The Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review

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BIBLICAL REPERTORY

AND

PRINCETON REVIEW.

EDITED BY

CHARLES HODGE, D. D. ; LYMAN H. ATWATER, D.D.

VOL. XLII.

NEW YORK:

PUBLISHED BYT

CHARLES SCRIBNER & CO., 654 BROADWAY:

AND SUBSCRIPTIONS RECEIVED BY

SMITH, ENGLISH & CO., and PETER WALKER, PHILADELPHIA;
STELLE & SMITH, PRINCETON, N. J.; Rev. A. KENNEDY, LONDON, C. W. ;
Rev. WILLIAM ELDER, ST. JOHN, NEW BRUNSWICK:

Rev. ROBERT MURRAY, HALIFAX, N.S.;

TRUBNER & CO., LONDON.

PRINCETON REVIEW.

VOL. XXjII.

Contents of the January Number.

PAOB

Art. I. — The History and Literature of Civil Service Reform .... 1

Art. II. — The Early Regeneration of Sabbath-School Children .... 22

Art. III.— The Life of Samuel Miller, D. D., LL. D . 33

Art. IV. — A Fragment. What the Greeks thought of the Religion of

the Jews . 49

Art. V. — The Reign of Law . 55

Art. VI. — Adjourned Meetings of the General Assemblies at Pittsburgh . 86

Art. VII. — The Life of Joseph Addison Alexander, D. D . 103

Art. VIII. — The Presbyterian Church — Its Position and Work . 132

Art. IX. — Notices of Recent Publications . 148

Art. X. — Literary Intelligence . 181

Contents of the April Number.

Art. I. — The Element of Time in Interpreting the Ways of God . . . 187

Art. II. — Pantheism as a Phase in Philosophy and Theory of History . 206

Art. III. — Memoir of Dr. Raffles . 217

Art. IV. — The Relation of Adam’s First Sin to the Fall of the Race . . 239

Art. V. — The Witness of Paul to Christ . 263

Art. VI. — The Christian giving for the Times . 279

Art. VII. — Brief Suggestions on Presbyterian Reconstruction and Unifica¬
tion . 306

Art. VIII. — Recent Publications on the School Question . 313

Art. IX. — Notices of Recent Publications . 326

Art. X. — Literary Intelligence . 340

IV

Contents.

Contents of the July Number,

PACK

Art. I. — Tholuck’s View of the Right Way of Preaching . 347

Art. II. — Heathen Views on the Golden Age. etc., compared with the

Bible . 360

Art. HI. — The Brothers Valdes . 377

Art. IV. — Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede . 401

Art. V. — The Trial Period in History . 411

Art. VI. — The General Assembly . 425

Art. VII. — The Delegation to the Southern General Assembly . 444

Art. VIII. — The Evangelical Alliance . 455

Art. IX. — Minority Representation in the Diocese of New Jersey . . . 468

Art. X. — Notices of Recent Publications . 473

Art. XI. — Literary Intelligence . 494

Contents of the October Number.

Art. I. — Renan’s St. Paul . 499

Art. II. — Training and Support of a Native Ministry in the Turkish

Empire . 521

Art. III. — Sinaitic Inscriptions . 533

Art. IV. — A Phase of the Church Question . 566

Art. V. — Row’s Jesus of the Evangelists . 586

Art. VI. — China as affected by Protestant Missions . 613

Art. VII. —Methods of Liberal Education . 622

Art. VIII. — Dr. Stone’s Response to the Pope’s Invitation . 640

Art. IX. — Notices of Recent Publications . (?50

Art. X. — Literary Intelligence . 655

E S S-aA-Y S

ON THE

SUPERNATURAL ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY,

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE THEORIES OF

REN AX, STRAUSS, AND THE TUBINGEN SCHOOL.

BY

Rev. GEORGE F. FISHER, M.A.,

PROFESSOR OF CHDRCH HISTORY IS YALE COLLEGE.

New Edition., with Important Additions.

One Volume 8vo., . - - $3.00.

This work, a new edition of which is now ready, embraces a
full and fair statement, and a critical review of the theories by
which the various schools of Naturalism seek to account for the
origin of Christianity. The positions taken by Strauss, Baur,
and the other leaders of the Tubingen school, and by Renan,
are subjected to a thorough examination. The historical as
well as the philosophical argument for the Christian faith is
fully presented. The origin and authorship of the New Testa¬
ment writings are set forth, and the historical reality of the
New Testament Miracles is amply vindicated.

The new edition of the work is not a mere reprint of the
former editions. In a full introduction and in elaborate sup¬
plementary Notes, leading topics are discussed anew, the recent
literature is reviewed, and the work brought down to the
present date.

CRITICAL NOTICES.

From, the New Yore Tribune.

The author seems equally at home iu every department of his subject.
They are all treated with learning, with insight, with sense, and discrimi¬
nation. His volume evinces rare versatility of intellect, with a scholarship no
less sound and judicious in its tone and extensive in its attainments, than it is
modest in its pretensions.

From the North American Review.

— — the able and scholarly Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christian¬
ity, in which Professor Fisher discusses such subjects as the Genuineness of
the Gospel of John, Baur’s view of early Christian History and Literature,
and the mythical theory of Strauss.

From the Methodist Quarterly Review.

The entire work is one of the noblest, most readable, most timely and
effective contributions to our apologetic literature, which has appeared at the
present day.

From the British Quarterly Review (Dr. Vaughan).

We know not where the student will find a more satisfactory guide in
relation to the great questions which have grown up between the frieuds of the
Christian revelation and the most able of its assailants, within the memory of
the present generation. * * To all these topics the author has brought a
fulness of learning, a masculine discernment, and a sturdy impartiality which
we greatly admire.

From the British and Foreign Quarterly Review.

The question as to the origin and historic veracity of the Gospel narratives
is very ably and satisfactorily reviewed.

From the American Presbyterian and Theological Review.

The work is timely ; the questions it raises are widely entertained, and are
of vital import. Professor Fisher handles them in the spirit of a true Christian
scholar. He understands them, he has studied them ; he knows their diffi¬
culties, and he is competent to grapple with them. The best view of some of
these topics to be found in English theological literature, for example the
theories of Baur, is contained in this volume. The author is eminently
candid, there is no evasion of difficulties, and his replies commend themselves
to the reader’s most sober and reasonable convictions. The style is lucid, and
the arrangement orderly. Professor Fisher has the rare art of saying and
doing just enough to establish his points, and not venturing into any rash and
needless positions. We heartily commend his work. It deserves a cordial
welcome and a wide circulation.

From the Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review.

The current objections to Supernaturalism, i. e. to Christianity itself, as they
have been voiced by Strauss, Baur, Renan, and Theodore Parker, are very
ably handled in this volume. The author constantly betrays the scholarship,
culture, metaphysical and theological insight, together with the judicial
mind, which the proper execution of the task he has undertaken, requires.

Critical Notices of Prof. Fisher’s Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity.

From the Bibliotheca Sacra (Prof. E. A. Park , D.D.)

These essays embody the results of careful reading as well as of discrimi¬
nating thought. They are suggestive and timely. So much has been said of
German skepticism, that we have long needed an intelligible exhibition of its
processes. Professor Fisher has described them candidly. He has thus
illustrated the massiveness of the argument for historical Christianity. * *
We regard the whole work as a highly important contribution to our theo¬
logical literature, and an honor to the American press.

From the New York Evangelist, (by Prof. IT. B. Smith, D.D.)

Professor Fisher has done a good service to the cause of Christian learning
by his able and elaborate account of the later critical schools in German
theology. It is such a book as has long been wanted. It gives a perfectly
fair and clear account of the systems and books he opposes, and a simple and
convincing reply to their hypotheses and arguments; so that we have an im¬
partial summary and judgment of the facts in the case. * * * * *

One commendable feature about this volume is, that though the subjects
are difficult, and remote from common thought, they are yet treated in so clear
aud natural a way, that any reader interested in the themes can follow the
author without difficulty. There is no useless parade of learning, while it is
also evident that the writer is a learned man. Laymen as well as ministers
will find it for their account to read and study this work.

From the Christian Register (by Rev. Rufus Ellis).

Having just finished a pretty careful reading of all except the last few
pages, I am exceedingly desirous that our students in theology, candidates for
the ministry, and teachers of advanced classes in Sunday-schools, should make
themselves familiar with the contents of a volume which is eminently timely
aud singularly fitted to aid all those who are honestly inquiring into the
history of the New Testament canon. I am persuaded that some of our fair-
minded young students who have hastily given in to the confident assertion
that the historical evidences of Christianity, so far as they involve a recog¬
nition of the genuineness aud authenticity of Gospel and Epistle, have been
hopelessly shattered, will see reason as they read these pages to retract their
assent to this negation.

From the Round Table.

We cordially commend the volume as one of no ordinary interest and im¬
portance. The tone is that of a ripe scholar; there is no denunciation; no
appeal to unworthy motives; no slurring over the points in dispute. Enough
is attempted, and not too much. The statements throughout are clear, and
the style is simple and flowing, without any affectation or parade of foreign
terms. The author uses the ablest works on both sides of the controversy, but
exercises his own judgment both as to the arguments and their results. He
has performed a difficult task in a most creditable manner.

From the Springfield Republican.

These essays are characterized by breadth of research and vigor of
thought, not less than by candor of tone and clearness of expression.

Critical Notices of Prof. Fisher’s Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity,

From the New York Observer.

In these essays, the paramount authority of the Bible is established, the
character of the conflict between Christian faith and skepticism is unfolded,
the nature and function of miracles distinctly set forth, and the personality of
God proved in reply to the positivist and the pantheist, and a thorough sifting
and refutation given to the theories of Strauss, and Baur, and Renan. The
book is extremely able, and is written in such a clear style, is of so practical
a character, and so well adapted to direct and govern thought upon themes of
vital importance in philosophy and religion, that we rejoice at its advent, and
heartily commend it to the Christiau public.

From the Independent.

The work evinces extensive learning and decided ability, and successfully
exposes the sophisms and errors of what the author styles “ The Tubingen
School.” It should be in the hands of every clergyman, that he maybe pre¬
pared to meet and combat this popular aud plausible form of infidelity, now so
widely disseminated.

From the Congregationalist, (by Rev. J. P. Thompson., 1).D.)

We are grateful that we can point to a thorough and masterly vindication
of the supernatural in Christianity from the pen of an American scholar, in
opposition both to the historical skepticism of recent schools of criticism in
Germany and to the materialistic skepticism of some recent scientists. * *

* * * * While the historical handling of the question of the Gospels

will be to many the freshest and most instructive portion of Prof. Fisher’s
work, its deepest value lies in the more philosophical chapters which treat of
the supernatural.

From the Providence Journal.

The work is a most timely and important contribution to the theological
literature of the age. No layman could present his pastor with a volume which
would be more serviceable or acceptable.

From the New Haven Journal & Courier.

Professor Fisher’s style is very clear ; his positions are fortified by many
references and careful research, his statements of opposing views are candid
and discriminating, and the volume is one that will probably be accepted as
the most complete defence yet published of the orthodox theology against the
later forms of skepticism.

From the National Baptist.

The Essays are all prepared in the spirit of a reverent disciple, yet with a
readiness to see every real difficulty, and to understand every honest doubt.

From the Christian Examiner.

Professor Fisher is entitled to the credit of stating frankly the fundamental
questions at issue in the chief religious controversy of the hour, and of grap¬
pling, in a familiar way, with the most eminent masters of those schools of
criticism which he opposes.

THE

PRINCETON REVIEW.

JANUARY, 1870.

No. I.

Art. I. — The History and Literature of Civil Service Reform.

Among the various directions taken by the recent discussion
of a reform in our own civil service, none lias been less dil¬
igently pursued than the history and literature of the subject.
There are some suggestions that may be of use in the practical
work that is yet to be done, to bring the legislation of the
country to a level with the height attained by the men who
have thought on and thought out this matter. The American
Association for the advancement of Social Science has taken
it in hand ; and Mr. Curtis prepared a paper, which was
read at the October meeting in New York. Mr. Henry Adams
is the author of an article on the same subject in the October
number of the North American Review. All who read the
works of these gentlemen will be attracted to the consideration
of Civil Service Reform, and many persons will be curious to
know where the early history of this subject can be found,
and what is the recorded experience of Roman, and mediaeval
and modern governments. A partial answer can be found
in a book, little known abroad, and, of course, still less here,
“ Res Offices consideres au point de vue des Transactions
Privees et des Interets de I'fitat ( ouvraye couronne par la

VOL. XLII. — NO. I. 1

2

The History and Literature [January,

Faculte de Droit de Derives et jpar V Academic de Legisla¬
tion ), par Eugene Durand, Docteur en Droit, Avocat a la
Cour Imperiale de Hermes. Paris : S. Durand, Libraire-
Editeur. 1863 (pp. 458). It is written mainly to justify the
existence, in France, of offices that are bought and sold, — the
places of advo cates of the Court of Cassation, notaries, attorneys,
clerks, and tipstaffs of the courts, brokers and auctioneers, —
and, to do so, it begins in very early times. The whole business
of appointment to public office, and the proper tenure, has
been largely discussed of late. The passage of the Tenure-of-
Office Bill had its origin in this way, although it was used for
a very different end. The opposition to its repeal was due
mainly to the strong feeling that any means of staying the
tide of removals from office for mere party or personal rea¬
sons, could not be rightly dispensed with.

The introduction of the “ Civil Service Bill ” by Mr.
Jenckes, his reports giving the history of the subject in this
country, the debates in Congress, the large and liberal con¬
sideration given to the subject by the public press of the na¬
tion, the strong feeling in its favor, without regard to party
lines, — all bear loud and convincing testimony to the fact
that there is a wholesome anxiety for some broad and sweep¬
ing measure of reform in the old fashion of political appoint¬
ments to office. The feeling is that our public offices must be
restored to their old condition of purity and efficiency, and
that, while France and England, Germany and Italy even,
may be the worse for their various forms of government,
they are much better for their almost perfect system of the
administration of the public business. The determination
to effect a reform here in that direction is pretty certain,
sooner or later, to be carried into effect. A sketch of the
history of the subject, as exhibited in the work of M.
Durand, may not be without its particular use in showing
how the same mischief grew up in Roman and French ad¬
ministration, and was cured only by a destructive revolution
that swrept away with it all, or nearly all, that wras good
and bad, in its fury. Our word, “office,” had no fellow
in the Greek language, and the thing itself was repre¬
sented by “ "PX7l” or by “ duvayig ” and “rj/nj.” In Rome,

3

1870.] of Civil Service Reform.

there was a gradual transition from inagistratus to muncra
publico, , honor es, dignitates , and, finally, officium, whence our
“ office.”

The origin of this word has been the subject of a good deal
of curious learning and much effort to get at its real meaning.
In the third century of the Christian era, Donatus taught
that “officium dieitur quasi efficium ab efficiendo quod cuicui
personae effieere congruit.” St. Augustine put the same idea
in another way : “ Officium dieitur quasi efficium, propter
sermonis decorem mutata una litera.” Loyseau , early in the
seventeenth century, said that officium was composed of the
preposition ob and the verb facio, and meant “ continual or
ordinary employment at a certain work.”

Of the theory of appointment to office, there is no need for
discussion. It has always been agreed, that every office is a
delegation of public power, and the recipient is supposed to
be not only pure, honest, just, laborious, zealous, but specially
fitted for the duties cast upon him, either by special training,
or by such advantages of education as will best fit him to
learn and exercise the duties of his office. To recur to pure
theoretical times, we should have to go back to the republic
of Plato. The corruption of public morals, the avidity of men
for public office, and political necessities, have made the prac¬
tice very different.

In Rome, the republic maintained the purity of its offices
and its officers. When, under the emperors, the right to ap¬
point fell into the hands of a single man, the system of office-
hunting was as well established as it is here among ourselves.

The custom of giving presents, at first a free-will offering,
soon became obligatory, and then passed into a means of sup¬
plying the public treasury, emptied by the wicked wasteful¬
ness of the times.

The same transition can be seen in the history of early
French legislation. Up to the end of the fifteenth century
present-giving was the rule, subject, however, to numerous
laws forbidding and punishing the traffic of officers in offices.
But when the treasury became exhausted, and the taxes
weighed heavily, Louis XII. and Francis I. determined to
sell the titles which were solicited at their hands. All public

4

[January,

The History and Literature

offices were made salable, and there was a new office created
to manage the business. This went on, varying in degree
and kind, until the French Revolution drove, into the world
of the past, all the traditions that had made public office
venal, hereditary, and corrupt, as it was almost proof against
any reform or change.

It was not until eight centuries after the foundation of
Rome that republican simplicity had been so far destroyed as
to make way for the sale of public offices. The empire was
almost near its end when the appointments in its service were
made both salable and hereditary. In the history of the re¬
public, merit was the only condition for appointment. After¬
ward, by slow and almost insensible progress downward, but
steadily going on from bad to worse, the primitive character
was lost, and, toward the fourth century of the Christian era,
some of the officers enjoyed the privilege of disposing of their
places during their life-time, and of transmitting them to their
heirs after their death.

Under the republic there were innumerable offices; con¬
suls, tribunes, pretors, censors, questors, cnrule ediles, and
plebeian ediles were the most familiar. All were the gift of
the people, except in times of great public difficulty, when a
dictator was chosen, who appointed them.

Cicero, in his fourth oration against Verres, distinguishes
the mayistratus and the curationes , — the one extraordinary
and temporary, the other ordinary and permanent, — the latter
a sort of special commission, the former the regular channel.

The election (“ designatio ”) once over, the officer took his
place, without appointment, commission, or confirmation. Sus¬
pension, and, in the most cases, removal with disability were
the punishments for violations or neglect of duty. Once out of
office at the expiration of the term of service, there was no
choice or influence used to secure a friend as successor, until
Cgesar gave the example, and by doing so violated doubly the
laws of the country, in giving up an office which he had
engaged to execute, and in substituting as his successor a
person of his own, and not of the general, popular choice.

A scrupulous observance of these rules for many ages made
Rome great, and its fame eternal. Unfortunately, the con-

1870.]

5

of Civil Service Reform.

quest of the world brought wealth into the capital, and wealth
brought corruption.

Intrigue and bribery gained suffrages which used to be given
to merit. Ruinous expenses signalized the nominations and
the elections. Cicero (Re Off., 1. ii., 17) comments on the
unbought advancement of L. Philippas.*

Lucan describes the ordinary contest for office : —

“ Huic rapti fasces pretio sectorque favoris
Ipse sui populus, letalisque ambitus urbi,

Annua venali referens certaraina campo.”

— [Be Bello Cicili , I. i.

Seneca is even more explicit : —

“Haec res ipsa quae tot magistratus et judices facit pecunia, ex quo in lionore
esse cepit, rebus honor cecidit ; mercatoresque et venales invicem facti quaerimus
non quale sit quidque sed quanti.” — [Epistol.. 115.

Quintilian forcibly and pithily says : —

“Ad summam in republica nostra honorem non animus, non virtus, non manus
mittit, sed area et dispensator.” — [Bed., 345.

When it was sought to remedy the mischief, the roots had
taken too strong hold to be easily loosened. In the effort to
do so there were ten laws passed in rapid succession — LI.
Protelia, Emilia, Maria, Fabia, Calpurnia, Tullia, Aufidia,
Licinia, Pompeia, and Julia — all given at length in Rozinus,
Antiq. Roman., 1. xviii., c. 19, and in Alexander, Genial. Dier.,
1. iii., c. 17.

It was after these efforts that the people of Rome, wearied

* Causa igitur largitionis est, si aut necesse est aut utile. In his autem ipsis
mediocritatis regula optima est. L. quidem Philippus, Q. f., magno vir ingenio
in primisque clarus, gloriari solebat se sine ullo munere adeptum esse omnia,
quae haberentur amplissima. Dicebat idem Cotta, Curio: Nobis quoque licet in
hoc quodammodo gloriari. Nam pro amplitudine honorum, quos cunctis suffragiis
adepti sumus nostro quidem anno, quod contigif eorum nemini, quos modo nom-
inavi, sane exiguus sumptus asdilitatis fuit. Atque etiam illas impensae meliores,
muri, navalia, portus, aquarum ductus, omniaque, quae ad usum reipublicae per¬
tinent. Quamquam quod proesens tamquam in manum datur jucundius est: hsec
tamen in posterum gratiora. Theatra, portica, nova templa vereeundius repre-
hendo propter Poinpeium : sed doctissimi non probant, ut et hie ipse Pcenatius
. . . et Pbalereus Demetrius, qui Periclem, principem Graeciae, vituperat,

quod tantam pecuniam in praeclara ilia propyloea conjecerit. Tota igitur ratio
talium largitionum genere vitiosa est, temporibus necessaria; et tamen ipsa et
ad faeultates accommodauda et mediocritate moderanda est. — [ Cic . de Off., 1. ii., 11.

6

The History and Literature [January,

of civil war, put into the hands of Octavius, after his victory
at Aetium, the right of appointing to public offices.

The accession of Augustus to the empire was signalized by
the creation of many new offices : lieutenants and attorneys
of the emperor, legati et procurators Csesaris, prefect of the
city, prgefectus urbi, prefects of the pretors, qmestores candi-
dati principis, prgefectus annonum, and even prgefectus vigilum,
a sort of Dogberry s of the watch.

Augustus was employed during the whole of his reign —
which was a period of transition— in reforms, aptly conceived
and well executed, and he left the people in the enjoyment of
their right to nominate to public office.

Tiberius suppressed the comites, and made all the appoint¬
ments himself, and in place of election gave the new officers
certificates, codicilli imperiales or diplomata — a word with a
meaning given it by Seneca: “Video isthie diplomata, vacua
honorum simulacra, umbram cpiamdam ambitionis laborantis
quae decipiat animos inanium opinione gaudentes ; humanae
cupiditatis extra naturam qusesita nominal; in quihus nihil est?
quod subjici oculis.”

The word sutfragium began then to he used, and it meant
originally the money given to obtain public office. There
were two sorts of suffragia- — -those received by the courtiers,
the other by the emperors themselves. “ Privatum scilicet
suffragium, quod suffragatoribns aulicis dabatur; et domini-
cum suffragium qucd imperialihus rationibus inferehatur”
(Nov. 161). According to Suetonius, Vespasian made no
scruple about accepting, and even requiring, small sums from
those who solicited him for offices.

Suffrage did not, perhaps, mean the price of the office, hut
it did as much harm as if it had been an avowed sale for a
stipulated sum.

The new officer was not warm in his place, before he did
his best to get hack all his outlays, and hence, particularly in
the case of governors of provinces, who were least under re¬
straint, exactions without number. “ Provincias spoliari et
numerarium tribunal, audita utrinque licitatione, alteri addici,
mirum non est, quia quge emeris vendere jus gentium est.”
What Seneca thus describes, became in the reign of Heliogab-

1870.] of Civil Service Reform. 7

alus so public, that the judges’ places were sold openly to the
highest bidder.

Alexander Severus announced, on his accession, his inten¬
tion to repress this disorder : “ Necesse est nt qui emit vendat,
at ego non patiar mercatores potestatum quos, si patiar, punire
non possum ; erubesco enim punire qui emit et vendit; ” and
his efforts were partially successful, but brief as his reign.
Constantine vainly forbade his courtiers to accept presents
from those who solicited office under him (Cod. Tlieod., De
muner. et honor. 1. ad hon. Cod. Just., Deprsefect. Digni-
tate 1. Unica). Julian, the Apostate, refused a suitor who
wanted to recover the moneys so paid, and Theodosius made a
law to enforce contracts of this kind, certi conditio pro suf-
fragio (Amm. Marcellin., lib. 22: Cod. Theod. 1. 1, si certum
pet. de suffragio). Zozimus says that this prince created new
offices, which he sold for cash, although it is known that he
forbade raising contributions from those who aspired to be¬
come governors of the provinces, under a fourfold penalty.
“ Ad ejusmodi honoris insignia non ambitione vel pretio sed
probatee vitae testiinonio accedendum esse.” To enforce this
wise measure, the emperor prescribed for them an oath that
they had not given and would not give any thing as an induce¬
ment, “ neque se dedisse quicquam, neque daturo postmo-
dum fore, sive per se, sive per interpositam personam, in frau-
dem legis sacramentique, aut venditionis donationisque titulo,
aut alio velament ocujusmodo contractus ” (Code Ad. leg., Jul.
Repet. 1. ult.). This oath has in substance served even in
modern times, at least, as a proof of the good intentions of
the law-makers.

But wdiile it is easy to modify the laws, it is difficult to
improve the morals of a nation. In spite of these prohibitions,
the traffic in public offices kept steadily on its downward
progress. Eutropius is called by Claudian, “ caupo famosus
honorum ; ” and Justinian repeated the prohibition against the
sale of judicial offices in terms that are worth weighing. (Nov.
8, Prtef. s. 1.) Unfortunately this praiseworthy effort failed too,
and the history of the eastern empire is full of edicts vigor¬
ously, but vaiidy, denouncing the violations of the law, and
only serving to show more effectively the practice. It spread

8 The History and Literature [Januaky

too, beyond the precincts of the court. Just as the people had
lost the power of choosing their own officers, which were
bought by courtiers of the emperors, so the officers of various
grades sold their subordinate places, and even the municipal
offices were sold for the price of the expenses of the public
games, or for a round sum paid into the treasury. In Rome
the senators were rated at a fixed amount called the aurum
oblatitium, and the consuls, under Valentinian and Zeno,
were obliged to contribute a certain share of the repairs of the
aqueducts. The new officers were obliged, too, to pay some¬
thing to their older colleagues, called sportulae, “ Qui magis-
tratum ineunt solent totum Bulen vocare vel binos denarios
singulis dare” (Plin., lib. x. Epist.).

Still there was always a clearly-defined understanding that
these payments were gifts, elegantly described by Trojan as
honoraria , to the people or the emperor, in return for the dis¬
tinction conferred, and not the price of the office itself.

No officer could stipulate for a round sum as a condition of
yielding to his successor, nor did his place pass upon his death,
as of right, to his heirs. These two distinguishing qualities,
the sale, and the inheritance of offices, even in this time of
Roman decline, were found only in that class of officers known
as militia. The Emperor Constantine celebrated his acces¬
sion by multiplying the dignities and creating officers for his
new position. There w’ere already places filled by nobilissimi,
illustres, spectabiles, clarissimi, perfectissimi, and egregii ; to
these were added cubicnlarii, castrensiani, ministeriani, silen-
tiarii, all under the common name of palatini.

It was at this time too, that militia became the general
designation for all holding public place. The thirty-fifth and
fifty-third Novellas, the three last books of the Code, and the
Commentaries of Lazius Reip. Rom., show that at first the
name was limited to the officers of the household of the
emperor. It was soon extended, first to the subaltern offi¬
cers employed by the governors of the provinces, and finally
to all civil employments, and particularly that of advocates.

There were two classes, the militia armata and the militia
civilis; the latter was subdivided into militia palatina, militia
togata seu forensis, and militia literata, corresponding to the

1870.]

9

of Civil Service Reform. .

household, the huntsman, falconers, and other personal officers
of the emperor in the first class, the jurisconsults and lawyers
in the second, and the secretaries of the emperor in the third.

The militia were formed into corporations or scholae, divided
into different companies, each with its head, not unlike the
distribution in our departments. At first the right of nom¬
ination belonged to the chief of each class; this magister
officiorum is called, by Cassiodorus, “gloriosus donator aulici
consistorii, quasi alter Lucifer.” Afterward, the emperor
himself made the appointments by letters called probatorise,
and in Greek Somnaata , which were duly registered. At first,
too, these appointments were purely gratuitous ; but gradually
from being given to the officers as a gift for the benefit of
widows and children, the officers got the right to dispose of
them for their own private profit.

Hence arose the distinction of offices that were salable and
hereditary, and those that were still in the gift of the emperor.
Even the former, however, were dependent on the act of the
emperor for their recognition, for he was still the source of
all power, “ a quo ut a sole radii omnes exeunt dignitates.”

The legislation on this subject is found in the Institutes, 1.
xxvii., Cod. de pign. et hyp., and 1. xi., Cod. de prox. sacr. ;
and in the Novelise 46, c. 4, and 53, c. 5 ; and in the L. 102,
s. 2, and 3, Dig. de legat. 3.

The learning bestowed on it is scattered over many works,
and makes an essential part of all the treatises on sales, as
distinct as any other branch.

The elements essential to such a contract were three, con¬
sensus, res, and pretium. The last could not exceed a sum
fixed either by the society to which the office belonged, or by
the emperor. The security for it was not unlike that of our
own purchase-money mortgage ; and gave rise to nearly as
much discussion.

