral
tone provides the most successful foil for tapestries or paintings of rich
color, while some rooms which lack such distinctive decoration welcome
the addition of more perceptible texture and color in the plaster. The
modern use of rough plaster finishes, with soft color in plain or stippled
effect, can be decorative and satisfactory, but it is easy to overdo uneven-
ness. Moderation, here as elsewhere, is a wise rule. Moreover, where un
even finishes are used, the unevenness should not be mechanically regular.
Avoid extremes in designing a finish of plaster or plaster-substitutes. To
increase the soft and uneven effect of hand finishes, the corner-bead is
sometimes omitted from the process of making the corners, and they are
molded as squarely as may be by hand. This seems in pleasant scale
with the roughness of the wall surface, but is more liable to chipping from
careless treatment.
Whatever the texture and color of plaster walls, the contractor should
be called upon for samples from which selection may be made before work
is begun. Actual samples should be required of all wall treatments except
1 For illustrations of plaster finishes and plaster glossary see The House Beautiful
Furnishing Annual, 1926, pp. 15-16.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 385
plain plaster. For color, a row of shingles, for example, painted the dif
ferent shades under consideration and observed in the very room where
the color is to be used — to see the true light-conditions, and so forth —
FIG. 50. — A smooth-plaster wall finish provides many opportunities for artistic
results. (Photograph by Haskell. Living room of a house designed by Allen & Collens.)
will save much expense and energy. See for yourself. If you cannot be
sure of your visual imagination, try an actual sample in the proposed
Ci-tm7T-»*y"kf* w\*iv\ 4-
environment.
386 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Color may be given to plaster walls in two ways: By adding dry color
to the plaster before it is applied to the wall, or by painting or calcimining
the finished wall. The first method has so far been less practicable than
the second, as it requires experience to be sure of obtaining the color de
sired, and fading has been considered due to the "eating" of the color by
the lime in the plaster. Modern materials and methods are removing this
objection.
Wall paint. — The use of flat wall-paint — dull surface without gloss —
on plaster walls is a practical finish which may be readily washed and kept
clean. In most rooms it is preferable to any of the enamel-paint finishes,
although in kitchen or bathroom a glossy enamel is clean-looking and
easily cared for. As a background for pictures and hangings, in plain
color, the mat surface of flat paint is the more harmonious. The degree of
roughness of the wall surface, rather than the applied color, determines
the texture in this case. By stippling — dabbling on the paint from the
end of a coarse brush — a smooth wall may be given more texture, or a
rough wall an appropriate finish; but this, like unevenness of the plaster,
is a practice which should be followed in moderation. Avoid much con
trast in the tones of color used; only a slight variation is pleasant. The
same is true of the various other two-toned finishes by which smears of
another color than the background are applied with wadded newspaper or
similar vehicle.
For maintenance, painted walls on account of their washableness are
usually preferable to a calcimined finish. Calcimine, however, is perhaps
simpler to apply, and is less expensive in preliminary cost. It is often
practical to calcimine new walls, then later, after a settling period of a
year or two, to wash off the calcimine and apply the permanent treat
ment. This lowers the first cost without obtrusive economy. To patch
either plain paint or calcimine is a difficult process, for which a perfect
match in tone is requisite, and a light hand on the brush strokes. Cal
cimine — cold-water paint — is usually considered inexpensive enough to
make an entire new coat more satisfactory than an attempt at patching.
It is generally used in light tints, and always in plain colors.
Obviously, the roughness of a wall surface will govern to a certain ex
tent its dust-catching proclivities. But this is not serious enough to alarm
any housewife, considering the convenience of wall-brushes, with or with
out "vacuum" power. Another practical aspect of rough surfaces is their
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 387
scratchiness. For livableness, choose a finish which has no sharp particles
adhering to it, although it may look comparatively rough.
Pargeting. — An attractive possibility in adding a decorative note to
plaster walls in modern non-period rooms is the use of large figures, small
patterns in relief, usually arranged unconventionally in the area to be
decorated. This is an inheritance from old English work, and the designs
in use are largely descendants of rather primitive and na'ive Tudor ani
mals, flowers, and so forth, but include as well more diffuse patterns of
vines and scrolls. Special designs are adaptable for use in this way, the
figures being usually cast first and imbedded in the plaster as it is applied,
although in some of the old work the plasterer molded the figure as he
spread the plaster. Originality in simple effects is attainable with parget
ing, and although the informality of the spotting of the small figures may
appeal to comparatively few people, the suggestions of ornamental relief
may be carried out more conventionally. For instance, an over-mantel
decoration in relief is most appropriate in rooms of Spanish as well as of
classic inspiration, and gives a satisfying feeling of permanence and in
dividuality.
Stenciling. — Another decoration appropriate to plaster walls is the ap
plication of color with a stencil pattern. The misuse of stenciling has given
many of us unpleasant associations with it, which may easily be dispelled
by a fair consideration of its possibilities. The importance of a design suit
able to the mechanical limitations should be realized, as wide "ties" — the
connecting links of the pattern which hold together the perforated design
— in most stencils are much to blame for the frequently rudimentary
effect of such work. Possibly some design in the upholstery or hangings of
the room will provide a motif which can be adapted to its use as a stencil,
permitting a judicious distribution of the ties and at the same time adding
pleasantly to the decorative unity of the room.
The preparation of the pattern and its alignment for use, as well as the
preparation and use of colors, demand both good workmanship and good
materials. Border patterns are used in numerous ways: Around doors and
windows, in decorative panels, or as horizontal borders in the room at any
desired height. The majority of stencil patterns are bold enough to be
applicable to plaster surfaces of rough texture, and gain in interest from
the variation of background.
Wall-stenciling should be carefully designed to take its proper place in
388 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the decorative scheme, and removable samples showing the proposed ef
fect should always be passed upon in advance. An attractive, unobtru
sive form of stenciling is done in flat paint and enamel paint of the same
tone ; with the pattern done in gloss on the dull background, an effect is
wrought suggestive of damask.
OTHER TREATMENTS FOR SMOOTH
PLASTERED WALLS
A decorative treatment may be given to smooth plaster walls by panel
ing. These panels may be made of wood or of plaster molding. Common
picture molding often is used, and provides an inexpensive and effective
treatment. The difficulty, however, in the laying-out of plaster walls into
panels by the use of these moldings is in obtaining proper balance and
proportion; for the room should be properly divided with consideration
for doors and windows. For good results in paneling the plaster should be
smooth. If it is not, a canvas usually is applied in order to hide cracks and
other defects. This canvas is then sized. Generally, it is not considered
advisable to panel a wall which has a number of openings as paneling in
such a case would give the appearance of over-ornamentation. Consider
ation also should be given to each panel as a unit in itself, as well as its
relation in size to other panels. Painting is usually advisable for a wall
which has been paneled, and in accordance with other principles of
decoration, the moldings and woodwork should be of the same tone, par
ticularly in small rooms. Paneling is inexpensive and is commonly used
in inexpensive houses, as it provides a satisfactory decorative wall treat
ment. The use of canvas is also effective in reconditioning as it hides
shabby and worn plaster. If the plaster is too worn, it may be covered
with plaster board and then paneled.
Antiquing which has been commonly used has not proved highly satis
factory. The results often are "dirty looking," and the walls do not have
the desirable fresh and clean appearance. Antiquing is accomplished both
with flat paint and with water color. A common method is to apply a
second coat of transparent color over a first coat of flat paint, after the
former has become dry. The second coat is then wiped off while still wet.
The result is a two-toned effect. Another finish for plaster is a treatment
which results in the appearance of natural wood.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 389
PLASTIC PAINT1
BY JEANNETTE KILHAM
Plastic paint has the same surface appearance as the old cementitious
materials and is just as permanent. It is, however, far easier to apply.
Plastic paint will cover any surface that can be successfully painted and
the same general principles which govern the application of paint apply
also to plastic paint. Plastic paint, however, has this quality that it pro
vides a uniform coating over a variety of different surfaces such as glass,
cement, brick, etc., which makes it a boon in remodeling. It also covers
wall board most successfully providing the joints are properly filled.
Surfaces which are to form backgrounds for objects bold in design and
color can be richly coated with the material and broadly swept and
smoothed with rhythmic sweeps of the trowel or a celluloid triangle, such
as an architect uses. The artistry lies in emphasizing the strokes of the
implement without placing them too self-consciously or automatically, the
heavier the coat the rougher will be the resulting finish. Heavy, richly
carved furniture and gorgeously colored textiles are enhanced by being
placed against an effective background of this kind, which offers a sub
dued contrast of texture.
On the other hand, objects fragile in outlines and delicately tinted
should be placed against a wall thinly coated with plastic paint and then
slightly textured with the brush or stippled. Besides their attractiveness,
lightly brushed and stippled textures are practical and economical, par
ticularly where there are large areas to be covered.
If a one-coat finish is desired, color is added to the mix before it is ap
plied to the wall. Best results are obtained by tinting with dry or fresco
colors of the best grade, avoiding those colors which may fade in water
mixes. The color should be broken down in water until it is the consist
ency of cream. It should be stirred first into a small portion of the plastic
paint, which, in turn, is stirred with the whole mix. It is advisable to test
the color by force-drying a small sample as some colors dry several shades
lighter than they appear when wet.
Color for plastic-paint surfaces, however, is usually applied in a glaze
which is washable. The surface is generally sized to kill suction and pre
pare the surface for the glazing. The glaze, contrary to the mix of plastic
paint proper, is tinted with oil colors. Pigments that change should be
1 Adapted from "Plastic Paint as a Background for Antiques," Arts and Decoration,
February, 1930. Printed by courtesy of the Arts and Decoration magazine.
390 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
avoided. The glaze should appear over the sized plastic-paint surface as
evenly as possible with an ordinary wall brush. It can be stippled to in
sure an even distribution and to help in blending the colors. It should be
allowed to set a few minutes and then before it becomes tacky wiped
evenly and carefully with a cloth rolled into a pad. The wiping removes
some of the color from the projections of the texture, giving clear and dis
tinct highlights, and leaves it in the depressions. The finished job results
in a pleasing suggestion of light and shade — a subtle and very lovely two-
toned effect though only one color has been used. Vari-colored finishes are
produced by blending separately tinted mixes of glaze. If pastel shades
are desired base colors should be toned down by using zinc white
The wall finished with plastic paint is textured and colored by hand;
it is a product of the craftsman and as such it is a natural and sympathetic
accompaniment to the antiques and other art treasures. One can obtain
almost any color effect desired by experimenting a bit with blending dif
ferent tones. This, with the fact that plastic paint can be applied as read
ily over an old as over a new surface, makes it an extremely practical
interior finish for general use.
[NOTE: To obtain artistic results from plastic paint the greatest of care should be
exercised in its application.]
WALLPAPER AND FABRICATED MATERIALS
Wallpaper long has been known as a desirable wall covering. There are
many excellent reproductions of Early American and Colonial papers
available at moderate cost — printed in attractive color and combinations
of color. Wallpaper panels — sections of interesting wallpaper design
framed by moldings or borders — are used with good results. Brocades,
velvets, and crewel patterns are recommended for paneled rooms. Mr.
Matlack Price has discussed, briefly, fabricated wall materials and wall
paper in the following paragraphs taken from his article "Wall Treat
ment: Texture, Color and Design":1
Chief among fabricated materials, other than wallpapers, which add color
and pattern to the interiors, is undoubtedly Sanitas, which of recent years has
made a distinct advance in pattern design. Sanitas patterns compare more
closely with wallpaper patterns, having abandoned an earlier tendency toward
oilcloth, and in a material which, for certain purposes, serves better than wall
paper. If walls are in a bad condition, with old or new cracks, Sanitas, or its
newer cousin, Wall-Tex, provides an ideal solution.
1 In Arts and Decoration, July, 1930. Printed by courtesy of the Arts and Decoration
magazine.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 391
The makers of Sanitas have recently introduced a new wall covering called
Metalline Brocade, a material in "period" patterns, with a lustrous, satin-like
finish and delicate embossing. Here, certainly, are promising possibilities, when
a wall covering can be devised to so closely approximate the effect of rich fabrics
and at the same time be cleanable with a damp cloth.
The new material called Wall-Tex reminds us of the advantage enjoyed by
any decorative product in which, all other things being equal, the element of
FIG. 51. — Wallpaper, plain or with a design, provides many effective wall finishes
design has been well and capably styled. Here are designs modern in feeling and
technique, and suited in character to city apartment or country home. Quaint
chintz patterns, too, provide for interiors that are English or Early American in
feeling.
As to wallpaper, never before has it been in a stronger position in decorative
favor than it is to-day. There was a time when wallpaper, failing to keep abreast
of changing tendencies in decoration, came to be thought of as "old-fashioned."
To-day, the situation is entirely different. Importations bring over the very
latest in modern patterns from Europe, and our own designers are beginning to
create unconventional patterns here.
Wallpaper, as a decorative resource, contributes to the interior pattern, color,
and period characteristics, and with the present range offered, the perfect selec-
392 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
tion is entirely up to the decorator. What is more charming, for instance, in a
Provencal French interior than a wallpaper reproduction of one of the old Toiles
de Jouy? Or what more perfect for the Early American interior than one of the
many reproductions of early wallpapers? Decorators have enriched wallpapered
rooms by antiquing, which is a process that not only enhances the material but
preserves it. For simple waterproofing, which will give a glazed effect, clear,
transparent varnish is used over a first coat of glue size. After the paper has
been given the protection of sizing and varnishing it may be antiqued by a
third coat of much diluted orange shellac. At wallpaper stores there may be had
a special preparation for antiquing, which produces exactly the degree of mellow
ing and brings out all the best qualities of the paper.
New decorative materials serve new decorative needs and trends, but it is
safe to say that there will never be a substitute for wallpaper. Nothing will ever
take its place, nor is anything likely to provide, within reasonable cost, such a
versatile decorative resource. The range in wallpaper prices is almost as great
as the range in styles, covering papers from sixty cents a roll to papers at three
dollars and a half, and upward. The pictorial landscape papers come in sets,
and are priced by the set rather than by the roll, with a range from twelve
dollars for six-strip sets to seventy-five dollars, and more, for some of the im
ported sets.
Modern decoration calls for wallpaper patterns that are rather delicate in
coloring and of a whimsical, often "sketchy" sort of design, departing definitely
from the conventional. Many of these have the appearance of being free-hand
quality that comes to us through an artist's direct work. The machine, at last,
seems to have been conquered by the makers of modern wallpapers to a point
where it does not mechanize a design and delete from it all spontaneity.
This, certainly, the modern movement seems in a way to give us. The ma
chine, for years, had dominated design and made it a conventional unimagina
tive thing. Now, in the outstanding instances where authentic original design
has come into the field of textiles and wallpapers, the machine has been put to
work to interpret and realize, rather than suppress the designer's expression.
Wallpaper, however, like our other decorative resources, has not gone en
tirely modern. While it has shown a progressive spirit in the production of
essentially modern designs, it has, by no means, discontinued its historic re
productions or its more conventional styles. There are still the highly stylized
flock papers that rival in depth and texture the rich fabrics they reproduce, and
there are still the quaint and charming floral papers that bring the colors and
patterns of decorative chintzes into the room.
[NOTE. — Wallpaper: Excellentinformation on measuring rooms for paper, trimming,
paste, and hanging, may be obtained from The Paper Hangers' Manual. Wallpaper
Guild of America, 461 Eighth Ave., New York City. Pp. 32.]
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 393
NEW WALL FINISHES AND DECORATION1
BY MATLACK PRICE
With all the variety of modern materials available for wall covering,
choice among them rests entirely with the kind of house you have, or the
kind of room, which may be anything from Elizabethan to ultra-modern.
To begin with the oldest materials, there are plaster, wood paneling
and tiles; to proceed to the less old, there is wallpaper; and to proceed
further, to more modern ideas, there are such materials as glass, vitrolite,
sani-onyx and chromite.
If the house be Norman, Elizabethan, English cottage old or new, or if
it be Spanish or Italian, plaster walls are preferred, perhaps with paneling
in the Elizabethan house. Spanish or Italian types, moreover, and espe
cially the former, are full of ideal opportunities to use decorative glazed
tiles.
In houses of Colonial or Early American derivation, certain plaster
finishes can be used, always wood paneling and always wallpaper. The
modern in interior treatments is not so stylized by precedent: You can
use any of these things, with the exception of wood paneling (which is
"old fashioned") and you can use various new materials, such as glass,
cork, or vitrolite.
Let us make a few specific notes.
First, there is plaster, with all its finishes, from semi-smooth to textures
as rough as you please, and plaster, too, is modeled in decorative ceilings
or in bas-relief incidents which may be built in. And for the formal in
terior, and especially for the foyer or hall, there is cast trouvertine,
marked in the effect of ancient masonry.
A great deal of variety has been added to plasterwork by the develop
ment of colored plasters and by the ready availability, now, of really well-
designed and well-cast mantles, placques, bas-reliefs and other decorative
incidents. The makers of these casts now go to authentic sources for their
models instead of putting out the very poor castings that tended to dis
credit the whole art of plastering. This, is, in fact, an art usually per
formed with a higher degree of appreciation by the Italian workman than
by any other. He seems to have inherited some of the fine artistry and
craftsmanship of Renaissance Italy.
With good, sound plasterwork as a base, there appears to be, at the
1 Adapted from "The Walls of Your Home," Arts and Decoration, March, 1930.
Printed by courtesy of Arts and Decoration magazine.
394 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
present time, a revived popularity for decorative glazed tiles, which are
to be had in a wide range of good colors and pleasing patterns.
Tiles have been welcomed with joy by lay decorators who do uncon
ventional modern decoration, because there is no limit to the colors or
arrangements possible. Being small units, tiles are particularly adaptable
to whatever scheme the decorator wants to execute.
Nor are tiles the only wall material. Vitrolite and opaque glass are
constantly revealing new possibilities. Combined with built-in mirrors
and colored plumbing fixtures, here are unthought of possibilities. Even
the ceiling is now "glazed" with slabs of these materials, and it is doubt
ful if anything more sophisticated, more decoratively exotic, than black
glass has ever been utilized by decorators. Combined with mirrors, and
with one other color, such as jade green or coral, black glass has an in
comparable depth and richness.
Orchid, grey, gold, amber — here are colors to conjure with, and the
new bath-dressing-rooms, designed in the new wall materials, are like
nothing that has ever been attempted before, except in a few isolated in
stances.
Color ranges that include jade and sapphire and turquoise — shapes of
all kinds — patterns from odd floral motifs to quaint animals and figures,
or a grand Spanish galleon sailing over a singing blue sea — what materials
for any decorator to work with !
All these tiles are not of baked clay: Some are of new and special
materials, such as sani-onyx, which is a vitreous substance, or chromite,
smooth, flint-hard material that is cemented to the wall in sheet form.
Each offers practical as well as esthetic advantages; we are living in an age
of new materials which are revolutionizing interior decoration. We are
offered new textures, new colors, new possibilities of building color into
our houses in permanent form.
Nor does modern departure end here. Some vibrant effects have been
obtained in sheet metal and leather. The new decorators, to whom prece
dent is only another term for anathema, have argued that, if tiles, some
times a floor material, may be used for walls, why not use cork tiles,
normally a floor material, for walls? Cork has, indeed, much to offer for
unusual walls. Rich and mellow in its natural color, deeper still when
waxed; soft and interesting in texture, it is also an absorber and deadener
of sound.
The moderns have looked at various woods, too, and seen in them pos-
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 395
sibilities that have nothing to do with our old ideas of wood rooms, which
were paneled. They have seen figure as wood's chief claim to decorative
value, and are using it in great, flat, unpaneled expanses. ....
PANELED WALLS OF WOOD1
BY H. VANDERVOORT WALSH
Professor of Architecture, Columbia University
One of the basic principles in all the arts is that any composition must
have unity; that is, the parts must seem to belong together to form one
thing. A building may be unified by virtue of being one unit, as for ex
ample a small house of rectangular shape, covered with a simple gable
roof. But, if we go beyond one part and have a number, it is essential that
we produce unity by making one central part much more important than
the others. A house consisting of a number of extensions should be so
designed that these additions are made less high and bulky than the main
body of the house.
Now the same is true with the interior of the home. A sense of unity
must be produced by the room arrangement inside. The living room
should be bigger, have a higher ceiling and be more elegantly treated than
any other room, so that it may dominate the plan and give a sense of
unity to the house. This is important in the small house.
There are a number of ways of doing this. The length and width of the
living room may be made quite large, by contrast to the other rooms. The
ceiling may be made higher by not covering the floor beams with plaster,
increasing their thickness, separating them further apart than usual and
so letting the flooring on top of them serve as the ceiling. If one can afford
it, the living room which extends up two stories in height is most effective.
This however is an uneconomical thing to do in a small house. But there
is another way of giving importance to the living room which is neglected
in the American home. It is to cover the walls with wood paneling and
have exposed wooden beams on the ceiling.
A living room which is decorated in this manner seems to be, if it is
properly done, more homelike, than one decorated in any other way.
There is a sense of warmth and intimacy about walls of wood. The rich
colors and the variations of texture produced by the grain lend an' air of
dignity Not only do the panels seem warmer, but they actually are,
especially if one coat of plaster has been put on before they are applied.
1 Adapted from "Paneled Walls of Wood for the Small Home," Small Home, May,
1929.
396 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Without effort, a living room decorated with wood paneling dominates
the plan and produces that unity which is necessary in any artistic com
position. It becomes the center of the family life, and the members
gravitate to it without effort. It is not like so many living rooms which
are vacant, except when company comes.
Often, home-owners, although realizing all of these qualities, hesitate to
have wood-paneled rooms, fearing the cost will be prohibitive. This fear
FIG. 52. — Paneling with wood is an effective wall treatment, and it requires less
wall decoration. (Photograph by Mattie Edwards Hewitt.)
is usually well founded, for wood paneling as installed in the homes of the
wealthy and designed after the finest of Tudor or French traditions is
work for a cabinetmaker. Yet it is possible to select types of paneling
that are beautiful, and which can be put on by the ordinary carpenter, at
a reasonable price.
Old English cottages offer some suggestions as to the methods of panel
ing that are simple enough for any carpenter to make. One method,
which is quite effective, reveals appreciations of light and shade which the
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 397
old carpenters had. Vertical boards were laid up so that every other one
was forward of those on either side of it, by about one half the thickness
of the board. This was done by having tongues along each edge of half of
the boards and grooves along the edges of the other half. By fitting the
boards together in this staggered fashion, a feeling of thickness and
variety of shade resulted. Other similar methods were used in early times.
In our own Colonial period there were similar wooden partitions con
structed, but they were slightly more elaborate. Boards about 18"
wide were cut to make a lap joint at the edges, and then ornamented by
an interesting molding to hide the joint. Sometimes a molding was also
run down the middle of the board to resemble the joint molding, and
make the board seem narrower. To-day, if we could get a board as wide as
1 8", we would be so proud of it, that we would think it a sacrilege to make
it seem like two narrower boards.
We can easily sheathe our walls, to-day, with this type of wood finish.
Boards of pine, redwood, Douglas fir and yellow pine, or cypress are very
well suited to this type of decoration. An ordinary carpenter can do the
work too. In finishing this boarding, wax rubbed into the wood and slight
ly colored with burnt umber brings out the warmth of the wood and makes
a somewhat dull finish in harmony with the simplicity and crudeness of
this kind of wood wainscoting.
Ornamental effects, something like carving, can be obtained with the
sand-blasting method, at very little additional expense. Designs can be
made to stand out on the board by shielding selected surfaces of the wood
from the eating action of the sand. Patterns of the design are cut from
manila paper and pasted on the board, so that the portion of the wood
under the paper is shielded against the corroding action of the sand blast.
When the process is completed and the paper removed, the ornament will
seem to be raised from the surface. Additional effects can be obtained by
staining the patterns. Redwood is particularly attractive when treated in
this manner.
Of course it will be next to impossible to secure boards as wide as
18", as did our Colonial fathers, but even if it were, they would split
under the action of our steam heat in the winter months. However, broad
and fine surfaces of wood can be obtained, even more beautiful in grain
than ordinary boards, by using plywood. This is a wood board, con
structed of three layers of thin veneer. The interior layer has its grain at
right angles to the exterior layers. These veneers are glued together under
398 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
great pressure and are more durable than real boards. Widths of four and
five feet are possible which do not crack under the drying action of steam
heat. As the exterior veneer is especially selected for its richness of grain,
some charming effects are possible. Nearly all of our native woods are
made up into these plywood boards, and they are quite reasonable in price.
Indeed, not only is the cost low but it is a better type of construction
than solid boards. Panels made from plywood will not warp or crack so
easily.
From the earliest times, carpenters have realized that wood swells in
moist weather and shrinks in dry weather and that nothing can prevent
this action. This movement of wood is more pronounced across the grain
than in its length. A wide board will shrink and swell in its width a good
deal, but very little in its length. Knowing this, carpenters and cabinet
makers have developed a method of building panels which has not
changed much even in these days of new things. Narrow boards, two and
three inches wide, are used to build a frame for the panels of wood. If a
room is to be covered with panels, these framing boards, if horizontal, are
called rails and if vertical are called styles or muntins. Along their edges
are cut grooves into which the edges of the panels can be fitted. Thus the
panel boards are held in place but are free to shrink and swell.
In English paneling the rails and muntins were made about two and
three quarters of an inch wide. The edges were cut with a rebate so that
the panels slipped behind them. In cross section they were something
like a T with a very wide stem and narrow cross bar. Some rails, however,
were made like an H in cross section and the edges of the panels were
fitted into the slots.
The proportions of the panels were quite well established. The width
was to the height as 3 is to 5. Usual dimensions in inches were 12" wide
and 20" high. The horizontal rails were usually continuous strips and the
muntins were cut into short lengths and fitted in between the rails.
Moldings were cut along the edges of the muntins, and a molding added
at the top of the panel under the rail to match and miter at the corners.
No molding was carried along the bottom of the panel, but the upper
edge of the rail was chamfered. The panel itself was about one inch thick
and decorated with carving. The design which was most in vogue was
the so called linenfold.
Now to build paneling of this type to-day is a cabinetmaker's job and
the cost is rather great. However, there is a way of constructing it so that
it has much the same character, but is very much less difficult to build,
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 399
and is therefore more in keeping with the economies which must be prac
ticed in the small house.
This is the way to do it. First cover the studding with gypsum boards
or lath and one coat of rough plaster to serve as a fire stop behind the wood
paneling. The position of the various muntins and rails in relation to the
openings in the room must, of course, be laid off in a drawing. To main
tain good character, the size of the panels should be as near to 12" wide
to 20" high as possible.
Use plywood, veneered on one side with oak, in lengths which will go
roughly from floor to ceiling. Paint the back with linseed oil before setting
in place to retard the penetration of dampness. Nail all joints in a position
where they will be behind rails or muntins. This of course is also true of
the position of nail heads. On top of the walls thus sheathed with ply
wood, nail the horizontal rails, consisting of plain oak boards 2 \" wide by
f " thick. The short lengths of vertical muntins can also be nailed on.
Then apply along the edges of the rails and muntins, mitering at the
corners, an oak molding having the right character of profile.
It is best not to nail these moldings or rails too firmly together for the
first year, for as the house settles, some stresses will be set up in this
paneling, and if free to move a little, the wood will not split. After the
first year, more nails can be driven in. Counter sink these nails where they
show and fill up the holes with plastic wood compound.
The effect of wood paneling of this type is very pleasing, besides being
very much cheaper to build than real paneling. If it is stained slightly,
and the middle of the panels rubbed with steel wool to lighten up the stain
and add a high-light and then wax applied, a very rich room decoration
will result.
An even less expensive paneled effect can be secured by using plywood
of Douglas fir and styles of the same wood. The graining of the fir is very
beautiful for the veneers are taken from the out layer of the tree and since
the logs are so great, and the cut is almost parallel to the annual ring of
the new growth all the irregularities of the new growth produce a curling,
twisting grain of great interest. This wood paneling will look best if no
stain is applied. A stain will accentuate the grain so much that it will give
the room a restless feeling. The unstained wood, finished with a little wax,
in which burnt umber has been added, will be quieter and more cheerful.
As the general tone is amber color, the room will not be as dark and heavy
as one paneled with oak.
For a living room 13^x2 2' and 8' high, the materials for paneling of this
400 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
type cost about $85. The labor of applying will be about as much again.
The same paneling done in the real manner would cost in the neighbor
hood of $1,000
WOODWORK FINISHES1
For unity's sake in the modern house where the rooms may so easily be
thrown together by the use of the ever charming French doors, or open
doorways, the woodwork in all the rooms on each floor, especially in the
main living rooms, usually should be finished alike. The necessary variety
can then be introduced in the wall finish. Of course if one plans to give
each room a distinctly different character the woodwork should be fin
ished accordingly, but the surest and simplest method, unless one is an
artist, is to finish the woodwork in all the rooms on each floor alike. All
built-in features, bookcases, buffets or window seats should be finished in
the same manner.
The usual finishes for woodwork may be divided into two main types :
Natural and painted or enameled. By the first the native beauty of the
wood is strengthened and brought out by the use of transparent finishes:
Stain and varnish; or stain, shellac and wax. By the second the surface of
the wood is entirely covered.
Because all woods do not take the same finish equally well, in planning
a house the choice of wood finish desired should determine the choice of
material for the wood trim. Soft woods like whitewood or poplar do not
take the natural finish well. Cypress or birch cost very little more and
take stain very well. Other good woods for natural finish are oak, gum-
wood, and spruce. Pine varies greatly, usually it is better painted.
It always seems a pity, sometimes almost a desecration, to paint beauti
ful hardwood, especially oak.
WOODWORK IN THE NATURAL FINISH
At present this method of finishing is somewhat in disrepute because of
the very natural reaction from the orgy of "golden oak" and artificially
grained woodwork of the past era in decoration. The trouble, however, is
not with the finish, but because it was not properly done. There is nothing
more beautiful than properly finished rich dark woodwork, particularly
for the main rooms of the house. Especially if the walls are paneled this
finish has a richness, an elegance, and a dignity not equalled by any other.
1 Adapted from Decorative and Practical Treatments for Woodwork and Walls. Good
Housekeeping Institute, 1926.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 401
Improperly done, however, it has no claims to beauty. Many people hesitate
to use wood paneling because of the expense, when in fact this finish has
many claims for real economy on the score of durability and permanence.
From the housewife's point of view the dark natural finish rates high, as
it is undoubtedly very easy to care for. The artificial graining of soft
woods to represent hard woods is an imitation that should not be toler
ated. The need of simple honesty in the construction and finish of our
homes to-day cannot be emphasized too often.
FIG. 53. — A wall finish of acid-stained redwood
STAINING AND FINISHING
The quality and grain of the wood should be enriched and strengthened
by staining. This is most important as there is not always the proper
depth to the natural wood color. Very interesting effects can be worked
out on open grain woods such as oak, cypress or birch by the use of a
paste filler in connection with the stain. The purpose of the filler is not
only to fill up the open pores of the wood but to bring out the pattern of
the grain in a tone either slightly darker or lighter than the stain. In this
way the natural beauty of the wood is enhanced. The final finish after the
stain may be shellac and wax; or dull varnish. The steps in the proper
finishing of natural woodwork are :
402 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
A priming coat of raw linseed oil and turpentine stain of color required.
When dry follow with careful sandpapering with the grain with No. oo
sandpaper.
Coat of white shellac.
Paste wax rubbed in, or
After stain, two coats of interior varnish, preferably dull finish.
Varnish should be lightly rubbed with No. oo sandpaper between coats.
The cost of labor and materials to-day makes it quite expensive to finish
natural woodwork properly. In the attempt to economize many short cuts
have been devised, most of which, while reducing cost, reduce quality also.
Some specifications call for only two coats — the first of stain and filler,
the second a flat drying varnish. These methods are rarely satisfactory.
PAINTED AND ENAMELED WOODWORK
By this method the surface of the wood is entirely concealed. Enamel
is better than paint for the purpose, as by its use a new surface is built up
coat by coat. The success of the final work depends upon the carefulness
with which the undercoats have been applied. No directions need be given
here as each manufacturer has worked out the necessary steps for his
product. For first class enameling, not less than five coats should be given.
If soft wood has been used for the trim it should be painted. Light wood
work will brighten dark rooms. With painted woodwork it is possible to
achieve perfect harmony between walls and woodwork because of the
wide variety of tints and shades possible. In some very beautiful houses
the walls and woodwork are painted the same color. Light woodwork, es
pecially where there are small children, does require much cleaning, a
factor to be considered by the housewife who does her own work.
CHOICE OF COLOR
For some time white was most favored, but now the range of choice has
widened to include ivory, tan, sand, putty, and many tones of gray. Un
consciously white surfaces are often a strain on both eyes and nerves, a
good reason for using other colors for interior finishing. The practice
among the best decorators at present is to paint all the woodwork, in
cluding doors, the same color as the walls.1 Where the wall is papered, how
ever, this is not always possible. Where the paper has a white or cream
1 Good effects may be obtained, however, by painting woodwork a shade darker
than the walls, particularly where light colors are used for wall finishes.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 403
ground, cream is the best choice for the woodwork. With gray paper paint
the woodwork to match, though sometimes white would have an enliven
ing effect. Where the color is rather intense, as, say, a blue papered wall
of rather a heavy color, the woodwork would be better cream than pure
white, as white makes a very strong contrast.
Tan, sand and putty, by their very neutrality, are delightful colors, and
on the score of cleaning effect a compromise between light woodwork and
dark.
Blue, green, yellow, or blue-green are sometimes permissible with ivory
walls for the sunroom, or an informal breakfast room and for some bed
rooms
COLOR IN WOODWORK
.... A little experimenting along the lines suggested will open up in
finite possibilities of variation in the use of color for woodwork. Generally
a neutral and not a dominant tone should be selected for the large surfaces
of the wood trim. Touches and accents of color, in the way of linings and
stripings in the moldings, may be employed in the more informal rooms,
the bedrooms, the breakfast room and the sunroom. In fact, in the finish
ing of these rooms it is quite permissible to vary our principle of finishing
all the woodwork on each floor alike and if desired the wood trim of each
room may be done in a different hue according to the color scheme being
carried out.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE CHOOSING
WALL COLOR1
Exposure and number of windows. — In south rooms which have many
windows and are sunshiny and light, cool colors, grayed in intensity and
medium in value, may be used to soften the light.
North rooms, or rooms with few windows, usually need light, warm
colors. Grayed colors with yellow in them will give cheer and light to
these rooms.
Uses of the room. — Since the living room is the room which must be
shared by a number of people and is the most impersonal room in the
home, inconspicuous wall color will give the most restful background.
The dining room is used only for short periods at a time and the wall
should not be quite so grayed in intensity as the living room.
1 From The Background of the Room. Extension Bull. 93. Michigan State College,
1929.
4o4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The purpose of the bedroom is rest; therefore, the colors of the wall
should be light in value and grayed in intensity.
Light colors are suitable for the bathroom. They give the appearance
of cleanliness.
For the kitchen, wall colors light in value and less grayed in intensity
than in the living room, may be used.
Size of the room. — If the rooms are small yet comfortably lighted, colors
light in value for the walls will give the appearance of greater size.
If rooms are too large, warm colors of medium value give a friendly
feeling to the room. If the value is too dark when cool colors are used the
effect will be one of gloom and coldness.
Design of furniture, and main color of furnishings. — If the lines of the
furniture and the proportions of it are good the furniture will be empha
sized by a wall color grayed in intensity and light of value. If the furni
ture is not particularly interesting, and there are too many pieces, it will
be less noticeable against a wall nearer its own value. The wall color
should harmonize with the main color in the furnishings. It is well to have
the walls repeat, in a grayed intensity, some of the dominant hue of the
room.
THE APPROXIMATE REFLECTION OF LIGHT
FROM THE VARIOUS COLORS1
Per Cent
of Light
Reflected
Yellow 80
Orange 50
Green 42
Red 35
Blue 30
Violet 25
Grey 50
Light is reflected approximately as follows from certain colors in rather
general use:
Per Cent Per Cent
Ivory 76 Forest green 21
Ivory tan 71 Olive green 14
Buff 60 Sky blue 36
Tan 37 Shell pink 57
Coconut brown 21 Dark oak 21
High light sage green .... 67 Mahogany 13
Low light sage green 43
[NOTE. — For additional information on color see pp. 433-34.]
1 From Illinois Home Economics Handbook. University of Illinois, 1923.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 405
2. Floor Finishes and Coverings
FLOOR FINISHES1
New wood floors may be finished in a variety of ways, depending
partly on the kind of wood and partly on individual preference. Wood
finishers themselves often disagree about the best method of treating
floors, but all agree that it is economy to use the best materials. The
present tendency, for hardwood floors particularly, is to keep the natural
color of the wood and at the same time give it a smooth, durable finish
that can be cleaned and renewed with the minimum of effort. Though
darker-colored floors generally give the best effects, light-colored floors
have the advantage of showing dust and footprints less readily.
Stain, filler, oil, paint, varnish, shellac, and wax, or a combination of
two or more of these materials, may be used. Oak and maple floors, for
example, are often finished with a colorless filler, white shellac, and light-
colored wax or pale varnish, a treatment that preserves the natural color
of the wood with little change. A somewhat golden tone can be obtained
by using orange shellac or dark varnish.
Before any finish is applied, the floor should be made smooth by plan
ing and sandpapering parallel with the grain of the wood, and then swept
and dusted with a soft cloth
STAINING
Stains are used on floors to bring out the grain of the wood, or to make
them harmonize in color with other woodwork or with furnishings, or to
give certain softwoods tones similar to hardwoods.
Oil and water stains, so called because of the solvent used, are the
common kinds. Oil stains are easy to apply evenly and do not raise the
grain of the wood, but they do not penetrate very deeply and are likely to
give a muddy effect. Water stains, on the other hand, soak in readily,
give a clear color, and are cheaper than oil stains, but raise the grain of
the wood so that sandpapering a second time may be necessary. Water
stains may be used on either hardwoods or softwoods, but as a rule oil
stains are not so successful on hardwoods.
Both water and oil stains may be bought ready mixed, or some of the
simple ones can be made at home. In any case, before using, the stain
should be tested on an inconspicuous part of the floor or on a sample
of the same kind of wood. If the color is too intense, the stain should be
1 Adapted from Floors and Floor Coverings. Farmers' Bull. 1219. Bureau of Home
Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1921. For formulas for making stains,
varnish and varnish remover, and wax see ibid.
4o6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
diluted with the kind of solvent with which it is mixed or with other
suitable liquid. For example, an oil stain may be diluted with turpentine,
and a water stain with water.
If an oak floor is to be water-stained, coating it first with clear water
and sandpapering it smooth after it is dry will lessen the tendency of the
stain to raise the grain of the wood. Oil stains will be absorbed more
evenly by pine or maple floors if the wood is first coated with a mixture of
3 parts turpentine and i part linseed oil and the surface sandpapered
smooth after it is dry.
Stains should be applied rather thinly with a clean brush or a sponge
with even strokes taken parallel with the grain of the wood. With water
stains especially, care should be taken not to let the strokes overlap, and
the stained surface should be wiped at once with a soft cloth or cotton
waste. Oil stains should be allowed to set for a few minutes before the
surface is wiped. Two coats of light stain generally give a better effect
than one coat of heavy stain. In general, i gallon of oil stain will coat
about 400 square feet of floor once, depending, of course, on the depth of
color desired and the texture of the wood.
After a floor is stained, it should be allowed to dry for at least 24 hours,
and dust kept from it as much as possible. When thoroughly dry, it should
be polished with a weighted brush covered with carpet, after which it is
ready for the filler and wax or varnish.
Some of the very porous woods may be filled and stained at the same
time by combining the stain and the filler, but generally a better effect is
obtained by applying them separately.
FILLING
Porous woods, such as oak and ash, take a smoother and more durable
finish if a good paste filler is rubbed into them before the varnish, wax,
or shellac is applied. Maple, pine, and other nonporous woods do not need
such treatment and in fact will not absorb some kinds of fillers.
The best paste fillers are made of silex (silica), linseed oil, turpentine,
japan, and coloring matter to match the wood. Cornstarch and whiting
are also used as the base of paste fillers, but are less transparent than silex
and can not be worked into the pores of the wood so thoroughly. They are
generally used in homemade fillers, however, for silex is difficult to obtain
in the retail trade. Oil has a tendency to darken wood, so it is sometimes
omitted from the filler if a very light finish is desired.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 407
A filler should be about the consistency of varnish when applied. If
too thick, it can be thinned with turpentine for use on natural-colored
woods, or with boiled linseed oil on stained woods. After the floor has
been dusted, the filler is generously applied lengthwise of the grain with a
clean stiff brush. This coating is allowed to set for 15 or 20 minutes, or
until it turns gray, and is then rubbed in with cotton waste or burlap
crosswise, not lengthwise, of the grain. A coarser material will drag the
filler out of the pores instead of forcing it in. Several days later the floor is
rubbed smooth with No.o sandpaper slightly dampened on the back. Ordi
nary oak will take up about 5 pounds of filler to 250 square feet of floor.
If a very high polish is desired, a second coat of filler containing less oil
and more turpentine may be applied and rubbed down as in the first case.
Liquid fillers are sometimes used on close-grained woods to fill up the
pores and prevent the absorption of the more expensive varnish. A pure
shellac varnish made by dissolving gum shellac in alcohol is recommended
by some authorities for this purpose. The ready-mixed liquid fillers, which
are brushed on and permitted to remain on the surface without being
rubbed off, are in many cases little better than cheap varnishes.
VARNISHING
Varnish gives floors a hard, smooth, glossy finish, and is easy to apply
and to clean. Under hard usage, however, it is likely to wear off, leaving
patches of bare wood that remain unsightly even after revarnishing. Suc
cessive coats tend to darken the floor. Varnish is a common finish for
softwood floors, but wax is preferred by many for hardwood.
Manufacturers have tested and put on the market an assortment of
varnishes adapted to special uses, and it is often better to buy one of these
ready-made standard floor varnishes than to attempt to mix one at home.
Varnishes are roughly classified into two groups, spirit and oil. The
spirit varnishes are made by dissolving a resinous substance, such as gum
shellac, in alcohol or some other volatile liquid. They dry quickly, leaving
a hard, brittle coating on the wood, and, with the exception of shellac
varnish, are not commonly used on floors.
Successive coats of shellac varnish well rubbed down may be used alone
on a floor, or one coat may be used as a surfacer on a paste-filled hardwood
floor that is to be waxed. For the first coat, i gallon of shellac will cover
300 to 400 square feet of floor, and additional coats will of course require
less. Parquetry floors are generally shellacked in order to preserve the
light color of the wood.
4o8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The oil varnishes contain resinous gum, oil, and driers, carefully heated
and blended so as to bring out certain properties. Most of the floor var
nishes are of this type and of the kind known in trade as "medium oil."
They dry more slowly than the spirit varnishes, but have luster, hardness,
and greater durability. Spar varnishes belong to the kind known as "long-
oil" and contain an even larger proportion of oil, which makes them more
durable and impervious to water. They are sometimes used on kitchen
and bathroom floors, where those characteristics are of particular im
portance.
The first rule of varnishing is to have the surface of the wood and the
air in the room as free from dust as possible and to use only scrupulously
clean brushes. Varnish brushes are chisel shaped or slightly tapering; a
rather wide one will be most convenient for this work. The varnish should
be brushed on lengthwise of the grain in a smooth, thin coat without laps
or brush marks and allowed to dry for at least two days. If possible, the
temperature of the room should be 70° F. or higher and the varnish should
be applied in the morning, for it dries better during daylight. When the
first coat is thoroughly dry another coat or perhaps several more coats
should be applied in the same way as the first. The more coats of varnish
put on a floor, the more durable the finish. One gallon of floor varnish is
enough for two coats on about 300 square feet of oak floor or about 200
square feet of pine.
WAXING
Waxing is considered by many the most attractive and practicable
finish for hardwood floors. It preserves the natural color of the wood,
brings out the beauty of the grain, and is easily revived and renewed.
Given the proper care, waxed floors improve with age, even under hard
usage. In some of the European palaces, for instance, floors that have
been polished for centuries with nothing but wax are still bright and
beautiful in color though now worn thin by use. The chief objections to
waxed floors are the amount of labor required to polish them and the fact
that water turns the finish white. These water spots, however, may be
quickly removed by rubbing on a little wax with a woolen cloth or a
weighted brush.
Wax of various kinds dissolved in turpentine is the basis of all floor
waxes. Beeswax, carnauba, ceresin, or paraffin, or a combination of these
may be used, and gasoline, ammonia, or some other volatile solvent is
often used in addition to the turpentine.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 409
Wax may be applied to a floor that has been stained, painted, or var
nished, or directly on the bare wood. Hardwood floors are generally paste
filled and in many cases surfaced with shellac varnish before being waxed.
The paste fills up the pores, and the shellac varnish makes a hard founda
tion for the wax and prevents grease from penetrating and staining the
wood. A waxed floor will be less slippery, however, if the shellac is omitted
or if only a very thin coat is applied and well sandpapered.
Success in waxing floors lies in applying the wax in thin coats and rub
bing it a great deal. One pound will coat about 250 square feet of floor.
After the preliminary coats of filler or varnish are thoroughly dry, the
wax should be rubbed on with a woolen cloth, a piece of old carpet, or a
brush, and allowed to harden overnight. The next morning the floor
should be polished lengthwise of the grain with a weighted brush or a
heavy block wrapped in woolen cloth, burlap, or old carpet. Then one or
perhaps two more coats of wax should be applied and rubbed down in the
same way as the first.
OILING
Oiling is a rather common and economical way of finishing kitchen,
pantry, bathroom, and porch floors and is by many considered more
satisfactory for pine floors than varnishing. Oil is easy to apply, gives a
finish that is durable and not slippery, and penetrates the pores of the
wood so that it is proof against grease and water spots. Oiled floors, how
ever, darken with use and in time become dingy because dust clings to
them and unites with the oil on the surface.
Boiled linseed oil is the kind most commonly used and may be applied
clear, either hot or cold, or combined with turpentine, which makes it
penetrate the wood better and leave a thinner film on the surface. A mix
ture of equal parts of oil and turpentine is recommended for pine floors.
If desired, a floor may be stained before it is oiled, but in any case it
should be clean, dry, and free from dust when the oil is applied. The oil
should be brushed on lengthwise of the grain of the wood, rubbed in with
a soft oily cloth, and any excess wiped off with a dry cloth. After the oil
has dried for a few hours, the floor may be polished with a weighted brush
covered with a clean woolen cloth or piece of carpet. Most floors will ab
sorb two coats of oil.
PAINTING
Paint is very commonly used on softwood floors, but is not a very
durable finish, and worn places can seldom be satisfactorily patched.
4io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Painted floors are, however, easy to clean, for the paint forms a coat
impervious to water and grease, and they can be made to match or
harmonize with woodwork or furnishings.
Paints, like varnishes, vary in durability according to the materials
in them. Special floor paints of good quality are on the market, or they
may be mixed at home. If only one or two floors are to be painted, one of
the ready-mixed kinds will be found more economical and convenient,
and one gallon will generally be enough for three coats on about 200 to
300 square feet of floor. White lead, zinc white, linseed oil, drier, and
coloring matter are the chief ingredients in a good floor paint.
A kitchen floor should have three coats of paint, and the wood should
be clean, dry, and free from dust before the paint is applied. According
to the United States Bureau of Standards, the first coat should consist of
white lead in linseed oil, with a little drier; the second coat, of equal parts
of white lead and zinc white in oil, coloring matter as desired, and drier
and turpentine to give a flat finish ; and the third coat, of the same mate
rials as the second, except that instead of turpentine good floor varnish
should be added in the proportion of one to four pints to a gallon of paint.
Each coat of paint should be thoroughly brushed into the wood, length
wise of the grain, and allowed ample time to dry. If desired, a coating
of equal parts turpentine and linseed oil may be rubbed on with a soft
cloth after the last coat of paint has dried thoroughly, and the floor
then polished with a woolen cloth. This gives a soft lustrous finish and
makes the paint wear longer.
TYPES OF RUGS'
BY ELSIE RICHARDSON
Carpets were originally made by hand, now the majority of them are
woven on power looms. Brussels, Wilton, Velvet and Axminster are the
principal kinds. There are also machine-made Oriental, ingrain, rag, fiber
and grass carpets and rugs. All carpets and rugs are made of warp threads
which are set lengthwise in the loom and woof threads set crosswise. All
carpets and rugs are divided into the following classes :
Flat carpets and rugs. — May be used on either side, as rag, ingrain, fiber
and grass.
Loop-pile carpets and rugs. — Have uncut pile as Body Brussels and
Tapestry.
1 From Floor Coverings. Home Economics Bull. 87. Iowa State College of Agricul
ture and Mechanic Arts, 1925.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 411
Cut-pile carpets and rugs. — Are Wilton, Axminster and Velvet.
Brussels rugs. — Are made by looping yarn over a series of long wires;
when weaving is completed the wires are withdrawn, leaving loops in the
yarn.
The quality of Brussels rugs may be judged by the number of loops to
a square inch, the kind of backing and whether the surface thread shows
on the backing. For each loop or tuft on the surface, there are four strands
of yarn buried in the body. This gives the Body Brussels its name. They
are all worsted and dyed in the yarn. The loops are not as high as the pile
of a Wilton. Body Brussels is the best of this type and is very serviceable.
Tapestry is an imitation of the Brussels, made according to the same
principle. It is a loop faced fabric, with a wool surface. The design is
printed on the threads before weaving. The yarn is all used up on the sur
face and none is carried to the back. Because the design is printed on the
thread, it is not so clearly outlined on the finished rug.
Wilton rugs are woven in the same way as the Brussels, except when
the wires are withdrawn, a sharp knife on the end cuts each loop. This
leaves a straight, long, upstanding pile. A real Wilton rug is dyed in the
yarn, and a greater amount of pure, worsted yam is used in it than in any
other rug. Colors in the surface yarns are carried to the back as in the
Brussels. The wearing qualities of the Wilton are excellent.
Axminster rugs are of the cut-pile type. The yarn is dyed and the
surface is of wool. They are woven somewhat on the same principle as the
Wilton, but the method adapts itself to a greater variety in color and de
sign. They are not so heavy and not so closely woven, which makes them
less expensive. The Axminster is a very serviceable and economical type
of rug. Although the wearing qualities are not so good as in the Wilton
or Brussels, it is exceedingly good for the price.
Velvet rugs also have cut-pile and resemble the Wilton. They are made
exactly on the same principle as the Tapestry, except that the loops are
cut. It has wool only on the surface and the design is printed in the thread
before weaving. Velvet corresponds to Tapestry, as Wilton does to Brus
sels in the process of making as well as wearing qualities.
Oriental rugs are hand woven by people of the Eastern Countries. They
are dyed in the yarn with vegetable dyes. The designs are all symbolical.
The value depends upon age, quality of material and richness of color and
design. The real Orientals are exquisite and wear wonderfully well. They
are extremely expensive and out of reach of the moderate income. There
are many machine-made or American Orientals on the market at the
4i2 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
present time that are very fine imitations of the real Oriental. Most of
them are Wiltons with Oriental designs.
Fiber and grass rugs have been very popular for porches and are some
times used for other rooms in the house. These rugs usually have a cotton
warp and a filling of wool fiber, flax, grass or twisted paper. Dyes are not
very lasting in these rugs, but they may be freshened by brushing on new
dye.
In comparison to the price of these rugs, they are fairly durable and
good in design and color.
Linoleum is the most commonly used covering for kitchen, pantry and
bathroom floors, and is used to some extent in the other rooms in the
house. Linoleum may be the neutral background for other furnishings, or
it may be the decorative element in the room. It must be chosen accord
ing to the same principles in design as other floor coverings.
Linoleum is made of linseed oil and ground cork. It is mixed to a plastic
mass and applied to a burlap backing. There are three standard types of
linoleum, plain, printed and inlaid.
The color of plain linoleum is put into the mixture before it is applied
to the backing. Only one color is used. In this case, color extends to the
backing and is good as long as the linoleum lasts. Plain colors show soil
very easily. Plain linoleums are protected if they are kept waxed.
Printed linoleum is simply plain linoleum with a design stamped on
the surface. The design will wear off. Varnish is a great protection to this
type of linoleum.
Inlaid linoleum is the type in which the patterns are made separately
and pressed into the backing. The colors are always good. To distinguish
between an inlaid and printed linoleum, examine the cut edge. If the color
extends to the backing in all designs, it is inlaid. To protect inlaid lin
oleum, it should be waxed.
TYPES OF LINOLEUM AND CORK COMPOSITION
FLOOR COVERINGS2
BY C. STANLEY TAYLOR
President of Taylor, Rogers & Bliss, Inc.
Resilient flooring materials are the outgrowth of a definite need for a
suitable and economical floor over wood, concrete and other hard floor
surfaces, and for a material which can be easily applied as a replacement
1 From "Linoleum and Cork Composition Flooring Materials," Architectural Forum,
October, 1928.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 413
floor over old floors of any type. Cork composition products and rubber
are the principal flooring materials having resiliency as a dominant char
acteristic. They have been evolved through many years of development
and improvement, and have to-day reached a state of perfection and
quality which places them very definitely in the class of quality materials
having distinctive characteristics not present in similar combinations in
any other type of floor surfacing material.
We are concerned in this discussion primarily with cork and cork com
position floorings, which are known in the trade under the general titles
of linoleum, linoleum tile, natural cork tile, and cork carpet. The evolu
tion of cork composition flooring materials from the status of a floor cover
to that of a finished flooring material has been slow, and architects have
only recently awakened to the intrinsic values which such materials
possess as contrasted with their use primarily as substitutes or replace
ment coverings. It must be acknowledged to-day that these products
have earned for themselves a definite, permanent place in the building
field, and that they offer to architects, builders and owners new oppor
tunities for creating special effects in color, pattern and texture and for
introducing other values of comfort, quietness, sanitation and mainte
nance that particularly adapt them to solving many modern flooring
problems.
Types of cork flooring products. — The various types of resilient flooring
materials, of which cork in some form is the principal component, each
possess special characteristics which make it important to differentiate
one from the other, both in this discussion and in the use and specification
of such materials. The prevalent use of trade names to distinguish the
various types of products is somewhat confusing and we must go back of
the distinguishing and commonly employed trade names and classify the
products in another manner. There are three major classes of cork flooring
products: (i) Cork composition floorings, broadly termed linoleums and
linoleum tiles; (2) natural cork tiles; (3) cork carpets. Their characteris
tics deserve consideration.
Natural cork flooring products. — Cork tiles are composed of particles of
cork, such as the thin shavings of cork which are largely produced as a
byproduct in the manufacture of cork bottle stoppers. These particles are
compressed under heat in such a manner that the natural gums of the cork
are liquefied and form the only binder required to produce a firm, rigid,
and homogeneous product. The better grades of natural cork tile contain
nothing but pure cork without any of the harder bits of cork bark or other
foreign ingredients. The tile forms come in various sizes, usually in square
414 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
or rectangular shapes, and in thicknesses ranging from approximately
i-inch to J-inch.
Natural cork tiles take their color from the cork itself and from the
baking process which is essential to their manufacture. They are thus
available only in natural cork browns of various shades, ranging from
light to dark, according to the amount of heat applied. The extreme
hydraulic pressure usually employed in the manufacture of cork flooring
produces a material which is quite resistent to wear and abrasion, and
which is at the same time highly resilient, quiet and pleasant to walk
upon.
Cork composition flooring, linoleum. — In this type of flooring ground
cork is a principal ingredient. The cork is pulverized almost to the fine
ness of flour and is mixed with oxidized linseed oil and various gums, fillers
and pigments. The mixture is compressed under huge heated calender
rolls onto a burlap backing employed as a measure of reinforcement on the
underside. A process of curing the cork composition aids in producing a
firm, homogeneous material of considerable resiliency which will not
buckle or crack and which is practically free from odor. Cork composition
floorings are available in many forms and in a number of distinct types.
The sheet forms may be classified as Battleship Linoleum, Jaspe, Inlaid
Linoleum, Embossed Linoleum and Marbleized Linoleum.
Battleship Linoleum is a high quality, plain color cork composition
flooring in sheet form, which earned its name from its original use as a
decking material over the steel decks of warships. It is available in vari
ous thicknesses, from slightly less than f-inch to a full J-inch.
Jaspe Linoleum is distinguished by its striated pattern in two tones of
a single color, giving a variegated effect and a characteristic appearance of
graining. It is otherwise similar to Battleship Linoleum in its composi
tion, and is usually available in three weights. Small insets of contrasting
color are frequently used in Jaspe Linoleum with interesting effects.
Inlaid Linoleums have various patterns in which each individual color
runs through to the burlap back. In surface appearance these linoleums
often resemble a floor laid with individual tiles, but possess the advantage
of lower initial cost and considerably lower laying cost because of its sheet
form. This type of linoleum is available in many combinations of colors
and in a wide variety of patterns, some of the small tile forms resembling
mosaic tiles, and some patterns resembling quarried tiles or blocks of
cut stone or slate, as well as other designs.
Embossed Linoleums are usually inlaid linoleums in which an apparent
joint is introduced between the tile units of the pattern, and this joint is
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 415
compressed below the surface of the sheet to give the appearance of a
masonry joint in a hard tile floor. The tiles themselves may also be em
bossed for decorative effects.
Marbleized Linoleums are classified separately because of their special
appearance. Ingenious processes of manufacture result in producing a
variegated color effect which resembles with remarkable fidelity the color
and appearance of fine marbles, there apparently being no limitation to
the manufacturing process in the reproduction of all types of colored
marbles. Marbleized Linoleums may be in either full sheet forms, in which
the marbleizing effect is carried out over the entire sheet, or of the inlaid
type, having the appearance of blocks of marble laid in pattern.
The tile forms, which are sold under various distinguishing trade
names, are essentially the same as the sheet forms in composition but
are usually available only in plain colors or in marbleized effects. There
are in addition a number of newer types constantly being developed which
produce various special flooring effects, including a reproduction of wood
plank floor, accomplished by using the Jaspe Linoleum with inset joint
strips, pegs and butterfly wedges of darker color. The tile forms are in
plain colors and in marbleized effects. Some manufacturers are producing
an embossed tile for special uses which have the appearance of decorative
faience tiles and which are employed to introduce variety and interest in
the pattern of a floor. The architect has at his disposal, in these materials,
floorings to harmonize with any designs.
Cork carpet. — Though frequently classified with linoleum, cork carpet
differs somewhat from both cork tiles and linoleums. It is composed of
granulated cork using a different proportion of cork and linseed oil from
that usually employed in Battleship Linoleum. It is compressed under
heat. As the name implies, it is manufactured in sheet forms. It comes in
several solid colors, and in thicknesses of approximately .22-inch (pol
ished) and .26-inch (unpolished). Cork carpet has not the density nor
therefore the resistance to wear of the several types of cork composition
flooring material, but its great resiliency and relatively low cost give it
a very definite utility for solving certain flooring problems.
These classifications cover the principal standard types of cork com
position flooring, but it should be noted that each individual manufacturer
is constantly developing new combinations and new patterns which have
their special uses from both the decorative and service point of view. The
essential features here noted, however, may be applied to the newer
forms, and hence an extended discussion of them is not necessary before
we proceed to the next consideration.
416 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
An important new development in the manufacture of linoleum and
cork composition flooring materials is the utilization of pyroxylin or
nitrocellulose lacquers to produce a surface wholly impervious to mois
ture, dirt and to the staining effects of many common materials such
as ink, foods, greases, and mild acids .... The lacquer finish is
not merely a surface painting in the ordinary sense, for the leading
manufacturers, while retaining in secrecy the exact nature of the process
employed, claim and demonstrate that there is a certain amount of pene
tration of the lacquer into the upper strata of the material, although no
manufacturers claim complete penetration. The lacquer functions to close
the minute pores in linoleums and other cork composition flooring prod
ucts so that ordinary dirt and dust will not be ground into the surface,
vastly simplifying the cleaning and maintenance operations. The nature
of the lacquer employed is such that most common substances which will
normally stain wood, marble, concrete and other types of flooring will not
penetrate into the cork compound, and a spot can be readily wiped off
from the surface without leaving any stain or mark. To a large extent the
lacquer treatment eliminates or minimizes the need for waxing linoleum
floors for their maintenance and preservation, although wax may be ap
plied as usual if desired. Undoubtedly this new development marks a real
advance in improving the life and utility of cork composition flooring
materials, giving added qualities of sanitation, low maintenance cost,
improved appearance and probably greater durability.
SUMMARY
Paints, tints, wallpaper, commercial fabrics, and wood paneling are
commonly used for wall finishes and coverings. Plaster is finished both
with rough and smooth finishes. Rough finish should be suitably used
with consideration for the style of architecture, size of rooms, and type
and style of furniture. Artistic results are obtained by paneling smooth
plaster walls with wood or plaster molding. Picture molding frequently
is used. Plaster walls also are commonly painted both with flat paints
and with calcimine. Wash paints are most suitable for kitchens and
bathrooms. Good effects may be produced by the use of plastic paints
if properly applied. These may be used on any materials that may be
successfully painted with ordinary paint.
Wallpaper long has been known as a desirable wall covering. New
wash wall coverings are on the market that are most satisfactory. An
tiqued paper and waterproof papers are also in use.
WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS 417
Wood paneling which was formerly too expensive for the family with
a small income now may be obtained at reasonable cost.
For South rooms which are light and sunny, cool colors, medium in
value, may be used to soften light. North rooms with less light need light,
warm colors. In small rooms which are comfortably lighted, colors light
in value will accentuate the size. Furniture may be emphasized by the
use of a wall color grayed in intensity, and light of value.
The kind of finish selected for new wood floors depends upon the wood
and the preference of the individual. Durability, ease in cleaning, and
economy in replacing are considerations which should be observed. The
most common finishes are stain, oil, paint, varnish, shellac, and wax or a
combination of two or more of these materials.
Brussels, Wilton, Velvet, and Axminster rugs are commonly used.
Tapestry is an imitation of Brussels and similarly made. In addition to
these floor coverings there are Oriental rugs, Chinese rugs, fiber and grass
rugs, and linoleums.
Resilient flooring materials are the outgrowth of a definite need. Cork,
composition products, and rubber are the principal materials having re
silience as a dominant characteristic. The three classes of cork-flooring
products are: (i) Linoleum and linoleum tiles, (2) natural cork tiles, (3)
cork carpets. The new lacquer treatment of linoleums provides a surface
which is not easily stained and also adds qualities of sanitation, low main
tenance cost, and durability.
REFERENCES
I. WALL FINISHES AND COVERINGS
ACKERMAN, PHYLLIS. Wallpaper, Its History, Design and Use. New York:
Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1923.
DEWOLFE, ELSIE. The House in Good Taste. New York: Century Co., 1915.
The treatment of walls (pp. 52-68).
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, MCCLURE, ABBOT, and HOLLOWAY, EDWARD
STRATTON. The Practical Book of Interior Decoration. Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Co., 1919.
Walls, decoration, and information on backgrounds (pp. 233-57).
GOLDSTEIN, HARRIET and VETTA. Art in Every Day Life. New York: Mac-
millan Co., 1925.
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING STUDIO. Decorative and Practical Treatment for Woodwork
and Walls. New York: Good Housekeeping, 1926. Pp. 12.
HOLLOWAY, EDWARD STRATTON. The Practical Book of Furnishing the Small
House and Apartment. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1922.
418 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
House Beautiful Furnishing Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
Walls and wall-coverings (pp. 12-36).
JACKSON, ALICE and BETTINA. The Study of Interior Decoration. Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1928.
Wall-coverings (pp. 116-28, 372-78).
MCCLELLAND, NANCY. The Practical Book of Wall-Treatments. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1926.
SANDERS, MRS. CHARLES BRADLEY. How To Furnish the Small Home. Pub.
No. 3. Washington: Better Homes in America, 1929. Pp. 32.
STOREY, WALTER RENDELL. Beauty in Home Furnishings. New York: Rae D.
Henkle Co., 1928.
Wall decorations (pp. 186-88, 207-21).
2. FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, MCCLURE, ABBOT, and HOLLOWAY, EDWARD
STRATTON. The Practical Book of Interior Decoration. Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Co., 1919.
Floors and their coverings (pp. 258-68).
GOLDSTEIN, HARRIET and VETTA. Art in Every Day Life. New York: Macmil-
lan Co., 1925.
Selection of rugs — material, color, design.
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING STUDIO. Carpets, Rugs and Floor Finishes. New York:
Good Housekeeping, 1925. Pp. 12.
Hand Made Rugs — Hooked, Braided, and Woven. New York: Good
Housekeeping, 1926. Pp. 8.
House Beautiful Furnishing Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
Floors and floor-coverings (pp. 37-49).
JACKSON, ALICE and BETTINA. The Study of Interior Decoration. Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1928.
Floor-coverings and diagrams indicating placement (pp. 104-16).
RICHARDSON, ELSIE. Floor Coverings. Home Economics Bull. 87. Ames: Iowa
State College of Agriculture, 1927. Pp. 8.
Home-made Rugs. Home Economics Bull. 68. Ames: Iowa State Col
lege of Agriculture, 1927. Pp. 8.
STOREY, WALTER RENDELL. Beauty in Home Furnishings. New York: Rae D.
Henkle Co., 1928.
Floor-coverings (pp. 185, 188-207).
U.S. BUREAU OF HOME ECONOMICS. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull.
1219. Floors and Floor Coverings. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1921. Pp. 30.
Discusses floor materials, floor finishes, and coverings.
CHAPTER XII
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING
FURNITURE AND ARCHITECTURE1
BY R. W. SEXTON
In an age of standardization we have not yet standardized good taste.
We are all still free to exercise our own opinions as to what is good and
what is bad in art. While harmony is the basis of design, what one may
consider harmonious another may deem devoid of all harmony. It is in
our interpretation, then, of the principle embodied in the word that our
standards of good taste are grounded. Harmony in a composition might
be described as that quality which tends to retain unity between the vari
ous elements. The success of a musical composition is dependent upon
the laws of harmony; a composition painted by an artist on a canvas
must be harmonious in design and color to warrant approval ; and in the
design of a completely furnished room or interior one must immediately
sense a harmonious relation between the various furnishings and the de
tails of the architectural scheme in order to truthfully say that the room
is well designed.
While I have in the preceding paragraph paralleled the design of a
completely furnished room with the composition of a musical score and
that of a painted canvas, there is a vital difference which should not be
overlooked. A musical composition and a painted picture are each the
work of one person, while in the design of a room one artist — the architect
— starts the composition, and another — the decorator — finishes it. This
unusual procedure frequently tends to disrupt harmony. To apply the
same procedure to the development of a musical score or to the comple
tion of a painted picture would undoubtedly result in a dismal failure.
In order to be successful as a team, one might say, the architect and
decorator must not only collaborate, but must actually have similar
ideals. They must not only appreciate the value of harmony between the
various elements that go to make up the finished room, but they must
have similar ideas as to the real meaning of the word "harmony."
We are just emerging, fortunately, from an era which might be de-
1 Adapted from "Furniture and Architecture," Good Furniture and Decoration, Sep
tember, 1929. Reprinted through the courtesy of Good Furniture and Decoration
Magazine,
419
420 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
scribed as "The Revival of the Periods," during which time we showed no
evidence of possessing any originality or creative ability whatever. We
"originated" period designs, "adapted" period ideas, and "reproduced"
period details until the entire country was astonished and ashamed to find
that during this era, while we had been copying designs originated in
some European country five and six and seven centuries ago, these same
European countries had been seriously and successfully developing an art
which would express their modern character and reflect their modern
tendencies.
During the "Revival" epoch in this country, however, we learned a
lesson. It was easy to practice harmony under conditions that then pre
vailed. A Louis XVI room needed Louis XVI furniture. It was as easy
for the decorator to design or select Louis XVI chairs as it was for the
architect to panel the walls in true Louis XVI character. The client or
owner in those days gave to his architect and decorator an order to
execute that called for little if any ability. What a difference today! An
architect designs a room to reflect modern impulses, to satisfy modern
desires, and to express modern tendencies
Let us consider how the decorator may attain harmony between the
design of the furniture and the architectural treatment of the interior, for
unquestionably the furniture is the feature of the decorative scheme. De
sign, as used in this particular case, means much more than composition.
An artist designs his composition and then paints it on canvas. His design
is merely a picture. The architect and the furniture designer, however,
find that design has a much larger meaning than that. To them, design
means, first, materials. The physical properties which a material possesses
very largely influence design in both architectural and decorative spheres.
Materials have pattern, color and texture, too. Then, design means giving
a form to these materials. The architect and furniture designer compose
their designs in two dimensions, as does the painter, but they must create
a design that can take shape in certain materials in three dimensions, so
that the finished object will satisfactorily serve a definite purpose.
Very often harmony between a piece of furniture and the architectural
treatment of a room is obtained by employing similar materials in both
schemes. Thus there is effected in the design a certain relationship which
is not limited to the natural pattern of the material and its color, for cer
tain materials stipulate a certain type or style of craftsmanship. Let me
illustrate my point. The coarse, open grain of oak, for example, is particu
larly adaptable to crude and rugged details. Thus in a room in which the
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 421
ceiling is beamed with hand-hewn timbers of oak and the floor is laid of
random-width oak planks, harmony is attained by introducing oak furni
ture of a similar style of craftsmanship. Another illustration might be
that of a room in which the walls were designed of mahogany with orna
mental motifs occasionally carved in the wood. The detail of the orna
ment carved in mahogany would be entirely different from ornament
carved in oak, for example, due to the fine and close grain of mahogany.
Thus, to effect the proper relationship between the architectural treat
ment and the furniture, it would be necessary to use for the furniture some
wood which also was characterized by a close and fine grain in order that
a similarity of craftsmanship might prevail.
Often an attempt is made at harmony by introducing in the wall deco
ration, by means of applied plaster or painted ornament, some detail
which is featured in the upholstery fabric used to cover the chairs, for
example. This may tend to make the finished scheme more unified, but
this alone will not create a harmony which is satisfying. The tendency
toward a greater expression of originality and creative ability (which we
absurdly refer to as "the modern movement") makes the attaining of
harmony between architecture and furniture more difficult. Modern de
sign involves the interpretation of modern impulses. The architect and
decorator may have entirely different ideas as to what modern impulses
should be expressed and what should not. It is up to the decorator to
attune himself to the architect's ideas, however, if he would attain success.
The architect designs the house ; he decorates the interior, to a very great
extent, when he designs the woodwork, the mantel, the floor and the
ceiling, although his ideas on the placing of the furniture, as well as its
design, are seldom sought. And he has his own ideas, too. He could not
design a room successfully if he did not visualize it completely decorated
and furnished to the very last detail.
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD FURNITURE MAKING1
BY RALPH C. ERSKINE
The ability to recognize good furniture comes from an understanding
of the elements and principles which are at the bottom of good furniture
making
While we still adhere to the best traditions of cabinetmaking, both in
design and manufacture, our modern ingenuity has developed some
1 Adapted from "How To Recognize Good Furniture," American Home, March,
1930.
422 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
methods which take their place beside the time-honored ones. These in
clude new mechanical processes by which pieces of furniture, while retain
ing all the grace of the old designs, are often constructed by methods
which make them more enduring and more adapted to our climate than
many of the old examples. Quantity production now makes it possible
for everyone to have good furniture, beautifully made, which, in the early
days of America, could have been found only in the mansions of the very
wealthy. These methods include the modern use of veneers, of plywood,
of inlay, and of enduring finishes.
In buying furniture nowadays values are determined by two things:
Utility and style or design. Utility means strength, comfort, capacity.
Style and design mean proportion, form, correctness of traditional details
of ornament in a given period, and all those elements which go to make
up its value in the eyes of a cultivated community
In knowing good furniture it is the little things that we have to look
for as the essential points of larger import. There are fundamental princi
ples of construction and finish that make all the difference between good
and bad furniture. Good construction may be studied without regard to
period, and its simplest details make a fascinating study for the house
holder, for they include the curing of wood, the ingenious use of plywoods,
the knowledge of veneers, of built-up stock, of joinery, and the proper use
of all these elements. Let us take up some of these in detail.
Plywood. — There is a method of making such parts of furniture as
table tops, the backs of bureaus, and bottoms of drawers that will prevent
warping and cracking. This is the process of gluing together thin sheets
of wood, layer upon layer, and the method is called "lamination." The
gluing is done under tremendous pressure, and the grain of the interior
layers is made to run across the grain of the top and bottom layers so that
there can be absolutely no swelling or shrinking in any direction. If there
are three layers, or laminations, it is called "three-ply"; if five, "five-ply."
Good glue, properly prepared, is a marvelous substance. If two pieces of
wood, fully dried, are planed so perfectly on their edges that you cannot
see the light shining through between them when they are held together,
you can apply the thinnest film of glue, rub them together when hot, set
them in clamps to dry, and you cannot break them apart on the glued
joint. The wood will tear before the glue will give. On exposed tops and
on doors there should be always a thin frame of solid wood around the
edges to conceal the laminations. For instance, in making a Sheraton side-
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 423
board with curved front and doors, it is much better to have these doors
built up than to saw out solid wood on a curve, especially when the wood
is to be finished with a highly figured veneer.
Points where you should look for laminated or plywood construction
are tops, ends, and backs of bureaus, backs of mirrors, paneled ends of
bureaus, paneled doors, and drawer bottoms. The makers of cheap furni
ture have been substituting paper or wallboard backs for bureaus and
mirrors. It is well, therefore, to turn a bureau around and look at the
back before you buy it. Also, see if it has a dust board between the draw
ers, as a good bureau or chest of drawers should have. These are thin,
horizontal partitions which keep dust from working down back of the
drawers, and make it impossible to see into a lower drawer by pulling
out the one above it. Thus, one drawer may be locked safely without re
gard to the other.
Curing the woods. — The furniture that you put into your house should
be made by firms adequately equipped with the proper scientific apparatus
for curing the woods. A poorly cured piece of wood will shrink or swell,
causing damage that cannot be repaired easily. For furniture, wood must
have stood "on the sticks" in the open air in piles, from two to five years.
This is very important. After this, it can be put through the kilns. Briefly,
the process of curing is to put wood into kilns where warm, live steam can
be turned in until all the lumber is brought to the same state of dampness.
Then the temperature is increased gradually and the amount of dampness
reduced, until each board is uniformly dry through and through. Dry
heat applied suddenly would make a hard case around the surface, im
prisoning the moisture that would later dry out causing the wood to crack
and warp.
Much as we like the idea of furniture built to our special order in some
little cabinet shop, we owe it to ourselves to find out what facilities the
maker has for obtaining properly cured woods. An unfinished board will
reabsorb at least 12 per cent of moisture simply in transportation or
when lying around in unheated places.
V'eneers. — There is an inherited prejudice against the word "veneer."
To many people it means superficial show and this impression probably
dates from the time when an atrocious false Colonial type of furniture was
produced, where heavy scrolls and brackets were made of soft wood and
overlaid on all the surfaces with thin veneers of crotch mahogany.
Veneers have their proper uses and the great cabinetmakers of the past
employed them on their finest pieces to get beauty of grain in appropriate
424 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
places. It is only the abuse of veneers that has brought them into disre
pute.
It is a very costly and laborious process to apply veneer properly, but
it would be practically impossible to obtain the beautiful effects of ferns,
waveSj and scrolls by any other method. The wood from which they are
cut conies where the great roots join together, and solid boards cut from
these places would crack and check to such a degree that they could not
be used.
The most usual forms of veneer found in high-grade cabinetmaking are
crotch mahogany, cut from the crotch of the tree; figured walnut, taken
from the heart of walnut stumps; and burled walnut, elm, and oak, cut
from burls or gnarled growths caused by the stings of insects in the young
tree. Some of these burls grow to tremendous proportions, and I have
seen whole groves in the mountains of North Carolina where almost
every tree was afflicted with these gnarled and fantastic protuberances,
so deformed and yet so valuable to the veneer sawyer.
One of the wrong ways to use veneer was mentioned above, that is,
on exposed surfaces where it is liable to be knocked off in the ordinary
wear and tear of use. Many people have purchased old pieces of furniture
of the style that is distinguished by heavy bracket scrolls, thinking they
are valuable simply because they are old and made of mahogany, and
have been greatly disappointed when the veneer cracked and came off in
large pieces. Good design and workmanship — not age nor sentiment — are
the most important features of a piece of furniture.
The proper use of veneer in good furniture building is for the beautify
ing of drawer fronts, the inner spaces of panels, all inlaid surfaces that are
not unduly exposed, and outside edges which have some projecting mem
bers of solid wood. For instance, in some fine old models there is a raised
bead around each drawer. This is a thin strip with rounded edges that is
set into the drawer front like a frame around a picture. It projects slightly
beyond the surface of the drawer front and thus offers protection to the
figured wood which has been applied for its beauty. When you see an old
piece that has beautiful wood in the drawer fronts with these projecting
beads around each panel, ten to one it is a good piece in other respects.
These details in construction are sure signs of integrity in workmanship,
and it is not likely that a maker who executes them carefully would be
ignorant of the other elements of good design and good construction.
Joinery. — One of the most important points in the construction of good
furniture is the way the different joints are made, as careful workmanship
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 425
here is absolutely essential if the piece is to last and give good service.
An explanation of the details of some of these joints may be helpful. One
of the best known joints is the "mortise and tenon," which is a type that
was universal in all old furniture. When the end of a board is fastened
into the side of another, as in a door frame, a tenon, like a tongue, is cut
on one end of the board and fitted into a mortise or rectangular hole that
is cut out of the side of the other board. The tenon should fit like a glove
into the mortise before it is glued. Often in old pieces a peg was put
through from the outside with the end left showing. This is called a
"pegged joint" and is regarded as a mark of quaintness and handwork.
Pegging of joints is appropriate in pieces of oak, maple, pine, and early
walnut dating up to 1740 in design, but is rarely found in mahogany
pieces except in very fine chairs where the seat rails join the back posts.
A dowel joint was invented to take the place of a mortise and tenon.
Instead of the rectangular tenon on the end of a board, the end is sawed
off straight, and a little "pin," or round stick, is put in to join both pieces
together. When done in upholstered chair-frames this practice is correct,
but dowel construction as commonly practiced in desks, bureaus, and
even tables and chairs, is the cheapest known method of joining, and is
bad more often than good.
A dovetail joint is used in fastening a drawer side to a drawer front.
Pull out a drawer and you will notice a series of little key-shaped notches
down the corners. There is no adequate substitute for this joint. It is
exactly what its name implies, a projection cut in the shape of a dove's
tail, and, like the keystone in an arch, has tremendous strength when
fitted into the notch cut to receive it.
In hand-dovetailed drawers, long and short dovetails alternate, and
all old pieces have this method of construction. Many old chests were
made with dovetail joints at all four corners, and sometimes the ends of
an old bureau were dovetailed to the top. If this construction is found on
a piece made by a modern maker you may be sure he has a fine apprecia
tion of the highest qualities of workmanship. A machine-made dovetail
joint is practically as durable as the handmade joint. It is used on the
finest modern furniture, and is, therefore, not a guide to quality of work
manship, but is an infallible guide to the age of a piece as no antique ex
ample has machine-made dovetails.
Flush construction is an excellent indication of quality of workman
ship. Any chair, table, or cabinet that possesses it shows that the maker
has taken extra care and spent additional money for the sake of good
426 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
tradition in design. Flush construction means keeping the outside faces
of two pieces of wood that join each other flush or smooth to the touch.
In upholstered furniture, correct tying of the springs is another im
portant thing to be considered. In the best upholstered furniture springs
are tied by hand eight or ten times, and this work is an art in itself.
[NOTE. — Simplified Practice: The purpose of simplified practice is to eliminate
waste, and the cooperation of the Division of Simplified Practice of the U.S. Depart
ment of Commerce with manufacturers, distributors, and users has reduced the variety
of sizes, dimensions, patterns, and models of many materials and articles. The varieties
of beds, springs, and mattresses have been reduced from 78 to 4, bed blankets from 78
to 12, sterling-silver flatware from 190 to 61. Other recommendations by the Division
may follow later.]
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BOTH
VENEER AND SOLID FURNITURE
CONSTRUCTION1
The advantages of veneered construction as compared with solid con
struction may be summed up as follows:
1. A ply-wood panel is stronger, in some respects, than a single board
of the same thickness.
2. The cores of veneered panels may be made of softer, lighter, and
cheaper lumber than can be used for solid construction.
3. Highly figured woods, some of which it would be impractical to use
in thick sizes because of their cross grain and resulting irregular shrinkage,
can be used for face veneers. This method has the additional advantages
of reducing the expense of the use of highly figured woods and of making
the supply go farther.
4. Because of the thinness of the finer face veneers, several pieces, cut
consecutively, look practically alike and can be matched to produce
symmetrical figures impossible to attain in solid construction.
5. Under ordinary methods of construction, for reasons already ex
plained, veneered panels are less likely to shrink, check or warp excessively
than solid pieces.
6. Curved and irregular surfaces can easily be produced by gluing
veneer together in shaped forms which would be difficult if not impossible
to produce from solid lumber.
The following are the principal advantages of solid construction:
i. The owner has the satisfaction of knowing that the furniture he
1 Adapted from The Identification of Furniture Woods (out of print). U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture Misc. Circ. 66 (1926).
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 427
possesses is constructed throughout of the kind of wood represented at
the surface.
2. The wood can be carved, which is not practicable in veneered con
struction unless special provision is made for it.
3. In case the surface chips off, the same kind of wood is exposed.
4. The surfaces can be heavily sandpapered or even planed off and re-
finished — operations which, as a rule, are not practicable with veneered
construction.
5. The surface layers can not loosen and peel off, as may occur in
veneered panels when they are not properly constructed or are allowed
to become wet for any length of time (unless a water-resistant glue is
used) ; although prolonged dampness may likewise have deleterious effects
on the glue which is used in the joints of solid furniture.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN FURNITURE
SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT1
BY ELSIE RICHARDSON
Always consider the spaces in rooms before furniture is selected or you
may awaken to the fact that the beautiful things selected do not fit in.
After the necessary articles have been chosen, the big thing is to get
them together so that they serve the purpose best and appear attractive.
Usefulness is evident and tangible, but beauty is more vague and left to
the tastes of those responsible. Certain elements of beauty must be con
sidered.
Unity is that quality which draws the room together as a whole. There
must be one important element throughout, with other elements subordi
nated to it. This dominant element in line may be the graceful curve
which can be repeated in furniture and hangings or the straight line desig
nating strength and formality.
A dominant color in the scheme of decoration is necessary to give the
desired substantial background. Other colors are keyed to this one. If
the background is a value of neutral tan the ecrus, golds and tans key in
better than does a silver or gray. The room as a whole should have a
dominant element or center of interest, as a fireplace and mantel or an
arrangement which features an attractive and useful group of windows.
In carrying out a dominant element, do not overuse it. It must be just
strong enough to tie all parts of the room together, giving that feeling of
1 Adapted from Furnishing the Home. Home Economics Bull. 42. Iowa State Col
lege, 1928.
428 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
oneness. The element, unity, spells restfulness but beware that it does
not change its name to monotony. The room in values of brown is a very
dull, drab and depressing place unless it is relieved with bits of cheery con
trasting colors, such as orange or blue-green.
Variety is the element of contrast. It breaks monotony and adds in
terest. Contrast stimulates through opposition, consequently it must be
used very sparingly to prevent confusion.
The graceful curved line is given more character by the use of an occa
sional straight line. Dark tones are given more charm when opposed by
bits of lighter tone. Subdued colors are given snap by a splash of bright
color. It takes variety in unity to produce beauty.
Proportions. — To make a room seem to grow together just as if every
piece belonged there, good proportions must be emphasized. The appar
ent proportions of a room may be improved. Low ceilings give the feeling
of restfulness, while high ceilings tend toward formality and stiffness.
Features which decrease apparent height of ceiling:
1. Ceiling not extremely light.
2. Direct lighting system.
3. Horizontal lines in furniture.
4. Straight line molding in wall decorations.
5. Floor emphasized by use of large rug of heavy texture, rich color and design.
Features which increase apparent height of ceiling:
1. Ceiling very light.
2. Central lights to call attention to ceiling.
3. Vertical lines in furniture and window decorations.
4. No moldings in wall decorations.
5. Rug, small, plain and inconspicuous.
Features which decrease apparent size of room:
1. Dark colors.
2. Warm colors. Colors with red or yellow predominating.
3. Design in rugs, walls, upholstery or draperies.
4. Strong contrasts in color, line and design.
5. Heavy massive furniture.
6. Many decorations.
Features which increase apparent size of room:
1. Light colors.
2. Cool colors. Colors with blue or gray predominating.
3. Plainness instead of design.
4. Unity in color, line and design.
5. Light-weight furniture in graceful lines.
6. Few decorations as possible.
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING
429
Balance is that element which holds the entire room in a state of
equilibrium. Such features as color, form, texture and contrast have their
influence in the problem of balance. The warmer and purer a color is, the
more decorative weight it holds. A striking contrast will call attention
and lend much weight. Coarse, rough texture adds more weight than a
smooth fine surface. Heavy carved furniture seems heavier than light
furniture with graceful curves.
FIG. 54. — Simplicity is desirable in the small, inexpensive living room. The rough-
plaster walls and the beam ceiling make ornamentation unnecessary. (Santa Barbara
State Teacher's College practice- house living room.)
Bi-symmetrical balance divides the space in the middle and decorates
exactly the same on the two sides. This is merely a mechanical process.
It gives the effect of formality. A whole room could not be decorated in
that way or it would become very stiff and uninviting. With the greater
part of the room in rather informal lines, the bi-symmetrical wall group
ings are very effective. The mantel is very charming with a picture or
tapestry above, a low bowl in the center and candlesticks at the ends.
A console table beneath a picture or mirror is held in position by the
use of the candlesticks on the ends, and perhaps a piece of pottery in
43o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the center. A buffet makes a very attractive formal spot with a bowl
of flowers in the center and candles at the sides.
Grouping of uneven numbers are more artistic than those of even num
bers.
Occult or informal balance is not a mere mechanical process. It is
tying down one side against another by the use of articles not identical.
In this case balance is not so evident, yet it exists in an easy, natural sort
of way. Consideration of the decorative weight of furnishings is very
essential in occult balance. If a group is heavy and seems to overbalance
when against the wall, it may be placed nearer the center of the room,
thereby decreasing the apparent weight.
A fireplace with a davenport, small end table and lamp on one side may
be balanced by a table, chair and lamp on the other side. Balance from
one end of the room to the other is secured by the placing of separate
groups of furniture. Do not sacrifice the use of a chair or table to secure
balance. Arrange in useful groups, or the stiff, lonesome atmosphere will
creep in. Occult balance will be observed in the living room group.
Color is undoubtedly one of the most expressive elements in decoration.
A home without color seems to represent a colorless personality, while
a home with too much color becomes gaudy and speaks of poor taste. The
more highly the tastes are cultivated the less contrast in color and decora
tions is necessary to satisfy.
The background of the room should follow the general scheme found
in nature — the floor the darkest area, walls second, and the ceiling the
lightest portion. In general, the background should be kept in quiet,
neutral tones. If the background is "noisy" in itself it is impossible to
place decorations against it so that they appear to the best advantage.
Intense colors must be used only in small proportions to add life, inter
est and character to a room.
Contrasting color harmony is much more difficult to use than harmony
of likeness, but is very effective. A room where a great deal of blue is used
may look very solemn, dignified and cold unless it is cheered by some
splashes of warm contrasting color. Orange will add the snap that is lack
ing. It may be supplied by a bowl of flowers, lampshades or pieces of pot
tery. As soon as the use of contrasting color is overdone, it loses its charm
ing effect. Contrast is less sharp and effect is better with three harmo
nizing colors, instead of two.
Colors with red or yellow predominating impart warmth and make the
room appear smaller, while those with blue as the dominant element are
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 431
cool, solemn, dignified and give space. Light colors give more space than
dark colors. It is well to consider the amount of sunlight and size of room
when selecting a color scheme.
Persons should choose colors for their rooms and their homes to suit
their own types. It is just as necessary that one should appear well in her
home as a background, as to choose costumes that are of the appropriate
colors. The house should be the frame and the family the picture of home
life. The frame must always be kept subordinate to the picture and its
colors chosen to enhance the beauty of the picture. The same is true of
the home picture.
Design is very closely related to color. A room without design lacks
individuality. In choosing design in rugs, cretonnes and tapestries avoid
that which seems to have depth, or which is spotted. That type flies out
to greet you when you enter the room. An indistinct all-over pattern
closely related to its background is more dignified and restful.
Large, distinct and colorful designs take up space and should not be
used in a small room. Wallpapers of plain or very indistinct patterns are
best in all rooms because they are not tiresome, and make the ideal back
ground.
A room lacks character with everything plain as well as with every
thing in design. It is essential to balance plainness and design. A little
bit of design will balance a great deal of plainness. If a beautiful, designed
rug is used on the floor, it should not be killed by the use of figured wall
paper or figured over draperies, but they should be kept plain and subor
dinated to the rug. If the rug is plain, design may be introduced in the
upholstery or draperies. If the wallpapers are figured, the window dra
peries should be kept plain. Pictures, tapestries and other decorations are
not well used against figured walls.
Line. — After the determining principles have been studied, the actual
placement of furniture is simple. In the first place, do not overcrowd.
P^liminate all useless pieces. Line is the main feature to be considered.
In order to have a definite scheme of decoration, it is best to place the
main pieces of furniture, as davenport, piano, large table and desk parallel
with the walls, whether they are against the walls or not. Straight lines
should be observed in the bedrooms in placement of bed, table and
dressers.
The stiffness is broken by grouping furniture in the charming centers
of interest and by placing minor objects, as chairs, small tables, etc.,
where they are really the most useful, regardless of line. An easy chair is
scarcely ever placed at right angles with the walls and major pieces of
432 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
furniture. In fact, it looks more inviting, if it is a little off the straight
line.
Rugs should be placed straight on floors. To place them obliquely is
similar to hanging a picture that way. The idea that the home-like at
mosphere is destroyed by the straight-line arrangement is wrong.
WINDOW TREATMENT
Glass curtains and draperies both are of importance in obtaining the
desired results in interior decoration. By regulating light, framing a view,
accentuating color, they will add to the beauty of the interior if carefully
selected and properly designed. Also, since they represent an appreciable
portion of the furnishing budget they should receive careful consideration
both in selection of materials and in methods of hanging. Owning to the
fact that an excellent publication, Window Curtaining,'1 prepared by the
United States Bureau of Home Economics, is easily obtainable, the sub
ject will not be discussed here. This bulletin contains valuable informa
tion on the selection of materials and directions for the making of glass
curtains and side draperies, detailed directions for making curtains for the
various rooms and for special types of windows. The list below taken
from the above-mentioned bulletin is a few of the hundred or more glass
curtain and drapery materials that are on the market:
FOR GLASS CURTAINS
Batiste Marquisette Pongee
Cheesecloth Mull Scrim
Dimity Nets and laces Swiss
Lawn Organdie Theatrical gauze
Madras Pineapple cloth Voile
FOR SIDE DRAPERIES AND DRAW CURTAINS
Armure Damask Prints
Brocade Drapery denim Rep
Burlap Gingham Satin
Casement cloth Japanese crepe Showerproof fabrics (for
Challie Madras bathroom and kitchen)
Chintz Mohair Taffeta
Corduroy Monk's cloth Terry cloth
Cotton homespun Osnaburg Velour
Crash Percale Velvet
Cretonne Poplin Velveteen
[NoxE. — Window shades: In most parts of the house plain shades are preferable.
There are many shade materials on the market including a number of new ones. Cam
bric shades, holland shades, plain and designed chintz, painted cloth treated with lin-
1 Obtainable from the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 433
seed oil, Austrian cloth (a crinkly fabric woven in slender stripes), book muslin (treated
to render it translucent), and others are in common use. Waterproof shades are de
sirable for kitchen and bathroom.]
THE IMPORTANCE OF COLOR
Color is becoming more and more important in both house furnishing
and equipment, and it is now daringly used in furniture, upholstery
materials, draperies, bath and kitchen equipment, and even in small
kitchen utensils. Even though more color is in use, the principles govern
ing it remain the same. To use color effectively and artistically in interior
decoration requires something more than merely becoming "color con
scious." Although we do not know just to what extent colors please us or
irritate us, we do know that certain combinations of color are annoying
to some persons and other combinations are pleasing. It requires a knowl
edge of the use of color — its effect on the height and breadth of rooms, the
effect light has on it, the effect of certain colors upon each other, color
harmony and contrasting color harmony, and of many other uses to ob
tain successful results. Color theory will not be discussed in this chapter
as there are many good books on the subject.