The relations of creditors, wife’s dower, rights of minors,
and the conditions made in the construction of the contracts of
sale, were all elaborated, and the treatises written on them,
as well as the efforts made to secure by law, first one right and
then another, are still occasionally referred to in the French
courts. The gifts inter vivos, and the right to make testa-

10

The History and Literature [January,

mentary disposition of offices, were all fully admitted, and the
Lex. 102, s. 3, de legatis 3, makes the following decision :
“ Testator liberto militiam his verbis legavit : Seio liberto meo
militiam do lego illam : quam militiam et testator habuit.
Qusesitum est an onera omnia et introitus militite ab lierede
sint danda; respondit danda.”

There was also the hereditary transmission of offices, at first
limited to children or direct descendants as the objects, along
with the father, of the bounty of the emperor who gave the
office : “Hoc habeant non tamquam paternam hereditatem sed
tanquam inperialem munificentiam ; ut et substantiam relin-
quentibus et non habentibus, merito solatium proebeamus,,
(Nov. 53, c. 5).

The office itself came to the son, if there was one who could
fill it, or was sold for the benefit of all the children ; in either
case, the new incumbent was obliged to pay the onus or
introitus militise, an entrance fee fixed by statute, and due
to the chief of the department, or to the corporation of which
he was the head ; or, in some cases, to the snpernumerarii,
those who were promised the next vacancy, a body regularly
organized by the wisdom of an emperor, “ Instituit imperator
Claudius imaginariae militue genus, quod vocatur supernu-
merum, quo absentes titulo tenus fungerentur.”

Even where the office was sold for the benefit of the heirs,
the jrarchaser had to pay to the family a round sum, called
casus militise, which was also known as suffragium, solatium,
and scholse placitum : the first, because it required a vote of
the corporation to which the office belonged ; the second,
because it was a consolation to the heirs for the death of their
father, from whom the office descended to them ; and the
third, because it was regulated “ pro tenore communis militan-
tium placiti.”

The limitation of this right of inheritance wras of pretorian
origin, and lost its primitive character under the later em¬
perors. The “ collatio- bonorum ” was extended to brothers
and sisters, subject to a right to limit it by express words,
and to a cloud of questions as to whether it meant the price
given, or the assessed value; and whether it was the value at
the time of the death of the donee or the donor, on all of

11

1870.] of Civil Service Reform.

which 'much learning is found in the early Roman laws, and
in the comments of the civilians.

The original permission to officers to dispose of their offices
was not an absolute surrender by the emperors of their rights,
but simply a reward for long and faithful services. The
recommendation of the original appointee was not binding in
law, it was only a jus ad militiam, which became valid when
the appointment was duly made by commission, the real jus
in militia.

The imperial prerogative was limited, but not seriously
affected by this innovation of the sale of offices; for the power
was reserved to control, and even to refuse to appoint, candi¬
dates presented ; as well as the right to remove officers found
unfit for their position, and to suppress offices, and to create
others, which of course were powers fatal to the salable value
of an existing office. In certain employments, “ dnmmodo et
is qui subrogatur electione qusestoris fiat,” the nomination
depended on the chief of the bureau, through whom, and with
whose recommendation, the out-going officer submitted to the
emperor the name of his successor.

With this and the other restrictions already referred to, the
owner of an office always took it with a view to its resale,
“ quae emeris vendere jus gentium est,” and any loss of this
right was a subject of reclamation.

As a primary rule, the officers were removable, for in the
early years of the republic, the consuls Tarquin, Collatinus,
and Lucius Flaminius, were deprived of their offices. Under
the empire, the accession of Alexander Severus was dis¬
tinguished, among other reforms, by numerous clearings out
of judges, and governors of provinces. The Latin phrase,
“mittere suecessorem,” itself, shows the acknowledged right.
Consuls under the republic, judges and governors under the
empire, were all offices given gratuitously, but the militia ,
the offices of the emperor’s household, and those of the differ¬
ent governors, were regularly bought and sold ; to deprive
their owners of them without compensation, was to take so
much of their property.

While therefore the right of removal was recognized and
maintained, the right to compensation was admitted; and the

12

The History and Literature [January,

successor, whether of his own choice, or imposed on him by
superior authority, was obliged to pay to his predecessor, as
an indemnity, the fixed price.

Even in case of a suspension, the right to the indemnity
remained, and it was lost only where the officer himself
abandoned his duties for five years: “quinquennium si fuerit
divagatus, ipso jam cingulo spoliandus est.”

The love of pomp and magnificence exhibited by the em¬
perors of the East, led rapidly to a proportionate increase in
the number of their officers.

The firm adherence to the proprietary right of existing
offices, prevented their suppression, and led to the establish¬
ment of new offices, to be filled by new favorites. As they
were all paid by the government, and not by fees, there was
no clashing of interest, or question of compensation, and all
were satisfied.

The offices thus created were mainly the following : Scribce
et Tabularii , subordinate to the older notarius, described by
St. Augustine (lib. ii., de Doctrina Christi), “ notas qui didi-
eerunt proprie notarii appellantur.” The notarii prepared
opinions and drew contracts ; the scribce registered them, and
the tabularii prepared the certified copies.

These offices were important even in the days of the Greek
republic, but in Rome they had fallen into the hands of the
slaves. The emperors Arcadius and Honorius secured them
for the citizens, and divided them into three classes : “ scribas,
defensores civitatum, judiees pedanei.” The improvement
thus begun, ended in an effort of the citizens to avoid the
unpaid labor of these offices, by becoming domestic officers of
the emperors ; thus avoiding the necessity of accepting public
offices, and to reined}' this it was necessary to enact by L. 3,
Cod. de scribis tabulariis et logographis (lib. x., 1, 69), that
these offices should be held by the emperor’s own people.

This was followed by laws of Honorius and Theodosius,
limiting these offices to the households of governors of provin¬
ces ; and of Justinian, limiting them to the offices of the
presidents, and subdividing them into exceptores , who wrote
out judicial opinions, “ acta judiciorum scribebant,” and were
called “ notarii, quia notis scribebant acta presidium the

1870.]

J3

of Civil Service Reform.

regendarii , who registered these opinions, “ regerere enim
iterum gerere est et inde regestum sen scriptnm cancellarii ,
who prepared the pleadings, and drafted decrees, and actuarii ,
who received and recorded all voluntary legal acts, such, for
example, as emancipation, adoption, contracts, and wills.

The later emperors established as a class of great import¬
ance, their own secretaries ornotarii, “prseclaratn nobilemque
militiam spectabilium tribunorum notariorum qui gloriosis
obsequiis nonnihil reipublicae commoditatis atferunt et decoris,
diversis beneficiorum titulis muniendam credimus et auscen-
dam” (Cod. de primicerio et sec. et not., L. 12, t. 7).

They were also called tribuni and candidati , partly because
they were recognized as on the high road to great preferment,
and partly because they wore white robes, “ qui familiaritate
regum utebantur, purpurati regum vocabantur sicut apud nos
a toga candidata candidati” (Tertullian, lib. de Idolatria).

They were also distinguished as tribuni prsetoriani et notarii,
with the title of comites, as tribuni et notarii, and as notarii
familiares sive domestic!. Their senior was called primicerius
notariorum, and had the dignity of a proconsul, and a place
among the illustres.

The second class of offices created by the later emperors,
and made subject to the right of sale, was the Procuratores
ad lites. It was not until six centuries after the foundation of
Rome, that the law provided for representation by counsel ;
at first there were two classes, the cognitores and the procu¬
ratores, but the latter only existed in the latter empire. At no
time, however, had they any public character, or any recog¬
nition other than that of persons doing an act of friendship,
not exercising any avowed or acknowledged professional
relation.

The last class of new offices was the viatores or executores ,
corresponding to the apparitores and statores of the republic,
with the duties of our sheriff’s officers and tipstaffs, that is, to
notify parties to actions and their witnesses and others in
interest.

The Roman empire during its existence of eleven centuries,
had thrown out roots too deep in the spirit of its institutions,
to be lost sight of when the first efforts toward reorganization

14

The History and Literature [January,

followed the disorders of the conquest. The laws of the bar¬
barians were almost entirely silent as to offices. The edict of
Theodoric (qdictum Thcodorici regis) is the only legislative
record in which the subject is mentioned. In his efforts to get
the Goths to adopt Roman institutions, he adopted the Roman
legislation. Just as the emperors of old endeavored to throw
on the governors of provinces the cares and troubles of ad¬
ministration, the first conquerors imitated them, by establish¬
ing, in the different parts of their newly-acquired regions, their
own companions with the titles of dukes and counts, and under
the obligation of doing homage to their chief; this was the
origin of the feudal system.

In the midst of frightful confusion, and in the absence
of any idea of territorial unity, force took the place of law.
Proud of their audacity, and strong in their mutual support,
these dukes and counts soon made themselves absolute masters
of their local governments ; surrounded by officers of their
own appointment : all soldiers, treasury agents, judges, served
their masters first, and it was not until the fifteenth century,
that the kings of France secured these important powers, and,
even then, the petty magistrates were appointed by the petty
lords.

The old mischief of a double set of officers, those appointed
by the emperor and those appointed by the lords, was as usual
followed by an enormous multiplication of offices. The court
of Charlemagne had as many titles of honor as the court of
any Roman emperor. By the end of the twelfth century, the
offices were distinguished as feudal and territorial. In three
centuries after, they were venal or non-venal, and down to the
fall of the French monarchy, the increase of both classes was
enormous. There were plentiful promises of reform, some
efforts to legislate, but no real improvement, and although the
States General as early as 1483 had begun to agitate the
subject, it was not one of the least of the evils that the
Rational Assembly had to contend with at the outbreak of
the Revolution.

The multiplication of offices was due solely to the want ot
money ; direct taxation exhausted, resources of every other
sort drained, public discontent past endurance, the creation of

15

1S70.] of Civil Service Reform.

new offices was invariably a safe resort, and new fools and new
funds were found without difficulty or stint, while the only
resource for a livelihood in the offices so eagerly and so dearly
bought, was in a resale sooner or later.

The purchase and sale of offices may be distinctly traced in
the current of French history.

An ordinance of March 19, 1314, expressly enacts : —

“ Quod de caetero nullus Servians noster spatarius vel quicunque alius cnjus-
cunque conditionis existat, servitium vel officium sibi concessum alii cuicumque
locare valeat, quocumque colore quassito, alias ipso facto, servitium vel officium
amittat.”

Other ordinances show that although the practice existed,
it was covert and illegal, clandestine, and under the ri de of
severe punishment.

Boniface VIII. refused to canonize Saint Louis because he
had farmed out his offices, and particularly, “ per id tempus
pra?positura Parisiensis venalis habebatur,” and even this was
corrected.

At all times, however, of this earlier and purer history,
there was a wise distinction between the revenue and the judi¬
cial officers, and the latter were kept as nearly as possible free
from any charge of venality.

The former were soon made hereditary as well as venal, first
perpetual under Louis XI., they were sold under Louis XII.
and Francis I., and were made hereditary under Henry IV.,
a right that was well established early in the seventeenth
century.

The suggestion of selling offices to pay debts has been
attributed to the example of the Venetians, and to that of
the ecclesiastical preferments, and the latter seems to be the
source whence Louis XII. drew his rules.

The primitive purity of the church was well established in
its condemnation of all sales : Superior Ecclesiae adeo speciem
omnem et suspicionem negotiationis in his adversabatur, ut
resignationem in favorem certae personae etiam nulla pen-
sione, nullo jure retento execraretur, impietatis quae simoniae
damnaret.

The popes, however, in their capacity as head of the church,
took away the right of election, and, finally, having got pos-

16

The History and Literature [January,

session of the ecclesiastical preferments, sold them, promised
those yet to fall in, and gave even conditional undertakings,
gratias ad beneficia vacatura expectativas. By the sixteenth
century the trade in church offices was in full vigor, and well
established in its regulations both for enforcing and evading
the law. Louis XII. was slow to imitate the practice, but the
path once opened, his successor, Francis I., opened all his
offices to sale, put them up publicly for open competition, and
created new ones to supply the demand. His successors fol¬
lowed on the same course, and it was continued down to the
very eve of the Revolution.

In spite of the legal distinction kept up in appearance as to
the venal and the non-venal offices, in fact there soon ceased to
he any difference. The one was an open violation of the law,
and the other was a legal sanction of a custom that had the
same vice.

It was not, however, until 1583 that the hereditary right
to office was established by Henry III. This was under re¬
strictions, that were swept away by Henry VI., who, under
the pressure of debts and of the exhaustion from the civil
wars, adopted a law that secured the hereditary right by
levying an annual tax, and the law was enforced by various
amendments, down to the Revolution. There was, at the out¬
set, a line of demarcation between ministerial and judicial
offices, but even this became vague and uncertain, and was
occasionally broken down altogether, in spite of efforts of
varying vigor, to preserve the people from that last and worst
of miseries, judicial corruption. When the Estates General
met at Versailles, on the 5th May, 1789, for the last time,
the old ideas had had their day. One of the first acts of the
Assembly was in response to the public feeling on this sub¬
ject. Decided in one day, this reform, after two centuries of
agitation, was carried into effect, in spite of the discontent of
the parties in interest and the difficulties in the way of such
a wholesale reorganization. The principle then laid down,
still makes the law in France, although there have been fre¬
quent modifications of it in letter.

Twenty-five years later, the monarchy, in 1816, sought to
strengthen its finances by again making offices salable, hut

1870.] of Civil Service Reform. 17

under very different conditions from the system before the
Revolution.

The revolution of 1789 was social rather than political.
The suppression of manorial rights, and of the sale of judicial
and municipal offices, enacted in 1789, was followed, a year
later, by a uniform judicial system, and this by a regulation
of the administrative officers, which has remained in force
down almost to our own days. Compensation was provided
for those who had bought their offices and were deprived of
the right to sell them again. Power was given to each body,
the advocates, the clerks, the attorneys, to create its own coun¬
cil of supervision, and the rules laid down for the probation,
admission, and government of its members, together with the
right to demand a sum of money in hand as security, and for¬
feited in case of violation of duty, were all enforced by the
state. The caution-money thus collected was a useful help
to the state, and various changes were made in the rates of
interest and in the sums required, just as the necessities of the
government were pressing, or the growing profits of the offices,
thus taxed, justified it.

In return for the largely-increased burdens put on the
offices of notaries, and others of that class, the government of
the Restoration legalized the sale by the possessor, as a means
of reimbursing from his successor the heavy charges to which
he had been put. The sale is, of course, dependent on the
government, and that approval is given only to competent
persons, and that competency is determined by the “ Chamber
of Discipline” of the body to which the office belongs.

The learning of the French bar, of the courts, of the treatise-
writers, of the Council of State, on the relations growing
out of these sales, as well inter vivos as by will, is of infinite
variety, and very broad and deep, serving to show how thor¬
oughly imbued French official life is with this system of the
sale of offices.

The law acknowledges the right of joint and several owner¬
ships of office in partnership, and puts it on the decision in
the Dig. 1. 71, pro socio (1. 17. c. 2), that two grammarians
might unite and share the profits of their profession, et quod
ex eo artificio qusestus fecissent, commune eorum esset, but
VOL. XLn. — no. i. 2

IS

The History and Literature [January,

the abuses and the irresponsibility of such joint-stock enter¬
prises, have prevented them from being successful in practice,
and courts and legislators have interposed to produce this
result. In the case of money-brokers, where the caution-
money is 250,000 francs, and the price of the office sometimes
as high as two millions of francs, the practice is still admit¬
ted, although unwillingly and under hard rules. The heredi¬
tary transmission, not of the office itself, hut of the right to
name a successor, is acknowledged in the most absolute way
by the modern French law, and that on the basis of the
Homan maxim, “ hereditas nihil aliud est quam successio in
universum jus, quod defunctus habuit (Dig. de r eg. jur. L. 50.)
The rights of the creditors are carefully preserved against the
proceeds of the sale of the office, and as carefully prevented
from interfering with the personal right of the heirs of the
decedent to nominate a successor, and that again is different
in cases of intestacy and of testamentary provisions.

The fact is, however, to he kept prominent, that offices were
always declared to be only a delegated portion of public
power, requiring for their exercise, on the part of the person
appointed, whether it be by birth or by gift, the choice and
approval of the sovereign, or his representative. The chief
officer of the state, be he emperor or king, president or
consul, knows no other law on the subject than public inter¬
ests ; and if they require it, old offices may be abolished, or
new ones created, with no limit other than that of caring for
vested rights.

The dealings of the old and new officers in the sale or trans¬
mission of office, its price, the mode of securing it, the rights
of wife, or children, or creditors, to any share in the purchase-
money, are all kept separate and apart. The courts may often
have to deal with them, the government never does. These
preliminaries once settled and adjusted, the nomination goes
from the lower to the higher officers, by a regulated succession,
and must be accompanied by proper approvals and indorse¬
ments, on its passage up, and on its way down again.

The right of removal, arbitrarily, without cause given,
without redress, and without compensation of any kind, has
been carefully established ; and, rarely as it is used, it is ac-

1870.]

19

of Civil Service Reform.

knowledged by the judicial, as well as by the parliamentary
legislation of the modern French system.

To justify the rigor of such a course, it is put on the score
of the abolition, at the time of the Revolution, of the right to
office, bought of the government under the “ Ancien Regime,”
and on the fact that each purchaser is such only at the hands
of his predecessor ; and subject at all times, to the sovereign
power of the state.

Of course there is a standing protest kept up against
this hardship, and the risk of losing one’s whole fortune,
and the future of children, and grandchildren ; but thus far in
vain.

Even the right of compensation, is narrowed down to the
closest limit, and the indemnity once given, is distributable
only by legal process, so as to protect all interests that may
be concerned.

The right to create new offices, is just as well established, as
the right to abolish the old ; and it has often the same effect,
as far as the diminished profit of the existing offices is con¬
cerned. The right of compensation is not admitted, although
it has been granted in cases of great hardship, and under ex¬
ceptional circumstances.

The right to add new duties, or to take away profitable
employment, has always been maintained ; and although
modifications of either kind are rare, there are instances
which prove it, as well as the increase or diminution of the
caution money, according to the greater or less profit belong¬
ing to an office, after it has been in any way changed in its
duties.

There are in France, but three modes of appointments to
office, — direct nomination, competitive examination, or the
presentation of a name by the officer, for his successor.

The first method, it is said, opens the gates to intrigue, and
bargain and sale, without control or discretion ; it surrenders
offices to politicians, who parcel them out among their follow¬
ers, and use them as the price of their allegiance ; we can
learn little of its evils from French example. Competitive
examination was tried in France for ten years, beginning in
1791, and ending, we are told, with a general feeling that it

20

The History and Literature [January,

had failed of its purpose, by reason of the weakness, incon¬
venience, and inadequacy of its results; and it has not been
fairly tried again.

The right of presentation, Durand says, gives the holder of
an office a property in it ; which secures him a recompense
for honorable labor, induces him to secure public esteem, and
furnishes him with incentives to honesty and industry, in the
exercise of his office. The better he does its duties, the greater
the value of the reward in hand, and the larger the compen¬
sation in the future.

There are now in France, not less than 25,000 ministerial
offices ; they were formerly taxed according to their estimated
value ; but since 1771 there has been no standard by which
it can be ascertained. The place of an advocate of the Court
of Cassation, of a notary, of an exchange broker, in Paris, is
worth anywhere from half a million to two millions of francs; an
effort to compensate on such prices as these, would add enor¬
mously to the national debt, and as that is not likely to be done,
in the face of the opposition that would be made by the parties in
interest, the discussion of any scheme of reform of that kind,
has little practical worth.

The sketch thus given, of the course of legislation in Rome
and in France, in reference to offices of a certain class, may
serve to show how much remains to be done, toward perfecting
and purifying our own system generally. There is, of course,
nothing in our method of doing public business, which is likely
to be modified by the example of French private offices, or
rather of offices which are here strictly matters of private
business ; while in France, they are held by their occupants,
under a limited right from the government. Here, however,
we are doing what we can, as far as legislation on Mr. Jenckes’s
Civil Service Bill is in earnest, to settle the business of our own
enormous army of public officers.

The original theory, which for forty years made our civil
service unobtrusively good, was that public office was the
reward of fitness, and that between the office and the officer
there was no interposition other than for cause. The change
since inaugurated, and the experience we have had of the
system of rotation in office, for the second cycle of forty years

21

1870.] of Civil Service Reform.

last past, has ended in a general feeling that unless we stop
short, and reform the system, it will ruin us.

The rebellion, with its burden of debt; the debt, with its
necessities of taxation ; the taxation, with its inducements to
fraud ; fraud, with its rich rewards ; and honesty, with its
small encouragement : these have been the operating causes
that must at length open our eyes to the enormous difficulty
of the task in hand, and its vast importance.

Whatever we can learn of past evils and present good in
the working of other governments, is worth knowing. To this
end, the sketch we have given of the history of a limited class
of offices in Rome and in France, as we have attempted it,
from the learned pages of M. Durand’s treatise, may serve to
direct attention to the same quarter. “ Political Biography ”
gives other writings on this branch of administrative law in
the various Continental states. Wide as are their systems
from our own, there is yet a great deal to be learned from
their wholesome faith in having the public business done as
well as anybody else’s, and it is just that that we have care¬
fully unlearned and forgotten here. To those who know any
thing of the advantages of any system besides our own, it
seems only strange that even Congress should require such
persistent efforts to secure the passage of some measure, of
reform. The cause, however, is not far to seek, and the result
on public business and private interests in it, as exhibited of
late, is enough to show that there is a world of difference
between the public as citizens and as constituents of repre¬
sentatives and senators. It looks as if the votes given to
Jenckes’s bill were given in full knowledge that it never could
become law ; yet, the only means of reforming the public
service is to take away the existing inducements to trade in
offices, just as corrupt as was that openly recognized in Roman
legislation.

O

22

The Early Regeneration of [January,

Art. II. — The Early Regeneration of Sabbath-School Ch ildren.

One of the most important institutions which have arisen
within the church, during the present century, is the Sabbath-
school. Its original design was to reach the children of those
who neglected the divine ordinances of worship, and who
were thus kept aloof from the means of grace. While the
sphere of its operation has been somewhat enlarged, and the
children of the church are now generally included in its in¬
structions, its first and chief aim is still preserved, and its work
lias widened till several millions of the children and youth of
the land are embraced in its beneficent inclosures.

The remark is often made: “The Sabbath-school is still in
its infancy.” Its machinery and methods, the style and spirit
of its management and development are imperfect and crude.
It by no means accomplishes the good of which it is capable
and for which it is intended. Indeed, not a few evils grow
out of it which should be corrected and avoided. Many of
the best minds of the church are earnestly pondering these
things, and we note not a little advance in many schools.

In the following pages we propose to suggest some thoughts
touching the fundamental principles of this wide-spread insti¬
tution. We shall not discuss its constitution, or government,
or relations to the church, or modes of teaching, or external
appliances by which the interest and attention of children are
secured. We shall seek to reach the root of the matter, and
attempt to point out some of the conditions of a larger success
in the high end which we all so much desiderate.

The title of this article embodies the substance of what we
wish to say, and we ask an earnest and candid attention to its
unfolding. The views we offer are based upon the faith of
the church, as expressed in its symbols; and we firmly believe
that their intelligent application to the Sabbath-school work
will greatly increase its usefulness, and result in the cure of
many of the evils so generally deplored.

The first thing on which we remark is suggested by the
language in which the theme is announced. It is not the
“ conversion ” of little children that is brought before us, but

1870.]

Sabbath-School Children.

23

their “ regeneration and the difference between the two
should be carefully discriminated. Regeneration is the sov¬
ereign work of the Holy Spirit, creating anew its subjects in
Christ Jesus. It is the planting of “ the seed of God” in the
soul ; the imparting of a divine, spiritual life to one who is
“ dead in trespasses and sins.” It is the resurrection of such
a one, “ by the exceeding greatness of God’s power” from
the grave of the apostasy, from the deep and dark depravity
in which the whole race is buried. It is the formation of that
vital and indissoluble union, between the sinner and the Lord
Jesus Christ, in which, as the branch and the vine are one, as
the body and the head are one, as the husband and the wife
are one, so, by the operation of the Holy Spirit, the renewed
sinner and Christ become one. It is a transcendent work of
Divine power which any, and all human analogies fail fully
to set forth in its supernatural reality, and which is resembled,
by the Lord himself, to that mysterious and ineffable union
which subsists between the Eternal Father and his only be¬
gotten Son: “As thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that
they also may be one in us.”

Conversion is the result and evidence of regeneration. If.
is the action of the person’s own mind and will, in conse¬
quence of this prior and fundamental work of the Spirit. It
is the sinner himself turning from sin and the world to holi¬
ness and God, manifested by a variety of acts and exercises.
And there is all the difference between this and regeneration,
that there is between the work of the infinite God, and the
resulting work of a finite man.

There is, moreover, a popular use of the word conversion,
which is by no means applicable to regeneration. A person
maybe “converted” many times. Whenever sin has been
committed by a Christian, and he is convinced of it, he is con¬
verted from it. So it was with Peter; “when thou art con¬
verted, strengthen thy brethren.” But we do not often hear,
either in ordinary conversation or in the pulpit, of repeated
“ second births ; ” repeated “ new creations ” in regeneration
by the Holy Spirit. Thus the distinction between the two
terms is easily made. There is a divinity, a glory about the
one we do not immediately associate with the other. A man

24

The Early Regeneration of [January,

may be deceived as to the character of his own acts and
feelings in conversion; “for the heart is deceitful above all
things.” But God knows his own work. And when he has
wrought the great effect, when he has regenerated the sinner,
there can be no mistake about it. The gracious result is pro¬
duced and remains, no matter what the sinner’s thoughts and
feelings may be respecting it. There are doubtless many who
are converted , as the language is popularly understood, who, in
the exercise of their own wills, resolve to be, and to do, good,
are sorry for their sins, and feel that they believe and repent,
and who run well for a time, but who were never really “ born
again,” “ begotten ” of God the Holy Ghost. But when God
has once begun his good work of Omnipotent grace in the
soul, he will perform it until the day of Jesus Christ. Hence
the meaning and importance of the word regeneration in our
subject.

Accordingly, this is the first, the chief thing, that those
who are engaged in the work of Sabbath-schools should
aim at, pray, and labor for the actual regeneration, by the
third Person of the Godhead, of the children brought un¬
der the care of the church. It is not so much to secure
the right action of the child, important as this may be, as to
secure the almighty, efficacious action of the Blessed Spirit,
bv which the right action of the child will be infallibly as¬
sured.

On the very face of it, this is an unspeakably solemn busi¬
ness. It brings the teacher into nearer, closer contact with
the Eternal Spirit, than with the child. In dealing with the
child, the teacher simply presents truth, motives, and appeals;
and we know that this is to no good purpose unless the Holy
Spirit is present, and by the secret Omnipotent insinuations of
his grace, seals and makes them vital in the soul of the child.
The most serious and tremendous truth we can speak is pow¬
erless for salvation, apart from this Divine co-operation. Paul
may plant and Apollos may water, but God alone gives the
increase. There is thus absolute need of some extrinsic power
to make truth forcible, efficacious, renewing ; and there is no
power available to this end, other than that of God’s eternal
spirit. Accordingly, he who presents that truth, must have

25

1S70.] Sdblath- School Children.

power with God as well as power with his fellow-man to whom
he presents it.

The sentiment is more or less prevalent, that there is a dif¬
ference between the spiritual condition of unrenewed little
children, and that of unrenewed adults. Doubtless the former
are more accessible, more easily moved by statements of Bible
truths than are the latter. Their constitutional susceptibili¬
ties are more keen ; their intellectual acquaintance with error
and evil comparatively slight ; their habits of sin less fixed and
persistent; but these things do not touch the undeniable and
awful fact of their native hereditary depravity ; which, while it
may not be as active, is none the less existent and total, than
in the most hardened sinner. Little children have the same
indispensable need of the “ exceeding greatness of God’s
power” for renewal and salvation as adults. A new crea¬
tion in Christ Jesus is the essential prerequisite in all instances
whatsoever of human salvation. The Sabbath-school instruc¬
tor should understand and profoundly feel this ; else he will
in all likelihood fail of the result which he seeks, because
he does not direct his efforts to the right object, to his only
efficient Helper.

The idea of “ conversion ’ when most prominent in the
mind of the teacher, takes him to the child, to his intellect,
his heart, his will. The idea of “ regeneration ” when most
prominent, takes the teacher to the Holy Spirit, to his sove¬
reign agency, to his almighty power, to his infinite love.
The first makes the teacher a worker together with the child ;
the second, makes him a “worker together with God.” And,
as we have seen, the Divine influence is primary, and must be
exerted in order to the right mental and moral action of the
child.