A few principles should be observed, however, if best results are ob
tained with color in furnishing a home. Colors differ according to their
dimensions, that is, in warmth, in lightness, and in value. Exposure, area,
and shapes and colors of objects in a room dictate uses. "The law of
areas" is perhaps one of the most violated of color laws. According to this
law, large areas should be restful with few or no contrasts while small
amounts may show decided contrasts. In furnishing it is well to keep
in mind that in all color combinations there should be a predominating
color or principal color and that backgrounds should be kept subdued or
dull in effect, particularly if the objects in the room are to stand out and
to appear effective. The "keying of colors" also is important. This may
be done by mixing them to introduce one color in common or by uniting
them by means of a neutral color. There are a number of other ways also
to key colors.
Some color combinations are pleasing and others are not. There are,
however, certain harmonies that will produce pleasing effects under nearly
all conditions. Whatever the combinations used there should be one color
in common throughout. Color may also be used to change the effect of
the size of rooms. Small interiors may be made to appear larger through
the use of light colors. Before deciding upon the color of a room its size,
434 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the amount of light, and its architectural treatment should be con
sidered.1
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR
THE SEVEN-ROOM HOUSE2
BY MRS. CHARLES BRADLEY SANDERS
THE HALL
The first impression of a house and its occupants comes as one enters
the front door into the hall. Thus, nowhere in the entire house is it more
important to strike the right keynote in furnishings and decoration. If
there is no closet in the hall for wraps and umbrellas, it will be necessary
to have, in some obscure corner, a wooden strip painted the same color as
the woodwork, in which are .... hooks, placed low enough so that
the young members of the family can reach them.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF HALL FURNISHINGS3
Floor coverings. — Rugs, long runners, square or oblong, depending on
the shape of the hall, of Wilton, Brussels, Axminster, wool braided, or
any short-nap carpet, preferably in small design.
Linoleum in plain colors or large tile squares.
It is entirely a matter of choice as to whether stairs be carpeted or un-
carpeted. Stair carpet should, if used, match hall rugs or carpet.
Table. — Small or medium size, in any of the hardwoods or painted soft
woods, drop-leaf, square, oblong, or console shape.
Mirror. — Antique gilt, wood and gilt combined, plain wood, or in frame
painted to match table.
Chairs. — One or two straight chairs, with or without rush, cane, or
upholstered seats, in any of the hardwoods or dark-painted furniture.
Low-boy or table with drawers. — In any of the hardwoods or dark-
painted furniture. For gloves, string, scissors, pencils, paper, etc.
Large chest. — In oak, walnut, mahogany, or painted or stained to
match the woodwork, for overshoes, etc.
1 For information on color see Goldstein, Art in Every Day Life, pp. 184-220; also
Wright and McElroy, House 6* Garden's Book of Color Schemes.
2 Adapted from How To Furnish the Small Home. Better Homes in America, 1929.
The kitchen and kitchen equipment will be discussed in the following chapter.
3 It should be understood that very few of the following pieces would be needed or
could be accommodated in the hall of the small home.
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 435
Telephone-stand and small chair.— To correspond with other furniture
if the telephone is in the hall.
Pictures. — Should be few, framed in antique gold or dark wood frames.
Types: Samplers, engravings, etchings, or prints of interest to all.
Accessories. — Card- tray of wood, silver, or brass, and a stone or pottery
vase for flowers or branches are all that will be needed.
A plain pottery or composition jar, harmonizing with walls and carpets,
is appropriate for umbrellas.
THE LIVING ROOM
As the living room is the gathering place for family and friends, it may
well be considered the most important room in the house. It should take
its keynote for decoration from the hall. If there is a wide doorway con
necting the living room with the hall, the color scheme should be the same.
As the living room serves as library also, open bookshelves, painted the
same as the woodwork, are essential if bookcases are not desired.
The first requisite of such a room is that it shall be restful. Avoid using
rocking-chairs.1 Use little bric-a-brac. No unnecessary furniture or fur
nishings should be included.
For the background, tan or ivory is good in a room which is inclined to
be dark, or gray and gray-green in a room inclined to be bright.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR THE LIVING ROOM
Floor coverings. — Carpets, rugs, or linoleum. The entire floor may be
covered with carpet or linoleum in plain colors, or in an allover design.
Rugs and carpets should be preferably the orientals, Wiltons, chenilles, or
Axminsters. Linen fiber, wool fiber, grass fiber, wool braided, and hooked
rugs are appropriate for country houses or summer furnishings. It is a
matter of choice whether one large or several small rugs be used.
Table. — In any of the hardwoods or painted softwoods; square or
oblong, depending on the shape of the room, such as an oblong library
table, refectory, a square drop-leaf, gate-leg or plain wood table, painted.
Sofa. — Either entirely overstuffed, wood frame upholstered, or day-
bed type.
Armchair. — Either entirely overstuffed, upholstered seat and back
only, or upholstered seat and wooden back, such as plain overstuffed
1 There are many other types of chairs that are more comfortable and much more
beautiful, some of which .can wisely be used in furnishing the demonstration home. A
family furnishing a home for its own use will, of course, take into consideration the
habitual comfort of its members.
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
velour chair, wing chair, Chippendale, or French tapestry and needle
work. In any of the hardwoods; type such as Windsor or ladder-back,
with wood or rush seats.
Wicker armchair. — Natural color or painted, with or without cushions.
FIG. 55. — An attractive library with built-in book shelves will stimulate interest in
acquiring worth-while books. (Trowbridge photographs, courtesy of House Beautiful
magazine.)
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 437
Desk. — In any of the hardwoods; type, Colonial secretary with book
case, above, block front, spinet, or small flat-top desk.
Desk chair. — Straight chair with upholstered, wood, or rush seat, to
correspond in wood and style with desk.
End tables or stools. — In any of the hardwoods or painted softwoods;
low, round, square, oblong, or kidney-shaped.
Bookcase or bookshelves. — Bookcase with or without doors; straight-line
type, or built-in bookshelves, painted or stained to match woodwork.
Small tilt or stationary-top table. — Round or square in any of the hard
woods, lacquered or painted.
Lamps. — Tall, wooden, or metal reading-lamp, with silk or paper shade;
a table lamp of wood, metal, or pottery base, with silk, chintz, muslin or
paper shade.
Clock. — Simple design in wood, metal, or leather.
Wastepaper basket. — Wicker, wood, or fiber.
Decorative accessories. — Small footstool; pottery, brass, or copper vases;
bowls, candlesticks; sofa cushions, table runners, or mats in duvetyn,
velours, old brocade, heavy silks, or to correspond with materials used in
over draperies.
Desk appointments. — In silver, brass, bronze, leather, or wood. Book-
ends in wood or metal; ash-trays of enamel, glass, wood, brass, or other
metal; library shears and smoking appointments.
Pictures. — In gold-leaf, antique gilt, or natural wood frames; subjects
in oils, water-colors, engravings, etchings, or colored prints of interest to
family and friends.
Piano. — Small grand or upright in any of the dull, dark-finish hard
woods; quality of tone first and forever of importance.
Fireplace (if any). — .... Andirons, fire-screen, stand containing
pinchers, poker, and hearth brush, a woodbox or woodbasket.
Phonograph. — In console cabinet or smaller case, in any of the hard
woods chosen to correspond with the other furniture in the room.
Radio. — Cabinet or on small stand or table
DINING ROOM •
The dining room should be one of the most cheerful and inspiring
rooms of the house. It is the place where the family gathers to enjoy
meals together, and nothing insures a better start than having breakfast
in a bright and cheerful room.
438 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
If the dining room and living room are connected by a small door, the
walls may be in some light, cloudy landscape paper, or in a small allover
pattern in light cream, buff, gray, tan, or putty color. Blue is not recom
mended because blue, in large quantities, either in walls or hangings, ab
sorbs the light and makes a room look gloomy.
Do not display china or glassware in a so-called china closet. A built-in
corner cupboard, or a small mahogany or rosewood cabinet, which might
hold rare bits of pottery and china, is permissible. It is far better to use
the pantry shelves for china than to crowd it into a china closet. A few
pieces of sterling silver,1 such as a tea set, after-dinner coffee set, candle
sticks and compote bowls, are more desirable for sideboard and serving-
table display than plated ware or glass. Heavy pottery and brass make
a good second choice. In the case of a Welsh dresser type of sideboard, a
few rare plates, pewter or silver, may be displayed.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR THE DINING ROOM
Floor coverings. — Carpets, rugs, or linoleum. The entire floor may be
covered with carpet or linoleum, the same as the living room, or with one
large rug, preferably in an allover design in the orientals, Wiltons, velvets,
chenilles, and Axminsters. Linen fiber, wood fiber, grass fiber or wool
braided rugs are appropriate for country houses or summer furnishing.
Table. — In any of the hardwoods or painted softwoods. Round or
square extension, drop-leaf, gate-leg, or refectory, in a reproduction of any
of the straight or curved line periods.
Chairs. — Six or eight, to match in wood and design the dining-table, or
of some similar wood, or a dark painted finish of a period or style similar
to that of the table.
Sideboard. — To match the table in wood and design. Or it may be an
interesting old chest of drawers, spinet, low-boy, or large console with
drawers.
Serving- table2 — To match the sideboard in wood and design. Or it may
be a small low-boy, a console with folding top, a gate-leg table, or a small
chest of drawers.
Nest of tables.2 — Small, square, or oblong in any of the hardwoods, or
in a painted or lacquered finish.
1 It is wise to remember that any such display accumulates dust.
2 Should be considered as accessory rather than as necessary furnishings.
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 439
Mirror.1 — Long, oblong, or upright in gold-leaf, antique gilt, wood, or
painted frame.
Pictures.1 — Few are necessary in a dining room. These may be in gold-
leaf, antique gilt, natural wood, or painted frames; types: Oils, water-
colors, etchings, engravings, or colored prints; subjects: Still life, land
scapes, or other subjects of interest to family and friends.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR OUTDOOR OR
GLASSED-IN SUN PORCHES
Floor coverings. — Grass, rush, or fiber rugs; coco mats or matting.
Chairs. — Three or four, natural or painted wicker, plain wood painted,
or the rustic type of hickory and reed.
Table. — One solid table to match design, for lamp, magazines, etc.
End-table or stool. — Wicker, natural wood, or painted, for tray of
refreshments or smoking appointments.
BEDROOMS FOR ADULTS
The first requisite in furnishing a bedroom is that it appear crisp and
clean. The walls, light in color, must be restful and simple in design. The
woodwork may be white or ivory. Painted furniture is very popular for
a bedroom because of its dainty appearance, but dull-finished mahogany,
walnut, or maple bedroom furniture, in four-post or any Colonial design,
with rag, braided, or hooked rugs, is charming.
When placing the bed, consider the sleepers' preferences with reference
to light and cross drafts. A dressing-table is fashionable, but not so
practical as a chest of drawers with a mirror above. A full-length mirror
installed in a closet door, or hung in a narrow wall space, is a very desira
ble adjunct. Be sure to place the dressing-table or chest of drawers where
the light is not reflected from the opposite window. To secure a good
view, the light should be directed upon the person to be reflected, and not
upon the mirror.
If one bed is used, place beside it a table on which may be placed a
lamp, telephone, and small water-bottle and glass. If two beds are used,
place this table between the two beds.
Washable bedspreads are more desirable than silk. Bedspreads and
bureau covers may be made of unbleached muslin, bound with wide bands
of plain yellow, blue, and brown — these colors overlapping one another —
or plain white Swiss, dimity, or a ready-cut spread of any novelty washable
fabric.
1 Should be considered as accessory rather than as necessary furnishings.
440 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR ADULTS' BEDROOM
Floor coverings. — Linoleum or straw matting; rugs, such as velvets,
Brussels, Wiltons, braided, rag rugs, linen rugs, or straw matting by the
yard.
Beds. — Twin beds or double bed, in any of the hardwoods, antique or
modern, natural wood finish or painted; or metal bed, painted, enameled
or stained. Box or woven springs; good quality mattress only should be
considered, of either hair or good composition filler; two pillows, blankets,
comforter, and bedspread.
Dresser. — Or a broad chest of drawers, with or without attached mirror,
similar to bed in style and finish; or it may be an individual piece, antique
or modern, of period design.
Chiffonier, chifforobe, or high-boy. — Similar to dresser in finish and style;
or it may be an individual piece, antique or modern, of period design.
Dressing-table, toilet-table, vanity dresser, or low-boy. — Similar to chif
fonier in style and finish; or it may be an individual piece, antique or
modern, of period design. A flounced dressing-table is appropriate, with
French or Early American period furniture, or in country houses where no
period is suggested, but is a dust collector and is not recommended for
general use.
Dressing-chair, bench, or stool. — For convenience at dressing-table.
Same wood and style as dressing-table.
Small table or night-stand. — For bedside use. Should be of same wood
and style as other bedroom furniture, or an individual piece, antique or
modern, of period design.
Lamp. — Wood, pottery, or metal base, with paper or light-colored silk
shade.
Sewing-table or stand. — Same wood and finish as bedroom furniture, or
an individual antique or modern piece. Use to contain darning and mend
ing materials.
Armchair or slipper-chair. — Of wicker; or low, overstuffed, upholstered
in light-colored cotton or silk material.
Straight chairs. — Two. Similar to other bedroom furniture, or they
may be individual pieces, antique or modern, of period design.
Mirrors. — If dresser, chiffonier, and dressing-table have no mirrors
attached, mirrors with antique gilt, gold-leaf, painted or wood frames,
should be hung over chests of drawers or low-boys.
Pictures. — In gold-leaf, gilt, natural wood or painted frames; subjects
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 441
may be of the more intimate type, such as family photographs, or subjects
of particular interest and association to the occupants of the room.
Decorative accessories for ladies. — Toilet articles in silver, ivory, tor
toise-shell, or wood. Fresh cotton in small container or bag, for guest.
Lamp of wood, daintily decorated, or of metal or pottery, on bedside-
table, with shade of paper or light-colored silk. One or two small pillows
for comfort in reading, etc., hangers, shoe- trees, and painted or papered
hatboxes in closet.
Decorative accessories for gentlemen. — Toilet articles in silver, ivory,
tortoise-shell, or wood. Clothes, hat, and shoe brushes available. Plenty
of coat and trousers hangers, and shoe-trees and shoe cloth available in
closet.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR THE GUEST ROOM1
Floor coverings. — Rugs, linoleum, or straw matting. Wiltons, velvets,
rag, hooked, braided, or linen fiber rugs.
Beds. — Twin beds in any of the hardwoods, natural finish or painted,
or metal beds painted or lacquered.
Dresser or chest of drawers. — Similar to bed in finish and style, or an
individual antique or modern piece, or a painted chest.
Dressing-table or flounce dressing-table. — Similar to dresser in finish and
style, or an individual piece, antique or modern. A flounce dressing-table
may be made over a wooden frame or kitchen table at slight expense.
Mirror. — If the dresser and dressing-table have no mirrors attached,
mirrors with antique gilt, gold-leaf, or painted frames will be necessary,
hung against the wall over the dresser.
Armchair or slipper-chair. — Low wicker, painted wood, or overstuffed,
upholstered in flowered or dainty material.
Chairs. — Two straight chairs, natural wood or painted, one for use at
desk.
Desk. — Natural wood, flat- top, spinet, or block front.
Table.— Small bedside-table to match other furniture, with small
drawer.
Trunk-rack or low bench. — Natural wood-stain or painted, for bags or
trunks.
Lamp. — Wood, pottery, or metal base in some dainty unusual design
or color.
1 Many houses cannot afford a guest room. The list of appointments and decorative
accessories given below will prove useful when one of the family rooms is made over to
accommodate a guest.
442
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Pictures. — Not more than three or four, in gilt, natural wood, or paint
ed frames. The subjects should be of interest to guests.
Appointments and decorative accessories. — Note-paper, blotters, post
cards, stamps, pen and ink on desk. Hand mirror, brush and comb, shoe
horn, buttonhook, box of assorted dress and hair pins; dress hangers,
shoe cloth, shoe pockets or rack in the closet. Small carafe pitcher or
thermos bottle and glass for water; small bag or basket with threads,
FIG. 56. — Cross-ventilation, simplicity, and restfulness in furnishings are important
considerations for a bedroom. Better Homes demonstration.
needles, etc. Vase or bowl in pottery or glass for flowers. A few current
magazines and small books. Special rack in bathroom for guest towels
and soap if there is no guest bath.
BEDROOM FOR EITHER BOYS OR GIRLS
It has been proved that furnishings and color produce either desirable
or disastrous effects upon the sensitive minds of children. As all children's
rooms are usually a combination of bedroom, playroom, and study, it is
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 443
well to keep in mind colors, design, arrangement, and practicality for all
purposes.
To most children, a spotty or too often repeated design is distracting.
Blues and violets soothe, while reds, yellows, and sometimes greens are
exciting and stimulating colors.
Boy's room. — While there should be no frills, light fabrics, or wood
work for boys to soil and mar, their rooms may still be made interesting,
even beautiful; but convenience and masculinity should be kept foremost
in mind.
Girl's room. — A girl's room, on the other hand, should be dainty, and
bright. Her personality, even at a very tender age, will clearly be dis
closed by the way she cares for her room. There is no need of a great
expenditure of money in buying furniture or hangings for a girl's room.
Some of the cheaper fabrics and simplest furniture will make the most
charming room.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR A BOY'S ROOM
Floor coverings. — Rugs, linoleum, or coco matting. Brussels, velvet,
braided, or rag rugs, or strips of coco matting.
Beds. — Single bed, wood or metal. If the room is shared by two boys,
use two single beds, in wood or metal, preferably of the day-bed type, in
dark wood, dull finish, or dark painted finish.
Dresser, high-boy, or chest of drawers. — In natural wood to match beds,
or dark-painted, straight-line chest with plenty of drawers. One chest for
each occupant of the room.
Mirror. — If the dresser has no mirror attached, a plain square or oblong
mirror of natural wood or antique gilt should be hung low enough over the
chest for the convenience of the occupant.
Chairs. — One or two straight wooden chairs to match dresser, or
painted dark, such as black, green or brown, and one comfortable chair,
such as a dark-painted wicker or wooden armchair.
Table. — A low one to match dresser, or painted to match chairs.
Desk.— One with sturdy, flat-top, or of craftsman type, in finish to
match other furniture.
Lamp. — For desk or table, or on a bracket, with glass or stout paper
shade.
Bookcase or bookshelves. — For books, trophies, etc., of simple lines to
match other furniture, or shelves finished to match woodwork.
Tie-rack. — Hung near chest of drawers.
444 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Pictures. — One or two in dark wood frames; subjects should be those
of interest to boys.
Denims, reps, and heavy sunfasts make appropriate curtains, bed
spreads, and bureau scarfs.
Few or no decorative accessories are necessary, as boys create their
own.
A SUGGESTED LIST OF FURNISHINGS FOR A GIRL'S ROOM
Floor coverings. — Rugs, linoleum, or straw matting. Brussels, velvet,
rag, braided, linen, or wool fiber rugs.
Bed. — Single bed, wood or metal. If the room is shared by two girls,
use two single beds in natural hardwood, or light-painted wood or metal.
Dresser, low-boy, or chest of drawers. — In natural wood to match bed, or
light-painted, bulge- or straight-front chest, with plenty of drawers; or
a constructed wood chest with compartments covered with flounces.
Mirror. — If the dresser has no mirror attached, a plain square, oval, or
oblong mirror of natural wood or antique gilt should be hung low enough
over the chest for the convenience of the occupant.
Chairs. — One or two straight chairs to match dresser, or light-painted
individual chairs to correspond with flounced dressing-table, and one
comfortable chair, such as a natural wicker or small upholstered chair.
Table. — One small table at bedside to correspond with other furniture.
Desk. — Small, flat- top or closed-front desk to match other pieces of
furniture.
A large box or chest. — Built-in under window, or of a cedar type that
can be moved about; for clothing, etc.
Lamp. — Wood or china base, with silk, muslin, or light-colored paper
shade.
Pictures. — Three or four in light-colored frames; subjects should be
those of interest to girls.
Decorative accessories. — Sewing basket or stand; one or two silver,
china, or pottery vases for flowers. Toilet articles in silver, wood, tor
toise shell, or ivory. Desk appointments and light-colored blotter. Deco
rative candy-box and one or two cushions. Sateen, taffeta, muslin,
seersucker, dotted swiss, and cretonnes, make appropriate materials for
bedspreads, curtains, and bureau scarfs.
BATHROOM
Floor. — Should be sanitary. Tile, stone, specially finished cement, or
linoleums are the most sanitary. Small black-and-white, or light blue-
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 445
and-white patterns are good. A well-filled painted wood floor of battleship
gray or Colonial buff may be used. Small mats of rubber or cork at side
of bathtub are desirable.
Walls. — Tile, or plaster painted with two coats of flat paint and one
coat of enamel, or oilcloth wall covering. White or any pale colors are the
best.
Ventilation. — Window-board should be in window to allow top and
bottom ventilation if no separate ventilator is provided.
Fixtures. — Porcelain or enameled iron tub with hot and cold running
water; shower with spray set at angle not to wet hair; porcelain or enam
eled basin, with hot and cold water; toilet with white seat desirable;
cabinet, with door and mirror, over basin; shelves for shaving equipment,
lotions, antiseptics, first-aid kit, etc., cupboard large enough to hold
supply of towels, soap, toilet paper, and equipment for cleaning bathroom
fixtures, if no closet in hall is available for these.
Clothes hamper, unless chute to bin near wash tubs is provided. Hamper
should have smooth white surface. Enameled metal, wood, or wicker de
sirable.
Towel racks. — Nickel, glass, vitreous china, or enameled wood rack for
each member of family to keep towels separate. Make certain that a
separate rod is provided for guest towels.
Miscellaneous fixtures. — Two nickel, vitreous china, or enameled metal
soap racks, one beside the basin and one beside or hooked to the tub, if not
back in the wall. Tooth-brush rack to hold tooth-brushes, well separated.
Toilet-paper basket or rack. Individual mugs or glasses for each member
of the family. Shelf of glass, vitreous china, or wood covered with oilcloth
is usually placed over the basin.
Stool. — White enamel, preferably. Clothes hooks on back of door, or
clothes-tree.
Sash curtains of white material, fastened at top and bottom on small
rods to window casement and not on window sash, so the window may be
raised or lowered and privacy maintained.
Lavatory. — Some families can afford to install an additional lavatory
on the ground floor to save steps. It should contain toilet, wash bowl,
stool, and fixtures for accessories. It should also be as easy to clean and
as hygienic as the bathroom.
[NOTE. — The equipment of the bathroom stands the same whether for one or more
baths in a seven-room house or for a single bath in a three-room house. The stool and
clothes hamper are the only furnishings that can easily be dispensed with.]
FIG. 57.— Before. This bedroom of a Knoxville, Term., Better Homes demonstration
house was successfully transformed into the livable living room shown in Fig. 58.
FIG. 58— After remodeling
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 44 7
AMOUNTS AND APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGES FOR
FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT*
Per Cent
Furniture Si, 251 .50 41
Rugs 493-30 I?
Linen, bedding, and towels 259 . 64 9
Kitchen equipment 245 . 53 8
Draperies 236 .04 8
General accessories 189 . 65 6
Pictures 97-5° 3
China and glass 88 . 50 3
Silver 86 . 50 3
Lamps 59-Qo 2
$3,007.16 100
FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS BY ROOM
(Budget, $3,ooo)f
Living room $964 . 95
Vestibule 61 . oo
Dining room 519.00
Kitchen, lavatory, back entry 266 . 53
Upstairs hall 66 . 08
Master bedroom 614. 15
Boy's bedroom 272 . 58
Girl's bedroom 194 . 18
Bathroom 48 . 69
Total $3,007.16
* Based on Furniture and Furnishings of a Better Homes Demonstration House (a project carried on by
the Department of Related Art, Home Economics Division, University of Wisconsin, 1928).
t This budget does not include refrigerator.
MODERNISM IN FURNITURE1
BY C. R. RICHARDS
Vice-President, Museum of Science and Industry
LeCorbusier says: "Modern art, which is machine made, needs no
decoration — can have no decoration." He says that the rational perfec
tion and precise determination of machine products made solely for func
tional ends create in them a quality which gives them a style. I doubt
that this is a final word. To my mind it represents the logical French
point of view carried to an extreme that loses sight of the psychological —
1 Adapted from "Sane and Insane Modernism in Furniture," Good Furniture and
Decoration, January, 1929. Reprinted by courtesy of Good Furniture and Decoration
Magazine.
448 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
that is, the aspect that demands charm, intimacy and variety in our house
hold belongings. This question, however, we need not attempt to settle
to-day. What is clear is that at present modern design in its best and
sanest manifestations, as far as it relates to three-dimensional things,
mainly represents an effort to express what are conceived to be sound,
practical and aesthetic principles peculiarly related to modern life. Let
me try to define these principles as I see them in this particular relation.
First of all, I should say modernism requires direct and effective meet
ing of functional needs and straightforward construction that respects the
nature of material involved. These two ideas are very old. They are
attributes that have characterized every high period of art, and they have
been lost sight of in every decadent period. They have in particular been
in the background of artistic thought for the last three-quarters of a cen
tury since Ruskin hammered upon them and reiterated them to the
betterment of the world's art. Let us see why they are so peculiarly
meaningful to-day.
LIVING CONDITIONS HAVE CHANGED
In what way is life different from what it was? In the first place, the
physical conditions of life to-day are enormously different from what they
were, and they are different almost wholly because of power and the
machine. These two factors have changed the face of the earth and given
us modern transportation and communication which allow people to meet
and obtain new ideas as they never could before. They make possible our
modern dwellings. They provide us with our clothes and our household
fittings and furnishings.
Then, again, a large fraction of us live in cities where room becomes
more and more at a premium. This has made the apartment house our
typical living arrangement, with the constant tendency to smaller and
fewer rooms. Furthermore, household service, because of higher wages
and changed social attitudes, becomes increasingly .difficult to afford.
All these things require that we have fewer and smaller pieces of furni
ture. We no longer have space for the chaise longue or for couches. We
must put up with fewer great chairs or tables. What furniture we have
must function effectively and its material must be used economically and
according to its qualities. If one material is not fitted for a purpose, we
find another. These conditions outlaw carving and deep moldings that
catch dust and require constant cleaning.
On the other hand, our mental attitudes are different from those of
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 449
past generations. We live more intensely and our daily experiences are
much more varied and of a transient nature. Our conversation is much
more direct and simple as the demands of many brief contacts require.
The flapper of to-day frankly reveals (I am not referring wholly to her
dress) much that was concealed in former times.
On the whole, we face life more simply and directly, and all this tends
to reflect upon our applied art. It tends, for one thing, I think, to make us
less satisfied with ornament that covers up and overlies the structure of
our household belongings, and inclines us to prefer the aesthetic appeal
that comes from, expression of the structural material itself.
We see this in contemporary furniture, silver, glass, ceramics, and in
building. A potter to-day, making stoneware in the high fire kiln, almost
inevitably expresses himself in terms that are the quintessence of modern
ism — that is, through glazes that are part of the substance of his creations.
It is safe to say that over three-quarters of the pieces shown in the Inter
national Ceramic Exhibition, .... are of this character.
These, as I see them, are some of the tendencies that are present in the
best of the modern work in three-dimensional things. These tendencies
do not comprehend decoration in the old sense. Perhaps that will come
later — I do not know. But they include, necessarily, it seems to me,
scrupulous attention to appropriateness of form, firmness of proportion,
elegance of line, and the discreet use of structural material for surface
decorative effect
On the continent of Europe one finds varying expressions of the modern
movement. Probably in no country are there more than one or two de
signers producing things fine enough to have a universal appeal, but for
the most part the creations are at least sane and practical.
One thing that marks much of the English, German and Viennese
work is the familiar quality of the chairs. This, it seems to me, represents
much good sense. When, for no earthly good reason, we try to make a
chair that is entirely unlike any chair produced before 1900, we generally
achieve something that is both uncomfortable to sit in and uncomfortable
to look at. Why not drop this frenzied effort at mere novelty? We do not
need forms never before seen. We need old forms simplified or modified
better to meet present-day needs. As a matter of fact, there is much of
Sheraton and of Hepplewhite and a deal of Early American that meets
the requirements of modern life most admirably.
450 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The making of furniture in any important way to-day is a matter of
quantity production. Of all peoples in the world, we are the one that
should, by virtue of our special genius and social conditions, best express
modern tendencies. At the moment we seem to be held back by a false
conception of what these tendencies mean. Many of our manufacturers
are rushing in with a hope to derive benefit from a fad, but utterly failing
to appreciate that true modernism in applied art is not a matter of freak-
ishness, queerness and novelty, but an expression of fundamental tenden
cies in our modern life. It seems evident that the time has come for the
American furniture industry to apply some real courage, some real think
ing, and some real taste to this situation and to tackle the problem of
working out modern expressions of furniture in terms of our own demands
and tastes with a seriousness worthy of the need. It is surely not too much
to say that if our furniture manufacturers and designers, instead of seeking
something merely bizarre and eye-catching, would take lessons from the
best of our city architecture, from our fine automobiles, from modern
ceramics, silver and glass and from woman's street dress, they might in
time succeed in making American furniture the finest expression of the
modern spirit. A few, sadly few, of such instances of appreciation are
beginning to appear. From these we may take a measure of encourage
ment, at least, but a fine understanding of the situation seems to come all
too slowly.
SUMMARY
One of the first considerations in treating interiors is to plan for the
proper relationship between the architectural treatment and the furniture.
A well-designed room must have a harmonious relation between the vari
ous furnishings and the details of the architectural scheme. If there is an
architect and a decorator they should collaborate.
Quantity production now makes it possible for many more families to
have good furniture than in earlier days. In buying furniture utility and
design are the two important considerations. Furniture woods should be
properly cured or the wood may shrink, swell, crack, or warp. Modern
use of veneers, plywood, inlay, and many lasting finishes all have been
means of improving furniture. Lamination is the process of gluing to
gether thin sheets of wood, layer upon layer. The abuse of veneers has
brought them somewhat into disrepute, but veneer is the only means by
which some of the beautiful effects in wood may be obtained. Both solid
and veneer construction have many good points and certain advantages
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 451
over each other. Joinery is of marked importance if furniture is to last
and give good service. In upholstered furniture correct tying of the
springs is essential for durability and satisfaction.
In arranging furniture the first consideration is the space to be occu
pied. Usefulness and beauty are the two main essentials to be observed.
Unity is produced by emphasizing one important element throughout with
all other elements subordinated to it. Variety which is the element of con
trast should be used sparingly. By careful selection and arrangement of
furniture a room of poor proportions may be greatly improved. Color,
form, texture, and contrast are effective in obtaining balance. Color is
one of the most expressive elements in decoration; intense colors, how
ever, should be used in small proportions and their use should be to add
life, interest, and character to a room. Contrasting harmony is much
more difficult to use than harmony of likeness but it may be made very
effective. A room without design lacks individuality; "spottiness," how
ever, should be avoided. In arranging large pieces of furniture place them
parallel to walls, small pieces should be grouped according to use and
attractiveness and with reference to the various centers.
Curtains are used for privacy, to regulate light, frame views, and
accentuate color. Care should be exercised both in selecting the materials
and in their method of hanging.
Since the hall, owing to its location, creates the first impression of the
house interior it is important to strike the right keynote in its furnishings
and decoration. The living-room interior, however, is undoubtedly of
the greatest importance since it is the gathering place for family and
friends, and should be interesting and satisfying. Light and cheerfulness
are desirable results to be obtained in furnishing the dining room, and
restfulness and simplicity are the chief considerations in the treatment
of bedrooms.
Changes in living conditions have had their effect on the present
modernistic movement in furniture and furnishings. Less space and more
intense living, new use of materials, and new materials have influenced
furniture design.
REFERENCES
I. GENERAL INFORMATION
CLUTE, EUGENE. The Treatment of Interiors. New York: Pencil Point Press,
1926.
Discusses interiors with particular emphasis on uses of period styles and modernistic
design.
452 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
CURREY, MARGERY. The Pictures in Your Home. Chicago: American Art
Bureau, 1925. Pp. 27.
Information on selection, framing, and placing.
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, MCCLURE, ABBOT, and HOLLOWAY, EDWARD
STRATTON. The Practical Book of Interior Decoration. Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Co. 1919.
Principles governing selection and arrangement of furniture (pp. 282-311).
FRANKL, PAUL T. Form and Re-Form. New York: Harper & Bros., 1930.
Good examples of modernistic designs and how they may be adapted to present-day
uses, with emphasis on metal furniture. Includes plates of modernistic designs and
furniture arrangement.
GOLDSTEIN, HARRIET and VETTA. Art in Every Day Life. New York: Mac-
millan Co., 1925.
Interior design (pp. 321-443).
HOLLOWAY, EDWARD STRATTON. The Practical Book of Learning Decoration and
Furniture. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1926.
Application of principles of interior decoration (pp. 147-68).
House Beautifid Furnishing Annual, 1926. (Out of print.) Boston: Atlantic
Monthly Co., 1926.
Discusses design, construction, and arrangement (pp. i-n, 59-122).
JOHNSON, AXEL P., and SIRONEN, MARTA K. (comps.). Manual of the Furniture
Arts and Crafts. Grand Rapids, Mich.: A. P. Johnson Co., 1928.
Furniture woods, veneers, and plywood; furniture construction (pp. 263-462).
KELSEY, CLARKE. How To Judge Furniture. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National
Committee on Wood Utilization. Washington: Government Printing Office,
PARSONS, FRANK ALVAH. Interior Decoration: Its Principles and Practice. Gar
den City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1928.
Discussion of the principles of interior decoration with information on color, form,
balance, and emphasis (pp. 3-96).
PEABODY, HENRIETTA C. Inside the House Beautiful. Boston: Atlantic Month
ly Press, 1921.
Excellent for illustrations of arrangement and hanging of pictures (pp. 35-39).
ROLFE, AMY L. Interior Decoration for the Small Home. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1926.
SEXTON, RANDOLPH W. Interior Architecture. New York: Architectural Book
Publishing Co., 1927.
Discusses relationship between decoration and architectural treatment.
ESSENTIALS IN HOME FURNISHING 453
STOREY, WALTER RENDELL. Beauty in Home Furnishings. New York: Rae D.
Henkle Co., 1928.
Furniture woods and finishes (pp. 128-51); hangings and upholstery fabrics (pp.
152-84); decorative metal furnishings (pp. 222-43).
2. PERIOD FURNITURE AND FURNITURE STYLE
CLIFFORD, CHANDLER ROBBINS. Period Furnishings: An Encyclopedia of His
toric Decorations and Furnishings. New York: Clifford & Lawton, Inc., 1927.
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, and RAMSDELL, ROGER WEARNE. The Practi
cal Book of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese Furniture. Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Co., 1927.
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, and MCCLURE, ABBOT. The Practical Book
of Period Furniture. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1914.
HOLLOWAY, EDWARD STRATTON. The Practical Book of Learning Decoration and
Furniture. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1926.
JOHNSON, AXEL P., and SIRONEN, MARTA K. (comps.). Manual of the Furniture
Arts and Crafts. Grand Rapids, Mich.: A. P. Johnson Co., 1928.
Period furniture (pp. 115-260).
STOREY, WALTER RENDELL. Beauty in Home Furnishings. New York: Rae D.
Henkle Co., 1928.
Period styles in furniture (pp. 75-127).
3. COLOR
FROHNE, HENRY W., and JACKSON, ALICE F. and BETTINA. Color Schemes for
the Home and Model Interiors. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924.
HILLSTROM, ELLEN. How To Know Color. Madison: University of Wisconsin,
1928. Pp. 32.
MAERZ, ALOUP, and PAUL, REA M. A Dictionary of Color. New York: Mc
Graw-Hill Book Co., 1930.
WRIGHT, RICHARDSON LITTLE, and MCELROY, MARGARET (eds.). House and
Garden's Book of Color Schemes. New York: Conde Nast Publications, Inc.,
1929.
4. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS FOR THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN
FORD, JAMES. "Homes Equipped for Children," Housing Problems in America:
Proceedings of loth National Conference on Housing. Philadelphia, Jan.
28-30, 1929, pp. 26-37. New York: The Association, 1929.
GRIES, JOHN M. "Homes Equipped for Children," Child Welfare Magazine,
XXI (April, 1927), 359-61.
NICHOLS, NELL B. "Making the Home Safe for Children," Parents' Magazine,
IV (April, 1929), 31, 50, 52-53.
RICHARDSON, FRANK HOWARD. "Equipping the Home for Children," Woman's
Home Companion, LVI (November, 1929), 22-23, 77~7&
454 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
5. RELATED SUBJECTS
DYER, ELIZABETH. Textile Fabrics. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927.
EBERLEIN, HAROLD DONALDSON, and RAMSDELL, ROGER WEARNE. The Practi
cal Book of Chinaware. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1925.
Discusses chinaware of the various countries.
HUNTER, GEORGE LELAND. The Practical Book of Tapestries. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1925.
Excellent for study of tapestries.
STOREY, WALTER RENDELL. Beauty in Home Furnishings. New York: Rae D.
Henkle Co., 1928.
Lighting fixtures for illumination and decoration (pp. 244-64) ; decorative pottery,
glassware, and china (pp. 265-93).
U.S. BUREAU OF HOME ECOMONICS. Window Curtaining, by BESSE M. VIE-
MONT. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1633. Washington: Govern
ment Printing Office, 1930. Pp. 30.
CHAPTER XIII
THE KITCHEN
KITCHEN PLANNING1
BY GRETA GRAY
Small kitchens are in general more convenient than large ones. In
shape the oblong is more economical of floor space than the square and
fewer steps are required in crossing the room from one work center to
another. For the average family in a house of six or seven rooms, a kitchen
with from 90 to 108 square feet is satisfactory. The exact size should be
determined by the number of activities to be accommodated, by the size
of the large pieces of equipment, by the number of doors, and to some
extent by the kind of fuel used in cooking.
The chief work in most kitchens is food preparation. In addition the
kitchen must sometimes be used as the family dining room, as a laundry,
.... and as a playroom for small children. More floor space is then re
quired than if it is limited chiefly to work connected with food. Even so,
efficient arrangement is possible in a large, general-purpose kitchen by
planning work centers for the various activities. At the other extreme is
the kitchenette where every foot of wall and floor space must be utilized
and sliding and drop shelves and other ingenious devices studied out to
provide the needed working surfaces.
Stove, sink, table or cabinet, or both, cupboard for dishes and utensils,
and sometimes a refrigerator are the large pieces of equipment for which
allowance must generally be made. By careful planning such economical
use can be made of walls and floor space that all these can be conveniently
placed in a comparatively small area.
Two doors, one to the dining room and the other to the back porch
or entry, are the minimum in the kitchens of most houses. Two or three
more doors leading to cellar, pantry, and hall are not uncommon. In
many cases the kitchen is made larger than would otherwise be necessary
in order to provide wall space for these doors, when by forethought they
could have been placed elsewhere to better advantage.
Coal or wood as the cooking fuel generally makes necessary a larger
1 Adapted from Convenient Kitchens. Farmers' Bull. 1513. Bureau of Home Eco
nomics, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1926.
455
456
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
kitchen than gas, oil, or electricity. A coal or wood stove takes up more
room; facilities for storage of at least a day's supply of fuel must be pro
vided in the kitchen; and the greater heat radiated from such a stove
makes it impossible to work near it with comfort
RELATION OF THE KITCHEN TO THE REST OF THE HOUSE
The connection between dining room and kitchen is of prime impor
tance. A double-swing door leading directly from one to the other is
most convenient of all. A pantry between dining room and kitchen has
HIGH WINDOWS
FIG. 59. — The plans above of rectangular kitchens show carefully studied arrange
ments. Note the easy access from range to dining room, sink to dining room, and
refrigerator to pass closet. (Courtesy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
the advantage of cutting off odors and noise ; and if equipped with a sink
and a china cupboard, table dishes and silver can be washed and stored
there, leaving the kitchen free for other work. Such a parjtry, however,
even when narrow, does lengthen by several feet the distance to be trav
eled and adds another doorway between kitchen and dining room. As the
name "butler's pantry" often given to it implies, it is better adapted to a
large house with servants. For the small house in which the homemaker
and her family do most of the preparation and serving of food, too much
can hardly be said in praise of the pass cabinet as a saver of steps
The relation of the kitchen to other centers, indoors and outdoors,
THE KITCHEN 457
where the homemaker works herself or supervises others, is another point
to consider. Laundry and furnace room, for instance, should be easily
reached from the kitchen
There should also be easy access from the kitchen to the entrance doors,
to stairs to the second floor and to the cellar, to telephone, and to toilet.
In a house with a center hall there can almost always be arranged a short
route from the kitchen to the front door that does not lead through living
room or dining room.
Is the kitchen to have the prevailing wind in winter or the prevailing
breeze in summer? Is it to have sun in morning, afternoon, or throughout
most of the day? What shall be the outlook from the windows? ....
These are also important questions which should influence the location of
the kitchen. The answers depend partly on climate and partly on per
sonal preference. In a hot climate the kitchen should if possible open
onto a screened porch, and in any case the outlook should be made pleas
ant. A trellis of vines, a hedge, or a row of Lombardy poplars are an effec
tive screen for many undesirable features. The sand box or swing for the
children can often be located in view of a kitchen window so that an eye
can be kept on them at play.
KITCHEN FLOORS, WALLS, AND WOODWORK1
BY GRETA GRAY
[Although wall and floor finishes have been discussed in general in one of the pre
ceding chapters, the following paragraphs contain specific considerations.]
The ideal kitchen floor is durable, comfortable to walk and stand on,
smooth but not slippery, easy to clean, not injured by grease and water,
and attractive in color and appearance. The wooden floor finished with
paint or oil or covered with a good quality of plain or inlaid linoleum
meets many of these requirements.
For the walls, smooth hard plaster finished with good quality oil paint
is perhaps most satisfactory. Oil paint will stand repeated washings
with lukewarm suds made from neutral soap, and can be renewed easily.
Wall oilcloth applied like wall paper can also be washed with fair success
if water does not get into the seams. If ordinary wallpaper must be
used, a coat of varnish brushed on after it is hung will help to prevent
1 Adapted from Convenient Kitchens. Farmers' Bull. 1513. Bureau of Home Eco
nomics, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1926.
458 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
steam from loosening the paper and will give it a more durable finish.
The glaze on oilcloth and varnished wall paper, however, is irritating to
the eyes.
A wooden strip or molding four or five feet above the iloor cuts off the
lower part that receives hardest wear. If painted or stained a different
tone from the rest of the wall, this dado prevents differences in the two
sections from showing up and the lower can be washed or refmished with
out making the other look shabby.
The woodwork should be plain, and there should be as little of it as
possible. The baseboard especially should be designed to shed dirt rather
than to form a resting place for it. Woodwork finished with the same oil
paint used on the walls is economical of time and materials. Spar varnish
applied after the wood is stained gives a smooth durable finish. For some
kinds of wood, oil well rubbed in is satisfactory.
The color in which walls and woodwork are finished should depend on
the lighting of the room and on its exposure. Light tans and grays with
enough yellow to give them life are generally best because they are neu
tral, do not show soil quickly, and yet reflect considerable light.
KITCHEN VENTILATORS1
BY ELIZABETH HALLAM BOHN
The variety of makes in the ventilator field might well cause the home
owner to pause in perplexity. But the principle behind them all is the
same. A motor-driven fan — set in the kitchen wall or window and con
nected with the light socket — whisks out stale air or cooking fumes, draw
ing on the rest of the house for the replacing air and so maintaining a
healthful circulation throughout. If a non-odorous activity — like ironing
— is in progress, many of the fans will reverse obligingly and blow cool
air into the kitchen fan from outside. Installation does not interfere with
the opening and closing of the window.
SIZE AND SPEED
The size of the fan itself may differ in the various models. The speed
with which it operates may be greater or less, to adapt the equipment to
the opposing force of the wind whistling around the sixteen-story apart
ment house, or to restrain the electrical current to the less exacting con-
1 Adapted from "Ten Good Kitchen Ventilators and How They Do Their Work,"
House and Garden, October, 1930. Reprinted by permission of House and Garden,
Conde Nast Publications, Inc. (copyright, 1931).
THE KITCHEN 459
ditions of more equable situations. Where the wall can be cut, the cabinet
type can be specified by the architect and built right into the walls, leav
ing the entire window for its usual function. The built-in ventilator should
not, if possible, be located directly under an upstairs window to draw
any of the fumes back into the house again. And if it can be placed on
the side away from the prevailing wind, this still further adds to its
effectiveness. The rented home will welcome the easily removable portable
window type of ventilator. Either simplicity or extra refinement of con
struction makes it possible to obtain a ventilator satisfactory for either the
modest or pretentious home.
In the list which follows will be found a ventilator suitable for every
need. In ordering, the size of the window must be given, if this type of
ventilator is wanted; also the kind of electric current used. This latter
information can be secured from the company which furnishes lighting
current.
VARIOUS GOOD TYPES
One ventilator of quality, which we will call A, is built by a company
of forty-eight years' ventilating experience. The guaranteed motor is the
product of two eminent electrical companies. The company in question
makes models for the double-hung window, the casement window, and
also to build right into the wall. The portable window model is set in a
double-strength glass panel, to let in all light possible. The frame is
strong, attractive in its vitreous porcelain finish and easily cleaned.
The fan itself is an eight-bladed aluminum propeller of special design
which handles the maximum amount of air at a minimum speed. It costs
only ^ of a cent per hour to run, at an eight cent current rate, and the
ordinary size will handle 600 cubic feet of air per minute. Then there is a
stronger model, handling 1150 cubic feet of air per minute. As the motor
is reversible, air can be drawn either in or out, quietly and without
noticeable vibration, and there is a safety-locking device to prevent acci
dental dislodgement of the ventilator.
Another splendid ventilator is B. This, too, will either set into the
window or build right into the wall (the latter type is cleverly constructed
with rattle-proof doors, operated by the lever which controls the motor).
There is also a separate fan for special purposes, for the window type fits
only the window which opens up and down — the so-called "double-hung "
type. The fan is set into an adjustable panel of pressed steel, finished in
pearl or mahogany coloring, and from the three stock panels — 26" to 36",
460 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
36" to 46", and a special for the window 22" to 26" — any size of window
can be fitted out.
With this fan, a twelve-inch blade operates quietly and efficiently on
about as much current as needed by a fifty-watt bulb. The improved
blade design and setting direct the air forward, so that the velocity is the
same at the center as at the tip. It operates at a relatively low speed and
is particularly effective where there is not too great wind resistance from
the outside. There is a choice of two speeds with this type of ventilator.
The lower is reversible, while the higher draws the air out only.
Considerable choice in size and price is possible when one selects
ventilator C, to keep the kitchen cool and up-to-date. The manufacturers
of this line claim to be the only ones who guarantee their product for a
full five years. These fans may be bought separately; with adjustable
panel — either wood, glass or metal — for insertion in a window, or, in the
wall-box type, to be built directly into the house.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Where the fan is to run on alternating current, the 9, 12, or 16 inch
size may be installed, with capacity ranging from approximately five
hundred to 1575 cubic feet of air per minute. The nine-inch blade is
finished in dull brass, the larger models in black enamel. If the current
is direct, only the sixteen-inch fan is available. A feature of the larger
fans is the speed regulating switch.
The twelve-inch fan of D sets in a metal window panel, with inserts of
a translucent substance to let the light through. The smaller panel will
.extend to fit a window up to 34 inches wide; the wider panel accommo
dates a window up to fifty-inch width. This silent fan, made by a com
pany of long established reputation, handles 625 cubic feet of air per
minute with its special blade. And it may be used either as an exhaust
fan or as an air intake.
E is an exhaust fan only, and may be had in set-in glass or steel panels
for the double-hung window, in the transom model or in the wall-cabinet
type. It may also be had without panels of any kind. The extension
window panels, with their chrome plated frame and aluminum parts, fit
windows of widths from 17" to 63", and are as easily put up as a window
shade. The transom model, finished in pearl-gray enamel, is adjustable
to fit transoms from 26" to 36" wide. The ten-inch blades of the patented
propeller will pull out 800 cubic feet of air per minute. The motor is non-
radio interfering, and operates with little noise.
THE KITCHEN 461
F is a handy portable window ventilator, easily installed, being com
posed of two sturdy brackets which fasten to the window casing, and the
frame in which the fan is mounted. It will quietly exhaust 900 cubic feet
of air per minute.
G. This ventilator may be inserted in the window, its gray, white or
lacquered metal panels being adjustable in three sizes, to windows ranging
from 25" to 42". Or the cabinet type, with its one-handle control, may be
built right into the wall of the new home. The manufacturers of this quiet
and efficient device feature a special, insulated, slow-speed motor which
will operate continuously twenty-four hours a day, if desired, without
becoming hot. The fan delivers a maximum of 600 cubic feet per minute,
without objectionable noise, and a variable speed regulator can be added.
H. Polished aluminum is the material of which this simple window
ventilator is made. The fan has a thirteen-inch blade and is mounted
on an adjustable mounting board, to fit any width of window. Neat,
compact, light and rustless, it has a reversible motor to draw out or blow
in the air, and can be supplied for any current.
I. Again the window, transom and cabinet models are offered in this
fine ventilator. The window type is set in steel or glass with aluminum
mountings, adjustable to fit windows from 17" to 50" wide. The transom
and cabinet types are finished in soft gray enamel, the former adjustable
to transoms 26" to 36" wide. The manufacturers claim that their ten-inch
propeller will deliver 40 per cent more air than other makes — 800 cubic
feet per minute being its capacity. The considerable variation in prices
depends on the type and kind of current used.
J. Another good type, this — economically installed in the window on
its portable wood panel, or built permanently into the wall in the cabinet
type. The patented fan alone may also be purchased. The white mount
ing panels for the window type come in three widths — 36", 42" and 48"—
while the green ventilator is either a twelve-inch fan or a sixteen-inch size.
The twelve-inch can handle 750 cubic feet of air per minute; the sixteen-
inch 1000 cubic feet. The manufacturers of this ventilator claim that it
is the only motor-driven exhaust fan with a fully enclosed, self-cooled
motor.
462 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
FIVE MAJOR REQUIREMENTS FOR KITCHEN EQUIPMENT1
BY HILDEGARDE KNEELAND
U.S. Bureau of Home Economics
First, the efficient kitchen requires a separate working surface for each
kind of work to be done. In the preparation of meals this means a sepa
rate serving table as well as the usual work table or cabinet for mixing
and preparing raw foods. And in the clearing away of meals, it means
separate surfaces for stacking soiled dishes and for draining. There is no
place in the efficient kitchen for the general utility table, where mixing
bowls and salad plates, soiled dishes and clean are jumbled together in
hopeless confusion.
Second, the efficient kitchen requires the arrangement of large equip
ment in a step-saving sequence. The briefest analysis of the work of the
kitchen reveals a repeated order of work: We collect raw food, prepare it,
cook it, and serve it; we remove soiled dishes, scrape and stack them,
wash, drain, and put away. This obviously gives us the key to the placing
of equipment on the floor plan: For the preparing process, first the re
frigerator and food cupboard, then the cabinet, then the stove, and last
the serving table; and for the clearing away process, first the stack table,
then the sink, then the drain board, and last the shelves for china.
In the preparing sequence, we can work either toward the right or the
left, but we must end at the dining-room door. In clearing away, how
ever, we must always work toward the left — provided we are right-hand
ed. For each dish or utensil as it is washed is held in the left hand, and if
the drain board is on the right of the sink, we must cross the left hand
over the right with every piece that we put down. The only place for a sink
with a right-hand drain board is in the home of a left-handed worker or in
a museum devoted to displaying the tangible evidences of human folly.
Third, the efficient kitchen requires a compact working area. This
means the arrangement of large equipment along the walls in a nearly
continuous working surface on either side of the dining room door, leaving
just enough room in the center for the worker to move easily about. It
means windows placed above the work surfaces, and doors, closets and
equipment not used in preparing and clearing away meals grouped at the
other end of the kitchen. It usually also means an oblong kitchen, with
only a few feet across from the cabinet to the sink, and a total floor space
for the food work of not far from one hundred square feet.
1 Adapted from "Abolishing the Inefficient Kitchen," Journal of Home Economics,
July, 1929. Presented at the Tenth National Conference on Housing in America, Phila
delphia, January 29, 1929.
THE KITCHEN
463
Fourth, the efficient kitchen requires the placing of equipment at con
venient heights from the floor, so as to minimize as far as possible the
necessity of stooping and stretching. This is, perhaps, our most difficult
problem, and one which calls for further study. For there is no agreement
as yet as to the most convenient height for even the average worker, and
the height which is convenient for the short worker is, of course, too low
FIG. 60. — A generous number of well-arranged built-in cupboards and drawers, a
sink with drain boards, plenty of table space for work, and top space are some of the
requirements for a good kitchen.
for the tall one. Since we cannot standardize the height of housewives, we
must find some way of making the height of our working surfaces adjust
able. Meanwhile, with the average worker in mind, we can place the sink
and the worktables several inches higher than they usually are now placed.
Fifth, the efficient kitchen requires the grouping of small equipment
around the working center where it is usually used first. This means the
abolition of the general utility cupboard or closet and the building of
shelves and other storage space in almost continuous series above and be
low the various working surfaces.
464 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING
OR BUILDING LARGE EQUIPMENT1
CUPBOARDS
1. All cupboards should extend to the ceiling. Otherwise the top becomes
a "catch all" and dust catcher.
2. Where ceilings are high there should be two doors on cupboards. The
upper one should be a small door, which opens to shelves storing
things seldom used. A long door is more difficult to open and taxes
hinges and latches.
3. Wood panels are preferred to glass in kitchen cupboards.
4. Where swinging doors do not conveniently fit into a space, sliding doors
may be used.
5. Cupboard shelves should be placed 16 to 18 inches above the work-
table in the combination cupboard and worktable unit. This gives
room to use the table beneath and low enough to prevent one's head
bumping against the edges of an open door.
6. Cupboard shelves should not be too wide. Definitely plan their use,
so that but one row of articles can be stored on them, thus preventing
unnecessary reaching behind or "hunting" for articles.
7. Shelves should have an adjustable arrangement at the side so that
they may be changed in distance apart to suit various needs.
8. Where permanent shelves are both too wide and too far apart an extra
narrow shelf may be added to conserve storage space.
9. Cupboard shelves are easiest to clean when enameled or covered with
oilcloth smoothly pasted.
WORKTABLE
1. Since more work is done at the worktable than at any other work
center, the table should be placed before a window where the light is
good and there is a possibility of a pleasant view for the worker.
2. The table combined in a unit with cupboards above and drawers below
should be about 2\ feet wide.
3. Toe room should be provided by extending the table four or five inches
beyond the line of the base, or by recessing for three or four inches the
base next the floor.
4. Knee room should be provided for comfort while sitting at work by an
opening under which knees and feet may be placed or by an extension
leaf or board, as provided in office desks.
1 Adapted from Finishes and Furnishings for the Kitchen. Iowa State College, 1929.
THE KITCHEN 465
5. Materials for work table tops are porcelain, enameled iron, a material
which is an alloy of copper and zinc, linoleum cemented down, and
composition material. Tile and composition tops are harder to clean,
nonresilient and tend to chip dishes. Porcelain tops to fit any size table
may be secured.
6. Providing the right height for the worker at the table is essential. If a
small table is available, in addition to the cabinet unit, one height may
be planned for each, to be determined by the tasks generally done at
each. A simple test is that of standing before the table and, without
stooping, placing the hands, palms down, over the table. The table is
of proper height when the palms can be laid flat on the table without
stooping. If the palms are three inches above the table, it should be
raised three inches, giving the required working height. Portable tables
may be raised by ball bearing casters or small hollowed out wooden
blocks. One commercial firm furnishes detachable legs of different
heights for tables and cabinets. To lower tables, saw off legs and replace
casters.
DRAWERS AND BINS IN THE BUILT-IN UNIT
1 . The space beneath the usual built-in work table is divided into molding
board, drawers, bins for flour and sugar.
2 . Drawers should operate on guides to prevent binding when pushed in
or pulled out. It is good construction to have a stop to prevent the
drawer from going back farther than flush with the face of the unit.
Drawers should not be too deep as space is likely to be wasted and are
likely to cause unnecessary handling of the contents. A drawer too
deep may be made more convenient by placing a movable tray on
strips of wood nailed to the sides of the drawer on which the tray
may rest and be pushed forward and backward, permitting the reach
ing of stored material below. Plan the depth of drawers to conform
with their intended use. Removable partitions should be made to
separate equipment.
Drawers placed so they extend/lown to the floor are better than cup
boards as they may be pulled out and the contents seen without
stooping.
Bins for flour and sugar may be of the dump type or metal contain
ers resting on a platform fastened to a door, with strong hinges..
[NOTE. — A variety of kitchen cabinets recently have been developed, and kitchen
assemblies of different kinds include almost everything that may be classed as kitchen
furniture and equipment. These units are sufficiently large to cover the entire area be
tween floor and ceiling and a large portion of the wall-space.]
466 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN SELECTING STOVES1
BY S. AGNES DONHAM
Specialist, Income Management
COAL RANGE
In choosing look for:
A range which is plain, with little or no nickel or ornament.
A simple, clean arrangement for removal of ashes.
A convenient opening for cleaning the flues.
An eight-inch cover is more convenient than smaller ones, and one
should be sure that the oven is the size suitable for her needs.
CONSTRUCTION AND PARTS
A metal or iron box with a smaller box at the end. Some built-in ranges
have small boxes at each end.
Flues. — Both boxes are surrounded by a larger box, with air spaces,
called flues, between.
Fire box. — The small box opens at the top into the air space; and is
divided horizontally by a grate. The top part is called the fire box.
Ash box. — The lower part is called the ash box.
Oven. — The large box, called the oven, is surrounded by air spaces on
top, side, and bottom.
Water connection and lining. — Coils of pipe or metal front for water in
fire box — other sides of fire box are usually lined with fire brick.
Chimney damper. — A flat plate, which when shut nearly closes the
space opening into the chimney — when CLOSED the heat goes round the
oven and heats it; when OPEN the heat goes directly up the chimney — the
fire burns more rapidly but the oven does not heat. These dampers may
usually be CLOSED in 10 to 15 minutes after the fire is started.
Drafts. — Doors or slides below the fire box which, when open, allow a
strong current of air to pass up through fire; and if the chimney damper
is closed the oven heats quickly. When the drafts are closed the fire burns
more slowly, as most of the air is shut out.
Checks. — Slides in the small door a*bove the fire box and in the chimney
pipe which, when open, let cold air in on top of the fire, force the heat
back and deaden the blaze.
Facts to remember. — There must be free circulation of air through the
fuel — air spaces between the paper, wood, and coal.
1 Adapted from Marketing and Housework Manual (Boston: Copyrighted by Little,
Brown & Co. [1917], 1930), pp. 114-23. For information on use and care of various
types of stoves see ibid., pp. 113-24.
THE KITCHEN 467
Air entering the stove under the fire causes an upward draft and makes
it burn faster.
Lack of air under the fire checks it.
Cold air over the fire checks it.
With the draft and the chimney damper open, the fire burns fiercely,
the top of the stove grows very hot, but the oven is not heated.
Proper use of checks and drafts will control a fire.
Ashes in the pan when you start a fire will absorb the heat at first.
When the fire has burned dull red or white the coals are exhausted —
burning to white heat melts the coals, makes clinkers, and injures the
top of the stove.
Clinkers may be removed by burning oyster shells or quicklime on top
of the fire.
If the top of the stove gets red hot, the covers will warp.
Shaking packs an old fire down and stops the draft.
Raking from below or turning a revolving grate removes the ashes
without packing the fire.
Too shallow a bed of coals won't burn well.
Coals above the fire-box lining waste heat and injure the top of the
stove.
A hard-coal fire must not be poked from the top.
NOTE. — Oil burners may be installed in coal ranges, eliminating many of the dis
advantages and much of the difficult care required by a coal fire.
GAS RANGE
Best. — Cabinet range with oven on the level with the eye at the side of
the top cookers. There is no adequate reason except lack of space for
having the oven so low that one must stoop to it. Oven should be well
insulated with automatic control.
Second choice, — Same type range without automatic control.
Third choice. — Box range with oven below the top cookers.
NOTE. — Caution: When using compressed, artificial, or other tank gas, be sure that in
stallation is in accord with best-known practice and follow exactly the directions for use.
Most modern ranges have oven heat regulators, which automatically
control amount of gas burned, save gas and permit satisfactory results
with less care and guesswork.
Some of the new stoves have "crown tops" which spread the flame,
heat larger surface, and save gas.
Most ranges now have pilot lighter for top burners.
Burners should be removable so that they can be cleaned easily.
468 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ELECTRIC RANGE
Choose standard make.
Serviced in your community.
As efficient as you can afford; automatic, semi-automatic, or without
automatic control.
Remember that "features" increase the cost. Don't pay for automatic
features if you never intend to use them.
Fundamentals are :
Good oven insulation.
Sufficient oven wattage.
Enough heating space on the surface.
Wiring heavy enough to carry sufficient current.
Two types, — Box range — oven below outside heating units. Cabinet —
oven at side or above outside heating units. Choice depends upon:
Space available.
Height and convenience of worker.
Cost a consideration.
Finish. —
Black or colored enamel (painted) .
White or colored vitreous enamel (baked on).
Small amount of nickel (or none).
CONSTRUCTION
Two types of outside cookers:
a) Open coil: Heats more quickly, burns itself clean. May burn out
if liquids boil over.
b) Closed or solid type : Heats more slowly, holds heat longer, does not
burn out when liquids boil over.
OVENS
Types. —
a) Without automatic features: Current must be turned on and turned
off when desired temperature is reached.
b) Semi-automatic : Like above, but signals when desired temperature
is reached.
c) Half automatic: Current must be turned on and dial set, current
goes off when desired temperature is reached.
d) Full automatic: Dial set at desired temperature and clock set at
determined time, current turned on and off by thermostat when clock
registers time and dial hands register desired temperature.
THE KITCHEN 469
Construction. — Heating units must be large enough to heat oven quick
ly — 2,000 to 3,000 watts necessary. Ovens must have well-insulated walls
and should be large enough to hold several utensils.
KEROSENE AND GASOLINE STOVE
Types —
a) Direct burning of the oil brought to the burner by a wick. Utensils
set close to the burner.
b) Oil brought to kindler of asbestos, oil mixed with air turned to vapor
by heat, lighted gas carried to utensil.
c) Formation of gas by lighting a priming fluid and heating burner
before fuel is turned on, gasoline usually used as priming fluid and kero
sene or gasoline as fuel.
CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING AND PLACING
EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS1
THE RANGE
The choice of a range depends largely upon the cost of the fuels avail
able in your locality. If oil must be your choice you may wish to consider
an oil range with a built-in oven. The latest development in gas ranges
is the use of the insulated oven, an important factor in maintaining a
cool kitchen
In some kitchens, the placement of the range is governed by the loca
tion of a flue. However, if no flue is provided, it is possible to locate the
range in a more desirable position, for example, in a corner between two
windows. If a range is so placed, it is possible, by opening the windows,
to ventilate the range section of the kitchen with a fair degree of efficiency.
Care must be taken, however, to place the windows sufficiently high to
prevent a direct draft of air from blowing out the flame.
THE SINK
There is a wide choice possible when you are planning to buy a sink.
You will find stain-resisting enamel in white or a variety of colors. In
choosing a piece of permanent equipment like a sink, remember that the
color you choose must be in harmony with the color scheme of the room
and one of which you will not tire. Chromium plated faucets are in use
on many of the new sinks and meet unqualified approval from house-
1 Adapted from Convenient Kitchens. Good Housekeeping Institute, 1929.
470 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
keepers because they are stainless. A dishwashing sink represents a most
modern type and may be obtained in white or colored enamel also.
The sink may be placed directly alongside the range. Obviously, the
window above must be sufficiently high to permit installing the sink at a
proper height for the worker. Another convenient location for the sink is
between two built-in kitchen cabinets with a window over it, to insure
proper light. This arrangement is often found immediately adjoining the
dining room door.
THE CABINET
Kitchen cabinets are made either of wood or of metal; both are satis
factory and the choice between them is entirely a personal one. These
cabinets also come in a variety of colors and in many different arrange
ments and combinations, among which you are sure to find the particular
arrangement which best suits your needs.
The main work center or working cabinet may be placed directly oppo
site the sink and range, leaving sufficient space between it and the ex
terior wall for the refrigerator. Storage cabinets located at the right of
the sink will provide storage space for pots and pans within a few feet of
the range and also near enough to the sink to enable replacement of clean
utensils without extra steps.
Another arrangement of cabinet space is one where you will find all
of the cabinets assembled along one wall with a sink and dishwasher in
the center, a refrigerator at one end and a broom closet at the other. This
arrangement is considerably more compact and oftentimes provides
greater storage area than any other arrangement. In order to realize this
latter plan, it is necessary to use considerable foresight as the units in
variably are factory built.
THE BROOM AND CLEANING SUPPLY CABINET
"A place for everything and everything in its place" certainly applies
to the cleaning equipment of any household. Cabinet manufacturers build
a special unit to accommodate this type of equipment. In this unit may
be kept mops, brooms, brushes, dust cloths, the vacuum cleaner and
possibly a floor polishing machine as well as cans of wax, polish, etc. ....
A small closet in the kitchen or in some convenient part of the house may
easily be fitted up to accommodate your cleaning equipment if you do not
wish to purchase a cabinet for this purpose. In any case, once you have
placed all of your cleaning equipment in one place you will be delighted
with the convenience which it will afford.
THE KITCHEN 4?i
ELECTRIC DISHWASHERS
The modern kitchen should have up-to-date equipment for washing
dishes. For the new house, the obvious purchase is the dishwasher which
is a part of the sink. Several types are available.
For the old house, where a new sink is not to be considered, portable
dishwashers may be used. These may be installed or used in front of the
sink with the swinging spout of your sink as your water supply and
the sink proper for a drain. Some of these are low enough to roll beneath
the sink when not in use.
THE SINK AND DISHWASHING
Many sinks now have drainboards cast in one piece with the sink. If
separate wooden drainboards are used they should be kept varnished. A
combination faucet for hot and cold water is very convenient. In the
single drainboard sink there is a tendency to pack soiled dishes in the sink
around the dish pan, and it is here that the nicking and breaking occur.
If the soiled dishes could be neatly packed at the right of the worker and
washed toward the left, or vice versa, depending upon the position of the
dining room door, there would be no tendency to crowd the dishes in the
sink and breakage is actually reduced. If there is no wall space for a dou
ble drainboard sink, a small table on casters will serve as the drainboard
for the soiled dishes.
THE KITCHEN TABLE VERSUS THE SERVICE WAGON
In most kitchens, serving surface is at a premium and a small kitchen
table in addition to the cabinet is therefore helpful. If casters have been
put on the legs, the table can be wheeled from place to place as it is
needed. The service wagon has quite a different function. When there
are no servants, it is a constant help to the hostess in many ways
A service wagon should not take the place of a kitchen table, however,
because it is too low in height and not stable enough. Use it as a serving
table for food ready to go to dining room.
SELECTION OF COOKING UTENSILS
The most satisfactory list of kitchen utensils should include wares of
each type
The question of heat conductivity and fuel saving may have arisen in
your mind as a result of the claim of some enthusiastic salesman. Under
laboratory conditions it may be possible to determine some slight differ-
472 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ence in the heat conductivity of various materials used for utensils, but
under home conditions and for all practical purposes we believe there is
ho difference in fuel economy.
For saucepans we would recommend both aluminum ware and enamel
ware. Aluminum utensils will wear for years. With the exception of the
very light grade, they are very sturdy and hold their shape. They must
be given constant care, however, to keep them looking well. Enamel uten
sils will withstand heat and ordinary usage; but will chip if given a severe
blow or if handled carelessly. This is due to the glasslike coating over the
metal base. Utensils of this ware are very easily cleaned.
Both iron and aluminum are satisfactory for frying. For deep fat frying
kettles, select the heavy grade of aluminum or cast-iron, and for sauteing,
iron, or a rather heavy grade of aluminum or sheet steel is satisfactory.
For griddles one has a choice of heavy aluminum, or cast-iron. They all
are satisfactory, although the iron griddles have been the favorite for
many years because they need little care.
Roasters afford a wide range of choice. Good ones may be obtained in
sheet steel, aluminumware, enamelware and glassware. The material of
which the roaster is made has no effect upon the results it produces; it is
the method of roasting which is the important factor. It is an advantage
to have a covered roaster, even though the cover may not always be used,
as it will be found desirable for those meats which require a long period of
cooking.
For baking purposes oven-proof glass, porcelain, earthenware, tinware
and Russia iron are all desirable. Casseroles of oven-proof glass and china
can be used for serving at the table.
Select refrigerator storage dishes in either glass or enamelware. For
pot roasting on top of the the stove, one should select cast-iron or heavy
aluminum in the Dutch oven type of utensil.
GARBAGE DISPOSAL
There are now available small covered waste containers that clamp to
the waste pipe directly underneath the sink or at a convenient height for
use. These swing in under the sink out of the way when not in use, and
easily swing out to receive garbage. They have draining insets and thus
reduce the water content of the garbage considerably. Some manufac
turers include such a device in the sink installation. If the sink does not
contain a sink strainer, one may be used to keep solid particles from
getting down the drain-pipe when emptying waste water in the sink. The
THE KITCHEN 473
contents of these small containers may be transferred either to a garbage
can at the sink or to the larger container put out for the garbage collector.
The garbage can at the sink demands regular care. Since a small amount
of drained garbage is emptied into it frequently it should be conveniently
opened. The foot-pedal attachment on many modern cans provides for
this. If such a convenience is lacking, the can should not be placed on the
floor, as this means tiresome stooping over to open and close it. It should
be raised to a convenient working height on a small stand at the sink.
The incinerator is a piece of equipment which eliminates the necessity
of having to bother with the garbage man and the garbage pail. It uses
gas, coal or wood as the fuel. A flue or outdoor connection is absolutely
necessary for the escape of odors and products of combustion. The ashes
must be removed at regular intervals from the bottom. The gas inciner
ator is most convenient when a chute leading to it is loaded near the
kitchen sink. The incinerator itself usually can be installed in the cellar.
LIST OF KITCHEN UTENSILS WITH SUGGESTIONS
FOR GROUPING1
BY KATHARINE A. FISHER
Director of Good Housekeeping Institute
This list of kitchen utensils is offered by Good Housekeeping Institute
as a guide for those who are equipping their first kitchen and also for those
who are adding to or replacing some of their present equipment. Wares
are not specified, as those using the list may have a preference for certain
wares or may wish to use several different wares according to the type of
equipment. Capacities of saucepans may also have to be changed to meet
individual needs, and other changes in the list will no doubt be made for
the same reason. No large equipment such as work table, range, sink, or
service wagon is included on this list, nor have we included equipment for
cleaning
AT KITCHEN CABINET OR WORKTABLE
i coffee-making device (percolator, i dough blender
filter, etc.) i fruit juice extractor
i set storage jars (spices, cereals, tea, 2 standard measuring cups (i glass,
coffee, etc.) i aluminum)
5 mixing bowls, nested, | pt. to 2 qt. i set cooky cutters
capacity 2 teaspoons for tasting
6 custard cups or small casseroles 2 wooden spoons, 10" and 14"
i grater i corkscrew and bottle opener
'Adapted from "Selecting Utensils for the Up-to-Date Kitchen," Good House
keeping, January, 1931.
474 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
2 wire strainers, 3" and 6" 2 or 3 casseroles or baking dishes,
i can opener qt, 2 qts.
i chopping bowl and knife i egg beater
i cake turner (if no broad spatula in i pair scissors
cutlery set) i knife sharpener
i breadboard i set of kitchen cutlery
i utility tray i bread box (if not part of cabinet)
i colander i cake box (if not part of cabinet)
i rolling pin i ice pick
i potato ricer i step stool
i set muffin pans, 6 or 8 in a set 2 sets measuring spoons
i flour sifter (if not part of cabinet)
STORAGE CABINET
Dutch oven 2 or 3 saucepans (covered) 2-4 qts.
i square cake pan, 10" x 10"
1 oblong loaf-cake pan, 10" x 5"
2 layer-cake pans, 9"
i cooky sheet, 12" x 12"
1 griddle, 10"
2 wire cake coolers
funnel
beater (whip)
toaster
pie plates, 10"
roasting pan, 15" x 10"
saucepan, straight or convex (cov-
i food chopper ered) 6-10 quarts
i steamer or "waterless" cooker i set refrigerator dishes, including one
i roll waxed paper large covered vegetable container
NEAR OR AT RANGE
i salt and pepper and flour shaker i basting spoon
1 potato masher 3 lipped saucepans, i pt., i| pts., i qt.
2 frying pans, 4" and 8" or 10" i tea kettle
i double-boiler, i| qts.
AT SINK
i waste basket i vegetable brush
i towel rack i garbage can
i dishpan, about 12 qt. capacity i dish dryer (if no electric dishwasher)
KITCHEN LINENS
6 dishcloths (if no dishwasher) 6 pot holders
12 dish towels i case paper towels (for hands)
12 glass towels
OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT
Although these items are listed as "optional," some of them may play a
major part in many kitchens.
Household scales i doughnut cutter
i quart measure i ice-cream freezer
i or more molds i wooden mallet
i tube cake pan i vegetable bin
THE KITCHEN
475
i deep frying kettle with basket to fit
i fat thermometer (for deep frying)
1 candy thermometer
2 butter-ball paddles
i bean pot
i steam pressure cooker
i roll parchment paper
heavy ice bag
waffle iron
timbale iron
egg poacher
lot paper baking cups
electric mixing and beating machine
i apple corer
A DEMONSTRATION KITCHEN
The New York Herald Tribune has established an Institute for Women
through the initiative and guidance of Mrs. William Brown Meloney. This
Institute, which is sponsored by an Advisory Council of notable special
ists in homemaking and child health, recently has added a new project —
"The Institute Kitchen" commonly called the "Dr. Gilbreth Kitchen"
after its planner. In discussing the new project Mrs. Meloney states:
Whatever else happens in the family, it must be fed. In no home is it a
simple project. America spends millions daily on food. It is one of the costly
items of life, and with unwise handling one of the biggest leaks in the family
pocket-book — not only in money but in health and family peace.
For this reason we have not only set up a model kitchen to simplify the
labor of feeding the family, but we have also made it a joy to labor therein.
We have asked two of the best nutrition specialists in America to cooperate
with us in the field of nutrition. . V . .'
THE HERALD TRIBUNE KITCHEN2
BY GERTRUDE TENNYSON
Foremost in that program have been the planning, building and equip
ping of a labor-saving kitchen, so that our readers may have a visible
demonstration of the latest principles in housekeeping technique and may
carry away suggestions for the improvement of their own kitchens.
This true home laboratory has been planned by Dr. Lillian Gilbreth,
the foremost home engineer in the country and a member of the Insti
tute's Advisory Council.
It is not offered as a rigid model for all kitchens, for one of the first
rules for the efficiency of any plan is that it must be adaptable, and Dr.
Gilbreth's wide practical experience leads her to insist that every kitchen
should be individually arranged to suit the height, tastes in decoration,
working habits and pocketbook limitations of the woman destined to be
1 From "Glorifying the Kitchen," New York Herald Tribune Magazine, June 15, 1930.
* Adapted from "Test Your Kitchen by Ours," New York Herald Tribune Magazine,
June 15, 1930.
476 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
its mistress. In its design this kitchen has, however, demonstrated two
basic labor-saving principles which can be followed in the laying out of
any work place. These principles are:
1 . Working surfaces adapted to fit the height of the worker.
2. The circular workspace.
No woman who has labored for even five minutes in an inefficient
kitchen needs to be told that the most exhausting part of dishwashing,
ironing and any other task usually done standing, is the constant bending
over. It is a tragedy and a reproach that for hundreds of years feminine
backs have ached so unnecessarily. Even to-day the evil is far from cured,
for not all women have learned that there are ways in which kitchen
equipment may be adjusted to individual heights. As the result of the
work of women like Dr. Gilbreth, all up-to-date kitchen equipment will
probably in time be made with easily adjustable legs, but until that time
comes there are various expedients by which the housewife may meet the
difficulty.
The Institute kitchen was planned for a housekeeper five feet seven
inches high, since that is the height of the food expert on the Magazine
staff. The desirable work level for her was found to be thirty-six inches,
which was the distance from the floor to the tips of her fingers when she
was standing with shoulders relaxed and elbows bent in a normal and
comfortable working position. This meant that the stove, the rim of the
sink, the work surface of the cabinet and the tables had to be thirty-six
inches from the floor. The height of the work stool also had to be adjusted,
so that when the housewife is sitting, her hands are in the same relative
position with regard to the equipment as when she is standing.
Most manufacturers make cabinet and table tops approximately thirty-
one inches high. This means that for the taller woman they must be
raised. This can be done by means of casters, rubber- tired wheels, caster
cups or more drastic measures. The legs of the Institute's stove are placed
on wooden blocks; the cabinet has a built-in baseboard; the work tables
are on wheels; the sink is supported by a wooden cupboard. For the very
small woman these processes may be reversed, as it is possible with most
equipment to saw off enough of the legs to bring them to the right height.
If the sink is too high for a very short woman' she should have a small
wooden platform built in front of it, on which she could stand while wash
ing dishes or pots and pans.
Dr. Gilbreth's second efficiency principle, that of circular routing, is
based on a long and careful study of kitchen processes and experiments
THE KITCHEN
477
with many kinds of kitchen arrangements to find out which plan would
eliminate all the unnecessary motions. The arrangement in the Institute
kitchen has been given a practical test by which it was proved that this
FIG. 61. — Circular routing of work is one of the efficiency principles of the Herald
Tribune kitchen designed by Dr. Lillian Gilbreth.
plan had cut almost in half the number of motions required in preparing
any given dish, and had reduced to less than one-sixth the amount of
walking required.
478 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The Institute is not opposed to walking and exercise for the woman
of the family — far from it! But we do maintain that she should take that
exercise in the open air, rather than in a treadmill round of refrigerator to
sink, to stove and back again.
The test of the efficiency of the new kitchen was made with strawberry
shortcake, because this dish and its twin, peach shortcake, are both fairly
complicated and popular The cake was first made in a typically hap
hazard kitchen. We kept a record of every motion and every step taken
in this process.
Then an exactly similar shortcake was prepared in the Herald Tribune
Kitchen, which has the same equipment and utensils as the other kitchen,
but has them arranged for efficiency. The results of this test were so
startling as to be almost unbelievable. The number of kitchen operations
had been cut from 97 to 64. The number of actual steps taken had been
reduced from 281 to 45 — less than one-sixth!
This great gain in kitchen efficiency is based on the idea of grouping
together, within easy reaching distance, furniture and equipment which
are used in the same processes or in processes which immediately follow
each other. In meal preparation, for example, the housekeeper starts to
assemble her cooking utensils at the cabinet and cupboard. Then she
assembles the foods from the refrigerator and cabinet, prepares them at
the cabinet or sink, and places them in or on the range. It follows that
if an arrangement can be made which will put her within easy distance of
refrigerator, cabinet, sink and stove, her tasks will be greatly simplified.
When a meal is being prepared the worktable on rubber- tired wheels is
wheeled over to the work center and stands there.
The housekeeper stands or sits on a high stool. From there she can
reach her stove, her staple foods in the cabinet, her perishable foods in the
refrigerator and her worktable. A few short steps take her to the sink.
On the built-in shelves at each side of the stove she keeps utensils needed
for the stove — on the left, pots and pans for boiling and frying; on the
right, dishes for baking and extra bowls used to supplement those in the
cabinet. The cupboards under the sink conceal a vegetable bin (placing
vegetables close to where they would naturally be cleaned), a garbage
container (close to the electric dishwasher which is a part of the sink) and
the various cleansers and implements used for cleaning the sink. In this
cupboard two little drawers hold vegetable knives and brushes.
A unique feature of the Institute kitchen is the door closet to hold
cleaning equipment used in the kitchen. This is a Herald Tribune Insti-
THE KITCHEN 479
tute invention, made especially for the model kitchen, but answers such
a long felt need that it is already destined to a wide popularity. It is a
curved metal pocket, fastened to the door with hinges and opening to re
veal a compartment for these necessary but undecorative objects. It has
places for floor mop, broom, brushes, ammonia and dusters. The outside
is painted the color of the door, but the inside is enameled black. When
closed the door closet extends only six inches beyond the door to which
it is attached.
The housekeeper's planning desk is another crowning achievement in
efficiency. It is Dr. Gilbreth's belief that the business of running a house
demands a well-planned little "office" just as surely as does any business
run by a man. For this reason she has designed the desk It is a
place to make up menus, to telephone market orders and to pay bills. It
is 12 inches deep by 26 inches wide. The front drops to reveal a telephone
and two small drawers, one for paid, one for unpaid bills. The top shelf
holds recipe books and the Herald Tribune box of tested recipes; on the
second shelf is the radio, with the loud speaker built in above. The Insti
tute feels that the radio has a definite place in the modern kitchen, con
tributing not only to the happiness of the housekeeper but to her effi
ciency, since it enables her, without leaving her work, to listen in on much
of the useful and interesting information about her job which is now being
broadcast, and glorifies many of the common tasks of the kitchen by a
musical accompaniment. It has long been realized that marching soldiers
forget their fatigue when the band is playing. Indeed, much of our music
and even our speech has evolved from the rhythmic sounds of laboring
men working in unison, and the arm that beats a cake does so with less
realization that it is work if the movements are timed to the beat of a
waltz.
The Institute also believes that the telephone is a necessary adjunct to
efficient homemaking. Personal marketing should be done twice a week,
but the telephoned grocery order can never be entirely dispensed with.
The final convenient feature of the planning desk is its bottom drawer,
in which is kept a small tool kit containing screws, nails, hammer, screw
driver and other implements necessary for quick repair work.
To the right of the planning desk is a drop-leaf table and four gaily
painted chairs, where the family of four, for whom the kitchen was
planned, may breakfast, or where the children may eat lunch while mother
goes on with her work. If the architecture of the kitchen allows, this may
be replaced by a breakfast nook with built-in table and benches.
48o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The outside door is, in this arrangement, at the end of the room exactly
opposite the stove. To one side of it a hanging cupboard holds the big
serving dishes and everything necessary for breakfast. Under the cup
board stands another worktable on wheels, its black composition top,
which is impervious to burns, the alcohol in flavoring extracts or other
stains, ready to hold the serving dishes while they are transported to the
stove and then into the dining room.
SUMMARY
The kitchen doubtless has become the most standardized room of the
entire house. In considering the plans, the oblong kitchen is better suited
for the saving of space and the arrangement of equipment than the square
kitchen. Easy access from the kitchen to front and back doors, stairs,
cellar, and telephone is desirable. More doors than essential should be
avoided as wall space is necessary for the placing of equipment. Cross
ventilation or a ventilating fan is desirable. Windows placed high provide
more usable wall space, and if opened from the top they are effective in
eliminating odors. Improper lighting or not enough light on work sur
faces causes irritation and fatigue.
Kitchen walls and woodwork should be smooth, free from cracks, easy
to clean, and attractive. There should be as little woodwork as possible,
and it should be plain to prevent collection of dust. Round corners are
desirable. The kitchen floor should be durable, comfortable to walk and
stand on, smooth, easy to clean, and attractive in appearance.
It is well to build cupboards to the ceiling to prevent collection of dust
and also to provide for plenty of storage space. A separate working sur
face for each kind of work to be done is desirable. Large equipment should
be arranged in step-saving sequence, and each working area should be
compact. Sinks cast in one piece with drainboards are preferable to drain-
boards attached. The design and placement of sinks, however, are usually
of more importance than the material.
Equipment should be placed at convenient heights from the floor.
Small equipment should be grouped around the working center where it
is used. It is desirable to have cupboard shelves adjustable, not too wide,
and if used with a worktable unit they should be at least sixteen or eight
een inches above the worktable. Common materials used for worktable
tops are wood, porcelain, enameled iron, linoleum, and composition mate
rials. Drawers should be planned with reference to their use; they should
not be too deep and should operate with ease. The most satisfactory kit-
THE KITCHEN 481
chen utensils include wares of each type. In selecting new utensils con
sider durability, design, size of family, and amount of entertaining, also
uses of article and standard makes. Handles should be securely attached
and able to withstand the weight, and the article should be free from
crevices and difficult places to clean.
REFERENCES
I. KITCHEN PLANS AND GENERAL INFORMATION
CHILD, GEORGIE BOYNTON. The Efficient Kitchen. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1925.
DELINEATOR HOME INSTITUTE. Delineator Kitchen and Laundry Plans and
Equipment. New York: Butterick Publishing Co., 1928. Pp. 44.
Contains a few plans for both kitchens and laundries and general information on
planning and arrangement.
Well Planned Kitchens. New York: Butterick Publishing Co., 1930.
Pp. 36-
FREDERICK, CHRISTINE. Household Engineering. Chicago: American School of
Home Economics, 1923.
General information on plans, wall and floor finishes, and equipment (pp. 19-64).
FRIGIDAIRE CORPORATION. Model Kitchens. Dayton, Ohio: The Corporation,
1928. Pp. 48.
Includes forty-three plans, eight of which were prize winners in a Frigidaire com
petition.
GRAY, GRETA. Convenient Kitchens. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull.
1513. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 30.
General information and plans. Much of the information is appropriate for both
urban and rural kitchens.
HOOSIER MANUFACTURING Co. Planning the Modern Kitchen. New Castle, Ind.
The Company, n.d. Pp. 32.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE. Planning and Equipping the Kitchen. Home Economics
Bull. 8. Ames: The College, 1923. Pp. 24.
The Step-saving Kitchen. Home Management Booklet. Ames: The
College, 1928. Pp. 20.
General information — plans, walls, floors, and equipment.
NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. Modern Home Interiors.
Washington: The Association, 1929. Pp. 30.
Designs for built-in equipment for kitchens (pp. i-n).
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS. Planning the Home Kitchen,
by HELEN BINKERD YOUNG. Cornell Bulletin for Homemakers, Lesson 108.
Ithaca: The College, 1928. Pp. 19.
Contains a number of plans, some showing arrangement of equipment and easy
access to rooms.
482 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
VAN RENSSELAER, MARTHA, ROSE, FLORA, and CANON, HELEN (comps.). A
Manual of Homemaking. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928.
Kitchen planning (pp. 100-120).
WASHINGTON STATE COLLEGE. Convenient Kitchens. Pullman: The College,
n.d. Pp. 43.
Mimeographed bulletin.
2. WALL AND FLOOR FINISHES AND COVERINGS
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING INSTITUTE. Convenient Kitchens. New York: Good
Housekeeping, 1929. Pp. 12.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE. Finishes and Furnishings for the Kitchen. Home Man
agement Booklet. Ames: The College, 1929. Pp. 16.
Wall and floor coverings (pp. 1-4, 10-15).
U.S. BUREAU OF HOME ECONOMICS. Floors and Floor Coverings. U.S. Dept. ot
Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1219. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1921. Pp. 30.
Linoleums and similar materials (pp. 25-28).
3. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT
DONHAM, S. AGNES. Marketing and Housework Manual. Boston: Little, Brown
& Co., 1930.
Selection and uses of kitchen equipment (pp. 113-34).
FOSTER, JAMES E. "Kitchen Sinks," Small Home, X (September, 1930), 16-18,
42-43-
FREDERICK, CHRISTINE. Household Engineering. Chicago : American School of
Home Economics, 1923.
Kitchen equipment (pp. 19-64).
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING INSTITUTE. Convenient Kitchens. New York: Good
Housekeeping, 1929. Pp. 12.
Kitchen, Laundry and Cleaning Equipment. Household Engineering
Series, Bull. 16. New York: Good Housekeeping, 1924. Pp. 12.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE. Finishes and Furnishings for the Kitchen. Home Man
agement Booklet. Ames: The College, 1929. Pp. 16.
Selection of Kitchen Utensils. Home Management Booklet. Ames:
The College, 1928. Pp. 16.
Illustrations and descriptions of convenient and durable utensils for the kitchen.
.. The Step-saving Kitchen. Home Management Booklet. Ames: The
College, 1928. Pp. 20.
Rules for convenient grouping of equipment.
KNEELAND, HILDEGARDE. Abolishing the Inefficient Kitchen. Journal of Home
Economics, XXI (July, 1929), 475-81.
Based on study of time spent by over two thousand homemakers.
CHAPTER XIV
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING WALLS,
FLOORS, AND FURNITURE
HOME REPAIR JOBS
This chapter includes information only on the reconditioning and re-
finishing of walls, floors, woodwork and furniture, since the bulletin
Care and Repair of the House,1 by Vincent B. Phelan, just recently has
been published. This bulletin covers those common repair jobs with which
every householder is confronted. Mr. Phelan has discussed ably repair
jobs connected with foundation walls and basement, exterior and interior
walls, roofs, doors, and windows, weatherproofing, heating, ventilating,
lighting, plumbing, and the repair of many other parts of the house.
The following repair jobs which are discussed in the above-mentioned
book and which were prepared for the President's Emergency Committee
for Employment2 serve as a check list for home inspection to determine
the state of repair of a home.
EXTERIOR
FOUNDATION AND SIDE WALLS
1. Masonry walls with large cracks or broken portions requiring filling.
2. Mortar joints or minor cracks requiring pointing.
3. Porous or leaky walls requiring damp proofing.
4. Leakage around eaves or tops of walls requiring repairs or coping.
5. Efflorescence or scum on walls requiring acid cleaning or special treat
ment.
6. Cracks, discoloration, or fallen-out portions of stucco walls requiring
pointing, cleaning, or restuccoing.
7. Loose or decayed boards or open joints in frame siding requiring re
pairs or replacement.
8. Blistering, cracking, or peeling of painted surfaces requiring repainting.
9. Replacing wall surfaces with newer or more attractive materials.
10. Grading around foundation.
1 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
2 U.S. Department of Commerce, Suggestions for Possible Repairs and Improvements
in the House and Its Equipment. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931.
483
484 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
WINDOWS AND DOOR FRAMES AND SASH
1. Window caps requiring new flashing or repairing over existing joints.
2. Holes or cracks around window frames requiring caulking or repairing.
3. Broken glass panes requiring replacing.
4. Defects in putty around panes requiring reputtying or patching.
5. Windows needing washing.
6. Overhauling screens in readiness for next spring.
7. Need for storm doors and windows or painting and repairing existing
ones.
8. Repairs to blinds and shutters.
9. Need for awnings or repairs to existing ones.
10. Loose or shabby balconies and railings requiring repairs or painting.
11. Advisability of additional windows.
ROOF, FLASHING, GUTTERS, AND DOWN SPOUTS
1. Broken, loose or missing shingles, slate, tile, or other material re
quiring replacement or repairs.
2. Metal or roll roofing with cracks, open joints, or worn off coatings re
quiring application of water-proofing materials, painting, or replac
ing.
3. Rusted or defective flashing requiring painting, repairs or replace
ment.
4. Leaky gutters or conductor pipes requiring repainting or replacing.
5. Leakage around skylights requiring repainting of the frames, glazing,
flashing, or repairing.
6. Leakage around scuttles, trapdoors, or other roof openings requiring
flashing, painting, or repairs.
7. Defects in chimney requiring pointing or replacement of brick.
8. Need for chimney cap or chimney pots.
9. Ineffective draft may require lengthening the chimney or applying
metal hoods.
10. Adjustments or repairs to radio antenna, lightning arresters, or
weather vane.
1 1 . Providing splash blocks at outlet end of down spouts, or connecting
down spouts to drainage system.
PORCHES AND STEPS
1. Decayed column bases requiring repairing or renewal.
2. Broken, loose, or missing balusters requiring repairs or replacements.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 485
3. Broken or loose railings needing repairs or strengthening.
4. Decayed, broken, or loose floor boards requiring repairs.
5. Decayed or inefficient floor supports needing replacements or
strengthening.
6. Broken, loose, or worn steps requiring repairs.
7. Advisability of .installing lattice work to hide open spaces under
porch.
8. Advisability of enclosing porches with glass or screening.
9. Need for floor paint or general repainting.
10. Open joints or cracks in masonry requiring pointing.
1 1 . Broken or loose floor tile or other masonry material requiring repairs.
GARAGE
1 . Advisability of applying insulating material.
2. Repairs to roof, doors, and windows.
3. Advisability of laying concrete floors.
4. Advisability of installing pit for servicing of car.
5. Advisability of installing heating equipment.
6. Necessary painting.
GROUNDS
1. Walks and driveways; new, additional, and repair.
2. Fences, trellises, and lattice work requiring repairing or painting.
3. Weeds, brush, and tree stumps requiring removal.
4. General cleaning up of premises.
5. Advisability of additional landscaping.
INTERIOR
THE BASEMENT
1. Large cracks or broken places in foundation walls requiring filling.
2. Smaller cracks or mortar joints in walls requiring pointing.
3. Dark walls and ceiling needing white coatings to brighten the base
ment.
4. Leaks through the walls or floor requiring waterproofing applications
or provisions for drainage.
5. Cracks between wood sills and walls requiring caulking.
6. Spaces between floor joists as the sills and holes around pipes re
quiring fire stopping.
7. Floor joists sagging or warped, requiring additional support or bridg
ing.
486 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
8. Basement floor badly cracked or disintegrated, requiring repairing or
new topping.
9. Need for partitions to provide special space.
10. Desirability of ceiling and wall coverings to obtain finished rooms.
11. Floor painting or treatments to improve appearance.
12. Shelves, closets, cupboards, bins, etc. for stoppage purposes.
13. Clean basement and put things in order.
14. Advisability of constructing basement garage.
HEATING AND VENTILATION
1. Clogged smoke pipes or flues requiring cleaning.
2. Boiler coils or baffles requiring cleaning.
3. Grates warped and broken requiring replacement.
4. Cracked fire box requiring repairs.
5. Boilers with cracks or leakages requiring repairs or new parts.
6. Cracks in chimney masonry requiring pointing.
7. Woodwork adjoining pipes and heating system requiring fire protec
tion.
8. Coating on boilers requiring patching or recovering.
9. Heating pipes requiring covering or repairs to existing covering.
10. Advisability of installing automatic stokers, ash conveyors, or similar
labor-saving devices.
11. Leaky radiator valves requiring repacking.
12. Installation of additional radiators if needed.
13. Proper painting of radiators to increase efficiency.
14. Need for radiator covers and radiator tops.
15. Installing thermostatic heat control system.
1 6. Providing humidifiers for air conditioning.
17. Advisability of building a fireplace.
1 8. Putting in ash dump for fireplace.
19. Installation of additional room heating device in existing fireplace.
20. Repairing or replacing of fireplace screens, andirons, and similar
equipment.
21. Installation of gas or electric log or similar heating apparatus.
22. Repairs to hearth, fireback, dampers, etc. in fireplace.
23. Remodeling of mantle or fireplace front.
24. Installation of ventilating devices in kitchen.
25. Providing insulating material to walls or ceilings where possible.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 487
PLUMBING
1. Clogged drains needing attention.
2. Leaky faucets requiring washers, tightening, or new parts.
3. Defective flush valves in water-closet requiring repairs or replace
ment.
4. Covering for water pipes or other precautions to prevent freezing.
5. Installing refrigerator drainpipe and trap to replace pan.
6. Installing additional shut-off cocks or valves.
7. Installing water-heating equipment, water softeners, etc.
8. Replacing worn-out piping with more modern type.
9. Replacing old or worn-out fixtures with newer types.
10. Providing additional bathroom, or lavatory and toilet for convenience.
11. Providing toilet and shower in basement.
LIGHTING AND POWER
1. Rewiring with modern system to reduce fire hazard.
2. Exposed wires requiring insulating.
3. Renewal of appliance cords.
4. Installation of additional convenience outlets, such as floor and base
plugs.
5. Additional fuse plugs for fuse box.
6. Repairs to doorbells or buzzers.
7. Installing transformers for bells in place of batteries.
8. Additional bells for convenience.
DOORS AND WINDOWS
1. Sticking doors or windows requiring refitting or repairs.
2. Doors out of plumb requiring refitting or new hardware.
3. Advisability of replacing wood panels with glass in doors.
4. Defective locks, chains, or bolts, requiring repair or replacement.
5. Purchasing extra keys for various locks.
6. Broken or defective window cords and pulleys needing replacement.
7. Replacing broken window latches or other window devices.
8. Cracks around window sash and doors requiring weather stripping.
WALLS AND CEILINGS
1 . Cracks or holes in plaster requiring patching or replastering.
2. Installation of partitions, either temporary or permanent, to provide
additional rooms or closets.
3. Removal of partitions to afford additional space.
488 THE BETTER HOMES MAN.UAL
4. Replacing narrow doorways with plastered arches or similar larger
openings.
5. Refinishing or redecorating — painting, papering, calcimining, etc.
FLOORS
1 . Creaking floors requiring renailing, additional supports, or bridging to
stiffen joists.
2. Cleaning and refinishing.
3. Applying new flooring over old.
4. Repairing or replacing floor coverings.
5. Adjusting or replacing baseboard and molding moved out of position
by shrinking or settling.
6. Replacing or repairing broken tile.
STAIRS AND STAIRWAYS
1. Creaking stairs requiring attention.
2. Replacing worn-out treads on stairs.
3. Providing rubber or composition treads for slippery steps.
4. Rickety cellar stairs requiring additional supports or repairs.
5. Installing railing on cellar stairs to prevent accidents.
6. Transforming closed stairways into open stairways by removing one
or more walls.
7. Replacing old posts and railings with modern types.
8. Installing disappearing stairs to attic.
THE ATTIC
1. Need for insulation materials applied to walls, floor, or underside of
roof.
2. Installation of louvers or additional windows to provide ventilation.
3. Mortar joints in chimney requiring pointing.
4. Cracks between chimney and side walls requiring filling or covering.
5. Fire stopping between studs at floor line.
6. Application of wall and ceiling coverings to provide finished room.
7. Installation of partitions.
8. Applying flooring.
9. Clean attic and put things in order.
MISCELLANEOUS
1. Need for additional closets, and lining existing ones.
2. Need for shelves, bookcases, and cupboards.
3. Advisability of providing clothes chute, telephone cabinet, and other
built-in conveniences.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 489
PREPARING OLD WALLS FOR NEW FINISH1
A good rule to go by is to remove every particle of the old finish whether
it be wallpaper, cold-water paint (calcimine, alabastine, etc.) or oil paint
if the latter shows any sign of peeling.
I. TO REMOVE COLD WATER PAINTS
Tools needed. — A good, wide whitewash or calcimine brush; a 3-inch-
broad knife; two buckets of warm water; a large old cloth or old news
papers to protect the woodwork and floor ; two stepladders or horses for
holding the plank on which the worker will stand; a large sponge or cloth.
Spread either old cloths or newspapers to protect the baseboard and floor.
Arrange plank on horses or stepladders placed over this protecting cloth.
Wet the walls with warm water using the calcimine brush. Now wash
off the old finish using either a cloth or sponge. Change the water often
so that the wall is left clean. Use the large sponge, wiping from the top
downward to clean all the old finish off the wet space. If there is alum in
the calcimine, the finish will have to be scraped
2. TO REMOVE OLD WALLPAPER
Wet all of the paper in the room, using the brush and clean warm
water If there are two or more layers of paper, wet the entire sur
face and scrape off the top layer and then proceed in the same way with
each layer unless all comes off easily, at the same time. Wet thoroughly
first, as time and energy will be saved and there will be less injury to the
walls.2
When the paper is thoroughly wet, use the broad knife for removing the
paper (If the paper dries too quickly, try adding J pint of glycerine
to a pail of very warm water.) .... Work from shoulder level downward,
and from same level scrape upward.
Steps in scraping of varnished paper. — Remove all of the varnish from
the paper by rubbing with No. 2 sandpaper. Thumb tack a good-sized
piece over a block which can be easily held in the hand. Mix one pound
of soda in a pail of warm water. Instead of using plain warm water, now
wet the wallpaper with the soda-water mixture. Be very careful to protect
all woodwork and the floor when using this soda-water mixture, or you
will have a white spot every place a drop of this water touches the finished
1 Adapted from Home Management (mimeographed circular). New Jersey State Col
lege of Agriculture.
2 For wall finishes see chap. n.
490 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
wood. In case the paper had received several coats of varnish, it may be
economical to use a "paint and varnish remover" if the No. 2 sandpaper
does not wear through all of the coats. If "paint and varnish remover" is
used, be sure to follow the directions for the care of the wall after its use
as given on the container.
Now proceed to scrape off the wet paper just as if there had been no
varnish on it.
3. TO REMOVE OIL PAINT FROM WALLS
Tools needed. — Your 3-inch-broad knife; cloth or newspapers for pro
tecting woodwork and floor; stepladders or horses; No. 2 sandpaper;
warm water; soda (| pound to i pail warm water).
Steps in removing oil paint. — Where the old coat of paint has peeled in
just a few places, scrape these spots with the broad knife until all loose
paint has been removed. Sandpaper these bare spots and the edges of the
old paint around the spot. Paint the spots and allow to dry thoroughly,
at least 48 hours. When thoroughly dry, smooth the joining edges,
using fine sandpaper and then give the entire wall a coat of washable
paint. For a good finish, sanitary and easily cleaned, give the wall, after
the first coat has thoroughly dried, a coat of eggshell gloss or any paint
that is prepared by a reliable manufacturing concern and guaranteed to
give you a dull-finished, washable wall surface. If the finish seems per
fectly good with no peeling or any sign of it, we may wash the wall with
warm water and a mild soap to remove all dirt and grease and then give it
a coat of paint immediately over the original coat. Where the wall is
greasy, add four tablespoonfuls of washing soda, while the solution is
warm, and wash off all dirt and grease, rinse with clean water and allow to
dry.
TREATMENT or WALLS FROM WHICH ALL OLD FINISH
HAS BEEN REMOVED
I. FILLING HOLES AND CRACKS
In the case of many old walls, large cracks or breaks in the plaster have
to be cared for. It is wise to remove or cut out any loose plaster with the
edge of the broad knife. With the brush and warm water, wet thoroughly
the new edges from which the loose plaster has been removed. Take a
quantity of Plaster of Paris, put it into the center of a good sized board;
build it up into a cone with the thumb and fingers; make a hole in the
center of this pile; using the handle of the broad knife, pour in a little
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING
491
water allowing it to soak into the plaster. Use the wet plaster from the
center of this pile and pack it into the cracks and holes. Smooth this
patch even with the wall, before the plaster hardens. Use the broad knife
for this work By pouring the water into the center of the cone and
using just the amount of plaster that is wet, we prevent the too rapid
hardening of all the plaster. Should any of the plaster drop on the wood
work or fixtures, wipe it off immediately, using a sponge and clean water.
Be sure that the Plaster of Paris patch is packed in closely and built up
FIG. 62. — With information on methods of preparing walls for new finishes and
methods of rennishing, satisfactory results may be obtained. The illustration is a
Better Homes project.
until the edges are even and the new work level with the old plaster wall.
Should the plaster dry before it has been smoothed sufficiently, wet the
patch with the calcimine brush and smooth with the broad knife.
2. VINEGAR WASH
Where soda water was used (as in the case of varnished wallpaper) the
wall must be sponged off with vinegar water. Be sure to use cider vinegar.
This is a treatment that should be given to new plaster where it is desired
to use paint or wallpaper very soon after plastering.
492 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
3. SIZING THE PLASTER WALL AFTER THE REMOVAL
OF OLD FINISH
Supplies needed. — \ Ib. painter's glue, cold water, 4 quarts boiling
water, No. 2 sandpaper, brush.
After all paper or cold-water paint has been removed and all cracks and
holes have been filled, the new plaster in the holes and cracks must be
allowed time to dry thoroughly. Soak the painter's glue until it is soft, in
enough cold water to cover it. Pour off the surplus water. Now pour on
the glue 4 quarts of boiling water (be sure it is boiling). Sandpaper the
wall using No. 2 sandpaper. Use the calcimine brush and apply the glue
water (size) to the wall. Brush it in thoroughly and evenly. Wipe any
glue-size off the woodwork before it dries, using a damp cloth or sponge.
When the glue has dried thoroughly, the wall is ready for either oil paint
or wallpaper as a finish.
PREPARATION or THE PLASTER WALL FOR PAINTING
For the best result, allow the newly plastered wall to dry at least six
months. Wash the plastered wall with strong vinegar water if the wall is
to be painted before that time. Cover up small fine cracks and any porous
spots by giving the walls a coat of glue-size, when it has dried. Brush the
size on the cracks by using a sponge, thus preventing the size from settling
in the cracks and showing as a dirty looking streak.
PREPARATION OF A PAINTED WALL FOR PAPERING
Tools needed. — No. 2 sandpaper, 1 Ib. washing soda, stirring stick, 4
quarts of warm water, brush, old cloths or newspapers, glue water, i
quart molasses.
Treatment of the wall. — Mix the soda in the water (} Ib. to 4 qts. warm
water). Be very careful to protect the woodwork and floor. Use No. 2
sandpaper over the whole wall surface. Go over the entire wall with the
soda water, using the calcimine brush. The sandpaper and soda water
break the hard, smooth surface of the paint which would be impervious
to the paste which must be used to hold the wallpaper to the wall. Wash
with vinegar water. When the wall has dried after the vinegar wash which
followed the soda wash, go over the entire wall with the glue-size. In order
to insure a good coating on the wall, add one quart of molasses or two
pounds of brown sugar to the glue-size when making it for a wall that is to
have wallpaper put on. Brush the glue-size on thoroughly and evenly.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 493
Test before papering. Take a small piece of wallpaper and the paste to be
used and press it to the sized wall leaving the corners free. After a few
minutes remove it. If it pulls off easily and without tearing, the size is too
thin and should have more glue added. If the paper sticks tight, the glue
is of proper consistency.
PREPARATION OF A WALL FOR OILCLOTH COVERING
Walls must be perfectly smooth and dry. Give a coat of hot glue-size.
Allow to dry thoroughly. If this coat does not show on the surface of the
wall, give a second coat of glue-size. Oilcloth covering does not need a
plaster wall for its use. It can be tacked directly onto wooden walls. It
comes forty-eight inches wide and thirty-six feet in length, when made
especially for use as a wall finish.
HOW JO FINISH INTERIOR WOODWORK1
Good practice or proper finishing of the woodwork means: The right
way of doing the job and the use of correct material, which means a longer-
lived finish and one that costs less in the long run.
KINDS OF FINISH
1. Staining 3. Enameling and painting
2. Varnishing 4. Waxing
For soft gray effects, white oak, white birch, and ash are the best to use.
Painting and enameling are most adaptable to birch (because of its
hardness and close-knit grain), white pine (because of the fact that it is
free from resin), poplar, and gumwood.
PREPARING THE SURFACE
The general preparation of the surface is very much the same in all
finishing. There are certain precautionary measures to observe in order
to insure a good clean finish which the careful finisher looks after in
stinctively. The number of tools necessary to have at hand for the best
results is not burdensome, and the number of precautionary measures
referred to is not formidable, but both are essential.
1 Adapted from Interior Woodwork for the Home (mimeographed circular). Montana
State College of Agriculture.
494 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Someone has said that the principal cause for difference in the finish
of the piano and the average woodwork job is sandpapering. Sandpaper
the wood smooth — and then take finer sandpaper and sandpaper it again !
Do not apply any finish over a poorly prepared surface. All sanding is to
be done with the grain. Scratches are bound to show if sanding is done
across the grain.
For rough sanding, No. J sandpaper is best; for finishing the wood,
No. oo is generally satisfactory, but for sanding enamel undercoats and
varnish coats, No. oooo is the best grade to use. Good emery cloth or
carborundum sandpaper will outwear ordinary sandpaper considerably
and cut cleaner. Always dust the surface thoroughly after sandpapering.
Painters often use a dust brush to remove any dust which may have
settled on ledges or on corners. Every particle of dust that is varnished
or enameled over becomes greatly magnified in size. Before varnishing or
enameling, the surface should be gone over carefully with a cloth, damp
ened with benzine.
I. STAINING
There are three types of stains used for woodwork finishing — acid or
water stains, penetrating or spirit stains, and pigment or oil stains. The
first type is generally used by piano and furniture manufacturers because
of its permanency. Acid stains are designed for hard woods only, and as
they raise the grain and therefore require to be sanded smooth again be
fore finishing, many prefer to use the spirit stains, which do not raise the
grain. Spirit stains may be used on both hard and soft woods. Oil or
pigment stains require the wiping off of the surplus stain, but this disad
vantage is offset, in the opinion of many, by one's ability to govern the
depth to which the stain shall penetrate. In all cases, in staining, follow
the directions given on the package as to how to reduce and apply each
stain. These stains are all indicated to be used over the new wood, before
the wood is filled.
Most stains require sealing with shellac before varnishing or waxing.
This is done to prevent the stain "bleeding" into these finishing coats. As
a rule, pure-white shellac is to be recommended, as it does not change the
color of the stain as does orange shellac. A very thin coat of shellac should
be applied (shellac reduced with denatured alcohol) and, with open-grain
woods, may follow or precede the application of the paste filler as directed
on the package in each case.
As previously indicated, open-grain woods require the use of a paste
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 495
filler to level the surface for a varnish finish. These fillers come in paste
form and are thinned with benzine to the consistency of heavy cream.
They may be had in several colors. The so-called transparent, or natural
filler, is intended for use for natural wood finishes. Some of the darker
fillers contain a considerable amount of dye and really stain the wood to
a degree. For light finishes some contractors effect a short cut by filling
and staining the wood in one operation instead of two, depending upon the
filler for the coloration of the wood. Of course where only light tints are
to be applied to the wood. Such effects as antique mahogany and others
need the full strength of the separate stain coat. A word about liquid
fillers : A liquid filler is usually a quick-drying varnish or shellac with a
pigment in it.
A word about liquid stain fillers. A liquid stain filler is usually a quick-
drying varnish or shellac with a pigment in it. Whereas a paste filler ac
tually goes into the pores and fills them, the liquid merely forms a shell
or crust over the wood without actually filling it. Being brittle, this mate
rial chips off under service, and, of course, brings the finishing coats with
it.
The application of the paste filler is as follows : After thinning to brush
ing consistency with benzine, brush it over the entire surface, and when
the material has begun to set (indicated by a partial flatting out of the
gloss), wipe off. First rub across the grain with burlap or coarse cloth,
forcing the filler into the pores through it, and then wipe the wood clean
by rubbing with a clean soft cloth, with the grain. Paste filler should be
permitted to dry two days before applying the finishing coats. On all
woodwork trim, this filler should be followed by a thin coat of shellac.
When this is hard, sandpaper lightly with No. oooo sandpaper. It may
then be waxed.
2. VARNISHING
At this point, many builders apply a coat of dull drying varnish. One
is amply repaid, however, in the added beauty and life of the finished
product secured by applying one, or better, two coats of a good furniture
varnish before finishing with the dull varnish. These two coats of varnish
should be sanded carefully with No. oooo sandpaper.
The right brush is half the battle, for in varnishing and enamel work a
fine brush will enable one practically to avoid showing brush marks. A
Russian oxhair or fitch brush is ideal.
496 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
APPLYING THE VARNISH
For enameling or varnishing, apply the varnish quickly and freely,
with the grain of the wood. Now without filling the brush, stroke directly
across the grain. This will help spread the varnish or enamel in an even
film, making up for any thin spots missed in the first application. Now
scrape the brush fairly dry, over the edge of the varnish cup, extending
the brush strokes, if possible, from one edge to the other without a break,
to take up any surplus varnish which would otherwise run and make sags.
Try to choose a clear, dry day for varnishing and enameling.
In applying shellac, one cannot brush back into the surface as with
varnish. Shellac sets very quickly. The alcohol evaporates very quickly
and so shellac may, upon use, be found too heavy for proper brushing for
this reason. It should then be thinned with denatured alcohol.
DULL-RUBBED FINISH
Dull drying varnish is intended as a representation of the true, hand-
rubbed dull finish. Powdered pumice stone is used for this rubbing. Rub
bing with oil (regular rubbing oil or good sewing-machine oil) produces
a dull effect, while rubbing with water is the first step toward producing
the high polish.
A piece of rubbing felt an inch thick is best, but if this is not available,
make a pad of a piece of firm, soft cloth. Place both the oil and powder in
open dishes. Dampen the cloth or pad with oil and dip into the powder.
A dozen or more strokes with the grain of the wood will usually dull the
gloss of varnish or enamel satisfactorily.
A word of caution. — Do not rub too hard or too long in one spot, as
rubbing has a tendency to soften the finish. Also, avoid hitting the edges
of the surface, as they seem to rub through instantly. A small vegetable
brush is the best tool to reach the corners and molded surfaces or carving.
Dip it in the oil and powder the same as the pad. Wipe off the oil with a
soft, dry cloth, wiping with the grain.
3. WAXING
If the woodwork is to be finished in its natural color, first apply a paste
wood filler, if it is an open-grain wood, then put on two thin coats of wax
according to directions with the product. If the woodwork is to be stained,
apply the stain, then the paste filler (if the wood is open grained) and two
coats of wax. If the wood is close grained then apply the shellac after the
stain (as shellac is a liquid filler). Then apply two coats of wax.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 497
4. ENAMELING AND PAINTING
Birch is the best wood to take paint or enamel, as it is very hard and
does not dent or bruise readily. Poplar, pine, and gumwood come next.
When it is necessary to paint or enamel over these last-named woods, it
is advisable to seal the wood with shellac before proceeding with the first
coat of paint. The first coat of paint — either flat tone or bright — applied
over the shellac should be thinned about 10 per cent with pure turpentine;
the second coat should be thinned slightly, and the third coat applied as it
comes from the can. Rub down each coat of paint with No. oooo sand
paper before applying the next coat of paint or enamel. This makes a
smooth, hard-paint finish. Over the last coat of paint, if desired, a thin
coat of enamel may be applied, and finished with a second coat of enamel
just as it comes from the can. This latter gives a shiny, brilliant finish
unless rubbed down with powdered pumice and moistened with olive oil.
Enamel may be purchased with semi-glossy or egg-shell finish.
HOW TO REFINISH OLD WOODWORK
A. To prepare old surfaces
1. If the old coats are not worn off or chipped in spots, then thorough clean
ing followed by sandpapering with No. oo sandpaper will suffice.
2. If, however, the old coats are worn or chipped badly, then all the old
coats should be removed before refinishing. This can be done
a) Mechanically, by scraping with a sharp blade or by sandpapering, or
b) Chemically, with a commercial paint, stain or varnish remover, or
with a home-made remover, as follows: Add 2 tbsp. lye to i qt. warm
starch solution (as for starching clothes). Apply with a vegetable fiber
brush or cotton mop. Let stand several minutes or until the old coats
are softened. Then scrape or rub off. Rinse well. Then bathe with a
vinegar solution (3 parts vinegar to i part water) to prevent any of the
lye remaining to damage the new coats of finish. Rinse well and dry
thoroughly, then sandpaper smooth and wipe off dust before applying
new coats.
B. Refinishing
i. When restaining old woodwork, cover the wood thoroughly with a paint
and varnish remover, taking care to wash out as much of the old stain as
possible. As there will be some stain remaining in the wood, this must be
reckoned with in restaining. A wood previously stained in mahogany
should be stained with mahogany again or in one of the darker browns.
The spirit stains, because of their penetrating qualities, are the only
stains which are effective for refinishing work. Woods previously stained
498 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
green will be best finished in either green again or in a weathered oak.
Previously finished woods in natural colors do not present these difficul
ties. Because the color of the wood may be darker and more yellow than
the original wood— due to ageing — silver gray effects will not be as clean
in tone as might be desired. After restaining, use the paste filler, then the
shellac for a binder, varnish, and rub or dull the finish as for new wood.
2. Revarnishing. See A: To prepare old surfaces.
3. When rewaxing woodwork, use a commercial brightener or liquid wax,
which cleans as well as polishes. Or turpentine or gasoline may be used
before rewaxing.
4. To repaint or re-enamel. See A: To prepare old surfaces.
REFINISHING OLD FLOORS1
BY MARION BELL
In many sections of the country to-day, the housewife is confronted by
a very perplexing problem. The refinishing of her floors has become a
necessity. In this case the wood, its former treatment, and the new finish
decided upon for it will determine the method of procedure. For years the
floors may have been painted, varnished, waxed, oiled, or used without
a finish of any kind. This last necessitated weekly scrubbing. Each one of
these finishes brings up its own problem of daily care and its renewal.
PREPARING THE SURFACE
If, upon examination, the old covering of paint or varnish is found to
be in too bad condition to permit of "touching up," then all of the old
paint or varnish must be removed. There are a number of methods by
which this may be done. The one selected by the housewife will be largely
determined by her location and the amount of money to be put into the
work.
a) An electric planing machine will remove all finish and leave the floor
in practically the state of new wood.
b) A workman may be employed who will scrape off all the old paint or
varnish by means of a sharp-edged tool and then sandpaper the surface smooth.
In this case your wood, if open-grain, probably retains enough of the original
filler to need no new filler and you can treat it as you would a new floor that has
been carried to this step in the process of finishing.
c) A prepared paint and varnish remover can be purchased from a reliable
dealer. Use according to the directions on the package.
1 Adapted from Floors — Their Finish and Care. Extension Bull. 49. New Jersey
State Agricultural College, 1925. For further information on floor finishes and coverings
see chap. n. ;
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 499
d) A number of different materials are recommended as being successful and
inexpensive in the removing of paint or varnish from wood. Among these are
ammonia, alcohol, washing soda, and potash (lye). The first and second are
very slow for work with a large surface, washing soda is a little more rapid, but
the quickest and easiest material is potash, which any housewife can buy in
different size cans at her grocery store under the name of "lye." Use in the pro
portion of one pound of potash to six quarts of cold water. Use rubber gloves and
overshoes to protect the hands and shoes. Take an old broom, cut the edges
straight, and use it to apply the lye-water to the floor.
The equipment needed for this work is a scraper and plenty of old news
papers. Begin in the corner farthest from the door. Have a mop and bucket of
clean water (with wringer attachment). Work with a small space at a time —
about three or four square feet. Apply the lye water and allow it to stand until
the paint or varnish softens (which is easily seen). Scrape off with the wide,
sharp edged hoe or other tool. After all of the old finish has been removed, wash
the floor thoroughly, making the second water strong with vinegar, and follow
ing this by a final wash with clean, warm water. When the floor is dry, sand
paper it smooth. This can be done rapidly if a weighted block is made and the
sandpaper held in place on it by means of thumb tacks. Fasten a handle to this
block if possible. This sandpapering insures a smooth floor; it also guarantees
the removal of all lye from the wood. If any lye remains, it will begin its work
the instant any new paint or varnish is applied. When the floor is clean, it should
then be treated like a new floor. It will need "crack* and crevice" filler in case
the boards do not fit well together.
A prepared "crack and crevice" filler may be purchased from any reliable
paint store, or a very good filler may be made at home. Mix one part of turpen
tine and three parts of linseed oil (boiled preferred) . Into this stir enough whit
ing to make a paste of the consistency of cold cream. This filler will be quite
light in color. If the crack filler is to be applied to an oak floor, add a little yellow
ochre and just a very small amount of burnt umber, in order to match the oak
color. Clean all dust out of the crack. With a small brush apply varnish to the
sides of the flooring. Pack filler into the crack. With a spatula smooth the sur
face even with the floor while the filler is soft.
REPAINTING
If the paint is worn off so that the wood shows in many places in the
room, all of the paint should be removed as described in the preceding
paragraphs. If it is worn slightly and only in a spot or two, the floor should
be washed carefully, rinsed and allowed to dry. (Before beginning to
apply the paint stir it until there is none left around the edges of the can
and until it runs from the stirrer like milk.) "Touch up" the worn spots
500 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
with paint just as near the color of the rest of the floor as possible and
allow to dry. Then sandpaper the joining edges smooth, dust clean, and
give the whole floor a coat of paint a shade darker than the original coat.
Follow with a second coat if the floor is to have hard usage.
REVARNISHING
The same question arises regarding a floor with old varnish on it as
one with old paint. If it is too much cracked, scratched, and worn to
"touch up," proceed with its treatment for renewal in the same way as
directed in the preceding paragraph for old paint. If it is not scratched but
is worn off in a spot by a door, wash the floor carefully, allow it to dry
thoroughly and varnish this worn spot. When dry smooth the edges with
fine sandpaper (o or oo) and go over the whole floor with a new coat of
varnish to which has been added enough coloring matter to make a darker
varnish than the original coat. Keep in mind that neither paint nor var
nish will give satisfactory results unless all grease spots are removed be
fore the coat is applied. Much more satisfactory results will be obtained
if the varnish is warmed before using, for it flows more evenly and without
leaving a dark line where a joining is made. To heat the can of varnish
remove the cap and set the can in a pan of hot water.
i
REWAXING
If a waxed floor is preferred, but the one now in use has become dark
and dingy looking, it may be renewed by going over the surface with a
clean, soft cloth moistened with turpentine or kerosene. This will remove
the surface of wax in which the dust and dirt have become imbedded, and
when this is removed it is necessary only to go over the floor with a clean,
dry mop and then rewax. Keep in mind that it is "a little wax and much
rubbing" that is required to give a beautiful soft luster to the floor. Or
dinarily the upkeep of a waxed floor requires very little work if the above
rule is kept in mind. Too many people complain of the work entailed
because they transpose the rule, that is they use much wax and little
rubbing. One point in favor of the waxed floor is that worn spots can be
rewaxed without the necessity of going over the whole floor, and the floor
can be used immediately afterwards. A weighted polisher is the best piece
of equipment to use for waxing a floor. This can now be found at any
large hardware store and at many department stores.1
1 Electric polishers which are very easy to operate are on the market and also may
be rented by the day.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 501
REOILING
Much has been written for and against the oiled floor and everything
said has been true in some cases. Where the oiled floor has become a
dingy, gummy, dust and dirt collector, it has been due to one of two rea
sons, or to a combination of the two : Either an oil entirely unsuited for
use on the floor of a house or office was used, or it was not correctly treated
when applied.
There is no more attractive, or inexpensive, floor finish for bedrooms
in some of the big, old country homes, survivors from times gone by, than
that obtained by an application of hot "boiled" linseed oil. Provided (and
here is where so many people make their mistake) the oil application is
allowed to remain on the wood from one-half to one hour and then all
excess oil is rubbed off with a clean, dry mop. Many people forget that
wood can absorb only a certain amount of oil and that the remainder, not
being able to get into the wood, will remain on the surface and of necessity
become a collector of all dust particles in the room. Therefore, a floor that
has been well and correctly oiled will not need another application for
several months.
A floor that has been oiled, can later be waxed, shellacked, or varnished
if desired. The two things to remember are : That oil must have dried into
the wood thoroughly; and the floor must be well washed with warm water
and mild soap, rinsed, and dried before varnishing or waxing
COVERING FLOORS
Where the floor is old and badly worn, many housewives have thought
to free themselves from a great deal of labor by covering that worn, un
even surface. Because of a lack of information they lay the material
selected directly over the uneven floor. As a result many complaints are
made regarding the different materials sold. This is due, in some cases,
to the fact that the housewife takes it for granted that all she has to do
is to lay this attractive-looking new surface over the splintered, cracked
and worn old boards, and for years enjoy her pretty floor covering and her
relief from laborious cleaning. In other cases the salesman does not un
derstand the care that should be given to the floor. This information,
therefore, is included here in order that the woman may know what should
be done before an expensive covering is laid over her wooden floor.
PREPARATION OF THE OLD FLOOR FOR LINOLEUM
The floor surface must be clean and even. (Plane if necessary.)
All cracks must be filled, (Use "crack and crevice" filler.).
502 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The floor must be dry. If there is any danger of dampness with re
sulting expansion and contraction, heavy felt paper should be used. The
use of this increases the life of the linoleum and also makes the floor
warmer and easier for the person who is to walk on it.
The quarter-round floor molding should be removed.
Felt paper, after being cut to fit the floor the short way of the room, is
fastened in place on the floor by using moisture-proof cement. This should
be brushed on the paper as it unrolls and is pressed down carefully on the
floor, leaving no creases in the felt.
If it is known that the floor is absolutely dry two thicknesses of build
er's paper may be used instead of felt. It will cost less, but will act just
as well as the felt for a cushion between the floor and linoleum.
FURNITURE REFINISHING'
BY MARION L. TUCKER
.... If the article has the three essentials of good furniture, which are
good lines, good wood and good construction, refinishing is likely to be
profitable. But if it lacks these essentials it is usually not worth refinish
ing. Satisfactory results always demand time, patience and much "elbow
grease" or rubbing.
The following directions may be used in obtaining a new finish on any
piece of furniture.
PROCESSES
1 . Have any necessary repair work done.
2. Remove all unnecessary ornaments. — Meaningless, machine-made
carving is often found glued onto furniture, especially golden oak. This
can be easily removed by the use of a chisel and the result is usually a
decided improvement.
3. Remove varnish or paint. —
(1) Scrape off, using knife blade, piece of glass, steel, or sandpaper.
This method can be used on smooth surfaces, and if the varnish is old and
dry, the work of removal will progress rapidly. On rough surfaces, in
cracks and crevices, great care must be taken not to mar the wood. This
is too harsh a treatment for veneered or any delicate surfaces.
(2) Soften varnish or paint. There are several materials, such as
ammonia, turpentine and alcohol, which will dissolve varnish, but the
1 Adapted from Refinishing and Care of Furniture. Iowa State College of Agriculture,
1925.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 503
most satisfactory method is by the use of a commercial varnish remover.
There are many varnish removers on the market, all about equally good.
They soften the varnish, which can be easily scraped off when in a sticky,
gummy condition. A putty knife is good for this work on flat surfaces.
A paste made of strong washing powder and hot water, allowed to stand
on the varnish, then scrubbed with a stiff brush, will remove the var
nish For a satisfactory final result every particle of the original
finish must be removed. Frequently a combination of dry scraping and
the softening gives best results. A thorough wiping with gasoline, turpen
tine or benzine is necessary to remove all the grease of the varnish re
mover.
4. Remove stains. — Use oxalic acid — one teaspoonful to one pint of
water. If persistently applied, it will remove ink stains. It sometimes
bleaches the wood too much. The color may be brought back by the use
of weak ammonia. If stains refuse to respond to this treatment, they may
be removed during the next process.
5. Smooth surface. — (Wood must be thoroughly dry before smoothing is
done.)
Sandpaper: Use over block of wood on all flat surfaces, for this gives
even pressure. There are several grades of sandpaper. Use medium or
fine, according to needs of piece. Use great care when sandpapering ve
neered surfaces.
Steel wool: No. i, fine; No. 2, coarse. Handle with gloves so filings
will not get in hands.
Steel scraper: A small piece of steel, the edge of which must be fre
quently sharpened by filing in order to make it do satisfactory work.
Never use on veneered surfaces.
Any one or all three of these may be used. Always work with the grain
of the wood and aim foY an absolutely smooth, satiny surface. If medium
sandpaper or steel wool is used, follow up with finer grade.
6. Stain. — Omit this if the natural color is desired. Many good wood
stains are on the market. Select the color desired, but always try it out
first on an inconspicuous part of the furniture. If any part of the piece of
furniture has been removed when getting it ready to refinish, this piece of
wood can be used for trying out stains. Put stain on with a brush or cloth.
Rub off with cheese cloth. Every particle of the stain must be either
rubbed off or rubbed in. The rubbing should be continued until there is
some luster. Several coats of stain may be required to get desired color.
Allow each coat to dry thoroughly before applying the next one. It is
504 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
better to have the first coat as dark as desirable and not be compelled to
repeat.
7. Filler. — Unless the previous work has been very harsh, this step may
be omitted. When furniture is made, a filler, either liquid or paste, is
applied after the stain. This fills all the pores of the wood and makes a
smooth surface for the finish. If this filler has been worked out of the
wood in the preceding processes, it will be necessary at this point to renew
it. Get a liquid filler for a close-grained wood and a paste filler for an open-
grained wood. The filler usually matches the stain in color and is there
fore inconspicuous.
8. Surf ace finish.— There are several kinds of finishes. The use of the
furniture, the kind of wood, and the personal liking of the owner, will
doubtless influence the choice. There are advantages and disadvantages
in any finish. Wax is easily applied, gives a soft, pleasing luster and can
be readily patched if scratched or marred. It has to be renewed fre
quently.
Varnish, when scratched, cannot be patched. The whole surface must
be done over. It is glossy and shiny unless well rubbed down, which re
quires expertness and is most unattractive unless done well. A piece of
furniture with shiny varnish finish may have this gloss dulled if rubbed
down according to directions given later. A cheap varnish will not stand
this treatment.
Wax: a) Wax may be applied directly after the stain. This is the
easiest and quickest finish and is satisfactory if frequently renewed. Use
any good floor wax. Apply a rather thick coat, rub it well into the pores of
the wood, allow to stand five to ten minutes, then polish. Use circular
motion, then rub with the grain of the wood. Polish wood, but do not
scrub it. This may be repeated a second time to get a good luster.
b) A coat of shellac may be given first. Rub this down with fine sand
paper and then apply the wax. This will wear longer than wax alone, but
the finish is much shinier and glossier.
(A and B are good finishes for oak.)
c) (This is recommended especially for old walnut furniture.) Apply a
thin coat of raw linseed oil to the furniture, rubbing long and vigorously
in order that no oil may be left standing on the surface. If the wood is
very old and dry, it is a good plan to let the oil stand on the wood several
hours before rubbing. After the oil is rubbed in, apply a wax finish.
Varnish : Apply one or two coats of shellac, rub each down with fine
sandpaper until perfectly smooth, then apply a coat of varnish. After the
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 505
varnish is thoroughly dry, if a "rubbed finish" is desired, dip a damp cloth
in powdered pumice stone and rub with what adheres. Work with the
grain of the wood. This dulls the gloss but does not break the surface.
Two or more coats of varnish are usually given, each one rubbed down.
Rub the last coat with pumice and raw linseed oil, then rub with oil alone.
This is called egg-shell or "rubbed" finish, and is much more difficult for
an amateur than the wax finish.
Oil: This is not a common finish and is seldom used except for old
mahogany or walnut. Raw linseed oil may be used. Apply not one coat of
oil, but many, rubbing until all the oil is rubbed in or rubbed off. Twenty-
four hours should elapse between applications of oil. If such a finish is
given thoroughly the result is an excellent one, for it brings out the natu
ral beauty of the wood and gives it a beautiful, soft sheen.
PAINTED FURNITURE
.... To make a perfect job of an old varnished piece, every bit of
varnish should be removed, according to directions given previously. Un
less this is done the work will not be entirely satisfactory. However, it
takes time to remove varnish and it may be that for the particular pur
pose for which the piece is to be used, it is not advisable to expend that
much time. Painting may be done over the varnish, but it is never quite
so sure to stick. Be sure the varnish is absolutely clean, for paint will- not
stick to a greasy surface. Rub with fine sandpaper or steel wool. This
smooths any roughness there may be and removes any loose particles of
varnish ready to cake off. It also breaks the smooth, hard surface of the
varnish, and gives the paint a chance to work through and get a hold on
the wood underneath.
Whether the wood is clean or whether the varnish is left on, use the
flat no-gloss house paint for the first coat. If there is a dark surface to
be covered by a light paint, two coats of flat paint will probably be needed.
When the flat paint is thoroughly dry, add a coat of enamel paint of the
color desired. Work rapidly, using as few brush strokes as possible. One
secret of success in painting is in the thorough mixing and stirring of the
paint. Stir until every bit of sediment has been removed and the oil is
thoroughly mixed. If the sediment persists, strain the paint. In order to
keep the paint in the best condition, pour out a little into a dish for use.
When more is needed, stir thoroughly before removing from the can. This
leaves the paint in the can fresh and clean.
5o6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
UPHOLSTERING OLD CHAIRS AND COUCHES1
BY DAISY DEANE WILLIAMSON
The purpose .of this [article] is to show, step by step, how to re-up
holster chairs and couches. The tools listed are the minimum equipment.
TOOLS NEEDED
A pair of shears, gimp hammer (i.e., a small hammer and tack puller
combined), webbing stretcher, a long darning needle and a curved up
holstery needle.
The stretcher may be made by driving nails into a piece of wood, filing
off the heads, and sharpening each end. If no stretcher is available, use
this simple device: Take a board about JX4X 10 inches. Wrap the loose
end of the webbing around the narrow way of the board so that the board
is to the underside. Use this as a lever, bracing the board against the
frame to stretch the webbing tight.
PREPARATION FOR RE-UPHOLSTERING A CHAIR
Remove the gimp, outer and inner covering, and padding, being careful
not to mar the wood. If the springs and webbing are in good condition
and in position, they need not be removed. If not, dismantle the chair
down to the frame. Pull out all tacks left around the seat, and glue any
loose joints. If the chair needs refinishing, this should be done before the
work of rebuilding is commenced.
PLACING THE WEBBING
Use three and one-half inch webbing. The average sized chair seat has
two rows of webbing running from side to side, and two or three rows from
front to back.
Turn the chair upside down and work on the underside. Locate the
strips of webbing to give ample support to the springs. If three strips are
to be used from front to back, place the center one first.
Use the uncut roll of webbing. Fold the loose end over about one inch
and tack with four or five 10 oz. tacks near the middle of the rail. Use the
webbing stretcher to pull the webbing across tightly, and fasten with two
or three tacks. Cut the webbing one inch longer, fold it back over the
tacked portion, and fasten it down with two more.
Proceed in like manner with all the strips, interlacing.
1 From Upholstering Old Chairs and Couches. University of New Hampshire Exten
sion Service, 1928.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 507
SETTING AND TYING THE SPRINGS
Use four, five or six springs according to the size of the seat. If the old
ones are in good condition, they may be used. Arrange on lapped parts
of the webbing with bent ends of springs up in such a manner as to give
good support and good shape. A two and a half or a three-inch space is
left between the outer edge of the springs and the rail.
With stitching twine sew the lower round of the springs to the webbing
in three or four places, making a close loop over the bottom coil on top of
the webbing and a long stitch from one point of fastening to the other on
the underside. Make the end secure. A darning needle can be used quite
satisfactorily for this sewing.
For tying use spring twine, jute No. 60. The cords should be about one
and three-fourths times the width across the seat.
Wrap the end of the twine around a 10 oz. tack, and drive the tack into
the top edge of the frame in a line with the center of the spring. Push the
spring down firmly so the outer edge is about one inch lower than the inner
edge. Hold the twine and spring in position with the left hand. With the
right hand pass the free end of the twine down inside the coil, up on the
left side of the fastened end, down inside the coil again, up on the right
side of the fastened end, and through the loop formed. Pull the twine
tight. This makes the clove-hitch knot which holds the spring securely
even if the twine across the open end of the spring wears through.
Stretch the twine across the top of the spring to the opposite side. The
knot is the same as used before, but in making it the twine goes over the
outside of the top coil first and then up on the inside. This procedure
places the knots in a position to stand the wear best.
See that the second spring stands equi-distant from the first at the top
and bottom. Proceed as with the first spring. To fasten the end of the
twine drive a tack partly into the rail opposite the first one, wrap the
twine once and a half around it, pull the spring into position, tighten
the twine, and drive the tack in securely. Be careful not to drive it down
so tightly as to cut the cord. A second tack close to the other across
the twine will make the fastening more secure.
The springs must be tied to the frame with one twine from front to
back, one from side to side, and two diagonals. The last twine should be
tied to all others crossing in the center of the top of the springs. This pre
vents wear from rubbing. When the tying is complete the seat should
give a slightly rounded effect with the bodies of the springs standing erect.
5o8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
COVERING THE SPRINGS
Tack a piece of medium-weight burlap, old or new, on the top edge of
the frame with four-oz. tacks, the edges being turned over as the tacking is
done. Be careful not to pull it tight enough to lower the springs. This
layer of burlap gives smoothness to the seat and protection to the twine.
Sew it to the springs, using a curved upholsterer's needle or ordinary
darning needle.
PADDING THE SEAT
Place in position the old padding if in good condition. Excelsior, horse
hair, or moss will be satisfactory if new material must be secured. The
padding should be worked down and out over the edge of the seat. The
layer should be thick enough so that the springs will not be felt through
it and so that it will be comfortable. Sew it in places to the burlap layer
and to the springs.
Over the padding put a layer of cotton batting, tucking the ends under
the outer edges of the padding. Tack tightly over this a layer of un
bleached muslin. Fasten in the center front and center back, then in the
center on each side, and work toward the corners. The tacks should be
placed high enough to be concealed by the outer covering and gimp.
Special care should be taken in finishing the corners. It may be necessary
to cut the muslin diagonally from the corner to a point near the leg in
order to fit it smoothly.
PUTTING ON THE OUTER COVERING
Use the old covering for a pattern to cut the new one. Tapestry,
chintz, denim, and mohair are materials commonly used. Use the same
procedure in putting on this layer as in putting on the muslin. This cov
ering should be tight and smooth. It should hide the edges of the muslin,
but not extend too low to be covered by the gimp.
THE FINISHING TOUCHES
The gimp gives a finishing touch to the chair. It should conceal the
edges of the outer covering. The tacks (No. four gimp tacks) should be
placed about two inches apart along the center of the gimp. The piecing
should come at one of the back legs, if possible, where it will be scarcely
noticed.
A piece of cambric is tacked to the frame over the webbing on the
underside. This gives a neat finish and prevents any siftings from the
padding dropping to the floor.
RECONDITIONING AND REFINISHING 509
BOX SEAT AND BACK
Some chairs have removable backs and seats which are fastened to the
frame work with screws. The springs are set in a box, so no webbing is
needed.
The method for re-upholstering such chairs is the same as previously
described from the tying of the springs through the placing of the outer
covering. The back and seat are put in the frame, and then the gimp is
put on, if needed.
The outside of the back should be covered with the upholstery material,
and the underside of the seat should be covered with cambric.
A COUCH RESTORED TO USEFULNESS
Re-upholstering a couch is a longer process, but the method is the same
as that used in restoring the chair. Some couches have the springs set in a
box, while others have them supported by webbing.
*
SUMMARY
Best results are obtained in refinishing walls if all old finish is removed,
particularly if such finish is loose or shows signs of peeling. The most
common wall finishes are the various kinds of paints (including alabastine)
wallpaper and wall coverings. The most used finishes for woodwork
are stains, varnishes, enamels and paints, and wax. The. most used floor
finishes are wax, paints, varnishes, and oils. For badly worn and splin
tered floors, floor coverings are often advisable. The refinishing of furni
ture is profitable if the article to be refinished has good lines, good wood,
and good construction. There are several kinds of furniture finishes; the
kind of wood, the use of the piece, and personal preference usually dictate
the kind to be selected.
REFERENCES
CHURCHILL, ALLEN L., and WICKENDEN, LEONARD. The House-Owner's Book.
New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1928.
Discusses paints and painting, floors and floor finishes (pp. 164-97).
DELINEATOR HOME INSTITUTE. Painting Furniture. New York: Butterick Pub
lishing Co., 1928. Pp. 36.
ERASER, CHELSEA. The Practical Book of Home Repairs. New York: Thomas
Y. Crowd! Co., 1925.
Definite directions for woodworking, upholstering, painting, papering, and mechani
cal repairs.
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING STUDIO. Painting and Stenciling Furniture and Refinishing
Natural Wood Furniture. New York: Good Housekeeping, 1920. Pp. 8.
5io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
HOLMAN, H. P. Painting on the Farm. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bull. 1452. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1925. Pp. 33.
Discusses paint materials, mixing, preparation of surfaces, how to estimate, spraying,
dipping, and other subjects.
JOHNSON, EMIL A. Furniture Upholstery for Schools. Peoria, 111.: Manual Arts
Press, 1919.
Contains historical sketch, list of tools and materials, and practical directions for
making various kinds of upholstery.
MAINE UNIVERSITY. Re-seating Chairs, by HELEN C. SPAULDING. Bull. 175.
Orono: The University, 1927.
NEWELL, ADNAH CLIFTON. Coloring, Finishing and Painting Wood. Peoria, 111. :
Manual Arts Press, 1930.
Extensive discussion of wood stains, fillers, varnishes, enamels, oils, lacquers, and
paints.
OLNEY, DOROTHY and JULIAN. The Home-Owner's Manual. New York: Cen
tury Co., 1930.
Contains information on various house-repair jobs, including painting, papering, and
wood finishing.
PHELAN, VINCENT B. Care and Repair of the House. Building and Housing Pub
lication BHi 5. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931. Pp. 121.
Excellent information on the usual home-repair jobs with section on painting and
varnishing.
ROEHL, L. M. Household Carpentry. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927.
Information on tools and materials, minor house-repair projects, and specific di
rections for making various useful household articles.
SAYLOR, HENRY H. Tinkering with Tools. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1924.
Directions for woodworking, painting, floor finishing, and repairs concerning minor
house plumbing, electric wiring, and odd jobs.
U.S. BUREAU OF HOME ECONOMICS. Floors and Floor Coverings. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1219. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1921. Pp. 30.
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Washing, Cleaning, and Polishing Materials, by
F. W. SMITHER. Bureau of Standards Circ. 383. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1930. Pp. 47.
WAKELING, ARTHUR. Fix It Yourself. New York: Popular Science Publishing
Co., 1929.
Household repairs, interior and exterior — electrical, plumbing, and furniture repair.
WALLPAPER GUILD OF AMERICA. Paper Hangers' Manual. New York: The
Guild, 1923. Pp. 31.
[NOTE. — Many of the State Colleges of Agriculture distribute excellent bulletins on
wall and floor finishes and furniture reconditioning.!
CHAPTER XV
HOUSING STANDARDS
SOME OF THE ELEMENTS OF GOOD HOUSING1
BY JOHN M. CRIES
Executive Secretary of the President's Conference on
Home Building and Home Ownership
AND JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief of the Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
Housing standards relate mainly to adequacy of shelter from the ele
ments, light, ventilation, water supply, disposal of waste, privacy, space
for play and family gatherings, arrangement and equipment affecting the
amount of labor required for housework, appearance and general attrac
tiveness, housekeeping, maintenance, and constant improvement as the
family's needs develop and its taste improves. The last statement is not
meant as an argument for continual discontent with the best that may be
available at any given time, or that a house should undergo extensive
alterations once or twice a year. It does mean, however, that a family
which resigns itself to accept, as a matter of course, temporary "make
shifts" which it could be reasonably expected to remedy, loses in self-
respect, and suffers accordingly. It means that every family can make its
home more attractive and livable by constant attention to matters of de
tail. It means that every time a room is re-papered, or any time the
interior decoration is changed the result should be a distinct advance over
the old.
Standards vary according to whether the house is on a farm, or in a
small town or a suburb or a large city, but many of the principles apply
to all classes of houses, and examples chosen from one group may have
their counterpart in another.
.... Every child needs plenty of sunlight and fresh air, and is better
off in a well-kept house with modern improvements, in which there is
enough room for privacy and for the different members of the family to
be alone when they wish.
1 Adapted from ' 'Housing Standards," Child Welfare Magazine, -May, 1925.
512 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
On the other hand, poor sanitation may mean illness and death. Falling
plaster, unpainted and never-cleaned woodwork, a general state of disre
pair, filth and litter in and about the house, and similar deficiencies, have
a depressing effect on an adult or child.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
The first element in good housing is the physical structure of the dwell
ing and its state of repair. Foundations underlie the house. If they are
not adequate they will settle unevenly and throw the whole structure and
frame of the house out of alignment, resulting in cracked plaster, doors
that will not shut, and bulging and sagging floors. The cellar should be
dry. The walls and framing of the house need to be well designed, and
substantial, if it is to stand square and true through wind and storm, and
not shrink out of line as the timber seasons. These and other standards,
and the means for realizing them in new construction, are set forth at some
length in the Department of Commerce booklet on small dwelling con
struction.1
The outside walls should be well insulated against cold and heat, and
in northern climates window openings should be weatherproof. A good
roof is absolutely requisite, for water leaking through stains the wall sur
faces and leads to rot and decay. The floors need to be firm, and the
plastering, if any, must be on a firm backing and of good workmanship in
order that cracks may be as few as possible, and so that it will not drop off.
NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT OF ROOMS
It is not so much the cubic feet of space in a house as the way in which
that space is used, which is important in a house of average size. Hence
it is difficult to say what should be the minimum space required for a
family of a given size. The extremely high ceilings of a few decades ago
provided a lot of space which served no practical purpose. Modern house
keeping demands compact rooms, planned to make housework easier.
In most cities combating dust and soot is no small part of the house
work, and other things being equal, the smaller the surfaces to be cleaned,
and the easier the particular type of surface can be cleaned, the better.
Plenty of closet space in all parts of the house is a great saver of work in
housekeeping, and deserves important consideration in selecting a house
plan or in purchasing a house.
1 Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction, by the
Building Code Committee, Department of Commerce.
HOUSING STANDARDS 513
Families that are rearing children ordinarily require three sleeping
rooms. It is, of course, preferable if each child can have his own room.
Though it be small, it is a place for the order of which he is definitely re
sponsible, and in which he can study and play and read undisturbed.
Where there are small children, many parents prefer to have the bathroom
and one bedroom downstairs.
Every family wants to have an attractive living room in which the
members of the family may gather and receive their friends. The need
for a dining room is not so essential. Individual preferences and needs un
doubtedly vary, ....
The kitchen should be very carefully arranged to make the preparation
of meals and cleaning up afterward as easy as possible
LIGHT, VENTILATION, AND HEAT
"The more sunlight, the better" is a good rule for a house. In apart
ments there is usually not the same opportunity to have sunlight in every
room as in a small detached house, but there ought to be at least one room
which has plenty of it Many small houses are built nowadays with
an enclosed sun porch, which is a valuable addition when it can be afford
ed. During the infant stage the child's needs for plenty of fresh air may
be met by a porch where the baby may sleep or play during the day with
his mother close at hand.
Good ventilation in a small house is not hard to obtain during cold
weather when all that is needed in a single room is to open the window a
few inches. The difference of temperature between the inside and outside
air insures plenty of circulation. In hot weather, however, it is desirable
to have room so arranged that the prevailing wind can blow through from
one side to the other. This is not possible in many apartments, where
electric fans are often used as a substitute. In many small houses, unfor
tunately, the interior arrangement is such that good ventilation during
the summer is difficult. The kitchen, particularly, should have good cross
ventilation and receive plenty of air from the prevailing wind.
A good heating system is one able to maintain the house at a com
fortable temperature and proper humidity during the ordinary winter
weather, and it does not often need supplementing by open fires (however
desirable for making a room cheerful), or by portable heaters, although
an exception may be made of the use of the latter in the bathroom during
the early morning or when children are being bathed. It should be re
membered that the expense of heating a house depends not only on the
5H THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
efficiency of the furnace or stoves, but on the weatherproofness of the
house.
PLUMBING
A good system of plumbing with a supply of pure water has been said
to be the most important single contribution of modern civilization to
comfort, health, and elimination of disagreeable housework. Those who
have been accustomed to its advantages can have but little realization of
the toil that is required to pump and carry water from a well or spring,
and of the difficulty and unpleasantness of disposing, in one way or
another, of the wastes which plumbing fixtures and house drainage sys
tems carry away so easily. A committee of sanitary engineers and plumb
ing experts, associated with the Department of Commerce, has formu
lated a set of basic plumbing principles which have been widely accepted
by sanitary engineers.
Anyone who has had experience with leaking, stopped-up, or overflow
ing drainage systems, needs no warning that good standards should be
rigorously carried out.1
INTERIOR DECORATION
The interior decoration of the home has an undeniable effect on the
general atmosphere and happiness of home life. A family may have to
live for a time in a house where the walls and floors have to be covered
with newspapers to keep out the cold, and for a time a family may "camp
out" under almost any conditions without be'ng the worse for it. But a
family which resigns itself to makeshifts, wh'ch it has the power to replace
with something adequate, as a part of its permanent living conditions,
cannot have a successful home life.
It is impossible to define what standards should be set for a house that
is attractive, but it may safely be said that it should be neat, should not
reveal obviously unfinished parts, and should look well both in detail and
as a whole.
THE EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE, AND ITS SURROUNDINGS
It might be difficult to convince some people that bad architec
ture is a significant violation of housing standards. There are
1 Those interested in the design of house plumbing systems are referred to Recom
mended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing, by the Subcommittee on Plumbing of
the United States Department of Commerce. This pamphlet may be obtained from
the Department or from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.
HOUSING STANDARDS 515
few, however, who would deny that, other things being equal, a house is
better when it is pleasing to look at from the outside, and that whatever
the architecture, it should be maintained in a state of good repair. The
exterior of the house is seen by all the neighbors and by every visitor to it,
and when a family gets to the point where it does not care whether anyone
sees that its shutters are falling off, or that its porch has sagged, or that the
rain leaders from the gutters have rusted out, and the side of the house
is being stained, it has lost the honest pride which it ought to have re
tained. How many a farmhouse looks like a hovel because a flock of
chickens has free run around it, killing the grass and leaving filth and
feathers! How many a family, on the other hand, stands out in a com
munity because it has the best kept lawn and the best garden, or because
it keeps a little plot of grass and a few shrubs where its neighbors do not?
HOME OWNERSHIP
An owned house ordinarily is to be preferred to a rented one. The fami
ly has the maintenance of the house directly within its control, and feels
free to go ahead with permanent improvements. It knows that it is not
going to be evicted, and that the better condition a house is in, the better
price it will bring if it comes to be sold.
Buying a home and reducing the debt on it is an incentive to thrift. A
family with a substantial equity in a home is on its ways toward financial
independence, and has a justifiable pride, and a more assured standing in
the community. But a home with too great a value in relation to the
family's income is a poor one to buy, for the attempt to pay for it may
involve an exhausting and depressing struggle, and end in failure.
APARTMENTS
Most of the desirable and undesirable elements for one-family houses
that have been mentioned apply also to apartments. Maintenance of the
structure is not within the direct control of the tenant. A family in an
apartment house usually suffers disadvantages in the loss of privacy, in
accessibility to outdoor play space for children (although play space may
be near by, it is not so convenient as a back yard), and must crowd itself
into smaller quarters. The cash outlay for services is greater, and children
miss much invaluable training through not having space for work benches,
and not having instructive tasks about the house to perform.
Although there are many apartments which conform to good standards
of light and ventilation there are many which do not. It is, in fact, the
5i6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
lack of light and air inherent in large closely-built habitations that makes
them so often unfit to live in. Rooms opening on small courts or shafts
are often but little better than the old unventilated inside rooms which
have been so universally condemned.
CONCLUSION
The majority of American houses meat reasonable standards of shelter
from the elements, privacy, space, light, ventilation, and heating. There
are still millions of them, however, which do not have plumbing or good
artificial or natural light, which are overcrowded, and which expose their
occupants cruelly to extremes of cold or heat. The houses included for
one or more reasons in the deficient group stand as a challenge, not only
to the families living in them, but to the communities in which they are
situated, and to the entire nation.
In a still larger group of homes, health and character suffer to a certain
extent, and home life fails to reach its finest fruition because the families
in them do not make the best of what they have. "Plain living and high
thinking" is an excellent motto, but its author does not forget that main
taining a good standard of plain living is a task that calls for a goodly
share of our best brains and energy.
HOUSING STANDARDS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE
HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE OF CHILDREN1
BY JAMES FORD
Chairman of the Subcommittee on Housing and Executive
Director of Better Homes in America
Standards give something to work toward. It is possible to incorporate
most of these standards in new dwellings for any income group, though it
is recognized that certain of those relating to equipment and fireproofing
and to the provision of a play room or nursery would seem to be out of the
question to many contractors, realtors and home builders. Good manage
ment in the home can also largely overcome defects in equipment or pre
vent injury arising therefrom. Old homes, defective in many particulars,
can, step by step, be brought up to standard, beginning with those
1 Adapted from Housing Standards with Particular Reference to the Health, Safety and
Welfare of Children (report of the Subcommittee of the White House Conference on
Child Health and Protection, Washington, D.C., November, 1930). Published in The
American Building Association News, February, 1931. The standards which follow are
optimum standards drawn up for dwellings in which there are children. They are de
sirable standards toward which the great majority of families may look forward.
HOUSING STANDARDS 517
matters which seem most urgent and bearing in mind always the more
fundamental needs of the child.
Even in those cases where the standards seem impractical because of
their cost, they may, when judiciously applied, result in enhancing the
sales value of the property and in reducing maintenance costs.
In cities, building codes and zoning laws already lead to the incorpora
tion of many of these standards in all new construction, and improve
ments in such laws raise the requirements from time to time. In general,
however, such legislation provides only for such protection of health and
safety as may seem practical and expedient at the time the law is framed.
Progressive improvement of such laws helps to make these standards in
creasingly available even for those citizens who are unaware of them and
of their importance. To an increasing extent, through city planning and
zoning, the amenities of life are becoming available to our city and
suburban population. It is impossible, however, through law to provide
universally all of the conditions that are essential to wholesome living.
It is hoped through consideration of the suggestions which follow (which
are based on studies made by leading specialists in the field of housing and
home economics) that housing will be considered increasingly with refer
ence to its effect upon the health, protection and welfare of children. No
other aspect of the subject is as important as this, for it is the prerogative
of parents to make any necessary and reasonable sacrifices which will give
their children a better start in life and a better chance than they them
selves had to grow to their full mental, moral and physical stature.
In substance, therefore, we may say that these standards appear to the
Committee to represent desirable and reasonable objectives which may
wisely be considered by all groups interested in housing and child welfare
and toward which they may direct their efforts. They may also serve as a
check list of the housing needs of children which parents may wisely take
into consideration with reference to their applicability to their own do
mestic needs in buying or building a home.
HOUSING STANDARDS
A. Neighborhood
1. The neighborhood should be primarily residential. Homes should not be
located within an industrial district.
2. It should be protected by zoning laws, where necessary supplemented by
deed restrictions.
It is perhaps the usual rule that zoning regulations should be supple
mented by deed restrictions. Carefully drawn deed restrictions should
518 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
apply to all lots in residential districts, whether sold or unsold. They
should not be about to expire and they should be drawn in such a way
as to permit of modification under proper safeguards every twenty to
thirty years.
3. The preferable location for a home is on a minor streej so planned as not
to be inviting to through traffic.
In cases where apartment houses or single-family houses are located
on major streets provision should be made for adequate set-backs, for
the planting of roadside trees and grass borders and for protection from
traffic dangers.
In new subdivisions it is better to have streets run northeast by
southwest, and northwest by southeast, so that the possibility of having
rooms with due north exposure may be obviated.
4. Residences should be located within relatively easy access of churches,
schools, civic, cultural and shopping centers.
Reasonable proximity to places of employment for each of the work
ing members of the household should also be taken into consideration,
so that a minimum of time will be lost in transit between work and home
and a maximum amount of time available for family life and for com
mon activities of parents and children.
5. Neighborhood stores should be so located as not to be detrimental to the
residential character of the neighborhood and should be so designed and
treated with reference to set-backs and planting as to enhance the at
tractiveness of the district they serve.
6. Neighborhoods should so far as possible have charm and distinctiveness
and be free from ugliness and monotony and conditions which tend to
depress or humiliate the family. Street trees and grass strips should be
provided on all residential streets and there should be frequent small
parks within the district.
In neighborhoods where there are row houses or detached houses
built from identical plans, individuality can be secured through planting
and through the use of window boxes, porch and garden furniture, etc.
7. Children should not have to depend upon the street for their play. Play
space, should be provided either in individual yards, or in yards thrown
together, or in accessible and safely approached neighborhood play
grounds under conditions of adequate supervision and with adequate
play equipment. Careful attention should be paid to the landscaping of
the playgrounds, so as to provide shade trees at locations which will not
interfere with play activities, and shrubs, hedges or grass borders so that
the playground may not detract from the appearance of its neighbor
hood.
8. Residences should not be unduly near railroads, aviation landing fields,
public garages, stables, dumps, marshes or obnoxious industries.
HOUSING STANDARDS 519
9. The neighborhood should be free from smoke, dust, odors, fumes, noise
and heavy traffic.
10. Residences should not be located on land that is frequently flooded or
so low that it is damp or subject to difficulties in sewage disposal. Areas
of low-lying land improperly or insufficiently drained and areas of made
land where decayable matter has been used to make the fill should be
avoided as residence sites.
11. The neighborhood should be free from "moral nuisances" such as dis
orderly houses, centers of liquor traffic, and gambling houses.
12. Alleys are objectionable in residential districts and should not be planned
in new subdivisions. Existing houses fronting on alleys should be
abandoned under a comprehensive plan.
13. Steep grades should be avoided in streets.
B. Lot
i.. House lots should be wide enough so that each room shall have sufficient
light from open spaces on its own lot without depending upon its neigh
bors.
The problem here is to provide adequate light and sunshine for the
middle rooms of houses which are more than two rooms deep. Front
and back rooms can secure their light from street and yard, but the
middle rooms are dependent upon light which comes over the roofs of
neighboring dwellings and hence require wider side yards.
2. Suitable play space should be provided in the yards to supplement neigh
borhood resources and should be so located that the play activities of
small children can be easily observed by the mother while engaged in
her daily routine.
3. If outdoor space for drying clothes is provided it should be properly
screened so as not to render the neighborhood unattractive.
Vine-covered lattices and hedges usually make the most satisfactory
screens.
4. The lot should be properly graded or drained sc that there will be no
standing water.
5. Trees, shrubs and vines should be planted as they provide an attractive
setting and furnish shade and privacy.
6. Private garages and any outbuildings should be easy of access, fire safe
and so placed as not to interfere with the lighting of neighboring resi
dences or with their attractiveness of outlook.
7. Proper provision should be made for the storing and disposal of garbage,
rubbish, ashes and other household refuse. These should be kept in cov
ered containers of ample capacity which will be fireproof, waterproof,
rustproof and so placed and maintained that they will not interfere
with the healthfulness, appearance or attractiveness of the premises.
520 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
C. House exterior
1. The house should be so designed and placed upon the lot as to provide
for adequate sunning and natural lighting of all rooms. There should be
direct sunshine at some time of day in each room throughout the year.
No room should have only a north exposure.
Sunshine is recognized as one of the most important means to vigor
ous health in childhood, and as circumstances often make it necessary
to keep children indoors at various ages the adequate sunning of rooms
is one of the most important means to child health. In planning new
houses it is impossible to place them at an angle to the points of the com
pass so that there will be no north rooms, but if the street layout of the
city is such as to make north rooms inevitable the planning should pro
vide for additional windows to either the east or west. The north rooms
would therefore be corner rooms.
2. Covered porches should not be so placed as to reduce unduly the natural
lighting of rooms. No room should receive its sole natural light from
windows opening upon covered or glassed-in porches.
3. Ugliness, excessive ornamentation and unpleasant color combinations
should be avoided in the exterior of the home. The best effects are ordi
narily secured through simplicity in the architecture.
4. All materials in house construction should be sound and durable. Houses
should be well built in every respect.
5. Houses to be safe should be fire resistive.
There is considerable loss of life annually of children in America be
cause of the prevailing practice of building houses that are not fire re
sistive. To families or communities that consider it impossible to reach
ideal standards of construction immediately, it might be stated that the
minimum of protection for houses includes fire-resistive roof coverings
and exterior walls, adequate fire-stopping between studs to prevent pas
sage of fire through walls and floors, protection around sills and pipe
openings and the use of fire-resistive materials to protect adequately all
portions of the house where lighting or heating equipment may cause
danger or through which fire might spread. Chimneys should be well
built and properly flue-lined.
6. Foundations should be damp-proof, sound and durable. Houses should
be securely anchored to their foundations and the roofs should be secure
ly anchored to the house.
7. Buildings should be properly insulated against dampness, heat, cold and
sound.
8. Houses should be kept in good repair in all their parts.
Construction and maintenance should be such as to prevent dilapida
tion and disrepair, such as loose railings, rotten boarding, etc. Special
HOUSING STANDARDS 521
attention should be paid to the use of materials and methods of con
struction which experience has demonstrated to be safe or to new mate
rials and methods of construction which give reasonable promise of being
satisfactory. Construction and maintenance should keep roofs and walls
free from leaks, and rain gutters and leaders should be so placed as to
prevent accumulations of rain water and should be made free from clog
ging and leaking. There should be insulation against dampness and
ventilated air space under the roof to protect from extreme heat or cold.
Depending upon climatic conditions the house should be properly in
sulated against heat and cold.
D. House interior — general
1. The room arrangement in the house plan should be such as to make it
possible to avoid lost motion, to save unnecessary steps and facilitate
housework. There should be relatively easy access from room to room
but it should also be possible to close each room off from the others when
desired.
2. Each room should have adequate natural ventilation. Cross or through
ventilation should be had either by placing windows on two sides of each
room or by having doors so placed in line with windows that there shall
be a moving current of air.
Good natural ventilation involves ample provision for the intake of
outside air, for the removal of used air and for keeping air continuously
in motion. This should be possible without sacrifice of privacy and the
use of artificial systems of ventilation should not be necessary.
3. Where climatic conditions make it necessary, air (so far as it is reasonably
possible) should be conditioned with regard to temperature and humid
ity.
4. Each room should have at least one window but preferably two or more
opening directly on a permanent open space sufficient in size to admit
adequate light and sunlight. The total window space should not be less
than fifteen square feet in area. The tops of windows should be as near
the ceiling as is consistent with good architectural design. Windows
should be so constructed that they can be opened either throughout all
of their area or at both top and bottom.
Tentative standards of the International Congress on Illumination
held at Lake Saranac in 1928 suggest that at least some of the sky should
be visible from table height over a considerable part of the room's area
and that sunlight should be able to penetrate through at least half of
the depth of the room.
In buildings in which walls are unusually thick and in regions in which
the smoke nuisance is prevalent the size of windows should be increased
beyond the standards given above.
522 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
5. The room should be so designed that there will be suitable space for the
principal pieces of furniture and so that these will not be in the way of
doors, windows or closets.
Radiators would often best be recessed to save space and permit ac
cess to windows and should be screened so as to protect children.
Fireplaces should be located with reference both to appearance and
the grouping of furniture around them.
Doors, windows and such immovable equipment as radiators should
be so placed as to provide adequate wall space for furnishings appropri
ate to the room.
Particular attention should be paid in the planning for provision of
wall space in sleeping rooms adequate for the location of beds with refer
ence to cross ventilation.
6. Rooms should be generous in size, not only sufficient to accommodate
the furniture but large enough to give a sense of space. Rooms should be
high, especially in hot climates, to insure coolness, adequate ventilation
and the psychological benefit that comes from spacious quarters.
A living room 12 feet by 15 feet — 180 sq.ft. in area — is adequate for
most purposes. Other rooms may be somewhat smaller if properly
planned with refe.ence to light, air and space needs. In private dwellings
rooms 8 feet six inches high are permissible, but in multiple dwellings
nothing less than 9 feet should be permitted.
7. The down-stairs common rooms, including the living room and dining
room and also the parlor and music room if provided, may often ad
vantageously be designed to open into one another so as to facilitate the
entertainment of guests, though it should also be possible to close off each
room for privacy so that any member of the family may entertain per
sonal guests separately.
8. The sleeping quarters should be sufficiently separated from the living
quarters to insure privacy. At least one bathroom should be reached
from a private hall. Privacy should be provided by having each bed
room reached without passing through any other bedroom. In two-
story houses the provision of a washbowl and water-closet on the first
floor is often desirable in addition to the bathroom on the sleeping floor.
9. The kitchen should be cheerful and attractive. It should be easy of
access to the dining room and so located in relation to dining and living
rooms that odors of the kitchen and noises will not penetrate to the rest
of the house.
The kitchen would preferably be compact and rectangular in shape.
There are four major functions to be performed in the kitchen, namely,
the preparation of food, cooking, serving and clearing away. In addi
tion to this it is desirable to have a center for the planning of household
HOUSING STANDARDS 523
activities which will be equipped with desk and telephone and also a
rest center.
The larger built-in equipment should be grouped according to its use
and arranged along the walls in a nearly continuous working surface.
Windows should be above working equipment and the equipment not
used in the preparation and clearing away of meals, as well as doors and
closets, should be grouped remote from the working centers.
Working equipment should be so placed as to obviate overreaching
and unnecessary stooping. The height of working surfaces should be ad
justed to the individual worker.
It is desirable that as much equipment as possible should be built in so
as to prevent the collection of dirt and dust. It is often desirable to place
the stove in an alcove with only the front accessible. Toe space under
working surfaces makes for comfort and if cabinets are built to the ceiling
there will be fewer spaces on which dust may collect. All surfaces should
be smooth and easily cleaned with soap and water. There should be no
unnecessary angles.
A hood over the stove to carry heat and fumes away is desirable. Gas
stoves should be vented by a flue to the chimney or to the outer air.
The windows should be located for a pleasant view and for super
vision of outdoor play space.
10. A nursery, if provided, should be light and cheerful. The walls should be
of hard finish and walls and floors should be smooth and easily cleaned.
The following detailed suggestions have been drawn up for the com
mittee by teachers in the nursery school maintained by Teachers College
at Cornell University and are submitted as suggestions to families that
are in a position to provide a special room for this use:
The floor area should be at least 84 square feet for each child. Artifi
cial lighting should be high and indirect. If side lights are used they
should be out of the child's reach and the light source should be shielded.
Hardwood floors or floors overlaid with battleship linoleum or cork are
recommended since most of the child's play is on the floor. The bed
space for the children should be away from the area in which the toys
are kept.
The nursery should be situated near a lavatory and near the mother's
work center in order to save her time and steps and at the same time
provide the child with necessary supervision. This room should be con
vertible to other uses when there is no longer need for it as a nursery.
11. In cold climates entrances should not be direct to living room and kitch
ens. In general direct entrance to the living room is not desirable.
12. Steep stairs should be avoided. Landings should be broad. Triangular
turns on stairs are unsafe and undesirable. Handrails or balustrades
within the reach of young children should be provided on all stairs,
524 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
including those leading to the cellar and attic. All stairs should be ade
quately lighted and where there are young children it is often advisable
to place gates at the tops of stairs.
13. Closet space should be ample for the needs of each member of the family
and should be so located as to serve its purpose most conveniently.
The closet for outdoor wraps should be on the entrance floor conven
ient to the door and reached without passing through any of the rooms.
There should be a separate closet for children's outdoor wraps or else
special provision should be made for them in this closet through low
hooks and rods and low shelves or other special equipment for overshoes.
Clothes closets should be provided with rods and of sufficient depth
to freely take clothes hangers with clothes upon them.
Broom closets should be located in the back-hall entry or kitchen.
Linen closets should be located in the back hallway of the sleeping
quarters and close to the bathroom.
All closets should have doors and there should be knobs on the inside
so that they can be opened by children.
14. Storage space ample in amount, reasonably accessible and free from
dampness and properly lighted by natural or artificial light, should be
provided for household possessions. This includes space for the storage
of vegetables and fruits, trunks and bags, coal, wood and other fuel and
for children's outdoor play equipment and seasonal or temporarily dis
carded possessions.
15. Some place should be provided as a play room for children. In case the
extra room cannot be afforded by the family this may be either a corner
of a bedroom or nursery or enclosed porch or of some other room, or in
the case of older children a portion of a well-lighted and well-ventilated
shed or attic. As the play room is outgrown it can be converted to some
other use appropriate to the needs of the family. Special provision
should be made through low drawers and cupboards for children's play
things.
1 6. There should be adequate provision for privacy for each member of the
family. Each child should have a place where he can be undisturbed and
quiet and have opportunity for uninterrupted study of home lessons or
for reading or play.
17. There should be a workshop, which can usually be located in a dry,
sunny, well-ventilated basement, shed, garage or attic in which the men
and boys of the house can putter.
1 8. Generally a sleeping room for each person is desirable. Sleeping arrange
ments should be made with due regard to uninterrupted sleep, health,
reasonable privacy and the individuality of the child. It is undesirable
to have two children occupy the same bed whatever their age
HOUSING STANDARDS 525
19. Paints and 'vail coverings should in both color and texture be cheerful,
restful, attractive and not over-stimulating. Woodwork and walls
should be easy to keep clean.
20. Floors should be strong, smooth, tight and level, comfortable to stand
and walk on, durable and easily cared for. In color, design and finish
they should harmonize with the rest of the room. They may be of wood,
cement, tile, linoleum, cork or other composition, according to the pur
pose to be served. If of wood the boards should be well-matched hard
wood, preferably quarter sawn. Tile should be laid on cement. Linoleum
should be cemented to the floor over a layer of felt.
21. Repair of all surfaces, floors, stairs, ceilings, walls, should be adequate
for safety.
E. Fundamental equipment
1. Water supply should be adequate in amount, clean and free from pollu
tion. There should be conveniently located outlets in kitchen, bath
room and cellar and for outside use in watering lawns and gardens. In
rural districts or those beyond the reach of municipal water supply the
well or spring should be so situated and protected as to avoid contamina
tion. The water should be piped into the house and, if necessary, pro
vision should be made for adequate protected storage. An ample supply
of hot water is essential.
2. Modern sanitary plumbing fixtures, noiseless, easily flushed, cleaned
and vented, should be provided. All pipes should be of durable type with
tight joints and traps readily accessible for cleaning or repairs. Water-
closets may be located in compartments separate from the bathroom,
well-lighted and ventilated to the outer air. Water-closet accommoda
tions should never be located out-of-doors.
3. Heating appliances should be of such types and sizes as will heat all parts
of the house adequately. As there is danger of overheating as well as of
underheating it is often desirable to provide for thermostat control.
Provision for humidification is also desirable.
4. Artificial lighting should avoid dangers from fire and should not cause
eyestrain. Outlets should be sufficient in number and so located as to
make it possible to engage in any kind of household activity such as
cooking, serving of food, cleaning, play or studying under conditions
that are convenient and comfortable. Too intense lighting should be
avoided.
5. The refrigerator should be designed for thorough circulation of cold air.
Proper insulation requires an efficient heat-retarding material of ade
quate thickness between inner and outer walls. This material should be
compact, non-deteriorating, moisture- and germ-proof and odorless. All
parts of the refrigerator should be easily cleaned. Proper drainage should
526 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
be provided with permanent sewer connection. The drain pipe should
be easily accessible for cleaning. For mechanically-cooled refrigerators
further requirements are: Quiet, dependable and economical automatic
operation; minimum of service maintenance; freezing of water in a
reasonable length of time; accessibility for repairs; freedom from wear
of moving parts; safety of operation of exterior moving parts, of elec
trical apparatus or of burners. The refrigerator should be level and
should be placed in as cool and protected a position as is compatible with
convenient service.
6. Desirable built-in equipment includes also kitchen cupboards, preferably
flanking the sink, built-in ironing boards, a passway between kitchen
and dining room, china closets, bookshelves, window seats with storage
space underneath, shelves and drawers in linen closets, low drawers, cup
boards and hooks for children's toys or other possessions in the play
rooms or the children's bedrooms. Each of these should be planned with
a view to convenience in use.
7. All electric wiring and equipment, including the radio, should be in
stalled according to standard safety practices and certified to by the
properly constituted public authorities and by fire underwriters. The
installation of electric apparatus near sinks, laundry tubs, bathtubs and
lavatories where shock hazards from heedless use are greatest should be
avoided. Non-absorptive insulating sockets for fixtures near such con
veniences are a wise safety precaution. Fuses and switches should be
enclosed and so located as to be inaccessible to children. An ample sup
ply of base plugs and double convenience outlets are desirable and per
mit maximum service. Hall lights and lights for cellar stairs should be
controlled by three-way switches at top and bottom of stairs.
8. Shut-off cocks for gas meters should be accessible and controlled by a
locked box and manipulated only by representatives of gas companies.
The installation of slot meters should be avoided. Open-flame gas jets
are a fire hazard and should not be used. Gas or other open-flame light
ing fixtures should not be located near windows or other places where
draperies may be hung. Gas ranges or water heaters and gas logs should
have direct connection with chimney flues. Hose connections for gas
stoves, table lamps and other gas apparatus should be placed several
inches away from control cocks for lighting fixtures. Gas ranges should
have automatic lighters.
HOUSING STANDARDS 527
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM HOUSING STANDARDS1
BY MORRIS KNOWLES
Consulting Engineer, Morris Knowles, Inc.
From information obtained by a study of the intimate family life in
various industrial towns, after consideration of the many practical ele
ments entering into the question, and taking into consideration the ex
pressed opinion of many qualified authorities, the author's recommenda
tions as to the minimum requirements of "An Industrial Worker's Home"
are as follows :
1. Materials. — Permanent weatherproof construction of exterior walls and roof.
2. Cellar. — Cellar to be provided, except in localities where impractical or un
necessary.
3. In case cellar is omitted, first floor to be at least two ft. above ground and
supported on masonry piers or foundations carried below frost line; and the
clear space enclosed but adequately ventilated.
4. Where cellar is provided, it shall have cement floor and floor drain.
5. Cellar to be properly lighted and ventilated.
6. No living quarters to be in basement.
7. A separate chimney flue to be run to the cellar for future installation of a
furnace.
8. Adequate provision must be made for heating the house, but furnace should
not be minimum requirement. All heating fixtures, whether using gas or
other fuel, must be provided with vents to flues.
9. Gas piping to be provided for kitchen range and hot water boiler.
10. Rooms. — One room for parents and infant child and enough rooms for other
children for proper segregation of the sexes.
11. Room sizes to accommodate minimum furniture as listed. The furniture to
be drawn in to scale on plans, so as not to conflict with windows, doors or
hot-air registers.
12. Row or group houses to be not more than two rooms deep; except in rows
where combinations of units (as one four-room, two six-room, and one four-
room) allow for proper ventilation to the rooms of the deeper unit by the
nature of their arrangement.
13. Duplexes, double duplexes, etc. — In all such units, provision shall be made
for obtaining as great a degree of privacy as is enjoyed at least in the row-
type house. Separate front and rear entrances, separate cellars when cellars
exist, with independent plumbing lines, and heating and lighting facilities. It
is also recommended that means of circulation between each apartment and
private cellar be effected without going outside the house.
1 Adapted from Industrial Housing (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1920), pp. 302-8. As these minimum requirements were drawn up by Mr. Knowles in
1920, a few changes doubtless now would be made to make them applicable to the ad
vanced minimum, present-day housing standards.
528 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
14. Closets. — Every bedroom must have clothes closet in direct connection with
it.
15. Closet or case of adequate size for keeping necessary china, kitchen utensils,
staple supplies, etc., must be arranged for in kitchen.
1 6. Entrances. — There must be means of entrance other than by the front door.
17. Front porches, while desirable, are not a minimum requirement.
1 8. In no case should the stairs have a rise of over eight inches and tread of less
than nine inches.
19. Ventilation. — There shall be a clear height of not less than 6 ft. 6 in. from
cellar floor to under side of first-floor joist. A minimum clear story height of
eight ft. shall generally obtain for first and second stories, but in cases of
second-story rooms coming under sloping roofs, it shall be required that flat
portions of ceiling be over an area of at least 40 sq.ft. with 3! ft. minimum
flat ceiling width and a clear height of six ft. over an area of at least 80 sq.ft.
with a minimum width of seven feet. (Attic rooms not subject to these re
quirements.)
20. There shall be in all cases an air space, with minimum of eight in. from ceiling
to roof , with provision that such space be ventilated directly to outside air.
21. Every bedroom to have at least one window opening directly to outer air.
22. One window to be sufficient for single rooms, two windows for double rooms.
No room to have less than 12 sq. ft. of window area.
23. Bathroom to have one window of not less than six sq. ft. area.
24. Water-closet compartment to have one window of not less than 4^ sq. ft.
opening directly to outer air.
25. Skylight may be used in lieu of window for bathroom or water-closet com
partment.
26. Window frames to be of such design that screens may be used.
27. Water supply. — Running water to be required in connection with kitchen
plumbing fixtures. (Hot water connection is desirable.)
28. A water-closet in separate compartment, properly ventilated, must be pro
vided when bathroom is omitted.
29. While bathroom is greatly to be desired, it is not to be a minimum require
ment; provided convenient and complete bath-house facilities are arranged
for and properly maintained for community use.
30. Either laundry trays to be provided in cellar or combination tray and kitch
en sink in kitchen.
31. Electricity to be furnished whenever possible. One switch to be provided for
throwing on light on entering house and one switch to control cellar light
from top of cellar stairs.
There are included in the minimum requirements such provisions as will
make possible a house in which any person can live comfortably and de
cently. A house built under these conditions will not contain many of the
HOUSING STANDARDS 529
features which, while not absolutely necessary, are desired by many
workmen's families.
If the term "Industrial Housing" applied only to the lowest-paid un
skilled workers, it would be unnecessary to consider any but essential
features; however, a large percentage of wage earners are skilled work
men, who, imbued with higher standards of living, not only desire but de
mand additional features in the house. They are able and willing to pay
for such conveniences. It, therefore, seems necessary to arrive at some
classification of houses suitable to the corresponding grades of workmen
which exist in the personnel of industry.
Many persons have deemed two classifications all that are necessary —
one for unskilled workers, and one for skilled workers. This differentia
tion, however, is considered to be too abrupt and not furnishing sufficient
gradation, by men intimately acquainted with the wage earner and his
family life. The native unskilled worker must often be provided with a
better house than the rank and file of unskilled wage earners, and yet he
cannot pay for the houses provided for higher paid skilled workers. On
the other hand, if he does not have children, he probably is in a better
position to afford these accommodations than the skilled worker with a
very large family, who certainly will never be satisfied to drop down to
the grade of house provided for unskilled laborers.
It is believed, therefore, there is considerable advantage, if not absolute
necessity, in providing three grades of houses, as follows: First, a house
as inexpensive as it is possible to build and still meet the demands of a
home for unskilled labor; second, an intermediate grade, to meet the
demands mentioned in the previous paragraph; and third, a more ex
pensive grade, for higher wage-earning skilled laborers, shop foremen, or
the higher paid men of the clerical staff.
For convenience, the three grades will be referred to respectively as
Grade C, Grade B, and Grade A.
Grade C. — House shall have the minimum requirements, as before
stated.
Grade B. — House shall have all the features of a Grade C house, with
the following additional conveniences :
1. Room for dining, separate from kitchen.
2. Bathroom shall constitute a minimum requirement in which shall be pro
vided the following fixtures: Enameled roll-rim bathtub, 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft.
6 in.; lavatory, 18 in. by 21 in.; water-closet, porcelain and wash down,
syphonic action; enameled low down tank.
3. Rift sawed yellow pine floors in first floor, plain sawed pine in second floor.
530 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
4. Provision for refrigerator space adjacent to, but not in, kitchen, which may
be built in compartment on rear porch.
5. Front porch, not less than 70 sq. ft.
6. Lighting fixtures in rooms, except bracket in bathroom, to be controlled by
switches located conveniently at entrance doors.
7. Hot-air furnaces; cold-air returns to be taken from inside.
8. Laundry trays in basement.
9. Mechanical door bells.
10. Coal bins.
Grade A . — House shall contain all the features listed for Grade C and
Grade B houses, with the following additional accommodations:
1. The rooms to be larger than the previous minimum requirements.
Square
Feet
Single bedroom 90
Double bedroom 130
Dining room 140
Living room 180
2. A coat closet shall be provided, either off hall in first floor or in connection
with living room.
3. Open fireplace, with basket grate in living room.
4. Rift sawed yellow pine or oak floors in first and second floors.
5. Front porch with minimum of 96 sq. ft. Rear porch.
6. Two-way switches, for controlling one light upstairs and one downstairs.
7. Medicine cabinet in bathroom.
8. Combination gas and electric fixtures for lighting in kitchen and bathroom.
With the exception of combined uses for same room, the grading classi
fication of the houses is not based upon number of rooms. Grade C house,
for example, might contain more bedrooms than Grade A house.
REFERENCES
DINWIDDIE, EMILY WAYLAND. Suggested Housing Standards for Families of
Small Incomes (Journal of Home Economics, XIX [August, 1927], 444-50).
FORD, GEORGE B. Standards for Improved Housing Laws (National Municipal
Review, XVI [October, 1927], 633-37).
HOLDEN, ARTHUR C., and ASSOCIATES. Pocket Guide to Good Construction. New
York: Printed arid distributed by the Devinne-Hallenbeck Co., for Own
Your Own Home Exposition, Inc., 1927. Pp. 47.
KNOWLES, MORRIS. Industrial Housing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1920.
Standards and requirements for houses for industrial workers (pp. 293-308).
HOUSING STANDARDS 531
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small
Dwelling Construction. Elimination of Waste Series. Washington: Govern
ment Printing Office, 1923. Pp. 108.
VEILLER, LAWRENCE. A Model Housing Law. New York : Russell Sage Founda
tion, 1920.
WHITE HOUSE CONFERENCE ON CHILD HEALTH AND PROTECTION. The Home
and the Child. New York: Century Co., 1931.
Housing and furnishing standards.
WOOD, EDITH ELMER. The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. New York :
Macmillan Co., 1919.
Housing standards (pp. 4-17).
CHAPTER XVI
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS1
ESSENTIALS IN PLANNING THE
HOME GROUNDS2
BY FURMAN LLOYD MULFORD
Associate Horticulturist, U.S. Department of Agriculture
A plan for the grounds should first be made. This should be done be
fore the house is planned so that the house plan and that for the grounds
may fit both one another and the location. If the house is built then one
must make the best of the situation.
Roads and walks should be as few as possible and should be so located
as to be most serviceable and to leave the lawn areas as nearly unbroken
as practicable. A straight walk direct from the street is probably best
when the house is closer to the street than the width of its own front. As
the distance from the street increases the desirability of so locating the
walk that there is an unbroken lawn between the house and the street also
increases. This often can be done by curving the walk from one corner
of the lot to one end of the porch or to the entrance door. Both roads and
walks should be so located and be made of such material that they will be
as inconspicuous as possible.
Service features like a delivery and work yard and a clothes drying
yard should be provided where they can be secluded from the general
view, likewise the vegetable and flower gardens should be so located that
they can be at least partially hidden from the street.
Play areas should be included in the back yard if there are children in
the home. The amount of play space allotted to the play area will ob
viously depend upon the size of the grounds. This area need not be large
but should be planned for shade and attractiveness.
Lawns should occupy as large areas unbroken by other features as the
limits of the place will permit. As much as practicable of the area between
1 The principles of design discussed in this chapter apply to small properties and to
grounds of moderate size. Space does not permit information on plants and planting
and such information has been included only in connection with the subject of lawns
and trees.
3 From Beautifying the Home Grounds (Leaflet 4). Better Homes in America, 1931.
532
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS
533
the house and the street should be in turf to form the foreground of the
picture that the house should present. These areas should be carefully
graded at the start. If there are any places where there is less than the
average amount of top soil a poor spot in the turf will result. Rock ledges
near the surface will give the same results. Incorporate an abundance of
manure or other organic matter in the soil before establishing the lawn by
seeds or plants, as later feeding must be confined to the surface unless an
entirely new start is made. Use the grass best adapted to the locality.
FIG. 63. — The lawn should remain unbroken by planting features. Shrubs and
plants are placed preferably against foundations, at corners or in angles of steps and
porches.
Start the grass when it can best meet weed competition — Kentucky blue
grass and redtop in the early fall when weeds are few, Bermuda grass
when warm weather arrives so that its vigorous growth will enable it to
get ahead of competitors.
Trees should be located to frame the house by being placed at the
corners so that the space at the middle of the front of the house is left
open, or placed at the back so that they extend up over it thus giving a
setting for it. They should not be too thick or crowd the front. They can
be used as a frame and still give ample shade.
Shrubs should be planted against the foundations of the house at
corners and in angles including the angles of the steps or of porches, also
534 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
GARDEN SCORE CARD
FRONT YARD
Per Cent
Walks and drives:
Location 15
Kind and condition of surfaces 5
20
Lawns:
Location and outline 15
Evenness and purity of stand of grasses 15
30
Plantings:
Arrangement 15
Appropriateness of kinds 10
Vigor of growth and freedom from injury 10
35
General care and neatness 15
100
FRONT AND BACK YARDS
Lawns:
Location and outline 10
Evenness and purity of stand of grasses 10
20
Walks and drives:
Location 10
Kind and condition of surfaces 5
IS
Service area:
Location 5
Surface and arrangement 5
10
Play area:
Location 5
Suitableness 5
10
Plantings:
Arrangement 15
Appropriateness of kinds 10
Vigor of growth and freedom from injuries 5
30
General neatness 15
100
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 535
at intermediate points of long straight sides. Such plantings should not
be continuous along the whole foundation of any side of the building nor
should the different clumps be uniform as to size, height or breadth, or
composed of the same kinds of plants. By this means variety and interest
will be provided.