With such a view of the work of saving the souls of men,
particularly of children, how solemn, how fearfully responsi¬
ble is the office of a teacher in the Sabbath-school ! Who is
sufficient for these things? What a friendship, what a sacred
familiarity with the Holy Spirit are requisite? What an
acquaintance with the methods, and conditions, and circum¬
stances of his gracious operations is needed. What a pro¬
found sense of dependence on his august presence. His holy

26 The Early Regeneration of [January,

will must be felt ; for lie dispenses liis gifts and graces accord¬
ing to his own sovereign pleasure. “ The wind bloweth where
it listeth, and thou liearest the sound thereof, but canst not
tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth, so is every one that
is born of the Spirit.” How carefully should the teacher
order his steps before him ! What a place of high commu¬
nion and earnest wrestling should his closet be !

And, moreover, as the teacher’s dependence for its salvation
is not upon the will and resolution of the child, for “ it is not
of him that willeth nor of him that runneth,” but upon the
immediate and efficient energy of the Divine Spirit, he him¬
self should seek to become, in connection with the divine
word he uses, a channel of mercy to his listening children,
“communicating grace” as one apostle says, “ to them that
hear him ;” or, as another has it, “ begetting them in the gos¬
pel ” unto life and salvation. Need we urge that such a teach¬
er should be a prepared channel, a sanctified, humble, loving
medium for the grace of the Holy Spirit. If holy men of old
were selected by God as the conveyancers of the inspiration
of the Holy Ghost in the composition of the Bible, assuredly
holy men should now be selected by the church as the convey¬
ancers of the grace of renewal and sanctification. God has
appointed not simply the bare word as the chief instrumen¬
tality of the Spirit’s work, but that word uttered, orally de¬
livered by Christian lips from Christian hearts. “ It has
pleased God by the foolishness of preaching,” lay and clerical,
“ to save them that believe.” The teacher should, therefore,
himself be a person full of faith and of the Holy Ghost. The
word he utters should be a living word, a fire in his bones, a
word that penetrates and moves, illumines and constrains him.
Then it is most likely to be a word of power wrought into the
soul of the hearer by the Divine Spirit.

The question is often asked, “ Can children, as such, be
converted to the Lord Jesus Christ?” The answer will be
found to be various. Often grave doubts are suggested; many
reserves are made. The emphasis , it is true, is not laid so
much on the word can , on the possibility of their conversion,
as on its unreliability ; and the mind is put into a condition
of hesitation and difficulty on the subject. This is owing,

Sabbath-School Children.

27

1S70.]

doubtless, in part at least, to the associations which the word
conversion excites. The mind fixes itselt upon the finite and
sinful child, upon his intellectual and moral powers and ac¬
tivities ; and such queries as these are started : Do not the
requisite mental acts and exercises demand a degree of intel¬
ligence and moral balance, that little children can scarcely be
supposed to possess ? Must there not be, what is called a
“ law work,” a work of reproof and alarm and conviction,
a conscious struggle against sin and Satan and the world,
precedent to conversion? And can we, in the inexperienced
and relatively unformed minds of little children, rely upon the
preliminary steps which lead to true faith and repentance ?
Thus the subject of the salvation of children is clogged and
darkened by questions pertaining to mental and moral philoso¬
phy, and zeal for, and confidence in, the work, are greatly
abated.

Blit when the question of regeneration is raised, the mind is
otherwise affected. Another and a totally different class of
associations is awakened, and the answer is prompt : “ Nothing
is impossible with God : he can make Christians out of the
stones of the streets.” The mind dares not limit the power
of the Eternal Spirit. We are very ignorant of the mysterious
mechanism of the human mind in all its stages from infancy
to old age, and we should be exceedingly careful how we
traverse the work of its Creator upon its subtle substance.
“ As thou knowest not what is the way of the Spirit, nor how
the bones do grow in the womb of her that is with child, even
so thou knowest not the works of God who maketh all.” The
degree and kind of the understanding of truth, requisite to the
Holy Spirit’s work on a child are beyond our ken. A single
seed of truth lodged in his soul in infancy, may be made the
occasion and instrument of regeneration. And we do not
know but that the effectual work of the Spirit may antedate,
in some children, the intellectual apprehension of any truth ;
that they may be sanctified from the womb, or from baptism,
and qualified by the presence and power of the Spirit for a
very early apprehension of the truths of the word of God. The
Lutheran and Reformed churches are based upon this conception
of the regenerating efficacy of the Spirit in little children.

28

[January,

The Early Regeneration of

The covenant-promise of the Holy Spirit is, “to parents and
their children.” And the work of regeneration involved in
“ the promise of the Spirit,” is the work primarily regarded
and believed in, by these churches. The evidences , the fruits
and manifestations of that work, in the infantile and childish
mind, subject as that mind is to the restraints and training
and religious habits of a godly home, may be, must be in
many cases, difficult to detect before their riper years and
larger experience of sin and temptation and the world ; but
the assumption of these churches, based upon clear Bible rev¬
elations, is that the children of believers are regenerated and
savingly united to Christ, until the contrary is established in
their subsequent life ; and it is expected that at an early age
they will be admitted to the Lord's table. The agency of the
Spirit, According to the promise, is taken for granted : and
the children of the church are to be looked upon and trained
and treated as renewed and united to Christ, till they them¬
selves disprove it, by their own wilful rejection of the cove¬
nant in which they were born, baptized, and blessed. This, we
say, is the underlying assumption of most, if not of all, the
churches of the Protestant world.*

And here another inquiry suggests itself, Will the Spirit
of God regenerate Sabbath-school children ? May teachers
depend on him for this result, and look for it with confi¬
dence ?

To a very large extent, as we have already observed, our
schools are composed of children whose parents are irreligious,

* In the constitution of the Presbyterian Church the following language is
used on this subject : — I. Children, born within the pale of the visible church,
and dedicated to God in baptism, are under the inspection and government of
the church ; and are to be taught to read, and repeat the Catechism, the Apos¬
tles’ Creed, and the Lord’s Prayer. They are to be taught to pray, to abhor sin)
to fear God, and to obey the Lord Jesus Christ. And, when they come to years
of discretion, if they be free from scandal, appear sober and steady, and to have
sufficient knowledge to discern the Lord’s body, they ought to be informed, it is
their duty, and their privilege, to come to the Lord’s Supper. II. The years of
discretion, in young Christians, cannot be precisely fixed. This must be left to
the prudence of the eldership. The officers of the church are the judges of the
qualifications of those to be admitted to sealing ordinances ; and of the time
when it is proper to admit young Christians to them.” — Directory for Worship,
chap. ix.

Sabbath-School Children.

29

1870.]

who have no personal connection with the churches. It is of
these we would particularly speak. We remarked just now,
that an acquaintance with the methods and conditions of the
operations of the Holy Spirit, is exceedingly important to the
successful teacher. Among these we would name, as one of
the most signal and essential, that of the existence and use of
the means of sanctification. Regeneration is an instanta¬
neous and finished product, when it is effected ; and it is
ordinarily wrought in view of the subsequent sanctification of
the individual. This is progressive, a work of time, frequently
of many years, running through the entire interval between
the regeneration and the death of the person. In the case of
the children of believers, the appropriate and appointed means
may readily be found. But in the case of others, who consti¬
tute the great majority of Sabbath-school classes, it is other¬
wise. The Bible, the family altar, the recognition of God at
the table, the closet, religious conversation and instruction, a
holy example, are all wanting ; and selfishness, worldliness,
and godlessness, obtain and hold large sway in the household,
and sometimes profanity and Sabbath desecration are habit¬
ually practised. The atmosphere of the family is irreligious.
Is it not self-evident, that in such cases, the work of sanctifi¬
cation is, to a fearful extent, precluded ? There is no doubt,
that a little child, brought up under a home influence of this
kind, presents a case exceedingly trying to the intelligent
faith of a teacher. Is the early regeneration of such children
to be expected ?

In answering this most pertinent and solemn question, we
would briefly submit the following observations : —

1. In the first place, the providence of God in the institu¬
tion and vast enlargement of the Sabbath-school, must be
honored. This is one of the most distinctive signs of the
times in which we live. It is a special manifestation of God’s
love for children ; for children outside of the pale of the visible
church. This divine affection is real and wonderful. Wit¬
ness God’s word in respect to Nineveh, “ Should not I spare
Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six score
thousand persons, that cannot discern between their right hand
and their left hand ?” And in one day, that love emerges

30

The Early Regeneration of [January,

into activity, and permanent development, as never before in
human history. The millions of children that have been
brought under the care of the church, through the Sabbath-
school, have been so brought by God’s all-wise providence,
not in judgment, but in mercy ; mercy which can be over¬
borne and thwarted only by the infidelity and neglect of his
own professing people. The Lord’s arm is not shortened that
it cannot save, nor his ear heavy that it cannot hear, but the
sins of his people, their coldness, and prayerlessness, and un¬
belief, and worldliness, may clog and stop the channels of his
mercy. This high responsibility has been put upon the
church, we may reasonably infer, not without the proffer of
the needful supplies of divine influence, looking toward the
actual regeneration and salvation of the perishing children.
This is one all important consideration, which should sink
down into our hearts.

2. In the next place, if this end is to be secured, it must be
done within a limited period. There is to all men a day of
grace, a space for repentance, a line drawn across their path,
visible only to God’s eye, beyond which there is no hope.
This space is measured, not so much by years as by privileges
and opportunities. If we take little children under our care>
and they are not renewed by the Divine Spirit, the danger is
very great that they will become gospel-hardened at an early
period. The habit of refusing the Lord Jesus Christ, and of
resisting and grieving the Holy Spirit, formed during the
plastic period of childhood, grows rapidly and strikes deep
into the soul. It is a lamentable fact, often mentioned and
deplored, that great multitudes of Sabbath-school children
cease their connection with the church when they leave the
Sabbath-school, and that it is exceedingly difficult to retain,
vmder Christian influence, very many of them, after they have
opened into manhood and womanhood. So that, if they
are not “ born again ” while in the Sabbath-school, the likeli¬
hood of their subsequent regeneration is immensely dimin¬
ished. The processes of indwelling sin and Satanic agency are
very subtle, very powerful, and urgent. And thus it would
appear, that the existence of the Sabbath-school, while it is a
signal token of divine mercy, is, at the same time, a sign of

31

1870.] Sabbath-School Children.

the shortening of the day of grace with large numbers of our
population.

3. Assuming now God’s willingness and readiness to renew
these children, as evidenced by his notable providence, and
assuming the solemn exigency in which they are placed by the
simple fact of their being in the Sabbath-school, we remark,
in the third place, that in order to the accomplishment of the
saving work of the Holy Spirit upon them, there must be,
humanly speaking, earnest and thorough consecration to the
salvation of each child, on the part of the teachers and of the
church — a consecration, hitherto, in a great measure unreal¬
ized. If the means of grace and holiness are so largely with¬
held from them at home, this lack must be supplied, to the
utmost degree possible, by those who, in God’s providence,
have their spiritual welfare in charge. Especially should the
teacher seek to take the place of faithless, godless parents.
He should be now a father, now a mother in Christ to their
children, a true sponsor, a real godfather and godmother. By
frequent visitation at their houses ; by taking them one by
one to his own house and praying with them, counselling and
instructing them ; by providing them with suitable Christian
reading; by writing letters to them ; by a holy and happy ex¬
ample (and all this from year to year), he should supply to the
Holy Spirit and to them, the meaus of sanctification. And
the church, especially through her responsible officers pre¬
eminently through its pastor, should continually do all in her
power to keep the pressure of eternal and divine things upon
the minds and hearts of the children. In this way it would
soon be found out that God is not willing that any should
perish, but that all should come to repentance and heaven.
The writer has a friend, a member now of the Roman Catho¬
lic Church, whose love for souls, and whose labors with God
and with them for their salvation furnish a lesson to us. On
a visit, paid her a year or two since, she took him into her
place of private prayer. In an inner closet, whose door she
opened, he noticed the photographs of nineteen persons. He
asked her who they were. She replied, they were poor people
she was trying to save. She visited them regularly, and in¬
structed them carefully, but her great dependence was on God ;

32

Sabbath- School Children.

[January,

and she was accustomed to take these photographs, one by
one, and put them on a little table she had prepared for the
purpose, and then, looking at them, she would kneel, and name
their names, and mention their wants and trials to her Father,
and plead for mercy in their behalf. Would that we, Protest¬
ants, rivalled the fidelity, and earnestness, and determination
of this Roman Catholic lad}7! Would that Sabbath-school
teachers and Christian churches were so imbued w7ith divine
grace, wrere in such deep and vital fellowship with the Holy
Spirit, wTere so heartily persuaded of the depraved, lost, and
helpless condition of all children by nature, and were so bent
on securing God’s almighty power in their behalf, that they
would make their salvation a matter of deeper concern than
their own necessary food! If the spirit of Jacob, when he
wrestled with the Angel of the Covenant, and said, “ I will
not let thee go, except thou bless me if the spirit of Moses,
when he said, “ This people have sinned a great sin, and have
made them gods of gold, yet, now, if thou wilt, forgive their
sin, and, if not, blot me, I pray thee, out of the book which
thou hast written if the spirit of Paul, when he wrote, “ I
could wish that myself were accursed from Christ for my
brethren, my kinsmen, according to the flesh;” if this were
the spirit that possessed Sabbath-school teachers, it would con¬
sume their indolence, and worldlines, and selfishness, and con¬
secrate them thorough, hearty, lifelong workers together with
God in this sacred calling. And without this spirit in some
good measure, the beneficial effects now derived from the in¬
stitution would scarely counterbalance, we fear, the evil which
it seals upon the souls of children by reason of its marked
shortcomings.

If the views we have presented are just, it follows that the
success of the Sabbath-school cause depends upon a mighty
outpouring of Divine influence upon teachers and scholars.
And this is our confidence, that as the providence of God
has instituted the system, involving such solemn relations and
consequences, so the Spirit of God will be given to it, and,
by a pentecostal baptism, teachers will be consecrated and
filled with the Holy Ghost, and the children will be renewed
and flock to the church, as the clouds and as doves to their

1870.]

33

Life of Samuel Miller.

windows. It is the cause of God, and he reigns sovereign and
supreme over it ; and none can stay the hand of his love, nor
resist the energy of his invincible spirit, when the fountains of
the great deep of the Divine compassions are broken up, and
the time, the set time to favor Zion lias come.

And how evident it is that no work can be named more
blessed, and yet more difficult, requiring more assiduity and
persistent faithfulness, than that of a Sabbath-school teacher.
It is an employment transcending all earthly work, demand¬
ing supernal aid, and when properly performed throughout
the church, will speedily usher in the millennial glory. To en¬
gage in it perfunctorily and prayerlessly, without a profound
and vital sense of dependence on the sovereign agency of the
Holy Spirit, is not only to sin against God, but also to sin
most grievously and fatally against the souls of the rising gen¬
eration in our land.

Art. III. — The Life of Samuel Miller , D.T., LL.D. Sec¬
ond Professor in the Theological Seminary of the Presby¬
terian Church at Princeton , N. J. By Samuel Miller.
In two volumes. Philadelphia : Claxton, Remsen & Haf-
felfinger.

There are two reasons why we approach this biography with
much more than ordinary interest. One is that the subject of
it was one of the commanding spirits of his day, one of the
greater lights of our American Church. The other is that,
though his grave has been made for nearly twenty years, he
is still embalmed in our grateful remembrances for that kindly,
formative, enduring influence, which rendered him to us, as
well as many others, one of the best of benefactors. In going
over the leading events of his life, and the prominent traits
of his character, as they are brought out in these deeply inter¬
esting volumes, — notwithstanding we claim the position ot
impartial reviewers, — we do not pledge ourselves to ignore all
past relations, or to forget that we are writing about one
whose memory we cherish with unmixed reverence.

VOL. xLn. — no. i. 3

34 Life of Samuel Miller. [January,

It is not our design to present even an outline of these
volumes, as if to diminish, in any degree, the importance of
giving them a thorough perusal, but rather, by briefly sketch¬
ing the life and character they so faithfully represent, to in¬
duce our readers to explore for themselves the source from
which our material is drawn. We shall content ourselves
with just glancing at Dr. Miller’s eminently useful life, and
then endeavoring to find out the secret of it.

It is impossible to form a correct estimate of the good influ¬
ence which Dr. Miller exerted, without viewing it in connec¬
tion with his various relations ; for each relation was a chan¬
nel through which that influence, in some form or other,
flowed out upon the world.

First of all, we may view him as the head of a family , and
as a Christian gentleman. In no condition can a good man
be placed in which his influence acts with greater power than
in his own home circle. Here he is brought in contact with
immortal mind in its earliest development ; and has the
opportunity of lodging in the memory and the heart, truths
and principles which may ultimately give complexion to the
whole character. It is not certain, indeed, that his best
efforts will always prove successful — for there is sometimes an
onergy in the proclivities of human corruption that no earthly
power is able to control — and yet there is no other sphere in
which his fidelity is more likely to be crowned with the Divine
blessing. Dr. Miller was the father of several children, who
have lived at once to honor their parentage and to bless their
generation. One daughter (the oldest) was married to the
Rev. Dr. John Breckenridge, whose life forms an important
part of the history of the Presbyterian Church, and her beau¬
tiful character is the subject of a fitting and graceful memo¬
rial. Another daughter (also deceased) was the wife of an
able lawyer in Princeton, — one of the trustees of the The¬
ological Seminary, — and was a model in every relation that
she sustained. Yet another daughter — thanks to a generous
Providence — still lives ; and may many years pass, before her
whole life shall be a legitimate subject for review. Several
of the sons have occupied important posts of public useful¬
ness, while one of the two clergymen is the author of these

1870.]

35

Life of Samuel Miller.

memorial volumes. It was indeed through the joint influence
of the parents that this successful training was accomplished
— they were fellow-helpers in the good work of thus mould¬
ing their offspring to lives of honorable usefulness.

But Dr. Miller’s social influence reached far beyond his
own domestic circle — as a Christian gentleman, mingling
with different classes, and occupying various fields of useful
activity, he made himself felt both benignly and powerfully.
He would be at home as well in the hovels of the poor as the
dwellings of the rich ; in the vale of ignorance and obscurity
as in circles of intelligence and refinement. With the former
class he never took on airs of superiority, as if to make them
sensible of the distance between himself and them, but, by
his kind words and genial and accommodating manner, en¬
deavored to breathe into their hearts the spirit of content¬
ment and good-will. With the latter he could mingle with
the utmost freedom, and, from his ample stores of intellectual
wealth, could dispense thoughts on almost any subject to
which it was a privilege to listen. Wherever he moved, or
wherever he paused, his bland and gentle manner, and his
well-ordered and kindly words, drew around him friends who
felt it a privilege to listen to his conversation and share his
regards.

Passing from the scenes of social life, in which Dr. Miller
figured so extensively and so brightly, Ave may view him next
in the higher relation of a minister of the Gospel. His
whole pastoral life was in connection, first with the Collegiate
Presbyterian churches, and, after the dissolution, with the
Wall Street Church, Hew York. It lasted just twenty years
— from 1793 to 1813 ; and though there were some causes of
disquietude operating in connection with it, especially the
question of a separation of the associated churches ; yet it
may safely be said that it was characterized throughout by
great dignity, fidelity, and success. Hot only was the congre¬
gation to which he ministered numerous and wealthy, but it
embodied a large amount of intellectual culture and social
and political influence ; and it was no small matter, especially
for a young man, to prepare sermons suited to such an atmos¬
phere. He succeeded, however, admirably in this difficult

36 Life of Samuel Miller. [January,

duty ; and "while he failed not to preach the whole counsel of
God plainly and earnestly, his discourses were framed with so
much symmetry aud good taste that the most fastidious hearer
rarely, if ever, went away unsatisfied. It is difficult, espe¬
cially at this late period, to estimate correctly the measure of
good influence which his ministry exerted ; hut we cannot
doubt that the Gospel preached with such admirable simplicity
and impressiveness, and to such a congregation, and for so long
a time, must have produced the grandest results. Though he
wras, by no means, what, in modern phrase, would be called,
a sensational preacher, yet he had a reputation in the coun¬
try at large, that attracted many strangers to his church ; and
all who went with open ears and hearts were sure to be edi¬
fied as well as gratified by his ministrations. Even in blew
England, where he was known much less than in some other
parts of the country, his fine qualities as a preacher were often
spoken of, and well do we remember that when it was an¬
nounced, in the prospect of the retirement of Dr. Griffin in
the Park Street Church, Boston, in 1811, that Dr. Miller was
expected to preach on the occasion, a strong desire to hear
him was expressed by many persons, and his ultimately fail¬
ure to preach occasioned much disappointment.

But it was not merely as a preacher, but as a pastor, that
Dr. Miller exhibited his rare qualities in connection with the
ministry. His intercourse with his people was always genial
and affectionate, and yet always marked by that dignity
which constitutes a leading element of a minister’s usefulness.
His congregation were bound to him by the strongest of all
cords — those of love ; and they welcomed him to their houses
with an intensity of good-will and affection, that could hardly
have been exceeded if he had been a member of their respective
families. He was at home especially amidst scenes of domes¬
tic sadness, his tender heart responded quickly to every ex¬
pression of grief, and, from a richly-stored and deeply-sancti¬
fied mind, he poured forth the wisest counsel and the richest
consolation. He was always forward to enlist his people for
the relief of human woe, or for the prevention of folly and
crime, or for the encouragement of any enterprise designed to
act auspiciously on the well-being of society. While he recog-

1870.]

37

Life of Samuel Miller.

nized liis own congregation as forming the immediate field of
his labors, much of what he did in connection with them had
a wider influence, and was instrumental in originating or sus¬
taining large plans of public usefulness.

That would be a very, inadequate view of Dr. Miller’s min¬
istry, that should not include the great amount of timely and
judicious labor that he performed in connection with the
judicatories of the church. Ilis influence in the presbytery,
and the synod, and on the floor of the General Assembly, was
scarcely exceeded by that of any other man. His plans were
always the result of mature thought, and were generally
marked by great wisdom and moderation. Sometimes he was
thrown amidst scenes of excitement and collision, that ill
became those who were legislating for the interests of the
church ; but his presence was generally found to be an ele¬
ment of quietude. Not that he desired peace at the expense
of principle, or that he was not ready to stand up for the right
against any opposition that could be arrayed against him ;
but he was always tolerant of men’s mistakes and infirmities,
and never imputed wrong motives when the necessity was not
imposed upon him. Nearly all who were associated with him,
even in the later period of his active ministry, have now passed
away. But we greatly mistake if the recollections of the few
who survive, are not in full harmony with our estimate of his
influence in this department of his official duty.

After a twenty-years’ ministry in New York, Dr. Miller
entered on a professorship of nearly forty years at Princeton ;
and this was undoubtedly the crowning glory of his life. He
had had an important agency in establishing the Theological
Seminary, and had not only given his vote for Dr. Alexander
as the first professor, but had publicly urged his acceptance of
the appointment. The very next year he was himself ap¬
pointed to the chair of Ecclesiastical History and Church Gov¬
ernment ; and though he shrank from the responsibility of the
office, and would, on some accounts, have preferred to con¬
tinue in pastoral life, yet, as a matter of duty, he yielded to
the general wishes of the church, and was inaugurated as
professor on the 29th of September, 1813. The discourse
which he delivered on the occasion, on the characters and

[January,

33 Life of Samuel Miller.

opinions of some of the more conspicuous witnesses for the
Truth during the dark ages, he declined to publish, on the
ground that it was hastily written, and that some of its state¬
ments would require to be fortified by numerous references
and quotations, which would make too large a draft upon his
time.

Though the number of students that he found in the sem¬
inary did not much exceed a dozen, he lived to see it increased
many fold ; and all the successive classes that enjoyed the
benefit of his instruction were witnesses at once to his ability
and fidelity. His professorship was one for which his natural
tastes and previous studies had eminently qualified him ; and
he entered upon it with great zeal and under the influence of
a ruling passion. Not only was he perfectly familiar with the
text-books used by his classes, but he had read and digested
kindred works in other languages, so that the whole range of
ecclesiastical history and church government seemed perfectly
familiar to him. His questions were always simple and in¬
telligible, and suggestive, never designed to embarrass or
bewilder. His lectures were luminous exhibitions of his sub¬
ject, full of well-digested thought, arranged with such graceful
naturalness as to leave a vivid impression on the memory.
There may have been some who thought they were sometimes
deficient in vigorous earnestness ; but we are sure that we
speak for much the larger number when we say that, in respect
to both thought and expression, they were admirably adapted
to the purpose theyr were designed to answer.

But it was not merely as a teacher and lecturer that Dr.
Miller reflected high honor upon his professorship, but in his
oft-recurring labors in the pulpit, and in all his more private
intercourse with his pupils. His preaching was singularly
adapted to profit theological students ; it was clear, direct,
logical, and full of evangelical truth, — in short, each of his
sermons seemed to have the force of a lecture on the art of
preaching, while yet it dealt fairly and honestly with each
individual’s heart and conscience. In his meetings with the
students on the afternoon of the Sabbath, he delivered himself
with perfect freedom, and yet with great impressiveness ; and
never more than then were they brought to realize the dignity

1870.]

39

Life of Samuel Miller.

and solemnity of the work to which they were destined. In
his occasional meetings with them in private — in his own
house or elsewhere — he always made them feel that they were
in the presence of a friend, and often, by some wise counsel
or some timely suggestion, left an enduring impression in
favor of truth or right.

Such in general was the character of Dr. Miller’s professor¬
ship. And now when we consider the length of the period
through which it extended, and the great number — amounting
to more than seventeen hundred — who were brought under
its direct influence, and when we bear in mind that they have
been scattered through every portion of our land as represen¬
tatives of the seminary at which they have been trained, can
we doubt that Dr. Miller lived pre-eminently for the benefit
of his country and the world. Are there not multitudes now
engaged in the ministry, and not a few even in heathen lands,
who think reverently and gratefully of him, as one of the
honored instruments by which they were formed for their
high vocation ? Do not the pulsations of his noble spirit
vibrate to this hour in many a proclamation, from other lips,

of the words of eternal life ? And as the world grows old from

p

the passing away of the ages, who can doubt that the good
work that he performed will continue to develop itself in fresh
accessions of light and strength and glory to that blessed cause
to which he was so earnestly devoted.

There is one more relation in which Dr. Miller must be
considered, or we shall fail to do justice to his eminently use¬
ful life — we mean that of an author. The productions of his
pen began to appear very shortly after he became a settled
pastor; and they came at brief intervals almost till the close
of his life. The versatility of his mind, and the variety and
extent of his knowledge, made him at home in almost every
field, whether literary or theological.

Dr. Miller’s occasional sermons and addresses that were
given to the public, through the press, were not far from
forty — the first having been delivered the very next month
after he was ordained, and the last a few years before his
death. These discourses are generally of a high order, being
especially remarkable for their adaptation to the various oc-

49 Life of Samuel Miller. [January,

casions that called them forth. They are all so good, that it
would be difficult to determine which are the best ; and yet,
in casting our eye over them, the sermons on suicide, the ser¬
mon at the inauguration of Dr. Alexander, the sermon at the
ordination and installation of the Rev. William Nevins, and
the sermon on the danger of education in Roman Catholic
seminaries, seem to us to have done, perhaps, the most ample
justice to their respective themes. We exceedingly doubt
whether any other minister of the Presbyterian Church in this
country has published so large a number of occasional dis¬
courses, all of which have been so worthy of enduring preser¬
vation.

The number of volumes for which we are indebted to Dr.
Miller’s pen, if our estimate be correct, is thirteen. The first
two are his “ Brief Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century,”
published in 1803. This work discovered an amount of
laborious research, and of familiarity with the various depart¬
ments of learning, that surprised even Dr. Miller’s most inti¬
mate friends ; and the marvel was, that the same man who
could preach regular^ on the Sabbath in so instructive and
acceptable a manner, and who was so constant and faithful in
the discharge of pastoral duty, could yet redeem time from his
manifold professional engagements, to produce so elaborate
and attractive a work as this. It was dedicated to the cele¬
brated John Dickinson, President of the State of Delaware,
who acknowledged the honor in very fitting and grateful
terms. It was received with great favor by the more intelli¬
gent class of readers in this country, and was also published
in Great Britain, where also it was met by many warm ex¬
pressions of commendation. Though many years have passed
since it was to be found in any of our bookstores, it may rea¬
sonably be doubted whether there is any work, treating of the
same subjects, and covering the same period, that can be read
with more advantage than this “ Retrospect of the Eighteenth
Century.”

Two of Dr. Miller’s larger works were memoirs; the one
published in 1813, the other in 1840; and both were worthy
alike of his head and of his heart. The former was the me¬
moir of his venerable colleague, Dr. Rodgers, with whom he

41

1870.] Z//e of Samuel Miller.

had been associated in the pastoral office eighteen years. As
Dr. Rodgers was ordained in 1749, and, of course, was among
the early ministers of the Presbyterian Church, the record of
his life involved, necessarily, to some extent, the history of
the body with which he was connected ; and we can hardly
imagine how this service could have been performed in a more
felicitous manner. At the same time, one is constantly kept
in mind of the tenderness of the relation that existed between
Dr. Miller and his colleague ; and, while there is nothing in
the book that savors of extravagant praise, there is every
thing to show that it was written under the influence of a
gratef ul and reverent spirit. The other memoir is that of the
Rev. Dr. Nisbet, the first president of Dickinson College, — a
man who was justly reckoned among the celebrities of his
time. At the time this memoir was written, Dr. Miller was
one of the few men living who had personal recollections of
Dr. Nisbet, that could be rendered available in a biography;
and it was well that so faithful and gifted a pen should have
been employed upon so worthy a subject. Not only does the
volume contain a very satisfactory account of his connection
with Dickinson College, and of what he did, and what he was
in his various relations during his residence in this country,
but it also traces his eventful history in Scotland, especially
showing the value of his services in connection with the in¬
terests of evangelical religion. As Dr. Nisbet’s character
was strongly marked, so Dr. Miller’s account of him is full of
simplicity and beauty, and worthy to be an enduring me¬
morial of one whom both hemispheres may well consider it a
privilege to honor.

Several of Dr. Miller’s publications, and those, too, which
had the widest circulation, were of a decidedly controversial
character. In 1807 he published his letters on the “Consti¬
tution and Order of the Christian Ministry ; ” and, two years
later, published another work on the same subject in reply to
strictures from several Episcopal clergymen, which the pre¬
ceding work had called forth. In October, 1820, he preached
a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. William Nevins, as
pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, in which
were some very plain utterances concerning Unitarian ism.

42 Life, of Samuel Miller. [January,

The sermon was noticed in the Unitarian Miscellany , a peri¬
odical then published in Baltimore, with marked disapproba¬
tion ; and this seems to have been the occasion of Dr. Miller’s
writing a series of “ Letters on Unitarianism,” making an
octavo volume of upward of three hundred pages. In 1840 he
published a volume, entitled “ The Primitive and Apostolical
Order of the Church of Christ Vindicated,” containing a some¬
what elaborate view of the claims of Presbyterianism and the
objections to Episcopacy. Several other of his works, espe¬
cially his “ Essay on the Office of Puling Elder,” and his “ Ser¬
mons on Baptism,” have more or less of a controversial bear¬
ing. While Dr. Miller’s natural gentleness of spirit and love
of peace disinclined him to controversy, his clear and compre¬
hensive mind, his freedom from prejudice and love of the
truth, eminently qualified him for it ; and hence he may be
regarded as one of our best authorities in that department of
theological literature. While his aim was to confound his
adversary by unanswerable arguments, and to bring out
what he believed to be the truth in the light of noonday, he
never sought aid from vague insinuations or bitter invective ;
never forgot his own personal dignity even in the closest con¬
flict in which he could be engaged. It is within our distinct
recollection that an individual who had held for some time
the relation of a vigorous opponent to him in a theological
controversy, assured us that he was deeply impressed by his
uniformly fair and gentlemanly bearing, and that, much as
he differed from him, he could not but regard him with the
highest respect.

Several other of Dr. Miller’s works deserve special notice,
both for the subjects to which they relate, and the able and
interesting manner in which the subjects are treated. In
1S27 he published a series of “Letters on Clerical Manners
and Habits, addressed to a student of the Theological Sem¬
inary at Princeton,” which have passed through several edi¬
tions, and which deserve to pass through many more. These
letters convey a most accurate impression of the writer’s own
character; and none who read them and knew him, will need
to look at the title-page to settle the question of authorship.
We have heard it objected that some of the rules are too

43

1870.] Life of Samuel Miller.

minute, and therefore unnecessary ; but that they are not
unnecessary is proved by the fact that they are very often
violated, and that at the expense of lowering ministerial char¬
acter and influence. In 1843 Dr. Miller published another
small volume, containing “Letters from a Father to his Sons
in College ; ” and these again are adapted in the most felicitous
manner to the end for which they are designed. They in¬
clude every subject that a college student has occasion to con¬
sider ; and it would he well if the work could be introduced
as a manual in all our higher institutions of learning. In
1848 he published a work entitled “Thoughts on Public
Prayer,” — the last, we believe, that came from his pen ; and
we know of nothing better fitted to aid and encourage the
spirit of devotion on the one hand, or to render the exercise
edifying and profitable on the other.

There are some other of Dr. Miller’s works to which we
might refer as evidence of the high place which he attained
in the ranks of authorship, but enough has been said to show
that he was among the most accomplished and most voluminous
writers of his day. Considering the great number and vari¬
ety of his productions — literary, theological, controversial,
practical, and devotional; considering that nearly all of them
have passed to a second or third edition, and have been re¬
ceived with great favor in every part of our country, while
some have attracted much attention on the other side of the
Atlantic; and finally, considering that they are still, and are
likely to be for generations to come, the channels of a benign
influence to the church; can we doubt that here was one of
the elements of his greatest power ; that though he might have
been a great and good and eminently useful man, if he had
never been known as an author, yet that, but for this, he
could have not lived as he has done, and now does, in the
thoughts and feelings of multitudes who never saw him.

After having thus glanced at Dr. Miller’s life, and traced
some of its results in the different departments of active use¬
fulness, it is natural that we should contemplate what he did
in connection with the higher power by which his character
was formed, and his destiny controlled.

Dr. Miller possessed, originally, admirable qualities that

44 Z?y«e of Samuel Miller. [January,

constituted the foundation of his eminently attractive charac¬
ter. With a finely-proportioned form, he had a countenance
full of generosity, manliness, and intelligence ; and though he
could not be said to have an unusually vigorous physical con¬
stitution, his health was generally adequate to the arduous
duties devolved upon him. Ilis countenance was indicative
of great purity and nobility of character ; and his manners,
though cultivated possibly at a slight expense of naturalness,
were uncommonly bland and graceful. His intellect was nat¬
urally clear, comprehensive, and symmetrical. His taste was
so perfect as to set criticism at defiance, insomuch, that in
reading his published works, one rarely meets with an expres¬
sion that admits of being essentially improved. Well do we
remember to have heard an eminent scholar and author, who
had been brought into sharp antagonism with Dr. Miller, say
that he hardly knew a writer in the English language, who he
thought equalled him in a fine and classical style. And his
intellect, we may safely say, though richly endowed, was no
better than his heart — he was naturally genial, gentle, and
sincere; incapable alike of double dealing and of needless
severity. We remember instances in which some of his
expressions of dislike were characterized by great intensity ;
but there was usually a reason for it in the circumstances that
called them forth. And we remember many other occasions,
on which his native kindliness of spirit found an apology for
mistakes, or delinquencies, which a different temperament would
have met with severe reprehension.

So also the hand of God was strikingly manifest in the
ordering of Dr. Miller’s lot. His grandfather, John Miller,
emigrated from Scotland, and settled in Boston, in the very
early part of the last century, and was a well-educated and
highly-respectable man. His father, John Miller, was a native
of Boston, where he received his early training, became a mem¬
ber of the Old South Church, studied for the ministry, and
finally was ordained with a view to his becoming the pastor of
two associated churches in Delaware. He was a man of
excellent talents, of liberal culture, and of great devoteduess
to his work. He was married to a Miss Millington, a lady of
superior education, of great personal attractions, and of de-

45

1S70.] Life of Samuel Miller.

voted piety. Trained under such a parental influence, it was
to be expected that the son, especially considering the original
qualities of his mind and heart, should early develop the
germ of a noble character. His first eighteen years were
spent under the paternal roof, and his preparation for college
was all made under the direction of his father. In 1788, he
became a member of the senior class in the University of
Pennsylvania, having already gone through the studies of the
previous years. Here he found himself surrounded by influ¬
ences, social, intellectual, and religious, that were eminently
favorable to the development and culture of his naturally fine
qualities. He graduated in 17S9, with the highest honor in
his class, in token of which it devolved on him to deliver the
salutatory oration. It was during his college life that he first
became acquainted with the Rev. (afterward, Dr.) Ashbel
Green, of Philadelphia, with whom he continued on terms of
great intimacy until the close of Dr. Green’s life. Among
his instructors, the provost of the university, Rev. Dr. Ewing,
with whom he afterward became connected by marriage, seems
to have left upon him the most enduring impression. He
prosecuted his theological studies at Carlisle, under the learn¬
ed, and justly celebrated, Dr. Hisbet ; and the acquaintance
thus commenced he recognized as an enduring source of grati¬
fication and improvement. In due time he became one of the
pastors of the Collegiate Presbyterian churches in Hew York ;
and though he was called, in 1799, to the First Church in
Philadelphia, he preferred to remain with his first charge, and
did remain with them until his removal to Princeton, in 1813.
By his settlement in the ministry be was placed in circum¬
stances most favorable to his improvement and usefulness.
His associates in the pastoral charge were men of commanding
powers and far-reaching influence, while there were ministers
outside of his own denomination, with whom he was in the
habit of familiar intercourse, who were justly reckoned among
the lights of their day. Indeed it were hardly possible that
his lot should have been cast in any other clerical circle in
which he could have had better opportunities for communi¬
cating a fresh impulse to great minds, or coming under their
quickening powers. And then, it is to be borne in mind that

46 Life of Samuel Miller. [January,

the people to whom he ministered, were many of them, not
only of the highest standing in society, but distinguished for
their intellectual culture, thus presenting to him a powerful
motive for the faithful improvement of his faculties, and the
utmost diligence in his work. During the whole period of his
ministry, and indeed, throughout the residue of his life, many
of his most intimate friends occupied some of the highest
places of public usefulness; and it cannot be doubted that in
many cases at least, he and they were fellow-helpers in the
great cause of human improvement.

Dr. Miller’s marriage proved an important auxiliary to
almost every good work in which he engaged. Mrs. Miller
was the daughter of the Hon. Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant,
one of the most eminent lawyers of his day, and a member of
the Continental Congress ; and this connection brought her
husband into intimate relations with the whole circle to which
she belonged. She was herself a lady of remarkable powers,
of the highest culture, and of deep reverence for religion,
though it was not till some time after her marriage that she
ventured to hope that she was the subject of a saving change,
and to make a public profession of her faith in Christ. From
that time it was manifest to all who had an opportunity of
observing her daily life, that her treasure was in heaven ; and
while her fine intellectual and moral character was the subject
of universal admiration, it was impossible to resist the convic¬
tion, that her crowning attraction was her religion. Though
we cannot determine the exact measure of influence that she
exerted upon her husband, we cannot doubt that not her heart
only, but her hand, was in much of the good that he ac¬
complished.

Another event in Dr. Miller’s history, to which he was in¬
debted for a large increase of his usefulness, was his being
appointed to a professorship in the Theological Seminary at
Princeton. Though his influence as a pastor was wide and
deep, it was doubtless greatly exceeded by his influence as
professor ; for in the latter case he was brought in direct con¬
tact with the minds of those who were in a course of training
for the Gospel ministry ; and through them, his sound instruc¬
tion and benevolent activity, would tell on the destinies ot

47

1870.] Life of Samuel Miller.

coming generations. At the same time he became by this
means a much greater power in the church at large ; his
opinion on difficult questions was generally regarded as of
higher authority; for every one felt that he occupied a place,
to which none but the wisest and best could be called. In¬
deed his office as professor opened to him many new channels
of Christian and ministerial activity, and gave him opportu¬
nities for doing good which were enjoyed by few of his gener¬
ation.

We only add that Dr. Miller was favored with many tokens
of his Redeemer’s gracious presence, and thus rendered strong
for the arduous duties to which he was called. Ilis path
seems to have shone brighter from the day of his conversion
to the day of his death. Mistakes and errors, like every other
good man, he sometimes committed ; but when he became
convinced, he was always ready to confess and correct. He
seemed ever to be in communion with the Lord, his strength,
so that when difficult duties devolved upon him, his courage
did not falter; or when great trials were in prospect, he could
gird himself to meet them with calm submission. He had a
triumphant meeting even with the last enemy, knowing in
whom he had believed. Through his whole life, God was his
helper, and hence he was always ready to do his Master’s will,
and had the pleasure to see every good work prospering in
his hands.

In the view of Dr. Miller’s life, and the estimate of his char¬
acter, which we have now given, our main design has been to
direct the attention of our readers to a work in which may be
found an account of him alike interesting and faithful. And
we deem it proper, before closing this sketch, to refer a little
more distinctly to some of the prominent features of this
work, with which its attractiveness is specially identified.

And the first that occurs to us is the minuteness of its de¬
tails. It is quite possible that some readers may think that
this is carried so far as to be an imperfection ; and if it were
not for the great purity and elevation of the character de¬
lineated we might think so too ; but as it is, we find little or
nothing in the volumes that we could have wished was not
there. On the contrary, there are many things that seem of

48

Life of Samvel Miller.

[January,

small importance in themselves, that are yet full of meaning,
and, to a thoughtful mind, they bring out character far more
impressively than many other things that seem far more im¬
posing. We may add that the whole work is constructed
with great simplicity and naturalness, so that one in reading
it almost forgets that he is not holding a familiar conversation.

Another characteristic feature of the biography is that it
covers a long and deeply-interesting period. The account
of the ancestry of both Dr. Miller and his wife takes us back
among generations that have long since passed away, and
includes in it reminiscences of many individuals of Revolu¬
tionary and even ante-Revolutionary fame. But if we limit
ourselves to the time in which he was in the full discharge of
his duties as a minister of the Gospel, and as an educator of
ministers, we shall find that it reaches through several years
more than half a century. And during these years, the
Presbyterian Church was more than once in a state of great
agitation, and once, at least, thoroughly convulsed ; while
several outside controversies, at different periods, awakened
a deep and general interest. Of all these polemic scenes,
especially those with which he was more immediately con¬
nected, Dr. Miller has left a faithful record, which is preserved
in these volumes. Indeed, one cannot read them carefully
without becoming acquainted with the more important events
of our history, especially the history of the Presbyterian
Church, during the period to which they relate.

It is worthy of remark, also, that the work which we are
reviewing contains incidental notices of most of the distin¬
guished clergymen of that day within the Presbyterian Church,
and of not a few outside of it. From many of them there
are letters ; or else there are facts stated illustrative of their
characters ; and one can hardly help feeling, as he passes
along through the work, that, in reading the biography of a
single individual, he is brought into communion with a host
of illustrious men, who, having served their generation faith¬
fully have fallen asleep. The names of Doctors Green, Griffin,
Janeway, Romeyn, Dwight, Morse, and many other noble
spirits — some of a later date — are often repeated, and may be
said to be embalmed in these pages.

1870.]

49

A Fragment.

The last, and bj no means the least, important characteristic
of this work that we shall notice, is its signal impartiality.
As a general rule we regard it as rather an unsafe matter for
a son to attempt the biography of a distinguished father ; and
most of those who read such a work are prepared to make
many grains of allowance for concealment or exaggeration.
But the reader has nothing of this kind to encounter in these
volumes. There is no attempt to make it appear that Dr.
Miller did not share the ordinary infirmities of humanity ;
nor the slightest indication of a wish to attribute to him any
thing beyond his deserts. There may be a difference of
opinion in regard to the writer’s estimate of particular acts,
but all must agree that the work gives no evidence of filial
partiality.

We rejoice that so worthy a monument should have been
erected to the memory of such a man. We are sure that
there are those scattered all over the church who honor him as
a friend and a father, and to whom these volumes will come
as a most grateful offering. Let the work live through suc¬
cessive generations, not only to honor the memory of its sub¬
ject, but to open fresh channels of blessing through the re¬
membrance of his eminently useful life.

Art. IV. — A Fragment. What the Greeks thought of the
Religion of the Jews.

TnE following extract from the Moralia of Plutarch is from
the version of the learned Abbe Ricard, who devoted forty
years of his life to the study and translation of that author.

The Romans and Greeks appear alike to have held the
Jews in detestation, — whether from their turbulent and fero¬
cious character, or from traditions respecting them, handed
down by the Egyptian Priesthood,— perhaps it would be diffi¬
cult to say. Doubtless much of the cruel persecution of the
earlier Christians is to be attributed to their identification
VOL. XLn. — no. i. 4

50

A Fragment.

[.January,

with the Jewish race. Singular indeed is it, that this nation,
to whom alone the knowledge of the true God had been im¬
parted in all its grandeur, should have been looked down upon
by the rest of the human family ; across whose Pagan dark¬
ness the divine light had been permitted to flash at intervals
only, like the sudden, crinkling lighting in the tempest ; for
such must we view the elevated ideas of the Deity occasionally
emanating from the master spirits of the human race, — from
Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Plutarch, and other philosophic
minds.

Plutarch was born a. d. 50 or TO, within a few years of
the crucifixion of the Saviour, being contemporary with St.
John the Evangelist. It is sad to think, that one so virtuous
and learned, should not have had the privilege of hearing, and
reflecting upon, the simple teachings of Jesus Christ. When
intellect like his was thus smothered in the mists of Paganism,
how deep must have been the darkness of the masses, through
which the Christian revelation was destined to pierce.

. . . When Lamprias had finished, Callistratus said, to the
other guests, “ AVhat do you think of the reproaches which
Lamprias makes of the Jews; that they abstain from the flesh
of the hog, of which, of all nations, they should be the first to
make use ? ”

“ They merit indeed this reproach,” replied Polycratues ;
“but I am uncertain, whether it is from reverence or horror
of the hog, that they abstain from eating its flesh. What
they themselves say, bears the air of fable, unless, indeed,
they entertain secret reasons which they are unwilling to
divulge.”

“ For myself,” said Callistratus, “ I believe that the hog
is honored by this nation. It is objected that it is dirty
and hideous ; but I do not see in what it is more deformed
and disgusting than the beetle, the griffin, the crocodile, or
the cat; each of which lias worshippers, among the Egyp¬
tian priests, and which pass for wholesome animals. The
Egyptians reverence the hog, also, out of gratitude; for it is
said, that this animal first taught them the art of agricul¬
ture, and that the rooting with liis snout gave them the idea

1870.]

51

. A Fragment.

of the ploughshare; the name of which instrument is derived
from it. The inhabitants of the lower part of Egypt are un¬
acquainted with the use of the plough. When the Nile
retires from their fields, they sow their seed broadcast on the
alluvial deposit, left by its recession, subsequently turning in
the hogs, who, digging with their feet, and rooting with their
snouts, soon upheave the earth and thus bury the seed to its
proper depth. It is not surprising then, that there are peo¬
ples who, for this reason, abstain from using the flesh of the
hog, since we see, with the Barbarians, other animals receive
the highest honors from trivial and often ridiculous causes.
It is said, for example, that the Egyptians have deified the
Musaraigne on account of its blindness ; because they deem
darkness more ancient than light. They also consecrate the
lion to the sun, because, that of all the quadrupeds with
crooked talons, its young alone are born with their eyes open ;
that it sleeps but little, and that its eyes shine during sleep.
They ornament the spouts of their fountains with lions’
heads, because the Nile inundates their fields when the sun is
in the sign of the lion. They also assert that the ibis, when
it is born, weighs two drachms, exactly the weight of the
heart of an infant when it first sees the light, and that the
spread of its feet forms with its beak an equilateral triangle.
Wherefore, then, should the Egyptians be censured for these
ideas as ridiculous, since the Pythagoreans themselves wor¬
ship, it is said, a white cock, and among fishes abstain par¬
ticularly from the surmullet and the ortie de mer; and the
Magi, disciples of Zoroaster, honor with especial reverence
the ground hedgehog, while they detest water-rats; regarding
the man that kills the greatest number of them as the happiest
of mortals, and especially favored of the Gods. I think that
if the Jews really held the hog in horror, they would kill it
as the Magi do the water-rats, but they are alike prohibited
from killing or eating it. Perhaps in the same manner that
they reverence the ass from its discovering to them a source of
water in a time of extreme drought, they revere the hog from
its teaching them the culture of the earth. Is it to be assumed
that they abstain from eating the flesh of the hare, because it
is a dirty and impure animal?”

52

A Fragment. .

[ J ANUARY,

“ It is not for that,” said Lamprias ; “ but it is from its
resemblance to the ass, of animals, the one they most rever¬
ence ; for though these animals differ in size and quickness,
on the other hand they are of the same color, have long ears
and shining eyes, and resemble each other in other respects, so
that there are none, great or small, which are so alike as the
ass and the hare. Perhaps, also, with the Egyptians, who attrib¬
ute a mysterious signification to the qualities of animals, the
Jews recognize something divine in the activity of the hare
and the acuteness of its natural senses. Its sight is so keen
that it sleeps with its eyes open ; and sense of hearing so deli¬
cate, that the Egyptians make use of the figure of its ear in
their hieroglyphics, as the emblem of the sense of hearing.
As for the Jews, I think that they abstain from the flesh of
the hog from fear of disease, for there are no maladies the
Barbarians so much dread as the leprosy and the mange ;
believing, as they do, that these diseases end finally in the
entire destruction of their victims. The hog, as we see, has,
nearly always, parts of its body marked with white and leprous
spots, and these eruptions appear to be the result of interior
corruption. The filth in which it lives must give an additional
bad quality to the flesh, for there is no animal which so
delights to wallow in filth and ordure, with the exception of
those which are born and exist in it. It is also said that the
eyes of the hog are so fixed on the earth that he can see
nothing above him, nor look upon the heavens, unless he is
turned on his back ; his eyes then take a direction contrary to
their natural position, and though at first very noisy, when he
is thus reversed, he soon becomes silent and tranquil, aston¬
ished either at the sight of heaven, to which, he is unaccus¬
tomed, or in terror at seeing it. If it were necessary, fabulous
traditions might be cited. Adonis was killed, it is said, by
a boar, and it is thought that Adonis is identical with Bacchus ;
and this opinion is confirmed by the ceremonies which are
practised at the feasts of both of these divinities. There are
those who assert that Adonis was the favorite of Bacchus, and
it is the opinion of Phanocles, as is proved in this verse:

‘Bacchus, in roaming o’er the fields of Cyprus,

Saw, and made captive, the beautiful Adonis.’ ”

53

1870.] A Fragment.

Symmachus, surprised at this last allusion, said: “What!
Lamprias, would you tolerate that the mysteries of the Jews
should be confounded with those of the god of our country !
or, is it indeed probable, that this God may be identical with
that of the Jews ?”

“ Permit Lamprias,” interrupted Meragenus ; “ I, who am
an Athenian, assert that he is one and the same God. Most of
the proofs which confirm it, can be communicated only to
those who have been initiated in the third, and highest, order
of the mysteries of Bacchus. But that which we are not pro¬
hibited from revealing to friends, and particularly at the table
where we are enjoying the gifts of this God, if you so desire, I
am ready to impart.”

The guests all urging him warmly, he resumed : “ First,”
said he, “ the greatest and most solemn of their feasts is cele¬
brated at a time, and in a manner, which proves its analogy
with those of Bacchus. They give to it the name of the fast,
and solemnize it in the height of the vintage, covering their
tables with all kinds of fruits, and during the time that it lasts,
living under tents constructed mainly of palm branches and
ivy interlaced ; and the first day of this solemnity they call
the feast of the Tabernacles. A few days after, they celebrate
another, the connection of which, with those of Bacchus, is no
longer even enigmatical, but formally consecrated to this
God. It is called the feast of the Crater aphorie and the
Thyrsophorie (the cups and the thyrsies). In it they bear in
their hands branches of palms or thyrses, with which they
enter into their Temple. What they do there, we are ignorant
of ; but it is probable they celebrate some Bacchanal ; for they
make use, to invoke their God, of little trumpets, similar to
those which the Greeks employ in the feast of Bacchus ; other
priests play on harps, and are called Levites, either from the
name Lysias , or more probably that of Evius, two surnames
of Bacchus. Neither is the celebration of the Sabbath as it
appears to me foreign to Bacchus. Even now, in many parts
of Greece they give the name of S abbes to the initiates
of Bacchus, who, in their mysterious ceremonies, pronounce
this word. The oration of Demosthenes on the crown, and
Menander, furnish proofs of this fact. It appears also proba-

54

A Fragment.

[JaNCJAKV,

ble that it is from this name that there has been formed that
of Sabbat , and that it indicates that species of furor or enthu¬
siasm with which those who celebrate the mysteries of Bac¬
chus are inspired. What confirms this conjecture as to the
worship which they render to Bacchus Sabbasien is, that on
the day of the feast they urge each other to drink to intoxica¬
tion, and if any by grave motives are prevented from becom¬
ing inebriated, they are at least compelled to drink their
wine pure. To these proofs can be added others of still
greater force. For instance, those derived from the costume
of the high priest; who, on days of solemnity, wears a mitre
on his head, and is clothed in a tunic, made from the skin of
the stag, trimmed with gold, with a training robe hanging
from his shoulders ; his feet clad with laced buskins. Below
and around the bottom of the robe are attached little bells,
which cause as he walks, the same sounds that we hear in the
nocturnal mysteries of Bacchus, and from which reason they
are called the nurses of this god. Still another proof, is the
thyrses and the tambourines, Avhich are seen engraved on the
walls of their temple. All this can have relation to no other
god than Bacchus. The Jews do not employ honey in their
sacrifices, because, mixed with wine it spoils it. Before the
art of cultivating the vine was understood, honey was made
use of, both as a drink and in the libations to the Gods. Even
now, the Barbarians who are unacquainted with the use of
wine, make a drink composed of honey, the insipidity of
which they correct with bitter and vinous roots.

The Greeks themselves render sacrifices to Sobriety , in which
they offer honey ; because its qualities are antagonistic to those
of wine. Another, and very strong proof of the worship they
render to Bacchus, is that the greatest and most ignominious
punishment that they can inflict, is to deprive the criminals
from the use of wine during a certain time prescribed by the

judge. Those who are thus punished'5 .

[The rest of the book is lost.]

1870.]

The Reign of Law.

oo

Art. Y. — The Reign of Law. By the Duke of Argyle.

Fifth editioii. Alexander Snahan. London : 1867.

We regard this as a work of decided interest and value.
The noble author holds no mean place among the philosophi¬
cal thinkers of the day ; a position fairly won by the acuteness
of his reasoning powers, and the clearness and ability with
which his views are enforced. Acting in the spirit of the
motto on his escutcheon, uvix ea nostra vocof and determined
to win an honorable fame which should be all his own, he
early entered, as an author, those lists in which fortune, rank,
and illustrious ancestry avail nothing, but success must de¬
pend on personal merit alone. There is a manliness in such
a course which naturally enlists the sympathies and good
wishes of the public, and secures their congratulations on his
well-earned reputation.

The volume presents some of the mature and revised opin¬
ions of its author, the greater part of which had already ap¬
peared as contributions to the Edinburgh Review and other
British periodicals of high character. The subject, as the title
imports, is the Beign of Law ; not, however, of human law, but
of that which controls the course of nature and the operations
of the mind of man. Over all this region he thinks its empire
is absolute, binding the universe, as far as we know it, in the
relation of cause and effect, as in a chain of necessity which
is never broken even by the power of the Deity himself. This
hypothesis has always been a favorite wTith those scientific men
who disclaim the authority of faith to impose checks on the
speculations of reason, but has generally been regarded with
suspicion and dislike by orthodox Christians, as scarcely com¬
patible with those intimate personal relations which religion
teaches have been established between man and his Maker.
Yet the author is not a sceptic, but a believer in revelation,
and one object of his work is to wrest from the practical
atheist the advantage he claims in that uniformity of natural
operations, which appears to exclude all immediate divine
intervention.

56

[Januaky,

The Reign of Law.

He distinguishes law (pp. 64-5), with sufficient precision,
into five different senses: as applied, 1, “ simply to an ob¬
served order of facts ;” 2, “ to that order as involving the action
of some force or forces of which nothing more may be known
3, “to individual forces, the measure of whose operation has
been more or less defined or ascertained 4, “ to those com¬
binations of force which have reference to the fulfilment of
purpose, or the discharge of function 5, “ to abstract con¬
ceptions of the mind — not corresponding with any actual phe¬
nomena, but deduced therefrom as axioms of thought necessary
to our understanding of them. Law in this sense is a reduc¬
tion of the phenomena, not merely to an order of facts, but to
an order of thought.” These different significations all “ circle
round the three great questions which science asks of nature,
the What, the How, and the Why.” In inanimate nature the
first three, we suppose, are the phases of law most clearly dis¬
cernible; but the world of organisms, though embracing all, is
more peculiarly distinguished by the regulative power of the
fourth and fifth, which appear to constitute what are known
as teleology and the more recent doctrine of morphology. In
considering these last, the author introduces many curious and
interesting illustrations of contrivances directed to specific
ends, whether of utility, ornament, or order, and opposes with
much earnestness and force the systems of Darwin and others,
who endeavor to explain away all proofs of design by such
hypotheses as development, or natural selection, or some not
very intelligible idea of morphology acting as a living,
power in nature. But throughout all, he persistently main¬
tains the universal reign of law, more especially, perhaps, as
respects those primary properties of matter which, as far as
we know, are indestructible by natural causes — law in this
sense, certainly, and probably in others, according to him, be¬
ing never suspended or altered, but all the infinitely diversi¬
fied effects witnessed in creation being produced by natural
forces conspiring, through adjustment, to purposed ends. The
chapter on “Contrivance a Necessity” is to us one of much
interest. In it his illustrations are all taken from the flight of
birds, with the structural adaptations to that function, and rep¬
resent in a very striking manner how mechanical laws are made

1870.]