Another appropriate location for shrub planting is in clumps along the
boundaries. These, too, should be irregular as to size, varying in width
and in height and be composed of different kinds of plants. The corners
and the entrances are especially worthy of emphasis and should be
adorned with plantings. Junctions of walks and drives and the insides of
curves are other appropriate locations for shrub groups. But care must be
used not to create danger points by having such plantings so high that
they obstruct the view of traffic. The screening of service areas and the
partial seclusion of garden areas may be secured by using such plants
either as irregular masses or as hedges.
Vines may be used on fences, arbors or trellises about the home or even
against the buildings or on the porch. Care must be used not to smother
the house by their use.
Herbaceous perennials may be used here and there in the edges of the
shrubbery groups to add bright colored flowers at times when the shrubs
are not flowering, also in special borders arranged as part of the border
plantings or in beds or borders in the flower garden.
Annual flowers may be used as little clumps here and there in the
edges of the shrubbery to add color through midsummer and early fall,
or may be used to supplement perennials in the border or for planting the
flower garden.
Plants should be selected that are known to thrive in the locality.
Those listed in the catalogues of nearby nurserymen are usually safe.
Native plants and those commonly grown in the community should form
the nucleus of the plantations. Cone-bearing evergreens may often be
used freely in the north and broadleaf evergreens in the south.
536 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
PRINCIPLES OF SMALL-PROPERTY DESIGN1
BY M. E. BOTTOMLEY
Professor of Landscape Architecture, Cincinnati University
Landscape architecture is a complex and profound art, serving not
beauty alone but utility, and demanding the assistance and cooperation of
architecture, engineering and horticulture. Landscape architecture is an
art of design — the arrangement of buildings, drives, walks, gardens, lawns
and plantings in the landscape. Planning is its most important function
although too many persons consider it to be merely planting. Planting
and the selection of plants is indeed an important part of the execution of
the designs, but it is no more so than the proper placing of a walk or road
and often of much less importance than the location of a building If
the size and shape and arrangement of the rooms of a house are more
fundamental considerations than the paper and paint, then surely the
arrangement of the elements that make up the home grounds is of vastly
more importance than the planting, most of which is merely a frame, a
decoration, and aid to something else. The wallpaper and the plantings
can be rather easily changed, but buildings, fences and walks will prob
ably remain in their first location.
The fundamental purpose of all the arts is to give pleasure to the per
sons who see or use that which is created. From our knowledge of human
psychology, we know that we are affected by everything about us. To see
color, to hear a sound, involuntarily arouses the emotions and produces
either pleasure or displeasure. Should we discover that the source of color
is a bed of flowers or that the sound is a familiar melody, we receive even
greater pleasure. Perhaps these flowers or this melody recall something
we have seen or heard ; perhaps they will arouse in our imagination beau
ties far beyond those that really exist. All these pleasures have been prac
tically involuntary, differing, of course, with our training, our experience
and our taste. Another source of pleasure to most persons and one that
differs much with individuals is that obtained from reasoning or inquiring
how the result was accomplished. The practical-minded person observes
how the fence is made, how the steps or the walk is constructed and how
the soil is improved for planting. He delights in good workmanship, in
seeing a problem sensibly solved. As most of us are practical but yet have
1 Adapted from The Design of Small Properties by permission of the Macmillan Com
pany, publishers (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929), 1-19. This publication contains
over sixty planting plans and diagrams — both formal and informal and suitable for the
design of small grounds. These planting plans have been prepared for lots of various
size and shape.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 537
somewhere in our make-up an imaginative side, so must our landscape
design, to give greatest pleasure, combine utility with beauty.
Planning for space is the chief consideration in small, city homes. The
landscape development of small properties needs the attention of persons
of good taste and training, and, above all, should be executed with re
straint. If there is any place where too little is better than too much, it is
in small yards
It should be understood in the beginning that a small place cannot be
a large estate in miniature. The small yard must be simple. The size of
human beings does not differ much, neither does the size of things they
use. The furniture in a small living room has about the same dimensions
as that in a large room; there is only less of it, each piece being in scale
with man. Thus it becomes a fundamental consideration of small-prop
erty designs that they contain fewer features than larger places, but that
each detail shall be "in scale."
In many respects, the design of small lots is different from that of
larger home grounds, for the necessary parts, such as the driveway,
garage, drying-yard and vegetable plot, take a much greater proportion of
space. Small places, then, need even more careful planning than large
ones for the best results; they are to be compared to small houses in which
not an inch can be wasted. There the living rooms are given the maximum
amount of space, the kitchen and sleeping quarters being reduced to a
minimum; here the necessary drive and service parts will be made as
small and compact as possible in order to give all the ground gained by
planning to recreational or "living room" use. Spaciousness is the effect
one tries to produce on the small property.
The problem of the small place is mainly one of planning, not planting.
Planning should start even before the lot is purchased. Persons usually
have fairly definite ideas about the style of house they will build. If they
already own a lot, the house must be made to fit it in size and shape ; if
the house is chosen first, then a lot must be found suitable to its type and
shape. Ideally both selections should go on together.
The similarity of shape and surface in most city and suburban lots does
not suggest any particular scheme for development. The location and
plan of the house and the position of the garage are the factors that usu
ally determine the dispensation of the remainder of the property for use
and beauty. Why, then, are both house and garage so often placed with
out any thought as to how they will affect the design of the yard? Why do
most persons select house plans, for interior convenience only, when the
538 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
convenience between inside rooms and their corresponding outdoor areas
is fully as important? Surely, if home-owners realized the possibilities of
greater use and enjoyment which can be obtained, they would plan the
house and grounds together.
There should be nothing displeasing in the masonry foundations of
buildings. It is true that many houses have been built too high above
ground and concealment of this fault is attempted by continuous planting
about the foundation. But one evil seldom cures another. If the grade
line is too low, it should be raised by making a terrace about the front of
the house. A good maxim is to use vegetation merely to soften, to en
frame, or to add a touch of decoration. The eye is accustomed to seeing
houses setting upon their foundations, and a stretch of the wall here and
there is rather satisfying.
It is assumed that the average home-owner likes room for vegetables
but does not care for a large garden. On deep lots, the vegetable plot placed
across the rear cuts down an excessively deep lawn; on shorter wider
properties, even on sixty-foot lots, this space is needed to make long at
tractive lawn lines and the vegetables may be along the side of the lot,
just behind the garage or drying-yard. This vegetable garden may profit
ably be surrounded by grapes or currants or even black raspberries, and
often the vegetables and flowers are combined into one larger garden
across the rear of the property.
The ideal place for a small flower garden is at the side of the house ad
joining the living room if the lot be wide enough. In the case of fifty-foot
widths usually this is not possible Often a complete little flower
garden may be in the rear, or if this space is needed for vegetables, a
border of flowers may be made across the back or better along one side
of the lawn. Whether the flowers are in a garden or bordering the lawn,
the beds should be ample, not two or three feet wide as is often attempted,
six feet being the minimum perhaps. Narrow beds, narrow paths, dimin
utive details in general make a fussy garden and reduce the scale of the
entire property instead of increasing the feeling of extent so desirable on
the small place.
For the best landscape development, it is important that the living
room should overlook the side or rear lawn and have an exit to these areas.
This opening may be from the living room or sun porch and enter directly
into the open lawn or, better still, out upon a porch or terrace from which
the lawns and gardens are accessible. To make the lawn and garden a real
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS
539
• soft
FIG. 64. — An interesting treatment of a typical city lot with easy access from the
living room to the garden. (Courtesy of M. L. Bottomley. Reprinted from Design of
Small Properties [Macmillan].)
540 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
part of the house, there must be a direct connection between them and
the inside. Too often the living room does not have even a view of the
outside pleasure area. Why make it awkward for your guests and you to
reach the garden? Why should it be necessary to take them out the front
entrance and around the house or through the kitchen door? People like
to be outside in pleasant surroundings; they will go into their own private
outdoors often, if it is easy for them to get there.
The rear lawn is the outdoor living room of the property — pleasant to
• look at from the house, a broad space for out-of-door life, a playground
for the children, the dominating area in the whole composition. The se
clusion of the entire rear yard is important, for unless privacy is secured
in some degree, the use for which the lawn was intended is defeated. The
smaller the lot the higher must be the boundary to secure seclusion and
the narrower it must be to save space. On small lots, a wall, a lattice
fence, a wire fence with vines growing over it are suggested as most eco
nomical of space. Next in usefulness is the trimmed hedge, then the un-
trimmed or restrained hedge, and on the larger lots the shrub border
planted in two staggered lines parallel to the property line and only wide
enough at all points to secure privacy. The informal shrubbery border
with its curved outline has been copied from larger estates and parks
where a long straight line of planting becomes monotonous. No line is
sufficiently long on the small place to be tiresome.
Straight lines emphasize long dimensions and express greater scale. For
this reason, a hedge rather than a variety of plants is preferred as a back
ground and boundary. Great variety of plants is not in good taste on a
small area; objects of interest to be given prominence and to be enjoyed
must be furnished with ample neutral framing material. Consequently,
one type of plant or at least one type of foliage should predominate.
In the design of the rear lawn, not only the lines of the enclosure should
be approximately parallel to the property line but, commonly, the lines of
the other elements also. Whatever general arrangement is planned, the
major part of the rear yard should be kept open and this open space should
adjoin the living rooms. Cramped quarters next to the house on both sides
of the living room ruin the scale and feeling of spaciousness which is de
sired for the observer inside. Most of the detail can be introduced around
the edges of the lawn and not materially reduce its size. All possible lawn
area should be seen in this general view to give the feeling of extent, and
yet the well-designed back yard must have features or areas wholly or
partly hidden from the main line of sight — something held in reserve.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 541
Mystery is a pleasing challenge to the individual, to investigate what is
concealed from his first glance.
A garden, then, close to the house and enclosing the only view and exit
from the living rooms is wrong. The appearance of the rear yard will seem
as large as this garden; even though there be a lawn beyond, it is lost in
the picture because interest is held by that which is more spectacular —
the garden. If the lawn were next to the house and the garden beyond, it
would serve as a part of the garden picture — the foreground to it. The
whole yard would be larger; there would be an incentive to go out into the
garden to see it more closely; the presentation of the garden from the
house would be a general not a detailed picture. These results are all
desirable.
In small yards there is a great advantage in an unsymmetrical arrange
ment — that balancing of one feature by a different one rather than re
peating the same on both sides of the axis. A wide border of perennials on
one side of a lawn may be balanced by a hedge, a fence, evergreens, a tree
or an arbor that encroach little on the width of lawn but still effect bal
ance with the ample flower border.
Some such asymmetrical scheme is better than dividing the flower
border into two narrow beds too small for growing flowers well. The mod
ern house with its living room on one side and service on the other usually
calls for this unsymmetrical composition, as the axis from the living room
or porch will not be in the center of the back yard. This does not mean
that the symmetrical scheme for both house and grounds does not have a
place. But on the whole, the balance secured without repetition is more
suitable for the small property because it is more subtle; and there is
little enough chance to be clever in such small space. But naturally, satis
factory balance in this unsymmetrical arrangement is more difficult to
obtain.
LAWN MAKING AND LAWN RENOVATION1
BY FURMAN LLOYD MULFORD
Associate Horticulturist, U.S. Department of Agriculture
LAWN MAKING
The foundation for a good lawn is a rich, deep, well-drained soil, reten
tive of moisture. There should be at least eight inches of good topsoil over
any subsoil used or exposed in grading the lawn. As it is impossible to
1 Two mimeographed circulars, "Lawn Making" and "Renovating the Lawn," issued
by the Office of Horticulture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1925.
542 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
incorporate organic matter in the soil after the lawn is seeded, it is im
portant that an abundance be added in the preparation. The best mate
rial is manure, so composted that all weed seeds have been killed without
having its value destroyed by burning. From one to two pounds per square
foot, or 20 to 40 tons per acre, should be used, but where this is impossible
to secure, the turning under of green crops is the alternative. Crops suit
able for this purpose are various clovers, vetch with rye, Canada field peas
with oats, soy beans and cow peas, the latter having the additional value
of crowding out many lawn weeds. A full discussion of green manuring
appears in Farmers' Bulletin No. 1 250 entitled "Green Manuring." Com
mercial fertilizers applied to soil-improvement crops often wonderfully
stimulate their growth. From 500 pounds to 2 tons per acre of | to i
pound for each 10 square feet of mixed fertilizer may be used depending on
the condition of the soil. After the soil has been well enriched, it should
be well prepared by deep plowing or spading and pulverizing and then
permitted to settle for three or four weeks when the top i J inches should
be made into a very fine seedbed.
The grass to be used depends on the section of the country. Kentucky
blue grass is probably the best lawn grass in the northeastern fourth of the
country, farther south in shady places, in the Allegheny Mountains, in the
Puget Sound Region, on the Pacific Coast and in many irrigated sections.
In warmer and in sandy regions the bent grasses, including the creeping
bent and Rhode Island bent are likely to succeed; farther south, the
Bermuda grass is to be depended on; along the South Atlantic Coast and
the Gulf of Mexico carpet grass and St. Augustine grass are best, while
in the Mississippi Valley the mesquite grass, one of the bent grasses, is
excellent.
Where Kentucky blue grass is used it is necessary to sow some other
grass to give a temporary effect for about three years or until the blue
grass becomes well established. Red top is usually used with the blue
grass for this purpose either equal parts by weight or two parts blue grass
to one of red top. The mixture should be sown at the rate of 100 pounds
per acre, or one pound for every 400 square feet, and the bent grasses used
in the same amounts. Red fescue is useful for shade and can be sown
where the blue grass does not seem to give the required result, or it can be
used in combination with it.
Seed is probably best sown in the fall, three months before the ground
may be expected to freeze. This usually coincides with a period of liberal
rains. Spring sowing should be done very early while the ground freezes
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 543
at night but thaws during the day. The seed should be covered very
lightly, and if the ground is dry it should be rolled after planting.
Bermuda grass, carpet grass, St. Augustine grass, mesquite grass and
sometimes creeping bent grass are established by transplanting runners
that have rooted at the joints. This is best done in the fall two months or
more before the freezing weather. They will spread rapidly, often three
feet in a single season under favorable conditions.
The cutting of the lawn should begin as soon as the lawn mower will
clip the ends of the grass when it is set as high as possible and should fol
low at sufficiently frequent intervals to permit the clippings to remain on
the grass. Short clippings left on the lawn will quickly work down to the
surface of the ground where they will aid materially in maintaining good
conditions for grass growth.
Applications of ground bone, fish scrap, tankage, cotton-seed meal or
other highly nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied liberally each fall
from 500 pounds to a ton per acre or 5 to 20 pounds to each 400 square
feet according to the condition of the soil. Nitrate of soda or sulphate of
ammonia may be used as a summer stimulant at the rate of 50 pounds per
acre or i pound for 800 square feet at intervals of a month during the
growing season either dissolved or when the soil is wet.
RENOVATING THE LAWN
If there is a partial stand of grass on the lawn, even though the ground
is not more than one-fourth covered, the best plan is to seed freely about
twice a year and apply suitable fertilizers at frequent intervals. When the
soil is composed partially of clay or has a clay subsoil, then Kentucky
blue grass and red top should be suitable to use in equal quantities, by
weight. If in shade add as much red fescue as either of the other grasses.
If, however, the soil is largely sand, red top, red fescue, and, if obtainable,
creeping bent or Rhode Island bent should be used in equal parts by
weight. German bent seems to be the most available seed. Kentucky
blue grass seems to do better in an alkaline soil which can be assured by
applying lime or unleached wood ashes at the rate of 5 to 10 pounds per
100 square feet. If there is one-half a stand of grass it would be well to use
seed at the rate of 50 pounds per acre or one pound for every 1,000 square
feet of surface. If there is a less stand of grass, then more seed should be
used. It would probably be well to seed before freezing weather is over
in the spring and two months before freezing weather in the late summer
or fall.
544 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
To stimulate as vigorous a growth of grass as possible a liberal applica
tion of compost, ground bone or one of the prepared stockyard manures,
like sheep manure or prepared cow manure, should be broadcast on the
surface. In the case of bone, this would be from i to i J tons per acre, or
from 5 to 7! pounds per hundred square feet, and of the prepared manures
an even larger quantity. The application should be repeated late each fall.
After the grass has well started, nitrate of soda could be used to advantage
at the rate of 50 pounds per acre, or 2 ounces per 100 square feet when the
ground is wet either from rain or from watering, or it may be washed in by
watering immediately after application. It can be used as a stimulant
from June to September at intervals of a month. Reseeding is desirable
each spring and later summer or fall until a really good lawn is secured,
when it might do to omit one seeding.
Clipping of the lawn with a lawn mower should begin as soon as it will
cut the tops when set high and should be repeated at intervals of five
days or a week. The clippings should be permitted to remain about the
roots of the grass.
Watering should not be oftener than once in five days but should wet
the soil to a depth of four inches when applied. Usually watering is too
light and too frequent.
FOUNDATION PLANTING1
BY FURMAN LLOYD MULFORD
Associate Horticulturist, U.S. Department of Agriculture
A house must be comfortable and attractive both inside and out to be
a real home. It may be modest and simple, but it must be neat and in
good repair. In addition it must give the feeling of belonging to its sur
roundings. Nothing contributes so much to this appearance as appropri
ate plantings about the foundations.
A house rising directly from the bare ground or even from a good lawn
with all the foundation showing is usually unattractive and uninviting.
If on the other hand an old lilac bush has run wild at one corner of the
house and if but an elder bush and blackberry tangle have clothed another
corner, the severe straight lines are softened and the house has a look of
belonging in its surroundings and begins to look as though it was at home
there. The transformation from a bare and uninviting building to a home-
1 Mimeographed circular issued by the Office of Horticulture, U.S. Department of
Agriculture.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 545
like picture is easily accomplished by appropriate plantings about the
foundations.
The most important locations for plant groups are the most prominent
points. These are often the front corners of the house or of the porch, or
a large bare wall unbroken by windows. At these points the largest or
most conspicuous plants should be used. Of lesser prominence may be the
entrance steps or angles in the house, where smaller plants are usually
appropriate. Under the windows of a long wall only those plants should
be used that will grow as high as the window sills, while in liberal spaces
between windows those may be used that will grow to the top of the win
dow or above. Plants used along a porch where it is desirable to maintain
an open view should not exceed a height of 30 inches above the floor, so
that those sitting on the porch may see over them. Higher shrubs may be
used for screening or for making an appropriate setting for a conspicuous
porch corner.
Plants of different heights should be used so the top outline will vary
and thus be more interesting ; also the width of the plantings should vary
for the same reason. This frequently makes possible the planting of large
plants next the building with smaller ones on the outer edge of the groups.
This need for variety of outline makes inappropriate the planting of a
row of plants of one kind along a porch or a house wall. It is also inadvis
able to plant continuously along a foundation even with plants of dif
ferent habits, as the most pleasing appearance is obtained by exposing a
portion of the foundation so that the house may be seen to be resting on
something substantial instead of appearing uncertainly suspended among
waving foliage.
Variety may also be obtained by using plants of different forms of
growth, some upright, some spreading, some drooping, also with plants
having different form and color of leaves, as large or small, entire or lobed,
dark green, pea green or grayish, glossy or dull. Shrubs are also available
with different types of branching, different colors of stems, different habits
as to holding leaves, some remaining on for two or three years, others
dropping each fall, and with crops of bright-colored fruits following the
flowers.
Many combinations of these plants may be used, any of which would
make a pleasing appearance. They must be carefully selected, however,
to obtain those of appropriate size for the locations as well as to provide
variety.
546 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
SELECTION AND PLANTING OF TREES1
BY LEWIS C. EVERARD
Editor of Forest Service
A few general principles should always be kept in mind in selecting
trees to plant. Every species has a characteristic habit of growth and it
is desirable to select trees which have the greatest natural beauty of form
consistent with hardiness and freedom from disease and insect pests in the
location where they are to be planted. In the case of deciduous species
the tree in winter may well be the basis, at least in part, of this choice, for
then the eye is not distracted from consideration of form by the beauty of
the leaves. The form chosen not only should be beautiful, but should
harmonize with the position in which the tree is to be placed; as, for in
stance, narrow columnar crowns for narrow streets, broad spreading
crowns for wide avenues, evergreens, in most cases, for screens, and de
ciduous trees near dwellings or schoolhouses. Native trees are often to
be preferred, for the reason that they are known to flourish under the soil
and climatic conditions of the region. Long-lived species, tough species
that will not easily break or drop branches in high winds, and disease-
resistant trees and those free from insect pests, are to be sought. Trees
that sprout from the roots, such as poplar and black locust; have dis
agreeable odors, such as ailanthus; or are untidy or lose their leaves early,
are in most cases to be avoided.
SOME SUITABLE TREES FOR PLANTING
The species included in this list are generally hardy in the State in
dicated, though for any particular site it is best to obtain the advice of
local or State authorities. The list is only suggestive and the absence of
any species does not necessarily mean that it is unsuitable.
Alabama. — Native pines, live oak, willow oak, laurel oak, evergreen magnolia,
holly, red (sweet) gum, and dogwood.
Arizona. — Arizona and smooth cypresses, American elm, Chinese elm, native
cottonwood, silver-leaf poplar, honey locust, box elder, Arizona sycamore, green
ash, black locust, hackberry, and tamarisk.
Arkansas. — Chinese arborvitae, shortleaf pine, white oak, black oak, willow
oak, sugar maple, red maple, evergreen magnolia, American elm, hickories, hack-
berry, red (sweet) gum, and holly.
California. — Foothills regions — Lawson cypress (Port Orford cedar), deodar
1 Adapted from Arbor Day — Its Purpose and Observance. Farmers' Bull. 1492. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 1926.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 547
cedar, California juniper, Monterey cypress, big tree, London (Oriental) plane,
incense cedar.
Coastal region. — Aleppo pine, Monterey pine, redwood, Monterey cypress,
English elm, California sycamore, London (Oriental) plane, California walnut,
Madrona, bigleaf maple, California live oak.
Valley region. — Incense cedar, big tree, Monterey cypress, coulter pine, Nor
folk Island pine, deodar cedar, English elm, valley oak, blue gum, red gum,
California sycamore.
Colorado. — Plains region — Western yellow pine, Rocky Mountain red cedar/
American elm, Chinese elm, honey locust, hackberry, Russian olive, silver
poplar.
Mountain region. — Blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, western yellow pine,
native cottonwoods, and box elder.
Connecticut. — Norway pine, white spruce, white oak, red oak, black oak, pin
oak, sugar maple, red maple, Norway maple, white ash, American elm, syca
more, black walnut, horse chestnut, basswood, beech, and canoe (paper) birch.
Delaware. — Norway spruce, white spruce, arborvitae (northern white cedar),
southern white cedar, eastern hemlock, white oak, black oak, pin oak, willow
oak, sugar maple, Norway maple, red maple, white ash, holly, black elder,
Lombardy poplar, American elm, red (sweet) gum, London (Oriental) plane,
beech, basswood, and weeping willow.
Florida. — North — Live oak, laurel oak, Washington palm, Canary Island
date palm, cabbage palmetto, slash pine, and longleaf pine.
South. — Australian pine, silk oak, evergreen magnolia, coconut and royal
palms.
Georgia. — Deodar cedar, bald (southern) cypress, Carolina and eastern hem
locks, white oak, black oak, willow oak, laurel oak, pin oak, post oak, live oak,
red maple, sugarberry, redbud, fringe tree, sweet gum, sweet bay, holly, and
evergreen magnolia.
Idaho. — Blue spruce, Engelmann spruce, white fir, Douglas fir, Rocky Moun
tain red cedar, jack pine, western yellow pine, paper birch, Norway maple,
sycamore maple, green ash, weeping willow, black cottonwood, narrow-leafed
cotton wood, aspen, Balm-of-Gilead poplar, hackberry, box elder, American
elm, cork elm, honey locust, and black locust.
Illinois. — White pine, Norway spruce, arborvitae (northern white cedar),
European larch, swamp white oak, black oak, bur oak, pin oak, red oak, Nor
way maple, sugar maple, tulip tree (yellow poplar), sycamore, basswood, black
walnut, American elm, hackberry, shellbark and bitternut hickories, and
ginkgo.
Indiana. — Arborvitae (northern white cedar), white oak, red oak, pin oak,
sugar maple, Norway maple, red maple, basswood, swamp white oak, black
walnut, tulip tree (yellow poplar), sycamore, American elm, and ginkgo.
548 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Iowa. — Arborvitae (northern white cedar), Norway spruce, white pine, white
oak, pin oak, red oak, paper birch, Norway maple, sugar maple, American
elm, sycamore, hackberry, and white ash.
Kansas. — Chinese arborvitae, Scotch pine, pin oak, green ash, hackberry,
honey locust, Russian olive, sycamore, black walnut, American elm, and
Chinese elm.
Kentucky. — Pin oak, red oak, bur oak, overcup oak, Norway maple, sugar
maple, red maple, white ash, sycamore, basswood, tulip tree (yellow poplar),
ginkgo, black walnut, cucumber magnolia, and hickories.
Louisiana. — Southern cypress, laurel oak, live oak, southern red oak, post
oak, evergreen magnolia, winged elm, sugarberry, sycamore, and red (sweet)
gum.
Maine. — European larch, arborvitae (northern white cedar), red spruce, white
spruce, red pine, red oak, paper birch, red maple, American elm, thorn tree,
beech, and basswood.
Maryland and the District of Columbia. — Arborvitae (northern white cedar),
white oak, pin oak, red oak, willow oak, Norway maple, red maple, London
(Oriental) plane, American elm, basswood, European lindens, tulip tree (yellow
poplar), beech, dogwood, red (sweet) gum, and ginkgo.
Massachusetts. — White pine, red pine, white spruce, red spruce, arborvitae
(northern white cedar), red oak, pin oak, European and native white birches,
sugar maple, Norway maple, mountain ash, European lindens, London (Ori
ental) plane, American elm, horse chestnut, beech, black walnut, and butter
nut.
Michigan — White pine, red pine, arborvitae (northern white cedar), Nor
way spruce, eastern hemlock, balsam fir, red oak, bur oak, yellow birch, sweet
birch, sugar maple, red maple, American elm, rock elm, and beech.
Minnesota. — Norway pine, white pine, white spruce, arborvitae (northern
white cedar), paper birch, sugar maple, red maple, green ash, white ash, Ameri
can elm, basswood, and box elder.
Mississippi. — Laurel oak, willow oak, live oak, southern red oak, sugarberry,
winged elm, sweet gum, evergreen magnolia, sycamore, and holly.
Missouri. — Shortleaf pine, oaks, sugar maple, red and green ashes, American
elm, hackberry, red (sweet) gum, tulip tree (yellow poplar), black gum, ever
green magnolia, holly, and redbud.
Montana. — Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, Rocky Mountain red cedar, green
ash, cottonwoods, box elder, and black locust.
Nebraska. — Western yellow pine, Scotch pine, jack pine, bur oak, green
ash, honey locust, hackberry, Russian olive, American elm, and native cotton-
woods.
Nevada. — Black locust, Chinese popular, box elder, tamarisk, native cotton-
woods, and Chinese elm.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 549
New Hampshire. — Norway and white spruces, red pine, white pine, paper
birch, sugar maple, white ash, American elm, beech, and bass wood.
New Jersey. — Pin oak, red oak, white oak, Norway maple, green ash, Amer
ican elm, hackberry, European linden, honey locust, black locust, tulip tree
(yellow poplar), sycamore, black walnut, London (Oriental) plane, red (sweet)
gum, and black gum.
New Mexico. — Green and Arizona ashes, native cottonwood, black locust,
Russian mulberry, tamarisk, Russian olive, and Chinese elm.
New York. — White spruce, blue spruce, white pine, Scotch pine, red pine,
balsam fir, eastern hemlock, arborvitae (northern white cedar), white oak,
black oak, red oak, pin oak, basswood, beech, sugar maple, Norway maple, and
American elm.
North Carolina. — Loblolly pine, longleaf pine, white oak, black oak, post oak,
southern red oak, evergreen magnolia, holly, hickories, black walnut, redbud,
tulip tree (yellow poplar), sycamore, red (sweet) gum, and basswood.
North Dakota. — Jack pine, Scotch pine, western yellow pine, bur oak, green
ash, white willow, box elder, black walnut, American elm, hackberry, balsam
poplar, Norway poplar, and Russian olive.
Ohio. — European larch, white pine, Scotch pine, Norway spruce, blue spruce,
white spruce, arborvitae (northern white cedar), white oak, red oak, pin oak,
black oak, white birch, sugar maple, Norway maple, red (sweet) gum, tulip
tree (yellow poplar), horse chestnut, beech, and basswood.
Oklahoma. — Chinese arborvitae, American elm, winged elm, cottonwood, Rus
sian olive, Russian mulberry, black walnut, Osage orange, black locust, syca
more, and London (Oriental) plane.
Oregon. — Western white pine, western yellow pine, Douglas fir, Norway
maple, bigleaf maple, green ash, Russian poplar, white willow, English elm,
black locust, and box elder.
Pennsylvania. — Red pine, arborvitae (northern white cedar) , Norway spruce,
red oak, pin oak, European white birch, paper birch, sweet birch, red maple,
sugar maple, Norway maple, tulip tree (yellow poplar), American elm, slippery
elm, black walnut, sycamore, beech, and hickories.
Rhode Island. — White oak, black oak, bur oak, river birch, European white
birch, red maple, sugar maple, Norway maple, American elm, yellow poplar
(tulip tree), black walnut, and hickories.
South Carolina. — Bald (southern) cypress, live oak, willow oak, laurel oak,
southern red oak, red maple, redbud, sugarberry, sycamore, basswood, tulip
tree (yellow poplar), evergreen magnolia, ginkgo, pecan.
South Dakota. — Rocky Mountain red cedar, Scotch pine, jack pine, western
yellow pine, green ash, American elm, box elder, native cottonwoods, Russian
olive, and hackberry.
Tennessee. — Eastern hemlock, southern cypress, willow oak, red oak, white
550 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
oak, pin oak, sugar maple, red maple, American elm, tulip tree (yellow poplar),
basswood, sugarberry, black gum, red (sweet) gum, evergreen magnolia, and
hickories.
Texas. — East — Bald (southern) cypress, longleaf pine, Chinese arborvitae,
pin oak, post oak, southern red oak, black oak, Texas red oak, willow oak,
live oak, green ash, sycamore, American elm, cedar elm, red (sweet) gum,
sugarberry, pecan, and evergreen magnolia.
West — Alligator juniper, one-seed juniper, green ash, Texas ash, native cot-
tonwoods, Chinese elm, tamarisk, China tree, Texas umbrella tree (umbrella
China tree), black locust, box elder, nogal and Mexican walnut, Osage orange,
hackberry, western soapberry, and desert willow.
Utah. — Blue spruce, Rocky Mountain red cedar, western yellow pine, Scotch
pine, jack pine, Austrian pine, silver maple, green ash, black locust, hackberry,
sycamore, box elder, and native cotton woods.
Vermont. — Balsam fir, tamarack, white spruce, white and red pines, sugar
and Norway maples, American elm, beech, yellow birch, and basswood.
Virginia. — White and red oaks, black oak, willow oak, southern red oak,
red maple, red and green ashes, horse chestnut, winged and American elm,
black walnut, sycamore London (Oriental) plane, tulip tree (yellow poplar),
basswood, dogwood, ginkgo, and honey locust.
Washington. — East — Western yellow pine, Rocky Mountain red cedar, cot-
tonwoods, and box elder.
West — Douglas fir, western yellow pine, western white spruce, western white
pine, Port Orford cedar, lowland white fir, Garry oak, paper birch, bigleaf
maple, and madrona.
West Virginia. — White pine, tamarack, red spruce, eastern hemlock, arbor
vitae (northern white cedar), pin oak, red oak, yellow birch, sugar maple, white
ash, black walnut, American elm, cucumber tree, red (sweet) gum, redbud,
holly, basswood, Hercules-club, flowering dogwood, and fringe tree.
Wisconsin. — Norway pine, white pine, white spruce, Norway spruce, arbor
vitae (northern white cedar), white oak, bur oak, red oak, beech, yellow birch,
paper birch, sugar maple, white ash, American elm, and basswood.
Wyoming. — Western yellow pine, Rocky Mountain red cedar (Juniperus
scopidorum) , lodgepole pine, blue spruce, green ash, box elder, American elm,
Chinese elm, native cottonwoods, and Russian olive.
PLANTING SUGGESTIONS
The proper season for planting is not everywhere the same. Where
spring is the best season — north of the thirty-seventh parallel generally —
the right time is when the frost is out of the ground and before budding or
growth begins.
Trees cannot be thrust into a rough soil at random and expected to
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 551
flourish. They should be planted in well- worked soil, well enriched. If
they cannot be set out immediately upon receipt, the first step is to pre
vent their roots from drying out in the air. This may be done by "heeling
in" the trees — that is, burying the roots in fresh earth and packing it
enough to exclude the air. Evergreens in particular, which are always
transplanted with a base of earth about the roots, are very easily killed by
allowing the roots to become dry. Before planting cut off the ends of all
broken or mutilated roots; if it is a broadleaf tree, prune the tree to a few
main branches and shorten these. Evergreen trees should not be pruned.
Dig holes at least three feet in diameter and two feet deep. If the soil is
poor, they should be four feet in diameter. Make the sides perpendicular
and the bottom flat. Break up the soil in the bottom to the depth of the
spade blade. Spread on the bottom 12 or 15 inches of good topsoil, free
from sods or other undecomposed vegetable matter. On the top of this lay
er spread out the roots of the tree with none of them in a cramped position
and cover them with two or three inches of fine topsoil. Firm the soil
about the roots, water lightly, and after the water soaks in fill the hole
with good earth, continuing to firm it, but leaving the surface loose and a
little higher than the surface of the surrounding soil.
When planted the trees should stand about one inch deeper than they
stood in the nursery. They should be planted far enough apart so that at
maturity they will not be crowded. This is especially important, for the
trees will not grow well unless they have an adequate supply of light and
moisture.
• Young trees should not only be properly transplanted but should be
cared for until they become so well established that they will grow without
danger of dying of neglect.
CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING THE FLOWER GARDEN1
BY H. W. HARVEY
Horticulturist, Georgia State College of Agriculture
Almost anybody likes flowers, whether he is willing to acknowledge his
liking or not. The one who claims to care nothing for them may be in
fluenced in his dislikes by arrangement, or lack of arrangement. Flowers
in the wrong place or skimpy planting make a poor impression, but flowers
in mass, quantities of them as one sees them by the roadside, or in an old
field, or in the woods, nature's arrangement cannot fail to make a good
impression.
1 Adapted from Flower Beds (mimeographed leaflet). Georgia State College of Agri
culture.
5S2 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The front yard is no place for a flower bed. The simplicity of a clear
unbroken lawn always makes for beauty. The sweep of a large lawn is
restful, cool and inviting. The smaller the lawn, the greater the reason for
keeping it unbroken. It may be formal with straight walk and neat edging
or with border and a formal planting at the base of the house, but there
is never an excuse for breaking it with flower beds or specimen shrubs
except one's own personal taste and, since the front of the house is neces
sarily public, one should keep to the privacy of the rear or side yard for
the expression of one's personal likes.
The flower garden in the back or side yard may need to be formal be
cause of little room. It may be laid out in any design one chooses and
planted to the flowers one likes, in any combination. It is a personal mat
ter and no one else's business. No outsider has a right to criticize. In the
formal garden one may use sheared shrubs, but they are out of place in
the front yard. Many a pretty group is spoiled because the individual
plants that compose it are picked out by being sheared to some unnatural
shape, thus calling attention to the individual rather than the mass, of
which each plant is only a part: To use an athletic expression, "team
work spoiled by star playing."
Straight lines are simpler and more easily kept than curved, and so
may be said to be more restful. The beds may be raised or level with the
walks as one prefers, but while a raised bed drains better than a flat one,
it also dries out quicker. The beds may be edged with brick or stone or
any other material that will hold its shape. An uneven edge made of stone
or brick, set each overlapping another so that the corners stand up/ is
hard to keep neat, especially if grass surrounds the bed, and brick so set
are forever getting out of place. A concrete edge is straight and smooth
and permanent, but sometimes one wants to change the pattern of the
garden and then one wishes the edging made of hard brick set on end well
into the ground so they will hold their places until one wants to change
them.
Some people plant for show and in trying to attract the attention of
the outsider they neglect their own pleasure. The outsider is a transient,
and while one wants him to find his surroundings attractive as he journeys
past, one ought to consider that those who are inside are due the greater
consideration, and so the place should be most attractive to the insider
who stays and who sees it day after day and year after year.
Nature is lavish with the flowers, scattering informally without thought
of color or size of growth, yet never making mistakes in her combinations.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS
553
Something of the natural may be attained even in the smallest yard by
arranging the flowers along the border. Flowers show to best advantage
pIG 65 — Flowers often are planted at regular intervals with repetition of masses or
a repetition of color. (Courtesy of House Beautiful magazine.)
against a background of some sort. That may be a fence or a building,
but if it be a living background of trees or shrubs, so much the better.
554 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The foliage of the woody plants contrasts favorably in texture and color
with the flowers and foliage of the herbaceous plants, making a pleasing
effect that is not gained otherwise. A well- trimmed grass plot in the back
yard, surrounded by a screen of shrubs lined with beds of flowers, affords
privacy and seclusion, a delightful place for quiet reading or an afternoon
tea or an evening party, a place where one may dig and plant and weed
unmolested and unseen by the passer-by.
There is no rule for the shape of the border beds, or for the choice of
flowers, or for their arrangement or combinations. Some plants do better
in full sun and others in shade or partial shade ; some like moisture while
others prefer a dry location, but all respond to good treatment in the form
of a well-prepared fertile soil and many a surprise will be found in plants
growing under conditions other than those of their native haunts. There
are plenty of native flowers that are quite the equal of expensive exotics.
Many of the natives are grown by seedsmen and the seeds listed in the
catalogues. Others are still growing wild in profusion, and still others that
are threatened with extermination as new ground is cleared and brought
into cultivation. Some of them may be weeds in the field, but in the
border they are not, and each fills its place satisfactorily. It is surprising
how these wild things respond to good care, developing luxuriant foliage,
larger blossoms and deeper colors.
The wild flowers may be taken up and reset at any time with reason
able success, if one is careful to get the roots and to protect them from
drying. Then it is best to cut the tops to prevent too great a loss of
moisture. Some of the plants will prove to be annuals and new plants may
have to be gathered or seed gathered and sown. Others are biennial or
perennial and will come each season from the roots or will reseed them
selves. There is no danger of crowding; the law of the wild, the survival
of the fittest, will take care of that, if the gardener's trowel does not ac
complish the thinning; and, since the work of the garden is half the fun,
the digging and thinning and weeding and transplanting, that is likely to
be done. If the effect of color or size combination is not all that is desired
this year, it can so easily be changed for next season, and with each change
comes fresh interest in the garden.
Now add to that the interest in the wild things that one gains with the
trips a-field, the pleasure of the hunt for new plants, and the joy of dis
covering, what more can one ask of the garden?
Flowers may be grouped according to size or color if one wishes. Tall
growing plants may be at the back or may stand out to emphasize some
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 555
feature. Small plants may be bedded in masses or may nestle under the
taller ones, making a fringe about their feet. If by reason of one's en
thusiasm the border becomes so deep that all parts cannot be reached
easily from the grass plot, stepping stones may be laid to suit the con
venience of the gardener.
GARDEN WALKS1
BY HUGH FINDLAY
Professor of Agriculture, Columbia University
It is hardly possible to have a garden without paths which tie the
garden to the house. They may lead us to the friendly doors of the dwell
ing, but they may also guide us through a thousand wonders to a sheltered
nook where a bower of sweet-scented honeysuckle or old-fashioned roses
awaits our coming. Sometimes the intimacy of well-constructed and ap
propriate garden walks will stimulate a genuine desire for gardening as
well as a personal interest in the individual blooms as they appear in their
season.
There are, of course, many types of paths to choose from, and while
the individual likes should be satisfied, yet there are a number of factors
to consider before deciding on the type of path best suited to your plan
and grounds. To a certain degree, in the construction of paths one must
be guided by the type of house and the form and type of the garden. For
example, the rustic-looking flagstone paths look well near the old Tudor
or Elizabethan types of houses. Rough brick paths may also be con
structed from the sidewalk to the decorative doorway of the Colonial
house, but brick as a rule is not so attractive as other types of walks on
account of the bright color.
There are certain surroundings in which the Colonial house should have
an old-fashioned garden of perennials along dirt or gravel paths. Leading
from a bungalow or cabin, a dirt path or one of natural flat stones fitted
tightly in the surface soil is most desirable. The little cottage, if partly
brick, might well have brick walks. There are many types of cottages
that look well with gravel paths leading from the sidewalk or road and
also through the garden. When we go into the rose garden, there is
nothing more attractive than little paths of grass between the rose beds.
No matter what type or style of path you select, the subject of proper
drainage is most important. This essential feature of a good path and the
1 Adapted from Garden Making and Keeping (Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday, Page
& Co. [now Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc.], 1926), pp. 25-30.
556 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
principles involved remain substantially the same whether the path be con
structed of concrete, brick, slabs, gravel, or other material. The shape
and slope of the path are the first consideration, especially of a gravel or
dirt path. These types should always be "crowned" or rounded up to
ward the center so that there may be a fall from the center to the sides.
The crown may be slight, but at any rate the water should flow freely
toward the gutters. Concrete and brick paths may be practically level,
with gutters on one side at least to carry off the rain water.
If the path is steep, it should be supplied with substantial gutters on
both sides. It is no easy matter to construct gutters satisfactorily without
making them too stiff. If bricks are used the edge of the gutter may be
left uneven by leaving out half a brick here and there and then fitting
tiny plants into these spaces. If the surface of the brick is rough it will
soon become covered with moss, especially in the shaded places, and this
will take away the newness — which is always objectionable. If cobbles
or flat stones are used the edges should also be unevenly connected with
the path and lawn or road beyond so that the monotony may be elimi
nated by fitting plants along the edge. This planting along the gutters
must never be of such a nature that it interferes with the proper drainage.
The dirt or grass paths may be drained by allowing spaces of from two
to four inches wide and from two to three inches deep along the edge. No
material of any kind is used to construct these edges, but just the dirt
furrow is kept shapely. This of course applies where there is only a slight
slope ; if the path is steep, one must build a permanent and secure gutter
of some rough material.
Cement paths are rarely recommended for the garden. They may be
constructed as a wide walk to the entrance of the lawn or garden, but it is
pleasant to step from the concrete to a different type of walk to the house.
In constructing grass paths between rose beds, it is not uncommon to
lay sod and pack it down firmly so that the roots come into direct contact
with the fine, rich loose soil on which it is placed. Scatter over the surface
of the sod a sprinkling of fine soil and spread this out with the back of
the rake so as to fill in any spaces. Then sprinkle over the soil and sod a
mixture of lawn grass seed, and finally roll the sod. All of this should be
done in the spring. The first fall scatter over the grass a coating of very
well-rotted manure in which the weed seeds have been destroyed. The
following spring rake off what remains of the litter and again roll. This
treatment will make excellent grass paths.
If a gravel path is to be constructed, first dig out the path to a depth
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 557
of twelve inches. Place six inches of coarse stone on the bottom and four
inches of broken stone on top. Above these layers of stone place two in
ches of finely chipped stone. After the fine stone is spread evenly over the
surface of the walk, saturate it with water and pack it down with a heavy
roller. This deep foundation of rock will insure proper drainage and will,
to a large degree, prevent the washing off of the fine surface material.
It is seldom that any planting is done close to the edge of gravel paths.
If flower borders are to be constructed along the path, there is a strip of
sod from twelve to eighteen inches wide laid between the walk and the
planting space. It requires attention to keep the weeds out of a gravel
path; a sprinkling of coarse salt is a sure death to them, and a spray of
solvay calcium chloride will not only keep down the dust but will prevent
weeds.
Brick paths need good drainage of from six to eight inches of stone or
of cinders and about two inches of coarse sand. The foundation material
should be packed down thoroughly with a heavy tamper or roller before
the bricks are laid. If at uneven intervals part or all of a brick is left out
near the edge or side of the path, this space may be used for planting.
Take out all the rough foundation material below this space and then fill
in with a rich soil made up of leaf mold, decayed sod, and a little very
well-rotted cow manure mixed with the garden loam.
On setting out the rock plants do not ball or crowd the roots, but place
them on a downward slant and firm the soil tightly about them. Care
should be taken not to bury the heart of the plant too deeply. The soil
in these pockets will settle, and a top dressing of compact soil should be
applied in the fall or during the growing season.
If after the lawn is well established you wish to construct a stepping-
stone path, place the slabs of stone in position on the surface of the lawn.
After you are fully decided as to the width and position of the path, cut
out the sod along the margin of the slab and remove the sod. Fit the slab
into this space. This practice is most satisfactory because the stone slabs
fit snugly to the grass. The slabs of stone should be a little below the sur
face of the sod so as not to interfere with the mowing machine. If the soil
is at all marshy, from five to six inches of cinders should be fitted beneath
the stone slabs.
Where a series of slabs of sand or limestone is used in making a walk,
do not dress the broken corners. When possible secure stones that show
the sign of age and fit them unevenly rather than formally along the
walk, leaving a space of about two inches between stones. Proper drain-
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 559
age should be emphasized and may be had by following the suggestions
given for the construction of a foundation for brick paths. After the stones
are placed, clay, sand, or ashes should be packed tightly along the edges
of each stone. If the path is well drained and packed there is little danger
of the stone heaving as the frost comes out of the ground in the spring.
Between the slabs of stone where rock plants are to be placed, build
pockets filled with rich soil to a depth of from six to twelve inches.
Keep in mind that these slabs get very hot during the summer and
absorb a large amount of water. If watering is necessary, spray the plants
slowly and gently with a fine spray during the early part of the evening
and see to it that the soil is moist down to the bottom of the pocket.
Never water during the heat of the day.
A slight stirring of the soil to a depth of about one inch, now and then,
for a week or two after the plants are set out, or just before watering, is
highly recommended. By letting the air into the soil the growth of moss
is prevented and the development of acid checked. This air drainage
through cultivation not only liberates plant food and allows the moisture
to work into the soil, but it liberates also the carbon dioxide which is so
much needed by the plant. This gas comes from the breaking down of
organic matter in the soil each time the soil is cultivated.
While we want our paths artistic we must never lose sight of the fact
that, after all, they are utilitarian. They should be dry and conveniently
arranged. Our planting must not interfere with the usefulness of the path.
They should open up a way to serve a real purpose rather than merely
look beautiful.
VEGETABLE GARDENS
The vegetable garden should be located whenever possible on land upon
which the sun shines at least five hours daily, where there is plenty of
moisture, and on soil which is free from rocks beneath the surface.
Vegetables should not be planted near large trees or on low land where
crops may be washed away. However, in the small grounds there is little
choice of location. The garden should be so arranged that tall growing
plants will not shade smaller ones. Since the location of the garden,
preparation of soil, seeds, planting, and specific crops are discussed by
W. R. Beattie in the United States Department of Agriculture bulletin,
The City Home Garden,1 the subject will not be discussed in this chapter.
1 To be obtained from the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
560 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
SUMMARY
Landscape architecture is an art of design — the arrangement of build
ings, drives, walks, gardens, lawns, and planting in the landscape. The
house plan should be considered, whenever possible, with reference to the
plan of the grounds. In the small grounds planning for space is a chief
consideration, and it is well to keep in mind that too little is better than
too much. A small place cannot be a large estate in miniature. Narrow
beds and paths and diminutive detail should be avoided in small grounds.
Straight lines emphasize long dimensions.
Direct access from the living area of the house to the lawn and garden is
advisable. The smaller the lot the higher must be the boundary hedge to
secure seclusion and the narrower it must be to save space. The presenta
tion of the garden from the house should be a general not a detailed pic
ture, and unsymmetrical arrangements in small grounds are preferable.
Such service features as delivery and work yard and clothes-drying yard
should be hidden from general view. Roads and walks should be few and
inconspicuous, and they should leave the lawn areas as unbroken as pos
sible. A straight walk usually is advisable when the house is closer to the
street than the width of its front.
Lawns should occupy as large areas unbroken by other features as the
limits of the place will permit, and as much as practicable of the area be
tween the house and street should be in turf to form the foreground of the
picture. The line of the rear lawn should be parallel to the property line,
and the major part of the rear yard should be kept open. Although it is
desirable to have all possible lawn area in the rear in general view, best
results are obtained by having some features or areas wholly or partially
hidden. The foundation for a good lawn is rich, deep, well-drained soil,
retentive of moisture. The grass to be used depends upon the section of
the country.
Trees should be located to frame the house with the space at the middle
in the front of the house left open. In selecting trees consider exposure,
ultimate size, rapidity of growth, length of life, adaptability to the soil,
and general landscape effect, freedom from disease and insect pests, long-
lived and tough species that will not break or drop branches in a high
wind. Shrubs should be planted against the foundations of the house, at
corners, and in angles including angles of steps, porches, and at inter
mediate points of long straight sides, in clumps along boundaries, and at
junctions of walks and drives. Clumps of shrubs used in small grounds
should not be uniform in size, height, or breadth, or composed of the same
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 561
kinds of plants. Vines may be used on fences, arbors, or trellises, against
the buildings, or on porches.
Herbaceous perennials may be used in the edges of the shrubbery
groups or in special borders. Annuals may be used in small clumps in the
edges of shrubbery, in the flower garden, or to supplement perennials in
borders. Flower gardens are preferably placed on the sides of the house
adjoining the living room if the width of the lot permits, otherwise at the
rear or as a border on the side of the lawn. Too many flowers are un
desirable. It is advisable to keep the front lawn unbroken.
In foundation planting, the most important locations for plant groups
are the prominent points — the front corners of the house, or porch, a large
wall unbroken by windows. Plants should not be placed under window
sills that grow higher than the window or along a porch that will exceed
a height of thirty inches above the porch floor, if it is desirable to main
tain a view. It is advisable in foundation planting to use plants varying in
height to keep the top line irregular. A row of plants of one kind along a
porch wall is inappropriate. Continuous planting along a foundation wall
also is undesirable as best results are obtained when some of the founda-
tion wall is in view. Variety may be obtained by using plants of different
forms of growth and various sizes and colors of leaves — spreading, droop
ing, large and small leaves, leaves of various shapes and color.
Too great variety of plants for the small grounds is not in good taste,
and one type of plant or foliage should predominate. Also, plants should
be selected that are known to thrive in the locality.
REFERENCES
I. GENERAL INFORMATION ON DESIGNING AND PLANTING
BOTTOMLEY, MYRL E. The Design of Small Properties. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1929.
Principles of design for city and country grounds; garden architecture; planting and
maintenance in connection with design. Many diagrams of garden plans.
CHANDLER, JOSEPH EVERETT. The Colonial House. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
Colonial gardens (pp. 195-212).
DE LA MARE, ALPHEUS T. (ed.). Garden Guide. New York: A. T. De La Mare
Co., 1928.
DILLISTONE, GEORGE. The Planning and Planting of Little Gardens. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920.
Garden designs and information on wild gardens, water gardens, and herbaceous
borders.
562 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
FINDLAY, HUGH. Garden Making and Keeping, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
Page & Co., 1926.
Information on various types of gardens, planning and planting, kinds of plants,
shrubs, and trees.
HILBORN, ERNEST. The Amateur's Guide to Landscape Gardening. New York, 1923.
HOTTES, ALFRED CARL. The Book of Shrubs. New York: A.T. De La Mare Co.,
1928.
Contains information on planting, transplanting, and propagation with notes on
important shrubs.
iooi Garden Questions Answered. New York: A. T. De La Mare Co.,
1926.
Information on lawns, soils, fertilizers, plant diseases, vegetables, trees, shrubs, and
other subjects.
House Beautiful Gardening Manual. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Co., 1926.
Principles of design including information on areas, formal and informal gardens,
soils, choice and arrangement of plant material, and other subjects.
KELLAWAY, HERBERT J. How To Lay Out Suburban Grounds. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1915.
RAMSEY, LEONIDAS W. Landscaping the Home Grounds. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1930.
Information on planning and planting grounds with planting plans and diagrams.
STEELE, FLETCHER. Design in the Little Garden. The Little Garden Series.
Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1924.
2. FLOWER GARDENS, TREES, AND SHRUBS
BUSH-BROWN, LOUISE. Flowers for Every Garden. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
1927.
Simple and practical information on all phases of modern gardening. Includes
planting list for a ten-dollar garden.
CLOUD, KATHARINE M.-P. Practical Flower Gardening. New York: Dodd,
Mead & Co., 1924.
DURAND, HERBERT. Wild Flowers and Ferns: In Their Homes and in Our
Gardens. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1925.
KING, MRS. FRANCIS. The Flower Garden Day by Day. New York: Frederick
A. Stokes Co., 1927.
The Little Garden. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1921.
Includes information on soil, plan, garden accessories, flowers for the little garden,
color, and care of garden and garden tools.
Variety in the Little Garden. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923.
MCFARLAND, JOHN HORACE. The Rose in America. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1923.
Care, planting, culture, propagation, and varieties.
DESIGNING THE HOME GROUNDS 563
MITCHELL, SYDNEY BANCROFT. Adventures in Flower Gardening. Reading with
a Purpose Series, No. 28. Chicago: American Library Association, 1928.
SHERLOCK, CHESLA C. City and Suburban Gardening. New York: A. T. De La
Mare Co., 1928.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:'
Arbor Day — Its Purpose and Observance (Farmers' Bull. 1492).
Chrysanthemums for the Home (Farmers' Bull. 1311).
Dahlias for the Home (Farmers' Bull. 1370).
Growing Annual Flowering Plants (Farmers' Bull. 1171).
Herbaceous Perennials (Farmers' Bull. 1381).
Planting the Roadside (Farmers' Bull. 1481).
Roses for the Home (Farmers' Bull. 750).
Transplanting Trees and Shrubs (Farmers' Bull. 1591).
Trees for Roadside Planting (Farmers' Bull. 1482).
Trees for Town and City Streets (Farmers' Bull. 1208).
WRIGHT, RICHARDSON LITTLE. The Practical Book of Outdoor Flowers. Phila
delphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924.
WRIGHT, RICHARDSON LITTLE, and ROBERT S. LEMMON (eds.). House and Gar
den's Second Book of Gardens. New York: Conde Nast Publications, Inc.,
1927.
Detailed information on care and culture of various annuals, perennials, shrubs,
roses, etc.
3. SPECIAL TYPES OF GARDENS
DURAND, HERBERT. My Wild Flower Garden. New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1927.
MELLEN, IDA M. Roof Gardening. New York: A. T. De La Mare Co., 1929.
4. VEGETABLE GARDENS
BEATTIE, W. R. The City Home Garden. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bull. 1044. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924. Pp. 30.
DE LA MARE, ALPHEUS T. (ed.). Garden Guide. New York: A. T. De La Mare
Co., 1928.
REXFORD, EBEN EUGENE. The Home Garden. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Co., 1918.
ROCKWELL, FREDERICK FRYE. Around the Year in the Garden. New York: Mac-
millan Co., 1926.
Guide for work with vegetables, fruits, and flowers.
[NOTE. — Information on plants and planting usually may be obtained upon request
from the State Colleges of Agriculture.]
1 All obtainable from the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
CHAPTER XVII
RURAL HOMES
A home planned for the city dweller rarely meets the requirements and
needs of the farm family, but with the development of electrification
programs, and electric light and power pushing their way into more and
more farm territory, with improved heating systems, with provisions for
water supply and circulation adapted to farmhouse needs, satisfactory
sewage disposal, mechanical refrigeration, and other conveniences, the
similarity between urban and rural dwellings becomes greater and greater.
It is even more difficult, however, to set standards for farmhouse plans
than for those of the city dwelling, owing to the fact that each type of
farming has its influence on the activities carried on in the home, thus
necessitating a plan suited to the many operations. Space and equipment
for the feeding of "crews" essential for some types of farming is unneces
sary for others. Rooms and conveniences for "hired" men, provisions for
the storage of large quantities of vegetables, fruits, and other supplies ob
viously will vary not only with the type of farming — dairy, grain, fruits,
poultry, and so on — but with nearness to urban centers, transportation
facilities, the family makeup and habits, and other factors. Both farm and
urban homes should be planned and equipped for the needs and activities
of the families who will occupy them, but the farmhouse, in addition,
may require planning and equipment for many additional operations
and activities.
It may be due to the varying needs of the farm family that so few stock
plans have been prepared for farmhouses. The Division of Agricultural
Engineering of the United States Department of Agriculture has a small
number for distribution, and some of the state colleges of agriculture have
prepared a few plans for the benefit of the farm families of their own
states. Stock plans are published also in some of the farm magazines from
time to time. There is, however, a need for Better domestic architecture in
rural communities, for few farm families can afford, or do afford, the serv
ices of architects, particularly good ones. Educational campaigns such as
those of Better Homes in America and its Better Homes schools, the work
of state colleges and state and county home-demonstration agents, have
carried on extensive home-improvement campaigns. These improvements
564
RURAL HOMES 565
have raised the standards of living among small-income families in rural
sections and demonstrated good architectural design. Such campaigns and
demonstrations have their educational value, and even in the most remote
rural areas architectural design appears to be reaching a higher standard.
The articles in this chapter, therefore, will emphasize only general re
quirements and provisions for farmhouses. The number of living-condi
tion studies which have been made in many sections of the country show
home-improvement needs and the amount of equipment and labor-saving
devices in use. A number of these studies are listed in the references fol
lowing the chapter. Since virtually every state agricultural college and
the United States Department of Agriculture distribute invaluable in
formation prepared by specialists on heating systems for f armhomes, vari
ous methods of providing the home with water, including many low-cost
systems and sewage-disposal methods with carefully prepared directions
for the making of septic tanks, such equipment will not be discussed as
bulletins may be obtained.
Many families, however, will not be provided with mechanical equip
ment, conveniences, and labor-saving devices for years to come, therefore
books and bulletins describing inexpensively-made and installed equip
ment are included among the references on page 577.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER FARM HOMES1
BY DR. LOUISE STANLEY
Chief, Bureau of Home Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture
.... Improved methods of farming mean that fewer people are being
needed to carry on the work of the farm, ....
In the second place, we know that the returns from farming are being
used to an increasing extent to support urban homes. In some cases the
family may live for only a portion of the year in the city, but some of the
large western farms have really come to be business enterprises supporting
urban homes. This is interesting because it is such a reversal of the pic
ture we used to have, particularly in the South where urban business was
used to support the rural home. The man of business took his family out
to the country to live because of the advantages and joys of living in the
open country.
1 Adapted from "The Development of Better Farm Homes," Agricultural Engineer
ing, April, 1926. (Address, National Farm Homes Conference sponsored by the Amer
ican Society of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, February 18 and 19, 1926.)
566 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
In the third place, there is the health situation. Various rural studies
tend to show that in spite of the abundance of fresh air and sunshine in
the country the rural child is not developing on a par physically with the
city child. The difficulty, where this is true, lies primarily in the home
and the community agencies closely associated with it.
These are the facts: The proportion of rural to urban population is
decreasing. The urban home is attracting even those engaged in agricul
ture. Seemingly the rural child, contrary to the earlier situation, is below
the urban child in physical development, and even mentally does not
seem to show the same development. This is the most alarming part of
the picture for, after all, the most important contribution of the country
home to the nation has been the country child.
In any program for the development of the rural home, we need first
to find out, if we can, the causes of the present situation. An impo-rtant
factor has been the economic condition of the agricultural industry. Many
have left the farms discouraged. Home conditions have been at the root
of this discouragement in many cases.
Also, as agriculture has come to be more specialized there has tended to
be too complete a separation between the farm and the farm business.
.... While the frontier farm was self-supporting, the returns came largely
in terms of family living ; now we think in terms of a cash crop which has
to be exchanged for family living. In the enthusiasm for developing the
business, the farmer is likely to lose sight of the end, a satisfying home
life, in his interest in the means to that end, farming. There is a tendency
"to produce more corn, to feed more pigs, to buy more land," in an end
less circle, and in this circle the home for which it is all maintained is lost
from sight. This situation has made an economic adjustment in this
period of low prices for farm produce more difficult. The spread between
what the farmer gets now and has been getting for the last two or three
years for his product, and what he must pay for necessities, has been too
great. Agricultural economists have told the farmer that the solution for
his problem is to produce a larger amount of what the family needs. That
this can be done has been shown by studies made in the Department of
Agriculture and in the states. It has been made more difficult, by the
very complete separation of the farm business from the family living.
Probably second in importance have been the long hours of household
work. There is more work to be done, the rural family is larger, the hired
help must be fed in many cases, and at times this means much extra work,
and in addition, the woman helps with the milk, the chickens, and some-
RURAL HOMES 567
times with the garden. Fewer conveniences, water in the house, electricity
and gas, are lacking in the larger percentage of the country homes. Houses
are planned without much thought of the work which must be done in
them. Domestic service is not available, even if the price could be paid.
Outside agencies to take over some of the home tasks are not accessible.
The laundry, the corner bakery, the commercial ice cream maker, are just
commencing to reach out to the country home.
In the third place, the absence of community social agencies, which sup
plement home life, discourage many. Poor schools, absence of church as
sociations, lack of facilities for wholesome recreation, libraries, and health
agencies, all these have an important bearing on the development of the
rural child, as well as the satisfaction rural life offers to the family as a
whole. These can be provided and are being provided in the more for
ward-looking communities. The conditions under which these can be ex
tended need to be studied.
We have tended to measure the returns from country life in terms of
urban standards and ideals, and false values have been attached to these,
rather than stressing the real values of country living. The late Secretary
Wallace expressed this in the statement, "Too many people assume that
urbanization and civilization are the same." That there is a real appreci
ation of the values of country life by the women themselves was brought
out by comments sent in by homemakers contributing to a time study
undertaken by the University of Missouri. One housewife said that
though the hours are longer, they are made up for by the greater satis
faction. Besides being more free than the city woman to set her own
standard of living, the rural homemaker has another important advan
tage. In the summertime at least, she is out-of-doors a great deal. We
sometimes fail to estimate the value of outdoor life to the health of the
individual. An urban housewife reported that she had all labor-saving
devices and conveniences but that she was mostly fatigued from too
much indoor life and too many scattered interests. She compared her
present situation with the situation in which she lived previously, when
she kept house in a sod house with no labor-saving devices. In addition to
her housework she gardened, made butter, helped with the milking and
other farm chores. Yet, under these conditions, with her simple standards
of living, she enjoyed the best of health from out-of-door life and no hurry
or worry.
Practically, the domination of urban standards has made it more dif
ficult for the rural homemaker to obtain house designs and furnishings
568 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
adapted to her needs. The largest buying power has been concentrated in
the city, and urban needs have set the standard for things that are pro
duced. They dominate rural architecture, house plans, equipment and
furnishings. Examples of this are seen in every rural community. Not
only are the exterior designs planned obviously for urban conditions, but
certain requirements such as a side entrance, a washroom for the men,
and a laundry on the same level as the kitchen are lacking.
Now what is our program for the development of the rural home? I am
putting first, better thought-out farm plans. I think in too many cases
we have not thought out the whole farm plan before locating the house.
Taking into consideration the fact that agriculture is a method of living
as well as a business, a plan that makes the most of the natural beauty and
contributes most to the aesthetic as well as the physical development of
the family.
In the second place (and that is the job we should turn over to the
American Institute of Architects), we want to develop a type of rural
architecture which is suited to rural surroundings and needs, not one that
is copied from city dwellings but one which expresses the spirit of the open
country and takes advantages of its opportunities. This is not going to be
one for the country as a whole because our country is too varied to have
any one type of architecture to express the spirit of it in all the different
sections. These plans should provide for convenience where convenience
is most needed, attractive surroundings, and furnish a background for
the development of wholesome family life.
Attention must be paid to planning for comfort and health, as well as
convenience. Sunlight, the prevailing breezes, adequate ventilation, water
supply in the house, waste disposal and central heating are all factors
which contribute to these. Add to these well-balanced food, simply but
tastefully prepared, and you have the foundation for family health.
In the next place we want better labor-saving equipment for the home,
and if there is any one place where we need to work together, I think it is
here. We need first (and this must be the home economics contribution)
to know what equipment is going to help the homemaker most. Time
studies will show us this. It will be determined not only by the amount of
time and labor saved but also by the amount and cost of available labor.
Efficiently arranged kitchens and labor-saving devices are more usual in
California, partly as the result of the labor situation, and these have de
veloped slowly in the South where domestic labor has been more abun-
RURAL HOMES 569
dant. Washing machines are more generally used than dish washers. The
greater number and efficiency of the washing machines as compared with
the dish washer are factors in this, but the number of small hands in
the usual household able to wash and wipe dishes but unable to do the
more strenuous job of washing clothes, has probably been a contributing
factor.
Comparative studies of different types of equipment must be made by
the equipment people themselves, since they cannot be made by govern
ment or state institutions. There is nowhere that the housewife, either
rural or urban, has been exploited more than in the sale of labor-saving
equipment. Better business is going to stop this, and it must come
from the equipment people themselves. There are too many designs.
Experimenting has been done largely at the expense of the housewife, and
that is the reason she is paying what she now does for such equipment.
It has been costly experimenting. Now is the time for standardizing
household equipment. Fewer designs are needed. They should be better,
and they can be cheaper with still a fair profit. We need better trained
salesmen for these devices, and that too is a question of better business.
We need better servicing for them, because they are not going to take the
place they should in the home unless they are better serviced, and only a
few of the equipment people are recognizing as they should this servicing
need and providing for it.
We are going to pay more attention to the beauty of these homes.
While this will develop more slowly perhaps than convenience and health
factors, it is going to be looked upon as quite as important.
THE LOCATION OF THE FARM HOME
There are fewer restrictions in locating the farmhouse on its site than
there are in the placement of the urban dwelling on its usually small city
lot. The farmhouse site in nearly all instances provides opportunities for
suitable placement for sunshine, view, and attractiveness. The selection
of the site and the location of the house are ably discussed in the two
United States Department of Agriculture bulletins Planning the Farm
stead* by M. C. Betts and W. R. Humphreys, and Beautifying the Farm
stead,2 by Furman L. Mulford. A few of the essential considerations are
included in the paragraphs from the bulletins which follow. Additional
1 Farmers' Bull. 1132, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2 Farmers' Bull. 1087, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
570 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
information with diagrams and illustrations may be obtained from these
two publications. The following paragraphs from Planning the Farmstead
contain a brief discussion of the factors which usually govern the location
of the farmhouse.
"The planning of a farmstead layout involves the arrangement of the
various buildings, yards, lots, etc., with relation each to the other, to the
fields and to the highway, in such manner that there shall be a minimum
of time consumed, no retracing of steps, and no lost motion in executing
the routine work of the farm. It includes the designing of each building
or other unit for the particular purpose for which it is intended, and its
location with reference to its functional relation to other units. It means
the creation of a practical business establishment in combination with a
home which must be attractive and inspiring to its occupants if the best
is to be had out of farm life.
". . . . Pleasing architectural effects, tempered with economy in mate
rials and construction, should be sought in the designing of the buildings,
such as barns, stables, and the smaller structures, but the first considera
tion is that of utility.
"The farmhouse is another problem. Here utility, while of prime im
portance, is not or should not be the only determining factor. The amount
of money invested in a house should be such that the net income of the
farm can easily take care of the interest, if interest must be paid, without
too great restriction upon other expenses. Within this limit, the farm
home should have all the conveniences and comforts possible, and should
be as attractive in design and surroundings as it can be made.
" Where ample capital is available, all permanent buildings and equip
ment as a sound business proposition should be of the best materials and
of substantial construction. The farmhouse, however, should be more
than well built; it should provide ample accommodations for those it is to
shelter; it should be well lighted and warm; it should have all the con
veniences and labor-saving devices possible in order that the housework
be reduced to a minimum, and it should be furnished in good taste. The
cost should not be viewed as a financial investment upon which the farm
business must pay full interest. Money judiciously expended on the farm
home earns a return that is not to be measured in cash. A sense of pride
in the ownership of an attractive abode; the physical well-being of those
enjoying a healthy, wholesome, and happy family life ; the effect of pleas
ing surroundings which, though rather intangible, is reflected in the con-
RURAL HOMES 571
tentment and loyalty of those concerned in the maintenance of the home,
constitute a return which, while indeterminate, has a monetary value. A
pleasant farm-home life affects the business of the farm in many ways, all
tending to increase returns on the business investment.
"Careful arrangement of the farmstead and intelligent planning of the
farm buildings is good business under any circumstances, but it is es
pecially important when capital is limited and must be made to go a long
way. When such is the case the farm business plant must be first con
sidered, but the ultimate farm home should be planned for with the rest of
the farmstead. Possessed of the plans for an attractive home, the farm
family has something toward which to work, an incentive to thrift and
economy in the operation of the farm, and a tie to farm and home life not
easily broken.
"The established farmer who contemplates improving the working
facilities of his farm must take conditions as they are, and remodel, tear
down, or move, as may be necessary or advisable. When unimproved land
is to be developed, the purchaser usually gives consideration to its suita
bility to the business he intends to pursue, the character of the soil, the
lay of the land, the accessibility of markets for his products, etc., but a
very vital consideration is frequently overlooked, namely, a suitable loca
tion for the farmstead.
"Much of the success of the farmstead plan depends upon the care ex
pended upon selecting the location. This is not always a simple matter,
because the features that influence a choice of location are numerous and
often conflicting. Of the more important considerations there may be
mentioned location with respect to the rest of the farm and to public
utilities, elevation and drainage, water supply, nature of soil, orientation,
prevailing breezes, and protection from heat and cold."
The principal considerations in locating the house are discussed by
Mr. Mulford in the following paragraphs from Beautifying the Farm
stead.
"The factors that should determine the location of buildings are (i)
access to a good highway, (2) possibility of protection from objectionable
winds or the utilization of desirable ones, (3) practicability of adequate
drainage, (4) a sufficient supply of good water, and (5) desirability of out
look.
"The construction of hard-surface roads in the open country is making
it possible to get to and from town at all times of the year. This is im-
572 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
portant for both business and pleasure. The exposure is an important con
sideration for securing the comfort of the family and stock. In cold coun
tries protection from the winter winds is desirable, and the location of the
most used rooms should be on the warmest side of the house, while in
warm countries the house and living rooms need to be so located as to get
the benefit of prevailing winds during the hottest months.
•"If at all possible, the house should be so located near good trees that
their shade may be used and enjoyed by the family every day during the
summer. It takes so long to grow good trees that existing trees should be
cherished and utilized to the fullest extent.
"The elevation should be such as to make possible thorough drainage,
even though it may be desirable to keep off the highest ground. Under no
circumstances should the house get the drainage from other buildings.
"In a hilly or mountainous country the site should provide a little level
land immediately adjoining the buildings, especially the dwelling. This is
necessary both for appearance and for comfort in living. Where such a
setting is not provided the house is likely to give the impression of being
about to slide from its location, while with a little level ground close by,
it may give the appearance of fitting closely into the site. In the case of a
side hill or bank house it may be necessary to build with one side facing
on a higher level than the other. If the level areas are of reasonable ex
tent, although at different heights and separated from each other, the
desired impression may still be given.
"The rooms used most should be given the benefit of the best views;
those from the kitchen as well as from the living room should be attrac
tive. The near view should be over an unbroken lawn, and there should
be some object of interest beyond. If there are no such objects in the gen
eral landscape, such as a mountain, a water view, a woodland, a meadow,
or an extended farm view, a handsome tree or other bit of near-by land
scape may be available. Lacking these possibly some feature may be
created on the place, such as an attractive group of shrubs, well placed
and arranged so as to have something of interest each month.
"The area that should be set aside for the house lot is dependent on
many factors. The larger and more pretentious the house the more land
should appear to be with it. Though it may be necessary to have a lawn
that is small, it is frequently possible to increase the apparent size by
making adjacent areas appear to belong with it. If the apparent size can
not be increased, .... it should be at least possible to prevent the dwarf
ing of the appearance by growing only low crops in the near-by fields,
RURAL HOMES 573
keeping tall crops and orchards at a little distance. Where this is im
practicable the area of the home lot should be doubled or trebled.
"The barns should be properly arranged to facilitate the farm work and
be accessible to the road, but they must also be reasonably convenient to
the house without being too close, prominent, or obtrusive. They should
be so situated with respect to the house that the prevailing winds, espe
cially during those seasons when the doors and windows are likely to be
open, do not blow from the barns toward the house. On the other hand,
in cold climates the barn as well as the house needs protection from severe
winter winds.
"Further, the buildings must be arranged for convenience. The interior
of the house and its connection with the outside features, whether the
barns or the public road, should be adapted to the everyday life of the
family. All too common examples of inappropriate farm architecture are
front doors that are never used except for funerals, and parlors that are
so seldom used that when they are they cast a reserve over the whole
family. Drives and walks to such front doors are a meaningless formality
and should be eliminated. In a house of such design the neighbors usually
go directly to the kitchen, because they know that is the entrance the
family uses, and the life of the family is so far from the front door that it
is impossible to get any response even if the attempt is made. A more
pleasing and satisfactory arrangement is to have the entrance open di
rectly on the part of the house the family uses.
"The entrance should be so located as to be easy and natural for both
family and visitors to use. The approaches to it should be so direct that
there is no feeling of being taken out of the way in following the roads or
walks provided. In such an arrangement the entrance and approaches are
naturally used in accordance with their design.
"The barns should be at a little distance from the house, but close
enough to facilitate the work to be done, and of such a character architec
turally that they look as though they belonged together. The buildings
should be as few in number as is practicable, or at least should have the
appearance of being a unified group from the principal viewpoints. Such
results can be brought about by careful grouping, sometimes even build
ing them around a courtyard, or if necessary connecting some of them by
sheds or walls. The objection to close grouping is the danger from fire, '
but facility in doing the work may be an offset to this. A number of small
unrelated buildings gives a 'cluttered up' appearance."
574 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
PLANNING THE FARMHOUSE
The article which follows by Mr. Wichers, although particularly ap
plicable to farmhouses in Kansas, contains many suggestions applying in
general to farmhouse problems. Grazing, wheat and corn growing, diver
sified farming, dairying, truck farming, and poultry farming require a
variety of farmhouse plans. Also there are no two farms or farm families
with identical requirements. Mr. Wichers states in regard to the planning
for the many types of farming: "Such variety immediately makes clear to
anyone at all acquainted with small-home architecture that a wide range
of farm-home designs is necessary to solve so many problems. There can
be no farmhouse that will suit all men who raise only wheat or who raise
only chickens or who do diversified farming. How utterly impossible it is
to make a standard house fit such a variety of interests as is possible on
the farm!"
CONSIDERATIONS IN FARMHOUSE PLANNING1
BY H. E. WICHERS
Professor of Rural Architecture,
Kansas State Agricultural College
Fundamentally all homes are intended for the same purpose — shelter.
The hotel, the apartment house, the city home, the country estate, the
palace and the shack all are forms of shelter. They are not commonly
referred to as shelters because the word has come to mean only the barest
necessity, the crudest of conceptions. So other words are used to express
our meaning. The word "hotel" means a specific type of human abode
and "palace" something decidedly different. Each of these words means
shelter-plus. Plus the niceties and amenities of life. Plus the equipment
and convenience. Plus the beauty and harmony of worth-while existence.
The different names refer to different types of abode for man, and each
type fills a particular need. In order to do so it must be especially designed
and equipped. A palace that would be suitable for an exacting king would
be a poor hotel. In the same way an excellent city house likely would be
unsuitable for a farm home. In either case, however, the elements of both
would be similar. Living quarters, sleeping quarters, and service quarters
would be necessary and fundamental, but in the location of these elements
and in the details one would find sharp contrasts. It is the variation in
these details that' makes the house conform to special needs, and serve for
special occasions, and special uses.
1 Adapted from Designs for Kansas Farm Homes (Kansas State Agricultural College,
1929), pp. 16-19.
RURAL HOMES 575
In the city a great number of conveniences are provided by the com
munity. Even in many of our small towns running water, electric lights
and power, and sewage disposal are provided by community effort. In
some, gas for cooking and even for heating are added to the list. There is
no need to carry large stocks of groceries or supplies on hand. Almost any
thing can be secured on short notice. Hospitals are at hand for the sick,
and hotels for social occasions. On the farm, as yet, each home-owner
must provide them for himself.
Due to a lack of suggestive farmhouse plans the farmer who wished to
build has usually turned to the great variety of available city house plans
for suggestions and has often ended by building a city type of house on the
farm. There are cases, of course, where the plan was wisely selected and a
suitable and well-appointed house built. For the most part, however, this
practice has resulted in failure because the average house that is well
adapted to city living is wholly inadequate for farm life and its problems
The author has examined a large number of city house plans in the hope
of finding some that would be of value to the farmer and has found only
a few that could be used. Even these, if they were to be at all available,
had to be partly redesigned.
The city house and the farmhouse have many things in common which
must yet be handled differently. Each has a kitchen, but in many in
stances the city kitchen can be placed in a very secondary position be
cause it may be used but a few hours each day. At present the farm
kitchen is in almost constant use, because the farmer's wife is called upon
to do a large number of things that the city wife doesn't even think of
doing. The farmer's wife is in most cases the assistant general manager of
the farm and not infrequently the manager. For a large part of the day
she is in charge of the farmstead proper. This being true, the kitchen in
which she spends much of her time should have a full view of the other
farm buildings, and, if possible, a view of the highway. This factor in
particular is likely to present difficulties for the designer. For each of the
four main frontages; namely, north, east, south, and west, the location of
the kitchen is limited. It can be moved but very little. In the case of the
farmhouse north of the highway the best possible location for the kitchen
would be on the northeast corner of the plan, where it commands the road
and approaches to the house and a full view of all of the farm buildings
A problem in farm-home planning that is seldom met in city home
planning is that of the washroom. This room should be accessible from
the side of the house that faces the other farm buildings and from a hall
576 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
that leads directly to the dining room. This is a very important part of
farm-home planning, and especially so if there are times during the year
when a group of farm hands must be fed at the farmhouse. These farm
hands should not even pass through the kitchen, and most certainly
should not be required to wash in the kitchen. The author is aware that
more and more such temporary labor crews feed and house themselves,
but there are still parts of this state where the farmer's wife is required to
cook for and even to house from two to twenty helpers at certain times of
the year.
In the city or town one finds very few of the new small-home plans that
have any place provided for the storage of quantities of food supplies.
The city housewife knows that she can replenish her supply within a few
moments, and since this is true, why bother with a large supply? True,
the farmer is much closer to a base of supplies than he used to be, because
of the automobile, but the larder is not quite so easy to refill and he must
therefore carry on hand a larger stock of edibles. Besides, on most farms
there is need to store quantities of garden products. These together with
the groceries must have good and easily accessible storage, accessible not
only from the kitchen but from the outside.
In the case of the city house of small size, one often finds the main
stairway leading up from the front hall. This practice is often question
able even in the suburban house, and it will rarely work to advantage in
the farmhouse unless the main entrance is placed adjacent to and with
direct access to the kitchen. If the kitchen and the living room are both
near the front door there will seldom be a time when the housewife will
have to walk more than a few steps to answer the doorbell. All things
should be planned to save labor, and it is high time that the stairway be
located where it is easily accessible to those who make the most use of it.
In the average farm home these are most certainly not the guests, but the
members of the household and especially the housewife.
Probably the chief difference between the farmhouse and the city house
is that the farmhouse is more of an independent unit. It must be more
self-sufficient, while the city house depends upon its close relationship
with its host of neighbors who work with it in obtaining many kinds of
service which the farmhouse must contain within itself. Again the city
house is in most cases not even remotely connected with the owner's busi
ness, while the farmer carries on a good share of his business from an office
in his house. Whether this is good practice is open to question, but there
are many reasons in favor of it, especially on the smaller farm.
RURAL HOMES 577
Generally, the farm home must be larger than the city home. However,
with comparatively cheap land value, there is not so much reason for the
farmhouse to be compact. Take advantage of this freedom With
less limitation there is a better opportunity to arrange the various rooms
so they will function properly. On the other hand, it is difficult to heat a
house that is too rambling, and compact houses are likely to be somewhat
less expensive to build.
It is as impossible to design the ideal farmhouse as it is to design the
ideal city house. There are no two farms with exactly the same conditions.
There are, however, certain groups that have much the same fundamental
problems
Ordinarily the first- and second-floor plans are fully determined as to
outline and size before the basement is given serious thought. One reason
for this is that few people build partitions in the modern basement save
for a fuel room and possibly for a fruit room. Of course more rooms are
possible, but the question arises: Will the space be more usable without
partitions or with them? Certainly it costs less to leave out the partitions.
Seldom is basement space usable for bedrooms because of the dampness.
Even for an office its use is questionable. In other words, basement space
is usable only for those things that slight dampness will not harm.
Shower rooms, work rooms, and laundries are found in the basement,
together with space for storing some kinds of vegetables and certain equip
ment. Very often pumps for water-pressure systems are located in the
basement. In such a place they are accessible and are not likely to be
harmed by frost. One must remember, though, that pumps are noisy even
if electrically operated. The continual starting and stopping of an auto
matic pump is disagreeable to some people. One can be rid of this noise
by placing the pump in a pit located at a short distance from the house.
Keep in mind that ash dumps under fireplaces and all flues should have
"cleanouts" in the basement. Floor drains are worth many times their
cost. Electric-light outlets should be considered early when planning.
They are easy to install at building time. A hot-air furnace is a cumber
some thing, even if it is comparatively efficient. It will occupy more space
than those accustomed to a stove or a steam furnace will suspect.
The basement should be well lighted. Make the windows as large and
as numerous as is reasonably possible. The basement is likely to be a bit
damp in any event, and dark basements are not half as usable as those
that are light and well ventilated. Whitewashing the walls will better the
578 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
appearance and help rid the place of the mustiness that the very word
basement implies.1
From the viewpoint of the designer the farmhouse problem is a special
problem. There is wider choice in style and design possible for its exterior
because there are fewer conflicting elements to harmonize before the type
and style are determined. The plot is not so limited. There are no close
neighbors whose houses must be considered. There are only the site and
the other farm buildings to harmonize with it in order to accomplish the
result desired, and these are all under the control of one individual.
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF THE RURAL HOME2
BY JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief, Division of Building and Housing,
U.S. Department of Commerce
It has become common in construction, as well as in other fields, to
define the standards of performance expected of the finished product.
What is it that we expect from the structure of a house? In the first
place we must have stability in the foundation and in the structure.
Cracks in the woodwork and plaster, doors that stick and jam, and open
ings that let in rain and snow, are the inevitable consequences if the foun
dations settle and crack, or if the walls or framework become distorted.
Adequate protection from wind, rain, and snow is essential. Nothing adds
so much to the expense of keeping up a house or makes it run down so fast
as chronic leakage, and for this reason, the roof, wall surfaces, and danger
points, such as flashing and window openings, should be water-tight. A
dry cellar and reasonable insulation against heat and cold are also ex
pected of a modern house.
Sufficient protection against fire and lighting is desired by every pru
dent owner.
Durability and economy in maintenance should be considered when a
house is built. They depend largely on factors already mentioned but
also involve the use of proper materials and workmanship at other points.
Good appearance outside and inside is rightly emphasized as another
quality for a satisfactory structure, and it is unnecessary to dilate on the
fact that it depends on good proportion, adaptation of the house to its
1 For first and second floor planning see Designs for Kansas Farm Homes.
2 Adapted from The House We Build (address before the Eastern States Extension
Conference, Washington, D.C., February 27, 1929). U.S. Department of Agriculture
Extension Service Circ. 99.
RURAL HOMES 579
setting, and good taste in combining the various elements of the house,
rather than upon expenditure for costly knickknacks.
Sanitat:on and health are fundamental, and we want a house that is
easy to keep clean and which is so well built that rats and vermin cannot
readily get into it or become easily established. The structure should be
adapted, wherever possible, to convenience in housekeeping and to the
installation of mechanical equipment to lighten housework.
Finally, the home-owner has to keep an eye constantly on his pocket-
book while he plans. Economy in first cost and in operation after the
house is built is essential.
The resources of no two rural home builders are alike. There are
families to-day who are like their pioneer ancestors in that they must de
pend mainly on their own resourcefulness and ability to do hard work,
using whatever raw materials are available, with the minimum of pur
chases from outside, such as window sash and a few iron and steel prod
ucts. Others are able, for one reason or another, to afford up-to-date struc
tures that embody all the worth-while features that present-day industry
provides.
In a consideration of the resources of rural home builders, however,
some general comparisons may be made with those of the city home
builder. We may recall the old-fashioned house raisings wherein the spirit
of cooperation and friendliness which has so permeated our rural life in
America was revealed at its best during generations. I believe it is safe
to say that this underlying spirit is still strong enough so that a family
established in any rural community in America can count on obtaining
much sound and helpful advice on building. The friendly counsel of an
observant man or woman who has made a specialty or hobby of building
can be invaluable, although it must be admitted that much of the free
advice offered to a home builder may be not only worthless but a liability
if it is followed.
Nearly every home builder finds it hard to get a house of the size and
kind he wants at a cost which is within his reach. For the rural builder
manufactured materials come relatively higher and labor relatively cheap
er than for the city builder. Higher transportation charges usually add
to the price of articles purchased in the country, while the owner's own
labor and lower wage scale make the addition of a greater amount of labor
less burdensome financially than in the city. Hence a higher-priced mate
rial, which saves labor on the job, may be profitably used in the city but
not necessarily in the country. All owners must decide whether they want
580 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
a small structure of high quality, well equipped with conveniences, or a
larger structure of a less expensive type. The cost per room of two houses
of approximately the same size in the same locality, for example, may
vary from $600 or $800 to $2,500 or $3,000.
BUILDING CODES
The city builder is often saved, willy-nilly, from making certain mis
takes because his building has to meet certain building-code requirements.
On the other hand, these same building-code requirements may, because
they are obsolete or poorly framed, involve him in extra expense. In
many cities, for example, the plumbing soil stack must be four inches in
diameter, in spite of the fact that three inches has been found satisfactory
in practice for small dwellings, and has been found, on the basis of experi
ments at the Bureau of Standards, to be more satisfactory from a sanitary
point of view. Needless to say, the three-inch stack is not only cheaper in
first cost, but is much less expensive to install since it fits much more
readily into walls or partitions of customary dimensions.
MATERIALS
The country builder may, theoretically, have a wider range of choice
of materials than the city builder. He may be able to use posts or hewn
timbers from his own woodlot, stone from his own fields, or sand and
gravel for concrete from his own deposits. Yet he can purchase also basic
and special materials from a local dealer or from a mail-order concern. As
I have already indicated, however, financial limitations may severely re
strict his purchases.
SETTING OF THE HOUSE
The country home builder has more space, light, and air, and as a
corollary to this is usually farther away from his neighbors than his city
cousin.
AVAILABILITY OF EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
The city builder can more easily call upon builders who have had ex
perience in building houses of the same type, but, as I have already sug
gested, the country builder may be able to obtain more helpful advice
from his relatives and neighbors — a process made easier by the advent of
the motor car and improved road.
RURAL HOMES 581
ACCESSIBILITY OF PRINTED MATERIAL
The city builder has readier access to public libraries, but I believe that
the country builder can readily obtain such pamphlets as he may require
in connection with building his home at a relatively small expense.
The modern builder to be successful must be able not only to cope with
situations as they come up but must have an idea of what information can
be obtained readily from printed material. He should know where and
how to get what he wants without having to go through quantities of
irrelevant or unauthoritative material.
FOUNDATION WALLS AND CELLAR
Good foundations, as I have already indicated, are essential for a
satisfactory house. The foundation wall itself should be at least eight
inches thick if of solid concrete. It should extend in depth below the frost
line and have adequate footings. It is impossible to recommend a uniform
width of footings because so much depends upon the bearing value of the
local soil. That is one place where general rules need to be considered with
relation to local conditions. In order to insure the cellar against flooding
or chronic dampness it may be necessary to lay draintile outside the wall
or to use a damp-proofing compound on the outside. The cellar floor itself
may have to be laid on gravel or cinders, and it is well to remember that
a leaking cellar is much harder and more costly to remedy after building
than before. A good cellar-floor drain to carry off water which may enter,
or water which may be used for cleaning, is most desirable, especially so
when the floor, if it has a pitch, slopes toward the drain.
Good concrete is occasionally the product of good luck rather than
good management. The careful builder will do well to consult the pam
phlets of the Department of Agriculture and of the Portland Cement As
sociation, which explain the proper mixtures, including the amount of
water used — a most important factor — and means for determining
whether or not the sand and gravel used contain too much silt or inorganic
matter. Such precautions may take time but are well worth the assur
ance of a good piece of work. Furthermore, the pamphlets contain many
helpful suggestions for lessening the amount of work involved. If the
family cannot afford to take the precautions necessary for a good cellar
and chooses not to have one it is better to rest the house on piers of ade
quate depth than on a shallow wall. In such a case there should be a free
circulation of air under the house in order to prevent rapid decay of the
582 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
floor joists and other wood on the under surface, and heat insulation under
the flooring is desirable in the climate of most parts of the country.
WALLS AND FRAMING
It may seem unnecessary to recall the fact that the walls and frame
work of the house should be substantial, with all the important parts well
tied together. Yet, whenever a high wind comes, we learn of roofs that
merely rest on the top of brick walls, without being anchored by ties to
the masonry; frame houses that get out of plumb because they have not
had proper diagonal bracing; and porches and ells that become detached
because they are not tied to the main structure. In regions subject to
high winds, frame houses without plaster to add weight are in an espe
cially dangerous position. The Building Code Committee of the Depart
ment of Commerce recommends that all frame houses be anchored to the
foundations. The too familiar sagging roof line is generally a sign of the
spreading of side walls because of thrusting of the rafters, a condition
which might have been taken care of by proper ties at the line where the
roof meets the wall.
There are, of course, many other points involved in good framework.
It is fairly common for the interior framework to be built up with a greater
depth of horizontal timbers inserted between the vertical members than
in the framing in the outside wall. This results in greater shrinkage, which
lets down the interior partitions, and causes distortion of the whole frame
and cracks in the plaster.
Diagonal sheathing is recommended as preferable to horizontal. Eight-
inch brick walls should have a row of headers at least every sixth course.
These and many other points are covered in the pamphlet entitled "Rec
ommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction" by
the Building-Code Committee of the Department of Commerce.
Possibly there are areas where leage rock, field stones, and locally burnt
brick could be used more extensively in rural construction.
ROOFING, FLASHING, AND WEATHER SURFACE OF WALLS
Needless to say, it does not pay to skimp on surfaces exposed to the
weather. It does not pay, for example, to expose too much of the shingle
surface to the weather. The rural builder can make his labor count to full
advantage in assuring good workmanship on roofing, flashing, weather
boarding, and pointing up of brick walls. Furthermore, he can see that the
openings around window frames in brick walls are well caulked.
RURAL HOMES 583
INTERIOR WALL FINISH, AND HEAT INSULATION
In this field the home builder has a wide range of choices. Assuming
that there is already sheathing, good building paper tacked on to it under
the weather boarding is probably the least costly step toward assuring a
house that can be kept comfortably warm at reasonable expense. Weather
stripping around doors and windows comes next. Insulating materials
over the top floor ceiling joists or under the roof and in the walls, and
storm windows may all be used to advantage, as is pointed out in Letter
Circular No. 227 of the Bureau of Standards.1 It must be remembered
that it is relatively hard to add heat-insulating materials in the walls after
the house is built, whereas weather stripping, or heat-insulation on the
attic floor or under the roof, can be added at any time.
The interior walls may be finished with wood or metal lath and plaster,
with "gypsum lath," a type of composition board which takes the place
of lath and one or two coats of plaster, or with a wall board which can be
left as finished at the factory, or decorated as desired; or interior walls
may be ceiled with matched lumber.
PLUMBING AND BATHROOM
A great deal of poorly designed plumbing goes into houses whether in
the city or in the country. The report of the Department of Commerce
Subcommittee on Plumbing gives diagrams for a proper layout of the
waste system for small houses, and, as you know, septic tanks and sewage
disposal are the subjects of pamphlets by the Department of Agriculture
and the Public Health Service.
OTHER POINTS
Pamphlets on electric wiring and fixtures are readily obtainable from
dealers or manufacturers.
To continue the discussion throughout the entire house at this rate
would require hours.
I can only refer in passing to the fact that the Forest Service issues
booklets on the use of wood and its preservation against decay. Farmers'
Bulletin 1472, entitled "Preventing Damage by Termites or White Ants,"
furnishes directions for protection against termites. Home-building maga
zines list the names of manufacturers of electrical equipment, millwork,
paints, and many other materials used in dwelling construction, who fur
nish upon request pamphlets describing the use of their products.
1 See also pp. 230-37.
584 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Since I have already mentioned the Portland Cement Association, I
also wish to refer to the helpful pamphlets available from the National
Lumber Manufacturers' Association, those furnished by the various
regional lumber associations, the common and face brick manufacturers,
and many others.
You all know of the Superintendent of Documents' price list No. 7 2 list
ing government pamphlets of interest to suburbanites and home builders.
Although I have dealt mainly with the construction of new houses, I
hope that the discussion and references to material will also have some
application to the remodeling and modernizing of existing houses, ....
A BETTER HOMES DEMONSTRATION
[In many parts of the country farmhouses have been demonstrated as
part of the Better Homes campaign.1 The description which follows is of
a farmhouse demonstrated in Illinois during the 1930 campaign. It has
been planned to meet the needs of a particular family and for the type of
farming carried on in that section. The following paragraphs are from
"The Seven Home Essentials,"2 by Professor W. A. Foster, University of
Illinois :]
"In planning the farmhouse the individual family must be considered —
their habits, tastes, thrift and needs. The size farm, the type of farming
engaged in, and the returns from their operations are all important factors
in both plan and cost. The farmhouse shown was planned for a family of
five, the parents, two small children and one of their grandparents. They
wanted a medium-sized living room with fireplace, a large dining room, a
convenient kitchen, a toilet and three entrances on the first floor, in addi
tion to a porch which could be screened and sashed in. A closed stairway
to the second floor with a closet at its foot was planned. A closet for
family garments was placed in the hall and a coat closet was placed in the
front entry.
"The house was planned for easy communication. The grade entry
is toward the other buildings. One may go from this entry directly to
the basement, where a washroom for men is located, or to the kitchen,
dining room, living room or toilet. It is also a simple matter to go to the
second floor through the passage end of the living room.
"One chimney stack serves for furnace flue, coal-range flue and fireplace
1 See pp. 741-48.
2 Reprinted by permission of the Country Gentleman, December, 1930. Copyrighted
1930 by the Curtis Publishing Co., Philadelphia.
RURAL HOMES
585
flue. A hood was built over the range, and the smoke flue was carried
horizontally over a closet to the chimney through a cast-iron pipe which
was insulated in asbestos wool and plastered over. The hood connects
with the chimney. The second floor contains three fair-sized bedrooms
with closets, one small bedroom, bathroom, bedding and broom closets.
FIG. 67. — Design and floor plans (Figs. 68-70) of farm home for a family of five
Designed by W. .A. Foster, University of Illinois.
"The second-floor hallway is small, so all rooms and parts are easily
accessible.
A BASEMENT OF CONVENIENCES
"The basement contains fuel room, furnace room, workroom, and a
fruit room near the foot of the stairs under the entrance — and a washroom
586
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
with sanitary closet, lavatory and shower. The pump was placed in this
room under the landing.
FIG. 68
"Plenty of basement windows are provided. The workroom is espe
cially large and well lighted, making it suitable for laundry, canning and
a host of other general purposes.
RURAL HOMES
587
"The light plant was placed in the furnace room. There is also space
there for a workbench.
"The stairs are contained all in one well, with an easy slope The
house was built just about a year ago at a cost of less than $8,000 includ
ing light plant, warm-air heating and plumbing.
"A twelve-inch concrete wall was poured of solid concrete. The super
structure is built of brick over frame — brick veneer.
"Since this house was built on a site where the old house burned down
early in the summer of 1929, the construction was not started until early
588
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
fall. The house was closed in before bad weather arrived and was com
pletely finished about midwinter."
\<b to Z4-
-StaoHo TLooR.
FIG. 70
SUMMARY
The house planned for the city dweller rarely meets the requirements of
the farmhouse, owing to the many activities brought about by various
types of farming. The domination of urban standards has made it more
difficult for the rural homemaker to obtain house designs and furnishings
adapted to her needs. For proper development of the rural home the fol
lowing needs are essential: (i) better farmstead plans; (2) the develop
ment of a type of rural a chitecture suited to rural surroundings and
needs; (3) more labor-saving devices.
RURAL HOMES 589
The planning of a farmstead layout includes the arrangement of vari
ous buildings, yards, their interrelation, and their relation also to the
fields and the highway. Although utility is of prime importance in de
signing the farmhouse there are other factors. The most important con
siderations in locating the house are: (i) access to good highway, (2) pos
sibility of protection from objectionable winds and the utilization of de
sirable ones, (3) adequate drainage, (4) sufficient supply of good water,
FIG. 71. — The farm-home office requires a door leading directly out of doors. (War
ren County Better Homes demonstration.)
(5) desirability of outlook. The elevation for the house should be such
that thorough drainage is possible. The rooms used most should have the
most pleasing outlook. The larger the house, the more the land that
should be set aside for it. The relation of the house and barns should be
such that the prevailing winds do not blow from the barn to the house.
Farm buildings should be as few as practicable. A number of small build
ings gives a cluttered appearance.
In planning urban and rural homes, living quarters, sleeping quarters,
and service quarters may be common to both , but their location and their
590 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
details may differ. Considerations in planning farmhouses are: (i) The
kitchen should receive special consideration in size and location. (2) The
washroom, if one is included, should be accessible from the side of the
house facing the farm buildings and from a hall leading directly to the
dining room. (3) There should be adequate provisions for storage. (4) The
location of the stairway should be such that it is accessible to those that
make the most use of it. (5) The farmhouse should be planned for the
activities carried on. It usually is the place also where most of the farm
business is conducted. (6) Most farmhouses need to be larger than most
city houses.
More liberty is possible in selecting exterior designs for the farmhouse
than for the city house as there are fewer conflicting elements to consider,
the plot is larger, and there are no neighboring houses. The site and other
farm buildings also are the owner's own property.
REFERENCES
I. GENERAL INFORMATION AND FARMHOUSE DESIGN
BETTER HOMES IN AMERICA. Furniture, Furnishing and Interior Finish. Pam
phlet List 2, 1930.
The Rural Home and Planting the Home Grounds. Pamphlet List i , 1930.
CARTER, DEANE G. Farm House Conditions and Needs. St. Joseph, Mich.:
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1930. Pp. 3.
Agricultural Engineering, September, 1930.
COLORADO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Adobe Brick for Farm Buildings, by JOHN
W. SJOGREN and J. W. ADAMS. Bull. 308. Fort Collins: The College, 1930.
Pp. 28.
COMMON BRICK MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. Farm Homes of
Brick. Cleveland, Ohio: The Association, n.d. Pp. 23.
Floor plans and designs.
FOSTER, W. A., and CARTER, DEANE G. Farm Buildings. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1928.
Farmhouse planning and construction (pp. 281-327).
FRYSINGER, GRACE E. "The Farm Home," American Country Life Association:
Proceedings of the Tenth and Eleventh National Country Life Conferences.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928. Pp. 36-40.
GALPIN, CHARLES J. "Rural Life," American Journal of Sociology, XXXV
(May, 1930), 1010-16.
Rural Life Progress in the United States, Ten-Year Period, 1917-1927.
Washington: U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 1927. Pp. 6.
Mimeographed copy of address before the Tenth Annual Conference of the Ameri
can Country Life Association.
RURAL HOMES 591
GRAY, GRETA. House and Home. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1923.
General information (pp. 243-58).
HERING, OSWALD C. Economy in Home Building. New York: Robert M. Mc-
Bride & Co., 1924.
General information on country houses (pp. 109-29).
HOLMAN, H. P. Painting on the Farm. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1925. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1452. Pp. 33.
MONTANA STATE COLLEGE or AGRICULTURE: Extension Service. Suggestions for
Rural House Planning. Bull. 102. Bozeman: The College, 1929. Pp. 70.
NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. The Use of Lumber on the
Farm. Washington: The Association, 1928. Pp. 38.
NEWCOMB, REXFORD. "Evolution of the American Farm House," Agricultural
Engineering, X (April, 1929), 131-35.
General information on trends of architecture.
The Spanish House for America. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co.,
1927.
Designs and plans — some suitable for rural houses.
SOULE, WINSOR. Spanish Farm Houses. New York: Architectural Book Pub
lishing Co., 1923.
Plates only, no text. Designs suitable for certain sections of the country.
U.S. BUREAU OF HOME ECONOMICS. Floors and Floor Coverings. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1219. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1921.
U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS. List of Plans Prepared for Free Distribution.
Washington: The Bureau, n.d. Pp. 3.
Mimeographed.
Plain Concrete for Farm Use, by T. A. H. MILLER. U.S. Dept. of Agri
culture, Farmers' Bull. 1279. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1922. Pp. 28.
Rammed Earth Walls for Buildings, by M. C. BETTS and T. A. H.
MILLER. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1500. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 26.
Small Concrete Construction on the Farm, by M. C. BETTS and T. A. H.
MILLER. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1480. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 38.
The Use of Logs and Poles In Farm Construction, by T. A. H. MILLER.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1660. Washington: Govern
ment Printing Office, 1931. Pp. 26.
U.S. BUREAUS OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS, PUBLIC ROADS, AND AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS. Fire-Protective Construction on the Farm. U.S. Dept. of Agricul-
592 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ture, Farmers' Bull. 1590. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929
Pp. 22.
WAUGH, FRANK ALBERT. Rural Improvement. New York: Orange Judd Co.,
1914.
Discusses suitability of bungalow, pro and con, and recommends Colonial type of
plantation house for South (pp. 181-95).
WEAVER, LAWRENCE. The "Country Life" Book of Cottages. London: Country
Life, Ltd., 1919.
Suggestions for rural-house architecture.
WICKERS, H. E. Designs for Kansas Farm Homes. Bull. 23. Manhattan: Kan
sas State Agricultural College, 1929. Pp. 105.
Designs — floor plans and general information.
[NOTE. — Plans for farmhouses may be obtained from the U.S. Department of Agri
culture, from many state agricultural colleges, and also are included in issues of the
Country Gentleman, Farmers1 Wife, Southern Ruralist, Successful Farming, and other
farm journals.]
2. PLANNING AND PLANTING THE GROUNDS
BOTTOMLEY, MYRL E. The Design of Small Properties. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1929.
Country-home properties (pp. 98-127).
MULFORD, FURMAN LLOYD. Beautifying the Farmstead. U.S. Dept. of Agricul
ture, Farmers' Bull. 1087. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929.
Pp. 38-
OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE. The Oklahoma Farm
stead, by L. E. HAZEN. Circ. 74. Stillwater: The College, 1928. Pp. 37.
ROCKWELL, FREDERICK FRYE. Landscaping the Rural Home. New York: Mac
millan Co., 1929.
U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS. Planning the Farmstead, by M. C. BETTS and
W. R. HUMPHRIES. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1132. Wash
ington: Government Printing Office, 1921. Pp. 24.
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY. Beautifying the Home Grounds, by T. D. GRAY.
Circ. 291. Morgantown: The University, 1929. Pp. 23.
[NOTE. — State colleges of agriculture distribute information on the landscaping of
rural home grounds.]
3. EQUIPMENT — HEATING, WATER SUPPLY, SEWAGE DISPOSAL,
AND CONVENIENCES
COMMITTEE ON THE RELATION OF ELECTRICITY TO AGRICULTURE. Wiring the
Farm for Light, Heat and Power. C.R.E.A. Bull., V, No. i. Chicago: The
Committee, 1929. Pp. 77.
HARDENBERGH, WILLIAM A. Home Sewage Disposal. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip-
pincott Co., 1924.
RURAL HOMES 593
ILLINOIS: COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA
TION. Water and Plumbing Systems for Farm Homes, by E. W. LEHMANN and
E. P. HANSON. Circ. 303. Urbana: The College, 1927. Pp. 20.
IVES, FREDERICK W. Home Conveniences. New York: Harper & Bros., 1924.
NEBRASKA: AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION. Water Supply and
Sewage Disposal Systems for Farm Homes, by IVAN D. WOOD and E. B.
LEWIS. Bull. 245. Lincoln: The College, 1930. Pp. 42.
OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE. Running Water in the
Farm Home, by G. E. MARTIN. Circ. 245. Still water: The College, 1929.
Pp. 16.
PURDUE UNIVERSITY: AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Electric Service
for Light, Heat, and Power, by TRUMAN E. HIENTON and MIRIAM RAPP.
Circ. 157. Lafayette, Ind.: The University, 1928. Pp. 24.
REESE, MADGE J. Farm Home Conveniences. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farm
ers' Bull. 927. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928. Pp. 24.
STARBUCK, R. M. Modern Plumbing Illustrated. New York: Norman W. Hen
ley Publishing Co., 1926.
Country plumbing, sewage disposal and water supply (pp. 285-328).
U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS. Construction of Chimneys and Fireplaces. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1649. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1930. Pp. 18.
The Domestic Oil Burner, by ARTHUR H. SENNER. U.S. Dept. of Agri
culture, Circ. 405. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1930. Pp. 29.
Farm Plumbing, by GEORGE M. WARREN. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bull. I426-F. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1930.
PP- 34-
.. Farmstead Water Supply, by GEORGE M. WARREN. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1448. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1925. Pp. 38.
One-Register Furnaces, by A. M. DANIELS. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bull. 1174. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1920. Pp.
12.
Operating a Home Heating Plant, by A. M. DANIELS. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1194. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1928. Pp. 18.
Sewage and Sewerage of Farm Homes, by GEORGE M. WARREN. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1227. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1928. Pp. 46.
. Simple Plumbing Repairs In The Home, by GEORGE M. WARREN. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull. 1460. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1925. Pp. 14.
594 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
U.S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE. Good Water for Farm Homes, by A. W. FREE
MAN. Public Health Bull. 70. May, 1915. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1916. Pp. 16.
Sewage Disposal for Suburban and Country Homes. Public Health Re
ports, Suppl. 58. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 41.
WISCONSIN: EXTENSION SERVICE or THE COLLEGE or AGRICULTURE. Turn on
the Light, by F. W. DUFFEE and G. W. PALMER. Circ. 163. Madison: The
CoUege, 1923. Pp. 46.
[NOTE. — Bulletins and information on equipment may be obtained from most of the
state colleges of agriculture.]
4. INEXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT AND CONVENIENCES
IVES, FREDERICK W. Home Conveniences. New York: Harper & Bros., 1924.
MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. Simple Water Systems. Circ. 64.
East Lansing: The College, 1928. Pp. 16.
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. The Farm Water Supply, Part I:
"Simple Water Systems and Plumbing," by F. G. Behrend. Cornell Exten
sion Bull. 50. Ithaca: The College, 1922. Pp. 191.
The Farm Water Supply, Part II: "The Use of the Hydraulic Ram,"
by F. G. BEHREND. Cornell Extension Bull. 145. Ithaca: The College, 1926.
Pp. 28.
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS. Planning the Home Kitchen,
by HELEN BINKERD YOUNG. Cornell Bulletin for Homemakers, Lesson 108.
Ithaca: The College, 1928. Pp. 19.
OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE. Running Water in the
Farm Home, by G. E. MARTIN. Circ. 245. Stillwater: The College, 1929.
Pp. 16.
REESE, MADGE J. Farm Home Conveniences. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farm
ers' Bull. 927. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928. Pp. 24.
U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON WOOD UTILIZATION. You Can Make It for Camp
and Cottage. You Can Make It Series, Vol. II. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1930. Pp. 49.
Practical uses for odd pieces of lumber.
UTAH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Rural Kitchen Improvement, by EFFIE S. BAR
ROWS. Circ. 9. Logan: The College, 1928. Pp. 23.
5. KITCHENS
GRAY, GRETA. Convenient Kitchens. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bull.
1513. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 30.
General information and a number of plans.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. The Step-saving Kitchen, by GERTRUDE
LYNN. Home Management Booklet. Ames: The College, 1928. Pp. 20.
RURAL HOMES 595
MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE: EXTENSION DIVISION. Farm
Kitchens, by F. E. FOGLE and MARIAN ROGERS SMITH. Bull. 37. East Lan
sing: The College, 1928. Pp. 16.
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS. Planning the Home Kitchen,
by HELEN BINKERD YOUNG. Cornell Bulletin for Homemakers, Lesson 108.
Ithaca: The College, 1926. Pp. 19.
PURDUE UNIVERSITY: DEPT. OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION. The Farm Home
Kitchen, by KATHRYNE McMAHON. Extension Bull. 141. LaFayette, Ind.:
The University, 1926. Pp. 12.
UTAH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE: EXTENSION SERVICE. Rural Kitchen Improve
ment, by EFFIE S. BARROWS. Circ. 9. Logan: The College, 1928. Pp. 23.
[NOTE. — Information on kitchen plans, remodeling, and equipment may be obtained
from the state colleges of agriculture.]
6. LIVING CONDITIONS AND LIVING-CONDITION STUDIES
CARTER, DEANE G. A Study of Farm House Costs. St. Joseph, Mich.: American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1929. Pp. 2.
Agricultural Engineering, Vol. X (June, 1929).
CLARK, CARROLL D. "Evaluating Certain Equipment of the Modern Rural
Home," Journal of Home Economics, XXII (December, 1930), 10x35-15.
HOFFER, CHARLES RUSSELL. Introduction to Rural Sociology. New York: Rich
ard R. Smith, Inc., 1930.
Rural standard of living (pp. 75-95).
IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. Electric Service for the Iowa Farm, by
FRANK D. PAINE and FRANK J. ZINK. Official Publications, Vol. XXVII,
No. 8, Rept. 3. Ames: The College, 1928. Pp. 28.
Study of home equipment for eleven farms (pp. 12-22).
KIRKPATRICK, ELLIS LORE. Annual Family Living in Selected Farm Homes of
North Dakota. Washington: U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 1928.
Pp. 17.
Mimeographed preliminary report.
Average Expenditures for Household Furnishings and Equipment Pur
chased by Farm Families. Washington: U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Econom
ics, 1926. Pp. 14.
Mimeographed preliminary report.
The Farmer's Standard of Living. New York: Century Co.. 1929.
KIRKPATRICK, ELLIS LORE, and J. T. SANDERS, The Relation between the Ability
To Pay and the Standard of Living among Farmers. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Dept. Bull. 1382. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926.
S96 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
KNEELAND, HILDEGARDE. "Is the Modern Housewife a Lady of Leisure?" Sur
vey — Graphic Magazine, LII (June i, 1929), 301-2.
— . "Woman's Economic Condition in the Home," Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science (Philadelphia). Pub. 2286. Estimated
value of homemakers' services derived from the study of one thousand house
wives (p. 5).
NEBRASKA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE: EXPERIMENT STATION. The Nebraska
Farm Kitchen, by GRETA GRAY. Bull. 226. Lincoln: The College,. 1928. Pp.
14.
The Routine and Seasonal Work of Nebraska Farm Women, by M. RUTH
CLARK and GRETA GRAY. Bull. 238. Lincoln: The College, 1930. Pp. 39.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE COLLEGE or AGRICULTURE: EXPERIMENT STATION.
Farm Family Living among White Owner and Tenant Operators in Wake
County. Bull. 269. Raleigh: The College, 1929. Pp. 101.
OREGON STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE: EXPERIMENT STATION. Use of Time
by Oregon Farm Homemakers, by MAUD WILSON. Bull. 265. Corvallis: The
College, 1929. Pp. 71.
U.S. BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS. Publications Relating to Farm
Population and Rural Life. Washington: The Bureau, 1930. Pp. 10.
Mimeographed.
Rural Standards of Living. Agricultural Economics Bibliography 32.
Washington: The Bureau, 1930. Pp. 124.
PART II
PROGRESS IN IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS
CHAPTER XVIII
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS
i. The General Housing Problem
In discussing the general housing problem in the monograph "Housing
Conditions in the New York Region," which was prepared by Thomas
Adams in collaboration with Wayne D. Heydecker, the authors state:
The housing problem may be divided into two parts, one part being that
which relates to securing proper conditions of land development, control of sur
roundings and distribution of residential growth; and the other, that of securing
more and better houses. The latter is usually and mistakenly considered as the
whole problem. It involves questions of construction, sanitation and internal
arrangement of dwellings, and questions of building finance in relation to eco
nomic return. In the solution of this part of the problem cities require good
building ordinances and consideration of methods of financing the building of
homes for various groups of the population. The first part of the problem is,
however, of primary importance, in the sense that it deals with basic conditions.
-It involves the control of land subdivision and of densities and surroundings of
residential areas by means of city plans, zoning ordinances and public acquisition
of open areas for small parks and playgrounds T
MAIN DEFECTS IN AMERICAN HOUSING2
BY LAWRENCE VEILLER
Executive Director, National Housing Association
The chief defects to be found in the housing conditions that prevail
throughout all parts of America — not merely in the East but in the Middle
West, in the far West, in the South, in the North; in the great centers of
population like New York and Chicago, in cities of more moderate size,
even in the small towns and villages — may be summed up as follows :
Lack of light. — Dark rooms; sometimes interior rooms without any
means of light or ventilation whatsoever; insufficient open spaces; small
narrow rear yards, courts and side yards that often are little better than
pockets, which do not permit free circulation of air and are grossly inade
quate in supplying the light necessary for the windows which open upon
them.
1 Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, VI, 203.
2 Adapted from The Housing Problem in the United States, "National Housing Associ
ation Publication," No. 61 (1930).
599
6oo THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Lack of adequate -ventilation. — In the modern science of ventilation mov
ing air is the essential thing, along with absence of high temperature and
too great moisture. Our houses are not so built, most of them, as to pro
cure moving air, especially in the hot summer months. This is due to the
fact that they have not been planned with reference to this purpose, and
do not permit what is technically known as "cross," or "thorough," ven
tilation. This is only beginning to be considered in new construction in
this country.
Lack of safety in case of fire. — Many houses are built entirely of wood,
that is private dwellings, two-family dwellings and some multiple dwell
ings. Very few houses in which people live are built of fire-resistive con
struction. Only the homes of the millionaires or the great tall skyscraper
apartments are thus built at the present time. The average private dwell
ing is built of wood, the average multiple dwelling is generally built of
brick, in its outer walls, but the whole interior is generally of wooden con
struction; wooden beams and supporting members, wooden partitions and
wooden stairs and halls — all of which make such buildings a great menace
in the event of fire. Many such buildings are not provided with adequate
means of egress in case of fire, nor with adequate fire escapes. This is par
ticularly so in the great cities.
Most homes are badly planned. — Comparatively few of them have had
the benefit of the advice of an architect in their design. Most of them have
been built by speculative builders, seeking their own profit and with little
knowledge of sound principles of home planning.
It is the exception rather than the rule where homes are planned with
regard to the functions that are to be performed in them — notably so with
reference to the kitchens, or places in which the housewife spends most
of her time; what has been very aptly described as the "housewife's work
shop."
Little or no thought has been given to the work that is to be done by the
housewife, so as to save her unnecessary steps, although there are 26,000,-
ooo housewives in the United States — no small element of the population
and one well worthy of consideration in planning their workshops. A care
ful study made recently by Government officials of typical groups of over
2,000 housewives disclosed the fact that one- third of the housewives spend
56 hours of the week or more in their homemaking, a half of them spend
between 42 hours and 56 hours at these tasks, and the average about 51
hours a week, which is the equivalent of a full workingman's week spent
at his labor.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 6c5i
That much could be done in planning kitchens scientifically is disclosed
by the fact that the average housewife in doing her housework walks six
miles a day. When kitchens are scientifically arranged, it has been found
that that amount has been reduced to but four miles a day. In the light
of these facts the intelligent and scientific planning of kitchens assumes
new significance. There is a change, however, coming, and in future our
homes will be more intelligently planned.
Houses are not only badly planned but as a rule they are badly built :
This is due to the system of building houses on speculation, instead of
having the person who is to live in the house build the house for his own
use. Where that happens the houses are generally well built. But that is
the exception and not the rule. The great mass of houses in America,
especially the homes of working people, are built by speculative builders
who seek to make a quick profit. Consequently, there is an incentive to
slight the work, to build cheaply, to substitute inferior materials, and no
incentive to good workmanship. They have little or no concern whether
the house lasts a long time or soon needs repairs, for they will have sold
the house long before that time and will have no concern with it. The
more they can "skin" it, as the phrase goes, the more profit for them. As
a result, the great mass of our houses in America are badly built. Many
need repainting and repairs within a few months after the family has
moved in. The plumbing wears out quickly, everything has to be renewed
much sooner than it should; so that this kind of building is a very distinct
discouragement to investment in a home on the part of the average man.
This is undoubtedly one of the factors in the great increase in the number
of rented homes in the United States in recent years. •
And finally, most of our homes cost too much. — The cost of building in
the United States is very high x The cost of the average small home
in the United States has risen 19 per cent during the past six years and is
still climbing. The chief reason for this is in the high wages paid to labor
in the building industry and in the manufacture of materials that enter
into a building. One observer commenting on this said recently:
The cost of housing through public indifference and timidities of politicians
has been permitted to mount out of all proportion to other items in the cost of
living. A thousand dollars' worth of automobile or of many other articles to-day
means more than twenty years ago, while a thousand dollars' worth of building
construction means considerably less.
1 For further information on costs, see chap. ii.
602 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
HIGH FINANCING COSTS
The high cost of housing in the United States is not, however, to be
attributed solely to these factors. There are many others that enter into
the situation. As most houses are built on borrowed money, the cost of
financing such enterprises is unduly high. Money is easily obtainable for
the first mortgage at reasonable rates of interest, varying from five to six
per cent in different parts of the country; but when it comes to borrowing
the funds necessary to cover one-third of the cost of the enterprise, gener
ally covered by what is known as a second mortgage, the rates for such
financing are apt to be high — due to the risk and the need of money.
There are undoubtedly economies that could be brought about in house
construction through mass production and through other means. The
fact remains, however, that, speaking generally for the whole country, the
cost is much too high at the present time. In fact, it is no exaggeration to
say that in most parts of the country there have been few new houses
built since the War for the occupancy of the average workingman. He has
had to be content with older houses, houses that have been vacated by
more prosperous people.
There is still much to be done in this direction. There is need for re
search in the field of building materials and building processes, from which
there should result economies in the construction of our future houses.
That such economies are likely to result seems to be apparent. There are
already signs visible of radical and startling changes in this part of the
field of housing.
BAD METHODS OF SUBDIVIDING PROPERTY
Another factor in the housing situation is found in the unintelligent
method of subdividing property that has prevailed in most of our cities
until recent years. The prevailing method of laying out a city is what is
known as the "grid-iron" plan. Cities have generally been laid out on
rectangular lines, and property has been subdivided without much regard
to the kind of use which was to be made of it.
In fact, until very recently — until the advent of the so-called Zoning
movement in the United States — it has not been possible to predict with
any degree of accuracy or finality just how a given part of a city would be
used. Property has been laid out so that it would be susceptible of almost
any use, either for residence purposes, for commercial purposes or for
manufacturing purposes, and lots have been narrow and deep. The result
has been that it has been practically impossible to design the right kind
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 603
of a home on such a lot. For, being narrow and deep, it has not been pos
sible to leave a sufficient amount of open space on all four sides of the
house. Consequently, where open space has been left at each side of the
house in what is known as side yards, these spaces have generally been
very inadequate in width, often as narrow as three feet, furnishing neither
adequate light nor ventilation, but serving often as unpleasant pockets of
barren land which often have become receptacles for cast-off materials,
especially in the workingmen's quarters of the town.
THE SLUMS
We also have developed slums in America-^those sores of the old world
cities. It might have been supposed that in a new country like the United
States, with opportunity to develop as we wished, with all the land that
we could possibly desire at low prices, these objectionable features of an
older civilization would not be repeated.
Unfortunately, however, some cities of America not only have de
veloped slums but have the worst slums in the civilized world; this is
notably so of New York and of some parts of Chicago, Cincinnati, St.
Louis, Cleveland and other cities.
It would not be accurate to say that slums prevail generally in America.
What is true, however, is that we have slum spots or small sections of
slums in all of our great cities. Fortunately, these are not very great in
extent in most of the cities and can be remedied. They do, however,
possess all the usual characteristics of the slum and produce the kind of
crop that is to be expected from such conditions.
WHAT IS BEING DONE?
We have been conscious of a housing problem in America for nearly 100
years. That is a very long time in the history of so comparatively young a
country as the United States. It may very properly be asked, therefore,
"What has been done to remedy bad housing conditions in this country
and what is being done at the present time?"
While we have been conscious of housing evils for nearly a century, that
consciousness has existed only in the great cosmopolitan centers, par
ticularly in the city of New York. Outside of New York there has been a
consciousness of need of effort for housing reform for more than a period
of 25 years.
There are various movements on foot — national in their scope — seeking
to deal with the situation. Various citizens' organizations that have been
604 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
formed by public spirited men and women who are conscious of the evils
that flow from the neglect of such conditions and who are anxious to take
steps in a practical way to prevent their growth, and to remedy existing
evils — so far as they are remediable.
THE HOUSING PROBLEM OF THE LOW-INCOME GROUPS1
BY LAWSON PURDY
General Director, Charity Organization Society, City of New York
Housing is often regarded as a problem unrelated to other aspects of
the life of a community. Housing is really one part of the great economic
problem of all time, namely, that of the production and distribution of
wealth.
I suppose that the extent to which man has taken thought for his house
has been a rough measure of his advance in civilization. The actual house
that covers him is but a part of the housing problem. The housing prob
lem is conditioned by the supply of water and a system of sewerage. There
were fine houses in classical times and fine houses in the middle ages for
the rich, but there was not much safety from disease, for adequate drain
age is of very recent date; so is a pure water supply. It is not many years
ago that the general theory was discovered, and yet before that discovery
it was commonly deemed very unsafe on the continent of Europe to drink
water. Water at best was for washing, not for internal use. They did not
know why it was dangerous but they rightly concluded that it was dan
gerous. So in my youth in this country night air was regarded as danger
ous. In the heat of summer prudent persons kept their windows shut. It
was possibly well that they did so, for they excluded the mosquitoes that
would have given them malaria. They did not know why they kept their
windows shut, but there was a reason In most growing cities of the
United States the worst housing conditions are to be found where houses
built for the use of one family are used for many families either with or
without some structural changes. A large majority of the people of the
United States are housed in wooden buildings constructed for the use of one
family. If properly constructed and adequately spaced, they afford very
good homes indeed. When poorly constructed and placed close together
they are insanitary and constitute a serious fire hazard
We have interfered with the production of wealth by tariffs and various
forms of stupid taxes but in spite of these interferences our natural ad
vantages have been so great that the production of wealth has increased at
1 Adapted from "The Housing of the Very Poor" (abstract of a paper read before the
International Housing and Town Planning Congress, Paris), American City, July, 1928.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 605
an amazing speed. We have interfered with the equitable distribution of
this wealth and so have reduced the quantity of production as well as
given to some persons more than they earn, with a consequence that the
other persons have received less than they earn. If all governmental inter
ference were swept away, it would seem to-day that the power to produce
wealth in the United States is so tremendous that every family should be
well housed according to the standards of to-day. We know that they are
not, but that they are well housed on the average according to the stand
ards of not long ago
WHAT OF THE FUTURE?
The United States has been rich enough to house its people fairly well.
It has not been intelligent enough to devise appropriate housing codes, and
zoning only started in 1916. There is a theory in the minds of some that
public money should be used to erect houses for the poorest people. Never
in the history of cities in the United States has it been common for the
poorest people to live in new houses. It is very hard to see why they
should. Because we have permitted the erection of poorly-planned houses
and poorly-constructed houses, our old houses have been unfit to live in;
but according to the standards of to-day they never were fit to live in. We
know now that it costs less per room to construct a well-planned multi-
family house than it does to construct a badly-planned multi-family house,
The badly-planned house that is unsafe in case of fire, that has inadequate
light and air, never is a good house. If the multi-family house is planned
so that every room has adequate windows opening on adequate open
spaces, if the sanitary conveniences are adequate and the house is properly
constructed so that it shall be safe, that house may be a good home for a
hundred years.
There is a terrible economic waste in building badly-planned houses.
There is a great economic gain in building houses to serve efficiently
throughout a longer life.
We only made a beginning in 1916 in the city of New York, and in the
United States generally, to zone our streets so as to avoid the intrusion
into residential areas of buildings the use of which destroys the value for
residential purposes of the houses already there. We have made a begin
ning. We have safeguarded residential areas so that they should continue
to be satisfactory places for residences for a long time to come; in any
event for a longer time than if they were without this protection. With the
wealth we have, we should be able to have an annual crop of new buildings
6o6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sufficient to take care of the increase in population and, in addition, to
furnish space enough to permit the destruction of a large number every
year of the houses which for one reason or another are not reasonably fit
for habitation.
Through governmental means we can bring about the more rapid de
struction of unfit houses, but it seems highly probable under the condi
tions of this country that, if we use public money to erect new ones, we
shall discourage the use of a still larger sum of money by private builders
and so will not hasten the day when any community will be housed as we
would like to see it housed. Short-cuts are attractive, but often they are
the longest way around.
So far as we have a very poor class in our cities, it seems probable that
in the future they will be housed as they have been in the past. I do not
mean that they will be housed in such poor buildings but they will occupy
generally the oldest and poorest buildings. In the borough of Manhattan,
city of New York, the standard of housing for very poor people is shown
by the character of the dwellings of the families under the care of the
Charity Organization Society, of whom there have been usually from 3,000
to 5,000 each year. The normal apartment occupied by these families in
1920 consisted of three rooms and the rent was $14 a month. The housing
shortage had not at that time operated to increase rents by very much.
After that date rents rose very rapidly until in 1926 for the same apart
ments the average rent was $23.96 a month. The tendency to-day is in the
other direction, but is not much shown yet by a decline in rentals.
In a housing shortage we first find a deficiency of apartments vacant,
and apartments in very bad houses occupied at rents about equal to the
rent of the poorest apartments previously occupied. When the housing
shortage became intense and all the apartments were occupied, rents
rose It is obvious that rents will soon go down. With declining
rents and numerous vacancies, the time is not distant when the poorest
houses will be torn down. Each year on the average we build enough
houses to take care of the increase of population and of all the persons who
are removed from houses that are destroyed. The tendency is for a grad
ual move from the bottom toward the top. The more prosperous persons
move into the new houses, the next grade takes the place of those who
have moved, .... Our task is to see that enough houses are built for the
more prosperous persons, that they are so well built and so well planned
that no matter how old they may be they will always be satisfactory
dwellings.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 607
A STANDARD FOR ALL NEW DWELLINGS1
By setting a definite standard below which no dwelling may be erected
standards of housing gradually become higher, for old houses are demol
ished and families move into better homes. John Ihlder, who is executive
director of the Pittsburgh Housing Association, has emphasized the fact
that the poorest house must be fit to live in. Mr. Ihlder states:
.... the improvement of housing conditions, if it is to go far enough to meet
the need adequately, must be based on sound economics. Philanthropic housing,
housing with a deficit, can never serve more than a favored few. Its great con
tribution lies not in what it does for its tenants, but in demonstration of methods
and their results that may be given general application.
There is probably no subject in the social field which contains so much emo
tion as housing. It deals with the family, the essential unit of society. It deals
with children, with whom lies all the future.
England learned how great is the emotional phase of housing when, at the
close of the World War, its soldiers who had fought for their homes returned to
find there were no homes for them. In order to avoid worse troubles, England
embarked upon a great program of government-built dwellings, though it knew
that what it was doing was unsound economically.
We were fortunate in that we had only two years of war with its check on
building, as against England's four years. We again were fortunate in that hav
ing built our cities to care for a great stream of immigration, the war and later
the quota law cut that stream to a driblet. Because of this we had housing ac
commodations, of a sort, to care for our normal increase of population.
So we were able to go through the crisis without a great government house
building program. We were able to continue our dependence upon private enter
prise. We must recognize, however, that private enterprise first met the needs
of the well-to-do. It did this so well that in many cities we are now over-built
in houses costing $8,000 and up. Now private enterprise, in order to keep its
organizations going, is looking for new work, is becoming interested in less ex
pensive dwellings. Every time $500 or $1,000 is cut from the price of a house, a
new market is opened. Gradually we are approaching the condition of before
the war when there was contact between new houses and the poorer old houses
and when, in consequence, there was a steady progression of tenants from bad
to fair to good to better dwellings.
SLUMS AN INCREASED MENACE
But we must hasten this process. Slums and slum dwellings are a greater
menace to America to-day than they were before the war. The immigration
quota, the fact that to-day more than half our population lives in cities and
towns, mean that the majority of Americans from now on, the majority of our
citizens and workers, will be born and reared in our cities
1 From Better Dwellings — Work of the Pittsburgh Housing Association. .
6o8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
THE POOREST HOUSES FIT TO LIVE IN
We must face the fact that there always are people who will accept the cheap
est thing that is offered, no matter how poor it is, no matter how expensive it
will prove in the long run. So, in such a vital matter as housing we must see to
it that the poorest offered is at least a fit place in which to live.
TWELVE HOUSING NEEDS OF AMERICAN CITIES1
BY HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM
Editor, American City
[A summary from addresses at the recent conventions of the Massa
chusetts Federation of Planning Boards, National Association of Civic
Secretaries, Pennsylvania Housing and Town Planning Association, and
Pennsylvania Association of Planning Commissioners.]
1 . A reasonably accurate picture, based on a careful survey kept con
stantly up to date, of what our local housing conditions actually are.
2. A clear-cut assignment and acceptance of obligations for housing
betterment between the municipal government on the one hand and in
dividuals on the other.
3. Vigorous and effective action, by civic and welfare organizations,
as spurs and guides to public and private activity.
4. The adoption and enforcement of building and housing codes which
will require the highest structural and sanitary standards consistent with
reasonable economy in construction costs.
5. The adoption and enforcement of a comprehensive zoning ordinance
which will not allow anti-social or needlessly intensive use of the land in
any part of the community.
6. Accurate assessment of real estate and more scientific use of the
taxing power and of excess condemnation as incentives or aids to adequate
and low-cost housing.
7. Adequate control of new real-estate subdivisions.
8. Intelligent consideration by the city government of the effects on
housing betterment and slum prevention of foresighted city planning,
adequate transportation, and municipal improvements, such as street
widening and paving, playground development, and extensions to the
sewerage system.
9. Maintenance of sanitary and safety standards, including periodic
inspection of multi-family buildings, and education of tenants by the
1 In American City, April, 1930.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 609
health and fire departments; and insistence on the rehabilitation or
demolition of buildings when slum conditions begin to develop.
10. General acceptance by landowners, building developers, and real
tors of the fact that their activities have an inescapable relationship to
the public welfare.
11. Greater willingness by men of means and financial institutions to
invest liberally in large-scale, low-cost housing enterprises, thus helping
to solve the housing problem for the lower economic groups.
12. Realization that adequate and wholesome housing for all its mem
bers is of vital importance to the whole community, and that, if any
families or individuals are unable to pay a fair return upon its cost, proper
housing must nevertheless be provided for them. Any discrepancies be
tween economic rent and ability to pay should be met by additions to in
come, not by reducing rents below an economic level. For those capable
of self-support, the line of progress lies in raising wage-rates and in train
ing for more productive labor; while those who are physically or mentally
incapable of earning a living wage must be frankly accepted as charges
upon the community.
PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY FOR HOUSING1
BY THOMAS ADAMS
Planning Consultant
AND
WAYNE D. HEYDECKER
Acting Director, Regional Plan Association, Inc., New York City
.... There are persons who are unable to pay an economic rent for
healthful housing accommodations. In every state of society at all times
there is a group of persons who cannot pay for such accommodation any
more than they can pay for ample supplies of good food and clothing
Their problem is not really a housing problem but one in which processes
of social readjustment and charity have to be employed to make u*p the
difference between earnings and cost of actual subsistence. It is equally
wrong to describe the plight of this class, in regard to their inability to
pay for decent homes, as a housing problem, as it is to call their lack of
other necessities a food or clothing problem. In the presence of super
abundance of food many have to go without a sufficiency for health. With
more than enough healthful shelter awaiting tenants, many have to live in
1 Adapted from "Housing Conditions in the New York Region," Regional Plan of
New York and Its Environs, VI (1931), 281-84.
6io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
unhealthful quarters. In times of plenty in housing accommodation there
is little lessening of slum evils and overcrowding as compared with times
of scarcity. To the extent that better housing accommodation for those
who suffer from poverty needs to be provided by public aid, it should be
regarded as a charity, for the same reasons that giving food or clothing is a
charity. One of the great mistakes in the past has been in regarding this
charitable work in housing as distinct from other forms of charity. The
confusion which occurs in discussing remedies for housing and the desira
bility or otherwise of applying public aid is largely due to this mistake. No
one can object to giving charity in the form of shelter, as of other necessi
ties. But it cannot be given for housing alone. If it is given as a relief of
rent, as a subsidy toward cost of building, or as tax exemption, then what
ever its direct object or result, it becomes in effect a contribution toward
all necessities of life.
We have to bear this in mind in discussing public aid to housing. Such
aid is necessary so far as public contributions to relieve poverty are neces
sary. The real questions, however, are whether public aid to housing
should be given on some ground of public responsibility for shelter that
does not apply to other necessities, and whether this aid should be dis
pensed among those whose earnings are sufficient to enable them to live
without state aid.
Of course the question of what are sufficient earnings will always be
difficult to determine, and agreement between different schools of political
philosophy will always be impossible. When, however, we are discussing
the giving of state aid in the form of housing to citizens who can be self-
supporting, we are discussing a form of socialism and not of charity.
In many countries socialistic forms of state aid have been given and in
most cases have been mixed up with charity. One of the chief complaints
to be made against these enterprises is that they hardly ever reach those
who need charity and they use funds that should be devoted to charity.
They too often give aid to groups of people whose needs are no greater
than other groups and at the expense of these other groups.
It is not to be ignored, however, that public aid in the improvement
of housing conditions may have to be given in some cases as payment of a
public debt to society. For example, if over many years a public authority
has permitted congested and insanitary building conditions, which are a
menace to public health in general, to grow up in a city, it may be a public
duty to spend the money to get rid of these conditions. Strictly speaking,
this also is not a contribution to housing any more than widening a con-
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 611
gested street to allow traffic to move is a contribution to the motor in
dustry. It is a contribution toward relief of defective structural growth
which society may have to pay for its own protection. Slum clearance
comes to a large extent within the latter category, rather than being a
measure of housing reform. If it were possible to segregate the three prob
lems of housing, poverty and city reconstruction, we should see more
clearly how to attack the housing problem.
Admitting that state or municipal aid is necessary for relief of poverty
or for physical reconstruction of defective parts of a city, is it also de
sirable to give such aid to the provision and improvement of houses for
the vast body of workers who are able to earn means of subsistence? In a
society based on the philosophy of individual liberty and democratic in
stitutions the answer would be no, except in such emergencies as existed
during and after the World War.
Whatever may have been the main object of giving public aid in those
countries where it has been given, it will be found that in every case there
has been a mixture of motives, and some confusion between what is chari
table, what is socialistic, what is an emergency measure, and what is
merely payment of a public debt for past mal-administration of building
growth for which both the public and their officials share responsibility.
PUBLIC AID AND PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
Whatever objections there may be to public aid, it has to be admitted
that in some circumstances no housing improvement is possible without
it. The difficulty is to obtain the improvement without doing more harm
than good. When it is necessary to grant public aid, it should be given as
a last resource after other means of supplying accommodation have failed,
and it should be given in a form that will assist rather than impede private
operations in house building. It may be accepted as an axiom that the
best way to supply new houses for those who can pay for them is by pri
vate enterprise, subject to adequate government control. When, public
aid takes the form of financing the building of houses to rent at less than
is required to meet the reasonable requirements of private investors, this
eliminates private building of such houses. When rents of existing houses
are artificially restricted, the effect is the same. When, however, public
aid is given toward the purchase of land for parks and playgrounds, or to
the construction of public utilities that cannot be made self-supporting,
the result is to stimulate private effort in building.
To withhold public aid toward the building of new houses is not neces-
6i2 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sarily to leave the problem unsolved. It has to be recognized that old
houses represent the largest proportion of dwellings in a city and t*hat a
very large number of the population must always live in old houses. It
is not only impossible to build and rent new houses as a commercial
proposition for the very poor, but also for a substantial proportion of those
whose earnings are adequate to make them self-supporting. In other
words, a large percentage of workingmen who are not in the poverty class
are able to live only in old houses. In these circumstances, it may be
asked, why must the solution of the housing of the very poor consist of
building new houses, when so many who are comparatively well off must
live in old houses? Why should charitable means be employed to sub
sidize new houses for those who can pay least, partly at the cost of those
whose means are insufficient to enable them to live in new houses?
In cases where public bodies cannot provide new houses without giving
charity, it follows that private enterprise cannot do so. It has to be recog
nized that new houses cannot be built to compete with old houses when
there are sufficient of the latter to meet demands. So long as old houses
are required to be healthful, there is no reason to disregard economic con
ditions by forcing the erection of new houses for those who can least afford
them. There will always be large numbers who can afford only the cast-
off houses of those slightly better off than themselves. So long as these
cast-off houses are healthful and not overcrowded on the land, they may
form wholesome accommodation. The public authorities are responsible
for seeing that such houses are made and kept in good habitable condition,
first, by requiring old houses to be kept in good repair, and, second, by
purchasing land to open up congested areas.
Rent restriction. — The granting of financial aid for house building may
interfere with private enterprise less than some forms of restriction. To
restrict rents artificially, however necessary as a temporary expedient,
cannot be regarded as sound from an economic point of view. If carried to
a certain degree, it makes public aid to building a necessity, as has been the
case in England. Proper restrictive measures are those which prevent
abuses and nuisances such as the overcrowding of land with building or
the occupation of unhealthful premises. Where houses conform to proper
health standards, there should be no interference with the law of supply
and demand by government restriction of rents, which inevitably results
in reducing the supply. Where rent restriction has been applied in New
York, its justification has been that the war created an emergency which
had to be met to protect tenants against the greed of landlords. It may
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 613
have been necessary as a temporary measure. In England the restrictions
have been maintained long after the emergency has ceased to exist, and
great numbers of tenants are making large profits there out of other
tenants and out of losses of the landlords, while other great numbers of
tenants have to pay higher rents for unrestricted premises because of the
effect of the restriction in preventing the supply of new houses. The New
York Times, on March 28, 1856, remarked in desperation, in referring to
the greed of landlords, "Our experience, like that of the cities of the Old
World, is that the avarice of capitalists renders governmental interference
for the protection of the poor and the unfortunate an absolute necessity."
Exactly the same propensity was in evidence in 1920, according to
the testimony before the State Housing Commission, and again in 1923.
It appears to make no difference who the landlords are. As one writer
said, "If the tenants of to-day were to become the landlords of to-morrow,
and the landlords the tenants, the same extortion would exist, for it is
inherent in the system." This is precisely what happens. Tenants who
enjoy rent restriction become in effect a protected class having the power
as temporary landlords to make money out of sub-tenants. Avarice can
not be controlled by a law which assumes that it is restricted to one class
of citizens, and protection of the poor cannot be obtained by restrictions
that make building unprofitable as an investment.
Rent restriction was first adopted in America in the District of Colum
bia, by direction of Congress, in 1919. The states of Wisconsin and New
York adopted restrictive measures in 1920. Testimony given in 1923 be
fore the National Housing Conference in Philadelphia and before the New
York State Housing Commission, while conflicting in many respects,
seemed to agree that the acts had been beneficial to tenants in actual
possession, but at the same time were frequently unfair to the landlords
and therefore had served as a deterrent to further building, notwithstand
ing the fact that they applied only to buildings existing at the time of
their adoption.
FORMS OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL AID
When state or municipal aid must be given, the degree and form it
takes will have much to do with the wisdom or propriety of giving it.
Whether or not it should be given depends on what it is given for, how it
is given, and whether general public benefit is obtained as a result. There
is good reason to doubt the methods followed in some countries in building
or subsidizing the building of houses for one group of the community at
6i4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the expense of other groups, and it is equally questionable whether cheap
er money or limited tax exemption can be given an equitable basis.
In connection with the reconstruction of slum areas and the renovation
of blighted districts, much public aid to housing can be undertaken with
out actual subsidizing of house building as a charitable undertaking.
When this reconstruction or renovation is essential for the benefit of the
whole community, it may properly be paid for out of the public purse and
the incidental housing improvement may be welcomed. There are cases
also where a government may properly incur expense to create an object
lesson in better housing. One thing which it is always proper for a govern
ment to do is to purchase land for small parks and playgrounds as a means
of providing more space in congested areas, and it is in this respect that
so much can be done as a means of removing one of the worst defects of
slum districts.
When state or municipal aid is given, it usually takes one or more of
the following forms : First, granting loans at low rates of interest to in
dividuals, public-utility societies or municipalities; second, granting out
right subsidies to individuals or to others for the construction of houses
having a certain standard; third, direct state action to provide houses for
sale or for rent; and fourth, exempting houses of a specified cost and
character from taxation for a limited time.
2. Problems of Housing and Health
FACTORS OF BAD HOUSING THAT CONTRIBUTE
TO ILL HEALTH1
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director of Better Homes in America
.... To remove the forms of ill health which are produced by housing
conditions, we must, therefore, discover the specific cause of each house
disease and remove that cause. This is not easy, because many of the sug
gested correlations are still under dispute, but pending final agreement on
the part of specialists, we must act, as in all other matters of human
policy, upon tentative conclusions which may be accepted as reasonable.
Our problem may first be considered with reference to the types of
houses which have been or may be constructed. Men may live in detached
houses, in semi-detached or row houses, or they may live in flats — de-
1 Adapted from "Bad Housing and 111 Health," National Conference of Social Work
Proceedings, 46th Annual Meeting, Atlantic City, 1919 (Chicago: The Conference, 1920),
pp. 237-41.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 615
tached, semi-detached or in rows — or in block dwellings, tenements, apart
ments, hotels or lodging houses. Of these types mentioned, unquestion
ably the worst, under usual conditions, is the multiple dwelling; and al
though these, if properly planned within and properly placed on the lot,
can be rendered tolerably wholesome, they inevitably contain at best fea
tures which render them far from ideal as places of permanent residences.
Let us take for example the prevailing type of multiple dwelling as
found in our American cities. This is a structure four, five or six stories
high, and perhaps higher, built largely of wood, but with brick exterior,
three or four rooms deep, sharing party walls with similar buildings to
right and left, sharing with its neighbors a narrow court or shaft at the
sides and an ugly yard at the rear filled with clothes lines and drying
clothes, outbuildings and board fences, and probably ash, garbage and
refuse cans, and sharing with its neighbors to the front an ugly, monoto
nous, treeless, dusty paved street. The picture above given, which de
scribes the urban homes of the middle classes, does not describe the homes
of our wage earners who constitute the major part of our urban popula
tion, for to it must be added the inevitable dark hallway, the common
toilet, often located in hall, cellar or yard, the disrepair and the stench
from unclean cellars, halls, yards, from cooking and washing, from un
sanitary plumbing, and from years of careless usage.
Such dwellings as have just been described may contribute to ill health
on the part of their occupants (even though these tenements or apart
ments are newly constructed) in the following ways:
1. Through improper location by building on wet and imperfectly
drained land; the buildings, especially the lower stories, may be damp, and
dampness tends to lower resistance to disease. Or by placing the building
in a highly-exposed position, proper heating in winter season may be im
possible for many rooms and such exposure may reduce resistance.
2. Through the characteristic use of wood for interior, if not exterior,
construction, tenants are exposed to a continuous fire risk. Few tene
ments or apartment houses have more than one fireproof means of egress,
if any is provided, so each family is continuously exposed by the careless
ness of all the other families in the building. A tenement-house fire may
mean not only the possibility of death from burning, but also the greater
probability of suffocation or accident. Perhaps the form of ill health which
is most lasting in its effects is occasioned by fright, which may cause sleep
lessness or even permanent nervous impairment.
3. Through defective structure or bad repair there may be continuous
6i6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
danger to life and limb from accident. Winding stairs take their annual
toll in broken limbs ; rotten flooring, insecure railings of stairs and piazzas
or fire escapes insecurely attached are causes of many of the diseases tech
nically classified as traumatic.
4. Through defective orientation with reference both to the points of
the compass and to neighboring buildings, tenants may be deprived of
sunshine and even of adequate light. Many of our cities have planned,
and continue to plan, streets running due east and west. If the apartments
are built up to their side-lot lines, approximately half of their rooms are
sunless. The absence of sunshine generally means dampness, cheerless-
ness, and for those thousands of flats which have no sunlighted room a
reduced resistance and an increased exposure to disease, for sunshine is an
effective germicide as well as a promoter of improved metabolism. The
sunless room or apartment facing the north or facing a narrow court or
yard shadowed by neighboring buildings is, therefore, a favorable medium
for the transmission of certain respiratory diseases.
5. Through excessive height, for high buildings may contribute to ill
health, not only by increasing the fire risk and shutting out sunshine as
above mentioned, but also by necessitating stair climbing, which is a
hardship to the aged and a limitation to the play activities of the very
young, and often a source of pain, if not positive danger, to women who
are about to become mothers. Tenement houses have no elevators and,
hence, persons in poor health living above the second floor, to avoid stair
climbing, will do without out-of-door exercise which is essential to their
health.
6. Through the crowding of many families in the same building, shar
ing the same halls and perhaps the same toilets, the chances of exposure to
certain infectious and contagious diseases are increased. The common
stair railing touched by all who go in or out is a fomes by which common
colds or other diseases of the respiratory system may be transmitted via
the hands of the infected person to the hands of the new victim. The un
washed hand may soon be carried to the mouth and the infection accom
plished. Though this mode of transmission is perhaps less serious than the
common hand towel or drinking glass, it is not negligible, especially where
halls are dark, for the railing is more used in such halls and sunlight does
not exercise its germicidal action.
7. Through crowding of population within the tenement, block, or dis
trict, for, whether among rich or poor, density of population further adds
to ill health by the nervous wear and tear which it entails. It is difficult to
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 617
secure relief from the noises made by your neighbor, who insists upon
moving around his furniture late at night, or walks the floor with his cry
ing baby, or plays his pianola, victrola or cornet during the hours when
you wish to concentrate upon your work or to sleep. Moreover, where
there is large population there must be considerable traffic of persons re
turning home or delivering goods or making visits, and such traffic means
noise, which in turn means nervous fatigue and sleeplessness. As sleep is
essential to the repair of the body after the fatigue and wear and tear of
the day's activities, the sleeplessness entailed by crowded living must be
considered one of the most serious of the sources of reduced resistance or
ill health on the part of the tenement dweller.
8. Through crowding of rooms. Crowding may be caused by shortage
of housing, poverty, or ignorant racial habit. It almost inevitably means
increased opportunities for a communication of disease, either by direct
contact, fomites or droplet infection. Where there is crowding of lodgers
in the same apartment with the family there are reduced opportunities for
privacy and perhaps for the accepted decencies of life, which may be an
occasion in conjunction with other causes for immorality with its train of
sexual diseases, or for excessive sexual stimulation, especially on the part
of the adolescent, resulting in perversions or neurasthenic tendencies.
9. Through inadequate plumbing or the use of undesirable or defective
fixtures which may mean reduced cleanliness and in various ways in
creased opportunity for transmission of diseases. Lack of water supply
within an apartment makes personal cleanliness and house cleaning dif
ficult. Broken or imperfectly trapped fixtures mean that occupants must
continually breathe sewer gas. Though sewer gas has been determined to
be free of bacteria, its presence in an apartment leads to discomfort, re
duced appetite and imperfect nutrition, and in extreme cases to nausea.
Where fixtures must be shared by several families there is danger of trans
mission of venereal diseases and of body parasites.
10. Through poor ventilation. The habitual use of windowless rooms,
of rooms on narrow closed courts, or even of rooms having only one win
dow, where, for reasons of privacy the door must be kept closed, means at
least discomfort from hot, humid, stale air and probably reduced re
sistance to disease.
11. Through poor lighting. Dark rooms cause ill health in a variety of
ways. In the first place, a room which is dark is likely to be dirty, because
the dirt cannot be seen. Such dirt may contain disease germs, and may
contaminate hands or throat and lungs. Families living and working in
6i8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
imperfectly lighted rooms are likely also to suffer from eyestrain. When
members of the family do housework, sew or read in such rooms for long
periods, there may result permanent impairment of the vision, of which
chronic headaches are the usual symptom. Careful experiments by the
Boston Board of Health have demonstrated that the germs of tuberculosis
can retain their virulence in such rooms for a period of more than two
months. As a great many deaths in America are from tuberculosis
and as there are a number of living cases in our population for each death,
and as also the tenement-house population changes residence frequently,
the chances of transmission of this disease from one family to another
should not be considered negligible, though other methods of transmission
of this disease are more common. If, as is frequently the case, all of the
rooms of a tenement are gloomy, the resistance of those members of the
family who are forced to pass their days in the home is almost certain to
be reduced, for human beings, like plants, need sunshine for vigorous
growth. Experiments seem to indicate that living in gloomy quarters, es
pecially where accompanied by lack of exercise, results in a reduction of
the phagocytic power of the blood; that is the power to destroy germ
organisms, and an anemic condition also may result.
12. Through improper equipment. Defective or imperfect equipment
may injure health in a variety of ways. A sink which is set too low means
back strain for the housekeeper. A leaky stove may endanger the lives of
the tenants from carbon monoxide. Defective gas fixtures may cause poi
soning and defective electric wiring may cause danger to life from fire or
shock. Careless insertion of plumbing or heating fixtures may make it
possible for vermin and insect pests which are disease carriers to pass from
the apartments of careless tenants to those of careful housekeepers. Lack
of screens or defective screening may expose to mosquitoes, which are
bearers of malaria, or to flies, which may be carriers of typhoid fever in
cities where modern plumbing is not universal, or of the intestinal infec
tions of infants.
13. Finally, the proximity of the tenement to the factory may mean
poisoning of the air by chemical gases, mineral dust or soot, causing throat
irritation and reduced resistance to respiratory diseases, as well as in
creased work for the overburdened housewife in keeping her curtains clean
and her home free from dust.
The effects of the discomfort of an uncongenial environment are cumu
lative. Continuous living in such quarters tends to produce irritability,
anemia and lassitude, or what is popularly called the "Slum Disease."
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 619
Some of the undesirable features in house construction which have
been mentioned are actually reducing resistance or causing disease to the
vast majority of the persons now living in multiple dwellings and are
inherent in that type of dwelling. In comparison with the multiple dwell
ing the detached house is far more conducive to high resistance and good
health. With a little attention to planning, it can be made structurally
safe and every room can be well lighted, well ventilated and equipped for
the comfort and convenience of its occupants. For families with children
it is the ideal place of residence, as it makes possible not only good health,
but opportunities for protection from undesirable associates. It also
makes possible supervised play activities and through the household gar
den offers the children opportunity for familiarity with plants and flowers
— an essential part of every child's education.
BAD HOUSING AND INFANT MORTALITY
The United States Children's Bureau has made a number of studies
which show a close relationship between high infant mortality rates and
bad housing. It is obvious that other factors such as low standards of
living induced by poverty affect these mortality rates, yet the figures
indicate that bad housing is a contributing cause.
The Manchester, New Hampshire, study shows an infant mortality
rate of 236.6 per 1,000 births in tenements with seven or more families. In
single-family dwellings the rate was but 86.1. The study in Waterbury,
Connecticut, also shows that the infant mortality rate increased in pro
portion to the number of tenants per dwelling. The mortality rate for
alley houses was 172.0 against 120.6 for houses facing the street. Room
congestion also affected the rate.
The Johnstown, Pennsylvania, study made by the Bureau again in
dicates the influence of bad housing on infant mortality. The Bureau
studied the infant mortality rate in relation to both dry and damp houses.
In the former the rate was 122.5 Per 1,000 births while in damp houses it
was as high as 156.7 per 1,000. For a total of 1,389 infants living at least
one month, the infant mortality rate was 28.1 where the babies slept in
rooms well ventilated and 169.2 for houses where rooms were considered
poorly ventilated. The Johnstown study also revealed a higher infant
mortality rate in those houses where water had to be carried into the
house and also where there were no bathtubs.
620 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
HEALTH AND HOUSING1
BY WAYNE D. HEYDECKER
Acting Director, Regional Plan Association, Inc.,
New York City
When the Committee on the Regional Plan of New York four or five
years ago began its study to determine how residential areas should be
developed in the New York Region, it was confronted with a lack of
standards of density and of use — not merely for residences, but for other
structures that come in close proximity to residences. An attempt was
made, therefore, to analyze the factors held by the courts to justify the
employment of the police power in zoning. Our courts hold that the
police power, as is well known, can be employed only to promote and
protect health, safety, morals and the general welfare.
The first thing we did was to analyze the problem of density of oc
cupancy — and, in particular, residential occupancy — with regard for
these four factors.
The New York City Health Department figures showed some interest
ing contradictions. The sickness rate per thousand from such diseases as
measles, mumps, chicken pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc., was much
less in the areas where the density was 200,000 persons per square mile
than in districts where the density was much lower. Not only that, but
the number of fatalities arising from motor vehicle accidents was much
less proportionately in the congested areas. The pneumonia and tuber
culosis rates showed similar divergencies. A closer study revealed that the
East Side youngsters not only do not get hit so often by motor trucks, but,
when they do get hit, do not die, to the same extent as others.
This prompted us to make further inquiry of the Health Department
to ascertain the reason for this phenomenon. It appears that inherited
resistance to disease, inherited stamina, and inherited vitality resulting
from a long process of survival of the strongest under bad conditions in
older civilizations have built up a high resistance, or immunity, in the
people who have occupied the districts affected. Therefore, in any study
of city-wide rates, there must be taken into consideration those factors of
racial resistance that are found in certain districts.
DARK ROOMS AND TUBERCULOSIS
In Chicago in 1916 an effort was made by the Commissioner of Health
to establish relationship between dark rooms and tuberculosis and similar
1 Address before the Tenth National Conference on Housing, Philadelphia, June
28-30, 1929, published in Housing Problems in America (National Housing Assoc.,
1929), pp. 125-33.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 621
bronchial infections. Careful measurements of light intensities in several
thousand rooms, correlated with the frequency of tuberculosis and other
illnesses in those same rooms, failed to reveal what it was expected such
comparisons would reveal. Health Commissioner Robertson said of this
study :
So far as our figures are concerned, we can see no way to connect directly
high records in the number of tuberculosis cases with high records in the num
ber of interior rooms. No one likes dark rooms, and there seems to be no de
fense of them, but with the ideas that prevail about germ diseases, we cannot
write them down as the chief cause in the spreading of disease.
In Detroit a few years ago Deputy Health Commissioner W. F. Walker
prepared a series of charts showing the frequency of disease in the various
sections of the city. These likewise failed to reveal the direct relationship
that had been expected. Certain definite correlations were established,
but these were not of primary importance.
Mr. Walker did make an important contribution, however. As a result
of studying a number of cases where rickets had occurred in tenement
building, he ascertained that the average intensity of light within the
rooms in which rickets occurred was less than one-half of one per cent of
the outside daylight intensity at the same time; whereas examinations of
numerous other rooms of the same kind — in which light in excess of that
average percentage was found — revealed an absence of rickets. No one
can say, however, on the basis of Mr. Walker's examinations, that one-
half of one per cent of the outside light intensity within a room is sufficient
to prevent the development of rickets; but it is an indication that may
have considerable significance.
HEALTH AND DENSITY OF POPULATION
Medical evidence has in the past generally asserted a correlation of
health to density. A comparative study of figures from 71 cities in the
United States brought out other interesting facts. Mortality rates were
plotted against acreage of parks per 1000 persons, the mileage of water
and sewer pipes per 1000 persons, and the area of acreage of parks and
streets, and the mileage of streets, with these results:
Park area per 1000 persons apparently does not affect the mortality
rate, for there is no indication that the mortality rate falls with increased
park area.
There appears however to be a relation between mortality rates and
sewer and water-pipe mileage. The mortality rate falls as the per capita
mileage of water and sewer pipe increases.
622 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The mortality rate falls as the total acreage of streets and parks in
creases, though it does not vary directly with the presence or absence of
parks.
It seems fair to assume, therefore, that the distances separating build
ings as shown by the ratios between mileage of water pipe, mileage of
sewers, acres of streets and the mortality rate, do affect the mortality
rate.
THE VALUE OF LIGHT
An examination made in 1924 and 1925 of a vast amount of medical
literature brought out some interesting facts with respect to light. A
preponderance of medical testimony with respect to the value of light
establishes the following: that sunlight is one of the most effective bac
tericidal agents known; that sunlight carefully administered will not only
cure rickets and surgical tuberculosis, but will prevent their occurrence;
that sunlight is a great stimulus to health, causing chemical changes in the
skin and blood and increasing cheerfulness ; that the heat of the sun rather
than its light is responsible for most of the ill effects noted from over ex
posure; that all sunlight acts as a tonic; that ordinary window glass niters
out or excludes most of the beneficial short ultra-violet rays; but that the
lower ranges of ultra-violet will pass through ordinary window glass and
kill bacteria if sufficient exposure is given.
Some negative evidence with respect to the value of sunlight was dis
covered, but the great preponderance of medical testimony is on the side
of its positive value.
Ventilation was studied to some extent, but the report of the New York
State Commission on Ventilation was so conclusive that it was deemed
unnecessary to go further. That report contains several statements of
significance to this discussion. The first is, that early sanitarians over
emphasized the importance of pure air and the harmful effects of carbon
dioxide; that foul air however does affect the appetite and the work out
put; that it is overheated air which is really deleterious; that good room
ventilation requires a temperature of 68 degrees, or less, without the pro
duction of chilling drafts.
Some examination was made as to the restful effects of grass, trees and
shrubbery.
The best report on the relation of public morals to overcrowding was
written by one of the justices of the municipal court of the city of New
York, and published in full in a report of the State Commission on Hous
ing and Regional Planning. This showed a direct relationship between
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 623
public morals and room overcrowding — a fact which is not news. It also
showed a relationship between room overcrowding and land overcrowd
ing, which is directly related to the problem of zoning.
The results of an examination of the number of cases of reportable in
fectious diseases by weeks in the city of New York over a period of eight
years compared with the reported sunshine and recorded temperature in
the city of New York during the same period indicates similar interesting
correlations. The total number of reportable infectious diseases rises
rapidly at the beginning of each year to a high point in February; and
then usually falls off, reaching a low point about September ist, and rising
again in the autumn.
The amount of sunlight available is directly the reverse — low in Janu
ary, rising to a high point in June and July and beginning to fall off in the
autumn. As a matter of fact, there is a lag of about 30 to 45 days between
the high point of sunlight and the lowest point in the disease curve, and a
similar lag between the lowest point in the sunshine curve and the highest
point in the morbidity curve.
The entire field was thus canvassed to determine what, if any, rela
tionship exists between density of occupancy and health and welfare and
zoning.
Out of all this mass of material, one fact stands out clearly, the value
of light and of sunlight in particular.
How to get this valuable gift of Nature into our buildings is the ques
tion. Records of the Weather Bureau show that the United States is
fortunate in the amount of sunlight available. In New York City over a
period of 50 years, the sun shone 59 per cent of the time when it would
have been possible for it to have cast a shadow. In Philadelphia the figure
was 57 per cent of the time. Just east of New York, on Long Island, we
have in the New York Region the high point of sunshine on the Atlantic
Coast — 78 per cent of possible sunshine, exceeded only by the area in the
southwestern part of the United States, near Flagstaff, Arizona, and El
Paso, Texas.
Detailed astronomical calculations were made to determine the length
of shadow cast by buildings of various kinds, and the area of the sunlight
upon the floor of the room through a given window of standard size for
each 3o-minute interval throughout the day These studies show
that it is possible to guarantee one-half hour of noon sunlight, or its
equivalent in sunlight intensity, morning and afternoon, in every room
624 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
of every dwelling 25 feet square, without using more land than is cus
tomary in our usual subdivisions with lots 40 feet by 100.
PLANNING FOR SUNLIGHT
As a matter of fact, planning for sunlight, placing the buildings as close
together as is possible but guaranteeing sunlight, results in an economy of
land use — provided it is done with scientific accuracy. If you try shortcut
rule of thumb methods, you will find that they take more land. The ques
tion of whether or not the labor involved in any given case is a saving, is
determined by the cost of the land.
Different spacings of buildings result from different street orientations;
and lot layouts must be very different from those to which we are ac
customed. Sunlight planning will result in shallower lots with wider front
ages. It necessitates a reconstruction of our ideas as to what constitutes
a proper lot-unit, but the fact remains that it is possible to provide sun
light penetration in houses. At the time these studies were made, none of
the glasses transmitting ultra-violet rays was on the market. To-day there
are several.
Further studies were made with respect to the possibility of substitut
ing skylight for direct sunlight or sunshine. Records of the Weather
Bureau show that there is a great deal of ultra-violet intensity in skylight
— more when the sun is low in the horizon — and it was established that for
windows facing north, the window area should be increased about 50 per
cent. Thus, for example, if we take as a standard a window 3 feet wide by
4! feet high, we must increase to 4^ feet square the size of the window
facing the north, in order to assure to it a skylight intensity over the
whole day equivalent in ultra-violet rays to the standard window that
gets direct sunshine.
This subject has aroused so much interest among planning boards in
the New York Region that two communities in recent months have de
termined to amend their zoning ordinances so as to guarantee that the
window area of every room shall equal 15 per cent of the floor area it
serves. One community is going so far as to require, for every window in a
business building, factory or residence, an unobstructed angle of light of
45 degrees from the zenith to the highest obstructing wall.
That, we feel, is progress.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 625
SUMMARY
The housing problem may be divided into two parts : first, the secur
ing of proper conditions of land development, control of surroundings, dis
tribution of residential growth; second, the physical house. The latter is
often considered the whole problem. The outstanding defects in houses
are: (i) lack of light, (2) lack of ventilation, (3) lack of safety in case of
fire, (4) poor planning and construction, and (5) high costs. Poor methods
of subdividing property have provided lots too narrow and too deep for
satisfactory house planning and for proper light and ventilation. Slums
have developed in small sections of many large cities.
The poorest people never live in new houses. For this reason there
should be sufficient numbers of new houses built annually in order to
furnish space to allow for the demolishing of old houses unfit for habita
tion. The task is to see that houses built for more prosperous families are
well planned and well constructed in order that they will, when old, be
reasonably satisfactory for those who must occupy them. By setting a
standard below which no dwelling may be erected the whole standard of
housing gradually becomes higher. In every state of society there are per
sons unable to pay an economic rent for healthful housing accommoda
tions. This is not a housing problem and should be remedied by charity
and prevented by constructive social policy. When public aid is essen
tial it should be given as a last resource and in a form that will assist
rather than impede private enterprise. So long as old houses are required
to be healthful there is no reason for disregarding economic conditions by
forcing the erection of new ones for those who cannot afford them. Public
authorities are responsible for demanding that old houses be kept in good
habitable condition. When state or municipal aid is given it takes one
of four forms: (i) granting loans at low rates of interest to individuals,
public-utility societies, or municipalities; (2) granting outright subsidies
to individuals or to others for the construction of houses having a certain
standard; (3) direct state action providing houses for sale or rent; (4) ex
empting houses of a specified cost and character from taxation for a
limited time.
Houses may contribute to ill health through (i) improper location of
building on wet or poorly drained land, (2) fire risk, (3) unsafe and defec
tive structures, (4) defective orientation, (5) excessive height of neighbor
ing buildings which shut off light and air, (6) overcrowding in the same
building, (7) land-overcrowding, (8) room congestion, (9) inadequate
plumbing, (10) lack of or improper ventilation, (n) poor lighting, (12)
626 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
poor and inadequate equipment, (13) unhealthful location in an undesir
able residential district. There appears to be a direct relationship between
infant mortality rates and congestion and infant mortality rates and poor
ventilation.
In analyzing health and housing factors racial resistance should be
considered. A comparative study of figures of seventy-one cities showed
a falling mortality rate with an increasing sewer and water-pipe mileage ;
also a falling mortality rate with an increasing acreage of streets and
parks. The conclusion is that the distances separating buildings affect the
mortality rate. The great preponderance of medical testimony shows the
positive values of sunlight. Sixty-eight degrees or less is proper for room
ventilation. Infectious diseases increase as the amount of sunshine de
creases. From all evidence gathered the value of light and sunlight is of
great importance. Studies show that it is possible to obtain a half-hour of
noon sunlight or its equivalent in sunlight intensity in every room of every
dwelling 25 feet square without using more land than is customary in
usual subdivisions with lots 40 by 100 feet. Sunlight planning will result
in shallower lots with wider frontages. Studies also show ultra-violet light
in skylight. This should also affect window areas.
REFERENCES
ARONOVICI, CAROL. Housing and the Housing Problem. Chicago: A. C. McClurg
& Co., 1920.
BEDFORD, SCOTT E. W. Readings in Urban Sociology. New York: D. Appleton
& Co., 1927.
The housing problem — causes and results of bad housing conditions, including over
crowding in relation to health (pp. 461-87).
FORD, JAMES. "Good Housing for Families of Modest Means." Scientific Month
ly, XXVIII (April, 1929), 322-27.
— . "Improved Housing as a Means of Crime Prevention." Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science (Philadelphia, May, 1926).
HEYDECKER, WAYNE D., and GOODRICH, ERNEST B. "Sunlight and Daylight
for Urban Areas," Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, Vol. VII:
Neighborhood and Community Planning. New York: Regional Plan of New
York and Its Environs, 1929. Pp. 141-209.
NATIONAL HOUSING ASSOCIATION (105 E. Twenty-second St., New York City).
Housing (quarterly).
VEILLER, LAWRENCE. The Housing Problem in the United States. Pub. 61. New
York: National Housing Association, 1930. Pp. 31.
OUTSTANDING HOUSING PROBLEMS 627
Housing Reform. New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910.
Russell Sage Foundation publication.
WOOD, ARTHUR EVANS. Community Problems. New York: Century Co., 1928.
General housing problems (pp. 33-47).
WOOD, EDITH ELMER. The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1919.
Housing conditions (pp. 29-59).
— . "How To Get Better Houses." Journal of Home Economics, XVI (Jan
uary-February, 1924), 4-9, 65-71.
CHAPTER XIX
IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH
CITY PLANNING AND ZONING
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF CITY PLANNING1
Although every city is adjusted somewhat to the topography or natural
features of the land on which it is built, and to the convenience and needs
of its citizens, the inhabitants of most cities heedlessly get themselves into
all sorts of unnecessary tangles in their use of land. This happens because
to no one is assigned the responsibility of looking around or ahead when
a street is extended or cut off, or when blocks are built up one after another
with no space left for parks and playgrounds. Streets are laid out in hilly
districts with little or no regard for easy grades and low cost of construc
tion and maintenance, or for economy in grading lots and building houses
upon them. Ill-arranged blocks and sporadic dwellings on lowlands near
the railroads stand in the way of expanding industries. River fronts,
which are of the greatest worth to a city for parks or boulevards flanked
by fine buildings are used for junk yards or for back yards which are little
better in appearance, and ravines which would make ideal parks are used
for ash dumps.
Good city planning aims to bring about order in the physical develop
ment of a city, town, or village. It brings the city government and its
citizens together in preparing for their own future needs and for the
probable requirements of their commerce and industries. A city or town
is a place in which to live, to work, and to play, and should be planned
systematically with these ends in mind, just as the location of buildings
on a factory site is carefully determined.
In any community the local government, which means the organized
citizenship, controls so much land in streets and public places, usually
from 25 to 40 per cent of the total area, that it holds the key to the situa
tion. Many communities double their population every 20 or 30 years,
and the local authorities through their control of new developments, or
lack of control, can largely determine for good or for bad the conditions
that affect not only the present but coming generations.
1 Adapted from A City Planning Primer. Division of Building and Housing, U.S.
Department of Commerce, 1028.
628
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 629
In practically all cities in the United States large public and private
investments are made each year in constructing buildings, streets, and
public-utility lines and plants. Within 20 or 30 years the parts of cities
now built up will probably have been largely rebuilt. Hence, carrying
out a city plan does not usually start with bond issues to cover improve
ments on a grand scale. The city government simply allots its expendi
tures so that each improvement represents a part of a logical plan. Under
a wisely drawn city plan, for example, the yearly street-paving work con
tributes toward a network of well-paved major streets instead of adding a
series of unconnected units. In the case of new subdivisions, good plan
ning assures that the new streets and improvements, made largely at the
expense of the private developers, go in the right place.
City planning may be good or bad. It is good where it is based on a
good plan and where public and private developments are in harmony,
with that plan. Bad planning is less often the result of a bad plan than of
piecemeal planning, when the layout of a new subdivision, the location of
a public building, and so on, are regarded as separate problems without
regard to the layout of the city as a whole. There is always city planning
going on in every town, be it good, bad, or incomplete. It is not possible,
therefore, for a community ever to say truthfully that it is not interested
in city planning.
WHAT IS A CITY PLAN?
A comprehensive city plan with its maps and notes lies at the founda
tion of every good city-planning program. Since orderly development is
the objective, the plan must anticipate probable future needs of the com
munity well in advance as well as record existing development. Preparing
the plan, therefore, involves studies of the trend of growth in residential,
business, and industrial uses of land and the most desirable directions for
such growth. It should include a good zoning ordinance to minimize con
flicting and mutually injurious uses of land. It is concerned vitally with
movement of all types to and from the city and within it, and therefore
deals with major thoroughfares; street railways; bus lines, and other
forms of rapid transit; railways, waterways, and harbor developments;
and public utility plants, mains, conduits, and wires.
All comprehensive city plans give a prominent place to recreational
facilities, particularly parks, parkways, and playgrounds. Finally, the
plan deals with the general location of public buildings of all types, in
cluding the city hall, schools, and fire and police stations.. The main
630
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
features of the plan will ordinarily be stable, but it can and should be
amended and developed as changing conditions demand. In a hundred
different ways a city plan provides for better living conditions, better
business, and a more attractive and agreeable city in which to live and do
business.
FIG. 72. — Before. Conditions adjoining Main St., White Plains, N.Y., before con
struction of the Bronx River Parkway. (Courtesy of Planned Progress and Westchester
County Park Commission, N.Y.)
HOW IS THE PLAN GIVEN EFFECT?
The plan is given effect by actions of both the city government and its
citizens. Usually a city-planning commission is set up and given advisory
powers, with general responsibility for seeing that the plan is prepared
and carried out. With the commission's advice, the city council and the
city departments are the agencies which actually authorize and construct
streets and other public works, acquire parks and playgrounds, and locate
and erect public buildings. The council must enact the zoning ordinance
before it becomes effective and the executive branch enforces it. The
planning commission itself is usually given some authority over the layout
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 631
of new streets in subdivisions. It also keeps the plan up to date and in
forms public-utility companies, business concerns, and private citizens of
the principal features of the plan so that they may plan their utilization
of land and construction in harmony with it.
FIG. 73. — After. The Bronx River Parkway, which is 165 miles long, has completely
transformed the Bronx River Valley. (Courtesy of Planned Progress and Westchester
County Park Commission, N.Y.)
PLANNING RESTS ON LEGAL BASIS
Every square foot of land within a municipality is impressed with
legal qualities, which are often more lasting than pavements or buildings
or other physical structures. Once a strip of land becomes dedicated to
the public as a street or park it is likely to remain a street or park for
centuries. Sites for schools and other public buildings, owned by the city,
commonly long remain its property. Privately-owned land may receive
a legal impress of more or less enduring character through limitations
imposed by a zoning ordinance. The location of street railways, sewers,
water-supply systems, gas and electric conduits, and overhead wires is
based on legal sanctions.
632 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The legal status given to land within a city forms the basis of a plan,
whose value to the community depends mainly on the forethought that
was used in the past in assigning legal qualities to land. Good and bad
decisions become so embodied by force of law and by physical works that
follow, that in many cases it is impracticable to alter them. Wise decisions
now and in years to come depend mainly on proper planning, so that each
step taken will be in accord with a consistent general scheme.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation enters into practically every phase of city planning,
and a thorough study of the present and prospective daily movements of
people, motor vehicles, and goods must be undertaken before the other
phases may be worked out in detail. The principal object of the street
system, for example, is to provide for free movement of people and goods;
parks and recreation facilities should be easily reached by those who use
them. The zoning plan and the street plan are interdependent, for the
traffic on streets varies materially with the use of land fronting on them.
Certain parts of the city should be easily accessible to other parts, and to
transportation terminals. The location of street railways, bus lines, rail
ways, waterways, and their terminals is itself one of the most important
planning problems.
THE STREET PLAN
The local government of a community controls the streets, which are
its arteries. If they are adequate for present and prospective use they
permit a free flow of the traffic, which is the community's life blood. If
they are carelessly or inadequately laid out, they may, and frequently do,
bring about serious and costly congestion.
A comprehensive plan furnishes a program for street changes and de
velopment, with the most urgent steps first on the list. It shows what
land must be preserved for principal streets and how the opening of new
streets will affect traffic elsewhere. It enables transportation companies
and business men to place terminals and new buildings at strategic points,
where the traffic can be efficiently handled. It aids in making parks and
playgrounds accessible to those who want to use them.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE STREET SYSTEM
A system of wide, well-arranged thoroughfares is basic to good city
planning. They should lead from the central part of the city to outlying
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 633
territory, and there should be belt streets affording direct travel between
one section and another without passage through the central business
district. Nothing preventable should be allowed to interfere with the
choice of the best routes for the main arteries of travel. Without a city
plan and the machinery to enforce it, a whole section of a city may be
crippled, and inconveniences may be heaped on thousands of people for
years to come, by a new residential development in which the blocks run
the wrong way or the main streets are too narrow, or by the arbitrary
location of a factory or a cemetery.
If some cities were permitted by the Federal Government to develop
their harbors on the same principles that they use in developing their land,
extension of piers and other obstructions would soon make their channels
impassable. An automobile map of a modern city and its environs will
disclose to anyone not already convinced by disturbing experiences the
expensive delays now put upon both the passer-through and the town
resident himself by a lack of wise foresight in planning in the past.
The determination of principal routes for present and prospective
traffic permits a consistent scheme for city development to be laid out to
accommodate industry, business, and residence. The streets and thorough
fares to be used most can then be improved easily within a few years by
applying each year's appropriations for paving in the right places. With
out planning, heavy traffic is often diverted to less direct routes, because
of isolated sections of good or bad pavement, and such a diversion may
break down the light pavements on streets that would normally be but
little used.
THE APPROACHES TO THE CITY
Under modern conditions, a community may be approached by high
way, by railroad, by watercourse, by airway, or by a combination of these
four methods. Highway approaches are of enormous importance in these
days of the automobile, and thought should be given as to whether roads
shall lead only through the heart of the town or shall avoid congested dis
tricts by appropriate by-passes. Railroads are usually the basic means of
contact between the city and the outside world. Their freight terminals,
spurs, and sidings should be located and arranged for economical handling
and trucking of the city's outgoing products, and of incoming food,
merchandise, building materials, and raw products for industry. Passen
ger stations, or a single union station, if considered practicable, should be
convenient and well served by local transit facilities. Property bordering
the tracks should be well maintained and give a creditable impression of
634 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the community to passengers entering and leaving. Water approaches
may be made effective in serving commerce, and where that is not prac
ticable, may be made invaluable in serving the health and pride of the
community. The air approach involves landing fields, which, if properly
provided and located, may be of great advantage.
THE CENTRAL BUSINESS AND SHOPPING DISTRICT
Free movement to the central business and shopping district concerns
the entire community, the housewife, and the merchant alike. Certain
businesses naturally seek locations in central districts, which are accessible
to, and commonly visited by, persons from the entire city and surrounding
territory. Such are central banks, large department stores, certain hotels
and principal theaters, the offices of the local government, and certain
specialty shops.
On account of the great numbers of people traveling to and within this
area each day its sidewalks should be broad. Retail stores want traffic
movement facilitated and traffic congestion diminished, to protect the
safety and convenience of their customers and employees, and to reduce
delays in the trucking of the goods they receive and deliver.
Conditions in the central business district can not be improved over
night. By-passing of through traffic around the business district has
proved effective for relieving traffic congestion, but it may be necessary
to extend "dead-end" streets or to separate cross traffic at main intersec
tions by means of viaducts or subways. Grade crossings of railroad tracks
may need to be eliminated, or new crossings constructed, or new bridges
may be desirable. The necessity for such expensive undertakings in the
future may be avoided or diminished by a well-considered city plan. Ade
quate provision for rapid transit should be made in the plans of communi
ties which are approaching or which have arrived at the conditions justi
fying such facilities.
Some light manufacturing or other uses of property may derive little
or no special advantage from being in the central business district and at
the same time may make for its unprofitable congestion. Owners of such
establishments may be encouraged to move elsewhere by being shown the
advantages of more suitable locations and by a proper zoning ordinance
operating over a period of years. Moving of terminals or shifting of the
wholesale district is sometimes a practical way to lessen traffic difficulties.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 635
WHOLESALE AND WAREHOUSE DISTRICTS
Wholesale and warehouse districts, under ideal conditions, should be
located directly between the water or railroad terminals and the manufac
turing or commercial area which they serve. Too frequently, however,
trucking to and from the terminal may have to pass through the most
crowded part of the central retail business district. This is neither econo
my nor common sense. A good city plan is a means of insuring against a
repetition of mistakes.
INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS
Heavy industrial plants usually require sites with railway sidings and,
perhaps, a water front, yet convenient for employees to reach from their
homes. In a well-planned city, residential development tends to leave
such districts free and unbroken for use by industry. Light industries are
more concerned with trucking facilities and with sites accessible to a large
number of workers. A city gets along much better when homes and in
dustry are kept separate but are at the same time easily accessible to each
other.
PRODUCE MARKETS
The handling of perishable foodstuffs from their arrival in a city by
freight car or truck to scattered retail stores is a very complex problem.
If the distribution is prompt and efficient the people can obtain their food
fresher and at lower prices. A well-planned wholesale market, accessible
to cars from all railroads and to the trucks of local farmers, is usually the
first item. It permits quick inspection of goods by buyers, and cheap
handling and loading, without cartage delays. Up-to-date cold-storage
facilities should be near by. In too many cities the produce markets
grow up and are shifted about in a hit-and-miss fashion and are awkward
ly arranged or become badly scattered. They are often so situated that
the vehicles passing to and from them add unnecessarily to street traffic
congestion. In many cases, indeed, the loading vehicles stand in public
streets and practically shut off all other traffic.
LOCATION OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS — CIVIC CENTERS
The dignity and attractiveness of a community and the convenience of
its citizens may be served by thoughtful location of public and semipublic
buildings. These will ordinarily include the city hall, courthouse, public
library, art museum, churches, high schools, and, perhaps, university
636 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
buildings. Each building of this type becomes more impressive when part
of a well-arranged group, especially when it can be seen from long street
approaches. But in such an arrangement special care should be taken to
preserve a practicable street plan. In smaller communities the principal
public buildings may form a single group, while in larger cities there may
be a principal civic center, a principal educational and art center, and a
number of outlying community centers.
RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS
In most communities the district where the people dwell are far greater
in area than those in which they work and do business. Different fami
lies have different desires in the way of homes. Most prefer to live in one-
family houses on quiet streets, with grass and trees about them. Many
families that can afford these advantages, more often those without chil
dren, still prefer to live in apartments, frequently to avoid personal re
sponsibility for upkeep of the dwelling and to have easier access to the
city center. Others assume this more cramped manner of living because
of lack of houses for rent, the short term of their residence in one city, or
other circumstances. The fact remains, too, that many existent dwellings
in our cities do not conform to the standards of the single-family homes
that most families would prefer.
Wise city planning can do much to make one-family houses available
to more families. It encourages a better distribution of centers of em
ployment, and thereby reduces the number of employees who must live
near the business center. By providing an adequate, coordinate street
system it reduces delays in transit and so makes wider areas for dwellings
available within a given time for travel between home and work. Hence,
the success with which the automobile enables city populations to spread
out depends largely on good city planning.
While some broad avenues and wide streets are necessary to care for
through traffic and to give access to a residential district, minor streets
with narrow roadways and inexpensive pavements are adequate for the
traffic serving the immediate neighborhood . A narrow paved roadway need
not lessen the distance between the houses on the two sides of the street.
It permits wider grass plots, and thus makes the streets more attractive.
At the same time development of the land is cheaper and more families are
enabled to own their homes.
Certain appurtenances go with every residential district. Neighborhood
stores should be grouped at points convenient to all, but either they should
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 637
be off the main traffic highways or arrangements should be .made through
widening the roadways, or providing other parking spaces, so that they
will not cause congestion of through traffic. The location of schools is even
more important. When the school board can use a good city plan showing
the probable character of development and the location of major streets
it is better able to choose adequate school sites in new districts. The type
of site usually desired will be convenient to the families that are expected
to move into the neighborhood, and at the same time be off the main
thoroughfares with their noise, confusion, and dangers from heavy traffic.
Ample space is needed around schools for playgrounds as well as for light
and air. It is therefore good business for the city to anticipate its needs
while land values are still low and there is a good choice of large sites
not yet built upon.
THE OUTSKIRTS OF THE CITY
Sparsely built-up territories, particularly those on the outskirts of the
city, allow the best scope for good development as to streets, recreation
spaces, and public improvements in accordance with a logical plan. Fore
sight in planning such districts is important not only for its inherent bene
fits to the new localities, but for the convenience of all who pass through
them, and for its effect on conditions at the center of the city.
PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Adequate recreation space, although often overlooked, is of great im
portance to a community, and provision for it rightly belongs in a good
plan. A lawn around the home is the best place for very small children to
play, but public playgrounds and athletic fields are needed for organized
games for larger children and adults. The increasing dangers imposed by
rapidly moving traffic further emphasize the hazard of streets as play
space, and the need for enough well-located playgrounds to care for every
child. The distance that children of various ages will customarily travel
to playgrounds should, of course, be recognized, especially in apartment-
house neighborhoods, where even the smallest children must be provided
for. The need of more public open spaces of all kinds is one of the conse
quences of apartment-house living and must be borne in mind as apart
ment-house areas develop.
A great country park, desirable as it is, is now generally recognized as
a supplement to, not a substitute for, smaller parks convenient to the
people who need ready access to trees, grass, and open space. Thus all
638 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the breathing-spaces for fresh air and sunshine provided by recreation
space are an integral part of a city plan. Adoption of a park and play
ground program frequently results in the donation of land for park pur
poses by public-spirited citizens, or by landowners who discern the ad
vantage thus obtainable for their adjoining subdivisions.
Public recreation facilities are as important to the village as to the
large city. Many a farm community has no public parks or playgrounds;
hence the children must be trespassers to play, and adult athletic contests
are hampered by inadequate, makeshift facilities. Good playgrounds and
athletic fields lead to better physical development and a spirit of team
play, while every form of wholesome recreation for adults helps to check
unwise movement of population to large cities.
CARRYING OUT THE CITY PLAN
The preparation of a good city plan requires skillful handling of details,
clear vision into the future, good judgment in deciding what is practicable,
and a spirit of fair play in adjusting interests that may appear to conflict.
Once formulated, the plan needs to be kept up to date, and its execution
is never completed while the city is growing or rebuilding. Placing the
general responsibility in the hands of a continuing body of well-informed,
influential men is the best means so far devised for securing efficiency in
city planning. Carrying out the plan often requires courage on the part
of the city government, for free departures from it may result in promot
ing just such disorder and uncertainty as it is designed to prevent. Its
integrity can be assured only by a strong and continuing public opinion,
and this is best maintained by having leading men in the community at
the head of the work.
CITY PLANNING COMMISSION AND ITS WORK
A separately organized city planning commission is usually the best
agency for assuming the general responsibility for preparing the plan and
to aid the city government and private individuals in carrying out its
essential feature. Such a commission usually consists of from 5 to n
members. It may include the mayor, the city engineer, a representative
of the city council or similar body, and prominent citizens serving without
pay. The citizen members should always be in a majority. It should be
authorized by the city council to expend funds for preparing a plan, and
to call on all municipal officials, including the city engineer, the city attor
ney, and others, for advice and data. The city council, in turn, ordinarily
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 639
derives its power to grant such authority from an enabling act passed by
the state legislature. Such acts are already in effect in many states, and
a standard act with full notes to explain its provisions has been prepared
by the Department of Commerce advisory committee on city planning
and zoning, to serve as a guide to those preparing such legislation.