57

The Iieiyn of Law.

to subserve the power by the most exact, beautiful, and (if we
may use the expression) ingenious contrivances for the purpose.
Two following chapters, called “ Apparent Exceptions,” and
“ Creation by Law,” illustrate, in different phases, the same
general argument of design working under conditions imposed
by law, and show the author’s power of dealing with those
somewhat transcendental ideas which have in recent times be¬
come imbedded in the philosophy of natural history. The
last two chapters consider law in the realms of mind and of poli¬
tics, where its reign is recognized as not less absolute than it
is in matter, and where, also, order, purpose, and adaptation to
specific ends are equally principles of controlling authority.
The author had designed to add a chapter on “ Law in Chris¬
tian Theology,” as necessary to complete his plan, but for the
present has “shrunk from entering on questions so profound,
of such critical import, and so inseparably connected with reli¬
gious controversy.” — Preface. The work, which throughout
has the impress of an able, cultivated, and manly mind, is per¬
spicuous, animated, and unaffected in its style, exhibits much
vigorous thought, and contains a variety of scientific informa¬
tion which is made more interesting by its connection with the
philosophical argument.

With a thesis so wide and so varied as the work presents
we do not propose to deal, but we would offer some remarks
on the relation which its views, as to the immutability of natu¬
ral laws, seem to bear to the fundamental truths of religion.

The nineteenth century appears to present, in sharper an¬
tithesis than most of its predecessors, two antagonistic mental
tendencies — great superstitious credulity in one class, with a
determined scepticism as to every form of the supernatural
in another. The first is seen in the prevalence of Mormon-
ism, Mesmerism, Spiritualism, and other wild systems of belief,
to which multitudes of minds, generally ill-trained, and little
used to the scrutiny of evidence, yield implicit faith. The
second is often found with intellects of a higher order, being,
indeed, a frequent characteristic of reasoning and philosophic
minds. Within the church both are exhibited, sitting side by
side, or following each other in rapid succession. In Oxford,
thirty years ago, a powerful ecclesiastical party sought to re-

58

The Reign of Law.

[January,

introduce into the English Church many of the superstitious
observances of Popery. T vventy years later disguised infidelity
prevailed there to such an extent that a deistical lecturer could
boast, with apparent justice, that the work called “Essays and
Reviews,” written by an association of Oxford clergymen, pro¬
pounded the views of Paine and Voltaire with just that mix¬
ture of cloudiness we might expect from men who remem¬
bered they were in orders, and therefore not quite free to utter
all the}7 thought. More recently, by another revolution, the
credulous element is again ascendant in that city, and the
tractarianism of a past generation is eclipsed by the ritualism
of the present.

Yet, if we compare the two — credulity and scepticism — in
the extent of their prevalence and the class of minds affected
by them respectively, we cannot well doubt that the latter is
much the more decidedly a distinguishing trait of the age.
Probably at no former time were reasoning men less disposed
to submit to the authority of received opinions ; probably
never before were the foundations of religious faith searched
by a criticism so cold and so unshrinking. Rot only have
philosophers denied the being of a God, the truth of the moral
sense, the necessary inherent distinction of right and wrong,
and the objective reality of time and space, but what is still
stranger, they have even doubted their own personal existence
in the very act of self-conscious deliberation upon the point.
These are men who have pursued too far the phantoms that
haunt the dim bewildering regions of ontology. There are
others, again, who have never questioned their own personal
identity, or the reality of the external world, but who look
upon the universe as a machine that works out its ends by its
inherent forces ; and, therefore, like the old Epicureans, they
exclude all divine agency as superfluous if not mischievous,
and deliver up man, hopeless, helpless, prayerless, to the blind
fatality of natural causes, except as his own powers may avail
to influence his destiny. hTor is this scientific scepticism con¬
tent with denying the Deity all share in the supervision and
control of his works ; for one object toward which it zealously
presses is to efface all those proofs of design from which his
existence even as a Creator can be deduced. Such is the tend-

1870.]

59

The Reign of Law.

enc}Tof Laplace’s celebrated cosmological hypothesis, by which
he seeks to construct a universe without supernatural assist¬
ance ; and also of the more recent Development theory, which,
taking different shapes in the hands of different advocates, tends
equally in each to banish all immediate divine agency from the
department of organized nature. “It is superfluous,” says
Comte, “ to establish specially the indispensable preliminary
that all idea of creation , properly speaking, must be utterly
rejected as in its nature wholly inconceivable, and that the
only reasonable inquiry, if indeed that is attainable, must re¬
late to successive transformations So speaks the hierophant
of positivism, laying down a canon which embodies the true
doctrine of his school. We are aware that many advocates of
these theories of Lhplace and Darwin deny their atheistical
tendency, and find room, not only for an intelligent Creator,
but for his special providence, and even his fatherly attribute
as the hearer of prayer. They assume that far back in past
eternity, or that inconceivably remote period when the Creator
laid the plan of his works, he foresaw the exact conditions,
wants, and characters of all his intelligent creatures, judged
their deeds, beheld their sufferings and temptations, and lis¬
tened in advance to their prayers; and then with special refer¬
ence to each, instituted that series of causes which should in
their distant future operations produce the specific results,
whether of judgment or mercy, which his infinite wisdom de¬
creed. This hypothesis may not be free from speculative dif¬
ficulties to some minds ; but it affords, perhaps, a possible basis
for the support of personal religion, provided the emotions of
the heart can be made to respond to the theoretical conclusion.
But the natural desire is for a personal God, whose sympathy
and approbation are an instant vital principle, not one whose
relations to mankind would be the same if he had sunk into
annihilation the moment the great universe, with its infinitely
complex web of causalities, had been called into existence.
Constituted as the human mind is, existing essentially in the
associations to which its finite conditions have given birth,
such a Deity must necessarily be, at least to the great majority,

* Philosophic Positivism , tome ii., p. 3G3.

GO The Reign of Law. [January,

but a cold and lifeless abstraction which could kindle no devo¬
tion in the soul.

The able treatise whicli stands at the head of this article
asserts, as we have said, the absolute supremacy of natural
law, but without detriment to the doctrine of special prov¬
idence, to the historical truth of miracles, or to their decisive
authority as the credentials of revelation. These dangerous
consequences the author escapes by a somewhat peculiar
definition of terms, to which we shall have occasion again to
refer. At present we would extract some remarks on the re¬
lation of science to theology that in our opinion convey a grave
and weighty truth which it is the duty of all parties fairly to
confront.

“We see the men of theology coming but to parley with
the men of science, a white flag in their hands, and saying : ‘ If
you will let us alone, Ave will do the same by you. Keep to
your own prcmnce ; do not enter ours. The reign of law which
you proclaim we admit — outside these walls, but not within
them : — let there be peace between us.’ . . . It is against

this danger that some men would erect a faint and feeble bar¬
rier by defending the position that science and religion may
be, and ought to be, kept entirely separate ; — that they belong
to wholly different spheres of thought, and that the ideas
which prevail in the one province have no relation to the
other. This is a doctrine offering many temptations to many
minds. It is grateful to scientific men who are afraid of being-
thought hostile to religion. It is grateful to religious men
who are afraid of being thought to be afraid of science. To
these, and to all who are troubled to reconcile what they haA’e
been taught to believe with what they have come to know,
this doctrine affords a natural and convenient escape. There
is but one objection to it, but that is the fatal objection, that
it is not true. The spiritual Avorld and the intellectual Avorld
are not separated after this fashion ; and the notion that they
are so separated does but encourage men to accept in each
ideas which will at last be proved to be false in both. . . .

Ko man who thoroughly accepts a principle in the philosophy
of nature which he feels to be inconsistent Avitli a doctrine of
religion can help having his belief in that doctrine shaken and

61

1870.] The Reign of Law.

undermined. We may believe, and vve must believe, both in
nature and in religion, many things which we cannot under¬
stand ; but we cannot really believe two propositions which
are felt to be contradictory. It helps us nothing in such a
difficulty, to say that the one proposition belongs to reason
and the other proposition belongs to faith. The endeavor to
reconcile them is a necessity of the mind.”

This is not only bold and frank, but the author takes the
true ground. We fear there has been in this matter some¬
thing of a disingenuous composition, not unlike that of which
we read in Pascal’s “ Provincials,” where two sects of Jesuits,
to avoid embroilments, agreed to use a technical term of
divinity without defining it. But this is worse than vain.
The consciousness that these are reputed scientific truths, of
dangerous import to some of the tenets of religion, which we
dare not examine, tends to diffuse through the mind a secret
corrosive doubt of the authenticity of revelation itself. By all
means let the truth be examined. If Christianity is indeed
divine, it has no assaults to fear, since no fact or principle can
ever be established which is really in conflict with it. The
faith of many may be shaken, it is unfortunately ti-ue, by the
agitation of questions which are thought to concern the life of
religion. That is one unhappy effect of the rash assertion of
unproved hypotheses ; but the remedy that involves the least
amount of evil is a thorough investigation, which may deter¬
mine whether the obnoxious opinion rest on positive and
sufficient proof, or merely on vague and precarious inference.

The Duke of Argyle strongly insists that no truth, theologi¬
cal or other, which is really such, can ever have a contradic¬
tory proposition proved against it. To ordinary apprehen¬
sion nothing can be more self-evident than this, or less in
need of a distinct and formal enunciation ; yet there are men
who are not daunted even by such a paradox. Thus, his
grace mentions a late eminent professor and clergyman of the
English Church, who was so deeply impressed with the inexor¬
able reign of law that he believed no place was left for special
providence or for answers to prayers ; yet “ he went on,
nevertheless, preaching high doctrinal sermons from the pul¬
pit until his death. lie did so on the ground that proposi-

62

The Reign of Law.

[January,

tions which were contrary to his reason were not necessarily
beyond his faith. The inconsistencies of the human mind
are indeed unfathomable, and there are men so constituted,
as honestly to suppose that they can divide themselves into
two spiritual beings, one of whom is sceptical, and the other
believing,” — p. 59. This apparent self-contradiction is by no
means new. We are informed that no principle was more in¬
sisted on by Bayle, than that the insolubility of objections
against a dogma was no legitimate reason to reject it. On
this Leibnitz remarks, that “it is in effect to say that an un¬
answerable argument against a thesis is no legitimate reason
to reject it. For what other legitimate reason to reject an
opinion can there be, if an opposing argument of invincible
force is not such ? and what other means remains of demon¬
strating the falsity, or even the absurdity, of any proposi¬
tion?”* Bayle’s principle, if by “insolubility” be meant
conclusiveness of objections, appears to surrender the mind
to absolute Pyrrhonism, making it as impossible to prove
the truth as the falsehood of any proposition ; for on his
assumption no demonstration, however seemingly perfect, can
exclude the possible existence of other facts from which a
counter-demonstration of equal force might be deduced. 1 et
it is well known that a similar principle is maintained by
Kant in his celebrated Antinomies, from whom it passed to
Sir William Hamilton, and in his philosophy plays an impor¬
tant part. From a paper entitled “Contradictions proving
the psychological theory of the conditioned,” f we cite several
examples of wdiat Sir William regards as contradictory
demonstrations, from which the reader may surmise what
ground he has to assert a principle which tends so directly to
subvert the foundations of all knowledge : “ Infinite maxi¬
mum, if citt in two, the halves cannot be each infinite, for
nothing can be greater than infinite ; nor finite, for thus two
finite halves would make an infinite whole.” From his pos¬
tulates it would result that the halves are neither finite nor
infinite, but something distinct from both. That, however, is
not his meaning, for he intends a double demonstration,

* Discours de la Conformity de la Loi avec la Iiai'On. § 53.

f Metaphysics: Appendix, No. Y, note (G).

63

1870.] The Iteign of Law.

proving them to be both finite and infinite. The fallacy
appears to be in assuming that “ nothing can be greater than
infinite;” or, in other words, that all infinites are equal. A
bar an inch square, if infinite in length, would contain an in¬
finite quantity of matter ; but one two inches square would
contain four times as much. Or, add a single pound to one
of the bars, and the infinite quantity is increased by a pound.
To deny this contradicts our most elementary conceptions,
and deprives the terms we use of all definite meaning — “An
infinite number of quantities must make up either an infinite
or a finite whole. I. The former. — But an inch, a minute, a
degree, contain each an infinite number of quantities, there¬
fore an inch, a minute, a degree, are infinite wholes ; which
is absurd. IT. The latter. — An infinite number of quantities
would thus make up a finite quantity ; which is equally
absurd.” As the number of parts increases, each is diminished
in the same exact proportion ; and when the number becomes
infinite, each part is infinitely small ; so that the same infinite
enters both the numerator and denominator of the fraction
expressing the quantity. Let the finite magnitude be m,
and the number of parts n ; then ™ is one part, and
= m, represents the whole ; thus showing, what is indeed
self-evident, that dividing the magnitude into even an infinity
of parts leaves the quantity unchanged. The fallacy seems
to be in ascribing some actual magnitude to each part, even
when the division is infinite. If it be objected that parts
without magnitude are inconceivable, we reply that the infi¬
nite division first assumed is not less so, as it involves the same
difficulty. “ A quantity, say a foot, has an infinity of parts.
Any part of this quantity, say an inch, has also an infinity.
But one infinity is not larger than another. Therefore an inch
is equal to a foot.” If the inch has an infinity of parts, the foot
which contains it has that infinity, with the infinities belong¬
ing to eleven other inches superadded. The aggregate of the
latter is therefore larger than the former, and the inch is not
equal to the foot; nor are the numerical infinities in the two
cases the same. Of such are Sir W. Hamilton’s antinomies;
by which he designed to prove that essential and inseparable
conditions fetter reason, to such a degree, that positive con-

64

[January,

The Reign of Law.

tradictions can be forced upon it as absolutely demonstrated.
It is to us a wonderful phenomenon that a mind of sucli force
and penetration should have accepted fallacies which to com¬
mon view are so palpable. They seem in each case to have
proceeded from an inaccurate a 'priori idea of infinity, to which
he adhered, though contradicted at every step by conceptions
of a more definite character drawn from elementary notions of
quantity. Sir W. Hamilton had a contempt for mathemati¬
cal studies, which he regarded as intolerably wearisome to a
genius of the sublimer order, from their great facility.* His
opinions on this point may suggest a doubt whether he had
any very profound acquaintance with a science which, accord¬
ing to Comte, is the product of “ a vast concatenated series of
prolonged intellectual exertions, offering inexhaustible ali¬
ment to the mind;”f and of which Sir J. Ilerschel, referring
to certain analytical researches, says that “ the contention of
mind for which they call is enormous.” X However that
may be, we have sometimes thought that if the great Scotch
metaphysician had been more thoroughly on his guard against
the undefined and fluctuating conceptions so often veiled by
the generalities of abstract terms, he would have avoided
some errors into which he has unfortunately fallen ; and we
believe the more difficult mathematical investigations, requir¬
ing, as they often do, highly subtle and exact discriminations,
founded on real differences which cannot be neglected with¬
out error in the result, are mental exercises well suited to
teach that cautionary lesson.

* “To minds of any talent, mathematics are only difficult because they are ton
easy.'" — “Mathematics are found more peculiarly intolerable by minds endowed
with the most varied and vigorous faculties. . . .The continued and monotonous
attention they necessitate to a long concatenated deduction, each step in the
lucid series calling forth, on the same external relation, and to the same
moderate amount, the same simple deduction of reason. This, added to the
inertion to which they condemn all the noble and more pleasurable energies of
thought, is what renders mathematics — in themselves the easiest of rational
studies — the most arduous for those very minds to which studies in themselves
most arduous, are easiest. In mathematics, dulness is thus elevated into
talent, and talent degraded into incapacity.” — Discourse on the Study of Mathe¬
matics.

f Phil. Pos , vol. i., p. 91.

| Outlines of Astro, ism j § 10.

(55

1870.] The Reign of La w.

But, to return to the Duke of Argyle. He begins with the
question: What is the supernatural? — adding, “M. Guizot
tells us that belief in it is the special difficulty of our time —
that denial of it is the form taken by all modern assaults on
Christian faith ; and again, that acceptance of it lies at the
root, not only of Christianity, but of all positive religion what¬
ever.” His grace then proceeds to inquire in what this diffi¬
culty consists, and thinks it must in part be ascribed to a vague
use of the word supernatural. “ There may be some men,”
he says, “ who disbelieve in the supernatural, only because
they are absolute atheists ; but it is certain that there are others
who have great difficulty in believing in the supernatural who
are not atheists. What they doubt or deny is, not that God
exists, but that he enacts, or perhaps can act, unless in and
through what they call the laws of Nature.” The conclusion
he comes to at length is, that they find it so hard to believe
in supernatural power, because by it they mean “ power inde¬
pendent of the use of means, as distinguished from power de¬
pending on knowledge — even infinite knowledge — of the means
proper to be employed.” But this difficulty, in his opinion,
is unnecessarily encountered. The action of the Deity, in cre¬
ation, providence, or revelation, he believes, suspends or vio¬
lates no law of nature; and, therefore, is not with strict pro¬
priety termed supernatural. The properties of dead matter,
the physiological laws of organized beings, and the spontane¬
ous forces by which the volitions of brutes and of man can
modify the effects of other causes ; all those are within the
domain of nature. And, if a great immaterial Being exists,
capable, by the mysterious relation he bears to matter, of exert¬
ing infinite physical force, and possessing knowledge in equal
degree to make the laws of nature subserve his purposed ends,
he might employ powers which, though superhuman, would
so far resemble those exercised by man, as to justify equally
the application of the term natural. By such means, he could
alter the course of natural sequences without suspending natu¬
ral laws, and thus subject the world to special providential reg¬
ulation. If it pleased him to send a revelation to man, he could,
by similar displays of superhuman power, authenticate the
message by miracles; and, in that way, raise it above the pos-
VOL. XLn. — no. i. 5

66

[January,

The Reign of Law.

sibility of human contrivance. He could also, by the same
means, grant special answers to prayer, and thus establish that
immediate personal dependence on himself, without which,
religion, as a living practical principle, cannot exist. All this
is not onty natural, but becomes more credible a priori, because
it is the result of means exactly analogous to those employed by
man in accomplishing his own ends, the difference consisting
mainly in the infinite superiority of resources possessed by the
Deity. The relation which this great Being bears to the laws
of nature themselves is left undetermined, as unnecessary to
the argument : but certain expressions used by the author
have fallen a little unpleasantly on our ear, because they
might perhaps raise a doubt whether he did not think it pos¬
sible that some of those laws — such as flow directly from the
essential properties of matter, for example — were uncontrolla¬
ble even by the Divine will. “ It may be,” he says, “ that all
natural forces are resolvable into some one force. ... It
may also be that this one force. . . . is itself but a mode

of action of the Divine will. But we have no instruments
whereby to reach this last analysis. Whatever the ultimate
relation may be between mental and material force, we can at
least see clearly that, in nature, there is the most elaborate
machinery to accomplish purpose through the instrumentality
of means. It seems as if all that is done in nature, as well
as all that is done in art, were done by knowing how to do it.
It is curious how the language of the great seers of the Old
Testament corresponds with this idea. . . . Exactly

the same language is applied to the rarest exertions of power,
and to the gentlest and most constant of all natural opera¬
tions. Thus, the saying that ‘ The Lord by wisdom hath
founded the earth : by understanding, hath he established the
heavens,’ — is coupled in the same breath with this other say¬
ing, ‘ By his knowledge, the depths are broken up, and the
clouds drop down the dew.’ ” — Pp. 129-131.

It seems that our author would lessen the difficulty Guizot
thought the present age had, in believing the supernatural, by
discarding that word, and by comprising within the bounds
of the natural whatever is essential to the being of a personal }
.moral, wise, powerful, and all-controlling God. To this exten-

G7

1S70.] The Reign of Law.

sion of the latter term, and to the positions it includes, he
seeks to conciliate favor bj pointing out the analogies between
the powers exercised by man, and those he ascribes to the Su¬
preme Being. The objectors, indeed, deny that God “ever
acts, or perhaps can act, unless in and through what they call
the laws of nature;” yet, since the power man exerts modi¬
fies their operation and produces specific results, so the infi¬
nite power of God, acting through similar means, may pro¬
duce results infinitely greater, and, therefore, sufficient for all
his designs, whether in nature, in providence, or in the mirac¬
ulous attestation of his will. From the same analogy, he con¬
cludes that “ the mind of man has within it something of a
truly creative energy and force — that we are in a sense ‘ fel¬
low-workers with God,’ and have been in a measure ‘ made
partakers of the Divine nature.’ ” — P. 10.

We trust the exacter classification of ideas offered by his
grace’s definitions may relieve some honest minds perplexed
by doubts and groping through darkness to find the truth; but,
we confess, we are not very sanguine as to the result. The
views he presents may give consistence and clearness to some
speculative opinions in regard to the connection of a special
providence with the immutability of natural laws; but we fear
it will not meet the objections of the class to whom JVI. Guizot
referred. The only powers they recognize as acting in nature,
appear to be that series of physical causes which embraces
the material universe, with so much power of spontaneous
action in addition as is placed within the control of brutes and
men. They allow no immaterial agents, neither God, angel,
spirit, nor devil, to interfere in any way with this great chain
of causation, since any force acting upon it from without,
whether analogous to that exerted by man or not, they regard
as quite inconsistent with the observed order of nature.

Nor do we very clearly perceive how any substantial diffi¬
culty in admitting the truth of miracles would be removed by
the author’s scheme. Let us take, as an example, Christ’s
feeding the multitude with the loaves and fishes. By his
grace’s hypothesis, the miracle was wrought by superhuman
power, which acted in strict accordance with natural laws.
But in what way are we to suppose the effect was produced \

68

The Reign of Law.

[January,

Shall we assume that spirits, moving with inconceivable ce¬
lerity, collected the constituent elements of the food, and, by
aid of chemical laws, combined them together in the propor¬
tions and relative positions necessary to produce both the
qualities and appearance of the substance required ? This
might respect those laws which issue directly from the primary
properties of matter; but, another law requiring that all
products of organization should grow from germs deriving life
from a parent stock, appears to be violated. Or shall we sup¬
pose some invisible agent collected the food, ready prepared,
from distant localities, and with it supplied the waste caused
by the distribution ? This avoids the former difficulty, but
leaves another unanswered, — that by this world’s constitution,
as we know it, spirits never act on matter, except through the
medium of an organized living body. But whatever hypoth¬
esis, consistent with the recorded facts, is adopted, we think
it will hardly take the faith of most readers, less than the sim¬
ple supposition that the Saviour, by Divine power, called into
existence the additional food with which the multitude were
fed.

It is very probable his grace would not accept either of our
suppositions as fairly representing his theory ; and, indeed, we
offer them but as suggestions, because we are really at some
loss how to give his abstract principle a particular application in
the case of miracles. His distinction between the superhuman
and the supernatural, between power which may be infinite,
but acts only through law, and power which for the occasion
suspends the operation of some law, though sufficiently clear
in many cases, seems undefined and shadowy as applied to
this.

In the chapter on “ Creation by Law,” he considers the
development theory, quoting from Darwin the admission
that if structural modifications subserving beauty merely,
apart from utility, could be shown to exist, his hypothesis
must fall. For answer, he brings forward many curious facts
in regard to the colors and ornaments of the numerous species
of humming-birds, and argues that there is sufficient proof
that differences abound among them which cannot be referred
to the principle of utility, which do not better adapt the birds

1870.]

69

The Reign of Law.

to special conditions of existence or give them aid in fighting
the battle of life. In this he seems to us to be right, for we
think he establishes his position by a very strong array of
probable evidence. lie agrees with Darwin, however, so far
as to believe that new species originated under some peculiar
and unknown conditions from living progenitors. Organic
creation was not a single primordial act, never afterward re¬
peated. A succession of distinct animal and vegetable types
has appeared throughout a geological period of indefinite
length. These his grace thinks were not in any ^absolute
sense the product of distinct acts of creation — not original for¬
mations from dead matter, animated by the immediate act of
the Deity. lie believes that by some natural law unknown
to us they were ordered from organic forms previously exist¬
ing. This opinion is expressed with direct reference to the
humming-bird family, and does not, as we are given to under¬
stand, extend indefinitely to other examples of specific differ¬
ence in animated nature. Hor does it appear that in regard
to humming-birds his belief had a more definite support than
the complete separation of the group from all other birds, and
the striking general resemblances pervading the entire family,
suggesting to his mind the probable bond of consanguinity.
He, however, elsewhere refers to rudimentary and aborted
organs in some other animals as probably showing a state of
transition to or from a fuller development through a series of
natural generations. But without that relation all such ap¬
pearances might be explained as morphological analogues, by
that reduction of the phenomena to an order of thought, of
which he elsewhere speaks. His opinion may notwithstand¬
ing be correct ; though, apart from the want of all positive
proof, difficulties are involved which are not sufficiently met
by any modification of the theory of development.

That theory has exhibited two principal phases. One of
these, presented in the “ Yestiges of Creation,” assumes that
when in any instance the unknown essential conditions super¬
vene, the organized being proceeds per saltum to a higher form,
which constitutes a new species ; the regulation law in this
case somewhat resembling that of chemical combinations,
which take place at different numerical intervals, but never

TO

[January

The Reign of Law.

occupy the space between. The other — supported in the last
century by Helvetius, but since recast and greatly improved
by Darwin, who brings to his aid much exact scientific obser¬
vation- — maintains that new species arise from “ numerous suc¬
cessive slight modifications,” gradually moulding the older
forms into others of distinct specific characters. Both these hy¬
potheses are regarded with dislike by the religious world, be¬
cause, if they do not favor positive atheism, they at least seem
to veil and obscure the Divine wisdom in creation by the ob¬
trusive intervention of natural causes. But other objections
are urged on more strictly scientific grounds. For the first,
it has been contended that if any such sudden evolution of a
new order of being should take place, the chances are almost
infinite that it would at the same time and place exhibit but
a single specimen, in which case the species must become ex¬
tinct almost in the moment of its birth. The combination of all
the necessary conditions must be extremely rare, or we should
not wholly want ascertained examples within historic times.
But against the contingency that two of different sexes should
be created together by the mere agency of natural laws, there
would seem to be the improbability of the first supposition
multiplied into itself, thus reaching a degree quite beyond
human calculation, and leading almost irresistibly to the con¬
clusion that a supervising Intelligence must have ordained it.
Darwin avoids this consequence by his doctrine of natural
selection ; in virtue of which, among innumerable minute
congenital deviations from the parent type, those are pre¬
served which better adapt the species to the conditions of its
being, while the rest perish. The silent gradual operation of
this principle he thinks will suffice to modify organic structures
indefinitely, and serve to originate all those organs of special
function which have from the earliest times excited wonder by
the infinite creative wisdom they were supposed to display.

To his hypothesis it is objected that there ought to be
fossil remains, not merely of distinct species, but of some at
least of those innumerable multitudes that by the supposition
thronged the interval between, forming one great continuous
procession. In reply he alleges the imperfection of geological
explorations. This, however, will scarcely avail ; for in many

1870.]

73

The Reign of Law.

some other, must have its appropriate contrivance to produce
it ; to which must be added another contrivance of propor¬
tionate complexity to combine the parts together according to
the general plan. This follows from the fundamental prin¬
ciple that every difference in the effect implies a correspond¬
ing difference in the cause. Nor is this all : for the complex¬
ity of the contrivances, already approaching infinitude,
reaches it quite when it becomes sufficient to perpetuate the
species. In illustration, take the following supposition. A
is a watch, designed like common watches merelv to measure
and mark the flight of time. B is also a watch, but with
machinery added to construct another like the first. Of
course this reproductive machinery must have special adapta¬
tions to all the parts of A, and be competent moreover to put
them together correctly when finished. B must therefore be
multiplex in proportion to the number of offices it has to
perform. C is a third watch with machinery adapted to the
construction not only of A but also of the reproductive
machinery of B ; for which purpose its contrivances must be
still more numerous. So D must in this respect advance
beyond C ; and so with each ascending step in the scale the
difficulty and complexity of the mechanical arrangements
must progressively increase. This seems inevitable from the
very nature of contrivance, which is the specific adaptation of
proper and sufficient means to the purposed ends. And
hence, by an extension of the principle, to make the repro¬
ductive machinery of the watch suffice to produce a perpetual
line of succession, the complexity of arrangements in the
primordial machine must be infinitely multiplied. But if
reproduction in organized nature also proceeds wholly from
a system of contrivance, or natural forces adjusted to deter¬
minate ends, then similar consequences appear to follow,
unless we totally abandon the fundamental conception im¬
plied in the terms we use.