Where such authority has not been granted, unofficial commissions,
sometimes appointed by the mayor, or sometimes representing unofficial
civic bodies, may be organized, and often accomplish a great deal, par
ticularly if they succeed in raising private funds for preparing a plan.
Such a plan may be followed in many features by the city government.
Practical results are much more readily attained when the commission
has official advisory powers.
The official city planning commission, however, should not be charged
with executive functions, such as the administration of the park system
or some of the usual construction or administrative functions of the city.
Past experience indicates that such duties are better left in the hands of
regular executive departments and administrative boards.
Since the city planning commission's final responsibility is to see that
a good city plan is carried out, one of its functions is to determine how the
city's financial resources and expenditures may best provide for its plan
ning needs.
CITY PLANNING AND HOUSING1
BY HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM
Editor, American City
At the outset of this discussion, two definitions are needed. The term
city planning will be used as covering the selection and use of land for
public purposes in urban areas and control by the public in such areas of
the use of private land. Housing will be used in its obvious sense of struc
tures designed or used for human habitation.
As thus defined, where do city planning and housing meet?
i . They meet in the zoning ordinance and the building code. — Under the
definitions just given, zoning may be regarded as a subdivision of city
planning, and the building code as an important factor in good housing;
or perhaps we might more accurately give to zoning ordinances and build-
1 Adapted from "Where City Planning and Housing Meet," Planning Problems of
Town, City and Region, Papers and Discussions (New York: National Conference on
City Planning, 1929), pp. 114-21. Address before the Twenty-first Conference on City
Planning, Buffalo, May, 1929.
64o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ing codes the appointment as chief liaison officers between the city plan
ning and housing forces.
The job of these liaison officers, of course, is to protect and control as
effectively as may be, in the public interest, the proper use and develop
ment of private property. We need somehow to give them greater sanc
tion than they now possess in many cities, and to warn our public officials
and civic organizations against the too common American mistake of
passing a law and assuming the job to be done. Careless building inspec
tors and complacent boards of adjustment are all too numerous in cities
where lawmaking is regarded as more important than law-observance.
2. City planning and housing meet in the street. — And the street in its
location and width is one of the most nearly permanent of human prod
ucts
If we can ever induce our public officials to give as much forethought to
placing new streets properly on the map as they are now compelled to
give to correcting previous mistakes in this matter of street location and
width, we shall have done much for the cause of city planning and hous
ing Among the ill effects on housing of this state of affairs —
against which painfully slow progress is being made by our more pro
gressive city planners and municipal engineers — are :
a) Needlessly high cost for land, because of wasteful street layout, in
volving greater installation of paving and utilities than scientific planning
would justify.
b) Failure so to orient the streets as to provide the maximum of direct
sunlight to dwelling rooms.
c) Back yards that are either too small or too deep for efficient use.
d) More corner lots than needed, in residential districts, involving
betterment assessments, street noises, traffic dangers and dust on two
sides, where one front — or no front — on a motor highway would suffice.
3. City planning and housing meet in the multi-family dwelling. — In the
new buildings now being erected in many of our larger cities, more fami
lies are being provided for in "apartment houses," so-called, than in
single-family homes. The good old term "tenement house" has gone into
the discard, except in legal documents. But while the multi-family dwell
ings now being erected are in general more fit for human habitation than
the worst of the old tenement houses, most of these new buildings occupy,
as Henry Wright, John Taylor Boyd, Jr., and others have shown, a need
lessly large percentage of their lot area.
Our ears are being constantly battered these days with the half-truth
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 641
that mankind cannot be made virtuous by law. The extent to which
words can be made virtuous by law, I do not know; but if we could enact
legislation which would restrict the use of the term "apartment house"
to buildings occupying not more than 50 per cent of their lot area, and
compel the use of "tenement house" in the name and in all advertisements
of dwellings of the more congested type, we should go far, I am sure, to
cure our speculative builders of their appetite for super-congestion.
4. City planning and housing meet in the onward march of business and
industry. — The "blighted district" is the outward and visible sign of this
unwholesome contact. No one wants business and industry to remain
static ; but a great handicap to the orderly development of most communi
ties is that too much space, rather than too little, is provided for purposes
of manufacture and trade. We have the spectacle of our small town Main
Streets spoiled for a mile in length as si tesforpleasanthom.es by straggling
and struggling retail stores. The zoner or realtor who provides soil for
two such stores to grow where only one is needed, is far from being as
great a public benefactor as he would be, could he devise a method of
restricting business property to the reasonable needs of the community
without creating a form of land monopoly which would be to the com
munity's detriment.
As to factory sites, let us have them by all means — in communities
that want them. But let us stop providing any unrestricted districts in our
zoning ordinances. If there is logic in excluding the so-called nuisance
industries from other districts, why should we not exclude all housing
from districts where nuisance industries are allowed? There is as yet
altogether too much truth in the criticism which certain radicals make of
some of our zoning ordinances — that they are devised with tender solici
tude for upper economic groups of the community, but are far from
providing adequate open spaces, sunlight, and freedom from noise and
atmospheric pollution, in the districts where those of the "other half" live.
If it be argued that congestion is necessary because of high land values,
let it not be forgotten that one cause of high land values is this very fact
that congestion is permitted — to the financial gain of a few and the detri
ment of the many.
5. City planning and housing meet — or should meet — in the clearance of
slum areas. — On this important phase of the subject under discussion, I
cannot do better than quote from an able article by one of our foremost
authorities on housing, Dr. Edith Elmer Wood, which the American City
is to have the privilege of publishing in an early issue.
642 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Mrs. Wood lists four main causes of slums: (a) faulty layout — too
narrow streets or too large blocks, inviting courts, alleys and rear tene
ments; (b) bad structural plans of the dwellings themselves; (c) disrepair;
and (d) overcrowding and uncleanliness. While placing on landlords and
tenants, rather than on city planners, responsibility for (c) and (d), . . . .x
6. City planning and housing meet in laws and practices relating to real
estate, taxation, assessment and eminent domain. — The painter achieves
success when his beautiful dream becomes a picture ; but the city planner
or architect achieves success only when his beautiful picture becomes a
street or a park or a building. The manufacturer succeeds when he de
signs a worth-while product and makes it and sells it. For some reason,
however — or for many reasons — ability to transform city plans into a
living reality lags far behind ability to conceive them. Discussing the
economic phase of this subject before a 1927 meeting of the Snag Club, in
New York, Dr. Charles A. Beard said:
It will be conceded that the power of artists and engineers to conceive city
plans and the capacity of technical experts, contractors, and laborers to carry
them into execution is without discernible limits. Equally undeniable is the
proposition that, considered from the standpoint of esthetics, economic effi
ciency, and physical comfort, our great cities must be assigned a low scale in
the percentage of possibility. There is hardly a municipality of any size in the
country that does not have filed in its libraries and its city hall innumerable
dust-covered rolls of blueprints and projects, drawn by competent hands, indi
cating lines of constructive work which would add enormously to the productiv
ity and comfort of its inhabitants. Apart from decorative work, such as boule
vards making it easy for the Rotary boys to go from their offices to their country
clubs, or civic plazas — that is, putting diamond crowns upon leprous brows —
there has been very little achievement in the field of city planning in the United
States. Our capacity for execution, for realization, has lagged far behind our
capacity to imagine and to project. Why is this so? Surely there is no more in
teresting problem in social economy than this — none worthier of the highest
talent we can discover.
We need, obviously, more efficient governmental machinery and com
munity organization for carrying out our city plans. Fully as important,
I believe, is the practical problem of acquiring the land and financing the
improvement thereof or thereon. We can never reach absolute justice in
so financing our public improvements that those who benefit from them
will pay in exact proportion to benefits received. An approach by gradual
1 See pp. 660-65.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 643
steps to land value taxation, however, and a wider and more scientific use
of the special assessment method of financing street, transit and park im
provements will go far towards effecting a righteous and productive union
of city planning and housing.
One of the most heartening signs of the times is the advocacy by the
National Association of Real Estate Boards of the principle of excess
condemnation (or marginal eminent domain, as it might better be called).
And now if the same Association will use its great influence in behalf of
laws by which private property needed for slum clearance and model
housing projects can be secured at a fair price, it will perform a public
service of great importance.
7. City planning and housing meet in many other times and places. — To
describe them all in detail would greatly exceed the limits assigned to this
paper These other times and places, some of which have had inci
dental mention in the foregoing paragraphs, include:
a) When a conflagration rages which scientific city planning might have
prevented.
b) When the prevailing winds blow and prove that certain housing and
factory districts ought to have been transposed.
c) When ordinary traffic highways are laid out where parkways ought
to have been planned.
d) In the selection of sites for future schools.
e) In the layout of mill villages and other industrial housing enter
prises.
/) In the activities, good and bad, of real-estate subdividers.
g) In the city's transit system.
h) In the new movement for architectural control.
8. Finally, city planning and housing meet in their social objective. — This
social objective in the case of zoning has been admirably stated by Alfred
Bettman,as being "al ways positive and constructive and not merelynega-
tive and preventive." And I want to supplement my own earlier defini
tions by describing intelligent city planning as the application of imagina
tion, skill and justice to the layout and public control of the development
of urban areas; and intelligent housing as the application of these same
factors to the design and building of structures fit for human habita
tion. ..... May we not anticipate, for example, a friendly rivalry among
the wealthy and public-spirited citizens of each of the forty-eight states
in the building of the best-planned town for the motor age, and similar
rivalry in all large cities in the development of low-cost garden homes for
644 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
wage earners? The result would be a stimulus to city planning and housing
progress whose benefits in human welfare and happiness would last as
long as the world shall endure.
CITY PLANNING AND THE STANDARD CITY
PLANNING ENABLING ACT1
BY LESTER G. CHASE
.... There are 31 states, the District of Columbia and the Territory
of Hawaii that have laws in effect that authorize planning in cities,
towns, boroughs, counties and regions.2 These laws are grouped in two
classes, those that may be termed general enabling acts, as they authorize
planning in all cities, or cities of a certain class, towns, boroughs, villages,
counties or regions, of the state; and those that may be called special acts
in that they affect only certain named cities or areas
CITY PLANNING COMMISSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
Under the authority conferred by these general and special planning
laws, planning commissions have been established in cities, towns and
villages of many states. In other states commissions have been estab
lished by municipal charter amendments under home-rule provisions of
state constitutions or laws, and in other cases commissions have been
appointed without specific authorization by the state. Depending upon
the authority for their appointment, the powers and duties of the com
missions, and the extent to which the municipal legislative body must
take cognizance of their recommendations, planning commissions are
commonly classified as official or unofficial. A commission established in
accordance with the terms of a state enabling act or a city ordinance or
by-law adopted by the legislative body of the municipality is termed an
official commission, while other groups such as those appointed informally
by the mayor or other administrative official as an advisory committee,
or those representing local civic organizations or chambers of commerce
and acting only in an advisory capacity with no legal authority to carry
out their recommendations, are classified as unofficial commissions or
committees
1 Adapted from Survey of City Planning and Related Laws in IQ2Q (mimeographed
circular). Division of Building and Housing, U.S. Department of Commerce.
2 [Progress in planning. — The number of states which have enacted planning legisla
tion and also the number of city-planning commissions in the United States may be
obtained from the Division of Building and Housing, U.S. Department of Commerce.]
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 645
THE STANDARD CITY PLANNING ENABLING ACT
In March, 1927, the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zon
ing, of the Department of Commerce, after an exhaustive study, published
a Standard City Planning Enabling Act. The purpose of the Committee
in preparing this act was to make available, for the information and use
of those engaged in drafting planning laws, a guide, the provisions of
which represent extensive investigation into the various features of plan
ning legislation, and the text of which supplies a model from which the
states may frame and develop planning legislation.
In the text of the act the four general subjects are covered which ex
perience has shown to be a necessary part of planning legislation. These
are: (i) the making of the city plan and the organization and powers of
the city planning commissions; (2) control of the layout of new subdi
visions; (3) control of buildings in the bed of mapped streets; and (4) the
regional plan and organization of the regional planning commission.
The act contemplates a grant of authority by the state to municipali
ties and regions to avail themselves of the powers therein conferred. It
is a permissive act and does not impose the creation of planning commis
sions upon muncipalities or regions, but leaves it optional with them, of
fering the opportunity to create such commissions if they deem it desir
able.
Regarding the planning commission the Standard Act provides for the
creation of a body so constituted as to take a long-range view of the
development of the municipality. It contemplates a commission of nine
members, six of whom shall hold no other municipal office, being thus free
from the pressure of current municipal problems. Overlapping terms of
six years, much longer than the terms of other city officials, including
council, are provided for, one vacancy occurring each year. This insures
first, that the city administration during a single term shall be unable to
appoint a majority of the members, and second, that eventually the mem
bership will represent planning experience of at least from one to five
years, a desirable background for comprehensive planning.
The act provides that it shall be the function of the planning commis
sion to prepare and adopt a master plan for the physical development of
the municipality and adjacent areas. The matters to be covered by such
a master plan may include streets, other types of public grounds, public
utilities and zoning. The adoption of the master plan rests with the com
mission; it does not require submission to or approval by the council.
646 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
After the commission shall have adopted the master plan or one or
more of its major sections, future public improvement such as streets,
squares, parks, public utilities, etc., may not be authorized or carried out
until their location, character and extent have been submitted to the
planning commission and their relation to the city plan carefully studied.
If approved by the commission the council's approval may be by affirma
tive vote as required by the general law; if, however, these improvements
are disapproved by the planning commission, the council still has power
to overrule such disapproval, but only by a recorded vote of not less than
two-thirds of its entire membership.
From these provisions it will be seen that any improvement project
coming before the council must, if it involves planning problems, be sub
mitted to the planning commission for study and approval or disapproval,
but the council retains its essential legislative power, that is, the power to
make the final decision.
The adoption of the original master plan is the primary function of the
planning commission; it does not require submission to or approval by
council. The commission, unhampered by other municipal problems, is
especially competent to do this in view of its knowledge of the needs of
the city and the probable trend of its future growth. Its long-term mem
bership, its authority to contract with city planners, engineers, architects
and other consultants for such services as may be required, as authorized
by the act, and its cooperation with the city engineer or other municipal
officials, render the commission better qualified to make and adopt the
original master plan than the legislative body of the municipality, whose
duties, as previously stated, are of a more immediate and pressing nature.
HOUSING AND THE REGIONAL PLAN1
BY JOHN IHLDER
Executive Director, Pittsburgh Housing Association
The great American novel, of whose coming we used to talk a great
deal, has not been written and probably never will be, for a novel must
have location, must picture with fidelity to detail individual characters
and a group of characters. This necessary detail inevitably makes it sec
tional, provincial, differentiates its people and its atmosphere from the
people and the atmosphere pictured in another novel equally good, equally
1 Adapted from "Housing and the Regional Plan," Proceedings of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, Part I (1927), pp. 1513-23. Paper presented at the joint meeting of the
City Planning Division with the American City Planning Institute, Philadelphia, 1926.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 647
true, the scene of which is laid in another part of the country or which
deals with a different group of people. These differences will cause Ameri
cans of other sections to disclaim both books as representative of America
as they know it, though to foreigners who view us from a distance both
books may seem typically American. We, close at hand, see most clearly
the differences of detail, accept subconsciously the likenesses; they, far
ther away, miss the detail and see only the broad likenesses.
So it must be with our regional planning and the housing that is to
develop as regional planning becomes accepted practice. The broad like
ness that will be characteristic of our regional plans and the housing for
which they provide will lie in acceptance of the proposition that they shall
provide adequately, even generously, in terms of open spaces, of sanitary
equipment, of "modern" conveniences; that they shall be based upon the
well-known but, fortunately, never clearly denned "American standard
of living"; "fortunately" because this standard is ever changing, ever
rising. Other nations may accept present standards, seeking merely to
modify them so that they may be tolerable; other nations may figure
closely on economies which they believe the hard conditions of their life
force upon them — definitely discard, for example, water-borne sewage and
a sewer system, not only because of cost of installation and operation, but
also because of loss of fertilizing content which they believe they must have
for their farms. But we, who are coming to reckon farm productivity in
terms of bushels per man while they reckon in terms of bushels per acre,
will base our plans upon the health, efficiency and more abundant living
of our population rather than upon the amount of money not spent for a
sewer system or an imported or manufactured fertilizer. Water carriage
of sewage may go into the discard, but not until we have found a better
method of safeguarding human well-being.
Inside such broad American characterization, however, our regional
plans will doubtless take on many differentiating characteristics due to
sectional habits, traditions, resources and climate. Consequently, in a
paper like this, dealing with the subject for the whole nation, one must
paint in broad strokes, describe objectives in general terms that are sub
ject to infinite modification in their detailed application, give approxima
tions rather than exact measurements.
A house is not a commodity of uniform size and character, as a pound
of sugar has been since the pure-food law was enacted. Its variations are
infinite, though they all fall into fairly clearly defined classifications. The
648 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
use of each of these classifications will be affected by the regional plan if
that plan proves effective in guiding metropolitan or regional develop
ment. Consequently an outline of a regional plan from the housing point
of view is necessary if housing is later to be fitted into it understandably.
REGIONAL PLAN OUTLINE
The metropolitan region may roughly be defined as the area within
commuting distance of the central or mother city. It may be an area
about one or two cities of small or medium size as well as that about a
large city. It may at present. contain only one or two units of really urban
character, the rest of the region being residential suburban. But 'if it does
not have other urban units now, it will acquire them later as population
increases and neighborhood business districts develop. Moreover in this
day, when every chamber of commerce is seeking factories and when
factory managements are thinking in terms of industrial distribution, it
is almost inevitable that the metropolitan region outside the mother city
will develop industrial districts. Consequently, provision must be made
in the regional plan for both industrial areas and commercial areas in
addition to residential areas. These, normally, will grow into separate
towns. And, unless preventive measures are taken, they ultimately will
merge into one great city, as Philadelphia and its satellites have done.
Philadelphia has developed much as the regional planner would have
a city develop, except that adequate provision was not made for traffic
and except that the separate communities were not kept separate by ade
quate intervening open spaces. The original city of Philadelphia with its
mill satellites, Kensington and Manayunk; its factory satellites, Nice-
town and Tacony; its residential satellites, Germantown and Chestnut
Hill, if each were separated from the others by open areas, if the brook
valleys had been preserved instead of being filled up to make uncertain
sites for the foundations of buildings, would be a pleasanter city than it
is with its interminable streets filled with monotonous rows of houses
HOW URBAN UNITS ARE TO BE SEPARATED
The metropolitan region of the future therefore will be planned to con
tain a number of distinct urban communities which will be enabled to pre
serve their individuality by surrounding open areas. In part these will
consist of parks, some formal such as Fairmount Park which today sepa
rates Philadelphia from the main-line towns, some natural parks or forest
reserves such as those Boston, Chicago and other cities are acquiring. But
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 649
park land alone will not be enough. So much open space is required for
the proper ventilation of our cities that a considerable part of it must be
devoted to productive uses that will pay its way. Cities like New York
and its New Jersey neighbors, and the great congeries of cities that are
growing up about San Francisco Bay, have been blessed, largely against
their wills, by open water spaces that seem to some of their bustling citi
zens far larger than is required — just as some of our cities in the past
thought some of their streets too wide, only to find to-day that they are
not wide enough. It would be difficult to overestimate the economic
value of the breezes from the water that blow through the streets of New
York and the Bay cities.
Awakening to the advantages which nature forced upon our fortunate
members, we shall provide adequately for the new kind of harbor that is
coming to us with the airplane. We doubtless shall, under stress of
necessity, figure carefully how small an air field may be, how high the
surrounding buildings may be permitted to rise, for we wish to bring the
air harbor as far in town as possible in order to minimize change in exist
ing values. But as the railroad induced our river towns to turn their
backs upon the levees, so the airplane may induce them to face in a new
direction, and those towns which make the most adequate provision are
likely to reap a benefit.
But air harbors like water harbors will prove inadequate to our purpose
and other uses, such as truck gardening and farming, will be found for
these open areas.
HOW URBAN UNITS ARE TO BE CONNECTED
Isolation, however, is not an objective in the regional plan. Each of
the urban units in the region must be readily accessible from the others,
more accessible than is the upper east side of New York from Riverside
Drive. Water routes, rail routes, air routes, and main or arterial highways
will be carefully planned so that each center in the region may be easily
and quicky reached from every other center. When it is remembered
that by very far the greatest amount of daily travel by an urban popula
tion is between home and place of employment, and when it is remem
bered that in such cities as New York or Chicago with their overgrown
central business districts, where vocations that have no possible direct
connection are jumbled together and the working population must twice
daily pass thousands of buildings that have no possible part in their lives,
the waste of time, effort, money, becomes obvious. Though like businesses
650 ' THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
instinctively tend to group themselves, the financial and administrative
interests in one group, the dry-goods wholesalers, the jewelers, the leather
men, in other groups, and thereby simplify their transport problem after
their workers have arrived for the day's work, these workers still waste
much time every morning and evening by passing the buildings of other
groups and the dwellings that house the employes of these other groups.
The regional plan will reduce this waste by segregating vocational groups
more effectively and will bring the homes and workshops of each group
closer together.
The need of occasional intercourse between representatives of different
groups will be met by express routes, rail and highway — perhaps in the
near future, air — between the urban centers in the region.
The housing value here is that the better segregation of vocations,
which we can secure by intelligent regional planning and zoning, instead
of by depending upon the blind instinct which has guided us up to the
present, will bring home and work closer together and in smaller urban
units. As a result not only will time of travel — to-day worse than wasted
because of crowded cars that sap the rider's strength and vitality — be re
duced, but, because more space will be available, the character of the
dwelling may be improved.
TRANSIT ROUTES AS DISTRICT BOUNDARIES
The transit routes that tie the urban centers of the region together will
in large part form the boundaries of residential districts. Along parts of
these routes, especially at the intersections of arterial highways, will be
minor or neighborhood business districts, containing neighborhood stores,
banks, moving-picture theaters. Within the space they found will be a
residential area large enough to support one or more schools, playgrounds,
small neighborhood parks, a branch library, a community center,
churches, so that children at least will have small occasion to cross the
busy main traffic streets.
These main traffic streets or arterial highways are one of the most inter
esting of the problems that confront regional planners. Their primary
function is to carry traffic from center to center within the region or to
more distant destinations. How they should be designed, what width
should be secured for rights-of-way to provide against future needs,
whether they should contain facilities for rail as well as for road vehicles,
are questions outside the scope of this paper. But it is necessary to point
out that they will carry not only a heavy volume of traffic, in some cases
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 651
a constant stream of traffic by day and a considerable and increasing
amount of traffic by night, but that they will carry heavy vehicles. The
increasing weight of trucks and busses has become a matter of public con
cern. Admitting, what seems to be the fact, that the large truck and bus
make for economy of operation for their owners, they at present cause
great expense to the community as a whole and to property owners along
many of their routes where they are permitted to range at will. Street
paving that would carry passenger cars for years goes to pieces quickly
under their pounding, which also cracks the walls of dwelling houses and
which, together with their noise, seriously depreciate the value of whole
residence districts. The main arterial highways apparently must be de
signed and built to carry such vehicles, which will some day be excluded
from residential streets. But what concerns us here is .... the proper
development of the abutting land.
We used to have a theory that every street-car street was potentially
a business street. It was a poor theory, based upon inadequate experience.
But inadequate as the basis always was it is becoming every day less ade
quate. Not only are our merchants realizing that the string business dis
trict can not compare with the compact district, not only are busses that
operate on parallel streets applying the same argument to those parallel
streets, but we are learning that business could never occupy all the
frontage on street-car streets. Recent studies have indicated that, outside
the principal downtown shopping district, not more than five per cent of
an area will be occupied by business.
If this is borne out by further studies, it means that the frontage on the
main arterial highways of the region must in very large part be devoted to
other than business uses. Attempts to develop such frontages as resi
dential are not proving permanently successful, even when the residences
are multi-family houses. The inhabitants of multi-family houses object
less to noise and movement than do those of one-family houses, but even
they are beginning to find that noise and movement can be increased to
such a degree as to become intolerable. So while we may zone the non-
business frontage of these arteries for multi-family house occupancy, we
shall have to give even such dwellings protection if they are not to be
blighted. The suggestion I offer is that in addition to the ample right-of-
way for traffic purposes the community shall take possession of strips on
either side of the traffic artery. These strips should be parked, and behind
on either side should be a minor street serving the dwellings. The dwell
ings themselves should then be set back. This will provide for two screens
652 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
of planting between the dwellings and the traffic highway. The park strip
might be so wide that when, as and if business expansion can utilize it in
part, it will provide suitable sites for business buildings.
This may seem extravagant but my belief is that it will prove less
costly than the slow and spotty development of property abutting directly
upon a main traffic highway and the inevitable depreciation of such
dwellings as may be there erected.
CITY FACILITIES AND NEIGHBORHOOD FACILITIES
Housing cannot be considered adequately apart from facilities offered
by the city or community and their accessibility. To the wage earner
distance from place of employment translated into terms of money for
means of transit and time or effort is of greater importance than to those
whose means are greater and hours of work are shorter, though to every
one the waste involved in needless distance covered daily is an economic
loss of moment unless it can be transformed into a strength-giving or
health-giving or inspiration-giving factor
By and large the best means of transit yet invented is that one,
reminiscent of days before the horseless carriage, known as shanks mare.
For the normal man a half-hour's walk, especially if it can be along a
pleasant route, is a good prelude to a day of sedentary or indoor labor.
Next perhaps comes the bicycle, for this too involves exercise. Then come
vehicles that run upon the surface of the earth, that give their occupants
the benefit of sun and air. Last comes that means of transit which takes
him underground. As the old-fashioned outside iron fire-escape, now
happily tending to disappear, was a confession of our failure to construct
our buildings properly, so the subway is a confession of our failure to
construct our cities properly. There is room enough in the United States
for all of us to live above the surface of the earth. Such failures, forcing
us to patronize crowded vehicles or sub-surface vehicles, have a direct
effect upon housing by giving us the choice of two evils, these means of
transit or an inferior type of dwelling nearer to our place of employment.
While access to place of employment is usually the chief consideration,
access to schools, to places of recreation — theater, opera, amusement
parks, golf or tennis grounds — are of some importance. These merge into
facilities offered by the neighborhood, which is the area that, ideally, lies
between main traffic streets and all parts of which are within easy walking
distance of home even when home is part of a district of widely-spaced,
garden-surrounded, one-family houses. Here will be the grade schools
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 653
and the playgrounds for small children, perhaps a high school or at least
a junior high for the older children, a library or a community center and
a neighborhood playground for adults, and churches — set in grounds
large enough to permit their expansion without violating the area provi
sions of the zoning code. Most church congregations seem to be pessimis
tic of their future, yet instances are known where churches have had
occasion to expand and their officers then felt no hesitation in asking that
a rule made for the benefit of the community and the protection of their
neighbors should be suspended in order that they might escape the penalty
of lack of foresight or lack of faith.
Within the region and its units, thus broadly outlined, our problem is
to fit our housing so as to give the people of urban America the greatest
possible facilities for living abundantly.
A FEW ASSUMPTIONS
i. It is desirable to decrease the speculative elements in housing and to increase
the investment element until the first has been reduced to the vanishing
point and the latter has become controlling. This means that we should
stabilize values, and stabilization of house values is dependent upon stabiliz
ing the character of the neighborhood. In this stabilization regional planning,
supplemented by zoning, is essential.'
Admitting the great part that speculation has played in producing the
dwellings of America, we must also admit that it has played as great a
part in destroying them, in blighting whole sections of our cities, in pro
moting rapid transition which lowers housing values so quickly that the
investor has withdrawn from a large part of the market — leaving it to the
"home-owner" whose controlling motive is sentiment, in deteriorating
construction until the buildings erected to-day have a much shorter ex
pectation of life, a far higher expectation of repair and maintenance costs
than those of our fathers and grandfathers, and, most important, in lead
ing us to accept dwellings inferior in type. From the one-family house
which used to be universal it has led us to the multi-family house and has
gradually squeezed and cramped this lower form of dwelling until a large
and increasing part of our urban population lives in one-, two-, and three-
room apartments. These multi-family dwellings are popularly supposed
to have investment value, but experience is showing that by and large the
rapid obsolescence of a multi-family house prevents its being in the class
of gilt-edged bonds. From the social point of view its destructive effect
upon family life is a matter of concern.
654
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
2. The preservation of the family — meaning parents and children — is essential.
The population of voting age may be everything that candidates for public
office tell its members that they are, but its life and its work would lose sig
nificance if there were no children to carry on. With the children lies the
FIG. 74 (courtesy of the ./Vew York Evening Post)
whole future. Consequently, children are of first importance. And since
the house is the shell in which the family functions, since it exerts a constant
influence in molding and shaping the family, even in determining whether or
not there shall be children, the question of housing should be approached
from the point of view of the well-being of children.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 655
3. The one-family house with generous open spaces about it is the best house for
a child. Consequently, every effort should be made to promote the erection,
to protect the continued existence of such houses.
4. While the one-family house is the most important type of dwelling, there is a
legitimate demand for other types ranging from the two-family house through
the so-called multi-family house and the apartment-hotel to the hotel. This
demand must be met, but because these socially inferior types of dwellings
with their possibilities of land overcrowding and cramped living quarters can
underlive the one-family house and drive it out, just as Oriental labor can
underlive and drive out white labor, it must be restricted to certain specified
sections of the community and must be strictly regulated so that it will pro
vide the essentials of wholesome living — light, air, room-space, sanitation —
for its inhabitants.
CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN POPULATION
In urban communities there are several easily recognized groups for
each of which housing provision should be made. First and much the
most important, because with them lies the future, are the families with
children or expectation of children. They call for first consideration. They
themselves may be divided into two classes. First are those who are fairly
permanently located in the community, whose interests and fortunes have
been and will be bound up with those of their neighbors and fellow citi
zens. They are the most valuable element for they have developed or can
develop a lively sense of community responsibility. Less valuable, but
more in need of assistance, is the second class, composed of families which,
because of the nature of the bread-winner's work or because of the tem
perament of father or mother, frequently move from city to city. They
range from high salaried officials of large corporations, army and navy
officers, professional men and women — civil engineers, social workers — to
the automobile tramps who have become an interesting and puzzling
phenomenon of modern life, whose younger children have never known a
more stable home than the "flivver" and whose importunities are increas
ing the burden carried by charity organizations. Even those among this
second class who are best placed economically have a difficult problem in
providing homes for their children in these days when the choice lies be
tween buying a proper house or renting an apartment.
In the first group it will be noted that families with "expectation of
children" have been included as well as those with children. There is a
great deal of talk about giving the young married couple a shelter that
will just fit their present needs, assuming that when the expected happens
656 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
they will move from their furnished two-room flat to that idyllic vine-
covered cottage where love traditionally abides. Considered as a matter
of pure economics, there is much to be said for all this, but while sound
economics should be the foundation of living, pure economics is a sterile
soil which will not produce an adequate crop of babies. Marriage, the
family, is an adventure. Reason it out too coldly, balance economic items
too carefully, and the young couple will grow to middle age, still living in
their apartment, still thinking first of their own safety, their own comforts.
Then the Nation may well ask why it was taxed to provide for their
schooling, to protect their health, when they have been unwilling to pass
on the heritage they received. The first home of the young couple should
be at least a promise of its future home, should have in it the room, the
play yard that every day ask when the expected is to arrive. This may be
economic waste, but the greater part of the joy of living consists of what
cannot be strictly justified on the score of pure economics; it may be be
yond the means of many young married couples, but it is an objective
to be approximated as closely as we — and they — can.
Next to be considered, because they have not shirked but have rendered
their service to society, is the group composed of those who have reared
their children and sent them out into the world. The home that sheltered
them when all the family were together may now be too large, too much
of a burden. Many will continue to maintain it because of sentiment, but
others will desire and should have a more convenient shelter. Their prob
lem is not met by old folks' homes, however those may be disguised by
luxury. Perhaps the nearest approach to a solution is the occasional
multi-family dwelling where through some happy circumstance of man
agement, tenant leadership, or a common dining room, the inhabitants
mingle for a time in the evening, and the older people have opportunity
to maintain some daily contact with younger people.
Then come the unattached individuals who form the tragedy of civili
zation, often not recognized by its victims until they reach middle age.
Their variety is so great, class merges into class so imperceptibly that it
is difficult to classify them definitely. They range all the way from the
well-to-do bachelor who lives at his club and thus has the casual social
intercourse with his fellows that fills so many of the odd moments of con
tented living, the lack of which reduces living in period of conscious effort
interspersed with periods of loneliness ; from the two spinsters who have
joined forces to fight off loneliness and who live together in a little apart
ment, through those forlorn ones who inhabit boarding houses — a form
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 657
of housing now apparently on the decrease — hotels and rooming houses —
a form of housing now apparently on the increase. This great army is re
cruited from the youth of the land who venture forth in search of fortune.
Its veterans are those who fail to make a family harbor. The problem of the
unattached, whether it be the well-known "homeless man" who patron
izes municipal lodging houses, or the wage-earning woman, whether it be
the raw recruit or the veteran left-over, is one that has not yet begun to be
solved in spite of the voluminous literature dealing with fragments of it —
perhaps because this literature does deal with fragments only instead of
with the problem as a whole.
CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSES
For the population that is to be housed in a carefully-planned region
there is choice among the following types of dwellings :
One-family houses [one family, occupying the whole house from cellar to roof] :
Detached; semi-detached; group; or row.
Two-family houses [one family above the other] subdivided as previously de
scribed.
Multi-family houses [ranging from the building in which every apartment is
equipped for housekeeping, through that where a common dining room sup
plements or supersedes the housewife's efforts, to the hotel where cooking in
an apartment is strictly forbidden]: Detached; group; or row.
Somewhat apart from any of those mentioned are the boarding house
and the lodging or rooming house. These are not a distinct type of hous
ing, but are merely the result of opportunist attempts to utilize the waste
resultant from lack of city planning and a housing policy in the past.
When the day comes that there are no more blighted districts, no more
cast-off dwellings, the boarding house and rooming house, as they are
known to-day, will disappear, their places being taken by houses designed
for the purpose. Instead of a shame-faced dilapidation, recalling better
days, they will evidence the self-respect of those who accomplish what
they intend to do.
With this classification of houses; with a clear understanding of the
function of each class; with a regional plan, zoning regulation, and an in
telligent distribution of centers of employment so that there will be ready
access from home to shop ; with a stabilization of the character of neigh
borhoods and, consequently, of house values, and, not least important,
a clearer recognition of the value of space, both inside and outside the
658 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
house, but part of the same domain so that alterations and improvements
may be made, it will be comparatively easy to develop a housing policy
designed to serve adequately the needs of the population.
Each individual has conflicting desires among which he must choose.
Each might prefer to live in the White House, not because of an ambition
to be President, but because the house has the desirable characteristics of
a family dwelling; it is spacious and set in a very pleasant yard large
enough for children's play and even contains a tennis court, and, in addi
tion, it is most accessible from its tenant's office which is easily reached
by his chief business associates, and, to add excellence to excellence, to
satisfy the other head of the family, it is cheek by jowl with the principal
shopping district, within a block or so of two theatres, and within easy
reach of the others. In short, it would seem to be ideal. Certainly, as
Lincoln is reported to have observed, most of its tenants desire to renew
their leases.
Although this combination is provided for Presidents, most families
have to make choices. If convenience of access of department stores is more
important than home or children, an apartment near the center of one of
the larger urban units or along one of the arterial highways is selected.
If we no longer have children or expectation of them, a similar choice may
be made, although some recent subdivisions give reason to hope that it will
be possible to find a small house of five or six rooms, attractively designed
and located in a pleasant neighborhood, thus doing away with the present
hard choice between an eight to ten-room house and a five-room apart
ment. If there are growing children a one-family dwelling will be chosen,
a, little less accessible from the centers of work and amusement, but com
pensating for this by giving neighbors who have the same chief interest
and who have a greater tendency to stay put long enough for the develop
ment of family acquaintance, parents with neighbors' children, as well
as the horizontal acquaintance of apartment-house populations which
tends to follow the line of age groups.
The greater stabilization of the character of neighborhoods will en
courage investment in rental housing by increasing the life expectancy of
the individual house. It will lead to the wider use in one-family house
districts of services now characteristic of multi-family houses. Stabiliza
tion which reduces the speculative factor in real estate, which turns atten
tion to permanent investment values, should result in creating again the
estate or company that owns or manages a considerable number of one-
family houses, for these depreciate, become obsolescent less rapidly, cost
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 659
less to maintain and, provided they have open space about them, are
more readily kept in step with "modern improvement," than are multi-
family dwellings. Some of the finest dwellings are one-family houses built
50 or 100 years ago. Some of the old one-family house districts after a
period of decadence have come back strongly. Few multi-family dwellings
have maintained the standing of their youth until reaching their majority,
and none, so far as the writer knows, has ever come back after it once
lost prestige.
Probably this has been due chiefly to misplacing. They have them
selves spoiled many neighborhoods and, in time, have suffered from the
deterioration they caused; or they have been injured by the invasion of
business. In a planned and zoned region these causes should be removed.
There obviously will be space enough so that the temptation to land-
overcrowding will be reduced. There will be system and order so that
each type of dwelling will have that place best fitted to its purpose. Zon
ing does not imply a series of girdles about an urban center, but it does
imply an arrangement in relation to traffic and traffic facilities. The re
gional plan will guide the development of traffic facilities, types of dwell
ings will be placed in accordance with their need of these facilities, and
zoning regulations will prevent the placing of an inferior type in a district
where it does not belong.
County planning. — County planning is generally considered as in the nature
of regional planning, with the county as the planning unit and county lines as the
boundary lines of the region. Official county-planning commissions are operating
in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara Counties, Calif.; Glynn County, Ga.; De
troit and Wayne County, Mich. ; Mercer County, N.J.; Putnam, Onondaga, and
Monroe Counties, N.Y.; Hamilton and Lucas Counties, Ohio; Allegheny Coun
ty, Pa., and Milwaukee County, Wis. In many instances the areas in which
regional planning is most desirable and to which it is best applicable are not
those limited by the existing lines of any single political unit, as town or county,
but overlap such lines, making the appropriate planning body a regional-
planning commission whose jurisdiction may include parts of one or more
counties or parts of one or more states [LESTER G. CHASE, Survey of City
Planning and Related Laws in 1929 (mimeographed circular; Division of Building
and Housing, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1930)].
66o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
SLUMS AND THE CITY PLAN1
BY EDITH ELMER WOOD, PH.D.
The city-planning and housing movements in most European countries
are so closely intertwined that this relationship is taken for granted. In
the United States they have had separate origins and run generally
parallel courses without much contact except in the field of zoning.
This is regrettable from every point of view. Slums unfortunately exist,
and we cannot get rid of them by ignoring them.
An American city plan concerns itself largely with street and traffic
problems. It aims to provide efficient circulation. It also deals with
parks and playgrounds and with the location of public buildings. When
it gets to zoning, it has to think about homes, their neighborhood, height,
bulk, light and air, but its only concern is with the homes -of the future.
Where a new town is being laid out, this is all that is necessary. In an old
community with an unregulated past, it is tragically inadequate. A can
cer patient needs a surgical operation, however true it may be that preven
tion is better than cure.
What is a slum? The word is at once unscientific and offensive. It
should undoubtedly go into the discard. But it is so short, descriptive and
easy-to-say that we shall probably go on using it. Subnormal housing
sounds colorless, and the British official term "unhealthy areas" is even
more vague. A slum, then, is a dwelling, a group of dwellings, or a whole
district, which is injurious to health, morals or family life. So defined,
about a third of our people live under slum conditions, more or less acute.
To present the data to prove this would lead us too far afield, but the
proof is available. The definition covers bad conditions in great cities,
small towns and rural areas. Most Negro families, a majority of the
foreign-born, and millions of native white Americans live in homes which
hurt them physically and psychically.
FOUR CONDITIONS WHICH BREED SLUMS
Slums may be due to any one of four conditions, which it is necessary
to distinguish sharply if we are to have clear thinking on the subject. In
individual cases, two or three, or even all four, may be present together.
i. We have slums produced by faulty layout — too narrow streets or
too large blocks inviting courts, alleys and rear tenements. The North
End of Boston offers a classic example of both types, while the inhabited
1 Adapted from "Slums and the City Plan," American City, August, 1929.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 661
courts and alleys of Washington and old Philadelphia illustrate the effect
of over-generous blocks. Better city planning could have prevented all
this, but only clearance and replotting can cure.
2. Bad structural plans of the dwellings themselves may be the trouble.
Where they cover too much of the lot and have dark interior rooms or
dimly lighted rooms opening on small interior courts, there is ordinarily
no cure but demolition. The most conspicuous example is afforded by
the old "railroad" tenements of lower New York (built before 1879)
which run from street to rear yard, four to eight rooms deep, with win
dows to the outer air in the front and rear rooms only. Proper housing or
building codes, or zoning ordinances, prevent such conditions in future
buildings, but cannot cure them where they already exist.1
3. A great deal of bad housing is caused by disrepair. Here the land
lord is primarily responsible, but the tenant should in some cases share
the blame.
4. The last group of housing evils are due to the tenant. They include
(a) overcrowding and (b) uncleanliness, which are frequently referred to
by those who should know better as if they were the only factors in bad
housing. Obviously, tenants have no responsibility whatever for head
ings i and 2, and in many cases they have none for 3.
WHERE THE RESPONSIBILITY LIES
City planners cannot be expected to concern themselves with such
matters as are summarized under 3 and 4. It is for health and housing
authorities to enforce repairs and cleanliness and to prevent overcrowd
ing. Visiting housekeepers, the schools and the public press must be relied
on to build up gradually a better standard of hygiene within the home.
With the residuum, however (slum conditions produced by faulty layout
or by faulty structural plans in respect to light and air), the city planner
ought to concern himself very deeply, for he alone holds the key to the
solution. It is strange that his imagination has been so little stirred by
the opportunities offered. A slum section is a liability to a community
from every point of view — physical, mental, moral, industrial, economic.
It does not tend to rehabilitate itself through the ordinary workings of
supply and demand. The people who live in slum sections cannot afford
to pay a profitable rent on new houses. Therefore none are built for them.
Nor will better- to-do people move into such neighborhoods. The New
1 Structural inadequacies consisting of lack of proper toilet or bathing facilities may
ordinarily be remedied without demolition where water mains and sewers exist.
662 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
York Commission of Housing and Regional Planning calculated that, on
the basis of the 1909-1925 rate of demolition, it would take the "old law"
(pre-i9oi) tenements of New York 138 years to disappear. When we are
told that the average life of a building in the United States is something
like 25 years, such reference is not to slum sections, where stagnation is
the rule, but to the regions of most rapid development, such as those
occupied by costly skyscrapers.
The writer's thesis is that the only cure for slums of classes i and 2 lies
in muncipal clearance schemes, and that these should form, not isolated
activities of the health and housing departments, as is necessarily the case
in Great Britain under existing town-planning limitations, but an integral
part of every city plan which deals with an already existing community.
SLUM CLEARANCE — WHAT IS IT? DOES IT PAY?
It will be useful at this time to consider: What is slum clearance?
Where is it? Does it pay?
Slum clearance is the acquisition by city or other authorities of slum
areas declared injurious to public health or morals, followed by demolition
and a new layout of streets and open spaces. Usually, the same authority
builds new accommodations, on the site or elsewhere, for as many persons
as have been displaced by the clearance. This is mandatory in Great
Britain.
Slum clearance, undertaken as a health measure, is found in many
European countries, but especially in Holland and the United Kingdom.
Liverpool and London have the longest and largest experience, but Glas
gow, Manchester, Birmingham, Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague
all have much to teach us.
Whether it pays or not, in the larger sense, depends on the extent to
which the displaced tenants are gotten into the new houses. Where they
are scattered and lost track of, the advantage is doubtful. One locality
has been improved at the expense of others. The technique of retaining
old tenants in new houses has improved much since 1900. Under present-
day methods, only a small part of a clearance scheme is torn down at
once. The tenants are moved, without expense to them, into temporary
quarters owned by the city, which are popularly known in England as
"decanting stations," whence they are moved back when the new houses
are ready. In Holland, especially at Amsterdam and The Hague, a definite
educational use is made of the interval.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 663
BRITISH EXPERIENCE
Where the same population returns to the new houses, carefuly kept
vital and social statistics, before and after, show the extent, in a few years'
time, to which health and behavior have improved under better environ
ment. Liverpool statistics have shown this in the past with special clarity.
Death rates and sickness rates are cut in two and anti-social behavior, as
indicated by arrests, even more strikingly reduced. As a recent Glasgow
report expresses it, 90 per cent of the families react to their new surround
ings in a satisfactory manner.
Viewing clearance schemes as health measures, they undoubtedly save
the taxpayers more in hospitals, asylums, reformatories and relief than
they cost. And the amount of that cost is often exaggerated.
Take London. It had carried out before the war 35 slum clearance
schemes, involving 97 J acres, displacing and re-housing 46,000 persons, at
a total net cost to the taxpayers of £2,393,000. For the 23 post-war
schemes, involving a similar global area (98 acres), but displacing only
about 28,500 people, the cost of acquisition, clearance and road work is
estimated at £1,259,250. The re-housing operations will involve some
subsidy, which was not the case before the war, but the National Govern
ment will share the burden with the London County Council. Altogether,
for a measure which halves the sickness and death rates of the population
immediately affected, and which reduces those of surrounding areas by
lessening the number of infection centers, it cannot be considered exces
sively costly.
DECENTRALIZATION AND RE-HOUSING
Ideally, a large slum clearance scheme could be linked with a decen
tralization scheme to their great mutual advantage. In practice, it has
never, so far, been done. If the industries employing part of the residents
in a slum section were moved to a satellite garden town offering good
housing to the workers, many more would follow if they were being simul
taneously dispossessed at home than if it was all pull and no push. Those
remaining on the site could be better housed than would otherwise be
possible, and surplus land could be sold for business or other purposes,
reducing, if not wiping out, the cost of the improvement to the taxpayers.
In addition to which, the transplanted families would be far better off
than if they had remained.
No instance of slum clearance with re-housing has yet occurred in the
United States. Minor slum clearance may be said to have taken place
664 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
where a small park or playground has been established as much for the
sake of getting rid of bad houses and bad layout as of obtaining the breath
ing space. Cases in point were Mulberry Bend Park in New York, Willow
Tree Alley in Washington, Morton Street in Boston and Hell's Half Acre
in Philadelphia.
NEW YORK'S PROJECTS
In recent years New York has been fairly seething with projects for
getting rid of its slums, but few of them have had much connection with
city plans. The important provisions of the State Housing Act of 1926
deal with problems of finance — limited-dividend housing companies,
limited rentals and tax exemption — and with compulsory acquisition
of slum property.1 The Heckscher- Walker scheme involved the use of
excess condemnation for the city to acquire slum areas in connection
with street- widening projects.
In the spring of 1928 the United Neighborhood Houses of New York
adopted a report, prepared by their Advisory Housing Committee, which
proclaimed, among other things, that:
A permanent City Plan Commission should be established, with a mandate
to consider housing as one of its major problems Slum clearance should be
included in the city plan and carried out gradually like any other large improve
ment project. It is vastly more important than the elimination of grade cross
ings, for instance, though the lives sacrified by bad housing are not quite so easy
to count.
About the same time, June, 1928, appeared the report of the Sub
committee on Housing (Lawrence Veiller, Chairman), of the vast Com
mittee on Plan and Survey appointed by Mayor Walker, which had
this to say:
The one phase of housing that has had the least attention in this city and the
one that is perhaps most urgently needed is that of slum clearance. Before doing
anything, the location and extent of the areas it is desired to clear should be
determined. These will be found not limited to the East Side nor even to the
borough of Manhattan Whatever is done should be closely related to a
comprehensive city plan In some cases the cleared areas can be best
devoted to permanent open spaces — to small parks and playgrounds; in others,
public buildings. In others, such cleared spaces may be best utilized for increased
traffic facilities, for new streets and street widening One thing is certain.
If slum clearance is to be carried out, it should be in orderly and intelligent
1 See "Better Housing for New York's Wage-Earners," by George Gove, in American
City, May, 1929, p. 164.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 665
fashion. It cannot be done as an incident to street improvement, as now con
templated .... though excess-condemnation powers can be utilized. Areas
should be cleared only after a "finding" by the duly constituted authorities that
either (a) the area is an insanitary area, or (6.) that the public interests require
its demolition. A special "authority" should be constituted for the purpose, if
slum clearance is to be done on a large scale Maps should be prepared
showing the property to be taken, and property owners affected, as well as other
citizens, should be given their day in court with opportunity to object and to
state their views The special authority should also determine whether to
sell off, or lease, part of the land acquired, to be used in new housing and on
what terms. It would also determine to what extent the cost of the scheme
should be borne, in part, by assessment for benefit on property benefited and
the extent of the area of benefit. Specific powers should be obtained from the
Legislature to enable the city to undertake slum clearance schemes.
All of which are words of wisdom, which will, we hope, be heeded. But
let us take heed also of the half-century's experience in slum clearance
available for our study across the water. And let us recognize from the
start that slum clearance will fail of attaining its principal objects — better
health and better homes — if it does not provide new accommodations for
those whom it displaces, and at rentals they are able to pay. This cannot
be done on the basis of private enterprise for commercial profit, but
.... it ought to be possible to do it without subsidy. If not, our people
might still be wise to tax themselves for good housing instead of for hos
pitals and jails.
WHAT MAKES THE CITY BEAUTIFUL?'
BY GEORGE B. FORD3
We have found that the mere machine, however efficient it may be,
does not satisfy the soul. It is proving only too true that "Man cannot
live by bread alone." In a flood of recent "Main Street" books we have
been shown all too graphically what drab, barren, uneventful lives we live.
Yes, most of our towns are colorless and anything but inspiring and so
perhaps a wistful longing comes over us to recapture some of the beauty
of life that seemed to promise in the fascinating years of childhood.
Even the hard-headed practical business man may make a cult of de-
1 Adapted from "What Makes 'The City Beautiful'?" Planning Problems of Town,
City and Region; Papers and Discussions (National Conference on City Planning, 1929),
pp. 170-78.
2 Before Mr. Ford's death he served as director of the Regional Plan Association of
New York City and vice-president of the Technical Advisory Corporation.
666 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
crying whatever savors of beauty as something effeminate, the work of
long-haired dreamers. Yet that same man often insists on good-looking
furniture, a beautiful etching or painting in his office, or he spends much
time picking out just the right cravat or a new spring suit. He gets away
as soon as he can to go out to a beautiful golf course, cunningly land
scaped, and for his vacation he goes to the mountains, or the shore, or the
woods, where nature is at her most perfect.
No, the demand for beauty is innate, and while a certain Puritanical
hold-over and a childish expression of red-bloodedness may induce us to
repress outwardly our need for beauty, nevertheless it is there waiting for
release. All that was needed was that good looks should become "the
thing." The turning point has come. To-day beauty is no longer looked
at askance. To-day we can insist on attractiveness in our surroundings
without being thought queer. No longer do we have to make our towns
merely safe, healthy and convenient. Openly we can make them attrac
tive as well. However, that which appeals to the eye, that which
is really attractive, does not just happen of its own accord. It is rarely
accidental. Beauty is not a cosmetic, just applied to a building or town.
It is not superimposed by planting geraniums or putting filigreed orna
ments on lamp-posts. No, beauty, is more than skin deep. It is funda
mental and basic in the design of any object.
Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted once said, "Beauty is a closer approach to
practical perfection in the adaptation of means to ends than is required to
meet the merely economic standard." Good looks is doing the efficient
thing more appropriately. It means making the bridge or the museum or
the factory look the part, express its function, as well as serve its purpose.
In any case design implies good taste. Without taste there can be no real
beauty, but the great work of art, the building or the town that will live
down through the ages, must have in its design that same inspired vision
on the part of the creator that characterizes all the great works of art that
have come down to us.
The interesting part of it is that this extra effort, this good taste, this
appropriateness, this inspiration need add nothing to the cost. As a mat
ter of fact, experience proves it may even save cost because good taste
usually means simplification, and simplification means the elimination
of non-essentials
Somehow our towns, so well planned for safety, health and efficiency,
have failed to inspire our enthusiasm. True, we were boosters for our
town because it was the thing to do; it was expected of us, but any other
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 667
town would have done just as well if our family and our work happened
to be there. No, the town lacks charm. It lacks appeal. To be sure, na
ture gave the town a good start, but from then on the few that loved na
ture had a constant losing fight to keep even that inheritance intact. The
town may have buildings of great historical value or of unique Colonial
architecture, but one after another they disappear — gone forever, for once
gone they can never be replaced.
Our fathers planted street trees because they loved trees. They have
become one of the great assets of the town, and yet without a protest the
lineman ruthlessly slashes great gashes through them, with only the most
feeble protest on our part. We have betrayed our trust. The misguided
business man insists on felling the beautiful great elms in front of his
store. A curious idea seems to have insinuated itself over the country that
trees harm business, and yet the best business streets either in Washing
ton or Paris are lined with trees. In any case, if trees must be removed on
account of imperative roadway widening, by all means new ones should be
planted to replace them. Fortunately to-day planning boards all over the
country are insisting in their platting regulations that all subdividers shall
plant trees along their streets. Perhaps there is no one thing — certainly
nothing that costs so little — that can make 'The City Beautiful" as
street trees.
And then come the street poles and wires. Is there anything conceived
by man that can make an otherwise decent street look more tawdry,
more one-horse, more down-at-the-heels than a welter of poles and wires?
If familiarity only would breed contempt, but instead it merely breeds in
difference and the crime persists. Without fail the moment the wires are
buried in conduits, or removed to rear alleys or rights-of-way everyone
exclaims how much more attractive the street looks, and then they wonder
why they had never done it before. Perhaps next to street trees the re
moval of poles and wires can do more to make "The City Beautiful" than
any other one thing.
Then come the billboards, sky signs, signs that overhang the side
walks and even the wayside stands, but here, most fortunately, we have
a strong organized movement, thanks to Mrs. Lawton, Mrs. Rockefeller
and others. [In 1929] over 800 cities and towns, containing over one- third
of the population of the United States and nearly two- thirds of the urban
population, had eliminated all billboards and wayside stands from all
residence districts, and they are controlling the size and location of adver
tising signs in business districts. Massachusetts has gone further and has
668 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
taken the lead in controlling billboards along the highways, while the
leading provisioners of the country are setting a splendid example in
suppressing the billboards and greatly improving the wayside stands. All
of this is helping markedly in making not only the city but the country
beautiful and will repay all effort given to it a hundred-fold.
The street-lighting fixtures, hydrants, letter boxes and fire-alarm boxes
are all important. Not many years ago anything would do. To-day the
fixture-supply houses have vastly improved their designs. The result is
much more attractive street perspectives. If we could only eliminate the
electric light that just protrudes on an iron pipe from the ugly wooden
pole. Grass borders, flowers, shrubs, central parklike strips, parkways,
attractive kiosks or news-stands, seats, fountains, monuments, statues —
one and all make the "street picture." We may not be conscious of them,
but subconsciously they give us a sense of well being and satisfaction and
a certain unconscious pride in the street that makes the effort devoted to
them well worth while. Such an asset do they prove in selling property
that the wide-awake subdivider to-day features such things as these in his
subdivision layout. He finds that they pay.
There is a lot that can be done with the "street picture" either by
ordinance or by persuasion. The requirement of most zoning ordinances
that the buildings, especially in residence districts, should set back from
the street line is a case in point, although subdivision design shows that
a lot of the monotony of our streets with their regular setbacks can be
avoided by proper grouping of buildings and the grouping of setbacks so as
to form a good composition of a block or street as a whole.
The new skyline of New York, with its stepback terraces, towers and
gables, is not an accident. Far from it! When we were zoning New York
and trying to see how we could get the greatest amount of light and air
down into the street we tried at the same time to picture how terraced-
back buildings were going to look. To keep them from being monotonous
and standardized we made little models in harness soap of virtually all
the new types of skyscrapers and many other types besides, and we
drafted our stepback regulations so that they would permit all the variety
and spontaneity of treatment that we are revelling in to-day.
In the fire limits of our building codes we are again assuring at least a
certain substantialness and permanency in the construction of our more
congested districts. In our control of plats and subdivisions, thanks to
the board of vision of the National Association of Real Estate Boards, we
are not only securing a much more orderly development of our suburbs
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 669
but a marked improvement in the "street picture" of the new suburban
highways.
However, all of this is in only a negative control of our street architec
ture. This municipal control can at best only keep the buildings from
being too bad. It does not make the frame of the "street picture" posi
tively good. As far as public buildings and public structures are con
cerned, there is no doubt but that we have made .remarkable progress of
late. We have only to look through the architectural magazines to be
overcome by the astonishing number of most attractive public buildings
that to-day are scattered from one end of the country to the other. This is
something of which we may well be proud. In part this has been accom
plished by the art commissions and art juries which control the designs
of all public structures, but primarily this advance is due to a marked
improvement in public taste and a noteworthy demand for public build
ings in which the citizens may take a legitimate pride.
On the other hand it is the great preponderating mass of dull private
buildings that recently led a well-known architect to remark that even
Washington was only 25 per cent good architecturally. That is, only a
quarter of the buildings would stand the test of time, whereas he con
sidered that in most of our other large cities we would be lucky if 10 per
cent survived public taste for more than a generation. For a country that
is settling down to permanency these are dangerously low averages.
Or, from another point of view, our most lasting impression of a new
city or town is our first impression. If that first impression, whether we
approach by water, railroad, road or air, is good; if the "gateway" to the
town is welcoming and interesting, we carry away a sense of delight that
we will never forget. In our airports we can at least profit by the horrible
example that the railroad affords, where we often have to go into the city
through miles of unkempt factories or squalid tenements — the city seem
ingly to turn its back on the visitor — only to arrive in the vast, murky,
confusing cavern which serves as a terminal. At least the airport can be
bright and welcoming and the approach can be through open fields and
attractive suburbs.
To-morrow our city plans, which yesterday were dead and meaningless
things to most of us — just so many lines on paper — are now coming to
life, for now we can actually visualize the city map as we approach from
the air. It becomes a thing alive with color, form, shadow and movement.
So important is this becoming that we are actually beginning already,
fortunately, to prevent a repetition of our billboard pest by prohibiting
670 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
roof advertising, but we must make this prohibition as nearly uniform as
we can, and as soon as we can, for to-morrow it will be too late.
Yes, the air pattern of the town is now becoming the test of whether
the community is well planned or not. If it "mosaics" well, the planning
has been well done.
From the ground, too, we are beginning to study the mass or composi
tion of the town. We study its silhouette to see that the buildings compose
well. When you go between Philadelphia and New York on the Pennsyl
vania and look at Princeton three miles away, with its picturesque mass
ing of roofs, towers and trees, you cannot help feeling the thrill that comes
as you stand before a great work of art. In recent studies of Chicago,
Detroit, Toronto and Ottawa from the water a similar silhouette was be
ing sought.
"The City Beautiful" is largely a matter of harmony and appropriate
ness; of fitness of form to function, all of which leads to individuality or
personality. A town has personality according as it appears to be appro
priate to its function and site. As a matter of fact, the "typical American
city" is utterly lacking in personality. It is typical only in so far as it is
rubber-stamped — just another standardized model struck from the same
old die. By contrast, old Charleston, S.C., Vieux Carre in New Orleans,
St. Augustine, Fla., or Beacon Hill in Boston, do have a most refreshing
personality because they express with all spontaneity the feeling and
purpose of their time and site. Every community has some individuality
of its own, if we can only find it to express it. Santa Barbara, rising from
its ruins, is doing this very thing and many recent subdivisions from
Palos Verdes to Radburn are making a most laudable effort to express
appropriateness, harmony and personality. Scale, too, is important, al
though it is the easiest thing in the world to miss by default as witness the
plans to erect 15 and 20 story apartment houses directly on the top of the
glorious Palisades opposite New York where the Palisades will be reduced
to mere retaining walls for the incongruous cliff dwellings which will soon
crush them.
In the last analysis the attractive city is a matter of design — design in
form, in color, in texture, full of variety and contrast and yet harmonious;
where buildings, public and private, group into interesting masses and
silhouettes; where color and texture is placed so as actually to form good
compositions such as you would expect in a good painting or in a good
oriental rug; where the views which you get here, there and everywhere
throughout the city or town are not a hodgepodge of form or a kaleido-
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 671
scope of color but an ordered arrangement with all the beauty that any
work of art should have.
It is not inconceivable that the congestion piled on congestion that the
centers of some of our cities have now attained is actually precluding the
possibility of good civic design. Perhaps we can only attain permanent
civic beauty by ruthless decentralization of our cities, saying that if they
will grow they must grow centrifugally by the creation of new isolated
satellite communities far enough from the center so that they can always
avoid the untoward congestion of the metropolitan hub.
However that may be, we will only attain "The City Beautiful" as well
as the city practical by establishing and maintaining a policy so logical
and so appropriate that continuity is inevitable. It is being found in
America, as it already has been found in Europe, that the architect is
preeminently a coordinator by training. He is particularly suited with his
highly trained imagination and taste to take the ideas of the engineer, the
lawyer, the economist and psychologist and transmute them into the living
inspired plan. He should be given every encouragement to do this most
vital thing: By the establishment of art juries or commissions to legally
control the design of all public structures, by the creation of advisory
architectural councils or commissions as they have in Washington and
Santa Barbara, by the creation of street associations, such as the famous
Fifth Avenue Association in New York, and by means of subdivision art
juries, which through persuasion and gradual education, through the
schools and numerous organizations, can gradually make attractive struc
tures, interesting "street pictures," the "things to do." What we have
already done in our automobiles and airplanes we can surely expect to
do in the civic design of our cities, towns and countrysides.
California has pointed the way in its famous Planning Act of 1927
which is designed "to best promote the amenities of life, health, safety,
etc." and "the improvement and control of architecture and general em
bellishment of the area under its jurisdiction." This means a first attempt
at a public control of private architecture — a thing which has been ac
cepted for generations in Europe as essential. Perhaps our courts are not
ready yet to sustain such a control, but the time is coming in the near
future, with popular taste growing as rapidly as it is, when the public will
force the courts to extend their protection of property against those things
which are offensive to the nose to include those things also which are
offensive to the eye.
We are at the beginning of a new era in the planning of our American
672 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
towns ; the pioneer period gave way to a great period of material expansion
where efficiency and service were the watchwords. To-day with our rapidly
increasing wealth and leisure we are insisting more and more on the ameni
ties of life. History says that that means beauty. The new period we are
now entering is one where utility and beauty will share alike. Neither will
satisfy without the other. Together they will make our American towns
a delight and inspiration to all.
WHAT IS ZONING?'
Zoning is the application of common sense and fairness to the public
regulations governing the use of private real estate. It is a painstaking,
honest effort to provide each district or neighborhood, as nearly as prac
ticable, with just such protection and just such liberty as are sensible in that
particular district. It avoids the error of trying to apply exactly the same
building regulations to every part of a city or town regardless of whether
it is a suburban residence section, or a factory district, or a business and
financial center. It fosters civic spirit by creating confidence in the justice
and stability of the protection afforded.
Zoning gives everyone who lives or does business in a community a
chance for the reasonable enjoyment of his rights. At the same time it
protects him from unreasonable injury by neighbors who would seek pri
vate gain at his expense.
Zoning regulations differ in different districts according to the deter
mined uses of the land for residence, business, or manufacturing, and
according to the advisable heights and ground areas.
But these differing regulations are the same for all districts of the same
type. They treat all men alike.
WHY DO WE NEED ZONING?
Some one has asked, "Does your city keep its gas range in the parlor
and its piano in the kitchen?" That is what many an American city per
mits its household to do for it.
Yet many American cities do the same sort of thing when they allow
stores to crowd in at random among private dwellings, and factories and
public garages to come elbowing in among neat retail stores or well-kept
apartment houses. Cities do no better when they allow office buildings so
1 Adapted from A Zoning Primer. Division of Building and Housing, U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, 1926.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 673
tall and bulky and so closely crowded that the lower floors not only be
come too dark and unsatisfactory for human use but for that very reason
fail to earn a fair cash return to the individual investors.
It is this stupid, wasteful jumble which zoning will prevent and gradu
ally correct. We must remember, however, that while zoning is a very
important part of city planning, it should go hand in hand with planning
streets and providing for parks and playgrounds and other essential fea
tures of a well-equipped city. Alone it is no universal panacea for all
municipal ills, but as part of a larger program it pays the city and the
citizens a quicker return than any other form of civic improvement.
ZONING PROTECTS PROPERTY AND HEALTH
Suppose you have just bought some land in a neighborhood of homes
and built a cozy little house. There are two vacant lots south of you. If
your town is zoned, no one can put up a large apartment house on those
lots, overshadowing your home, stealing your sunshine and spoiling the
investment of 20 years' saving. Nor is anyone at liberty to erect a noisy,
malodorous public garage to keep you awake nights or to drive you to sell
out for half of what you put into your home.
If a town is zoned, property values become more stable, mortgage
companies are more ready to lend money, and more houses can be built.
A zoning law, if enacted in time, prevents an apartment house from
becoming a giant airless hive, housing human beings like crowded bees.
It provides that buildings may not be so high and so close that men and
women must work in rooms never freshened by sunshine or lighted from
the open sky.
ZONING REDUCES THE COST OF LIVING
By zoning, millions of waste from the scrapping of buildings in "blight
ed districts" may be eliminated.
A "blighted district" is a district, originally developed for residence or
•industry, in the future of which people have lost confidence.
The causes of such "blight" are manifold. The most familiar case is
that of a residential district into which there have begun to creep various
uses threatening rapid destruction of its value for residences — such new
uses as sporadic stores, or factories, or junk yards. It is not that a few
such inappropriate uses really spoil the district, but that people having
lost confidence, start a panic like a "run on the bank." Hundreds of them
hurry up to "unload" their properties at a sacrifice for any kind of use, no
674 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
matter how objectionable to their neighbors — and the "blight" is on!
Dwellings worth in the aggregate millions of dollars for the purposes for
which they were built, and physically fit to serve those purposes for many
years to come, with a moderate investment in alterations and improve
ments, are thus annually abandoned to purposes for which they are not
fit, or are left to stand practically idle. Expensive public services of water,
gas, electricity, sewers, and transportation are maintained at great waste
in order to get through the "blighted" district to the more distant and
newly fashionable location.
The total economic loss is enormous, and this loss and the risk of it are
paid by the people, in the price of house rents or otherwise, as inevitably
as they pay the price of the enormous fire losses, either directly or through
insurance.
Proper zoning cuts these losses at their source, just as proper building
regulations and fire protection cut fire losses at their source.
Again, miles of streets and sewers and other utilities, such as are ordina
rily built when land is newly subdivided for dwellings, need never be con
structed if we know that these areas will be devoted mainly to large fac
tories. Industry will be more efficient, as well as homes more wholesome,
if kept generally separate. Separation need not mean great distances for
workers to travel. Concentration of uses and a fair apportioning of dis
tricts should reduce the amount of all transportation and secure economies
not only directly for the worker but indirectly in the costs of production
and marketing of goods.
// zoning can reduce the cost of living, why not have it?
ZONING IS LEGAL
When a zoning law is properly drawn there is no doubt that the courts
will support it. Enough favorable decisions have been handed down to
show that the courts regard regulation of the uses of land and structures
thereon, in accordance with the kind of district in which they are situated,
as a reasonable exercise of the police power "for the public health, safety,
and general welfare."
HOW TO GET STARTED
Enabling act. — Before any community undertakes zoning it must make
sure that it has the power to pass a zoning ordinance. A general state
enabling act passed by the state legislature is always desirable, and while
the power to zone may, in some states, be derived from constitutional, as
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 675
distinguished from statutory, home rule, still it is seldom that the home-
rule powers will cover all the necessary provisions for successful zoning.
The United States Department of Commerce has issued A Standard
State Zoning Enabling Act which contains all provisions needed
Zoning commission. — There must be some local official body to initiate
the work of zoning. If there is a planning board or commission, that is the
logical body to take up the problem. If there is no such body, one should
be created, because zoning, to be done with wise foresight, must take
account not only of existing conditions and obvious tendencies of growth
but of probable changes and improvements of many sorts. It is part of
the general planning problem. It relates to the transportation system,
including streets, street railways and other local passenger transportation,
railroad freight and passenger service, and water-borne commerce, if any.
It relates also to public works and utilities, to parks, schools, and many
special public and private undertakings.
A ZONING PROGRAM
Surveys. — A zoning ordinance needs to be based on a comprehensive
and detailed study of the precise local conditions, both present and pro
spective. What fits one city or town may be a bad misfit for another.
There is no short cut to good zoning in any community through blindly
accepting what has been done for another community. The only safe path
is a thorough, open-minded examination of the facts in each community
as to existing uses, existing densities, and heights of buildings, the customs
of the people, and the trend of affairs. In every city there are citizens and
organizations having in their possession valuable knowledge of local con
ditions. These have a large contribution to make to those responsible for
zoning, although those who have lived their whole lives in a community
do not necessarily realize all that is going on about them.
The zoning of a city requires expert professional knowledge just as the
presentation of a case in court requires legal training. But just as the
lawyer depends upon the layman to secure his facts, so must the pro
fessional zoning expert call upon the citizens for much of the accurate in
formation upon which any good zoning regulations must be based.
Technical advice. — The practice of zoning is relatively new in America.
We are feeling our way and must learn by experience. Those who have
had experience tend to become expert, with broader knowledge of prac
tices that are proving effective. These men are becoming gradually more
skilled in the methods of getting at the essential facts of any local situation
676 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
and in the interpretation of those facts. If they possess insight and sane
judgment, their advice becomes increasingly valuable.
Scope of a zoning ordinance. — A zoning ordinance consists of one or
more maps dividing the city into different kinds of districts; and a state
ment of methods of regulation to be employed in each district in regard to
the use to which property may be put, the height and size of buildings,
and the amount of space to be left vacant, with adequate provisions for
enforcement.
Importance of correct procedure. — Certain points in procedure have
proved themselves workable as practical steps for securing carefully
drawn zoning measures, and ordinances so adopted are less liable to attack
in the courts. These points are set forth in the standard enabling act of
the Department of Commerce, with the aim of encouraging proper satis
factory measures well within the police power. The most important of
them are :
1. Proper definition of the purposes for which zoning may be undertaken.
2. Uniformity of regulations for each class or kind of buildings throughout each
district.
3. The appointment and functioning of a zoning commission.
4. The careful preparation of regulations with reference to the character of the
district and its peculiar suitability for particular uses.
5. The holding of public hearings.
6. The method of changing the ordinance.
7. Rules for establishing a board of adjustment.
8. Provision for adequate remedies against violations of the ordinance.
Getting public support. — In the process of drafting a tentative ordinance
it is important, by means of full public discussion, to be sure that the
ordinance is an "application of common sense and fairness" and will "pro
vide each district, as nearly as practicable, with just such protection and
just such liberty as are sensible in that particular district." It is essential
likewise to be sure that public opinion, as a whole, will support it.
Zoning in operation. — A zoning ordinance is of value only as it is prop
erly enforced. Because of the difficulty in making with precision the fore
casts on which it is based, its operation should be closely followed by those
who most intimately understand the reasons for its provisions. Thus,
improvements and adjustments may from time to time be made intelli
gently. It is to furnish in exceptional cases means for remedying possible
injustice that, in the standard act and in some other state laws, provision
is made for a board of adjustment or appeals.
It is obvious from the nature of the case that, even if a zoning ordinance
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 677
were drawn- with superhuman perfection, time and the natural growth of
the community might show the need of modifications. The purpose of a
zoning ordinance is not to stifle growth, but only to insure that instead of
taking place sporadically and wastefully it shall go on in an orderly way,
in response to generally recognized needs and with due notice to all con
cerned.
WHERE TO GET INFORMATION
The Division of Building and Housing of the Department of Commerce
at Washington, D.C., maintains a current list of zoned municipalities
and of zoning enabling acts passed by state legislatures. The division is
always glad to answer inquiries in its field of work
[NOTE. — Zoning ordinances: Zoning ordinances were in operation in 981 cities,
towns, and villages throughout the United States in 1930. This represented more than
46,000,000 people. Of the 48 states, 47 and the District of Columbia have granted
zoning authority to municipalities. In the state of Washington, cities of the first class
are permitted zoning regulations through the home-rule provisions of the constitution.
Information on zoning progress may be obtained from the Division of Building and
Housing, U.S. Dept. of Commerce.]
ZONING AND HEALTH1
BY PROFESSOR GEORGE C. WHIFFLE2
Zoning is an essential part of city planning. Generally speaking, about
three-fourths of the land area of a city is privately owned and subdivided
into blocks and lots; the other fourth, devoted to streets, parks, etc., is
owned by the municipality or dedicated to public uses. Again, speaking
in generalities, municipal control of the public land is obtained through
the governmental power of eminent domain, while municipal control over
the use of private property is dependent on the exercise of police power.
With rare exceptions, eminent domain has nothing to do with zoning;
there is no question of compensation to the owner; no question of the
necessity of acquiring private property for public use. The constitution
ality of zoning depends on whether the restrictions proposed are justifiable
under a reasonable use of the police power, a common-law principle which,
although undefined and undefinable, finds its backing in certain well-
recognized needs of the community. Used conservatively the police power
has to do only with injury to health, safety, or morals; used more liberally
1 Paper presented at the City Planning Division of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Detroit, Mich., October 24, 1924.
2 Before Mr. Whipple's death he served as professor of sanitary engineering of Har
vard University.
678 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
it covers, in addition, such matters as the public order and convenience
and even extends to what are called the "amenities of ife." With the in
creasing concentration of people in cities, there is good reason for the
widening scope of the police power which has been witnessed during recent
years.
Zoning is advantageous to a city in many ways. It tends to stabilize
real-estate values, to promote orderly building, to enhance beauty, and to
develop local self-consciousness and civic responsibility on the part of the
people. Yet, in the face of these benefits, zoning is likely to be declared
by the highest courts to be unconstitutional if it cannot be justified under
the police power; and although instances may be cited where the police
power has been exercised in a constructive manner to promote the general
welfare of a community, its preponderant use has been to prevent injury
to health, safety, morals, and — the lawyers like to add — "the like." The
purpose of this paper is to outline the scientific evidence bearing on the
relation of zoning to health.1
HEALTH
At the outset it is important to grasp the full meaning of the word
"health," to realize that it is more than the absence of disease; that it has
a positive quality; and that it has to do with the mind as well as the physi
cal body. It is useful to keep in mind the derivation of the word from the
Anglo-Saxon "haelth," which implied wholeness. If one were to venture a
definition, it might be said that health is "that state of quality of life in
which the body is sound, the various organs function naturally, and the
whole organism responds adequately to its environment."
In a popular sense public health means the general or collective health
of the community. In an administrative or legal sense it means the health
of the community as influenced by factors which affect a considerable
number of people in some connected way. The police power is not limited
to public health used in this restricted sense, but deals with health.
Attention should be called to the fact that the adjective "public" restricts
the word "health" instead of amplifying it.
Although it is difficult to define normal health, it is recognized that
some factors tend to injure it, or lower its state, whereas other factors
tend to promote it, or raise its state above the normal. Normal health
1 [Since this paper was written the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision
(Euclid village case, November 22, 1926) which was a victory for zoning. The Court
upheld the constitutionality of excluding stores from residence districts, factories from
business districts, and apartment houses from detached-house districts.]
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 679
presupposes a normal environment, the two ideas being complementary
and inseparable. It is the purpose of zoning, as it is that of sanitation, to
secure and maintain an environment in which normal human beings can
lead normally healthful lives.
In an address on " Sanitation — Its Relation to Health and Life" before
the Sanitary Engineering Division of the Society, the writer pointed out
that the principal injurious factors to health are infections, poisons, and
accidents. The physiological factors air, food, water, light, temperature
and humidity, sleep, exercise, clothing, and shelter, and the sensatory
factors smell, taste, sound, sight, and touch, are either health promotive
or health injurious, according to their nature. This classification, indefi
nite though it is, serves to steady one's ideas when considering the com
plicated relations between health and environment.
Quantitatively, health can be measured only imperfectly and in part.
Individual health may be expressed in terms of growth, height, weight,
and other biometrical units. Community health on its negative side may
be measured in terms of death rates and sickness rates, general and spe
cific, for different classes, age groups, and particular diseases. No adequate
methods of measuring community health, on its positive side, have yet
been developed; perhaps they will come in time.
To a large extent, therefore, the subject under discussion is beyond the
range of statistics ; and reliance must be placed on accumulated experience
and the opinions of competent authorities, rather than on logical scientific
demonstration, although, in certain parts of the problem, scientific proof
is available.
INDOOR AND OUTDOOR CONDITIONS
The relation between health and indoor life has long been recognized.
Laws and ordinances covering the size and ventilation of sleeping rooms,
drainage, dark hallways, cellars, windows, refuse disposal, and many
other items are common. Detailed building and plumbing codes, housing
laws, tenement-house laws, and the like are in force in most cities. It is
well recognized by the courts that insanitary indoor conditions are preju
dicial to the health of the people. It is coming to be recognized that, in
important ways, indoor conditions are dependent on and controlled by
outdoor environment. The light that enters a room through a window
depends on the light that falls on the outer wall of the building, and this
is affected by the position, height, and bulk of neighboring buildings. The
quantity of air that enters a building is influenced, sometimes very greatly,
68o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
by neighboring buildings, and the quality of the air is affected by what is
going on in the neighborhood. In fact, nearly all the physiological and
sensatory factors related to health may be used to illustrate the close con
nection between indoors and outdoors.
Placing restrictions on the height and. bulk of buildings is virtually
public control of the space outside the buildings. It prevents private
owners from monopolizing light and air to which all people should have
a common right. In some respects time-honored conceptions in regard to
property rights are faulty. It is assumed that lots of land privately owned
are bounded by vertical planes which extend upward and downward with
out limit, unmindful of the fact that, in this latitude at least, the sun's
rays fall slantingly on the earth and the winds blow horizontally. Build
ing without limit on one's land, therefore, may interfere with a neighbor's
use of his land and the enjoyment of certain bounties of nature, thereby
doing injury to his health and comfort. From this point of view restric
tions on height and bulk appear to be justifiable.
Conversely, the indoor use of property may affect outdoor conditions.
Buildings of great height and bulk lead to such indoor massings of people
that not only are the means of ingress and egress provided with difficulty,
but means of conveyance and the streets themselves become so congested
that safety, health, and morals are jeopardized. Congestion may extend
even to the substructures of the streets — the water mains, sewers, gas
pipes, and electric-light and telephone wires. Municipal governments,
responsible for the streets and their use, cannot adequately perform their
duties in the face of excessive developments of private property abutting
on the streets. The indoor use of property, whether for residential, busi
ness, or industrial purposes, controls the character of the vehicular
traffic and the character of the pavements required for it; it affects the
cleanliness of the streets, as well as dust, odors, sights, and noises. The
abutters and the public have common interests in the streets and public
lands, which can be protected only by placing restrictions on the use of
private property.
PHASES OF LIFE
One of the primary purposes of zoning is to safeguard the conditions
which affect three primary phases of life, namely, work, recreation, and
sleep, each of which occupies about one-third of the adult's normal day.
Adequate provision for work, sleep, and recreation (using this word in a
sense broad enough to include rest and nourishment and not merely as a
synonym for pleasure) is essential to health. The necessary conditions are
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 681
not the same for all three, although for sleep and recreation they are not
dissimilar. The keynote of work is efficiency; of sleep, quiet; of recreation,
cheerfulness.
In infancy and old age, and with the sick of all ages, the conditions
which favor sleep are especially important. During childhood and youth,
when bodies are growing and minds are developing, the recreation phase
controls. In middle age, the work phase predominates. To a large extent
the three phases of life are controlled by the sun — the day is for work, the
night for sleep, and the morning and evening for recreation; but to an in
creasing extent life in cities ignores the clock. Factories run continuously,
night work is required in many ways, transportation never ceases. Those
who work at night must sleep by day. What was once a "time" separation
is fast becoming a "place" separation. To obtain normal, healthful con
ditions in cities, home life must be separated in place from work life,
and, in order that permanency be given to this separation, a certain
amount of governmental control of private property is essential. This is
the basic principle which underlies building restriction by districts.
In making this place separation it is necessary to take into account
various practical considerations. Many people like to live within walking
distance of their work, and the daily walk, if not too long, is one of the
positive factors of health. Home life requires that the grocer, the butcher,
the baker, and other neighborhood conveniences be not too far away.
Certain associated businesses gain in efficiency by segregation. Some
kinds of manufacturing involve processes which are noisy or which give
rise to odors, bearable during work, but offensive from the standpoint of
home life. Cities which have been built under the doctrine of laissez faire
cannot be rebuilt in a day. These and similar facts have led to the estab
lishment of zones of the most irregular shape, size, and position — zones
not always topographically logical, but the best that can be established
under the circumstances. The need of zoning is the best argument in favor
of city and regional planning.
The primary object of zoning, therefore, is (i) to protect the basic
phases of life against injury by providing adequate place separation of
residence, business, and industry ; and (2) to prevent the private monopoly
of natural light and air, necessary to health, by restricting the height and
bulk of buildings in ways appropriate to their neighborhood.
With these general principles in mind, various factors involved in the
problem, namely, light, air, noise, odors, congestion, and the like, will now
be discussed in some detail.
682 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
LIGHT
The rays of the sun bring light and heat to the earth, and both are
necessary to man's existence. Dr. Haven Emerson, paraphrasing Michelet,
has tersely epitomized human experience by saying, "You cannot raise
babies any more without light and air than you can raise plants." Al
though admittedly mysterious in its action, sunlight is of positive biologi
cal benefit, and this is true even of diffused sunlight, or daylight. Its ac
tion is both physiological and psychological. It is a natural stimulant to
the skin and the nervous system. It aids naturally in providing resistance
to the body against diseases like tuberculosis. It has recently been learned
that it plays an important part in the cure and prevention of rickets in
children. It helps to cure tuberculosis of the bones. It provides illumina
tion, the absence of which hampers activities of mind and body and in
duces eye strain with its attendant damages and discomforts. It provides
Warmth in winter. Although science has not yet fathomed the influence
of the sun's rays (and this influence may perhaps include the rays beyond
those of the spectrum of light), it is a matter of accumulated experience
that sunlit rooms are not only cheerful, but healthful, and that dark
rooms are gloomy and unhealthful.
There are likewise many indirect benefits. Sunlight is a powerful disin
fectant, rapidly destroying bacteria exposed to it, whether floating in the
air or resting on pavements, floors or walls. Unequal heating of the air
induces convection currents and beneficial air movements. Places not
exposed to sunlight are more likely than others to contain stagnant air.
Air movements have an important influence in regulating the temperature
of the body. Stagnant air around the body tends to increase in humidity,
thereby making a person feel warmer in summer because of lessened
evaporation and cooler in winter because of greater conduction of heat by
the moist air.
Sunlight tends to reduce the relative humidity of the air by increasing
its temperature and its ability to hold water vapor. By removing moisture
from dust particles in the air, it tends to lessen fogs. It also tends to dry
pools of water which otherwise might become breeding spots for mosqui
toes.
Sunlight markedly influences vegetation. Trees, shrubs, and grass are
natural automatic regulators of heat conditions. During the summer
trees produce desirable shade, yet, in winter, they do not obstruct the
sunlight. In this respect the shade of trees differs from the shade of build
ings. Vegetation also provides a natural chemical balance. Human beings,
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 683
as well as all animals, inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid; whereas
plants in sunlight take in carbonic acid and give out oxygen. Vegetation
cannot thrive without sunlight and water. It is a matter of history that
the increasing height of buildings and the increasing extent of imperme
able area due to buildings and pavements drive out trees, shrubs, and
grass. The effect of vegetation is local. Trees and grass concentrated in
parks cannot take the place of vegetation on streets and individual house
lots.
Daylight, which means indirect lighting from the sun by reflection from
the sky, the clouds, and various surfaces, does all these things, but to a
less degree than direct sunlight. Sunlight may even be too great, as every
one knows, especially during the summer and in the Tropics. Daylight
has an important economic value. It is not only beneficial physiologically
and pyschologically, but increases the productiveness of labor and reduces
the necessity of artificial illumination. Artificial illumination involves
expense and must be arranged with great care in order to be effective and
not cause injury to the eyesight. Lighting with oil or gas tends to vitiate
the air by increasing the carbonic acid and moisture, and even by increas
ing the poisonous carbonic oxide.
Artificial lighting also increases fire risk. Lack of proper exterior light
ing increases the window space required and this, in turn, increases the
heat loss in buildings in winter.
There are abundant reasons, therefore, for stating that adequate pro
vision for allowing daylight to enter an inhabited building is essential to
human growth, health, vitality, and comfort. Whoever, by building over
much on his own land, prevents his neighbor from receiving a reasonable
amount of light on his land is doing him an injury that properly comes
within the scope of the police power.
Much can be done to make the best use of sunlight by the orientation
of buildings and streets. Buildings facing the cardinal points are not as
well lighted throughout the year as those facing the quarter-points.
Western townships with their north, south, east, and west boundaries have
tended to grow up into cities having streets in these directions. Many
trivial matters often control street orientation, whereas the element of
sunlight receives scant attention. The matter does not become one of real
importance until high buildings are constructed, and, by that time, street
lines have become fixed. Contact with civil-engineering students in recent
years has convinced the writer that astronomy receives too little attention
in the schools. Few students, on graduation, are able to trace the sun's
684 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
path in the heavens at different seasons or to draw the shadow of an iso
lated house, not to mention the shadows of high buildings on each other,
when located on a street of given latitude, width, and direction.
AIR
The necessity of pure air need not be argued. It is a fundamental prin
ciple registered by human experience. Modern studies of ventilation em
phasize the physical properties of the air — temperature, humidity, and
movement — and their physiological importance. These heat relations are
closely linked with the problem of sunlight, already considered.
Nothing in recent experimentation, however, controverts the need of
cleanliness of the air we breathe. Dust in the air tends to irritate and clogs
the breathing apparatus. If the dust particles are sharp, as in the case of
silica, they wound the delicate membranes so that bacterial infection is
likely to follow. Statistics of tuberculosis among stonecutters show that
this disease is prevalent in direct proportion to the percentage of silica
in the stone dust. Dust may injure the eyes and clog pores of the skin.
Its damage is economic as well as physiological. The extent to which dis
ease germs are transmitted from person to person through the air is not
well known. Ordinarily, spray from the mouth or nose does not carry
more than a few feet, and accompanying bacteria capable of detection by
present methods do not live long in the air because of the destructive
effect of drying and sunlight. The behavior of the filterable viruses in air
and the longevity of the spores of bacteria, molds, and fungi, however, are
only imperfectly understood. Irritating fumes from chemical processes
maybe not only offensive to the senses,but also cause physiological injury.
Any air which by reason of dust or bacteria, irritating fumes, or offensive
odors tends instinctively to induce shallow breathing must be regarded as
injurious to health. Just as pure air tends to promote health by naturally
inducing deep breathing and stimulating the bodily functions, so exposure
to vitiated air tends to break down the individual's power to resist disease,
especially respiratory affections, such as colds, pneumonia, and tubercu
losis. Here the element of time is important. A fleeting bad odor may be
offensive, but do little or no injury, whereas some odors, long continued,
may be injurious. On the other hand, there are odors to which people be
come accustomed and which do no damage. Individual susceptibility
plays an important part in the phenomenon of odor. The extent to which
foul air affects breathing during sleep appears to be not well known from
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 685
experimental studies, but, judging from experience, its influence is quite
as important as during waking hours.
The air which enters a building, both in quality and in quantity, is in
fluenced by the neighboring buildings and by the streets. Intakes of venti
lation systems are more often located with reference to indoor distribu
tion than to exterior conditions which affect the quality of the entering air.
Many studies have been made of the number of dust particles and bac
teria in city air, both in the United States and abroad. The absolute
figures need not be considered because their order of magnitude varies
according to the methods used and the sizes of the dust particles included
in the counts. Relatively, the tests agree in showing that dust in the air
is greatest near the street and decreases logarithmically upward; that
macadamized streets and much-traveled granite pavements produce more
dust than streets sheet paved; that dust is closely associated with the
cleanliness of the streets and methods of cleaning; that automobile traffic
produces less dust than horse traffic, but distributes it to a greater extent;
that street cars raise dust one or more stories higher than horse traffic;
that less dust is found over grass land than pavements; that less dust is
found in residential districts than in business or industrial districts, etc.
Smoke is another important source of dust. The use of oil burners in
place of coal burners is changing this problem. The Mexican oils are high
er in sulphur than American oils, and their use increases the sulphurous
fumes in the air to a measurable extent.
Where high buildings exist, the ventilation of streets is coming to be
an important problem. If buildings are high relative to the street width,
there is likely to be a stagnation of air over the pavement and a concentra
tion of dust bacteria, foul odors, and automobile smoke injurious to the
health of persons using the streets.
The density of automobile traffic in cities is already so great that
traffic officers are sometimes overcome by the poisonous fumes of carbonic
oxide, and pedestrians are greatly inconvenienced by the smoke. In busi
ness districts, where large trucks are used and traffic is heavy, these con
ditions are especially bad, and are at their worst when associated with
high buildings with flat roofs and overhanging cornices. If the streets
have a marked grade, there is a tendency for gravity currents to produce
partial ventilation with dilution of the bad air; but when they are level,
gentle winds do not suffice to effect the necessary ventilation of deep,
cavernous streets. Strong winds, on the other hand, produce excessive
currents through cavernous streets that are very objectionable in winter,
686 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
In the interest of air purity, therefore, zoning is justified. Residential
districts, where people sleep and recreate and where children grow up,
need protection against the atmospheric dirt of the business and industrial
districts.
NOISE
Susceptibility to noise in general and to particular noises varies greatly
among individuals. It is a difficult question to discuss. It is well known
that noises hinder sleep. Physicians say that certain persons, especially
those suffering from nervous diseases, are seriously injured by noise and
vibration. Everyone knows that in many ways noises interfere with the
comfort and tranquillity of life. Quiet is especially important at night in
residential districts and near hospitals and schools.
Noises are greatly increased by the reflection of sound waves from the
hard surfaces of pavements and building walls. Limitation of the height
of buildings is, therefore, a means of noise reduction. Vegetation, on the
other hand, tends to dampen sound waves — another reason for providing
conditions favorable for trees and grass in residential districts.
Many kinds of noises are preventable, but others appear to be insepara
ble from traffic, business, and manufacturing processes. In these cases
segregation appears to be the best solution.
CONGESTION
Congestion, or crowding, needs to be viewed from at least three angles
as far as health is concerned, that is, room crowding, land crowding, and
personal contact.
Room crowding is commonly expressed as a ratio of the number of
square feet of floor area, or number of cubic feet of room volume, per per
son. Minimum limits are sometimes placed on one or both of these ratios
for sleeping rooms, barracks, schools, factories, etc., based on the hygienic
need for light, air, and ventilation — matters which have already been con
sidered.
Land crowding, expressed as so many persons per acre, introduces two
additional elements: The number of stories and the area of the building
with reference to the size of the lot and the street width. One of the most
important reasons for restricting the height and bulk of buildings by dis
tricts is to prevent overcrowding of corridors, elevators, streets, and side
walks. These have to do more with questions of safety and accident than
with normal health — questions not considered in this paper.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 687
The third phase of congestion bears directly on the spread of disease.
When people are brought into such close contact that opportunity exists
for breaths to intermingle, as in crowded elevators and cars, or for the
nasal spray of one person to pollute the air breathed by another, there is
serious danger that disease germs may spread and that colds and respira
tory diseases may become epidemic. It may be true, as medical bacteri
ologists claim, that crowd exposure tends to build up an acquired im
munity against certain diseases so that to some extent nature protects
itself, but the fact remains that, on the whole, crowding speeds up and in
creases the transmission of disease. It is a menace to health, morals, and
safety.
No one has yet established a logical basis of street capacity, either for
pedestrians or for vehicular traffic, or the relation which an adequate
street capacity should bear to the size of abutting buildings. Most streets
in American cities were laid out to accommodate slow-moving traffic and
buildings of two, four, or six stories, or thereabouts. Increase in building
height has led to serious street congestion in many places. Fragmentary
data exist as to the number of square feet per person in buildings used for
different purposes, the permissible capacity of elevators, the space occu
pied by moving pedestrians under different conditions, and the street
space monopolized by vehicles of different character moving at different
speeds. These data should be assembled and studied with a view to
establishing, if possible, some reasonable relation between building size
and street area. The writer's unsatisfactory attempt to do this (too mea
ger to warrant publication) has convinced him that the fundamental data
need first consideration.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Health is mental as well as physical. Mental health is intangible, but
none the less real. Sunlight is beneficial largely because it is cheerful.
Trees and grass and flowers are healthful for the same reason. The beauty
of form, color, light, and shade conduce to mental health. Eyes are rested
by a change of focus and ears by a change of sound. Monotony causes
mental fatigue, and, carried to the yielding point, may cause insanity.
Children, especially, need opportunities for proper development and ad
justment of the senses, but all workers like to get away from their work at
night. A most important benefit of zoning is to provide opportunities for
the changes necessary to normal mental health.
688 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
COMMUNITY HEALTH
It is easy to object to particular applications of the zoning principle.
Building restrictions of necessity must be arbitrary. Boundaries of dis
tricts must be actual lines, and in establishing lines where conditions grade
almost insensibly one into another, it is difficult to avoid individual in
justices. It is often difficult to show that zoning prevents injury to the
health of certain particular individuals. There are various matters for
adjustment and administration which should be provided for, as well as
may be, in zoning laws. Although zoning as a principle has abundant
justification under the police power, it must not be forgotten that since
Magna Charta, the individual has had protection against undue restric
tions of government in what is known as "due process of law."
The relation between zoning and health is a mass relation. It is the
health of the community, the collective health of many people, that is at
stake. Families rightly separate working quarters from sleeping quarters ;
cooking and eating and sleeping in the same room is regarded as insani
tary. Tenement-house laws, factory regulations, building codes, and the
like safeguard the internal uses of the buildings. The zoning law does for
a city what some of these laws do for the factories, school houses, and
dwellings.
When cities grow without plan, their constituent districts tend to
change in character. Single houses give way to apartment houses; resi
dential districts are insidiously invaded by business and manufacturing;
and old buildings are converted to uses for which they were not intended
and for which they are ill adapted. Converted houses are notoriously
likely to be insanitary and unhealthful. In a growing city there is a natu
ral tendency toward concentration for economic reasons. A person who
erects an apartment house in a region where only single dwellings exist is
capitalizing for his own pocketbook light, air, and the other residential
benefits at the expense of his neighbors. A single-house region once in
fected with an apartment house tends to accumulate other apartments,
and the neighborhood tends to change from a stable, house-owning
population to a shifting, renting class — a class lacking in neighborliness
and civic pride and leading an impoverished family life. Thanks to sani
tation and other modern improvements, apartment-house life has been
made healhful for adult existence, but the compressed and repressed life
of a modern city apartment is not conducive to growth or to a life that is
full and rich. Segregation of apartment houses is justified as a measure
for protecting community health.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 689
Gradually it is dawning on men's minds that cities which grow to great
size do so at the expense of the health and comfort of their own citizens ;
that rapid growth which outruns municipal ability to make or remake
necessary thoroughfares and provide needed public utilities leads to ugly
confusion, whereas a slower, well-ordered growth is more likely to lead to
civic beauty and a better civilization. The United States is entering on a
period of lower population increase. As pride in growth and quantity
production lessens, as it must, the elements of stability and self-control
and beauty need to be strengthened.
Zoning should be regarded as a sort of collective self-control, a means
by which a city controls its own life and growth for the best good of all
its citizens. It is an act of police power fully justified in the interest of
morals, safety, and health.
SUMMARY
Good city planning aims to bring about order in the physical develop
ment of a city, town, or village. In good planning public and private
developments are in harmony with the plan. Poor planning usually re
sults from piecemeal planning when the layout of a new subdivision or
location of public buildings and so on, are regarded as separate problems.
A city plan provides for streets and transportation, business and shopping
centers, industrial districts, public buildings, parks, playgrounds, and resi
dential areas. A city plan should include a zoning ordinance. The plan
is given effect by both the city government and its citizens, and usually a
city-planning commission is set up. Effective city planning can do much to
make one-family houses available to more families by encouraging a bet
ter distribution of centers of employment and a well-coordinated street
system which provides for available areas for dwellings. The city plan
makes possible easy access to neighborhood stores, schools, and recreation
centers.
After the plan has been formulated it should be kept up to date, as its
execution is never completed while the city is growing or rebuilding. A
separately organized city-planning commission usually is the desired
agency for preparing the plan and in assuming the responsibility for
carrying it out. Ill effects on housing by poor planning are: (a) lack of
forethought in layout of streets often affecting housing through needless
high costs of land brought about by too great an amount of paving and
installation of utilities ; (b) failure to orient streets to provide maximum of
direct sunlight for dwellings; (c) back yards too small for efficient use;
690 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
(d) more corner lots than necessary in residential districts involving
street noises, traffic dangers, and dust.
City planning affects housing through those multi-family dwellings
which occupy a large percentage of the land; through progress of build
ing and industry. Too much space is often allotted to manufacture
and trade which sometimes results in blighted districts. City planning
should concern housing in the clearance of slum areas. City planning
affects housing in laws and practices relating to real estate, eminent do
main, taxation, and assessment.
More efficient government machinery and community organization is
needed in carrying out city planning. A solution of the problem is needed
of acquiring land and financing the improvements in order that those
benefiting by the improvement will pay in proportion to the benefits re
ceived.
A large number of states have enacted legislation that authorizes
planning in cities, towns, boroughs, counties, and regions. This is of
two kinds: (i) enabling acts that authorize planning in all cities, or
cities of a certain class, towns, boroughs, villages, counties, or regions of
the state; (2) special acts that affect only certain named cities and areas.
Planning commissions have been established in certain cities under these
general and special laws. In other states commissions have been estab
lished by municipal charter amendments under home-rule provisions of
state constitutions or laws. In still other cases commissions have been ap
pointed without specific authorization by the state. A Standard City
Planning Enabling Act — a model from which states may frame and de
velop planning legislation — has been prepared by the United States De
partment of Commerce.
Provision must be made in the regional plan for industrial, commercial,
and residential areas. The metropolitan region of the future should be
planned to contain a number of distinct urban communities which will be
enabled to preserve their individuality through surrounding open areas.
Each urban unit in the regional plan should be easily accessible to the
others. Home and work should be brought closer together through intelli
gent regional planning, and more space should be available which will im
prove the character of dwellings.
For the population that is to be housed in a carefully planned region
there are one-family houses, two-family houses, and multi-family houses,
boarding and rooming houses. With this classification of houses, with a
regional plan, zoning regulation, and an intelligent distribution of the
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 691
centers of employment so that there will be ready access from home to
shop, with a stabilization of the character of neighborhoods, a recognition
of the value of space inside and outside the house, it will be comparatively
easy to develop a housing policy to serve adequately the needs of the
population. The regional plan will guide the development of traffic fa
cilities, types of dwellings will be placed in accordance with their needs of
these facilities, and zoning regulations will prevent the placing of an in
ferior type in a district where it does not belong.
A slum is a dwelling, or group of dwellings, or a whole district which is
injurious to health, morals or family life. Slums may be due to (i) faulty
layout — too narrow streets or too large blocks, inviting courts, alleys, and
rear tenements; (2) bad structural plans of dwellings themselves, where
they cover too much of the lot and have dark or dimly lighted rooms; (3)
disrepair; (4) the tenant. Slum evils may include overcrowding and un-
cleanliness. Health and housing authorities are responsible for cleanliness
and certain repair work. The city planner is concerned with faulty layout
or faulty structural plans in respect to light and air.
Slum clearance is the acquisition by city or by authorities of slum areas
declared injurious to public health or morals followed by demolition and
a new layout of streets and open spaces.
Zoning has been denned as the application of common sense and fair
ness to the public regulations governing the use of private real estate.
Zoning regulations vary in different districts according to the uses of the
land for residence, business, or manufacturing. Zoning is an important
part of city planning and should be developed with it. A blighted dis
trict is a district originally developed for residence or industry in which
people have lost confidence. The most familiar is the residential district
in which stores and factories have begun to be erected — thus reducing
residential property values. Zoning prevents waste by preventing these
blighted districts.
A general state enabling act passed by the state legislature is desirable
as home-rule powers may not cover all necessary provisions for successful
zoning. A city-planning commission, if there is one, is the logical body to
initiate zoning work. A zoning ordinance consists of one or more maps
dividing the city into different kinds of districts with regulations for each
district, and adequate provisions for enforcement.
Municipal control over the use of private property is dependent upon
the exercise of the police power. It is the purpose of zoning as it is that of
sanitation to secure and maintain an environment in which normal beings
692 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
can lead normally healthy lives. Placing restriction on heights and bulks
of buildings is public control of space outside of buildings. Indoor use of
property also affects outdoor conditions. One of the primary purposes of
zoning is to safeguard the conditions which affect three primary phases of
life which in turn affect health: (i) work, (2) recreation, and (3) sleep.
The objects of zoning are (i) to protect the basic phases of life against
injury by providing adequate place separation of residences, business, and
industry; (2) to prevent private monopoly of natural light and air nec
essary to health by restricting the height and bulk of buildings in ways
appropriate in their neighborhoods. The relation between zoning and
health is a mass relation — the health of the community.
REFERENCES
ADAMS, THOMAS; BASSETT, EDWARD; AND WHITTEN, ROBERT. Regional Sur
vey of New York and its Environs, Vol. VII : Problems of Planning Unbuilt
Areas. New York: Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1929.
BASSETT, EDWARD M. "Control of Building Heights, Densities and Uses by
Zoning," Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, Vol. VI: Buildings,
Their Uses and the Spaces about Them. New York: Regional Plan of New
York and Its Environs, 1931. Pp. 352-99.
CHENEY, CHARLES H. Building for Permanence: The Esthetic Considerations in
a Master or City Plan. New York: National Conference on City Planning,
1928. Pp. 16.
DELANO, FREDERIC A., and OTHERS. City-planning Procedure. 3d ser., No. i.
Washington: American Civic Association, 1928. Pp. 31.
FORD, GEORGE B. The Newer City Planning. 3d ser., No. 3. Washington:
American Civic Association, 1928. Pp. 24.
HUBBARD, THEODORA KIMBALL, and HUBBARD, HENRY VINCENT. Our Cities
To-day and To-morrow: A Survey of Planning and Zoning Progress in the
United States. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929.
HUBBARD, THEODORA KIMBALL, and MCNAMARA, KATHERINE (comps.). Plan
ning Information Up-to-Date. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1928.
References on regional, rural, and national planning.
JAMES, HARLEAN. Land Planning in the United States for the City, State and
Nation. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926.
(ed.). American Civic Annual, Vol. I. Washington: American Civic
Association, 1929.
Ibid., Vol. II. Washington: American Civic Association, 1930.
Progress in city planning and related subjects.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND ZONING 693
Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics (quarterly). Evanston, 111.: Insti
tute for Research in Land Economics and Public Utilities, Northwestern
University.
LEWIS, NELSON P. The Planning of a Modern City. .New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1923.
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CITY PLANNING, NEW YORK. "Planning Problems
of Town, City and Region," Papers and Discussions at the Twenty -first Na
tional Conference on City Planning. Philadelphia: Published for the Con
ference by Win. F. Fell Co., 1929.
NATIONAL HOUSING ASSOCIATION. "Housing Problems in America," Proceed
ings of the Tenth National Conference on Housing, Vol. X. Philadelphia: The
Association, 1929.
"Slum Clearance," by Lawrence Veiller (pp. 71-84) ; "Slum Improvement by Private
Effort," by Harold S. Buttenheim (pp. 85-95); "Slum Improvement by Recondition
ing," by Maxwell Hyde (pp. 96-102).
Recent Books and Reports on Housing, Zoning and Town Planning.
Pub. 62. New York: The Association, 1930. Pp. 34
NATIONAL MUNICIPAL REVIEW (monthly). New York (261 Broadway): Na
tional Municipal League.
NOLEN, JOHN (ed.). City Planning. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1929.
PERRY, CLARENCE ARTHUR, and OTHERS. Regional Survey of New York and Its
Environs, Vol. VII: Neighborhood and Community Planning. New York:
Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1929.
U.S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE. Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning.
A Standard City Planning Enabling Act. Washington: Government Print
ing Office, 1928. Pp. 54.
Advisory Committee on Zoning. A City Planning Primer. BH. 10.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928. Pp. 18.
-. A Standard State Zoning Enabling Act. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1926. Pp. 13.
A Zoning Primer. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926.
Pp. 10.
CHAPTER XX
IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH
LEGISLATION
HOUSING REFORM AND LEGISLATION1
BY LAWRENCE VEILLER
Director, National Housing Association, New York City
The determination of how best to accomplish housing reform depends
a good deal upon one's conception of what the housing problem is; before
there can be an adequate discussion of the remedy there must be agree
ment as to the disease. In other words, we must know what we are going
to reform before we attempt to reform it.
There is great variety of opinion on this subject, especially among those
to whom it is a new subject. Some people seem to believe that the housing
problem is essentially the problem of cheap houses; as they have ex
pressed it, ....
Another group, with their eyes fixed upon the more crowded quarters
of some of the larger cities where the problem of moving back and forth
the vast throngs who journey from one part of the city to another twice
a day is fraught with great difficulties, conceive that the housing problem
is the problem of rapid transit, and that if cheap and effective rapid transit
could be once provided the housing problem would be solved. This is not
a new view.
Still another element believe that the housing problem is the problem
of supplying a sufficient quantity of housing accommodations and that
anything which tends to encourage the building of more houses will solve
the housing problem, the assumption being that people live under bad
conditions simply because there are not enough houses to go around.
There is truth in all these views. Each one is a factor involved in the
housing problem, but no one of them can be truthfully said to constitute
that problem.
The housing problem is the problem of enabling the great mass of the
people who want to live in decent surroundings and bring up their children
under proper conditions to have such opportunities. It is also to a very
1 Adapted from A Model Housing Law (Russell Sage Foundation, 1920), pp. 3-7.
694
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 695
large extent the problem of preventing other people who either do not
care for decent conditions or are unable to achieve them from maintaining
conditions which are a menace to their neighbors, to the community and
to civilization.
If we accept this view of what constitutes the housing problem we see
that it has many sides; that it is not only an economic problem, not only
a question of supply and demand and of furnishing a sufficient quantity of
homes, but that the kind of home is of vital importance. The assumption
that thousands of people live under conditions such as are found in our
large cities throughout America because there are no other places in
which they can live is not borne out by the facts. There is no use in
dodging the question. We may as well frankly admit that there is a con
siderable portion of our population who will live in any kind of abode
that they can get irrespective of how unhygienic it may be.
Housing reform is to be sought in many ways, but chiefly through the
enforcement of wise laws ; laws which will regulate the kind of houses that
may be built, will compel the improvement of the older buildings as they
fall into disuse, and will require all buildings in which human beings live
to be kept in a sanitary and safe condition.
But legislation is not the only way. Much must be done through educa
tion — education of both tenant and landlord, and even of the community
itself. The force of example some think will do much, but thus far that
expectation has not been realized.
Considerable also can be accomplished by wise management; by the
building of houses of a more attractive type; by encouraging the develop
ment of Garden Cities; by stimulating those who like country life to live in
the country or in the suburbs; by improved transit, thus making it easier
for men to live out of town and journey to their work; and especially by
the intelligent planning of towns and cities.
But what makes any of us take up housing reform is not primarily the
desire to see any of these things brought about, but the insistent demand
made by our consciences for the abolition of the slum.
We all of us believe that the conditions under which thousands of our
fellow citizens live are wrong and a mockery on civilization, and to many
of us the continuance of such conditions seems fraught with menace to
our institutions. That the people themselves often have created the very
conditions from which they suffer does not alter the situation. The con
ditions are there and must be dealt with. The one thing that we are all
agreed upon is that we cannot afford to neglect them.
696 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The housing problem is therefore essentially the problem of preventing
people from maintaining conditions which are a menace to their neighbors
or to the community.
Housing evils as we know them to-day are to be found in dangerous and
disease-breeding privy vaults, in lack of water supply, in dark rooms, in
filthy and foul alleys, in damp cellars, in basement living rooms, in con
ditions of filth, in inadequate methods of disposal of waste, in fly-borne
disease, in cramped and crowded quarters, in promiscuity, in lack of
privacy, in buildings of undue height, in inadequate fire protection, in the
crowding of buildings too close to each other, in the too intensive use of
land.
How are these manifold evils to be remedied? Legislation thus far has
proved to be the most effective remedy. The only way that we know of by
which such conditions can be ended is through the enactment of laws
which will compel the removal of these evils and the substitution of right
conditions. This is not theory but the result of the experience of many
cities.
Legislation alone, of course, will not do it. Laws must be enforced.
Merely getting a housing law on the statute books will not change condi
tions. Unfortunately, laws do not execute themselves and no law will do
much unless an adequate system of enforcement is also provided.
True, it is a painful operation. It takes time and energy and above all
things patience. It means constant effort. It means attention to innumer
able details. It often means foregoing immediate results to secure larger
future returns.
Housing is a commodity like food or clothes, and the methods to be
employed in securing the right kind of housing for the people of any com
munity differ in no essential respect from the methods to be followed in
providing the right kind of food or clothing for that community. In a city
where the children of the poor were dying of typhoid because of impure
milk, we should, I think, feel that it was trifling with a serious situation
if it were urged that nothing could be done through legislation, but that
the only way to insure a better milk supply was to encourage the people
to move to the country where they could have their own cows and thus
insure the right kind of milk for their children.
The question which every housing reformer must face is : What method
will give the largest results with the least expenditure of energy and effort?
It is largely a question of emphasis. The method which will return 90 per
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 697
cent of results and not 10 per cent is obviously the method to follow. No
one thing will in itself solve the housing problem in any community.
Housing evils are of so manifold a nature and have so many manifesta
tions that it is, of course, apparent that many things must be done before
right conditions can be achieved. There is no method of housing reform
which the housing reformer should not adopt provided it will produce
results. It must always be submitted to this practical test. In some cases
all methods are to be employed, not merely one.
That legislation alone will solve the housing problem is of course ab
surd. But the point that we wish to lay emphasis upon is that in most
cases the largest results have come from legislative action and that until
certain fundamental evils have been remedied it is futile, or worse, to
adopt the methods of housing reform which may be said to belong to the
post-graduate period rather than to the kindergarten stage of a com
munity's development. In other words, we must get rid of our slums be
fore we establish garden cities; we must stop people living in cellars before
we concern ourselves with changes in methods of taxation; we must make
it impossible for builders to build dark rooms in new houses before we
urge the government to subsidize building; we must abolish privy vaults
before we build model tenements. When these things have been done
there is no question that effort can be profitably expended in the other
directions mentioned.
HOUSING LEGISLATION AND ITS ENFORCEMENT1
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director of Better Homes in America
The conditions under which people live have a profound influence upon
their health, safety and well-being. For their protection it has been found
necessary in urban areas to frame comprehensive laws or local ordinances
to govern conditions of construction, fire prevention and protection, light
and ventilation, sanitation and maintenance of dwellings, both new and
old. In the absence of such provisions or where provisions are inadequate,
ignorant or selfish builders will erect houses or tenements which will be
poorly constructed and depreciate rapidly, and which may even be
structurally unsafe, a pronounced fire-risk, and provide inadequately for
light and ventilation of rooms and halls, for privacy, convenience and
comfort of the tenant.
1 Adapted from "The Enforcement of Housing Legislation," Political Science Quar
terly, December, 1927.
698 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Comprehensive housing ordinances have not been passed in American
cities, as a rule, until the cities have become fairly large, and adequate
legislation was not to be found in any city prior to the beginning of the
twentieth century, although quite comprehensive codes were framed in
the preceding decades for New York City and several other large munici
palities.
The present period of housing legislation dates from the passage of
the New York State Tenement House Act of 1901, which applies to cities
of the first class — New York City and Buffalo. It was framed chiefly by
Mr. Lawrence Veiller, now Secretary and Director of the National Hous
ing Association, and served as a model for housing laws in the rest of the
country until the publication by Mr. Veiller of his Model Tenement House
Law, and subsequently of his Model Housing Law. The Tenement House
Law had covered only such dwellings as were inhabited by three or more
families, but the Model Housing Law, first published in 1914 and revised
in 1920, covers other types of dwellings as well. Other states, Iowa, Michi
gan and Minnesota, have adopted the Model Housing Law with very
slight changes. The permissive Tenement House Acts for cities and towns
of Massachusetts show its influence, as do also the state housing laws of
California and Indiana. The State Tenement House Act of New Jersey
is based upon the Tenement House Act of New York. In practically every
other state in the country housing conditions are governed chiefly by local
ordinance, although there are some provisions in state health or fire-
prevention acts which have a bearing on housing. Many local ordinances
have followed closely the Model Housing Law — as, for example, those of
Berkeley, Syracuse, Cleveland, Columbus, Louisville and Hartford.
Except in the State of New Jersey and in New York City the adminis
tration of housing laws or local ordinances is vested in local building and
health departments. The sections on structure, fire protection, light and
ventilation, in case of new or remodeled buildings are enforced by the
building department, while the maintenance of healthful conditions and
sometimes the plumbing and sanitation sections are left to the health de
partment. In the State of New Jersey and in New York City special tene
ment-house departments have been created and charged with the enforce
ment of the above provisions as far as tenement houses are concerned,
leaving the enforcement of similar provisions, insofar as they affect one
or two-family houses, to local health and building departments.
The advantages of having a uniform state housing act are very great.
For a state legislature is more likely to use the services of experts than
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 699
smaller cities are; and the provisions of a state act may reach not only the
large cities but the smaller ones which would, in the absence of a state
law, have no adequate legislation on the subject or no legislation at all.
Another advantage lies in the fact that a state law is less easily modified
than a local ordinance, and cannot be changed without commanding pub
lic attention, thus making it possible for specialists and the "guardians of
public welfare" to be heard. Whereas, experience shows that local ordi
nances may be changed at almost any meeting of the city council without
a public hearing. The council may be influenced unduly by arguments of
unscrupulous builders who are looking for quick profits and who overlook
the interests of the tenants and the general public.
The housing legislation of any given city may include sections of the
state housing act supplemented by state fire-prevention or public-safety
acts, and possibly, also, as in the case of Wisconsin, the state building
code. In addition to the state legislation there may be local building,
health, or fire-prevention codes enforced by the building department,
health department, and the fire chief or department of public safety.
Enforcement of housing legislation may be inadequate for any of the
following reasons:
1. Because the law is not clear or sufficiently comprehensive, or because the
provisions for penalties and procedure are inadequate.
2. Because the heads of administrative departments lack the necessary quali
fications.
3. Because the appropriations for the enforcing departments are insufficient.
4. Because of the make-up of the Board of Appeals.
5. Because of division of authority.
6. Because of lack of cooperation on the part of the city solicitor and the courts.
To improve the enforcement of housing legislation it is necessary, then,
to have an adequate law. The experience of New York City and of the
states which have adopted the Veiller Model Housing Law with a mini
mum of change, such as Iowa, Michigan and Minnesota, demonstrates the
importance of the adoption of the many provisions of Article 6, the section
entitled "Requirements and Remedies." This section requires the owner
or architect to submit his plans to the appropriate department to make
sure that they conform to the law. He cannot commence to build until
he has received a permit of approval based upon conformity to the law.
The second requirement is that the building shall not be occupied until a
certificate of compliance has been secured from the appropriate depart
ment, and the latter is not issued until the dwelling conforms in all re-
700 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
spects to the requirements of the act. Occupation of the building is un
lawful until such certificate has been secured.
Drastic penalties are necessary if the act is to be properly enforced, for
otherwise the unscrupulous builder will find that he can make money
through violation of the law even though he will be brought to court and
forced to pay small fines. The Model Law, therefore, provides for im
prisonment as well as fines, and for a cumulative penalty for each and
every day that the violation shall continue. Civil penalties are also pro
vided for. To protect the enforcing department it is further provided that
no officer of that department shall be liable for costs in any action or
proceeding that may be commenced in pursuance of the act. The tenants
may be evicted if they fail to comply with the maintenance provisions of
the act. All fines imposed under the act shall be a lien upon the property.
The owner of property is required to file with the enforcing department
a notice containing his name and address and a description of the prop
erty, and is permitted to file his agent's name if he wishes. The posting on
the premises of a copy of a notice of violation of the act and the mailing
of a copy on the same day to each person whose name is filed with the
department constitutes a sufficient service of notice, thus making it pos
sible to secure quick action with respect to the violation. The enforcing
officer is granted power to make periodic inspection of dwellings, and is
required under the Model Law to inspect every multiple dwelling at
least once a year. Right of entry is authorized.
In the absence of any of the above provisions, enforcement becomes
difficult. Permits to build and certificates of compliance are indispensa
ble, but follow-up inspection is also necessary in order to prevent the
making over of one and two family houses into tenement houses after the
certificate of compliance has been granted. Stop orders have proved to be
a useful supplementary provision under the New Jersey State Tenement
House Act and in the building department of New York City. The post
ing of a stop order on the premises stating the law and the penalties will
keep contractors and employees from working on the building or covering
up a violation of the law until the enforcing department can arrange to
have the violation removed. Frequent inspection during the period of
construction is necessary, or otherwise many sections of the law will be
violated. The provisions for the registering of the owner's name and for
service of summons are necessary, for otherwise ownership may be fre
quently changed and the owner difficult to reach. Where owners live out
of town or are sojourning in Europe (reported by New Orleans and
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 701
Chicago) dangerous violations of the law would continue over an extended
period unless the enforcing department were empowered to make the
necessary changes itself and charge them against the property.
Even where the law is good, it may be poorly enforced if there is weak
ness in the administrative department. The enforcing official should be
thoroughly versed in the subjects of building materials and of construc
tion, housing and sanitation, but he should also be a man of courage and
integrity, convinced of the seriousness of his civic responsibility and suf
ficiently forceful to command the respect of architects, builders and own
ers, and the respect and cooperation of his staff.
With an adequate law and a competent administrator, enforcement, at
least of some of the provisions of the act, is virtually guaranteed. But
obviously in the absence of a sufficient appropriation many provisions of
the law will prove unenforcible. A striking example of this is seen in the
State of New Jersey where the appropriation has never been sufficient to
cover all the features of the law. The first Commissioner, Captain Allen,
who was one of the most competent housing officials we have ever had in
this country, finding his appropriation insufficient, used it chiefly to make
sure that all new construction conformed to the law, arguing that he was
thereby preventing the recurrence of serious housing conditions in all new
buildings. But by concentrating on the new buildings, he did not have
inspectors enough provided on his staff to make possible periodic inspec
tion of old tenement houses and the removal of violations of the law. It
was a wise decision under the circumstances, but left the tenants of the
older tenement houses uncared for unless they had the courage to file com
plaints. Local health departments in New Jersey, as in other states, do
not make regular inspection of all dwellings but inspect usually only on
complaint — this is due chiefly to the fact that they also suffer from in
sufficient appropriation. So New Jersey's law with regard to the periodic
inspection of older properties is still inadequately enforced by either the
State Board of Tenement House Supervision or by local health depart
ments.
It is probably safe to say that no American city has an adequate force
of housing inspectors. New York City is practically the only one which
has ever succeeded in having every tenement house visited at least once
a year (and New York stopped doing so ten years ago), though in every
city there are many tenement houses and private dwellings which should
be visited more frequently. Otherwise rubbish will accumulate which will
constitute a serious fire-risk, or defects will occur in plumbing or repair
702 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
or use of the building, which will menace the health of occupants or
neighbors.
In most cities it must be said the training of housing inspectors is poor.
They are usually chosen from persons who have taken general civil-service
examinations, but have not been given adequate tests of their knowledge
of building, housing, or sanitation. In New York City, however, there are
special examinations which cannot be taken without special study of the
law and of the general principles of housing and sanitation. The textbook
by Dr. George M. Price, entitled Tenement-House Inspector, is a well-
devised handbook for persons who contemplate such an examination, but
it is not widely known or imitated through the country. Other American
cities have no satisfactory equivalent for this course of training of inspec
tors but are seriously in need of some device for special training.
Adequate records are essential for the smooth operation of enforcement
departments. It should always be possible to find in one place all records
appertaining to a given building. This matter has been covered in Mr.
Robert E. Todd's pamphlet on Right Methods in a Housing Bureau, in the
chapter on "Essentials of a Housing Investigation" in Veiller's book,
Housing Reform, and in Dr. George M. Price's Tenement-House Inspector.
Detailed questions on five by eight cards of different colors, so that a new
building inspection card, violation card, fire-escape card, and so on, can
be readily identified and picked out of the files, facilitate smooth opera
tion. As blueprints are bulky and difficult to file, the New Jersey State
Board of Tenement House Supervision photographs the ground-floor plan
of a new building on a five by eight card and files that photograph with the
other records. Violations of the law are also photographed so that if the
case is taken to court, definite and convincing proof of the violation will
be at hand. This facilitates quick action by the courts and decision in
favor of the enforcing department.
Building departments usually have boards of appeal. Veiller contends
that they are unnecessary and undesirable in housing departments and
tend to nullify the provisions of housing laws by the exceptions which they
almost inevitably make. They are unquestionably necessary in cities like
Boston where building lots are of every conceivable shape and size, but
less necessary in cities where lots are rectangular and virtually uniform
in size. It is perhaps true that the boards are usually made up of builders
and architects whose natural leanings will be to make concessions to
builders, and that there is insufficient representation of the interests of
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 703
the sanitarians and general public. On the whole it may be said that
the builders are much more likely to make their interests known to the
board or the administrative official than the general public is, for the
general public usually has no medium through which it can proclaim its
needs
Another serious difficulty in the enforcement of housing legislation is
the division of authority between different departments of the state and
city governments. Often the law is obscure, so that it is not quite clear
with which authority enforcement of a given section is lodged. Sometimes
there is concurrent jurisdiction. In either case, action is difficult. For
where department appropriations are inadequate or political influence is
strong, neither enforcing official will take the onus and the "buck is
passed." This difficulty is perhaps most notably displayed in the provi-
.sions concerning the demolition of dangerous buildings. A building gutted
by fire can usually be torn down if unsafe, but a building declared unfit
for human habitation and vacated by order of the housing or health de
partment is likely to stand for years an eyesore and a menace, used by
vagrants or by boys' gangs, and a source of neighborhood contamination.
In most cities no department dares to tear it down, and the owner remains
indifferent to the "orders" of the department or the clamor of neighbors.
Yet public interest demands vigorous and courageous action.
Arrangement for demolition is sometimes made with a contractor who
removes the building for the materials which he can salvage out of it.
Liens against the property for the cost of demolition are mentioned by
several cities. A few others mention collection of costs through taxes. In
general, however, it must be stated that enforcement of this section of the
law is peculiarly weak or wholly lacking, and that special attention to this
problem and the drawing-up of an adequate method of procedure is in
dicated as necessary. For as our cities grow older, the number of buildings
which have outlived their usefulness and are not worth remodeling will
increase. The problem will become very serious in our eastern cities dur
ing the coming generation.
The one remaining weakness in enforcement of housing legislation lies
largely outside of the enforcing department: Namely, in the lack of co
operation of the courts. City solicitors or attorneys may have no interest
in housing or may fail to appreciate its importance, and for these reasons
or because of political pressure or the pressure of owners, they may post
pone court action for a dangerously long time. Judges may similarly lack
704 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
interest in or sympathy with the purpose of the law. Yet if the enforcing
department fails to win any case, its prestige is seriously affected and
violations will be encouraged, and it will be timid about taking cases to
court in the future. Unquestionably, the enforcing department is at fault
in bringing up a case which has flaws
The final essential which should be clear from the preceding discussion
is public support for the housing enforcement official and his assistants.
It is all up-hill work for a building official or housing official if he is con
tinuously under pressure from builders or owners, and has no support from
the community in his attempt to carry out the letter and the spirit of the
law. Best enforcement of housing legislation will be secured unquestion
ably where the enforcing department can feel behind it the pressure of
public opinion; but to organize a representative public opinion each city
needs a housing association which will have in its membership representa
tives of each of the local civic agencies which have an interest in problems
of housing and home life. Such agencies would include the Chamber of
Commerce, civic improvement associations, Parent-Teacher Associations,
men's and women's clubs, the local Better Homes in America Committee,
the Family Welfare Society, the Visiting Nurses Association, the Council
of Social Agencies, the settlements, Building and Loan Associations and
perhaps other organizations. A permanent housing association with a sal
aried executive and staff is the best solution, though not possible in the
smaller cities. But a citizens' committee which can make the enforcing
official feel their interest and which can call to his attention the progress
of housing-law enforcement in other cities and which can always be prop
erly represented at hearings on any matters involving housing will help
him to overcome the downward pressure exerted on his efforts by selfish
interests, and will make it possible to raise standards of housing and home
life until decent, safe, and sanitary housing shall be within the reach of all
American citizens.
THE INSPECTION OF DWELLINGS— THEIR
CUSTODY AND CARE
BY JOHN IHLDER
Executive Director of Pittsburgh Housing Association
.... It may be said emphatically that the inspection of dwellings,
their custody and care, is regulated by law in the United States
Housing workers utilize several laws and cooperate with many agencies
official and non-official or volunteer. Chief among the laws are: (i) city-
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 705
planning laws, (2) zoning regulations, (3) building codes, (4) health codes,
and (5) housing laws.
Among the agencies are:
City planning and zoning (a) commissions and (6) associations — (i) official,
(2) non-official. These usually cover a city. Recently their field has been
enlarged to cover metropolitan areas. In the near future we shall have state
and interstate commissions and associations.
Departments of building inspection, usually municipal.
Departments of public health, state and municipal.
Private or non-official agencies interested in different phases of public health,
as the prevention of tuberculosis.
Fire departments, municipal.
Private agencies interested in the prevention arid relief of poverty and in im
migration problems.
Private agencies interested in community building, as chambers of commerce.
City planning and zoning affect housing directly; the first through pro
viding public facilities and making it more easy for housing developments
to occupy new areas, so diminishing the pressure on land; the second
through regulating the use of private property and so safeguarding invest
ments in housing. The latter is peculiarly important in a country like the
United States where housing is a matter of private enterprise and where
government housing is almost unknown. The principal effects of zoning
regulation are in requiring open spaces appurtenant to the dwellings and
in protecting residence districts against damaging uses. Gradually, with
the shifting of population, the newer districts where larger open spaces are
required and where non-conforming uses do not antedate the zoning law
are drawing the population from the older, more crowded, and more mis
cellaneous districts. One of the most startling revelations of the 1930
census was the remarkable depopulation of the slum districts of the older
American cities.
Zoning regulation, of course, requires constant inspection and reinspec-
tion, both to prevent violation and to readjust the regulation in accord
ance with changing conditions. This form of regulation has swept across
the country during the past ten years and to-day the majority of the urban
population lives in zoned communities.
Building codes are perhaps the oldest of our housing regulations, owing
to the fact that the first American towns were built so largely of wood.
Beginning as a means of decreasing the fire hazard, they have been devel
oped until the best of them cover all the factors that affect the structural
yo6 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
safety of the building. It is with structural safety that building codes are
concerned, but some of them, especially in municipalities where there is
no housing code, include provisions on such subjects as light and ventila
tion and sanitary accommodations for dwellings. Such inclusion is de
precated by housing workers, for experience shows that the drafters of a
building code, having all buildings in mind and being primarily concerned
with structural safety, are inclined to set the same standards for a dwelling
that they do for an office building.
Building codes are now in force in all the larger cities and in many
small towns. One is occasionally surprised, however, to find a city of con
siderable size that has only the most rudimentary building regulations and
no effective inspection. Inspection is concerned chiefly with the building
while in process of construction. Later the building is inspected by the
Health Department, which will be described; by the Fire Department to
note and remedy hazardous conditions; and by the Department of Build
ing Inspection when complaint is made by a citizen or a private organiza
tion that it has become unsafe. On the basis of its inspection the Building
Department may then order the owner to make the building safe or to
demolish it. If he fails to obey, the Department may demolish the build
ing and assess the cost to the owner.
Health departments cover a wider field. To them is given supervision
over sanitary conditions as well as the control of inspections and con
tagious diseases. So, except in a few cases where there are separate hous
ing departments, such as the Tenement House Department of the State
of New Jersey and the City of New York, enforcement of the housing
code, where there is a housing code, or of such housing regulations as do
exist, is given to the Health Department. This enforcement it may exer
cise through a Bureau of Housing or of Sanitation. Affiliated with this
Bureau in the Health Department may be a Bureau of Plumbing Inspec
tion, though logically one might expect plumbing to be assigned to the
Building Bureau.
The inspection work of the Health Department begins with examina
tion of the plans for a new dwelling to assure that proper provision is
made for light, air, and sanitation. It continues through the erection of
the building to assure that the approved plans are carried out. Up to this
point it has worked in close cooperation with the Department of Building
Inspection. At this point, however, the latter Department usually ceases
unless again called in by a complaint. But the Health Department con
tinues. Theoretically the Health Department makes periodic inspections
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 707
of all dwellings. Practically it confines itself to the poorer sections of the
city. It probably gives particular attention to tenement houses (three or
more families under one roof) as compared to one-family houses, experi
ence having shown that insanitary conditions tend to predominate when
there is congregate living.
There are health departments in all parts of the country, but the at
tention they give to housing varies from fairly adequate to none at all.
In some states, as in Pennsylvania, the State Health Department has
definite though limited authority with respect to housing and includes
housing work on its program.
The inspectors of all these departments give some instruction to tenants
as well as to owners. Those of the Department of Building Inspection
come least into contact with tenants ; those of the Fire Department more
frequently, those of the Health Department most frequently. The last,
therefore, have most opportunity to give instruction and in the best de
partments make use of it. The effectiveness of this instruction varies.
When it consists merely of brusque orders the effect is little. When, as in
Cincinnati, Ohio, it is part of a carefully thought-out program of creating
a sense of responsibility on the part of the tenant and of promoting mutual
understanding between tenant and landlord, it is much more produc
tive. In Cincinnati the housing inspectors — in this case representing the
Building Department instead of the Health Department, one of those
exceptions that make so difficult any generalization — mark their ap
proval of a dwelling kept in good repair by the landlord and in good
order by the tenants, by hanging in its hallway a placard expressing this
approval.
But housing work in America cannot be adequately described in terms
of official agencies or official action. Where there is the best housing work,
there is also a non-official or citizens housing association. This association
is an expression of public interest and in turn creates a public opinion that
supports public officials. The effective work of the official housing inspec
tors in Cincinnati is largely due to the existence of the Better Housing
League, an agency supported by private contributions and without any
official connection. The League carries on its work chiefly through visit
ing housekeepers whose purpose is to instruct tenants in the poorer parts
of the city. When these visiting housekeepers note violations of the hous
ing, sanitary, or building codes, the League notifies the appropriate city
department, which forces correction. The League also participates when
recalcitrant owners resist compliance with official orders and appeal to the
7o8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
courts. In one recent case it was instrumental in winning an important
court decision that ended a long struggle with a slum landlord.
The Better Housing League illustrates again the lack of uniformity
in America. An older organization, the Philadelphia Housing Association,
with the objective of improving housing conditions throughout its com
munity, uses quite different methods. It has no visiting housekeepers. It
is perhaps more interested than the League in such things as city planning
and zoning. Its emphasis is more on transportation, economics, engineer
ing. Its executive calls himself a "housing engineer."
One of the youngest organizations, the Pittsburgh Housing Associa
tion, differs from both, at least in the emphasis it puts on different phases
of its work. It too has no visiting housekeepers, but its inspectors, while
seeking violations of the housing, sanitary, and building laws, do give in
formation rather than instructions. The Association, moreover, definitely
considers itself a social agency, and it constantly seeks to cooperate with
other private social and health agencies. Its representatives give lectures
to the staffs of such organizations as the Visiting Nurse Association, the
Family Welfare Society, the Children's Aid Society, the Mothers' Assist
ance Fund. It distributes to the staff members of these cooperating agen
cies detailed housing information. In this way it hopes to secure from
them a service more effective than it could itself perform because of their
constant and intimate contacts with the families.
These local associations work closely with the local municipal au
thorities. Some extend beyond their city boundaries. The Better Housing
League and the Pittsburgh Housing Association extend their activities to
the metropolitan regions of which their cities are the center. The latter
is organizing practically autonomous housing councils in the smaller
neighboring cities so that pressure brought to bear on local municipal
officials will be brought by their own constituents, not by an agency in a
different municipality.
In Pennsylvania there is also a state association with which the Pitts
burgh and Philadelphia associations cooperate. This state association
drafted a permissive model housing law that was enacted by the state
legislature, and it is now campaigning to induce the cities and towns of the
state to adopt it and to secure more vigorous enforcement of state sanitary
laws. In Massachusetts a State Housing Association has just been organ
ized. In Michigan another has been in existence for some time, but so far
has confined its efforts to the neighborhood of Detroit. From other parts
of the country come reports of additional associations in process of or-
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 709
ganizations, for the past three or four years have seen a reawakening of
housing interest that had been dormant since the war.
From what has been said it is evident that housing inspection is a local
activity and that its legal powers are derived from the state governments,
of which the cities are creatures. The national government does, however,
play a part. The national government has complete power over the Dis
trict of Columbia, i.e., the city of Washington. The national Congress is
the city council of Washington. Outside the District of Columbia, how
ever, the functions of the national government, so far as housing regula
tion is concerned, are those of an informative or educational and a
facilitating agency. Its part in housing has, therefore, been advisory.
President Hoover, when he was Secretary of Commerce, created an ad
visory committee on zoning and city planning and another on building
codes. Both of these have issued draft laws with explanatory texts that
have been made the basis of state and local legislation
Again, as in local affairs so in national there are private or non-official
organizations that express public interest and that help to formulate
policies and guide executive action. There is the National Housing As
sociation with headquarters in New York, and Better Homes in America,
with headquarters in Washington. The latter has carried on an educa
tional campaign by means of Better-Homes contests, that has reached
every section of the country and has been largely responsible for the
reawakened interest in housing.
NEW YORK'S NEW HOUSING LEGISLATION
The new housing legislation known as New York's Multiple Dwelling
Law, which was enacted by the 1929 session of the New York state legis
lature and which replaced the Tenement House Law of 1901, has received
so much comment that a brief summary of this law by Lawson Purdy, a
member of the commission which drafted it, is included in this chapter.
THE NEW YORK MULTIPLE DWELLING LAW1
BY LAWSON PURDY
During the last twenty-seven years the tenement-house law has been
amended about one hundred and fifty times. Many of the amendments
were inserted to meet special cases and to make compliance with the law
somewhat easier or less expensive. The old definition of a tenement house
1 Adapted from "The New York Multiple Dwelling Law," National Municipal Re
view, May, 1929.
7io THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
«
which has endured for sixty years and over, that of a building in which
three families or more live independently and do their own cooking,
served well until cooking by gas and later cooking by electricity had been
invented and servants' wages had been multiplied by four and rents had
been multiplied by three. People who formally demanded and used apart
ments of eight rooms or more and kept one or more servants now occupy
apartments of four rooms or less and keep no servant.
The erection of new buildings almost stopped from 1914 to 1921. There
was a severe housing shortage. Old single-family houses could be altered
under the building code, not the tenement house law, for non-housekeep
ing use. Old single-family houses could be adapted without structural
alteration for occupancy by people who were not supposed to cook but
who did cook on the premises. Hotels were erected, called apartment
hotels, which could exceed in height and in lot coverage a tenement house,
could have windowless bathrooms and windowless stairs, and therefore be
erected to house more people for less money than a tenement house. When
plans for such hotels were filed, the architect or builder was required to
make an affidavit that no housekeeping was to be done on the premises.
Leases were made commonly by which the tenant was required not to
cook.
This statement applies to the hotels, to the altered single-family
houses, and often to the old houses not structurally changed. Prospective
tenants were invited to examine the apartment, observe the sink and re
frigerator and gas or electric outlet, and then invited to sign a lease by
which they obligated themselves not to cook.
By 1927 so many thousand people were living in houses of various
kinds in which cooking was being carried on contrary to law that the en
forcement of law seemed almost impossible. An autocrat who did not live
in the city might have enforced it perhaps. It is questionable whether
such a person could who traveled about the town without police protec
tion.
For a number of years the Tenement House Committee of the Charity
Organization Society, the Housing Committee of the Brooklyn Bureau of
Charities, and the few others interested in maintaining the integrity of
the tenement house law had a very hard struggle to prevent objectionable
amendments and to encourage any kind of enforcement. The tenement
house department had been hampered by inadequate appropriations and
an insufficient staff. On the other hand, the real estate boards were be
sieged by members who urged amendments to the tenement house law of
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 711
various kinds which, if enacted, would have weakened the law seriously.
At this juncture the real estate boards recommended the appointment of
the commission. The commission had before it the task of preserving the
standards of the present law and meeting the demands of those who
wished to cheapen construction.
The task of the commission was set for it by the demands of those not
satisfied with the present tenement house law. There were those who
wished to erect high and bulky buildings as apartment hotels with fewer
stairways, without windows to the outer air, with windowless halls and
windowless bathrooms. The contention was and is that with mechanical
ventilation bathrooms can be better ventilated than by windows, and that
electric lights are more efficient than daylight. Owners of houses which
had been altered under the building code wanted them legalized for house
keeping. Owners of old single-family houses wished an inexpensive
method of alteration for tenement-house use. The demand for cooking
anywhere or everywhere was universal.
On the other hand, those who had a primary interest in the welfare of
the poorer people of the community contended that windowless bath
rooms for them meant dirt and disease; that unlighted stairs and halls
were a social menace and that the altered old houses constituted a serious
fire hazard. Moreover, for all buildings they contended that more light
and air made houses better investments, better for both owners and
tenants. They regarded the limit of height of one and one-half times the
width of the street for fireproof buildings as being too high rather than
too low. At all costs they wished to preserve the general structure of the
tenement house law and its administration by a separate department.
One of the first conclusions of the commission was that the old defini
tion of a tenement house which depended upon cooking had to go. Unlaw
ful cooking was too easy. For that reason the title of the act was changed
to Multiple Dwelling Law. Under this law cooking will be permissible in
any multiple-family dwelling which conforms to the law in all other re
spects. The rules for construction, for height, for bulk were made the
same for the tenement house and the apartment hotel. A distinction was
made in favor of transient hotels, but the effort was made to lay down
rules for construction of the transient hotel and the other multiple dwell
ings as nearly as possible alike and to make the differences such that a
builder would not be tempted to call his building a hotel when, in fact, it
was to be used as a tenement house.
One of the most difficult problems was to meet the demand of those
7i2 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
who wished to build the apartment hotel, which can now be built to a
greater height than a tenement house and covering more ground than a
tenement house and, at the same time, secure adequate light and air.
The plan of the multiple dwelling law is to increase the area of the yard
and courts and to allow a slightly greater height. The increase in the yard
and court dimensions for a six-story building is about 25 per cent over the
dimensions of the present law. The new yard is 15 feet as compared with
1 2 feet. The outer court is 7 J feet instead of 6 feet. An outer court be
tween wings of the building is 15 feet instead of 12 feet. On a 6o-foot
street the present tenement house may be 90 feet high, the yard at least
15 feet in depth throughout the entire height of the building, and the
courts based on the yard width.
The multiple dwelling law requires the yard to be 20 feet deep at the
go-foot level; above that level the depth of the yard must increase in the
ratio of three inches for each foot. Above the go-foot cornice line on the
street front, the building must set back from the street in the ratio of
three to one. The maximum height is three feet plus one and three-quar
ters times the width of the street and never over 175 feet exclusive of a
pent house set back on all sides. On a 6o-foot street, therefore, the maxi
mum height is 108 feet. In effect, we have allowed two additional stories
and required those stories to set back in return for an increase of 33^ per
cent in the dimension of the yard. A careful study shows that rooms on
the lowest stories will get about the same lighton the street front as under
the present law, and considerably more light in rooms opening on the yard
and courts.
In non-fireproof buildings stairs, halls, and water-closets must be
lighted by windows of required size. In all fireproof buildings with pas
senger elevators water-closets supplementary to those required by law
may be mechanically ventilated and in such fireproof multiple dwellings
in which every room opens directly upon a public hall, water-closets may
be mechanically ventilated. In such buildings stairs and halls may be
without windows. The number and width of stairs are determined by the
number of rooms on each floor instead of by the number of apartments as
at present. The reason for this change is that the size of apartments is, on
the average, much less than formerly. Outside fire-escapes are not re
quired for fireproof buildings, but two interior stairs are required except
for buildings not exceeding six stories high with not more than twenty
rooms on a floor using that stair.
Transient hotels in which there are six or more power passenger eleva-
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 713
tors, built in a block zoned exclusively for business, may be erected to any
height and to any bulk permitted by the local zoning ordinance.
Houses heretofore altered in accordance with the building code are re
quired to do very little to make them more safe. Houses hereafter altered
are required to have water-closets with a window or skylight and to be
safeguarded adequately against fire. Lodging houses and rooming houses
have some requirements in excess of those now contained in the local
ordinance.
The tenement houses erected prior to 1901, called old-law tenement
houses, are subject to some additional regulations for sanitation and fire
protection
The provisions for the enforcement of the law are strengthened.
The problems presented to the commission have been solved. The solu
tions offered will not please everyone. To one who, like myself, believes
that no building should exceed the width of the street in height and no
windows should have less than a forty-five-degree angle of light, the pro
visions for light and air seem inadequate and they are far less than should
be adopted by any city which can by any diligence do better, but for the
city of New York, as it has been allowed to grow, I believe the provisions
of the multiple dwelling law represent a solution of pressing problems
which must be solved, and do afford more light and air for all houses over
four stories high and adequate light and air for houses less than four
stories high, and that the bill presents rules for construction that are
practical and will be good for both owner and tenant.
SUMMARY
No one thing in itself will solve the housing problem but in most cases
largest results have come from legislation. The enforcement of the legis
lation is as essential as the legislation itself.
Only a few states have housing laws. A few others have provisions
in state health and fire-prevention acts which have a bearing on housing.
In most of the states housing is governed by local ordinance, and en
forcement is vested in local building and health departments. A state
housing act has many advantages: (i) Provision is made for smaller
cities which undoubtedly would have no legislation. (2) A state law is
less easily modified than local ordinances. (3) There is no opportunity
for unscrupulous builders to influence city councils.
The housing legislation of a city may include sections of the state hous
ing act, supplemented by state fire-prevention and public-safety act and
7i4 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
possibly the state building code. In addition to state legislation there may
be local building, health, and fire-prevention codes enforced by building,
health, fire chief, or department of public safety. Housing-legislation en
forcement may be inadequate for the following reasons: (i) inadequate
laws; (2) heads of administrative departments poorly qualified; (3) too
small appropriation for enforcement; (4) make-up of Board of Appeals;
(5) division of responsibility in enforcement; (6) lack of cooperation be
tween city solicitor and courts. Adequate legislation and heavier penal
ties are necessary for improvement.
There is undoubtedly an inadequate housing-inspection force in nearly
all American cities, and inspectors often are poorly qualified. Adequate rec
ords are essential, and all records concerning a given building should be re
corded in one place. Division of authority between departments of state and
city government is a serious difficulty in housing-legislation enforcement.
Housing associations sponsored by groups of citizens have been organ
ized in a few cities. These associations promote legislation and assist
in enforcement. Public support for housing officials is essential for more
adequate enforcement. The chief laws affecting housing legislation are
city planning, zoning regulation, building codes, health codes, housing
laws. The chief agencies concerned in the inspection of dwellings are city-
planning and zoning commissions, departments of building inspection,
public health (state and municipal, private or non-official agencies inter
ested in public health), fire department (municipal), private agencies in
terested in the prevention and relief of poverty and immigration.
The best building codes cover all factors affecting structural safety,
and some in municipalities where there is no housing code include provi
sion for light and ventilation and sanitary accommodations for dwellings.
Building codes are now in force in all large cities. Health departments
supervise sanitary conditions. Except where there is a separate housing
department, enforcement of the housing code is given to the health de
partment.
REFERENCES
FORD, GEORGE B. Standards for Improved Housing Laws.
National Municipal Re-view, VI (October, 1927), 633-37.
FORD, JAMES. The Enforcement of Housing Legislation. New York: Academy
of Political Science, 1927. Pp. 12.
Political Science Quarterly, XLII (December, 1927), 549-60.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND LEGISLATION 715
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE. The Housing Situation in the United States.
"Studies and Reports," Series G, No. 2. Geneva, 1925. (Washington office:
20 Jackson Place, Washington, B.C.) Pp. 53.
Tax-exemption laws and rent- restriction legislation (pp. 39-52).
NEW YORK STATE BOARD OF HOUSING. Report of the Board to Governor Franklin
D. Roosevelt and to the Legislature of the State of New York. Legislative Doc.
84. Albany: J. B. Lyon Co., 1930. Pp. 105.
PINK, Louis H. The New Day in Housing. New York: John Day Co., 1928.
The New York Housing Law (pp. 105-14); tax exemption (pp. 127-30).
PURDY, LAWSON. "New York's New Housing Law," Housing, XVIII (June,
1929), 88-101.
VEILLER, LAWRENCE. A Model Housing Law. New York: Russell Sage Founda
tion, 1920.
WOOD, ARTHUR EVANS. Community Problems. New York: Century Co., 1928.
Restrictive legislation (pp. 48-56) .
WOOD, EDITH ELMER. The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1919.
Constructive legislation (pp. 209-56).
CHAPTER XXI
IMPROVING HOUSING CONDITIONS THROUGH
HOUSING DEVELOPMENTS
HOUSING DEVELOPMENTS
Most houses are built through private enterprise. However, a number
of housing projects have been carried out which show improved housing*
conditions. The most outstanding of these recent developments — those
begun or completed during the past decade are the two developments of
the City Housing Corporation of New York City — Sunnyside and Rad-
burn, the Brooklyn Garden Apartments, the Paul Lawrence D unbar
Apartments for Negroes in the Harlem district, and the Amalgamated
Clothing Workers projects, all of New York City; the Marshall Field
Garden Apartments and the Michigan Boulevard Apartments (the latter
for Negroes), both of Chicago; and Mariemont of Cincinnati. With the
exception of some of the houses of Sunnyside, and those of Radburn, and
Mariemont, the dwellings are all of the multi-family type. These projects
and others of note are housing enterprises that illustrate good housing
at reasonably small and moderate cost.
The state of New York has endeavored to encourage low-rental hous
ing, and in 1926 a law was enacted to provide for limited-dividend com
panies. The following paragraphs from "The New York Law for Forma
tion of Limited Dividend Companies" in the Monthly Labor Review of
July, 1926, states some of the provisions.
.... The law provides for a State board of housing and for the formation of
public limited-dividend corporations, the former to plan and supervise and the
latter to undertake actual building projects. The State board is to consist of five
members, appointed by the governor and serving without salary though re
ceiving actual expenses. They are to study housing needs throughout the State,
.investigate alleged monopolies of building materials, prepare plans for housing
projects, supervise the activities of limited-dividend corporations, appoint one
member of the board of every such corporation, and exercise other supervisory
and consultative functions.
The public limited-dividend corporations must consist of at least three mem
bers. The rents for housing erected by them must not exceed, in New York
City, $12.50 a room per month, the bathroom not being counted as a room.
716
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 717
Outside of the city the maximum is less, running down to as low a figure as $9
per room per month. Their dividends are not to exceed six per cent per annum.
Should returns reach a figure which, after proper allowance for maintenance,
depreciation, etc., would justify a higher dividend, the rents are to be lowered
proportionately.
In order that these corporations may secure the land needed for the large-
scale operations necessary in order to reduce costs, they are given the right of
eminent domain. This power is not to be exercised except upon the specific
authorization of the State board, which is not to give the authorization unless,
after public hearings on the plan proposed by the corporation, it is apparent
that there is urgent need for the accommodations which the corporation intends
to provide and that the condemnation is in the public interest.
Public limited-dividend corporations are required to furnish, through the
actual sale of stock for cash, one-third of the total cost of any project under
taken, the remainder being secured through bonds bearing five per cent interest
on first mortgage and 5^ per cent on debenture bonds. No project may be under
taken without the approval of the housing board.
The corporations are to be exempt from the payment "of any and all fran
chise, organization, income, mortgage recording, and other taxes to the State,
and also from all fees to the State or its officers." The bonds and mortgages of
such corporations, together with the interest thereon and the dividends on the
stock, are exempt from State taxation. The State can not exempt the corpora
tions from local taxes on the buildings and improvements, but it empowers
municipalities to do so and provides that whenever a municipality takes ad
vantage of this permission the buildings and improvements shall be to the same
extent exempt from State taxation.
Provision is also made for the formation of private limited-dividend housing
corporations, which are not to have the power of eminent domain, but whose
buildings and improvements are to be tax free so long as they remain in the
hands of the corporation. Public limited-dividend corporations are not per
mitted to dispose of property once acquired nor to make any real-estate trans
fers. Private corporations organized under this law will, however, have this
privilege.
[NOTE. — The Amalgamated Clothing Workers projects, the Brooklyn Garden Apart
ments, and the Farband projects are examples of tax-exemption experiments provided
for by state and city legislation for apartments not exceeding a rental of $12.50 per
room per month.]
7i8 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
RADBURN1
BY LOUIS BROWNLOW
Municipal Consultant, City Housing Corporation, New York City
The problems presented by new planning for towns and cities and re
gions are so' numerous, so complex, so intricately interlaced with all the
other problems of our modern life, that to attempt even so much as to
catalogue them would prove a difficult task for the technical town planner
and the result would be nothing to the layman but a dismay and a hope
less horror. Being myself a layman and not a town planner, for the pur
poses of this paper I shall select but a very few of the problems that at
this time may interest both the technician and the layman, and in dis
cussing them confine myself to the experience, realized and impending,
of Radburn. I indulge the hope that in the discussion to follow light may
be thrown upon these and related problems from the experience gained in
other places.
It seems necessary, therefore, since I am to draw upon Radburn for
illustrations of the few problems I am to outline, to give in a few words the
setting of the Radburn scene.
Radburn we call the town planned for the motor age. It is a town only
in the sense that it is, or will be, an urban community. Politically, it is a
part of the Borough of Fair Lawn, in Bergen County, New Jersey. Geo
graphically, it lies within the North Jersey sector of the metropolitan
region of New York, quite near the industrial cities of Paterson and
Passaic, the residential city of Hackensack and the suburban town of
Ridgewood. Topographically, it is situated on rolling land within sight
of distant hills, and lies from fifty to a hundred and more feet above sea
level. Historically, it has been the home for nearly three centuries of a
sturdy folk of Dutch origin, the influence of the Hollanders having been
kept fresh in each generation by new immigration from the Netherlands,
and two of the principal fixed highways which we found ready-made to
our hand in Radburn are plainly to be seen on the maps prepared for
General Washington by the geographer of the Continental Armies. So
cially, the background has been entirely agricultural, the community life
finding its home in the Grange Hall, the accepted standards being highly
individualistic and the contacts with New York very largely only through
the economic nexus of Gansevoort Market.
1 Adapted from Some Problems in New Planning (address, National Conference on
City Planning, Buffalo, June, 1929). Bull. 4. New York: National Conference on City
Planning, 1929.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 719
The historical and social background is of little account in considering
our present problems, except for the prime fact that it is responsible for
the wide expanse of farms cut only by a few widely separated narrow
roads, leaving this tract here, within fourteen miles of Times Square by
air line; within seventeen miles of the Jersey City Terminal of the Erie by
railroad, and within ten miles of the Jersey end of the new Hudson River
Bridge, a virgin territory upon which a new town plan might be laid with
a minimum of difficulty in adjusting the scheme to existing streets and
structures.
This, then, was the site selected by City Housing Corporation upon
which to build its new town planned for the motor age. It is unnecessary
here, I am sure, to say that City Housing Corporation is a limited-divi
dend company formed five years ago by Alexander M. Bing and a group of
associates for the purpose of building better homes and better communi
ties, or that its first experiment at Sunnyside Gardens in Long Island has
proved a success. Mr. Bing, his associates and his advisers, were, I believe,
inspired by the example of the garden cities of England and desired to do
something looking in that direction within the New York region. Here the
permanent agricultural belt was not practicable and Radburn is not to be,
in the strict sense, a garden city.
Radburn will occupy the lands purchased by the City Housing Cor
poration, two square miles; and probably will extend in influence if not in
precise pattern to the adjacent lands owned by others. It is to be a city of
from 25,000 to 30,000 people.
So the scene is set.
The persons of the drama have been assembled by City Housing Cor
poration. Responsible for the enterprise, its financing and its major de
cisions, are Mr. Bing and the Board of Directors. Clarence S. Stein and
Henry Wright, architects associated, are the town planners. They have
had as consultants Frederick L. Ackerman, Robert D. Kohn, and Thomas
Adams. To carry the whole into execution the City Housing Corporation
has its own staff of administrators, construction executives, engineers,
lawyers, and the like. Many experts in the field of municipal government,
recreation, health, education, and so on have been consulted. To attempt
to apportion among so many the responsibility for particular features of
the plan, physical or community, is not within the scope of this paper.
From amongst the maze of problems presented in Radburn or encount
ered there, I shall select but three to talk with you about. First, the street
and park pattern; second, the division of the town with respect to use,
720 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
residential, commercial, and industrial; and third, the governance of the
town and its community organization. No one of these can be exhausted
nor all of its implications considered : I shall give but the bare bones.
I. A PATTERN FOR STREETS AND PARKS
I do not know for what the checker-board street pattern was planned.
Perhaps for the horse and buggy. Perhaps for the convenience of the
engineer. Perhaps for the handiness of the 25- by loo-foot lot. Perhaps
it just happened. At any rate it is the conventional and usual pattern for
streets in our American towns. Its relation to the pattern for park lands
is usually incidental.
In Radburn, to be planned deliberately for the motor age, two things
were chiefly to be desired : First, the maximum convenience for the use of
the motor car for business and pleasure; and, second, the reduction to the
minimum of the dangers attendant upon such use. Consideration for the
health and happiness of the people who were to live in the houses also
brought the problem of the provision of park spaces into the foreground.
To a town, the street system is both the skeleton and the circulatory
system. The street itself has many functions, above, beneath and on its
surface. But aside from drainage, its principal surface functions are three
in number. Two of these are ancient, classic and first to come to mind
when one hears the word "street." They are the functions of traffic—
traffic awheel and traffic afoot. Usually we separate the parts of the street
devoted to these two functions; run a raised ribbon along either side of
the street, call it a sidewalk, and devote it to foot traffic; pave the wider
strip in the middle and devote it to wheeled traffic; however, mingling the
two at intersections some sixteen or eighteen times in a mile. When urban
land is intensively used, the surface of the street has a third important
function, and we have found no way to separate a part of the street for
this new use. It spills over the sidewalk and the roadway. It is play.
Play in the streets is dangerous to children and an impediment to wheeled
traffic and the attempt to use the same space for both brings tragic conse
quences into thousands of American homes every year.
At Radburn, in its residential portions, the planners have redistributed
the functions of the street, they have made a new segregation of street
space, and they have rearranged the relation of street space to park space.
Essentially the scheme is based on the use of a unit which, for lack of a
better name, we call the super-block. The super-block consists of a cen
tral core of open park land rimmed by a public street devoted entirely to
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 721
foot traffic or play, this core being surrounded by a series of lanes or culs-
de-sac, short streets devoted entirely to wheel traffic, closed at the interior
end, but open to and connecting at the outer end with the wide highway
which surrounds the whole super-bloc and which is again devoted exclu
sively to wheel traffic.
The houses are grouped around the lanes, so that each house fronts
upon two streets, one a relatively wide street for wheel traffic and the
other a quite narrow street for foot traffic. The great motor highway
surrounding the whole super-block sends its tributary streets inward to
ward, but not to, the park core; the footway rimming the park sends its
tributary sidewalks out to the outer rim.
The central park core and its rimming footway send out arms to the
boundary, and there the footway and a ribbon of parkway dive under the
motor highway through an underpass to connect with the park and foot
way system of the next super-block.
In this manner the footways and the motorways are quite separated.
Groups of these super-blocks in their turn will center about a school and
playfield as the focal point, and to this school and playfield any child may
walk from his home in comfort and in entire safety, so far as the threat of
the motor car is concerned. And yet each house has its motor street, too,
and most of them have a garage built into the house, as much a part of
the house as the dining room.
This means that instead of grouping the park lands according to any
usual manner, they have been distributed throughout the residential
parts of the town.
The effect may be observed from the angle of the householder. He has
two fronts to his house. One gives upon a public street dedicated to the
municipality and devoted to wheel travel. The other opens upon a public
street, also dedicated to the municipality, and devoted to foot travel. He
will not be, in any case, farther away than four hundred feet from the
principal motor high way. And he will not be farther away, in any case, than
four hundred feet from a park. The closer he is to one the farther away he
is from the other, of course, but it is never more than four hundred feet.
If for any reason his child plays away from his own yard, whether for
companionship, for leadership, or just for fun, the child has a place to play
in the park and on the footway where no motor vehicle can menace him.
If he plays in the motor street and gets run over, it will not be because
no other place has been provided for him.
I am bold enough to predict that the planners in Radburn have
722
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
opened the way for a revival of pedestrianism as a pleasant form of exer
cise. Think of taking a walk in town to-day — step down from this curb,
wait a minute for the traffic signal to change or else dart out amongst the
speeding cars, up on the curb on the other side, and then repeat, sixteen
or eighteen times a mile at each intersection. In Radburn one will be able
to take a walk, say in another year, and stroll for some miles on a side
walk without ever stepping down from a curb or up onto a curb and with-
FIG. 75. — An attractive group of houses at Radburn planned and spaced for sun
shine, ventilation, and attractiveness. (Designed by Clarence S. Stein; Richard Averill
Smith, photographer.)
out ever being in a place where a motor car can be — and all the time on a
public street lighted by public lighting but bordering not a wheel-traffic
roadway but a park.
That such a radical departure from the conventional street pattern
had an interesting effect on house design follows as a matter of course.
The house has two fronts, no back. It has two front yards, no back yards.
It has two principal entrances — a motor entrance and a pedestrian en
trance. These things have improved the opportunity for designing small
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS
723
houses in groups for the wider vision and at the same time have added to
the opportunity for design for each house seen as a single unit. That the
architects and builders already have taken advantage of many of these
new opportunities for the moderate priced houses that have been built in
Radburn is evident to the visitor at the first glance.
This new street and park pattern has justified itself also on the score
of economy as well as with respect to safety, convenience and beauty. The
FIG. 76. — Here are the rear views of the Radburn houses, or what is termed the
"lane side" of the houses. (Clarence Stein, architect; Richard Averill Smith, pho
tographer.)
scheme requires less land for the streets than the conventional checker
board and the land thus saved goes far toward providing the park space.
The grouping of the houses tends to shorten the lines of the utilities, thus
introducing further economies, so that we may say that the new pattern
saves rather than spends.
II. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
Thus far I have talked only of the residential sections of Radburn.
Radburn is planned for a population on the land now owned by the City
724 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Housing Corporation, of about 25,000 people. In a sense it is designed as
a satellite city. It is not to be, according to plan, a mere dormitory for
New York and for the neighboring cities of New Jersey, but is to have its
own commercial and industrial sections, and to be, as far as is possible, a
self-contained town in which workers may live near their work. At the
southerly end of the town a definite reservation for industry has been
made, although as yet only one establishment has been built there. The
planners have been at pains to relate that industrial section to the other
portions of the town by adequate highways and will provide suitable
housing for workers not far away.
The commercial needs of the town are to be provided for in local com
munity shopping centers, in sub-business centers, a part of one of which
already has been constructed, and in a central business area related to the
civic center of the entire town.
Definitive plans are not so far developed for this chief center as in the
case of the residential portions of the town, but certain things are to be
provided. One of these is open space, both in wide streets and in parks.
Another is the convenient approach by traffic ways to local business places
without interfering with rapid through traffic. And another is to find in a
measure the soothful answer to that deep and passionate longing of the
modern American; he who sings:
This is the place I long have sought,
And mourned because I found it not:
— A place to park!
Here again the use of the interior of the block in a new relation to its
perimeter will, we believe*, be useful, economical and not ugly. The busi
ness' blocks will have a central core of parking space or garage space,
bringing parking close to the store, as in the residential area the green park
was brought close to the home.
There is no zoning ordinance in the Borough of Fair Lawn, and there
fore the use of the police power to control the uses of property is in abey
ance.
In Radburn it is planned, for the present at any rate, to accomplish
zoning by contract. The restrictions in the deeds of houses sold as resi
dences and the restrictions to which the whole lands, park and otherwise,
in the residential sections are subjected, forbid the use of the land for any
but residential purposes.
Sites for industrial purposes have been sold and will be sold subject to
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 725
certain restrictions as to the type of industry — excluding .the nuisance
types — and subject to certain architectural control and community obli
gations.
Commercial property — stores and the like — will not be sold but will be
retained by the City Housing Corporation as an investment, and also
because this is the only means that has been suggested for effectively con
trolling the number and type of stores.
Commercial property of other kinds — such as office buildings for public
utilities and the like — will be sold subject to restrictions which in sum
amount to zoning by contract. Such a system of use zoning requires, of
course, much thought, and makes a heavy draft upon the pre-vision of the
planners. On the other hand, it admits of a refinement of zoning that
under the police power might very well be questioned in the courts as
being too arbitrary.
So here again, in this field of zoning-by-contract, there seem to be
possibilities for increased convenience, decreased costs and added beauty.
III. GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Another of the many problems which we have considered is that of
local government and the organization of the community life.
Radburn as a city of 25,000 people is perhaps ten years in the future.
A year ago it was, except for some lands bought, some money risked and
some blueprints, altogether in the future. At the present moment, how
ever, Radburn is in being. About two hundred single-family houses are
under construction, half of them nearly completed. A store and office
building is almost finished. There are some miles of streets and footways,
of water pipes, sewers, gas mains, electric lines, and the like. Parks and
playgrounds are nearing the stage of usability.
In short on what were last August nothing but fallow fields now there
is a town in sticks and stones.
As yet it has few people. There are a few pioneer families already living
in Radburn, almost before we were quite ready for them. To these people
and to those who come after them, Radburn is not a housing project nor
an essay in town planning. It is a town in which they have bought a
house in which to make a home. From their point of view the municipal
housekeeping problem is both imminent and immanent.
They are the beginnings of a living social entity which will be known
by the name of Radburn. Politically, they are citizens of the Borough of
Fair Lawn, and after the necessary time of probation, will be voters in
726 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Fair Lawn. .The borough has an area of a little more than five miles,
about one- third of which is Radburn. (The Radburn property extends
also into two other boroughs, Glen Rock and Paramus, but most of it and
all that presently being developed is in Fair Lawn.) The borough has a
population of about 5,500, and nearly 2,000 votes were cast in the last
local election, an indication of a lively political interest. The government
under the Mayor and Council has been very friendly to the Radburn
project, and this spirit of cooperation seems to actuate all factions and
parties of the local community.
But a borough so largely rural could not provide at the beginning the
full measure of municipal services required by Radburn. It is to be borne
in mind that when we undertake to build a planned city such as Radburn
on an urban scale on land that heretofore has been entirely agricultural,
we accelerate the normal process of evolution by telescoping through two
well-defined stages — the semi-rural and the suburban.
In Fair Lawn there was no public water supply, no sewage system, and
but meager provision, according to urban standards, for police and fire
protection, health service, and the like. In the field of education the situa
tion was much better, a good school system being provided.
For the protection of the property and for the nurture of the com
munity life, several things had to be provided. One was the machinery
for enforcing the protective restrictions of the deeds, giving archi
tectural control in the community interest, use-zoning and so on.
Another was to supplement the municipal services being provided by the
Borough so as to meet the needs of the more intensively developed Rad
burn section. The third was to provide certain services not yet within the
scope of the municipal activities.
To accomplish these purposes, the Radburn Association, a member
ship, non-profit corporation, was set up. It has accepted the responsi
bility of enforcing the restrictions incorporated in the deeds and the
declarations of restrictions. It has taken title to the park lands to be held
for the use of the people of Radburn. It has undertaken to provide supple
mental municipal service — as for instance in the case of garbage, where
the municipality provided one collection per week and the Radburn Asso
ciation supplements it by another, giving twice a week collection.
.... In Radburn the town planner has dared and the builder and
financier have enabled him to do this thing : To prove in a living city that
Design and Control will make for greater health, greater convenience,
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 727
greater economy and greater beauty than ever can be realized by Drift
and Complacency.
THE AMALGAMATED CLOTHING WORKERS PROJECT
One of the outstanding cooperative housing developments is that of
the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of New York City.
The first project of this organization was completed in 1927 and an
extension begun the next year. The two projects provide 511 apartments
which are from two to seven rooms in size. The rent for the first project
was $11 per room per month, that of the second, $12.50. The following
paragraphs from the Monthly Labor Review1 describe the development.
A description of the methods of financing of the first project are as follows :
The idea of the actual provision of dwellings for its members by the Amal
gamated Clothing Workers was first broached at the 1924 convention. In 1925
a group of union members imbued with the cooperative idea formed the Amal
gamated Clothing Workers Corporation for the purpose of purchasing ice and
coal for the members of the Amalgamated Credit Union. The purchase of coal
was in due time begun and is still being conducted.
This corporation which had been formed for the purchase of ice and coal was
utilized in the housing project. Through it, purchase was made in April, 1925,
of a plot of gound costing $315,000, and this organization has directed the entire
housing project. Ground was broken on Thanksgiving Day, 1926; the first two
buildings were ready for occupancy November i, 1927, the third December i,
and the fourth December 15, 1927. A celebration of the first five buildings was
held December 25. The sixth building was ready for occupancy some time in
March, 1928, and work on a seventh is about to begin.
The union in undertaking this project was actuated by the desire to show that
low-rental housing was possible if undertaken by a group. Care was taken to
secure a site which would give the advantages of the suburbs while at the same
time being easily accessible to the downtown district.
As one of the predominant ideas was the provision of plenty of light and air,
as well as play space for the children where they would be safe, the buildings are,
roughly, in the form of a hollow rectangle. Only 47 per cent of the ground is
occupied by the buildings; the remainder is in lawns and playground space in
an inner court 556 feet long which extends the full length of the property and
varies in width from 51 to 100 feet.
They are five-story, walk-up apartments, the elevator being the only modern
feature not installed. This was omitted in order to keep down maintenance and
operating charges and to make low rentals possible.
1 "Housing Activities of Labor Groups," op. cit., August, 1928.
728 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
The financing of the building project was a problem of considerable propor
tions. The union emphasizes that although no union funds were used, more than
$1,400,000 was spent on land and construction before any attempt was made to
secure money from outside sources, Of this amount $479,000 was paid in by the
tenant owners, $250,000 was obtained from the Forward Association, and $172,-
ooo from the Amalgamated Bank on first mortgages. The remainder of the
$1,400,000 was obtained from the following Amalgamated subsidiaries: The
Chicago and New York banks of the union, the Amalgamated Center (Inc.), the
Amalgamated Clothing Workers' Credit Union, the Russian-American Indus
trial Corporation, and the Paramount Holding Corporation. In each case the
Union acted as guarantor of the loan.
On the security of the buildings a 20-year loan of $1,200,000 was obtained
from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., the company taking a first mort
gage.
It is estimated that the six-building group will cost about $1,825,000 —
$315,000 for land and $1,510,000 for construction — or about $1,500 a room and
approximately 40 cents per cubic foot. This average includes the rooms built
for communal purposes. Of this amount $1,200,000 is covered by the loan from
the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., leaving $625,000 to be supplied by the
tenant owners. When all of the 1,185 dwelling rooms have been paid for at the
rate of $500 per room, $592,500 will have been so paid in. The balance will be
raised by the issue of 6 per cent preferred stock, which, it is said, will constitute
"a sort of junior mortgage." This stock will be sold to the tenants, the union,
and to "other friendly organizations."
Savings were possible in various ways. In the first place, the land was pur
chased at about $2 per square foot.
Lower rates were obtained on the actual building operations because of the
fact that the contractors, knowing that the work was a cash job, did not add the
usual amount for financing. Competition between builders, because of this cash
feature and the size of the project, also was a factor in reducing costs. The
magnitude of the contracts is shown by the fact that the excavation and founda
tion contract totaled $180,000, masonry $279,000, plastering $167,000, and
plumbing $134,000.
The loan from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. was obtained at a rate of
5 instead of the 5^ per cent customary for loans of this sort. This saving is esti
mated at $97,865 for the whole period of the loan (at $5,000 per year). All of the
usual recording fees, revenue stamps, etc., were waived by the authorities
and by the insurance company.
But the most considerable of all sources of saving was the exemption of the
buildings (not the land) from taxes, under the State housing law. The actual
saving to the corporation due to this exemption amounts to approximately
$30,000 a year, or $2.11 per room per month.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 729
How the $11 room was possible. — It is estimated that the yearly cost will
amount to some $150,000, divided as follows:
Per Year
Operating cost (labor, light, heat, insurance, repairs, ad
ministration, etc.) $47 , 400
Interest 60,000
Amortization of first mortgage (begins February, 1929) .... 20,000
Taxes (land only) 5 ,000
Dividends, at 3 per cent, on common stock 18,000
Total $150,400
This will average about $10.50 per month per room. As the rent is set at
$11, it is seen that "the margin of safety is admittedly low and makes no allow
ance for vacancies." It is stated, however, that the 3 per cent dividend on com
mon stock may be withheld for a few years; also that since the amortization of
the first mortgage did not begin until 1929, the 1928 allotment for that pur
pose will create a revolving fund of some $20,000 for the redemption of the stock
of those who may wish to withdraw.
The union states: "Financing this project was no paltry job. It brought
vexing and difficult problems. Having met them successfully we have gained
the knowledge and experience which will make it easier for us to extend our
housing program here as well as in other cities."
The purchase of dwellings in these cooperative apartment houses is not con
fined to members of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, but is open to any
trade-unionist in New York City. Amalgamated members are, however, given
preference over workers in other trades.
Each prospective tenant must pay $500 per room, of which one-half must be
paid at time of purchase. For this he receives stock in the Amalgamated Cloth
ing Workers Corporation equal to the amount of his purchase. Thus if he buys
a three-room apartment he receives stock to the amount of $1,500, if a four-
room apartment, stock to the amount of $2,000, etc.; and a perpetual lease to
the apartment of his choice.
In addition to this he pays "rent" of $11 per room per month. From the
amount paid in rents each month, a certain sum will be put away to pay
off the mortgages, other amounts to cover expenditures for repairs, renovations,
etc. As the mortgages are paid off, in the course of time, the rents will be re
duced.
In many cases the prospective purchaser was unable to gather together the
$250 per room required as a down payment. In such cases, assistance was ex
tended in the way of loans through the Amalgamated Bank, or the Amalga
mated Clothing Workers Credit Union. The Jewish daily, Forward, also as
sisted materially by advancing an amount of $100,000 from which loans were
extended to would-be purchasers.
73o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
In order to prevent speculation, a tenant who wishes to withdraw from mem
bership in the corporation must sell his stock back to the corporation, which
will allow him its book value at the time of withdrawal. Subleasing of apart
ments is prohibited.
Prospective tenants must be accepted by the stockholders' membership com
mittee before being admitted to ownership in the apartments.
The affairs of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Corporation are admin
istered by a board of directors representing the tenant owners and including a
representative of the State Housing Board.
The various activities within the buildings are managed by committees of
five, elected by the tenants. There are three of these committees: The house
committee, which looks after the operation and maintenance of the buildings;
the business committee, whose duty it is to see to the buying of ice and milk, the
running of the stores, the maintenance of the bus, etc.; and the social and educa
tional committee, which arranges the social affairs, has supervision over the
library, play rooms, etc. In order to coordinate the activities of these commit
tees, the building committee has representatives on the other two.
The rent and the down payment of the second project as stated below
varies somewhat from that of the first.
Two members of the State housing board purchased the land on which the
buildings will stand. This plot has been transferred to the Amalgamated Cloth
ing Workers, which, through a subsidiary organization, the Amalgamated
Dwellings (Inc.), will supervise the construction of modern apartment buildings
for the occupancy of persons of moderate means.
It is stated that the buildings will be equipped with electric refrigerators,
incinerators, elevators, and "every other modern improvement." The buildings
will occupy only 59 per cent of the ground space.
These buildings being erected on the cooperative plan, each tenant will be
required to make an investment of $500 per room, of which $150 per room must
be forthcoming as a down payment. The other 70 per cent of the investment
can be borrowed from the Amalgamated Bank of New York, the sum so bor
rowed to be repayable in 10 years. At the end of that time the tenant will own
his apartment, and will have to pay only the expenses of operation and upkeep.
The monthly rental will be $12.50 per room. This is more than was charged
for the Amalgamated apartments in the Bronx, where the average rental per
month was $11, but the union explains that this was necessary because of the
higher cost of the land on which the new buildings will stand.
It is reported that in connection with the apartment houses there will be a
cooperative service corporation, through which the tenants will buy their sup
plies, similar to the one in operation in the Bronx apartments.1
1 Ibid., April, 1930.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 731
THE PAUL LAWRENCE DUNBAR APARTMENTS
The Paul Lawrence Dunbar Apartments for negroes located in the
Harlem section of New York City which is a John D. Rockefeller, Jr.,
experiment is a step forward in housing for negroes. The apartment
building contains 511 apartments consisting of 2,400 rooms. In less than
six months after the apartments were opened the entire number had been
FIG. 77. — Paul Lawrence Dunbar Apartments for Negroes, Harlem District, N.Y. —
a John D. Rockefeller, Jr., project.
sold. Only the tenants can be stockholders, and each tenant is required
to subscribe for an amount of stock equivalent to the cost of his apart
ment. A $5o-per-room down payment is required. The following para
graphs from "The Housing of Harlem,"1 by Alfred Alexander, describe
the financing method :
The method of financing this project is as follows : No attempt has been made
to take advantage of tax exemption. The buildings were erected at an actual
cost of land and building including architect's fees, insurance and taxes during
construction, together with 5 per cent interest on the money which was ad-
1 Crisis, October-November, 1928.
732 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
vanced, of $3,330,000. No charge was included for financing other than 5 per
cent interest nor was any charge made for the services of Mr. Rockefeller's staff
in developing the whole project. These services are being continued without
charge, including a large amount of bookkeeping and other statistical work.
.... The tenants pay an average of $14.50 per room per month, of which
approximately 54 per cent is principal and interest on account of the cost of the
apartment and 46 per cent is for upkeep, taxes, insurance and other charges.
It is calculated that in a period of about 22 years the tenants will have paid for
the entire project, including the land, and will then have in their possession not
a bundle of rent receipts of no value, but an equity in the apartment that will
average for each tenant over $6,600.
THE MARSHALL FIELD GARDEN APARTMENT HOMES
These apartments, conveniently located, provide for 628 families at an
average cost of $15 per room per month. Each apartment has bath, out
side light, and air and faces a street or a garden court. The following para
graphs are from the Marshall Field Garden-Apartment Homes report :
The rooms are spacious, the average living room being 17X13, the dining
rooms 12X15, the bed rooms nX 13, and the kitchens 8 X 10. The buildings are
fireproof, with concrete base soundproof floors.
The kitchens have the very latest equipment, including cabinets, gas ranges,
mechanical refrigeration, combination sinks and wash tubs, and dumb waiters for
service deliveries. The modern basement laundry rooms are supplied with modern
wash tubs/gas stoves and dryers, and electrical connections for washing machines.
Every apartment has a full-size bathroom equipped with built-in tub, medi
cine chest and up-to-date fixtures, for which no rent is charged. Those apart
ments designated as 3! rooms and 4! rooms have half-size dining alcoves, in
stead of full dining rooms, and these are charged for in the rental scale at one-
half the monthly rate of full rooms. The average monthly rent per room, based
on a carefully prepared estimate of operating expenses and a 5 per cent return
on the actual cost of the development, is $15.00. Apartments vary in desirabil
ity, however, so that the actual range of rents will run from $13.00 to $16.50
per room per month. It will be possible, therefore, to obtain 3|-room apart
ments at $55.00 per month; 4-room apartments from $52.00 to $66.00; 4^-room
apartments at $72.00; 5-room apartments from $70.00 to $82.50; and 6-room
apartments from $84.00 to $97.50.
THE MICHIGAN BOULEVARD GARDEN APARTMENTS1
The Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments of Chicago represent the
realization of an idea conceived by Julius Rosenwald. They are the first
1 Adapted from "Good Homes for Negroes in Chicago," Housing, December, 1930.
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 733
practical experiment made on a large scale to improve housing conditions
for the Negroes of that city.
FIG. 78. — Chicago's Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments for Negroes — a Julius
Rosenwald project.
A report at the end of the first 6 months of 1930 showed an occupancy
of approximately 98 per cent, while the net income for this 6-months
period was at an annual rate of about 6 per cent on the capital stock, de
preciation and all other items of expense having been charged to the op
eration and cost of the building.
734 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Mr. Rosenwald in commenting on this, and on the fact that bad debts
over the period were only i of i per cent, said recently:
It is now a little more than a year since the completion of the Apartments
and I would like to record the feeling of satisfaction which is mine, due to the
splendid results of our great venture. By results I do not have in mind primarily
the financial side — important and desirable as that is — but more particularly
the fine type of tenants which fill the buildings. So far as I have learned, there
has been little or no friction between the tenants and the management or among
the tenants themselves. This is highly gratifying, and I think great credit is
due to the effectiveness of the Community Association and the Board of Ad
visors, who represent the tenants.
Those living in our Apartments have proven that the Negro is a law abiding
citizen and a desirable tenant. In so doing they have added to the prestige of
their race and have tended to encourage the investment of money in kindred
projects, since it is known that such property is likely to receive the sort of
treatment that might be expected from the best class of people, regardless of
race. I have been especially impressed with the quiet that prevailed in the court
— an indication that those who occupy the building must respect one another's
rights.
Therefore, I take this opportunity to express my gratification concerning the
first year's operation, and the assurance of my appreciation for all that has been
done to prove that my faith in the Negro is justified.
The Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments, occupied entirely by
Negroes, consists of 421 apartments of 3, 4 and 5 rooms, representing an
investment of $2,700,000. The building occupies less than 40 per cent of
the land, the. remainder being laid out in beautiful gardens, courts and a
playground for small children. Two nursery schools are run in connection
with it, one for the children of the mothers who work and must be gone all
day, and the other, for children whose mothers are at home. The building
personnel, including the manager, is made up of Negroes.
The apartments are a great deal more than a group of well-designed
and well-managed buildings. They constitute almost a little city in itself
with highly developed community activities, making for the development
of a neighborly spirit and providing convenient educational and recrea
tional facilities for children.
Tenants in the Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments automatically
are members of the Cooperative Community Association. The Building
is divided into n units of 3 stairways each; each unit elects from its
number a chairman who represents the members of the group on a Board
of Advisors. This Board meets periodically with the Management to dis-
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 735
cuss proposed improvements and community activities. Mutual under
standing is thus established between the tenants and the management
and individual complaints are being reduced through suggestions from
tenants' representatives to those in charge.
One of the outstanding activities for adults is the Sunday afternoon
Forum bringing interesting speakers to the community. Subjects of wide
spread concern are discussed under leadership of well-informed men and
women.
There are men's clubs and women's clubs; chief among them the Men's
Athletic Club for men desiring participation in active sports; and the
Women's Club for all women interested in service to the community, in
educational programmes, and in social activities.
The Recreation Department answers the play needs of children of
school age by providing outdoor playground activities, such as active
games and sports, and indoor playroom activities, such as handicraft,
art work and library facilities. This programme, which is carried on under
the supervision of a recreation director, affords the children wholesome
association and normal recreation.
Working with the recreation department whose programme is designed
for boys and girls there are the Girl Scout and Boy Scout organizations
which offer many and varied opportunities for character building and
recreation combined.
The Nursery Schools represent the most modern and approved meth
ods of training the child of pre-school age in desirable living habits. They
make available to parents advice concerning the handling of behavior
problems through individual conferences with the teachers, through par
ents' meetings, and through selected reading material that can be bor
rowed from their libraries. This service is rendered to all parents.
MARIEMONT, OHIO— A NEW TOWN BUILT
TO PRODUCE LOCAL HAPPINESS1
BY JOHN NOLEN
Town Planner, Cambridge, Mass.
Through the beneficence of a wealthy, wise, and public-spirited lady,
Mrs. Mary F. Emery, of Cincinnati, and the energy, good judgment, and
idealism of the manager of her estate, Mr. Charles J. Livingood, also of
Cincinnati, a new demonstration town has taken shape in the immediate
environs of Cincinnati. In honor of the founder, the new town bears the
1 From American Civic Annual. American Civic Association, 1929.
736 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
name of Mariemont. The Mariemont Company, the builder of the town,
is incorporated under the laws of Ohio, with an authorized capital of
$5,000,000.
The site for Mariemont was selected primarily for its natural beauty,
near a large city, yet in the country, and away from objectionable fac
tories. It is a location where there will always be plenty of fresh air, sun
light, and healthful surroundings, on a good loam and gravel soil, provid
ing excellent drainage. It is near enough to Cincinnati so that residents in
Mariemont can enjoy the splendid cultural opportunities which have
made Cincinnati a favorite place of residence ever since it was named
"The Queen City." The site of Mariemont is of such a character topo
graphically, and it is so situated geographically, that it cannot become a
large city nor in any way rival Cincinnati in city attractions. Its people,
however, will enjoy what the citizens of Cincinnati enjoy — the May Festi
val, symphony concerts, the municipally owned University, the Art Mu
seum and Art Academy, its famous "Zoo," and its facilities for professional
services of the first rank.
Mariemont is intended, first of all, as a place of residence for a wide
range of families of different economic grades. Its projectors believe that
artisans, operatives, and workers generally, for whom it is principally in
tended, would prefer not to live under the shadow of the factory, so long
as they are not too far from their work. For this reason there are to be
no industries directly within the limits. But Mariemont has two large
industrial sections nearby, both of which will be provided with all the
public utilities and conveniences, such as sewers, water, gas, electricity,
and telephones, as in the town proper, and under the same control. Sites
will be allotted to large enterprises of suitable character only. Mariemont
South is directly on the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Norfolk and
Western, in the bottom-lands along the Little Miami River. Westover,
the more important industrial section of 40 acres, is on the same level
with the town, though somewhat distant from it, and separated by a for
est growth that will screen the residents from any noise or smoke.
Mariemont did not set out to be a complete garden city in the English
sense. It has never claimed to be "an ideal" community nor to be "model"
in all respects. Yet it is generally conceded that no other American town
is so complete or so perfect from the garden city or garden suburb point
of view. Mariemont covers a tract of about 365 acres and provides for a
town with its Village Green and public buildings, stores, amusements,
school-sites, churches, playgrounds, parks, and complete and attractive
HOUSING CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS 737
housing accommodations for wage-earners of different economic grades.
The normal lot size for the detached houses ranges from 50 to 80 feet
frontage, with a depth of 120 feet. The houses are provided with all
modern conveniences, including electricity and steam heat from a central
plant. Adequate provision has been made for the permanent maintenance
of the property as a complete town. Mariemont is not a laboratory for
sociological experiments in the problem of housing, and therefore does not
follow the English plan of copartnership building and ownership. It is
the belief of the projectors of Mariemont that the people in this country
are still individualistic in their attitude and action, and do not readily
take to cooperative housing schemes. But Mariemont is not an industrial
village nor a company enterprise. It is not designed for any special class
or workers nor for workers solely. Mariemont is not a philanthropy, nor
in»any sense paternalistic. Mrs. Emery, its sponsor, attempted to show in
a very practical way her interest in the proper development of home-life
and home-ownership. She manifested intense interest in the church, the
school, the parks, the playgrounds, and the hospital, all features on which
the higher life of the community and its public welfare depended. The
Mariemont Memorial Church, a lovely English Norman building, has
been erected alongside an ancient burial-ground as a memorial to the
first settlers in this part of Ohio. These first settlers were a sturdy, God
fearing people who would have built it themselves had they not been too
busy raising crops and repelling Indian marauders. Maps are extant
showing than an Indian village, large for the times, occupied the south
west section near what is now Dogwood Park. There is a famous Indian
burial-ground here. What became of these people no one seems to know
definitely, but there are, fortunately, many remaining proofs of their cul
ture and prosperity which will soon be displayed in the Mariemont Indian
Museum on the site.