We come to the conclusion then, that if reproduction is
accomplished solely by special organisms, it must at length
fail from sheer exhaustion, and the species become extinct ; or
else that those organs contain within themselves, it sufficient
to perpetuate the race, an infinite multiplicity of adaptations.

74

The Reign of Law. [January,

If we suppose the former, then without supernatural aid to
arrest the decline, or creations from crude matter to repair the
loss, all animal and vegetable life must at length expire. No
principle of development, no transformation of species, will
save us from this consequence ; since nothing of the kind
avoids the inherent necessity of a reproductive system com¬
plicated in proportion to the length of the series to which it
is ordained to give birth. But if we take the alternative
supposition, then it may he asked is it possible that within a
finite space of matter — the reproductive organs of a flower
for example — an infinity of separate contrivances can be em¬
bodied. Each must contain in itself a special mechanism, re¬
quiring a combination of molecules to constitute it, or at least
a single molecule endowed with special powers ; and of these
there cannot be an absolute infinity within the mass. Or if
we assume that in some mysterious way the same combina¬
tion may serve for any number of results — in other words, if
we vary the effect indefinitely without varying the cause — we
either directly violate a fundamental law of human belief, or
leaving the sphere of the intelligible, we pass into those tran¬
scendental regions where the mind grasps at phantoms and
finds no reality.

This difficulty assumes somewhat portentous dimensions on
Darwin’s hypothesis, who traces back the organization, through
forms progressively more imperfect, to the first progenitor of
all animal and vegetable life, which he supposes a simple pro-
tozoic cell, that came into being as if by accident.

We, therefore, conclude, that organic contrivances alone are
not sufficient to perpetuate life, and that our globe, if aban¬
doned to these must at length become but a dead and desolate
waste. If this last supposition is inadmissible, we are then
led to infer that an unseen intelligent power averts the conse¬
quence, either by supplying the deficiencies and arresting the
decay of the generative principle, or by new creations repla¬
cing from time to time the species which become extinct. But
if the phenomena of reproduction require more than material
laws, those of life in general, so closely related to the former,
may not improbably be within the same category. Hence it
is possible that, as in the Mosaic creation, God formed man

75

1870.] The Reign of Law.

from the dust of the earth and breathed into his nostrils the
breath of life, so he has ever since reserved to himself the
same great prerogative, and has never imparted to organized
forms that portion of his creative power ; employing indeed
elaborate mechanism in accomplishing physiological ends, hut
superadding a higher principle which, unlike the former, is
hound in the fatalism of no material laws.

Before concluding, it may not be amiss to refer to certain
vague inferences disparaging the infinitude of the divine
attributes which may be suggested by the apparent subjection
of all creative design to the fixed laws of matter and of
motion. Throughout organized nature the supremacy of these
laws seems to be recognized as absolute. All structural adap¬
tations to functional ends are made in subordination to them.
When their operation subserves the design, they are employed
for that purpose ; when it is adverse, contrivances are adopted
to avoid or to lessen the inconvenience. But in no case do
we find these laws suspended, or their authority disregarded.
On the contrary, they appear to prescribe positive limits
within which the range of creative power must he confined.
These indications we confess give a semblance of plausibility
to the hypothesis of the ancient philosophers, which is not
wholly without advocates in the present day — that matter is
uncreated and eternal, and possesses certain indestructible
properties which are but partially subject to the divine will,
and necessitate a creation not absolutely perfect, but the best
the material will admit. In reply to such sceptical surmises,
we beg leave to offer a few remarks.

It may be assumed that no creation can ever demonstrate to
man the absolute omnipotence of the divine Being ; because,
if finite, the argument is inconclusive, and if infinite, it swells
beyond his grasp. The universe which actually exists affords
as near an approach to such demonstration as the mind is
capable of receiving from external exhibitions of power; since
the portion brought within its survey is of dimensions so vast
that the imagination sinks overpowered under the effort to
conceive it. Hence the conviction, aided by the mind’s in¬
stinctive sentiment, that the Being who possesses powers so
stupendous is really omnipotent, is in general irresistible. On

76 The Reign of Law. [January,

the other hand a finite or imperfect creation, though admitted
to be such, could not prove him less than infinite, because
nothing could exist to show that it displayed his utmost
power. If, moreover, we can distinctly see that there may be
reasons why material laws should be allowed a fundamental
place in the order of nature, that old hypothesis of the eter¬
nity of matter and its evil and refractory properties loses its
show of plausibility. Let us then assume that the Supreme
Being is not simply a Creator, but also the Lord and Euler of
intelligent moral beings to whose character and wants it is
proper this external condition should be conformed, and we
think the seeming incompatibility between the constitution of
nature and the infinity and perfection of the divine attributes
will disappear, leaving the absolute optimism of the system
unimpeached. He has impressed properties on matter, and
then conformed each individual organism to the physical
necessity they impose. But this appears indispensable to give
that stability and consistence to the course of nature without
which the world would be to human apprehension a wilder¬
ness of confusion and inconsistency ; without which experi¬
ence would be a false and dangerous guide, prudence and
recklessness occupy equal ground, and the primeval decree
that man should subdue the earth become an impossible task.
Another part of the design may be to teach by natural ex¬
amples how inherent difficulties in the accomplishment of
physical objects may be met and the desired end best secured.
Natural organisms have often furnished useful lessons to man
in aid of his designs, and probably if studied expressly with
such a view, would afford yet greater advantages.

These are considerations addressed to the physical and
intellectual wants of the race ; those which respect their moral
characteristics may have still greater weight. A certain de¬
gree of uniformity in the operation of natural laws is indis¬
pensable, if the divine benevolence, wisdom, or power is to be
displayed, however imperfectly, in the works of creation.
Without fixed properties in matter, and regularity and system
in the course of nature, it is impossible that the mind, consti¬
tuted as it is, should discern the adaptation of means to ends,
or appreciate in any degree the design which pervades the

1S70.]

77

The Reign of Law.

organized world ; and without evidence of design there could
.of course be no inference as to the attributes of the Creator,
nor indeed any proof of his existence. If, therefore, his plan
required that there should be indicia by which man might, in
the absence of revelation, trace his hand and divine his char¬
acter, it involved necessarily a degree of immutability in
material laws from which a perverse and sceptical spirit might
argue in disparagement of his sovereign power. Then, too,
the unchanging persistence of such laws under all diversities
of condition and circumstance may be designed to teach an
important lesson as to the fixed eternal character of the Deity’s
attributes, the immutability of his will, and the inexorable
necessity of submitting to his decrees, and regulating the life
by the laws he is pleased to prescribe. Another great moral
end is answered which we do not well see could be secured by
other means. It is a divine prerogative, shared probably by
no created being, to suspend or sustain at will the operation of
natural laws. I3y this means any revelation the Deity chooses
to make may be authenticated by credentials bearing the seal
of his sovereignty. But unless the order of nature were in
general fixed and uniform, no deviation from it would be so
signally marked as to bear the certain impress of Divine
power. It would seem, therefore, that, without that feature
in the constitution of nature which we have been considering,
man could have no knowledge of his Maker, either through
his works or by revelation.

But it may be objected that the design apparent in organic
structures is imperfectly accomplished. Elaborate provision
is made in animals to procure subsistence ; to this end struc¬
ture, instincts, and habits conspire ; yet they often suffer great
privation, and even die of want. Or if such partial failure is
a necessity of the laws originally impressed on matter, there
is still a possible approach to perfection which few organisms
exhibit. We find in the same species great disparities in size,
form, and strength, some being much better fitted to the neces¬
sities of their position than others. This suggests that the
machinery of nature, though the product of wisdom infinitely
beyond man’s comprehension, is not absolutely perfect, hut
accomplishes its object only by approximation. Then there

78

The Reign of Law.

[January,

are monstrous formations — misshapen abortions which excite
wonder, as if some malign power were at work battling
nature’s kindly designs. These seem marked as failures
when they pass from nature’s hand, like fabrics of human skill
marred and ruined in the making.

Our interpretations of the Creator's real purposes, however,
is extremely precarious. That the certain attainment of what
seem special organic ends, is not always the object, is evident
from the fact that such ends are in innumerable instances
antagonistic, so that the success of one is necessarily the failure
of another. Thus rapacious birds are fitted both by structure
and iustinct to capture a living prey, while their quarry is
equally fitted, by speed or stratagem, to escape pursuit. Then
we have no warrant to assume that the Creator's design is not
one into which what seem blemishes enter as an integral part,
lie is a sovereign Ruler as well as Creator, and we must
believe that the government and discipline of his rational
creatures constitute an object far more important than the
physiological development of the inferior world of organisms.
But if the constitution of nature, in the particulars drawn
into question, gives exercise to caution, vigilance, energy,
patience, and other traits which are admitted to elevate the
moral character, and also afford inexhaustible employment to
the higher powers of the mind, we may regard the objection
as sufficiently repelled ; especially since the latter advantage
may not be confined to man, but embrace innumerable orders
of intelligence superior to ours. Perfection of organization
would then be, not the amplest development of animal powers
or vegetable properties, nor the certain attainment of the
objects to which structures and instincts tend, but the exact
accomplishment of those higher designs compared with which
mere physical ends are insignificant. Row let us suppose
that the faultless typical standard the objection seems to
require were in every case exhibited — that the corn in .the
fields, for example, the fruit on the trees, and the cattle on the
hills, were all of the finest quality and kind, of the largest
size, and without blemish — no place would then be left for
the exercise of judgment or taste in selection, no scope for
sagacity in detecting the hidden causes of deterioration and

79

1870.] The Reign of Law.

devising a remedy, no prospect of improving the species by
patient toil and care. In short, as far as this monotonous system
of perfection prevailed, its influence would be to shed a listless
torpor over the faculties of man. Nor would it serve to
exempt any supposed domain of human industry from the
paralyzing operation of the rule ; since man’s charter em¬
braces the whole earth, stimulating energy and research into
nature’s laws by the reward proposed, and we cannot pro¬
nounce that any part of this inheritance can never subserve
his wants, or become the object of his labor and attention.
Besides, such a discrimination as that supposed would be
repugnant to man’s intellectual nature ; for it would seem a
capricious decree, impairing the unity of the general plan
confusing and obliterating the analogies that bind the parts of
creation together, and weakening the force of the moral lesson
taught by the inviolability of natural laws. Monstrous for¬
mations are but other examples of defective organisms. A
peach blossom without a germ, though really a monster, in¬
volves no more difficulty than a blighted and shrunken peach.
Aborted forms of the higher animal life surprise and shock us
more, from peculiar associations, but they follow the same
analogy. Nor is it correct to speak of an organism as passing
at birth from nature’s hand. Throughout its course — from
the first deposit of the cell that forms the nucleus of the germ,
till the vital principle is extinguished, and the chemical affin¬
ities commence their disorganizing work — the same hand
guides its development and works its decay. If, then, a for¬
mation abnormal from birth is a blot on nature’s works, the
untimely destruction of a more perfect organism must be
viewed in the same light. But much more rational it appears
to us to regard such seeming blemishes as parts of some high
plan of celestial wisdom reaching beyond the fate of mere
physical forms, and embracing moral designs which the narrow
grasp of the human mind is inadequate to span.

One advantage abnormal formations may be specially
adapted to supply. Most of that department of physiology
which relates to the functions of life, its preservation and
transmission, is as yet unknown to science ; but we must not
' suppose it will always remain unexplored. Important dis-

so

The Reign of Law.

[January,

coveries hereafter made will, doubtless, illuminate this dark
region, and, as in similar cases, valuable practical applications
will probably follow, of which we can now form no anticipa¬
tion. In these future conquests of science we have a right to
suppose that those strange departures from the normal type,
those revolting distortions of the natural form, which strike us
as something ill-omened and portentous, will contribute im¬
portant assistance, by the light they shed on the obscure prin¬
ciples of vital organization.

In supposing the physiological laws of our globe were
designed in part for the discipline and instruction of man, we
do not forget that, long before his creation, laws, in all respects
similar, were in operation upon earth. It may probably be
thought that man’s requirements, as a reasoning philosopher,
or his condition as a probationary moral agent, would have
had no influence in moulding the physiology of that day. The
conclusion is, however, not quite clear. Nothing tends more
to impress the mind with the certainty and permanence of its
principles of knowledge, or more to enlarge and liberalize its
views, than to find the phenomena with which it is familiar
exhibited in distant localities and remote eras. In the vast
fields opened by modern geology, the lines of analogy which
unite dispersed phenomena, have a far wider sweep and more
commanding sway, and emancipate the mind from any linger¬
ing doubt whether natural laws might not be mere local,
transitory, and variable expedients. Considerations drawn
from such sources give to many minds high intellectual grati¬
fication, when, “ immersed in rapturous thought profound,”
they contemplate the unity, consistence, and order of the grand
design which pervades creation. Such exalted pleasure,
blending admiring wonder with religious awe,* was doubtless
felt by the sages of Newton’s time when his great discovery
allied our planet, and every particle of its dust, with the
remotest realms of space ; and so too felt philosophers in more
recent days when the present laws of organic life were found
to have prevailed on earth innumerable ages before it became

* His tibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas,

Percipit, atque horror, quod sic natura tua vi

Tam manit'esta patet ex omni parte retecta. — Lucretius, iii., 28-30.

81

1870.] The Reign of Law.

the abode ot* man. Nor must we overlook the probability
that in tracing the hand of the Divine Artisan from our
globe’s earliest epoch down to the present time, intelligences
far superior to that of man may find subjects of absorbing
thought and of adoring wonder; to whom also the apparent
anomalies in nature’s works that perplex our minds arrange
themselves into systems of perfect symmetry, order, and
beauty.

But the clearest light shed upon the dark questions of
nature is that of revelation ; which teaches that man is in a
fallen state, estranged from his Maker, whose benevolent
regard is in consequence mingled with judicial displeasure.
Accordingly we find that mercy and judgment are blended in
the created system in which we have our part. Beneficent
design appears the prevailing characteristic ; but its lines are
everywhere checkered and blurred by evils of every degree,
and sickness, pain, and bitter disappointment, resulting not
always from the fault of the sufferer, but issuing directly from
the conditions and necessities by which his life is invested, are
portions of the universal lot. From the same source, how¬
ever, we learn that the present world was never designed as
the home of man, but merely as a place of probationary
sojourn, where his appointed duty is to prepare for a higher
state of being. If, therefore, the earth is full of blemishes and
abortions, if evil abounds in all its departments, diffusing
pain, want, and death throughout animated nature, and blight
and mildew through the vegetable kingdom, we must remem¬
ber that the high moral destiny to which man is appointed
requires that his heart should not be detained and engrossed
by an earthly paradise.

We would also indicate another dark plan in nature which
is illuminated by revelation. The power and wisdom of the
Supreme Being are seen exhibited on a stupendous scale in
the works of creation, but his benevolence and his moral char¬
acter are far less clearly displayed. We do not now refer to
such seeming anomalies as have in all ages furnished themes
of atheistical descant ; but from the nature of the case we
think any indications of those moral attributes which the
work of an infinite Creator can ever present must, as a demon-
vol. xlii. — no. i. 6

The Reign of Law.

82

[January,

stration, be inconclusive. Let us consider tliis point more
closely.

Contrivances for beneficial ends are with us the result of
toil and care, and when executed by man solely for the benefit
of bis fellows, we regard them as indicating a high order of
that benevolence which incurs personal sacrifice for the sake
of others. This instinctive judgment is by association trans¬
ferred to the works of creation ; these, replete with admirable
designs for beneficial ends, and, in the accurate finish of the
different parts seeming to require, not only consummate skill,
but diligence and care, deeply impress the sentiment of the
Creator’s benevolent regard for the works of his hands, and
especially for man, whose elaborate structure, combined with
the extent to which other organisms are made subservient to
his wants, seems so clearly to evince the divine consideration
for his welfare. If, moreover, the powers of nature, beneficial
in general, are often productive of evil, his conscience may
from this enforce bis moral responsibility, with the conviction
of ill-desert, which mingles punishment with the blessings
bestowed ; especially since observation teaches that vice and
crime are distinguished from virtue and integrity by a large
allotment of pain, want, and shame. In this way, through
associations so intimately penetrating his mind as almost to
form a part of its substance, he receives intimations of the
benevolence and moral purity of the Divine Being. Still
these principles whenever existing must, if intelligible to us,
be willing to incur self-sacrifice in attaining their respective
ends ; if they refuse, we regard them as spurious; and if the
opportunity is wanting, the proof of character is defective.
But the beneficence of the Almighty exhibited in creation
involves no labor, no diminution of resources, no interruption
of other pursuits, in short no apparent sacrifice of any kind,
and consequently can offer no absolute demonstration of be¬
nevolent feeling in any sense in which we can appreciate its
value. Similar remarks are applicable to the divine holiness, of
which it seems essentially impossible that the works of nature
should supply a perfect demonstration, because they afford no
opportunity of personal sacrifice for the sake of principle.
The proof of these attributes, therefore, which suffices for the

1870.]

The Reign of Law.

83

extinction of all scepticism, is not to be found in visible crea¬
tion ; and whoever attempts to supply the deficiency by
metaphysical reasoning will be apt, we suspect, to wander in
mazes of doubt and error, when the moral instinct, the safest
guide in such a search, grows faint and dubious, until perhaps
its voice ceases to be heard. But when the divinity becomes
incarnate, bears to the full the evils of our immortal lot, and
submits to ignominy, pain, and death in expiation of human
guilt, we have the required demonstration in a form which
renders the justice, holiness, and benevolence of God no longer
a vague poetic sentiment, but a truth of vital importance,
establishing with him relations of infinite consequence, and
supplying the most urgent and animating motives to the con¬
duct which he prescribes. Then, too, the hard decree that
mingles so much pain and sorrow in our earthly lot is seen to
be a merciful severity, that the hope of promise of this life
may not be suffered to veil our interest in the life to come.
Thus the works of creation cease to be the obscure and am¬
biguous oracles they seemed before, but become intelligible
types and symbols which in their own mystic characters repre¬
sent heavenly truth, and so reflect back on revelation a por¬
tion of the light received from above.

It is dangerous, as Bacon long since remarked, to seek the
truths of revelation in the realms of philosophy, which he
compared to seeking the living among the dead :* for since
in such speculations the mind is apt to accept fancies for real¬
ities, and presumptions for proofs, the tendency is to perpetu¬
ate error by a sort of consecration to religion, and to rest
theological tenets on postulates which, when examined, are
discovered to be false. A creed founded on unsound argu¬
ments, though in itself true, has a precarious existence ; for if
the fallacy is detected the faith may suffer shipwreck, and
sink to rise no more, before it finds a firmer support. On the
other hand revelation, when its true meaning is cautiously de¬
termined, may shed its light on departments of reason in
which, if we may infer the future from the past, absolute cer¬
tainty must otherwise be for ever unattainable. As philoso-

* Be Augmentis Scientiarum, lib. ix., cap. 1, § 3.

84

The Reign of Law.

[January,

phy grows more inquisitive, and with more daring scepticism
tries in its crucible opinions once held axiomatic, it is possible
the creed of the Christian may be recognized by the soundest
thinkers, as offering the firmest support to fundamental
truths which reason is incompetent to demonstrate, and there¬
fore as being not only the sole basis of religious hope, but also
an intellectual necessity. The human spirit’s possible exist¬
ence apart from the body, its immateriality and immortality
are questions in philosophy as well as in divinity which reason
alone has appeared quite unable to solve. Then there are
men who bring into doubt the reality of the external world,
and even the actual substantive existence of their own mind.
Perhaps no one will ever be convinced by such arguments ;
but the agitation of self-evident or axiomatic propositions may
infuse into some minds a vague scepticism as to the certainty
of any possible subject of knowledge, and thus cause a degree
of recklessness in regard to truths of the most momentous im¬
port. But if Christianity is sufficiently proved, the reality of
our own existence, of time and space, of the external world,
of other human beings besides ourselves, of our relations and
duties toward them, and of the eternal distinction of right
and wrong become established and unquestionable truth ;
and perhaps on this ground alone can some inquiring and
metaphysical spirits rest in perfect conviction. Happily the
evidence for our religion is such as to deprive every hostile
hypothesis of plausibility. There are indeed difficulties
remaining which may in some instances never be removed ;
but still the vast preponderance of proof seems sufficient to
dispel all rational doubt as to the essential truth of the system.
Yet if corroboration were needed, one circumstance would to
us afford it ; though upon the point we would speak with
reverence and caution, avoiding all dogmatism, and present¬
ing merely the view which has struck our own mind. It is a
principle of law that what is said of a man in his presence, if he
expresses no dissent, but leaves others to act on the presump¬
tion of its truth, will in many cases charge him with a respon
sibility ; a rule which is founded in reason and equity. On
a principle somewhat similar, it might be difficult, we appre
bend, to make it appear that the Deity had maintained perfect

1870.]

85

The Reign of Law.

good faith, if he had suffered a false religion to be promul¬
gated with such an array of evidence as confirms the preten¬
sions of Christianity. The case is quite different from that
of mere historical or scientific inquiry, in which men might
be fully convinced on the strongest probable evidence of what
was in reality false, without disparagement of the Divine sin¬
cerity. There is nothing in such cases that in any aspect
engages the attributes of the Most High for the discovery of
the truth. But when a revelation comes professedly from
him, commanding under promises and threats, which Omnipo¬
tence alone can redeem, a course of conduct involving poten¬
tially the sacrifice of the dearest interests of life, and even life
itself, then, if that religion were false, and he had yet allowed
such credentials to attest it as suffice to produce a rational be¬
lief in minds formed as he has made ours, we do not clearly
see how our great Sovereign could be exculpated from a
charge which we must not venture to name.

We have expressed the hope that many metaphysical minds
might, as to some important truths, find refuge from scepticism
in the certainty of religious belief. It might be objected,
however, that the fundamental principles of knowledge must
be settled affirmatively before the evidences of religion can be
examined; that if a man doubts of time and space, his own
continuing existence, or any other truth so primordial, he is
in no condition to begin his investigation of a subject resting
on an external proof. So indeed it would be if he were fixed
in absolute disbelief, but not if only a sceptic ; and, in regard
to such questions, we suspect the mind can never advance
beyond that twilight region into utter darkness. If, however,
he merely doubts, there may be a like indecision as to the
truth of Christianity ; in which case, considering its transcen-
dant importance, the most momentous question of fact that
can possibly engage the human mind, he will, if quite sincere,
be led to earnest inquiry. Proceeding from his own starting-
point, with all principles unfixed and floating like shapeless
phantoms around him, he might, indeed, anticipate only deeper
and more bewildering doubt as the result, if it were not for the
peculiar definitive test proposed by the religion which claims
his attention. The Saviour declares that whoever will do the

86

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

will of God (or perhaps “ is willing,” shall know whether
the doctrine is true ; * and similar engagements of the Divine
veracity are made in other places. Here then is a challenge
to the sceptic, and it may be remarked, that a religion which
dares to give such a pledge, offers in its calm self-confidence a
presumption of its truth. If, therefore, he undertakes the
examination, with the honest purpose required, and conscien¬
tiously maintains it, then (unless we misread the text), either
the religion is false or the inquirer must be led to recognize
it as divine. Whatever his position, and however impenetra¬
ble the clouds that invest him, he has in this promise a prin¬
ciple which, if the Gospel is false, must detect the imposition,
and if true, will be his guiding star through the night of dark¬
ness and error.

Art. YI. — Adjourned Meetings of the General Assemblies
at Pittsburg.

According to adjournment, at the close of their respective
meetings in New York last spring, the General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church, O. S., assembled in the First Pres¬
byterian Church, and that of the New School in the Third
Presbyterian Church, in Pittsburg. Pa., November 10, 1S69,
at 11 a. m.

The great object of these meetings, it is hardly necessary to
say, was to receive duly attested reports of the votes of the
Presbyteries on the overture sent down to them touching
re-union, and if they found it sanctioned by two-thirds of the
Presbyteries of each body, to declare the same to be of
“ binding force.” Thus the re-union would be consummated,
and the two churches become one body organically, in fact and
in form.

Some items of unfinished business, laid over to this meeting,

* John vii. 17.

1870.]

Meetings of the General Assemblies. 87

comprised principally of the reports of committees appointed
ad interim , required first to he disposed of in each body. In
the New School Assembly this consisted chiefly of a report on
amusements by a committee, of which the Rev. Herrick John¬
son was chairman, which is judicious and discriminating. It
however prescribes little to relieve the practical difficulties
of the subject, beyond what may be found in an elevated tone
of piety. They also uttered a strong protest against the
present tendency in our State and municipal governments to
appropriate the public moneys to the support of Papal schools,
and exclude the Bible from all. They likewise took decided
action in favor of having manses provided in all congregations.
They further adopted some measures respecting their relations
to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,
rendered necessary by the re-union, to which we may briefly
recur hereafter. Their other work, outside of re-union, was
mostly formal or devotional.

Our own Assembly had two reports from committees ad
interim of the gravest importance — we refer to those on the
Chicago and Danville seminaries. The conflicts among the
friends of these seminaries have been so earnest, protracted,
and, in some cases, embittered, that it was feared by many
that the measures and discussions necessary to their pacifi¬
cation at Pittsburg, would greatly mar, if not delay, the
consummation of re-union. Thanks to the thorough, patient,
and wise labors of the respective committees sent to examine
and report upon the difficulties of these institutions, sucli fears
proved groundless. Owing to the patient and judicious labors
of the respective committees, the troubles had already been
composed on such a basis as commanded universal assent,
and left nothing to be done by the Assembly but to accept
and adopt the reports of the committees without debate. This
was accomplished during the first day of the session. The
substance of the settlement by compromise at Chicago was
flashed through the country by telegraph a few days before
the meeting of the Assembly, and sent a thrill of joy through
the whole church. It is contained in the following extract
from the report of the committees, of which Senator Drake
was chairman : —

88

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

“ After having heard all the evidence in the case, the committee determined
it to be their duty to make an effort to secure an amicable adjustment of the
difficulty. They therefore appointed two of their number (Drs. Musgrave and
Backus), to undertake this delicate duty. The effort, we are happy to say,
proved successful by the great mercy of our Lord ; and the following are the
terms of this adjustment, accepted by all the parties, the original copy of which,
signed by a representative of each party in the presence and with the concur¬
rence of all, is herewith submitted to the Assembly : —

“ The parties to the controversy in regard to the Presbyterian Theological
Seminary of the Northwest, have agreed to this amicable adjustment, viz. : I. That
by-gones shall be by-gones. No further controversy respecting past issues to be
indulged in, and all shall cordially unite in efforts to promote the prosperity of the
institution in the field of usefulness now about to widen so greatly before it. II.
That, on the one hand, Dr. Lord shall retain the chair of Theology, to which he has
been assigned by the General Assembly ; and that, on the other hand, the General
Assembly will order the release of Mr. McCormick from the fourth instalment of his
bond, and that the instalments of the endowment already paid shall be regarded
as a fulfilment of his entire obligations. III. That the three trustees last elected
shall resign, and their places shall be supplied by others not unacceptable to
either party. IV. That hereafter, all the friends and patrons of the seminary
shall have a proper share in the management of the institution ; and that, as far
as practicable, all the Synods particularly concerned shall be duly represented ; it
being understood that those friends of the seminary, who have not contributed
to its endowment, shall make a prompt and earnest effort to raise for it the sum
of at least twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000).

“ Signed on behalf of the parties we respectively represent, on this third day
of November, a. d. 1869.

‘•(Signed), D. C. Marquis,

“(Signed), H. F. Spafford.”

We should be glad, if we had space, to copy the entire
report. The main feature of it is the argument which the
release of Mr. McCormick from the legal obligation of his
bond to pay the last $25,000 of his munificent subscription of
$100,000 to endow the seminary, after having already paid
$75,000. The argument is simply this, that Mr. McCormick
stipulated to pay it in view of a mutual understanding be¬
tween him and the Assembly which founded the seminary,
that its professors should not agitate the subject of slavery.
In the altered state of the country since that time, the Assem¬
bly cannot and will not impose such conditions on its profes¬
sors. They cannot therefore fulfil their part of the under¬
standing with Mr. McCormick. They cannot, of course, in
Christian honor, however they might in law, compel him to

1870.] Meetings of the General Assemblies. 89

fulfil liis part of the contract, if he chooses to decline payment ;
for it is a first principle of ethics that promises are binding in
the sense, and only in the sense, in which the promisor believed
the promisee to understand them, at the time of making them.
It is a matter of unspeakable rejoicing that this obstinate and
hitter strife has been composed. It would have been sad to
carry such a root of bitterness into the re-united church.

The committee on the Danville Seminarv, having the Hon.
Stanley Matthews for its chairman, was no less successful in
its labors. They were deeply impressed with the importance
of the seminary, and of its continuance on the soil of Ken¬
tucky ; they also found that the want of harmony in the fac¬
ulty made its reorganization very necessary. The professors
nobly relieved the Assembly of all embarrassment by placing
their resignations in the hands of the committee. The Assem¬
bly accordingly declared their chairs vacant, and ordered an
election to fill these vacancies. It wisely discontinued the
system of summer sessions recently tried in that institution.
It ordered that no professor in the seminary should be either
a trustee or director. The following persons were elected to
the several vacant chairs : Dr. E. P. Humphrey, Didactic
and Polemic Theology; Dr. Stephen Yerkes, Biblical Litera¬
ture and Exegetical Theology ; Dr. N. AVest, Biblical and
Ecclesiastical History ; Dr. L. J. Halsey, Church Government
and Pastoral Theology.

The following gentlemen were nominated and elected Di¬
rectors of the Presbyterian Seminary of the Northwest, in
place of those whose terms expired last spring : Ministers — J.
M. Buchanan, D. D. ; Robert Patterson, D. D. ; J. D. Mason ;
M. C. Anderson; Robert Beer. Ruling Elders — Jesse L. Wil¬
liams ; Charles A. Spring ; J. G. Grier ; S. N. Moore ; Chas. E.
Vanderburg.

And the following to fill vacancies in the Board of Trustees
of the General Assembly : Rev. George Hale, D.D. ; Rev. D.
A. Cunningham; Hon. J. K. Findlay ; Archibald McIntyre;
James T. Young; Robert Cornelius; H. Lenox Hodge, M. D.

90

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

ACTION LOOKING TO CLOSER UNION WITH OTHER PRESBYTERIAN
AND CALVINISTIC BODIES.

Both Assemblies upon hearing the reports of Dr. Fisher and
Dr. Musgrave, touching the causes of failure to obtain another
meeting of the Joint Committee of New and Old School, and
United Presbyterians, in order to negotiate an organic union be¬
tween the three bodies, adopted the following resolutions : —

“ Resolved , That, rejoicing in the immediate re-union of the two Presbyterian
bodies, so long separated, we would gladly hail a Pan-Presbyterian Union, em¬
bracing all branches of the Presbyterian family, holding to the same confession
of faith and form of government.

“ Resolved , That until such desirable union shall be accomplished, we will
gladly welcome to our church connection all congregations, pastors, and members
who embrace the doctrines of the confession.

“ Resolved , That all uniting with us may freely enjoy the privilege of using such
songs of praise to Almighty God as their conscience may dictate ; as, indeed, is
already allowed to, and variously enjoyed in, and by the several congregations
now in our communion.”

It having become manifest, however, that the second and
third of these resolutions were injuriously misconstrued, they
were afterward reconsidered, and wisely stricken out, in both
bodies.

Upon a memorial from the Synod of St. Paul asking our
Assembly to send delegates to the Assembly of the Welsh
Calvinistic Methodist Church in this country, the Rev. Mr.
Roberts moved that this Assembly send two delegates — one
minister and one elder — to the next General Assembly of the
Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church.

The motion was adopted, and the Rev. W. C. Roberts and
Ruling Elder Mahlon Mulford were appointed said delegates.

HEIDELBERG CATECHISM.

Rev. Dr. Knox — As this is a time of union, I ask leave to
present the following paper: —

“ Whereas, The Heidelberg Catechism unquestionably states and defends the
doctrines of God's word, held by our own in common with the other reformed
churches, and inasmuch as the Reformed (late Dutch) Church has, by an act of
its General Synod, formally placed the Shorter Catechism of the A\ estminster
Assembly by the side of this, its own standard, allowing its churches to make use
of either one at their option ; therefore

91

1S70.] Meetings of the General Assemblies.

“ Re-solved , That this Assembly is of opinion that if any churches desire to em¬
ploy the Heidelberg Catechism in the instruction of their children, such usage
may be permitted.”

Upon this, a committee of five was appointed to report to
the next General Assembly, consisting of Messrs. Plumley,
Rodgers, Knox, ministers, and L. J. Fox and A. B. Belknap,
ruling elders.

An extended and elaborate protest was presented from the
Board of Publication against the practice of making drafts on
their treasury to defray expenses foreign to the purposes of
the Board, and of its endowments — particular reference being
had to the order of the Assembly last spring, that it advance
$5,000 to discharge the expenses of the church litigation in
Kentucky, on which it reported that $2,000 had already been
paid. We wish we had room to place this able and conclusive
document entire upon our pages. A motion to lay it upon
the table failed by a large majority. It wyas referred to a
committee consisting of Dr. A. G. Hall, Dr. Cyrus Dickson,
and Hon. J. T. Hixon.

The chairman of the committee, Dr. Hall, presented the
following report, which was adopted.

“ The committee to which was referred the memorial of the Board of Publica¬
tion, touching the order of the General Assembly in May last, to the said
Board, to pay the sum of $5,000 to the committee, of which Dr. Humphrey is
Chairman, appointed by the Assembly to counsel and co-operate with parties to a
suit at law, involving the rights of property of the Presbyterian Church in Ken¬
tucky, respectfully report : —

“ 1. That the memorial be admitted to record by this Assembly.

“ 2. That the order of the Assembly above recited shall not be hereafter re¬
garded as a precedent for any appropriation of the funds of said Board, aside
from the legitimate objects of their creation.”

We hope that in such exigencies hereafter the liberality of
the church will be found equal to its necessities, without divert¬
ing the resources of any of our Boards from their appropriate
ends. Although the proposition had been made to defray the
expenses of the committees at Danville and Chicago from the
funds of the same Board, it was happily abandoned, and they
were ordered to be paid from the treasuries of the respective
seminaries on account of which they were incurred.

92

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

CONSUMMATION OF RE-UNION.

Early on the first day of the session both Assemblies re¬
ferred all matters concerning re-union to the joint committee
who arranged the plan of union last sent down to, and ap¬
proved by, the Presbyteries. The stated clerk of the Old
School Assembly, Rev. A. T. McGill, D. D., reported that, —

“ The Presbyteries in connection with this Assembly have reported, in writing,
on the overture of re-union, as ordered in the Brick Church, at New York, except
the following ten, viz. : — Austin, Coriseo, Knox, Knoxville, Maury, Ogdensburg,
Shantung, Siam, Stockton, and Western Africa.

“ The stated clerk of the Santa Fe Presbytery has reported by letter that it is
impossible for this Presbytery to have a meeting in present circumstances. The
Presbyteries of Allahabad and Canton, being unable to meet within the time
specified, have sent circulars, signed by a majority of each, to indicate the will
of the Presbytery in favor of the re-union as now proposed ; but these are not
counted in declaring the result. Another Presbytery, Lahore, formed by the
Synod of Northern India, in December last, but not regularly reported, as yet,
by any officer of that Synod, has sent its answer to this overture in written
form, and this has been counted ; on the presumption that the Assembly will
recognize, at this meeting, the existence of that Presbytery on our roll.

“ We have thus one hundred and forty-four Presbyteries. One hundred and
twenty-eight of these have answered the overture sent down affirmatively in
writing. Three — Hudson, Rio de Janeiro, and West Lexington — have answered
in the negative. Fifty -eight have been unanimous in the vote. Not including
Presbyteries in which the divided vote is not specified in the answers, and those
in which the want of unanimity is expressed only by a non liquet and “ excused
from voting,” there may be counted two hundred and forty-five negative votes
detailed in these returns, and distributed among sixty Presbyteries, and in about
equal proportion of ministers and ruling elders. The Presbytery of Nassau has
reported a formal protest along with the detail of negative votes.”

The stated clerk of the New School Assembly reported that,

“ The number of Presbyteries connected with this General Assembly is one
hundred and thirteen. Official responses have been received from every one of
them. They have all answered the overture in the affirmative. In each of the
Presbyteries of Albany, Millsboro, and the District of Columbia, a single nega¬
tive vote was cast. In each of the remaining one hundred and ten Presbyteries,
the vote was unanimous. Respectfully submitted.

“ Edwin F. Hatfield, Stated Clerk.

“ Pittsburg, November 10, 1869,”

REFORT FROM RE-UNION COMMITTEE.

Elder Henry Day, Secretary of the Joint Committee of
Conference on Re-union, submitted the following report from
the Committee : —

1S70.] Meetings of the General Assemblies. 93

The Joint Committee of Conference on Re-union met on the 10th of Novem¬
ber, 18G9, in the lecture room of the First Presbyterian Church.

The following resolutions and plans of procedure for the consummation of the
re-union of the churches, were adopted, and recommended as proper to be passed
by the respective Assemblies: —

1. That each Assembly should declare the vote of the Presbyteries in the fol¬
lowing language : —

This Assembly having received and examined the statements of the several
Presbyteries on the basis of re-union of the two bodies now claiming the name
and rights of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, which
basis is in the words following: —

“ ‘ The re-union shall be effected on the doctrinal and ecclesiastical basis of
our common standards. The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament shall be
acknowledged to be the inspired word of God, and the only infallible rule of
faith and practice. The Confession of Faith shall eontiuue to be sincerely
received and adopted, as containing the system of doctrine taught in the Holy
Scriptures, and the government and discipline of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States shall be approved as containing the principles and rules of our
polity;’

“ Do hereby find and declare that the said basis of re-union has been approved
by more than two-thirds of the Presbyteries connected with this branch of the
church.

“And, whereas, the other branch of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States, now sitting in the Third Presbyterian Church, in the city of Pittsburg,
has reported to this Assembly that said basis has been approved by more than
two-thirds of the Presbyteries connected with that branch of the church ; now,
therefore, we do solemnly declare that said basis of re-union is of binding
force.”

2. That this committee do recommend that a special committee of five from
each branch of the church shall be appointed to take into consideration the
affairs of each of the Boards and Committees of both branches of the church to
recommend to the Assembly of the United Church, next to be held, what
changes are required in said boards and committees.

3. That each Assembly also pass the following : —

“ Whereas, It is apparent, from the size of the two Assemblies, that some
changes must be made in the present method of representation ; therefore,

“ Resolved . That each of the Assemblies of 1869 do appoint a committee of five,
to constitute a joint committee of ten, whose duty it shall be to prepare and
propose to the General Assembly of the United Church, a proper adjustment of
the boundaries of the Presbyteries and Synods, and the ratio of representation,
and any amendments of the constitution which they may think necessary, to
secure efficiency and harmony in the administration of the church so greatly en¬
larged and so rapidly extending.”

4. That the Assemblies do meet at nine o’clock on Friday morning next, and
that the vote of the Presbyteries be declared in each Assembly at ten o’clock,
and that each Assembly be then dissolved in the usual manner prescribed by the
form of government. That each Assembly do immediately repair to the Third
Presbyterian Church, there to hold a joint meeting for prayer and praise, and
that a joiut communion service be held on the same day at three o’clock in the

94

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

afternoon. That all business before each Assembly be concluded on this
(Thursday) evening, and no new business taken up. That a committee of
arrangements, of two from each church be appointed to decide upon the form,
manner, and place of our public meeting, and that a statemeut on the subject of
raising funds for the use of the church be also prepared for said meeting by
said Committee of Arrangements — the Rev. Samuel W. Fisher, D. D., Rev. A. G.
Hall, D. D., Mr. Robert Carter, and the Hon. William E. Dodge to be said com¬
mittee. That the first meeting of the Assembly of the United Church be held
in the First Presbyterian Church in the city of Philadelphia on the third Thurs¬
day of May, 1870.

That a committee of five from each branch of the church be appointed to take
into consideration the subject of raising funds for the use of the United Church,
and the best methods of doing the same, and the objects to which the same
should be directed ; and to report at the next General Assembly.

That a joint meeting on the subject of Home Missions be held this evening
at the First Church, and to-morrow evening in the Third Church, on Foreign
Missions, at half-past seven o’clock. _

Tlie report was unanimously adopted, and the following
committees, called for by it, were subsequently appointed :

On Reconstruction — Rev. George W. Musgrave, D. D., Rev.

C. C. Beatty, I). D., Rev. Cyrus Dickson, D. D., and Ruling
Elders Henry Day and W. M. Francis.

On Board of Foreign Missions — Rev. J. C. Lowrie, D. D.,
Rev. W. M. Paxton, D. D., Rev. S. F. Scovel, D. D., and Rul¬
ing Elders Judge J. B. Skinner and Judge Martin Ryerson.
On Board of Domestic Missions — Rev. G. W. Musgrave,

D. D., Rev. D. A. Cunningham, Rev. D. McKinney, D. D.,
Rev. J. Trumbull Backus, D. D., and Ruling Elder II. D.
Gregory.

On Board of Education— Rev. Wm. Speer, D. D., Rev.
George Hill, D. D., Rev. S. J. Niccolls, D. D., Rev. S. C.
Logan, and Ruling Elder R. S. Kennedy.

On Board of Publication- -Rev. W. E. Sckenck, D. D.,
Rev. E. R. Craven, D. D., Rev. W. P. Breed, D. D., and Rul¬
ing Elders George Junkin and J. T. Nixon.

On Disabled Ministers' Fund — Rev. George Hale, D. D.,
Rev. Alexander Reed, D. D., Rev. T. H. Skinner, Jr., D. D.,
and Ruling Elders Robert Carter and A. B. Belknap.

On Church Extension — Rev. H. R. Wilson, D. D., Rev. O.
A. Hills, Rev. A. A. E. Taylor, and Ruling Elders J. C.
Haven and Jesse L. Williams.

On Freedmen's Committee — Rev. A. C. McClelland, Rev.

95

1870.] Meetings of the General Assemblies.

E. C. Swift, Rev. A. McLean, and Ruling Elders John
McArthnr and J. E. Brown.

On. Raising Funds , etc. — Rev. John Hall, D. D., Rev. C.
K. Imbrie, D. I)., and Ruling Elders W. S. Gilman, Sr.,
Robert McKniglit, and Ilovey K. Clarke.

The same report was likewise unanimously adopted in the
Hew School Assembly, and the following members of the
various Committees called for by it were appointed by that
body.

Committee on Reconstruction of Synods and Presbyteries
and Change of Constitution — Revs. Messrs. Fisher, Patterson,
and Hatfield, and Elders Wing and Suttle.

Committee on Church Work and Progress — Hon. Wm. E.
Dodge, Hon. Wm. Strong, and Revs. Drs. Stearns, Goodrich,
and Hawley.

Committee on Pome Missions — Drs. Adams and Kendall,
Mitchell, II. W. Williams, LL. D., and Mr. Farrand.

Committee on Church Erection — Revs. George AM. Lane,
Ellingwood, and Taylor, and O. H. Lee and Samuel T.
Bodine.

Foreign Missions — Dr. Kelson, Dr. Booth, Rev. F. A.
Noble, and Elders Allison and Scarritt.

Education — Drs. James P. Wilson, John G. Atterbury, E.
D. Morris, and Elders A. AY. Walden and T. P. Hardy.

On Publication — Drs. Humphrey, J. G. Butler, Dulles, and
Elders Brown and Knight.

On Freedmen — Drs. Ilopkins, Hatfield, II. Johnson, and
Elders Wm. Thaw and J. AY. Edwards.

All other business having been concluded, the Assemblies
met, in conformity to the plan proposed by the Committee of
Arrangements, on Friday morning, Nov. 12tli, at 9 a. m.
Committees were sent from each body to the other, to
announce from each to each, the votes of the Presbyteries on
the Re-union overture, and its full ratification in each body.
Then, in each Assembly, the following resolution was adopted
by a unanimous and rising vote : —

“ Whereas, This Assembly, having received and examined the statement of the
votes of the several Presbyteries on the basis of the Re-union of the two
branches now claiming the name and the rights of the Presbyterian Church in

96

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

the United States of America, which basis is in the words following: — ‘ The
Union shall be effected on the doctrinal and ecclesiastical basis of our common
standards ; the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments shall be acknowl¬
edged to be the inspired word of God, and the only infallible rule of faith and
practice; the Confession of Faith shall continue to be sincerely received and
adopted, as containing the system of doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures ; and
the government and discipline of the Presbyterian Church in the Uuited States
shall be approved, as containing the principles and rules of our polity’ — does
hereby find and declare that said basis of union has been approved by more than
two-thirds of the Presbyteries connected with this branch of the church.

“ And whereas , The other branch of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States, now sitting in the Third Presbyterian Church in the city of Pittsburg, has
reported to this Assembly that said basis has been approved by more than two-
thirds of the Presbyteries connected with that branch of the church ;

“ Now, THEREFORE, WE DO SOLEMNLY DECLARE THAT SAID BASIS OF Re-UNION
IS OF BINDING FORCE.”

From this moment the two bodies became organically one —
constituting the one Presbyterian Church of the United States
of America. Each Assembly was dissolved in the usual form,
and another required to be chosen in like manner, to meet in
the First Presbyterian Church in the city of Philadelphia, on
the third Thursday of May, 1870, at 11 a. m.

After close examination, the Committee of Arrangements
found the Third Presbyterian Church the most commodious
room in the city for the union meeting of prayer and
praise, solemn gratulation, and jubilation, which it was agreed
should immediately follow the consummation of the Re-union.
Accordingly, it was arranged that the Rew School Assembly
should move in procession, two by two, headed by their offi¬
cers, and their portion of the Re union Committee, to the
First Church, and meet the other Assembly, marshalled and
headed in like manner. Then the Moderators, followed by
the other officers, the Re-union Committee, and the mem¬
bers, locked arm in arm, each member of one Assembly with
one of the other. And so the two Assemblies, now, we trust,
happily united, marched, arm in arm, and two by two, to the
union meeting in the Third Church. The streets, balconies,
and windows along the line of march were tilled with thousands
of deeply interested spectators, handkerchiefs were waved
from hundreds of hands, prolonged and hearty cheers rent
the air.

The streets were thronged all along the route of procession,

1870.] Meetings of the General Assemblies. 97

and at the Third Church an immense assemblage had collect¬
ed, in anticipation of the opening of the audience room.

When the head of the procession approached the church,
the doors were thrown open, and the combined assemblies en¬
tered the centre aisle.

The gallery had already been filled to overflowing, and a
goodly number of vocalists occupied places about the organ.
As the procession entered, the audience rose and sang, to the
tnne, “Lenox,” the stanzas beginning: —

“Blow ye the trumpet, blowl
The gladly solemn sound
Let all the nations know,

To earth’s remotest bound,” etc.

The officers of the respective Assemblies, and as many of
the commissioners as could find room, were then invited to
seats on the platform, which was soon filled to its utmost ca¬
pacity.

The pressure outside the church was immense, and in a few
minutes — we might almost limit it to seconds — the spacious
audience chamber, including the aisles, was literally packed
with men and women. Thousands more would fain have
entered, but that was impossible.

The surroundings were crowded, not only with the vast
Presbyterian and other population of Pittsburg and vicinity,
but with thousands of ministers and people that had come in
from all parts of the land to witness the august scene — a scene
to be witnessed but once in a life-time — a scene of such moral
sublimity as occurs but once, if once, in a century. It was
truly good to be there ; it was a very Mount of Transfigura¬
tion. The Moderators shook hands, in token of the union now
accomplished between the two bodies over which they presid¬
ed. Addresses, highly pertinent and eloquent, were made by
the two Moderators, Doctors Musgrave, Adams, Fisher, John
Hall, Judge Strong, William E. Dodge, Henry Day, and (in
answer to a call from the audience) George H. Stuart, Esq.,
with appropriate prayers by Doctors Beattie, Hatfield, and
Robert Carter, Esq. The chief scope and end of all their
addresses, and of the whole service, was that the reunion ought
to be signalized by a great advance in prayer, effort, and lib-
vol. xlii. — no. i. 7

98

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

erality in all the departments of Presbyterian evangelization,
and that, if it ended in mere exultation and glorification,
without such advance, it would be a disgrace and calamity
rather than a blessing. It was also urged that there ought to
be an immediate and special contribution, of the nature of a
thank- offering for so great a boon, which should at once
replenish and enlarge the resources of the various institutions
and agencies of the church, now weakened by the scantiness
or endangered by the exhaustion of their funds ; one that
should at once lift theological seminaries, colleges, missionary
boards, the education and support of ministers, every evangelic
agency, to a higher grade of strength and efficiency. Dr.
Fisher, from the committee on this subject, offered the fol¬
lowing resolution to the meeting : —

“ Resolved, By the ministers, elders, and members of the church here assembled,
as in the presence and behalf of the entire body of the disciples connected with
us in this land, and those beloved missionaries on foreign shores, now meditating
our action with tender and prayerful interest, that it is incumbent on the Pres¬
byterian Church, in the United States of America, one in organization, one in
faith, one in effort, to make a special offering to the treasury of our Lord of one
million of dollars ; and we pledge ourselves, first of all, to seek, in our daily peti¬
tions, the blessing of God to make this resolution effectual ; and, second, that we
will, with untiring perseverance and personal effort, endeavor to animate the
whole church with the like purpose, and to secure the accomplishment of this
great work before the third Tuesday of May, 1871.

“ Resolved , That this preamble and resolutions be signed by the Moderators and
Clerks of the Assemblies of 1869, by the members of the late Joint Committee
on Union, (and all the members of the two Assemblies,) printed by the Stated
Clerks, and sent to every pastor of our church.

This was adopted, after being amended by substituting
$5,000,000. Let not the church come short of this high mark
— she has wealth enough to reach it. May her zeal be in pro¬
portion, and may God speed the effort !

There was a united celebration of the Lord’s Supper, in the
First Church, in the afternoon, and a large meeting in behalf
of Foreign Missions, in the Third Church, in the evening, as
there had been one in behalf of Home Missions, in the First
Church, on the previous evening. We were glad to hear Dr.
Kendall, the efficient New School secretary for Home Missions,
declare that their Board had fixed $800, as the minimum sal¬
ary of the missionaries ; that they had sought and obtained

1870.] Meetings of the General Assemblies. 99

young ministers for the pioneer work of the West, from both
Old and New School seminaries ; and had never yet wanted
funds to pay the above sum to all in their service. We hope
the minimum standard in the United Church will never be less
than this, and that herein we shall provoke and be abundant¬
ly provoked to love and good works.

As discussions have been started, indicating a disposition in
some quarters to have the United Church substitute the agency
of a voluntary society for that of the Presbyterian Board in
the conduct of Foreign Missions, we are happy to entertain
and declare the conviction that this will meet little support
from our brethren lately known as New School. The follow¬
ing action by their Assembly shows that, while they justly
refuse any sudden withdrawal of their contributions from tbe
American Board until arrangements shall be adjusted to their
new relations, they intend to be true to the understanding had
on this subject in the “ concurrent declarations ” : —

“The Standing Committee on Foreign Missions would report upon the paper
emanating from the Prudential Committee of the Assembly, which was referred
to them, as follows : That, in view of the fact that appropriations of the American
Board to the support of its missions have been made in advance for the year
ending September, 1870, and it is not only a great embarrassment to the Pruden¬
tial Committee, but also great injury to the cause of mission will result from a
sudden contraction in the receipts of the Board, Therefore,

“Unsolved, That the Permanent Committee be requested to urge upon the
churches, hitherto contributing to the American Board, that they do not with¬
hold their contributions from it during the present fiscal year.

“ Resolved , 2d, That the Permanent Committee be also directed to call the atten¬
tion of our churches to article sixth of the concurrent resolutions passed by the
Assembly at the May meeting, which reads as follows: ‘There should be one set
of committees or boards for Home and Foreign Missions, and the other religious
enterprises of the church, which the churches should be encouraged to sustain,
though free to cast their contributions into other channels if they desire to
do so.’

“ Since, ‘ in this resolution the Assembly has presented its matured and well-
balanced judgment in regard to the future relations of our churches to the
method in which the work of Foreign Missions should be carried on.’ ”

The Evangelist assures us that there will be no wavering in
their body in regard to keeping this in its obvious meaning, and
that, while the liberty of contributing to other organizations
will not, of course, be interfered with, yet the body will be faith¬
ful to the one ecclesiastical Board of the United Church con-

100

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

te in plated in the concurrent resolutions ; and this, not only for
the sake of good faith in the premises, but because the con¬
victions of our brethren are in favor of church organizations
to do church work, not less in the foreign than the home field.

The following overture from the Presbytery of Kansas to
the New School Assembly shows that the principles advanced
in this journal, once and again, in favor of providing an ade¬
quate Sustentation Fund by the whole church, for the respect¬
able support of all its ministers, are beginning to take root in
the church at large. The facts and reasonings of this docu¬
ment it is hard to gainsay. Dr. Chester, chairman of the Com¬
mittee on Bills and Overtures, read the following report : —

OVERTURE FROM THE KANSAS PRESBYTERY.

To the General Assembly : —

Tlie committee to whom was referred the subject of a Sustentation Fund to
prepare an overture on it to the General Assembly, submit the following paper :

The Presbytery of Kansas has felt for years the embarrassments attending the
inadequate and uncertain support of the ministry. Ministers are crippled — their
energies are divided, if not distracted. Spirituality suffers — entire consecration is
a figment. The great fields are not cultivated, our Lord's work is not done,
Presbyterianism lags behind in the peaceful contest of denominations. Why is
this ? What are the facts in the case ? Ministers are obliged to labor with their
own hands, to supplement the scanty support furnished by the feeble Western
churches, and the Presbyterian Committee on Home Missions. The promised
support is not only inadequate, but it is also uncertain. The ability of the people
changes from year to year. In their struggles to get homes, or to improve their
condition, they often become crippled in their resources. Selfishness grows as
freely as our prairie weeds, and worldliness is almost certain to abound. De-
nominationalism, in the absence of educational institutions controlled by our
denomination, is weak, and Presbyterians are ready, in many instances, to aban¬
don their church for a cheaper one. The aid furnished by our Committee on
Home Missions is also uncertain. It is liable to be reduced from year to year,
if not entirely withdrawn, and in circumstances which are oppressive to the
missionary or stated supply. These are facts, and in connection with others we
place two other facts. The minister is a man, and is bound by the laws of God
and man to provide for himself and his own household. There is the struggle —
he would give himself entirely to the ministry, but the cry for bread is in his
ears, and he must hurry to the field or workshop.

The embarrassments felt by the Presbytery of Kansas are felt in some form
both East and West, so that Presbytery in overtiming the General Assembly on a
Sustentation Fund that will do away with these difficulties, speaks for the whole
church, and in sympathy, it is believed, with the felt necessities of the hour on
this subject. The extravagant style of living at the East and in large cities, the rest¬
less adventure in all forms of material resources and action, the strife of corpora¬
tions. the emulation of individuals, the show and display of private and public

1870.]

101

Meetings of the General Assemblies.

life, the worldliness of the age, and the unwise excess of living, in numerous cases
beyond available means, indispose and incapacitate the members of our churches
and congregations to meet the necessary increasing expenses of living, and sup¬
port adequately the ministry. They give up experienced ministers, especially if
they have families, for young and inexperienced ones, who can live for moderate
salaries. The church in such an unhappy state of things loses the benefit of
ripe scholarship and rich experience, and is necessarily led into superficial actions
and forms of life by those whose scholarship and experience are necessarily im¬
mature. Nor is this all. The ministry in many cases is demitted entirely, and
good talent lost to the church and the world.

The capricious and unregulated voluntary principle, in which we have reposed
for a stable and sufficient ministerial support, has failed us, in one important
thing at least — a certain support The fluctuating means furnished by the church
have been governed by no law. Complaints have rung out on all sides, and after
reiterated efforts to bring the church up to her duty, the hearts and homes of
many of the ministers have been pained with the question, “What shall we eat,
and what shall we drink, and wherewithal shall we be clothed ?” We speak
advisedly when we say that the capricious and unregulated voluntary principle
is, and has been all this. If the church were wholly consecrated to God, if his
revealed will were the law of giving, as well as the law of action, and the church
could be made to understand that it is not the support of a certain man as a
minister that is provided for in the word of God, but the ministry as a con¬
secrated body of men, not unlike the tribe of Levi under the Old Testament dis¬
pensation, then the voluntary principle would cease to be capricious and un¬
regulated by the express will of God, would become a stable support, and able
churches would not be content to meet liberally the wants of their own ministers.
They would see that every minister is furnished for his work, and amply sup¬
ported in its performance. What is to be done? Is this state of things to con¬
tinue, and the work of the Lord to suffer by its continuance ? Is the tribe of Judah
never to provide comfortably for the working tribe of Levi ? The approach of
the re-union of the two great Presbyterian bodies in the United States offers a
good opportunity to change this unjust state of things, and inaugurate a general
movement to raise a Sustentation And for the certain and adequate support of the
ministry. We have the noble example of the Free Church of Scotland, so that
the movement is not of the nature of an experiment, and we are in far more
favorable circumstances to attempt it than the Scotch Church ever has been.
The fund can be raised, and the minimum stipend of every minister can be placed
at $800. What would be the consequences? The churches would be better
served, the pastoral relations would be more sacred, the ministry could give
undivided attention to the ministerial work, an increasing supply of good candi¬
dates could be secured, the work of the Lord in the pulpit, and in every other
place and form would be urged forward with more devotion and zeal, and the
homes and families of ministers would be made comfortable. The Presbytery of
Kansas, thus viewing the whole subject, and believingly entertaining these views,
is constrained to overture the General Assembly to take steps to secure, if
possible, at the consummation of the union, the attention of the united churches
to the raising of a Sustentation Fund for the ministry.