The Dale Park Public School was the first building constructed to pro
vide for education and entertainment in Mariemont. It was erected in
1925, is absolutely modern in planning and equipment, and of Colonial
architectural design, to harmonize with the quiet character of the homes
facing it. The school has been so located that the children can easily, in
a few minutes and with safety, walk to it, for there are no trolley lines to
cross, and very little traffic. Between this school and the Memorial Church
there is a special "green" for pageants and outdoor entertainments.
Mariemont is not only a town built "for the motor age," but to meet
other modern requirements. It has many cul-de-sacs which are called
738 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
"places." All wires are underground. A central heating plant provides
steam heat for most of the village. The houses are of permanent material,
beautifully designed by a score or more of well-known architects from
various parts of the United States. The village has been incorporated
under the laws of Ohio, has its own town government, with a Mayor,
Board of Aldermen, and City Manager plan. The charter for the village is
based upon suggestions made by the Rockefeller Bureau of Municipal
Research.
Finally, it should be added, Mariemont is more than a demonstration
of far sighted town planning and good housing. It is a community with
its own social spirit. It has its Community Club, its Parent-Teachers'
Association, its Men's Club, its Christmas parties, Fourth of July cele
brations, and its community dinners.
Mariemont is a fine example of what Gerald Stanley Lee calls 4 'a
million dollars having a good time."
REFERENCES
CITY HOUSING CORPORATION, NEW YORK. Reports. New York: The Corpora
tion (587 Fifth Ave.).
KNOWLES, MORRIS. Industrial Housing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1920.
MACKENZIE, CLINTON. Industrial Housing. New York : Knickerbocker Press, 1920.
MAGNUSSON, LEIFUR. Housing by Employers in the United States. U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics Bull. 263. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1920. Pp. 283.
PINK, Louis H. The New Day in Housing. New York: John Day Co., 1928.
Discusses European projects, Mariemont, City Housing Corporation projects, Paul
Laurence D unbar Apartments, co-operative housing.
SCHMIDLAPP, JACOB G. Low Priced Housing for Wage Earners. Pub. 34. New
York: National Housing Association, 1919. Pp. 22.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. Cooperative Movement in the United States
in ig25 (Other than Agricultural}. "Miscellaneous Series," Bull. 437. Wash
ington: Government Printing Office, 1927. Pp. 165.
— "Housing Activities of Labor Groups," Monthly Labor Review, XXVII
(August, 1928), 1-18.
WARBASSE, JAMES PETER. What Is Cooperation? New York: Vanguard Press,
1927.
Cooperative housing (pp. 37-49).
WOOD, ARTHUR EVANS. Community Problems. New York: Century Co., 1928.
Limited-dividend companies and other projects (pp. 57-79).
WOOD, EDITH ELMER. The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1919.
PART III
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING AND
HOME-IMPROVEMENT WORK
CHAPTER XXII
GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER EDUCA
TIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
BETTER HOMES IN AMERICA1
BY JAMES FORD
Executive Director of Better Homes in America
Prior to 1922 the subject of home improvement had already com
manded the attention of the Extension Service in the U.S. Department of
Agriculture in rural communities and of the National Housing Association
in cities. There had been, also, many experiments by industrial corpora
tions for housing their employees, and large scale enterprises for small-
house construction by the United States Housing Corporation to provide
good housing for workers in war industries. Commercial "Own Your
Home" exhibits and newspaper and magazine publication of plans of
small houses had helped to call public attention to the possibility of home-
ownership and home-building. These efforts were, however, each of them
very limited in the territory which they covered or each dealt with only
a few of the phases of housing or home life instead of treating the problem
comprehensively.
The need was apparent for a nation-wide movement which would com
mand the attention and the service of civic leaders of all communities,
urban or rural, to study their local problems of housing and home-life and
devise programs for the promotion of building of new homes to meet the
shortage occasioned by the war and the improvement of old homes and
their premises, to encourage the more general use of labor-saving equip
ment, the use of more artistic home furnishings, and the development of
home-life with reference to high standards of wholesomeness and achieve
ment. It was through the inititiative and vision of Mrs. William Brown
Meloney, who was then editor of The Delineator, that this movement got
its start.
President Hoover, who was then Secretary of Commerce, was deeply
impressed with the need of a popular movement to encourage home-
building and home-ownership and agreed to serve as president of the new
1 "How National Attention Was Directed to Better Homes in America," American
Civic Annual (American Civic Association, Inc., 1929), pp. 37-43.
742 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
organization, to be known as "Better Homes in America." Mr. Coolidge,
who was then Vice-President of the United States, became the Chairman
of the Advisory Council, which was made up of certain members of the
Cabinet, chiefs of several Government bureaus, and presidents of Nation
al civic organizations interested in one phase or another of home improve
ment. Thus, the work of Government departments and of volunteer com
mittees, established by Better Homes in America, could be coordinated
for greater effectiveness, and from the Government point of view the new
volunteer committees would serve as a local medium through which the
bulletins and other services of the Government departments could be
made to reach community leaders, and through them all citizens in need
of advice or help which the Government could render.
During the years 1922 and 1923, the Better Homes in America Cam
paign was conducted under the direction of Mrs. William Brown Meloney
and financed by The Delineator. Five hundred or more communities were
reached by the programs during these two years, and a most earnest and
unselfish attempt was made by Mrs. Meloney and the owner of The De
lineator, Mr. George W. Wilder, to conduct a campaign strictly for public
benefit.
By the fall of 1923 it was evident, however, that the campaign had
reached such proportions as to warrant incorporation on a National basis,
independent of the magazine which had originally sponsored it. A three-
years' grant was made by the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial
Foundation, which was subsequently extended, and the headquarters of
the movement was moved from New York to Washington, in January,
1924. Mr. Hoover continued as president of the new organization, of
which Mrs. Meloney now assumed the vice-presidency; Dr. John M.
Gries, Chief of the Division of Building and Housing of the U.S. Depart
ment of Commerce, served as treasurer; and Miss Grace Abbott, Chief of
the Children's Bureau, Edwin H. Brown, President of the Architects'
Small House Service Bureau, and George W. Wilder, were among the
members of the Board of Directors.
The purposes of the movement were stated as follows :
1. To make accessible to all citizens knowledge of high standards in house
building, home furnishing, and home life.
2. To encourage the building of sound, beautiful single-family houses; and
to encourage the reconditioning and remodeling of old houses.
3. To encourage thrift for home-ownership, and to spread knowledge of
methods of financing the purchase or building of a home.
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 743
4. To encourage general study of the housing problem and of problems of
family life, and to help each community to benefit from its study.
5. To encourage the furnishing of homes economically and in good taste.
6. To supply knowledge of the means of eliminating drudgery and waste of
effort in housekeeping, and to spread information about public agencies which
will assist housekeepers in their problems'.
7. To encourage the establishment of courses of instruction in home econom
ics in the public schools, and particularly the construction of home economics
cottages and home-management houses where girls in our public schools and
colleges may, by actual practice, learn the best methods of conducting house
hold operations and of home-making,
8. To encourage the building of small houses by boys of vocational schools or
vocational classes of public schools, and instruction in house upkeep and repair;
so that the boys of the community may acquire an intelligent interest in the
problems of householding and home-ownership.
9. To promote the improvement of house lots, yards, and neighborhoods,
and to encourage the making of home-gardens and home-playgrounds.
10. To extend knowledge of the ways of making home-life happier, through
the development of home music, home play, home arts and crafts, and the
home library.
1 1 . To encourage special study and discussion of the problem of character-
building in the home.
With the help of the Extension Service of the Department of Agricul
ture and the State Parent-Teacher Associations, the State Federation of
Women's Clubs, the State Supervisors of Home Economics, chambers of
commerce, and other civic organizations, leaders were picked in cities,
towns, villages, and rural districts to serve as chairmen of local Better
Homes committees. In the intervening years the number of such com
mittees has grown from 760 in 1924 to 7,279 in 1930. Each community
chairman is urged to place on his or her local committee representatives
of each of the civic and educational organizations of the community that
are interested in any specific phase of home improvement, and as far as
possible to secure the cooperation and advice of leading local architects,
builders, home economists, landscape gardeners, and other specialists.
Programs for the study of local housing conditions and for lectures and
discussions on home-ownership, home-building, home-financing, garden
ing, and related subjects are characteristic features of all Better Homes
campaigns-. Ordinarily, the local movement heads up in National Better
Homes Week, which of late years has been the last week in April. Many
hundreds of the committees, however, conduct year-round programs.
744 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Home-improvement contests are conducted by the majority of Better
Homes Committees, but take many forms as they may cover improve
ments of all aspects of the home or may consist of a group of special com
petitions for kitchen improvement, living-room improvement, home-gar
dens, home landscaping, boy's room and girl's room contests, and so on.
Architectural drawing contests for best plans of small homes have been
conducted in many states; and, beginning with the State of Massachu
setts in 1928, general contests for the best examples of good architecture
in houses already built, new or old, have been conducted on a state-wide
basis, with the help of local representatives of the American Institute of
Architects.
In many hundreds of cities and counties each year the central feature
of Better Homes Week is the demonstration of one or more houses of good
design and construction completely furnished on a predetermined budget
proportioned to the cost of the house, and with grounds carefully planted
and landscaped. Many of these demonstration houses are designed by
the local committee with the help of local architects, or make use of plans
issued by the Architects' Small House Service Bureau (a non-profit or
ganization established by the American Institute of Architects to provide
plans of well-designed houses of from three to six rooms at minimum cost).
Other committees borrow for demonstration the best available small house
built by local contractors or owners. In rural communities where there is
little need for new building, the demonstrations are usually of old houses
which have been remodeled or reconditioned to illustrate that appropriate
improvements in the comfort, convenience, and beauty of homes can be
made at relatively slight cost. Not infrequently the remodeling of such
homes becomes a community project — members of the committee, school
boys and girls, and interested citizens from all walks of life, take part in
the actual work of painting, papering, carpentry, and decoration.
Among the notable Better Homes Campaigns of recent years, Santa
Barbara, California, has been outstanding for its demonstrations of scores
of new houses built largely from plans drawn in small-house architecture
competitions, and constructed at a cost averaging about $5,000, though
ranging from $1,500, for a three-room house, to $10,000 and more for
houses of seven or eight rooms. These programs have been under the
direction of Miss Pearl Chase, Director of the Community Arts Associa
tion of Santa Barbara, and have been supplemented by garden contests,
border-planting contests, and a variety of other contests, and frequent
public tours of prize- winning homes and gardens.
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING
745
In Greenville, S.C., the Better Homes demonstrations, year after year,
have been conducted through a local committee backed by the Woman's
Bureau of the Greenville Chamber of Commerce. New homes and recon
ditioned homes for persons of moderate means have been supplemented
by demonstrations of the best available types of homes for industrial
operatives and for Negroes.
At Little Rock, Ark., the demonstrations are annually sponsored by
the City Federation of Women's Clubs, and, like those of Greenville,
FIG. 79. — A home-builder's clinic where problems of home financing and home build
ing may be discussed is one of the many Better Homes projects. (Clinic at Kohler,
Wis., Better Homes demonstration.)
S.C., have included homes for Negroes as well as for whites, and homes for
families with incomes of various sizes.
The home economics departments of public schools and colleges have
frequently taken over the direction of local Better Homes campaigns with
the cooperation of citizens' organizations. In scores of instances, new
houses have been built as the central feature of the demonstration which
would serve after Better Homes week as permanent home-management
houses for the use of students of home economics. The selection of the
746
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
plan, as well as the selection and arrangement of the furnishings, have
been carried out by the students under the direction of their teachers.
.Notable examples of this type of demonstration have occurred for instance
in Port Huron, Mich.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Ames, Iowa. There have been
several instances, also, of the actual designing and building of houses for
FIG. 80.— Hanging a door in the Akron, Ohio, "boy-built" house. Better Homes in
America encourages the building of houses by schoolboys, in order that the best possi
ble training may be given the next generation of home builders.
demonstration by boys enrolled in carpentry or other vocational classes in
public schools, as in Utica, N.Y.; St. Helena Island, S.C.; Stockton,
Calif. ; and Akron, Ohio.
Negro committees have been organized in all of the southern states.
In rural communities their programs consist largely in whitewashing or
painting of homes, repair of fences, steps, and porches, and similar much-
needed improvements, but at Hampton, Tuskegee, and other schools and
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 747
colleges for Negroes, more elaborate programs have been devised. The
Penn School, on St. Helena Island, has been outstanding in the compre
hensiveness of its programs conducted by a committee of Negro teachers
and graduates of the school. Home economics cottages have been built
and furnished by the students. Furniture and furnishings have been made
for the demonstration houses, and contests conducted which are said to
have led to improvements in every home on the Island. The activities of
this committee are carried on throughout the year and it is reported that
practically everything that is done is called a Better Homes project "since
the words 'Better Homes' work magic on the Island."
Rural programs generally comprise contests followed by tours to prize-
winning homes to witness and discuss the practical changes which have
been made in each. In Pulaski County, Arkansas, for example, year after
year, a large number of new or remodeled houses are demonstrated, fur
nished, or redecorated by members of the committee, and in some in
stances completely reconditioned by local citizens as a community project.
In one case an old house, which for many years served as a storage barn,
was completely made over by the citizens of. Mablevale at a total cost in
money of only $75. The convenient, artistic little home that resulted was
still valued at considerably less than $1,000 and thus proved that good
housing could be brought within the reach of the farm laborer's family.
Several southern rural committees have demonstrated improvements in
tenant cottages, and in the mountains of Tennessee remodeled log-cabins
have been demonstrated; in Southern California homes of adobe and
homes for Mexican laborers; in mining communities and industrial vil
lages the reconditioning of homes of manual laborers.
The central office at Washington has issued a number of publications
and educational news releases on house plans, home-ownership, home
furnishing, on school cottages for training in home-making, boy-built
houses, and memorandums on lawns, beautification of grounds, home-
sanitation, and many other subjects. Extensive bibliographies have been
prepared on those subjects on which inquiry is most frequently received,
such as home improvement, remodeling, care and repair of homes, home-
gardening, home music, home play, and in the course of a year tens of
thousands of requests for information are handled.
During the past year State Committees have been organized in all the
States and Territorial Committees in Hawaii and the Virgin Islands.
There are several local committees also in Porto Rico and Alaska which
devise programs adapted to the conditions of their own districts. A strik-
748 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
ing feature of the Hawaiian campaign was the building of a two-room
model cabin which was mounted on wheels, taken over the Islands and
demonstrated to the nat ve population.
Better Homes in America through its National office and state and
local committees is able to reach citizens in virtually any community and
let them know of the available sources of help both from Government de
partments and from private organizations. Through the local committees
practical means of improving architecture, construction, landscaping, fur
nishing, equipment, or any other details of the home are demonstrated
and the services of local specialists are rendered available both for arous
ing interest in specific improvements and for indicating the ways in which
such improvements can be made. Not only the individual home but the
community as well may be progressively transformed through such aid
which discovers and utilizes latent abilities, trains new and effective lead
ership, imparts a new sense of values, and year by year raises standards
of the home and of community civic life. [National headquarters of Better
Homes in America are located at 1653 Pennsylvania Ave., Washington,
B.C.]
AMERICAN HOMEMAKERS, INC.
Home-information centers have been organized in many of the New
England states. Among the cities where well-organized centers now are
in operation are Springfield, Cambridge, Holyoke, Waltham, and Boston
of Massachusetts, and Providence and Newport of Rhode Island. In a
number of other communities centers are in process. The purpose and
activities of these centers are outlined in the following paragraphs taken
from the organization's folder:
The activities of the Home Information Centers vary with the character of
the community. All centers give information as requested by individuals and
advice on the local opportunities for special training. At most centers classes in
homemaking subjects are conducted. It is, however, the policy of the American
Homemakers, Inc., to provide such classes only when the opportunity is lacking
elsewhere in the community.
The essentials of a Home Information Center are:
A Director who has had special training, or intelligent homemaking experi
ence, or both. She may be a paid or volunteer worker, but in either case she
should feel the importance of her work, should know the needs and resources of
her community and should meet family and personal problems with common
sense and discretion.
The Home Information Center can be of immediate and practical service to
men and women, whatever their income and previous education.
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 749
The Centers already established are serving as a source or channel for
authentic and specific information on the house, its furnishings, equipment, and
care; the individual and family income, its apportionment and use; the prob
lems of food, clothing, recreation, child care, and child training. The Centers
serve also as an "opportunity school" for active or prospective homemakers,
wherein the instruction is adapted to the present needs of the individuals, as a
cooperative center for all organizations dealing with the home, and as a clearing
house for community opportunities.
The headquarters of the movement are located at the Eastern States
Exposition Grounds, Springfield, Massachusetts. Mrs. James J. Storrow
is president.
THE NATIONAL HOUSING ASSOCIATION
The purpose of the National Housing Association is to improve housing
conditions in every practicable way. The Association also organizes asso
ciations and committees. It gives aid in educational campaigns, in the
drafting, enacting, and enforcement of housing legislation, in the organiza
tion of improved housing companies, and also in continuing the work after
the good standards have been established. The Association holds housing
institutes in various sections of the country and an annual housing con
ference. It serves as a clearing house for information and publishes litera
ture dealing with housing subjects. Its quarterly, Housing, contains in
formation on housing development and housing progress. The Association
is located at 105 East Twenty-second Street, New York City. Officers:
Robert W. de Forest, president; John M. Glenn, treasurer; and Lawrence
Veiller, secretary and director.
STATE AND LOCAL HOUSING ASSOCIATIONS
In a few of the states there are state housing associations organized to
promote housing improvement. The Pennsylvania Housing and Town
Planning Association, a volunteer organization, has been formed for the
purpose of sponsoring a better housing program in the state of Pennsyl
vania. The citizens in over thirty counties have enrolled as members.
One of the outstanding accomplishments of the Association has been the
drafting of a permissive model housing law which has been enacted by the
state legislature. The headquarters of the movement are located at
Philadelphia. Benjamin H. Ritter is executive secretary. Address: 1701
Walnut Street, Philadelphia.
Both Massachusetts and Michigan have state housing associations.
75o THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
In addition to these state associations a few cities have local citizens'
associations organized for the purpose of promoting better housing and
living conditions and better enforcement of housing legislation. The Bet
ter Housing League of Cincinnati which is supported by private contri
butions is a noteworthy example of such an association. This League
carries on its work through visiting housekeepers who give instructions
among tenants in the congested areas of the city and note and report vio
lations. In addition, the League assists with housing and city-planning
problems and the enforcement of legislation. It has worked out a special
plan for instruction in housing for children in public schools. Bleeker
Marquette is executive secretary. Address: 312 West Ninth Street, Cin
cinnati.
The Philadelphia Housing Association is another such organization.
This Association's program varies somewhat from that of Cincinnati. Its
activities are divided among such fields as housing legislation and law en
forcement, municipal engineering, and education. In the field of law en
forcement, for instance, the organization acts as a clearing house for fifty
or more health and welfare agencies. The Association also* has made a
number of outstanding studies of such housing problems as congestion,
vacancies, rental changes, demolition of dwellings, and other problems,
depending upon the immediate need in the community. Bernard J.
Newman is managing director. Address: 311 South Juniper Street,
Philadelphia.
The Pittsburgh Housing Association, another volunteer organization,
places its emphasis on the dissemination of information on housing and
the particular housing problems of Pittsburgh. It is in reality a social
agency and cooperates with the various social agencies in the community.
In summarizing briefly the activities of the Association, John Ihlder, its
director, states:
Its function is to study, inform, stimulate, encourage. It has no power
except that derived from knowledge and an informed public opinion. It co
operates with and supports those city departments whose function is to regulate
the construction and use of residential property. It does not build or manage
houses. But it holds conferences with and offers information and assistance to
those who do. It hopes to prove itself an effective catalyst. Its method is that
of steady, unremitting pressure, with the far future in view, as well as immedi
ate improvement in living conditions both by official action and private enter
prise.
The policy of the Association is based upon a belief that housing progress is
a gradual process, not a sudden revolution; that emphasis on different phases of
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 751
the work should vary with changing economic and social conditions; that hous
ing betterment is a matter not only of the dwelling but also of the living stand
ards and habits of the occupants of the dwelling.1
The Association is located at Pittsburgh. Mr. John Ihlder is executive
director. Address: Granite Building, Pittsburgh.
CITY- AND REGIONAL-PLANNING ORGANIZATIONS
There are a number of national organizations which carry on a national
program for the purpose of encouraging city and regional planning and
assisting with problems in these fields. Some of the most outstanding are
listed below :
The National Conference on City Planning gives advice on planning
organizations and activities. It publishes bulletins on city-planning sub
jects and holds its annual conference. Flavel Shurtleff is executive secre
tary. Address: 130 East Twenty-second Street, New York City.
The purpose of the American City Planning Institute is to promote
city planning and encourage original research on city-planning subjects.
The Institute publishes an official organ, City Planning (quarterly).
Flavel Shurtleff is executive secretary. Address: 130 East Twenty-second
Street, New York City.
The Planning Foundation of America serves as a national clearing
house for planning information. The Foundation issues bulletins, news
releases, and editorials. Flavel Shurtleff is secretary and director. Ad
dress: 130 East Twenty-second Street, New York City.
The American Civic Association includes in its field land planning,
civic improvement, and conservation. It publishes Civic Comment (bi
monthly) and the American Civic Annual as well as a number of bulletins.
Harlean James is executive secretary. Address: 901 Union Trust Building,
Washington, D.C.
In addition to the foregoing, the Russell Sage Foundation, the National
Municipal League, and the National Recreation Association, all of New
York, include city- and regional-planning activities in their programs.
BUREAUS, OFFICES, AND DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT WHICH PROMOTE HOME IMPROVEMENT
Owing to the fact that the Bureau of Standards carries on extensive
research and many technological investigations that affect the home either
directly or indirectly, considerable space has been allotted to a summary
of that phase of the Bureau's work.
1 American Civic Annual, 1930, pp. 79-80.
752 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS
BY HENRY D. HUBBARD
Assistant to the Chief, U.S. Bureau of Standards
[This article has been prepared by Mr. Hubbard for this publication]
Science and the power machine are exalting home life. Today motors
trap house dust in a vacuum, take the effort out of sewing, clean our
clothes and dishes, and in summer cool our food, and make breezes to
refresh us. Science is behind many such services. At a motion of the
hand a vibrant world of melody and knowledge invades our living room.
Seated at ease we may converse with others across a continent or an
ocean. We turn night to day with a tungsten thread. These and a score
of Aladdin-like miracles we perform. With Science and technics we may
make our own home environment what we will, giving the household the
best conditions for perfect life.
That our yard, pound, and gallon come from our national standards at
the Bureau of Standards is well known. It is not so well known that scores
of other kinds of measurement rest on new types of standards or instru
ments. We rate electrical power in watts; electrical pressure in volts; light
in candlepower, and food energy and heat we rate in calories. For these
and many similar measures the Bureau must today have standards, units,
instruments, and methods.
Measurements are everywhere needed to locate the home and to de
sign, build, equip, and maintain it. This brings us many contacts on
fundamentals. The use of such measures calls for researches and tests.
The ideal standards of quality, performance, and practice must be meas
ured ideals, for in the home technologies of today guesswork must no
longer serve. Service must be built into the machines and structures to
give predictable results.
This article tells of some ways in which the Bureau aids the activities
and welfare of the home.1
The Bureau's experimental research on plumbing — so vital to house
hold health — is credited as the most scientific treatment ever made.
The published results aid home-builders in providing adequate, safe,
economical plumbing facilities. Bureau researches and tests help to im
prove home-building materials through quality and service studies on
cement, brick, tile, lime and lime plaster, stucco, paint, roofing, tiling,
lightning rods, fabric, wall boards, and the like. The practice of plaster-
1 The Division of Building and Housing, an outstanding Division of the Bureau of
Standards, is discussed in the next article.
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 753
ing, stucco application, painting, and the installation of plumbing, gas
service, electric service, and house construction have received careful ex
perimental study
To aid the household to protect the home from wear, weather, fire,
lightning, noise, and other things, many researches and investigations
have been undertaken by the Bureau. A popular i2y-page publication on
" Safety for the Household" deals with safety precautions to protect the
home from electrical, lightning, gas, and fire hazards, and the dangers
from chemicals and accidents. It was "designed to present the subject to
adults and thus aid the growing movement for safeguarding life and
property from avoidable accidents."
The Bureau's publication "Protection of Life and Property against
Lightning" describes the history and technique of adequate protection
against lightning, which causes many fires, especially of farm buildings.
The damage to such property by lightning exceeds $20,000,000 annually.
The Bureau of Standards points out how such losses can largely be pre
vented by the use of lightning rods properly installed, but that rods im
properly mounted or without suitable ground connections are useless.
The value of such protection for farm buildings having typical exposure
was emphasized. One interest ng discovery was published on the proper
grounding of wire fences to reduce the losses of livestock in open fields.
To safeguard the home from fire, the Bureau's researches on fire hazard
contribute new data on the nature, causes, and avoidance of fires in
homes. Actual conflagrations are studied for various purposes. The Bu
reau has a furnace in which can be burnt to destruction specimen house
walls of most varied design and material — to perfect our knowledge of
how to build homes with minimum fire hazards.
A special brick building is used at the Bureau to test the destructive
effects on various kinds of equipment. In Washington, a large brick build
ing and a smaller one next door were about to be dismantled to allow
Government building operations. The Bureau, under close observation
and measurement of temperatures throughout, burned them to complete
destruction. Resulting data on the failure of the tin roof, brick walls, and
floors enter into building practice to help perfect the design of houses. A
construction such as a wall is rated on its ability to satisfactorily hold
back fire and prevent ignition of combustible materials in contact with
the side away from the fire. The length of time the wall affords this pro
tection is determined in a standard furnace test.
The fire resistance of building materials and construction is determined
754 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
by subjecting them to a test fire, the intensity of which is regulated so
that given temperatures in the furnace obtain at stated times after the
fire is started. Even the garage — now often built in or attached to the
house itself — was not overlooked, and the standard of "one-hour fire re
sistance" was suggested by the Bureau of Standards to assure adequate
safety.
Compiled data on seasonal variations in fires, on fire resistance in
dwellings, and on the fire hazard from discarded cigarettes, cigars, and
matches were published with suggestions for reducing such hazards.
Many researches are conducted which sooner or later are reflected in tech
nical details of home construction. In the experimental fires, for example,
the Bureau has studied the hazard of shingles, how roofing fails, how
embers are formed and carried by the wind, the temperatures of fires, and
a score of subjects vital to home safety and economy. Such data find their
way through building codes into practice, or through the designers of
equipment, or the architects of dwellings.
On the roof of the Bureau's chemistry laboratory sheets of various
colors are exposed to natural weather day by day, month by month.
Paints are having their fortunes told, for some will live or die commercially
by these tests. Inside the same laboratory "accelerated tests" of similar
paints are in progress. Weather affects coated surfaces — a vital problem
in the life of structures. Among materials tried out as protective coatings
are oil paints, enamel paints, lacquers, bituminous saturated felts, and
bituminous roofing materials. The accelerated weathering test is similar
to and more rapid than actual weather exposure. Artificial rainfalls on
the specimens followed by artificial sunlight rich in ultraviolet simulate
the destructive forces of weather and play in repeated sequence on the
painted specimens. Outdoor exposure tests and indoor "accelerated tests"
thus tell pertinent factors as to how paints hold up under weathering.
Such new facts for the paint industry eventually help the household more
effectively and durably "to save the surface" and thus add longer life to
the home.
The Bureau has studied means for cleaning marble, and how to mini
mize disfigurement of the exterior of the house. Soluble salts in masonry
materials often disfigure walls by efflorescence. Efflorescence is often
attended by disintegration of material, particularly mortar. It was found
that moisture in the wall is the immediate cause, and that moisture pene
tration can be lessened by proper design, construction, and maintenance.
If may appear and disappear for a few seasons, but with each successive
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 755
appearance gradually diminishes in extent until finally it never again be
comes noticeable.
Quiet — the laudable goal of modern anti-noise crusades — is essential to
restful home life. The Bureau has helped fundamentally by measuring the
sound transmission properties of some 26 kinds of wall and floor of various
materials and internal design. This research gave new light on how to
minimize the invasion of noise through walls and floors of rooms. Ways
are now known for making practically sound-proof walls and floors, and
home and apartment house designers are furnished data needed for build
ing quiet into the structure as effectively as we build strength. Further
research will add new data on this subject.
In the course of the experiments silver tarnish, identified as silver sul
phide, was made in quantity, made up into wire and found to possess
interesting electrical properties. The Bureau later has jointly with other
agencies helped to produce a tarnish-resistant silver — a practical step
toward a non- tarnishing silver. Again the Bureau, upon request, aided
the makers of enamelled-metal kitchen ware by finding the cause and cure
for the chipping or flaking which marred the ware and actually threatened
the industry. Research on the relative expansion of the metal and the
enamel disclosed that unequal expansion caused the "fish-scaling" as it
was called. New technique in cleaning and applying the enamel and a
new formula for the enamel were developed in experiments in which forty
thousand specimens were produced and studied. The housewife using
enameled metal ware will be interested to recall that science and technics
at the Bureau of Standards helped perfect the art of making such ware.
The household draws to its service many arts and sciences, and such
services will multiply as we intelligently use all means now so available
and so potent for human well-being. The era of artificial refrigeration
actively began coincidently with the completion of the Bureau's precise
determination of the properties of refrigeration materials — data essential
to and underlying scientific refrigeration, and the design and construction
and operation of refrigerating devices. Today, with two thousand new
refrigerating devices each day entering American homes, machine-made
cold has become a household product. It is now possible to install in the
home scientifically designed power-driven cold-producing machines. The
Bureau of Standards' series of classic researches on the refrigerating prop
erties of materials has contributed in no small measure to this end. Active
756 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
years of research yielded accurate technical data unsurpassed elsewhere
by any similar research in other branches of engineering..
As early as 1904, the Bureau controlled the humidity of its electrical
laboratories, blowing the air against radiators cooled below the freezing
point of water by calcium chloride brine. This froze the water out of the
air, thus drying it. Many inquiries were answered concerning this Bureau
provision of air-moisture control — then a laboratory necessity, now an
industrial service, an aid to health and comfort in our great theaters, and
slowly coming into the home, to add comfort for the family.
Perhaps dust-free air, of optimum temperature, humidity, and motion,
may eventually be supplied as every-day practice in the home for the sake
of the household, as is already done in scores of industrial operations for
the sake of the material products. In the control of air conditions for re
search in many lines, e.g. in its paper testing and textile testing labora
tory, altitude chamber for simulating high altitude condition, and else
where, the Bureau has helped show that air control is feasible. Controlled
climate indoors will doubtless become as much an object of home tech
nology as house heating in winter.
Again, if roofs were white outside and aluminum painted inside, attics
would be cooler in summer and warmer in winter. This was discovered
by the Bureau of Standards from measurements of the radiative and re
flective properties of materials. Attics cool in summer and warm in winter
may add a fifth to the habitable space of the home. If suitable heat in
sulation is applied under the roof, such livable attics could more easily
be attained.
The. walls of the home are built to keep out wind, rain, and snow.
Summer heat and winter cold still force their way in, bearing bodily dis
comfort and ills. The Bureau is helping toward a more ideal indoor weath
er by measuring accurately the heat transmissive quality of various mate
rials. A useful letter-circular gives the results and has been distributed
by thousands to aid home-makers and house designers to build temperate
conditions into the home. With these data artificial' heat can be kept in
doors and summer heat kept outdoors more effectively. Economy is the
welcome partner of comfort from heat-insulating walls since coal bills
may often be cut down one- third if recommended precautions are taken.
All households in America are daily buyers of industrial products. They
are America's largest buying group but lack expert knowledge of what
they buy and of how to buy wisely. The national Government is the next
largest buying unit. The seventy-two technical committees of its Federal
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 757
Specifications Board formulate quality-describing specifications, to gov
ern federal purchases. Its 584 Government master specifications cover
some 4000 items, hundreds of which are of direct interest to the buying
household. The Bureau has put successfully into effect its famous "certi
fication plan" to aid household buying. Under this plan the Bureau pub
lishes a "willing-to-certify" list of firms willing, when requested, to de
liver goods certified to conform to the U.S. Government master specifica
tions. Over a thousand firms have registered for this list. This gives the
benefit of the Government's specifications to all who wish to use specifica
tions. To this plan is added the system of "self-identifying quality-guar
anteeing labels" under which the products and their sale are brought
within the purview of the agencies which safeguard the buying public
from misbranding and mislabeling commodities.
Full weight and measure in marketing concerns every householder.
Accurate deliveries over the counter depend on the National Bureau of
Standards along four principal lines: First, through its standardization of
the shop standards by which trade measures are made; second, through its
standardization of the State standards with which local "sealers" stand
ards are inspected and verified; third, through annual conferences of
State and national officials, encouraging the adoption of the model State
law, standard tolerances, and adequate local inspection; and fourth, by
information to the household and the inspectors. These four activities
have since 1901 steadily developed what is now a nation-wide interest in
full weight and measure in the markets in the interest of the buyer. As
aids, the Bureau has published and widely distributed for the use of the
household: "Buying Commodities by Weight and Measure," "Measure
ments for the Household," and a kitchen card. The first helps the house
hold in methods of buying with special regard to quantity measurements.
The Bureau's kitchen card for the household gives tables of weights and
measures, equivalents of the units of measurement used in cooking,
standard heights and weights of children at each age, and other facts.
The Bureau's hand-book for sealers is the reference work for the local
inspectors throughout the country.
Practically everything used by the household calls for measurements,
and accuracy is essential to fair dealing, and oftentimes to utility. All of
us as buyers pay the last cent due in a purchase, so equally the last ounce
due should be assured to the purchaser. Large buyers check the weight
and measure of all deliveries. Households rarely do so but rely on the
758 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
sealer and tradesman for correct measure over the counter. The Bureau's
nation-wide campaign for honest weight and measure is saving buyers
millions of dollars formerly lost through short measure. State laws and
local inspection services are now general and the household is freer from
preventable injustice.
The Bureau's simplified practice division aids the household by stimu
lating the industries to simplify sizes and varieties of many household ar
ticles — beds, springs, mattresses, sheets, bed blankets, table chinaware,
and others. Here the more acceptable sizes (as reflected in the sales) were
retained on the manufacturers' schedules. A notable success was in sim
plifying and standardizing builders' hardware, latches, bolts, locks and
keys, knobs, sash pulleys, brackets, umbrella holders, chest handles, and
so on. Through the efforts of the simplified practice unit of the Bureau
the industry has reduced the sizes and varieties of brick from 66 to 5 in the
nation-wide elimination of waste activity of the Department of Com
merce. Simplification has been attained even in such details as the milk
and cream bottles (now reduced to four kinds) and bottle caps (now of
one size).
Clay products from bricks to chinaware, from terra cotta drain pipes
to the beautiful tile of the bathroom, are of concern to the household.
White glazed tile and unglazed ceramic mosaic were simplified, terms de
fined, and form of certification was agreed upon. Sets of chinaware for
hospital and hotel use have been selected so as to give a simplified set of
general service utility. Weights, widths, and lengths of bedsteads and bed
linen have been concurrently simplified to promote economy in produc
tion and sale In all, some 86 commodities are now simplified as to
size, grade, and variety. Such simplifications effect many economies,
facilitate replacement, and assure benefits such as come from even partial
standardization.
The Bureau has designed and built an apparatus to simulate the wear
of carpet in service. Two leather-faced abrading wheels give the stress
and a vacuum-cleaner picks up the abraded material which is a measure
of the wear.
The code of gas practice has given basic data to local governments for
effective and safe control of gas service. The Bureau has made experi
mental and field studies of gas hazards and the efficiency of gas appliances.
The consumers and the manufacturers have shown interest in this work
and felt the stimulus to design more efficient appliances. In household
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 759
practice the Bureau's circular on "How To Get Better Service with Less
Natural Gas in Domestic Gas Appliances" showed that two- thirds of the
natural gas then used in the home could be saved by using the type of
burner devised and recommended by the Bureau for the purpose. The
burner was found to have an efficiency several times that of the type in
common use. The saving made possible (at replacement value) was esti
mated as $250,000 a day, when the Bureau's suggestions are adopted.
The effects of changes in the heating value of gas furnished to the home
were described in another published paper. Optimal conditions for effi
ciency, capacity, and safety of burners were designed for the domestic
use of two of the newer fuels known as propane and butane. A study was
also made of the efficiency and safety of acetylene burners. At one of the
national conventions of the American Gas Association the Bureau exhibit
ed methods of utilizing natural gas and the best types of burners to use.
The serious hazard from the presence of carbon monoxide in the air was
made the basis of extended experiments and data for municipal regula
tions concerning the inspection and safety of gas appliances in the home.
.... Engineers of State Utility Commissions [have] met at the Bureau
to discuss problems of residential use of gas and electricity. The Bureau's
service of standardization for water, gas, and electric meters has brought
uniformity and helped to maintain accuracy in the measured service of
electricity, gas, and water — satisfying both to the household and to those
who furnish such service — minimizing disputes, complaints, and promot
ing good will in the assurance of full measure to the home. The Bureau's
work on meters for electricity, gas, and water is chiefly in certifying the
standards or standard instruments used to control the accuracy of manu
facture and adjustment.
We have completed our survey and seen some of the ways in which the
National Bureau of Standards aids the home. Its 60 or more specialized
lines of research of interest to the household could not be fully told here.
The examples described may give an idea of what the two cents per capita
spent for our National Bureau of Standards is doing for American homes
— one, not the least, of the many beneficiaries of its research activities.
760
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
THE DIVISION OF BUILDING AND HOUSING1
BY JAMES S. TAYLOR
Chief, Division of Building and Housing, Bureau of Standards
U.S. Department of Commerce
The Division of Building and Housing was established in the Depart
ment of Commerce in 1921, when the country had not yet recovered from
the wartime housing shortage, and when there were, at the same time,
millions of unemployed men walking the streets. That situation showed
graphically how the country must depend upon an economical, smooth-
functioning construction industry if housing standards are to be steadily
improved, and if reasonable stability in business is to be achieved.
Creation of the Division was the culmination of efforts made during
several years to have the federal government set up such an agency.
The idea that the federal government should cooperate on a voluntary
basis with business and other groups in policies having the dual aim of
relieving the housing shortage by means of new construction, and furnish
ing employment, had been publicly advocated by Herbert Hoover in
November, 1920, and shortly after taking the office as Secretary of Com
merce in March, 1921, he announced such cooperation as one of the De
partment's policies. He recommended an appropriation for the work,
following the lines suggested by the Senate Committee, and in the meas
ures then pending before the two houses of the Congress. This appropria
tion was granted in a bill passed in June, 1921.
An Advisory Committee on Building Codes consisting of nationally
known architects and engineers was set up in the same month, and the
Division itself was established on July i with the general aim of aiding in
the solution of such outstanding problems as stabilizing building activity,
more satisfactory development of urban areas through zoning and city
planning, eliminating wastes in building, and encouraging home owner
ship.
Sustained and healthy construction activity is essential for stable em
ployment, rising living standards, and the general prosperity of the
country. The American people have been spending from six to seven
billion dollars a year, or nearly one-twelfth of their income, for construc
tion during the past five or six years.
It is fundamental that this construction be carried out economically,
1 Adapted from The Division of Building and Housing and Its Services (mimeographed
circular issued by the Division).
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 761
and at a fairly even rate, not accentuating the ups and downs of general
business and employment, but, if possible, acting as a balance wheel by
speeding up when other business is slack.
Construction materials, including lumber, cement, steel, and many
other vegetable and mineral products, are produced in practically all sec
tions of the country and furnish about an eighth of the total railway
freight carried. A decrease in building activity, therefore, is quickly and
widely felt, while an insistent over-demand at any one time may lead to
an inflationary boom with inevitable reaction.
SEASONAL OPERATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIES
In cooperation with a committee of the President's Conference on Un
employment, the Division in 1923 and 1924 made an extensive survey of
seasonal operation in the construction industries. The committee repre
sented business and professional men, contractors, building material pro
ducers and dealers, Building trades labor, real estate men, bankers, engi
neers, and architects.
The study showed that construction usually reached a peak in the
summer months, from which it receded as cold weather came on. As a
consequence workers in leading building trades, such as carpenters and
bricklayers, were fully employed for only a few months, beginning about
June or July, while contractors and material dealers were forced to adjust
their business accordingly.
It was shown that the building season could be lengthened out into the
spring and fall months, and further that construction in winter was both
feasible and economical. Custom rather than climate appeared to be the
reason for prevailing conditions.
Subsequent studies by the Division indicate that more and more con
struction is taking place in the winter months, with consequently steadier
employment for building trades workers. Customs which tend to throw
the greater part of construction into certain months, such as the existence
of a fixed leasing date, are being vigorously attacked in many cities.
MUNICIPAL BUILDING AND PLUMBING CODES
More than 850 local building and plumbing codes prescribe the condi
tions under which approximately three billion dollars' worth of building
construction is carried out each year in the United States.
These regulations are designed to assure structural safety in buildings
and to reduce hazards to life and property, but they often require the use
762 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
of excessive amounts of material, or fail to assure safety. Rapid develop
ment in design, better knowledge of the properties of materials as a result
of research, and the development of new materials, or the adaptation of
old materials to new uses, have made many existing provisions obsolete.
Individual cities are not equipped to do the extensive research neces
sary to put code requirements upon a complete scientific basis. The Ad
visory Committee on Building Codes, appointed by the Secretary of Com
merce in 1921, and composed of engineers and architects of national repu
tation, has issued six reports dealing with small dwelling construction,
plumbing, masonry walls, allowances for live loads in design, working
stresses for timber, steel, concrete, and cast iron, and arrangement of
building codes. A report on fire resistive construction has also been com
pleted.
In many cases tests were undertaken at the Bureau of Standards to
clear up doubtful points, and investigations of the actual performance of
various materials under different circumstances in actual construction
had to be made.
The general acceptance of the reports as authoritative is shown by their
use, within six years from publication of the first bulletin, by bodies formu
lating or revising ordinances in more than 200 cities and in model or
mandatory codes in seven states.
That further use will be found for them is indicated by a recent survey
in which it was reported that more than 200 cities are engaged in revising
their building codes and more than 100 in revising their plumbing codes.
ECONOMIC, STATISTICAL, AND INFORMATIONAL SERVICE
In promoting stability, the Division collects and makes available basic
statistics on building activity, and on production, consumption, and
stocks of building materials, for the guidance of business groups. It pub
lishes periodic reviews of construction activity, collects, in conjunction
with the Census Bureau, retail prices of building materials as paid by
contractors in about 50 cities each month, and makes special reports from
time to time. It cooperates with the Division of Public Construction of
the Department of Commerce, and with various national and local or
ganizations in gathering, tabulating, and analyzing statistical data of
interest to the construction industry.
The Division also cooperates with the Survey of Current Business in
the Bureau of the Census in presenting monthly statistics relating to con
struction and building materials. It answers inquiries from individuals,
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 763
companies, and trade associations, interested in construction and puts
them in touch with non-governmental as well as governmental sources of
information.
. BUILDING PRACTICE AND HOME BUILDERS' PROBLEMS
In connection with building practice and home builders' problems, the
Division conducts surveys and distributes information on trends in small
dwelling construction, reporting on materials used, details of construction,
design, and equipment, and dimensions of rooms and parts of representa
tive houses. This service is intended for home builders, operative build
ers, material and equipment dealers and manufacturers, and others inter
ested in small houses.
Information on care and repair of the house, and on planning a home
has also been assembled for publication. Inquiries upon these subjects are
largely from prospective house builders and present house owners who
want reliable unbiased answers to their problems. No attempt is made to
advocate use of trade-marked products or special materials by name, but
rather to point to the best practice for use of a given product.
STANDARD STATE MECHANICS' LIEN ACT
It has been believed by many persons interested in the construction
industries that considerable delay, annoyance, and expense could be
avoided if there were greater uniformity in the mechanics' lien laws of the
various states. At the request of a number of organizations of builders,
material producers and dealers, and real estate owners, the Secretary of
Commerce appointed a committee composed of representatives of these
groups and of subcontractors, building trades labor, architects, engineers,
and financing and surety groups. They have undertaken to draft a me
chanics' lien act which can be used as a basis for uniform state legislation.
The first tentative draft of an act was distributed to qualified individu
als and organizations for criticism and a second tentative draft, prepared
in the light of suggestions received and other information, was circulated
in like manner. Suggestions relative to this second draft are now being
considered with a view to perfecting the act. Cooperation is maintained
with a committee of the National Conference of Commissioners on Uni
form State Laws, appointed to consider the same subject.
CITY PLANNING AND ZONING
City planning and zoning have commanded a much enlarged interest in
recent years because of the desire to stabilize values of real estate, the
764 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
wish to promote orderly growth and to eliminate waste, the greatly aug
mented building program, the larger proportion of apartment houses, and
the growing problem of street traffic congestion.
In 1921, zoning ordinances had been enacted in a few cities, regulating
the height of buildings, the area of the lot which they might cover, and
the use to which they might be put, with varying regulations for different
districts of the city. These had met the desire of cities to preserve residen
tial districts free from wanton intrusion by large public garages or sporad
ic stores and apartment houses, and to keep apartment house and business
districts free from intrusion by noisy industries.
The Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning, appointed by
Secretary Hoover to work with the Division of Building and Housing,
accordingly set forth the possibilities of city zoning in popular style in
"A Zoning Primer," which has been characterized as the most influential
single publication in the field.
There was at the time grave danger that so novel and far-reaching a
means of public control over private property might develop along un
sound lines; and the committee drafted a Standard State Zoning Enabling
Act which, when adopted by a state legislature, permits municipalities to
enact zoning ordinances under proper safeguards.
In 1921 when the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning
commenced its work, there were about 60 zoned municipalities. At pres
ent there are more than 900, ranging in size from villages of a few hundred
inhabitants to Chicago and New York, and comprising a total of more
than 46,000,000 inhabitants, equal to more than two- thirds the urban
population of the country.
The Division has made a number of careful surveys of zoning progress
and city planning activity in the United States, and handles a large num
ber of inquiries from civic bodies, municipal officials, and individuals inter
ested in these subjects. Recent publications include "A City Planning
Primer," and "A Standard City Planning Enabling Act," which latter has
served already as the basis for city planning laws adopted in a number of
states.
Such acts permit municipalities to create city planning commissions,
control the layout of new subdivisions, prevent building in the bed of
mapped streets, and authorize the creation of regional planning com
missions for cities, or groups of cities, and the territory surrounding them.
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 765
• HOME OWNERSHIP
One of the principal aims of the Division is to encourage home owner
ship on a sound economic basis. In acquiring a home, a family usually
learns habits of saving for a definite end, and develops more of a sense of
civic responsibility. Home ownership also stimulates a continued demand
for new dwellings, and promotes interest in sound construction.
Residential building has amounted to more than 40 per cent of all con
struction in the United States during the past five years and the Divi
sion's work on building codes and city planning and zoning all tends to
make a higher percentage of home ownership feasible.
The Division has also given substantial assistance to Better Homes in
America, an educational organization with headquarters in Washington,
which aims, among other things, to make available to several thousand
voluntary "Better Homes" committees throughout the country informa
tion from government sources.
THE BUREAU OF HOME ECONOMICS OF THE UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE1
BY ROWENA SCHMIDT CARPENTER
Associate Specialist in Home Economics
The Bureau of Home Economics was created July i, 1923, to meet the
need of 26,000,000 homemakers in the United States for help in solving
the problems they face daily. For many years the Department of Ag
riculture had carried on investigations in nutrition and experiments
in the preparation, canning, and use of food materials, in a division called
the Office of Home Economics. This was expanded into a Bureau in order
to widen the scope of the work and make more fundamental studies possi
ble.
The research of the Bureau is organized under three divisions: Foods
and Nutrition, Textiles and Clothing, and Economics. The primary func
tion of each division is the solution of problems for the homemaker
through scientific research. Some of these problems require long investi
gation; others are less complicated, but their solution in any case con
tributes toward greater comfort and satisfaction in home life. Many
projects deal with nutrition, food preparation, and clothing standards,
and are related to the personal requirements of members of th& family
1 This article was prepared for this publication.
766 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
group. All of the numerous and varied pieces of research and resulting
publications of the Bureau may be said to tie in with the Better Homes
movement in its larger sense. More specific home-improvement sugges
tions will be available from the Bureau in future years when expansion
allows for the development of a division for housing and equipment
studies and another to consider art as it is related to the home. In con
sidering for these pages the studies now under way that contribute to the
physical aspect of the home environment the list seems somewhat limited.
The Division of Textiles and Clothing, in its work on the utilization of
wool and cotton, is conducting projects dealing with the care and uses of
textile materials. These include studies on the laundering and cleaning
of cotton and wool materials used in home furnishing. Certain studies
have had as their object the development of recommended practices in
home laundering and stain removal. Facts on these subjects are published
for the homemaker in Farmers' Bulletins 1474, Stain Removal from Fab
rics: Home Methods, and 1497, Methods and Equipment for Home Launder
ing. Studies of design as related to home furnishing (carried on co-opera
tively with the Extension Service) are giving special attention to the use
of household textiles. The results will be published in a series of popular
publications, two of which are now ready for distribution: Farmers' Bulle
tin 1633, Window Curtaining, and Leaflet 76, Slip Covers. Two slide sets,
"A Guide to Fabric Selection" and "First Aid in Window Curtaining,"
have been prepared. They are sent out to clubs on request to the Office
of Cooperative Extension Work of the United States Department of
Agriculture. A set on living-room arrangements is in preparation.
The Bureau has cooperated with the American Home Economics Asso
ciation in its effort to secure some method such as labeling whereby infor
mation on quality specifications of consumer's goods may be available for
the homemaker. A pamphlet entitled Household Purchasing: Suggestions
for Club Programs has been prepared and is for sale by the American Home
Economics Association, Mills Building, Washington, D.C. The Textile
Division of the Bureau has made some studies on the standardization of
household textiles and has published two articles along this line: "Some
Specifications of Wide Cotton Sheetings Bought on the Retail Counter,"
Textile World, LXXVI, No. 9 (1929), 53, and "Where Sheets Wear Out,"
ibid., LXXV, No. 15 (1929), 69.
The 'Division of Economics considers the standards of living prevailing
in different types of families, the costs of maintaining these standards, in
cluding the cost of housing, and the organization and efficiency of the
work of the home under varying conditions. Practical methods of budget-
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 767
ing and accounting are being devised to aid the homemaker in the man
agement of her family finances. Suggestions for keeping household ac
counts are given in Farmers' Bulletin 1553, Planning and Recording
Family Expenditures.
Closely related to and determining somewhat the money expenditure
are time and energy expenditures. These are in turn affected by the type,
amount, and arrangement of equipment for carrying on household duties.
Arranging the kitchen for efficiency is discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 1513,
Convenient Kitchens, and in an article, " Abolishing the Inefficient Kitch
en," in the Journal of Home Economics, XXI (1929), 475. There is also a
set of eight charts called "The Convenient Kitchen," for sale by the super
intendent of documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.;
and a set of lantern slides, "Come into the Kitchen" which may be bor
rowed through the Office of Cooperative Extension Work.
Records have been collected from both rural and city homemakers on
the way they distribute their time among their various household tasks,
including the care of small children. These records cover facts about the
size of the house and the amount and type of labor-saving equipment the
woman is using. A popular discussion of the time studies may be found
in the articles "Is the Modern Housewife a Lady of Leisure?" Survey,
LXII (1929), 301; and "Reducing the Demands of Housekeeping," Child
Welfare Magazine, XXI (1927), 380. Studies are also under way to deter
mine the relative costs of having work done in the home with or without
modern equipment and of having it done by a commercial agency.
The work of the Division of Foods and Nutrition concerns itself mainly
with the finding of facts upon which to base standards of nutrition and
food utilization and care. Any study of equipment is incidental to the
foregoing investigations. Researches on food care and storage have de
veloped a great deal of material on home refrigeration and canning equip
ment. Farmers' Bulletin 1471, Canning Fruits and Vegetables at Home,
describes and pictures the types of canning equipment recommended by
the Bureau. Published material on refrigerators consists of a set of six
charts, "Household Refrigeration," for sale by the superintendent of
documents; a bibliography, "Household Refrigeration, "distributed by the
Bureau; and several articles: "Research on Home Refrigerators," Refrig
erating Engineering, XVI (1928), 41 ; "Temperature and Ice Consumption
in an Ice Cooled Refrigerator as Affected by Room Temperature," ibid.,
XVIII (1929), 93; "Test of Five Ice-cooled Household Refrigerators,"
Ice and Refrigeration, LXXVIII, No. i (1930), 49.
Facts determined by scientific investigation in the three divisions of
768 THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
the Bureau are available to homemakers in bulletins, in charts, and in
magazine articles as mentioned above. A complete list of bulletins, sent
on request, shows the scope of subject matter available free to home-
makers. Hundreds of letters in which homemakers ask their specific ques
tions are answered each week. Information goes out also through releases
to the press and through two types of radio programs, one given each
week over a national network of about thirty-nine stations and the other
mailed five times a week to be read over more than one hundred and
thirty local stations in various parts of the United States. The Bureau is
in touch with homemakers indirectly through the extension agents in the
Department appointed under the Smith Lever Act, who through their
club programs carry information from Bureau studies. Technical as well
as popular bulletins and the illustrative material prepared in the Bureau
are used by home-economics departments in the training of teachers, ex
tension leaders, and prospective homemakers all over the country.
OFFICE OF COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK, VISUAL
INSTRUCTION, AND EDITORIAL WORK
BY C. W. WARBURTON
Director of Extension Work
A farm home, adequate, comfortable, beautiful in harmony with its
natural setting, reflecting the interests and ideals of the family it shelters,
is the goal toward which the whole cooperative extension program tends.
Success in the business of farming is sought, just as success in any other
business is sought, in order that all interests of the home may benefit.
Not least of these interests is the physical make-up of the home, the
house, its furnishings, its equipment.
Farm women who participate in the undertakings of the cooperative
extension service frequently request that attention be given to specific
features of home improvement. Among the extension projects relating to
home improvement included in the programs of many states this year are:
House plans Repair and refinishing of furniture
Lighting Arrangement of furniture
Water supply, sewage, sanitation Wall and floor finishes
Storage facilities Beds and bedding
Refrigeration Curtains
Electrical equipment Handicrafts, color, dyeing, etc.
Kitchen equipment Pictures for the home
House furnishings and selection of fur- Planting and care of the home grounds
niture
ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGED IN HOUSING 769
Methods of conducting the projects vary with the state. Frequently
the county home-demonstration agent arranges one or more lectures and
demonstrations to be given before groups of women by a member of the
extension staff at the state college who has specialized in that subject.
Illustrative material is usually brought by the specialist. Sometimes local
people cooperate in giving demonstrations and discussions of furnishings,
equipment, and materials. Contests in improvement of certain features of
the home, such as kitchen, living room, or grounds, afford an added inter
est to the program occasionally. Tours to visit the entries in the contest
provide a means of obtaining information which many non-contestants,
as well as those who are in the contest, avail themselves of.
Special emphasis is given this project by the National Better Homes
Week. County home-demonstration agents join with other agencies in the
county in planning and carrying out programs for this week. Frequently
the home-demonstration agents plan a special demonstration for this
week. In one county in Virginia as a special feature for Better Homes
Week an old house was made available to the women working with the
county home-demonstration agent, and together they remodeled and
placed in it furniture and equipment loaned by business firms of the coun
ty. During the week the women took turns acting as hostesses in the
demonstration home. In Tennessee the home-demonstration agent re
ports that ideas gained from a somewhat similar demonstration, carried
out several years ago, are still being put into practice.
THE DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
In addition to the above-mentioned governmental activities in the
field of housing and home improvement the Division of Agricultural
Engineering of the Bureau of Public Roads has been engaged in studies
and research on the Requirements of Farm Structures. A small number
of farmhouse plans have been prepared by the Division, and information
is distributed in pamphlet form on such subjects as heating and plumbing.
The bulletins Construction of Chimneys and Fireplaces, Operating a Home
Heating Plant, Farm Plumbing, and Simple Plumbing Repairs are some of
the Division's publications of particular interest to home owners.
THE BUREAU OF MINES
The Bureau of Mines of the United States Department of Commerce
has made a number of studies on household fuels and fuel conservation
and also on house heating. This information may be obtained from the
Bureau in pamphlet or leaflet form.
INDEX
INDEX
Adobe, 126, 143, 145, 210
Agricultural Engineering, Division of, 769
Air circulation, 69, 332-35, 513, 581-82,
599. See also Refrigerators, Ventila
tion
Air-cooling, 335, 756. See also Tempera
ture, Ventilation, Refrigerators
Amalgamated Clothing Workers' project,
716, 727-30, buildings of, 727; cost of,
728-29; financing of, 728-29; purchase
of dwellings of, 729-30; purchase of
land of, 727; rent of, 729-30
American City Planning Institute, 751
American Civic Association, 751
American Homemakers, Inc., 748-49
American Institute of Architects, 154,
216, 744
Amortization (installment buying), 16, 20,
21-22, 26-27, 29-34, 36-39; tables of,
37-38
Apartments (multi-family dwellings), 513,
515-16, 518, 606, 673, 688, 710, 716,
727-35, 764; comparison of, with one-
family houses, 658-59; convenience of,
658; definition of, 657; investment
value of, 653; need for, 656-57; rela
tion of, to city planning, 640-41; room
sizes, 69; trend of, 653. See also Classi
fication of houses
Architect, 68, 83, 671; duties of, 160-66,
279; need for, 156, 184-85; payment
for services of, 161-62; selection of, 161
Architects' Small House Service Bureau,
154, 181-87, 744
Architectural control, 643, 669, 671, 724-
25, 726
Architecture, 100-108, 1 19-66, 1 76, 514-15;
Arizona, 144; balance in, 121; beauty
in, 122, 123-25, 157; Californian, 143-
44; Colonial, 130,^133-38, 139, 157;
considerations of climate on, 126, 131,
457; contrast in, 122; decoration in,
124, 128-29; definitions of, 119, 123;
design in, 154-60; Dutch Colonial,
138-41; Dymaxion House, 153; effect
on resale value, 160, English, 130-
32; factors of composition, 119-35;
Georgian, 130; good taste in, 159-60;
harmony in, 121-22; Italian, 132-33;
landscape development in relation to,
105-8; materials in relation to, 125-29,
132, 138, 152; mission, 145; modernism
in, 151-54; New Mexican, 144-45;
nineteenth century, 157; proportion in,
121; Pueblo, 144-45; rhythm in, 121;
rural home, 564, 568, 570; St. Augus
tine, 145; scale in, 122; site in relation
to, 100-105; Spanish, 141-48; style in,
78, 120, 122, 124, 125, 130, 148-55;
Texan, 145; trends in, 148-60; unity
in, 122. See also Furniture and furnish
ings, Planning
Assessment, 14, 94, 642, 643
Banks, 26-27, 29, 60. See also Financing
Basement. See Cellar
Bathrooms, 81, 290, 302, 346-48, 355-56,
522, 528, 529; farmhouse, 583; fixtures
in, 346-48, 352, 355-56, 513. See also
Furniture and furnishings, Plumbing
Bedrooms, 178, 180, 289-90, 301, 439~44>
513, 522, 528. See also Furniture and
furnishings, Planning
Better Homes in America, 159, 199, 704,
709, 741-48, 765, 766; campaigns of,
564, 743-48; rural-home demonstra
tion, 584-589
Better Housing League of Cincinnati, 707,
75°
Billboards, 667, 669
Blighted districts, 641, 653, 657, 659, 673-
74; definition of, 673; economic loss by,
674
Blocks, city, 677, 720, 724
Blueprints, 187-89
•Brooklyn Garden Apartments, 716, 717 •
Brick, 57, 76-77, 129, 206-7, 215-18, 752;
advantages of, 218; bonding, 216; color
of, 215, 216; manufacture of, 215, 216;
painting, 215-16; selection, 216; stand
ard sizes of, 216; texture of, 215
Building, 580, 705-6; industry, 59-60;
speculative, 43-44,^ 158, 600. See also
Construction practices
773
774
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Building and Housing, Division of, 56, 57,
61-62, 677, 760-65
Building and Loan Associations, 13, 16,
24, 29-31, 36-39, 94, 704; application
for loan, 30; appraisals by, 91 ; interest
on loans, 30-31; lending policy of, 30;
shares in, 31. See also Financing
Building codes, 57, 61, 62, 175, 639, 688,
754; U.S. Department of Commerce,
Committee on, 57, 76, 357, 760, 762
Buildings, demolition of, 703; height and
bulk of, 680, 686; height of, 687; in
spection of, 705
Built-in equipment, 80, 526; electric, 526,
528; kitchen, 79
Bungalow, 78, 155, 178
Ceilings: causes of cracks in, 275-76; re
conditioning of, 487
Cellar, 63, 302, 512, 527; farmhouse, 577,
581; partitions, 76-77; reconditioning
of, 485; reducing costs by eliminating,
83-84; waterproofing, 246
Cement (Portland), 57, 219-21, 752, 761;
definition of, 220, 224; how to make,
219-21; requirements, 224-26
Chimney, 63, 248, 312; construction of
(diagrams), 263-64; in farmhouse.
587-88
"City Beautiful," 665-72; art commis
sions, 669
City Housing Corporation of New York,
716, 719, 723-24
City planning, 628-92, 705, 760, 763-64;
administration, 638, 642, 645-46;
agencies for giving effect to, 630; aims
of, 660; approaches to city, 633-34;
architectural control, 643, 669, 671;'
billboards, 667-68, 669; California,
671; civic centers, 635-36; commercial
areas, 634, 641, 648; commission, 630,
638-39, 644-46; comprehensive city
plan, 629-30; definition of, 639, 643;
essential features of, 628-39; excess
condemnation, 643; industrial dis
tricts, 635, 648; in relation to hous
ing, 639-44; legal basis of, 631-32;
legislation, 646; neighborhood facili
ties, 652-53; outskirts of city, 637;
parks and playgrounds, 637-38, 650;
residential districts, 636-37; schools,
637; setbacks, 651-52; slums, 641-42;
standard act, 639, 644; streets, 632-33,
640, 649; subdivisions, 629, 631; trans
portation, 632-34, 650-52; unre
stricted districts, 641 ; wayside stands,
667-68. See Apartments, Blighted dis
tricts, County planning, Regional
planning, Streets, Zoning
Classification of houses, 657-59
Closets, 113, 524, 528
Color, 222-24, 227-29, 299, 382, 536;
background, 381; bathroom, 394; floor
coverings, 412; furniture and furnish
ings, 427, 430-31, 433-34; kitchen,
458; paint, 389-90; reflection of
light from, 404; walls, 383 (plaster,
384-85, factors to consider in, 403-
4) ; woodwork, 402-3
Community Arts Association, Santa Bar
bara, 154
Concrete, 57, 77, 126, 209, 219-21; blocks,
•208-9, in farmhouse, 581
Congestion: land, 680, 686; room, 66 1,
686; street, 687. See also Housing
problems
Construction practices, 58, 72, 156-60,
204-10, 217-18, 247-76; essentials for
good, 247-49; diagrams of standard,
250-68; jerry building, 269-76; new,
209; obsolescence, 205, 275; rural
homes, 578-84; simplified, 211; super
vision of, 281; uses of materials in,
125-29, 204-47. See Brick, Cement,
Concrete, Cost, Hollow tile, Mate
rials, Rammed earth, Steel, Stone,
Winter construction
Contractor, 74-75, 269-70, 279-81; duties
of, 279; fees of, 52; payments to, 165;
selection of, 279-80; subcontractor,
280-81
Cost, 51-85, 193-94, 348; affected by
land, 72; brick house, 54, (table) 55;
building, 185-86, 205; classes of work,
(tables), 54-55; cubic foot, 55,^ (table)
56; differences, 69-70; financing, 73;
frame house, 54, (table) 55; in relation
to income, 71; index numbers (tables),
53, 55; labor, 52-50, 177; mainte
nance, 40-41, 118, 205; materials, 53,
177, 219, 229-30; one-family dwellings,
53; trends in, 52-53; two-family dwell
ings, 53. See also Mass production,
Materials, Standardization
Cost of living, 68, 70
Cost reduction, 51-52, 56-60; affected by
enlargement of credit facilities, 60;
affected by waste in industry, 59;
building code requirements, 57, 61-62;
cellar, elimination of, 63, 83-84; fac-
INDEX
775
tory-made parts, 51, 62-65; less ex
pensive land, 51; mass production,
51, 61-68, 72-73; second mortgage
rates, 61, 73; short-length lumber,
58-59; standardization of materials,
52; standardization of parts, 62-67;.
use of materials, 52; year-round con
struction, 52, 57-58, 60, 276-79. See
also Division of Building and Housing,
Elimination of waste, Mass produc
tion, Mortgages
County planning, 659
Decentralization, 199, 663, 671
Dining room: arrangement of, 180, 288-
89, 513, 522; furniture for, 437-39. See
also Furniture and furnishings, Plan
ning
Dust, smoke, 684-86
"Dymaxion House," 153
Electricty. See Heating, Lighting
Elimination of waste, 57, 59-62, 237-38,
760. See also Standardization
Eminent domain, 642, 643, 677, 717
Eyestrain, 302-5
Farmhouse. See Rural Homes
Factory-made parts, 62-65, 725 bath
rooms, 64; closets, 65; roofs, 65; walls,
64
Farmstead, 569, 570-73
Financing, 7-50, 73 ; appraisal of property,
26, 30; down payments, 12, (tables)
18-20; during building, 16; employer's
loans, 39; income and annual expendi
tures (table), 17-20; installment buy
ing, sources from which money may be
borrowed, 23-36; land contract, 34-
36; We insurance companies as a
source of, 24-25; monthly expendi
tures, 13; savings banks, 26-27; title,
16, 34-35; trust companies, 27. See
Amortization, Building and Loan As
sociations, Loans, Mortgages, Owner
ship
Fire prevention, 305-6
Fire resistance, 78, 248, 520, 600, 615,
753-54. See also Materials
Fireplace, nq, 522; cost of, 76; in farm
house, 584. See also Heating
Floor coverings, 410-17, 432; cork and
cork composition, 412-16; rugs and
carpets, 410-12. See also Color
Floor finishes, 405-10; filling, 406-7; oil
ing, 409; painting, 409-10; staining,
405-6; varnishings, 407-8; waxing,
408-9
Flooring materials, 80, 240-44; cement,
243; slate, 243; tile, 243; wood, 240-42,
246-47
Floors, 512, 523, 525; hardwood, 80; re
conditioning of, 488; re finishing of,
498-502; softwood, 75, 80
Flower gardens, 538; annuals in, 535;
perennials in, 535, 541, 555; planning,
551-55; use of native plants in, 535
Foundations, 63, 76-77, 247, 270,. 512,
520 (diagrams), 250-53; farmhouse,
581; reconditioning of, 483
Furniture and furnishings, 419-551;
arrangement of, 427-32; bathroom,
444, 445; bedroom, 439-44; budget,
446; color, 427-28, 43°-3I> 433-34J
construction of, 421-27 (curing of
wood, 423, joinery, 424-26, plywood,
422-23, solid, 426-27, veneer, 423-24,
426-27); design of, 422, 431; dining-
room, 437-39; hall, 434-35; line, 431-
32; living room, 435-37; modernism in,
420, 446-50; periods of, 420; propor
tion in, 428; refinishing of, 502-9; rela
tion to architecture, 419-21; rugs, 432;
simplified practice in, 426; selection of,
427-31; unity in, 427-28; -utility of,
422; variety in, 428; window curtains
and draperies, 432-33. See also Color
Garage, 90, 175, 519, 721, 754; location of,
109-10, 537; reconditioning of, 485
Garbage disposal, 472-473, 519
Gardens. See Flower gardens, Landscap
ing Home Grounds, Vegetable gardens
Glass, 80, 129
Grounds. See Landscaping Home Grounds
Hall, 299, 301, 434-35
Heating, 64, 83-84, 273-74, 310-32, 513-
14, 525, 758-59; coal stokers, 316; con
trol of, 315; costs, 316-17, 330; direct
system, 311, 312, 314, 315; electric de
vices, 328-31; factory-made units, 64;
fuel, 310, 315, 317,^320, 326; furnaces,
312; hot- water (diagram, 311), 312,
3i5> 317, 326, 327; house construction
in relation to, 310-12; indirect system,
311, 314, 315; maintenance of, ^S'^',
oil burners, 316, 318; operation of,
315-16; panel, 319-20-, 323; pipes, 82;
776
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
plants, 81; radiators, 82, 318, 320-28;
repair of plant, 486; regulation of, 82,
315, 319; steam, 315, 317-18, 326; tem
perature (diagrams, 311, 313, 314)?
313-14, 315, 321-23; warm-air (dia
gram, 313), 314, 316, 317, 3l8> 334- See
Chimney, Humidity, Insulation, Venti
lation
Hardware, 82, 274
Heat-proofing, 246. See also Insulation
Hollow tile, 207-8, 218-10; advantages of,
218-19; cost of, 219; size of, 219
Home building in relation to business de
pression, 43-44? 58
Housing: city planning and, 639-45, 660;
codes, 608; municipal aid for, 614-15;
needs, 608-9; private enterprises in,
607, 608, 611; public aid for, 608-13;
state aid for, 613-15. See also Classi
fication of houses, Property values,
Slums, Wage-earner
Housing Associations, 704, 749-51, 707-9
Housing developments, 716-38; Amalga
mated Clothing Workers' project, 716,
717, 727-30, Brooklyn Garden Apart
ments, 716, 717; City Housing Cor
poration of New York City, 716, 719,
723-24; P'arband project, 717; im
proved housing conditions through,
716-38; limited dividend companies,
716-17/719; Mariemont, 716, 735-38;
Marshall Field Garden Apartments,
716, 732; Michigan Boulevard Garden
Apartments, 716, 732-35; Paul Law
rence Dunbar Apartments, 716, 731-
32; Radburn, 716, 718-27; Sunnyside,
716, 719
Housing and health, 196, 604; light in re
lation to, 682-84; plumbing in relation
to, 348-49* 350-5 r> 357-6o, 604; rela
tion of zoning to, 677-89; sunlight in
relation to, 682-84, 687. See also Noise,
Slums, Ventilation
Housing and home improvement organi
zations: Agricultural Engineering, Di
vision of, 769; American City Planning
Institute, 751; American Civic Associ
ation, 751; American Homemakers',
Inc., 748-49; American Institute of
Architects, 154, 216, 744; Architects'
Small House Service Bureau, 154, 181-
87, 744; Better Homes in America,
I59, iQ9, 564, 585, 704, 709, 741-
48, 765, 766; Better Housing League
of Cincinnati, 750; Building and
Housing, Division of, 56, 57, 61-62,
677, 760-65; City Housing Corpora
tion of New York, 716, 719, 723-24;
Massachusetts Housing Association,
708, 749; Michigan Housing Associa
tion, 749; National Conference on City
Planning, 751 ; National Housing Asso
ciation, 741, 749; National Municipal
League, 751; National Research As
sociation, 751; Pennsylvania Housing
and Town Planning Association,
708, 749; Philadelphia Housing Asso
ciation, 750; Pittsburgh Housing Asso
ciation, 750-51; Planning Foundation
of America, 751; Russell Sage Founda
tion, 751; U.S. Bureau of Home Eco
nomics, 765-68; U.S. Bureau of Mines,
769; U.S. Bureau of Standards, 751-
59, 762; U.S. Extension Service, 768-
69; U.S. Housing Corporation, 61, 741
Housing problems, 599-625, 694-97;
defective orientation, 616; defective
structure, 615-16; development of
slums, 603, 607, 608; multiple dwell
ings, 615, 619; fire-risk, 615; high cost,
601-2, 606; ill-health, 614-19; im
proper location, 615; infant mortality,
619; lack of adequate plumbing and
sewerage, 601, 604, 608, 617; lack of
adequate sunlight, 599, 622-24; lack of
adequate ventilation, 599-600, 617,
619, 622; lack of adequate water sup
ply, 604, 617; lack of zoning, 608, 623;
poor lighting, 617, 619; poor methods
of property subdivision, 602, 608; poor
planning, 600-601; rent restriction,
606, 6 1 2-13. See also Decentralization,
Housing and health, Legislation
Housing reform, 694-97. See also Legisla
tion
Housing standards, 511-30; apartments,
513, 515-16, 518; architecture, 514-15;
bathroom, 522, 528, 529; bedrooms,
513, 522, 528; cellar, 512, 527; city
planning, 517; closets, 524, 528; din
ing-room, 513, 522; doors, 522; duplex
houses, 527; equipment, 523, 525-27
(built-in, 526, electric, 526, 528); ex
terior of house, 514-15, 520-21; fire
place. 522; fire-resistive materials, 520;
floors, 512, 523, 524; foundations, 512,
520; grades of houses, 529-30, heating,
513-14, 525; insulation, 512, 520, 521,
525; interior of house, 521-25; kitchen,
513, 522, 529; lighting, 292, 305-8, 524,
525; living room, 513, 522; location,
511, 518, 519; lots, 519-21; minimum,
527-30; neighborhood, 517-19; nurs-
INDEX
777
ery, 523; planning, 512-13; planting,
518, 519; playroom, 524; porches, 520;
plumbing, 514, 525, 528; radiators, 522,
525; refrigerator, 525; roofs, 512; room
arrangement, 522, 527, 528; rural
homes, 564, 569; stairs, 523; storage
space, 524; sunlight, 511, 513, 520;
temperature, 521; ventilation, 511,
513, 521, 522, 528; walls, 512, 525;
water supply, 511, 525, 528; windows,
522; with reference to children, 516-26;
workshop, 524; zoning, 517
Humidity, 332-36, 521, 756; condensa
tion, 335-36; portable humidifiers, 334
Income, 21, 51, 70; relation to housing,
604-6. See also Cost of living
Insulation, 230-37, 249, 310-12, 512, 520,
521, 756; cost of, 65, 79; fuel saving by,
79, 235-37, (table) _ 236; materials,
233-34, 246; properties of hollow tile,
207, 218-19; properties of wood, 205;
value of air spaces in, 232-33; farm
house, 583; refrigerator, 364, 368, 373-
75; use of, in reconditioning, 485-88.
See Heating
Insurance, 18-22
Interior decoration. See Furniture and
furnishings
Kitchen, 174, 179, 181,^455-80, 513, 522-
23, 529, 601; built-in equipment, 69,
79; cabinet, 471, 476; color in, 458;
dishwasher, electric, 471; equipment,
462-75 (cleaning, 478, grouping of,
463, 469-75, 478; requirements for,
462-64; selection and building of, 464-
72) ; floors, 457; heights of working sur
faces, 463, 476, 477; in farmhouse, 575,
587; New York Herald Tribune demon
stration, 475-80; planning of, 455-56,
601 (diagrams of, 456) ; relation to rest
of house, 45&-57; sink, 81, 344~45, 347,
350, 354, 469, 470, 471, 476; stoves,
466-70; utensils, 472, 474-75; venti
lators, 458-62; walls, 458-59; wood
work, 459; work table, 464-65, 471,
476, 478. See also Planning
Labor, 53-55, 56, 177.
Land, 72, 91, 93, 640; appraisal of, 92;
boundaries, 93; control of, 62; contour
of, 98, 104, 107; fire and police protec
tion, 94; lots, 90-91, no, 680; over
crowding, 657; taxation, 93; titles, 92;
uses of, 629, 672, 674, 688, 720, 724;
values, 12, 88, 91; water and gas sup
ply, 93 ; zoning, in relation to purchase
of, 89. See also Site, Subdivisions, Tax
ation
Landscaping Home Grounds, 532-61;
backgrounds, 540; definition of land
scape architecture, 536; drives, no-n,
557; foundation planting in relation to,
538, 544-45; in relation to architecture,
101-8; in relation to the living room,
538-41, (plan) 539; lawns, 532-34,
538-44; outdoor living room, 537,
540; planning essentials, 532-35, (score
card) 534; play areas, 532, 540, (score
card) 534; principles of, 536-41, 551-
55; selection of plants, 535, 536, 540;
service area, no, 532, 537, 541; small
lots, 537, 540; trees, 533, 546-51;
walks, 532, 555-59-
Large-scale developments. See Housing
developments
Lawns, 532-34, 538-44; making, 541-43;
renovating, 543~445 score card, 534
Legislation, 694-714, 716-17, 763-64;
administration of laws, 698; boards of
appeal in relation to enforcement of,
702-3 ; division of authority in enforce
ment of, 703; enforcement of, 696-
704; enforcement of building codes by
departments, 706-7; history of, 698;
inadequacy of enforcement of, 699; in
spection of dwellings, 704-9; need for
enforcing official, 700-701; public sup
port for enforcement of, 704; penalties
for violation of, 700; state housing acts,
698-99; usury law, 61. See also Model
Housing Law, Tenement houses
Library, 199
Liens, 703, 763
Lighting, 287-308, 683; artificial, 525;
basement, 302; bathroom, 290, 302;
bedroom, 289-90, 301; breakfast room,
301; closet, 301; dining room, 288-89,
301; direct, 297-98; electric fixtures,
82; electric systems; entrances, 299;
eyestrain caused by glare in, 302-5;
farmhouse, 577; fundamentals, 287-88;
garage, 302, halls, 295, 299, 301; im
proving old installations, 290; indirect,
298-99; kitchen, 289, 297-99, 301;
laundry, 295, (diagram) 300, 302; liv
ing room, 288, 296, 301; location of
meter, 293; location of fuse panel, 294;
porch, 295, 299; power outlets, 306-7;
problem of, 617-19; progress, 308; pro
vision for convenience outlets, 291,
778
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
295-97, 299-302, 306; reconditioning,
487; Red Seal wiring plan, 302; reflec
tion as a factor in, 299; selection of con
tractor, 291-92; selection of fittings,
292-93; semi-indirect, 298-99; sun
room, 301; vestibule, 299; wiring, cost
of, 82; wiring layout, 290-91, 293-97,
299-302, (diagram) 300; wiring stand
ards, minimum, 299, 301-2; wiring
systems, 292, 305-8.
Lime, 752
Limited-dividend companies, 716-17, 719
Linoleum. See Floor coverings
Living room, 174, 180, 395-96, 400, 513,
522; arrangement of, 313; lighting,
288; location in relation to garden,
538-41 ; planning of, 395-96. See Fur
niture and furnishings
Loans, 13-39; construction, 27, 31; during
building, 16, 25; policy, 14, 24-25
Lumber, 211-15, 761; durability of, 214;
grade-making, 213-14; grades of, 211-
15; selection of, 214-15; short-length,
58-59; standards of, 211, 245
Maintenance, 17, 22, 40-47, 315-17, 578
Mariemont, 716, 735-38
Marshall Field Garden Apartments, 716,
732
Mass production, 51, 61, 68, 72, 73
Massachusetts State Housing Association,
708, 749
Materials, 74, 77, 125-29, 179, 204-49,
752-55; adobe, 210; brick, 206-7, 215-
18; cement, 219; concrete, 208-9, 219-
21, 224-26; efflorescence, 754-55; fire
proof, 207, 209, 217-18, 226-27; fire
resistance of, 753-54; hollow tile, 207-
8, 218-19; insulation, 230-37; in rural
homes, 578-84; mill- work, 273; new,
152, 244-47; plaster, 44; rammed
earth, 210; reduction of sizes of, 57;
roofing, 226-30, 272; short-length
lumber, 58-59; stucco, 219, 221-24;
standardization of, 57; steel, 209-10;
stone, 207; tariff and transportation
rates on, 62; terra cotta, 126; tile, 77,
146, 352, 393-94, 752; with regard to
location of house, 98, 99, 100; wood,
205-6, 210-15; woodwork, 237-40.
See also Architecture, Cost, Flooring
materials, Insulation, Plumbing, Roof
ing Materials, Woodwork
Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments,
716, 732-35
Model Housing Law, 196, 698
Mortgage, 14, 17, 21, 25, 91; banks, 29;
first, 14-15; companies, 28, 29; second,
15, 21, 3i-33, 61, 735 third, 33-34
Multi-family dwellings. See Apartments,
Housing problems
National Association of Real Estate
Boards, 70, 643
National Board of Fire Underwriters, 78,
305-6
National city- and regional-planning or
ganizations, 751. See also Housing and
home improvement organizations
National Committee on Wood Utilization,
58, 213, 215, 238
National Conference on City Planning,
75i
National Electric Code, 305-6
National Housing Association, 698, 709,
74i, 749
National Industrial Conference Board, 70
National Municipal League, 751
National Recreation Association, 751
Negro housing, 716, 73i~35
Neighborhood, 88, 89, 96, 101, 155; facili
ties, 652-53; housing standards of,
517-19; trends, 688
New Jersey State Tenement House Act,
700-702
New York Commission of Housing and
Regional Planning, 661-62
New York State Tenement House Act of
1901, 698
New York's Multiple Dwelling Law, 709-
13
Noise, 637, 651, 686, 755
Nursery. See Housing standards
One-family houses, 52, 518, 636, 651, 653,
655, 657-59; cost of (table), 53; defi
nition, 657; equity of purchaser in
(table), 35; for children, 658
Orientation, 105, 107, 616, 683
Ownership, 3-49, 515, 765; advisability
of, 44-45 ; amount of cash payment, 21,
(tables) 18-20; by state (tables), n-
12; equity after down payment (dia
grams), 35; inadvisability of, 41-43,
46-48; income and cost of home, 21,
51, 71, (tables) 1 8-20; income consider
ations before buying a home, 9; insur
ance, 22; maintenance costs, 22, 40-41 ;
INDEX
779
payments on loan (table), 36, 38; per
centage of income to home payments,
9-10, (tables) 18-19, 21 ; per cent of,
51 ; range of safe expenditure for, 9-10;
savings, 12, 13, 22, (tables) 18-20;
taxes, 22, 41; titles, 16. See also Build
ing and Loan Association, Financing,
Maintenance
Paint and painting, 244, 272, 381, 389-90,
489, 490, 525, 752-54; furniture, 505;
floors, 409-10; kitchen, 458; walls, 384,
386, 492; woodwork, 382, 400, 402, 497
Paul Lawrence Dunbar Apartments, 716,
732
Pennsylvania Housing and Town Plan
ning Associations, 708, 749
Philadelphia Housing Association, 708,
750
Pise de terre. See Rammed earth, Adobe
Pittsburgh Housing Association, 708,
750-51
Planning, no, 170-201, 512-13; bed
room, 178, 180; considerations of small
home, 176-79; considerations of ven
tilation in, 175; costs in, 175, 177;
definition of, 171; dining room, 180;
English houses, 131; essentials in, 170-
81; experiments in, 170; floor plans
(diagrams), 5, 135, 173, 191, 584-87;
for children, 194-201; garage, 175;
kitchen, 174, 179, 181, 455-57, 601;
living room, 174, 180, 395-96, 400;
problems of, 178-80, 600-601; progress
in, 170-71; 172, 176, 181; service, 181-
87; stock plans, 154, 181-87; unity in,
395-96, 400. See also Architects' Small
House Service Bureau
Planning Foundation of America, 751
Plans. See Planning
Plaster, 244, 271-72, 752; application of,
752-53
Plumbing, 80-81, 273, 340-60, 514, 525,
528, 601, 617; codes, 343; cost of, 348;
definition of terms, 340-41 ; essentials,
342-47; in farmhouses, 583; in relation
to health, 348-49, 35°-5i, 357~6o;
minimum requirements for, 357-60;
reconditioning of, 487; sub-committee
on, 57, 357; water supply systems, 342-
43, 357-58. See also Housing and
health, Sewerage disposal
Plumbing fixtures and fittings, 80-8 1,
340-60; arrangement of, 346-47; cost
of, 348; faucets, 344~45, 352-575
installation of, 349; materials for, 342,
343, 344, 347, 349, 35i~54; pipes, 341,
351; progress in design of, 351-52,
354-57 J progress in use of materials for,
342, 343, 347, 349, 351-54; relation of
health to, 348-49, 350, 351; selection
of, 342, 347-52; shower, 346-47; stops,
342; storage tanks, 343; traps, 341,
349-50; vents, 341, 349; water heaters,
342-43
Police power. See Zoning
Population, 621, 655, 689. See also Urban
population, Rural population
Porch, 520; cost of, 76; reconditioning of,
484-85; screening, 76
Property values: stabilization of, 653.
See also Land values
Radburn, 716, 718-27
Radiators, 82, 522, 525. See also Heat
ing
Rammed earth, 210. See also Adobe, Pise
de terre
Reconditioning, 483-88; exterior, 483-85;
floors, 488; furniture, 502; interior,
485-88; walls, 483, 487-88. See Floors.
Furniture, Refinishing Walls
Refinishing, 489-508; floors, 498-502;
furniture, 502-9; walls, 489-93; wood
work, 493-98. See Floors, Furniture,
Walls, Woodwork
Refrigerators, 79, 362-79, 525, 755; air
circulation, 373, 375, 376; cabinet,
367-69, 373-78 (insulation of, 364, 366,
368, 369, 373-75) 5 cost of, 365-66, 369-
70; electric, 362, 366-71; factors to
consider in purchase of, 364-66; gas,
362, 371-72; ice, 365, 373-79; refriger
ants, 362-63, 367; servicing of, 363,
364, 367; standardization of, 377;
temperature of, 365, 368-71, 373
Regional planning, 646-60. See also
City Planning
Rent, 606, 612-13, 716-17
Residential districts, 89, 94, 155, 636-37,
686, 688
Restrictions, 89, 155, 680; building, 688;
height and bulk of buildings, 686
Roofing materials, 226-30. See Materials
Roofs, 65, 138-39, 227, 512, 754; con
struction of (diagrams), 262; farm
house, 582; reconditioning of, 484
Rugs. See Floor coverings .
780
THE BETTER HOMES MANUAL
Rural home, 564-90; architecture of, 564,
568, 570; arrangement of, 571, 573;
basement, 577, 581, 584, 588; bath
room, 583; Better Homes in America
educational campaign, 564, 585-89;
compared with city homes, 575-
77; construction of, 578-80; cost of,
579-80; dining room, 586; electricity,
575, 577, 589; farmstead, 569, 570,
571; foundation, 581; insulation, 583;
kitchen, 575, 584; labor-saving equip
ment, 568, 569; location, 569-73;
modernizing, 584; planning, 568-71,
574-78, 585-87; planting of grounds
of, 572; plumbing, 583; refrigeration,
564; roof, 582; sanitation, 566, 579-80;
site, 569, 571; standardization in, 564,
569, 574; walls, 581, 583, 587
Russell Sage Foundation, 751
Safety, 196, 305-6, 753~54
Sanitation, 351, 358-60, 679. See also
Plumbing
Sewerage disposal, 345-46, 357-60, 604,
647. See also Plumbing
Shingles, 78, 754. See Roofing materials
Shrubs, 533, 535, 540, 552
Simplified practice, 57, 211-15, 216, 426,
758. See also Standardization
Site, 72, 87-117; appraisal of, 91, 92;
architecture in relation to, 98-105;
boundaries, 93 , choice of , 87, considera
tions in selection of, 87-95; contour of,
98, 102, 104, 107; drainage, 93; drive
ways, 109, iio-m; exposure of, 93;
frontage, in relation to purchase of, 92;
landscaping of, 99, 105-8; narrow, 157-
58; orientation, 105, 107, 113; place
ment of house on, 95-105, 108-11, (dia
gram) 116; placement for sunshine, 93,
111-15, (diagrams) 112; public utili
ties, in relation to purchase of, 95;
purchase of, 90-92, 93; rural home,
569, 571; titles, 92; taxation, 93;
transportation, to and from, 88-89,
94; topography of, 98, 102, 104, 107;
value of, 90-91 ; with regard to garage,
90, no, in; with regard to neighbor
hood, 88, 89, 96, 101; with relation to
children, 89; zoning with relation to
purchase of, 89. See also Land
Slums, 603, 607, 608, 610, 618, 697; and
health, _66 2-63; causes of, 641-42, 660-
61; clearance of, 662-65; decentraliza
tion, 663; definition of, 660; excess
condemnation, 664; re-housing of, 663
Sound transmission, 686, 755
Specifications, 75, 162-64, 189-94, 238
Speculation, reducing element of, 653
Stairways, 65, 79, 523; construction of
(diagrams), 268; reconditioning of, 488
Standard of living, 647
Standard State Mechanics' Lien Act, 763
Standardization, 73; in housing, 607;
parts, 62-67; plans, 65; tendencies in,
148. See also Brick, Housing Stand
ards, Lumber, Simplified practice
Steel, 127, 129, 209-10, 761
Stock materials, 79, 104, 238
Stone, 57, 125-28, 207
Streets, 518, 632-33, 640, 667-69, 680,
720-23; arterial highways, 650-52;
associations, 671; congestion of, 687;
ventilation of, 685-86
Subdivisions, 72, 156, 518, 602-3, 608,
629, 631, 674
Sunlight, 68, 154, 511, 513, 520, 682-84,
687. See also Housing problems, Orien
tation
Sunnyside, 716, 719
Taxation, 14, 18-22, 72, 73, 93-94, 642,
643, 697
Temperature, 331-33, 521; of refrigerator,
365, 368-71, 373. See also Heating
Tenement house, 669, 697; definition of,
709-10; laws, 688, 698-702, 709-13.
See also Legislation
Terra cotta, 126
Tile, 77, 146, 352, 393, 394, 752
Transportation, 94, 632-37, 649-51;
building material rates, 62 ; to and from
home site,
Trees, 533, 546-51; planting list, 546-50;
planting suggestions for, 546, 550-51
Two-family houses, 657; cost of (tables),
53; definition, 657
U.S. Bureau of Home Economics, 765-68
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 52, 53,
56, 70. See Costs
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 769
U.S. Bureau of Standards, 751-59, 762
U.S. Children's Bureau, infant mortality
as related to bad housing, 619
U.S. Department of Commerce, 57, 76,
357, 582, 639, 675, 676, 677; Advisory
INDEX
781
Committee on Building Codes, 582,
760
U.S. Extension Service, 768-69
U.S. Housing Corporation, 61, 741
Vegetables gardens, 538, 559
Ventilation, 69, 175, 359, 599-600, 617,
619, 622; air-cooling system, 335; air-
movement, 69, 682; kitchen, 458-62;
problem of, 599-600, 617, 619, 622;
reference to housing standards, 511,
513, 521, 522, 528; science of, 332-33
Wage-earner: housing for, 43-48, 65, 527-
30; transportation to employment,
652
Wall finishes, 381-404; antiquing, 388,
backgrounds, 381-82; color factors,
403-4; fabricated materials, 390;
paint, 384-86 (plastic, 389-90, calci
mine, 386); pargeting, 387; rough and
smooth plaster, 383-86, 388, 393;
stain, 401; stencil, 387-88; tile, 393-
94; wallpaper, 390-92, 393; wood
panels, 393, 395-400; woodwork, 382,
400-403. See also Color
Walls, 63-64, 77, 512; diagrams of, 250-
57, 266; farmhouse, 582; foundation,
76-77; reasons for cracking, 275-76;
reconditioning, 483, 487. See also
Foundations, Kitchen Wall finishes
and coverings, Refinishing
Water supply, 340, 342-43, 35*, 357-58,
511, 525, 528, 571, 604, 617
Wayside stands, 667-68
Window curtains and draperies. See
Furniture and furnishings
Winter construction, 52, 57-58, 60, 276-
79, 761
Wood, 127-29, 205-6, 210-15. See also
Flooring materials, Lumber, Wood
work
Woodwork, 80, 237-40; care during build
ing, 239; elimination of waste in, 237-
38; kitchen, 458; re finishing of, 493-98;
selection of, 238; stairs, 239; workman
ship, 239-40. See also Lumber
Working drawings, 75, 163-64, 184-85
Workshops, 198
Zoning, 89, 517, 608, 623, 629, 672-89,
724, 760, 763-64; adjusts traffic facil
ities, 659; advantages of, 678; Advisory
Committee on City Planning and, 764;
• by contract, 725 ; decreases speculative
element in housing, 653; definition of,
672; enforcement of, 674, 676, 677;
legality of, 674, 678; ordinances, 629,
639, 641, 676-77, 698, 764; police pow
er, 676, 677-78,. 683, 689, 724, 725;
procedure, 676; purpose of, 679; sur
veys, 675
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