Wm. H. Smith,

Stated Clerk of the Presbytery of Kansas.

October 13, 1869.

102

Meetings of the General Assemblies. [January,

ANSWER TO THE OVERTURE FROM THE PRESBYTERY OF KANSAS.

To the overture from the Presbytery of Kausas, commended by the Synod of
Kansas, asking that measures be taken by this General Assembly to provide
a Susientation Fund, by which the salaries of our ministers may be secured and
equalized, the Assembly would reply by referring to its answer given to similar
overtures at its session last May, and recorded on page 262 of the minutes.

This answer is given, not at all to express opposition to this overture, which
treats of a subject of vital importance to our whole church, but in view of the
propriety of originating specific action upon such a momentous matter in the
United Church.

Thus the re-union of the sundered Presbyterian Church is
fully completed and inaugurated. What next? Shall this
great body content itself with rejoicings and jubilations over
this grand event ? We quite agree with those who would
count such an issue of the re-union of these great bodies
simply a disgrace and a calamity. We trust that the energies
of all, whatever may have been their hesitation or opposition
at any previous stage of this movement, will now be devoted
to rendering it, in every good sense, a success — a success not of
pride, self-complacency, and vainglorious boasting, but a
success of real inward unity, animating this external organic
union, so that the one body may be inspired by one spirit;
that it may be cemented and consolidated in a real, great, and
glorious advance of truth, unity, and charity ; in an immense
growth of sound Christian evangelism, true piety, and of
Presbyterian doctrine, order, polity, institutions, life, and
manners. Among the periodicals now existing in the United
Church, this belongs to the few planted in the original undi¬
vided church, years before the division. It then labored to
build up the church, and prevent disruption, by advocating
the doctrines and order of our standards against heterogeneous
and divisive elements. It often incurred the censure of ex¬
tremists on all sides, while approved by the great heart of the
church it sought to edify on the basis of sound conservatism;
and its labors have not been in vain, nor have we spent our
strength for naught. The cardinal principles which vve have
maintained in regard to the immiscible nature of Congrega¬
tional and Presbyterian polities; the conducting of church
work by church agencies, and Presbyterian work by Pres¬
byterian agencies; making the standards the only doctrinal

1870.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 103

and ecclesiastical basis of union, leaving to the several series
of courts of the church to decide what deviations from their
ipsissima verba are not inconsistent with the essentials of the
system they contain, are now accepted as the true and char¬
acteristic principles of the re-united church. And in this
church again undivided, with that charity which rejoiceth not
in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth, it will endeavor to keep
the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace ; to promote whole¬
some progress and a sound conservatism ; to contend earnestly
for the faith once delivered to the saints, against the triple
alliance of rationalism, ritualism, and materialism ; to study
the things that make peace, and things whereby one may
edify another ; and to summon to its aid the ablest contrib¬
utors, new and old, from all, of whatever past or present eccle¬
siastical connection, who are ready to make common cause
with us in maintaining and spreading true Christianity,
Calvinism, and Presbyterianism, to the end that —

“ Speaking the truth in love, we may grow up into him

IN ALL THINGS, WHO IS THE HEAD, EVEN CHRIST : FROM WHOM
THE WHOLE BODY FITLY JOINED TOGETHER, AND COMPACTED BY
THAT WHICH EVERY JOINT SUPPLIETH, ACCORDING TO THE EFFEC¬
TUAL WORKING IN THE MEASURE OF EVERY PART, MAKETH IN¬
CREASE OF THE BODY UNTO THE EDIFYING OF ITSELF IN LOVE.” -

Eph. iv. 15-16.

0eo) i uovo) 6o^a.

Art. YII. — The Life of Joseph Addison Alexander , I). Zb,
Professor in the Theological Seminary at Princeton , Ar. J.
By Henry Carrington Alexander. 2 vols., cr. Svo. New
York: Charles Scribner & Co. 1870.

This is one of the most skilfully executed biographies
within our knowledge. It will not address itself to those in¬
terested only in secular affairs. It does not delineate the
character or unfold the history of a man, whose life was spent
in the sight of the world, and whose influence determined the

104

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

destiny of nations. Its subject was a theologian and a secluded
man of letters. Ilis sphere was comparatively limited ; and
the number of those disposed to concern themselves with his
history may be small compared with the mass of our teeming,
agitated population, who seldom raise their eyes from the
ground on which they tread. Nevertheless, the delineation
of the character and work of a great and good man of emi¬
nence and usefulness in the sphere in which he moved, is a
matter of high interest to all to whom greatness and goodness
are attractive.

The task of the biographer in the present case was, in some
respects, easy. He had a great subject, and his materials were
abundant. In other respects his task was peculiarly difficult.
The character with which he had to deal was so manifold or
many sided ; its peculiarities were so marked ; it was so dif¬
ferent from itself at different times, that to do it full justice
was no easy matter. The biographer has done his work ad¬
mirably. If any man in the world knew Dr. Addison Alex¬
ander thoroughly, we thought we did. "We lived in the same
town with him from the time he was three years old until we
saw him die. For nearly a quarter of a century we were his
colleague. We were associated with him during all that time
in different enterprises. Yet we acknowledge that after read¬
ing this book our conception of the man is more comprehen¬
sive, and in some respects more just than it ever was before.

The materials at the command of his biographer, although
abundant, were scattered, disjointed, and fragmentary. These
have all been woven together with consummate skill.

The style of the work also is excellent. It is clear, pure,
and racy. There is no prolixity ; no amplification, — all is rapid
and vivacious. There is at times the introduction of unim¬
portant or irrelevant details. But the movement is so rapid,
the reader is neither impeded nor annoyed by these small
matters.

Having expressed our opinion of the book before us, we feel
inclined to lay down our pen. We have so often, on different
occasions, expressed our estimate of the greatness and worth
of Dr. Addison Alexander, that it seems unnecessary to say
any thing more on that subject. Our readers would regard it

1S70.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 105

as a work of supererogation to attempt a synopsis of the life or
sketch of the character of a man of whom they have such a
biography as this. No one wants to look at a photograph
when he has before him a i'ull-lengtli portrait from the hands
of a first-rate artist.

Nevertheless, Dr. Alexander was ours ; our friend ; our
colleague ; our decus et tutamen. He was a Princeton man ;
and the Princeton Review cannot refrain from placing its
chaplet, though withered and tear-bedewed, upon his grave.
His memory is loved, reverenced, and cherished here, as it can
be nowhere else.

Dr. Alexander was a truly great man, without being a prod¬
igy. That term is commonly applied to those who seem to
be endowed with some faculty denied to other men ; or who
possess some one mental power in an abnormal degree. It
may be a talent for numbers, for language, for music, or any
thing else. Dr. Alexander did not belong to that class. He
was not thus one-sided. He had great power for every thing
he chose to attempt. His acquisitions were determined by his
tastes. lie studied what was agreeable to him, and left un¬
noticed what did not suit his fancy. After leaving college
he had a strong inclination to study law. Had he done so,
there can be no rational doubt he would have become one
of the greatest jurists and advocates our country has pro¬
duced. Few men were ever less indebted to instruction or
external educational influences. He was taught what he
learned in the same sense that he was taught to walk. He
needed and received as little assistance in the one case as in
the other. His father, seeing his precocious and extraordinary
ability, and his disposition to study, left him very much to
himself. He went to the grammar school and afterward
through college ; but a very small part of his time or attention
was given to the prescribed curriculum in those institutions.
He walked the course absorbed with other things.

The three departments to which his taste and providential
circumstances led him to devote his principal attention, were
language, history (sacred and secular including interpretation),
and general literature. It was in the first of these that his
earliest, and perhaps his most extraordinary attainments were

106 life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

made. Finding an Arabic grammar in bis father’s study be
took it down, and began to study it ; and, before be was four¬
teen years old, we are told, be bad read the whole Koran
through in the original. Shortly after he took up the Persian,
and soon attained a familiarity with language, which he con¬
tinued to cultivate as long as he lived. Hebrew, Chaldee,
Syriac, were soon added to his acquisitions. And sub¬
sequently, Coptic, Kabinnical Hebrew, Sanscrit, and even in a
measure Chinese. Most of the languages of modern Europe
were early mastered : French, German, Italian, Spanish,
Dutch, Danish, etc., the majority of which he wrote as well
as read. His biographer gives a list of twenty languages
with which he was more or less familiar. In Greek, Latin,
Hebrew, and Arabic, he was a thorough and accomplished
master. To no language, however, did he devote so much
attention as his own. Its history, its authors, its resources,
were all at his command. One of his great excellences was
his English style. He was almost unequalled for clearness,
conciseness, felicity, and force. It would be a great mistake to
regard him as mere prodigy in the acquisition of languages.
He was a scholarly linguist, critically acquainted with the
structure, origin, and affinities of the languages which he
studied.

History was for several years his department in the Theolo¬
gical Seminary. He was familiar with the original sources of
church history as well as with the works of all the principal
historians in all the modern languages. And here again as in
regard to language it was the hidden spirit, the life, the phi¬
losophy, of history which was the special object of interest.
He was as far as possible removed from being a mere annalist.
Ho course of lectures ever delivered by him in the seminary
was more useful, more impressive, or more instructive, than
that devoted to the Old Testament history. He unfolded with
such clearness the organic relations of the several parts of the
old economy, as to make its unity, its import, and its relation
to the Messianic period, plain to the dullest minds. It was
thus, as bis pupils expressed it, he gloritied the Word of God ;
exalting aud enlarging their conceptions of its import, and
confirming their faith in its divine origin, to a degree unattain-

1870.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 107

able by any process of apologetic argument. He applied tbe
same method with equal success to the New Testament history,
comprising the period covered by the Gospel and the Acts.
But when he came to deal with ecclesiastical history, he found
the field so extensive, the materials so exhaustless, and his
time so limited, he wearied of the task, and longed to get
back to the study and exposition of the Bible.

It need hardly be said that he read and re-read the classical
historians of Greek and Borne, and was familiar with the
whole course of European history. His memory was so re¬
tentive that no leading event, civil or military, affecting the
state of Europe was unrecorded in his mind, or not ready at
any time for appropriate use.

In his study of languages, as we have said, it was not
merely the vocabulary that interested him but their structure
and relations, and still more their literature. His main ob¬
ject feeme'd to be to gain access to the productions of the
great minds in all ages of the world. He became a first-rate
Greek and Latin scholar, not so much for the sake of under¬
standing the languages of those leading nations of antiquity,
as for appreciating and enjoying the works of their poets,
orators, and historians. The same remark is applicable to the
other languages, with which he became familiar. He delighted
in reading the Persian poets, and the classic works of all the
nations of modern Europe, at least of England, Germany,
France, Italy, and Spain. He was indeed an omnivorous
reader. On one occasion when walking!: the streets of Paris
with a young friend, he went up to one of those long tables
of books which abound on the quays, and moving along, said,
“read that,” “read that,” “ read that,” and so on almost to
the end. It was difficult to find any tiling in the heteroge¬
neous collection which he had not read.

Although thus varied in his acquirements, there were
departments of which he was of choice comparatively igno¬
rant. This, as was evident to all who knew him, and plain
from the powers which he displayed, did not arise from a
want of capacity, but simply from a want of interest, or rather
from his interest being engrossed by more congenial subjects.
He paid comparatively little attention to the natural sciences ;

108

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [Januaky,

and still less to metaphysics. On subjects connected with the
last-named department, we never heard him converse. So
far as we know, he never wrote upon them. On the contrary,
we have heard him avow his utter distaste for them, and his
purpose not to attend to them. Still more remarkable was
his determination to know as little as he could on everything
relating to physiology and hygiene. He constantly violated
the laws of health, because he did not know what they were.
The illness which resulted fatally, commenced its ravages a
year or more before his death. From having been corpulent,
he became thin ; instead of perspiring freely, as was his habit,
for months there was not a drop of moisture on his skin. For
a year his mouth had been so dry he could not moisten a
postage stamp. And when surprise was expressed that these
symptoms had not arrested his attention, he said, “ Oh, you
know I never put that and that together.” Ten days or a
fortnight before his death, we went into his study and found
him sitting at his table with a great folio open before him
and a pen in his hand. He said, “ I am under the weather to¬
day. You know what I mean. It is not the state of the
atmosphere. I feel perfectly comfortable. I can read and
write; but I am utterly indisposed to move.” Then slapping
his breast, he said, “I am just as well as you are.” These
incidents are of interest, as they reveal the man. They may
also teach the lesson that no one is so great or good as that
he can safely remain ignorant of ordinary things, etc.

The mental gifts of Dr. Alexander were greater and more
varied than his attainments. What he learned and what he
accomplished were far from being the measure of his ability.
The most sensible impression which he made on those who
came in contact with him, was that of strength ; of mental
power. Whatever he did, he did with such ease, that every
one felt that his ability was never taxed ; that there was a
reserve of unexercised strength, adequate to the production of
much greater effects.

The ease with which he acquired so many languages, and
his mastery over historical details, showed that his memory
was very tenacious and retentive. Indeed, in this respect, he
was a wonder to his colleagues. At the opening of the ses-

1870.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 109

sion of the seminary, the new students are called up, not alpha¬
betically, but just as they happen to be known to the
professors, to record their names in the matriculation book.
The next day after having heard the names thus called off,
he has taken a sheet of paper, and, from memory, written
them down alphabetically, giving the first, middle, and sur¬
name of each student, without hesitation and without mistake.

Not less marked was his power of analysis and of orderly
or logical arrangement. This was evinced in his lectures on
biblical history, in his introductions to his commentaries, espe¬
cially in that on the prophecies of Isaiah, in his sermons, and
in his essays and reviews. Few men equalled him in the
power of argument. He was never weak, illogical, or sophis¬
tical. Every thing was clear, valid, pertinent, and exhaus¬
tive.

His imagination was brilliant and chaste. This is clearly
evinced in many of his sermons, which those who heard will
never forget. We specify the discourses on the text, “Not as
though I had already attained or were already perfect ; ”
“ The last state of that man was worse than the first ; ”
“ Awake thou that sleepest, and Christ shall give thee life ; ”
and, “ Remember Lot’s wife. ” The same power is evinced in
his fugitive pieces of poetry, of which enough are preserved to
show that he might have attained eminence as a poet had he
devoted himself to that difficult vocation.

One of the most marked characteristics of Dr. Alexander
as a man, was integrity. No one ever did, or ever could
suspect him of any thing like disingenuousness. There was
nothing of designing or indirectness in any thing he said or
did. He was frank, open, and always trustworthy. He was
kind and tender in his feelings, and lenient in his judgments.
Although his temper was irritable, yet he never gave way to
it without compunction and atonement. If betrayed into any
momentary severity in the class room, the next time he offi¬
ciated at prayers, there was sure to be something to indicate
his regret ; so that the students on leaving the oratory would
often ask one of another, “ What has Dr. Addy been doing
now ?” We never saw in him the slightest manifestation of
malignity, or envy, or of vanity. He was singularly impatient

110 Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

of commendation. He was of course conscious of his strength
and of his superiority. But he never displayed the one for
the sake of attracting attention, and never asserted the other.
Ho one ever thought of disputing it.

One of the most marked traits of his character was his
fondness for children. He always had them about him. A
selected few had free access to his study. With them he
would unbend himself ; devise things for their amusement.
He would narrate to them, sing to them, play with them,
write for them. The productions of his pen designed for the
amusement of children, would make a little library, and are
among the most characteristic, and, in one view, among the most
creditable, of his literary works. They wTere often executed
with wonderful beauty, as to penmanship. They were in
prose, in poetry, rhyme, and blank verse ; filled with wit,
humor, knowledge, and good sentiments. He would carry this
on for years with the same set of delighted auditors. This
was his relaxation.

Dr. Alexander’s temperament was nervous. The effect of
temperament on the social life and on the conduct, are obvious
and undeniable. These effects are variable and are not under
the control of the will. They, to a greater or less extent,
dominate the man. Some men are constitutionally hypo¬
chondriac. Such persons are not always in a state of depres¬
sion. Oue day they are bright and cheerful ; another, they
are in the depths of melancholy. And when depressed, it is
impossible for them either to feel or act cheerfully. This was
not the case with Dr. Alexander. He wras not subject to low
spirits ; nor were his feelings much under the influence of the
state of the weather, nevertheless, lie was very nervous.
There were states in which all society was irksome to him ;
when he was indisposed to talk or to be talked to. These
states were so frequent and so continuous as to give rise to
the impression that he was a complete recluse, shunning
society whenever he could. To this impression his biographer
frequently refers, and endeavors to remove or counteract it by
adducing the testimony of numerous witnesses from all parts
of the country, that they had found him a cheerful and de¬
lightful companion. The number of such witnesses might be

1870.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. Ill

increased indefinitely. There is no doubt, as none knew so
well as those most intimate with him, that he could be, and
very often was, full of animation and cheerfulness, overflow¬
ing in conversation, abounding in humor and wit. The other
side of the picture, however, is no less true. He was often in
such a state that he avoided all society. He would sometimes
come into our study after his lecture day after day for weeks
in succession ; and then, perhaps, would not come for a month.
Sometimes, when visiting him, nothing could be more cordial
and courteous than his manner. At other times it was at
once apparent that he wished to be alone. He would remain
perfectly silent, or answer only in monosyllables. There was
nothing in this to take umbrage at, any more than if one
should at one time find a friend shaking with a chill, and at
another burning with a fever. It was an involuntary nervous
state as painful to the subject of it, as it was trying to others.

To this same peculiarity of temperament we are disposed to
refer the impatience which Dr. Alexander often manifested.
Some men’s sensations are more acute than others. A false
note in music will make some men’s flesh crawl. So a false
pronunciation, a blunder in recitation, a typographical mistake,
would affect him much more sensibly than others whose
nerves were less finely strung.

To the same cause in a great measure is to be referred his
impatience of sameness. He did not like to live long in the
same house ; to have his library in the same room ; or his
books arranged in the same way ; or to teach the same thing,
or the same subject in the same manner. His department in
the seminary was changed three times, and always at his own
request. And his method of instruction was constantly varied.
This temperament may have been the necessary condition of
some of his excellences. It was nevertheless in other re¬
spects very unfortunate. It led him to undertake too many
things ; to take up and throw aside first one thing and then
another, and thus bring to completion far less than with the
same amount of labor he might easily have accomplished.

Having graduated in the College of New Jersey, in 1827,
he devoted two years to laborious and diversified study. We
do not propose to indulge in extracts from a book which we

112

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

hope will find its way to the hands of all of our readers. But
as a specimen of his daily work, we select at hazard the record
for Jan. 15, 1828. “ Bead a part of the 29th chapter of Isaiah

in Hebrew ; the 4th chapter of Louis XV. ; the 4th chapter
of the 2d section of Condillac’s Essai sur les Connaissances
Ilumaines, in French, and the 12th chapter of Don Quixote, in
Spanish ; then read about a hundred lines in the Clouds of
Aristophanes ; then read about, the same number in Chaucer’s
Canterbury Tales ; then wTent to the Philological Hall, to at¬
tend a meeting of the Board of Criticism of the Philological
Society, and received from the president an anonymous trans¬
lation of Horace’s Book 1, ode 22, to criticise. Bead in the
Hall the 14th canto of Dante’s Inferno, and finished the article
on Arabian Literature in the Foreign Quarterly Beview; re¬
turned home and examined the anonymous translation afore¬
said, noting down some observations on the same; then read
a review of Hase’s Dogmatic and Gnosis in the Theologische
Studien ; then read the remainder of Isaiah 29th in Hebrew ;
then read De Sacy’s Arabic Grammar ; then read Genesis 22,
23, in Hebrew ; then wrote a sheet of French exercises — and
to bed.”

Under date of Feb. 10, is found the following critique on
Aristophanes and Shakespeare : —

“ I liave finished the famous Clouds of Aristophanes, but Gan scarcely say
what my feelings and opinions are as I close the book. Such a combination of
extremes, intellectual and moral, I have never before known. Such transitions
from earth to heaven, from Parnassus to the dunghill, are to me new and start¬
ling. Shakespeare is unequal, but his inequalities are nothing to the fits and starts
of Aristophanes. The English poet never dives so deep into pollution, nor rises,
in point of artifical elegance, so high as the Athenian. Shakespeare’s genius is
obviously untutored. His excellences and his faults are perhaps equally attribu¬
table to his want of education. It is altogether probable that many of these
original and most significant and poetic modes of expression which he has intro¬
duced into our language, arose entirely from his ignorance of grammar and of
foreign tongues. Had he been familiar with technical distinctions and etymolo¬
gical analogies, his thoughts would have been distracted between words and
things. The dread of committing solecisms, and the ambition to exhibit that sort
of elegance which results from the formal rules of an artificial rhetoric, would
have cooled his ardor. Ilis 1 muse of fire ’ would never have reached ‘ the heav¬
en of invention,' but would have stayed its flight amidst the clouds and mists
of puerile conceit. I never read any of Shakespeare’s real poetry (for much of
his verse is most bald prosing) without feeling, in my very soul, that no man

1S70.]

113

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

could write thus, whose heart was fixed on propriety of diction, as a principal
or even a secondary object. He seems to have let his imagination boil, and
actually to have taken the first words which bubbled up from its ebullition.
Hence his strange revolt from authority in the use of ordinary words [in senses]
as far removed from common practice as from etymology. And that reminds me
of another circumstance. In the common blank verse of his dialogue, not only
is he habitually careless, but seems Dot to know (in many cases) the method of
constructing an harmonious verse ; and perhaps his broken measure is more dra¬
matic than one smoother would be ; certainly more so than the intolerable tin-
tinnabulum of the Theatre Frangais. But let him rise into one of his grand
flights, and his nnmbers are as musical as the ‘ harp of Orpheus.’ I defy any
man to bring forward any specimen of heroic blank verse, where the rhythm is
as melodious as in some passages of Shakespeare, and the sense at the same
time within sight — I mean comparably good in any degree. Milton, you say, etc.
But who can read the Paradise Lost without thinking of the square and compass ?
Even when we admire, we admire scientifically — we applaud the arrangement of
the caesuras and pauses, and are forever thinking of iambuses and trochees and
hypercatalectics, and all the hard words that Milton himself would have dealt
forth in lecturing upon his own versification. Whereas, I do verily believe, that
Shakespeare knew no more of Prosody, than of Animal Magnetism or Phrenology.
Thomson, again, is among our finest specimens of rich and musical blank verse,
but Thomson is labored too; not in Milton’s way, by weight and measure, but
in a way no less artificial and discernible. He is always laboring to make his
lines flow with a luscious sweetness : everybody knows that he succeeds, but
everybody, alas, knows how. He does it by presenting words in profusion,
which are at once dulcet to the ear and exciting to the imagination. The method
is the only true one, but he carries it too far. One strong proof that Shakespeare
was a genius and a unique one, is that his excellence is not sustained and equal.
Moonlight and candlelight shed a uniform lustre, but who ever saw or heard of
a continuous flash of lightning? Our bard trifles and proses and quibbles, and
whines (but always without affectation) till something (whether accident or not I
cannot tell) strikes a spark into his combustible imagination, and straightway he
is in a blaze. I think a good rocket is a capital illustration of his muse of fire.
First we have a premonitory whiz — then a delicate but gorgeous column of bril¬
liant scintillations, stretching away into the bosom of heaven and at last dying
away in a shower of mimic stars and comets of tenfold — of transcendent bright¬
ness. What then ? Whj- then comes darkness visible, or at best a beggarly
gray twilight. But in talking thus to myself, I forgot what I am about. I be¬
gan with Aristophanes, and have been raving about Shakespeare. All 1 have to
say, however, about the former, is, that he is a perfect contrast to the English¬
man. He is evidently a master of the art of versifying, but he knows how to
temper the formality of systematic elegance with the charm of native poetry.
Compared with the Greek tragedians, his flights of choral and lyrical inspiration
appear to great advantage. More coherent and intelligible than HSscbylus, more
vigorous and nervous and significant than Sophocles, more natural and spirited
than Euripides; he, notwithstanding, excels them all in the music of his numbers,
and the Attic purity and terseness of his diction.”

“February 17. — The historical style of the Arabs is very curious. It varies
indeed, in different cases. Some of their histories are florid, inflated, and verbose.

VOL. XL II. — NO. I. 8

114

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

Others, and, I suspect, the great majority, are hasty, confused, and crude enumer¬
ations of lietorogeneous facts. I was amused in looking over some of the histor¬
ical facts in De Sacy, to observe the exquisite taste exhibited in the arrangement
and enumeration of events; e. g., Makriri says, speaking of Hakem, the Imaum
of the Fatemists : ‘ He commanded that all dogs should be killed, in consequence
of which a multitude were put to death. He founded a college called the House
of Wisdom, to which he transferred the royal library. He was very cruel to his
running footmen, and a number of them he put to death.’ What a circumflective
climax, pour ainsi dire! Dead dogs, colleges, libraries, running footmen.”

These extracts may^ give some idea of what Dr. Alexander
was as a scholar in the nineteenth year of his age.

In 1829 he became associated with Professor Patton in con¬
ducting the Edge Hill Academy, which, under their direction,
became eminently successful. It was during this period that
the change occurred in his personal religious experience which
determined his future course for life. He was always remark¬
ably7 reticent with regard to this subject. Ilis piety was
evinced in his character and conduct. Little could be learned
concerning it from his own avowals or professions. For a few
months, however,, during this period, he kept a religious diary,
the extracts from which, given by his biographer, show how
thorough he was in his convictions, and what jealous watch he
kept over his own heart. Under the date of January, 1830,
lie writes : “ I have been engaged in a study new to me, and
far more important than all others, — the study of the Bible,
and of my own heart. I humbly trust that I am not what I
was. I have still my old propensities to evil, but I have also
a new will co-existing with the old, and counteracting and
controlling it. My views respecting study are now changed.
Intellectual enjoyment has been my idol heretofore ; now my
heart’s desire is that I may live no longer to myself, but in
Him iu whom I have everlasting life. God grant that the
acquisitions that I have been allowed to make under the influ¬
ence of selfish motives may be turned to good account as
instruments for the promotion of His glory.”

“ Intellectual enjoyment,” he says, not the world, not fame,
had been his idol. This is an indication of the exaltation of
even his natural character. Henceforth, something more ele¬
vated than the pleasures of the intellect, was to be his absorb¬
ing object. It was Christ for him henceforth to live. Those

1S70.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 115

who knew him intimately, all who heard him preach or pray,
saw that he was a devout worshipper of Christ ; that to his
teachings his mind was as submissive and docile as that of a
child, that to the promotion of Ilis truth and kingdom his
whole life was devoted.

In an isolated record of a year or two later date he says : —

“ June 5. — Read a considerable part of Halyburton’s life with avidity and aston¬
ishment. I seemed to be reading a history of my own life. I speak within
bounds when I say that up to the age of twenty his spiritual history is mine in
almost every point. Both minister’s sons, and both ministers of the same com¬
munion — both guarded in an unusual degree by circumstances from extra temp¬
tation — both outwardly exemplary, inwardly corrupt — both led to seek religion
by distress — both tormented with the fear of death 1 The coincidence is truly
wonderful. The account of his vows and resolutions; his frequent breaches of
them; his distress in consequence ; his subsequent resorts and shifts — I might
transcribe and make my own. I was obliged to pause sometimes and wonder at
these strange coincidences ; and I bless God that the book fell into my hands.
From the experience of one whose early history was so much like my own, I have
learned some precious lessons. Some enigmas have been solved; some myste¬
ries of iniquity developed ; some obstacles removed; some useful hints suggested.
On one head particularly, I have been much edified. When my conscience has
been wounded by relapses into sin, I have always been tempted to sink down
into a sullen apathy, or else to wait a day or two before approaching God again.
It has seemed to me, on such occasions, that it would be awfully presumptuous
and insolent to ask God to forgive me on the spot. I never knew why I thought
so until Halyburton told me. I had been trusting in my abstinence from sin,
instead of Christ’s atonement, so that when surprised and vanquished by tempta¬
tion, I felt that my foundation was removed, my righteousness gone, and I had
no righteousness wherewith to purchase favor. It pleased God this afternoon to
use the memoir as an instrument in fixing on my mind a strong conviction that
the only reasonable course is to come at once, and ask forgiveness in the name
of Christ. The remarks which particularly struck me as conclusive were these
three: —

“ 1. After an act of known transgression, every moment that I spend without
applying to the blood of Christ I spend in sin, and consequently aggravate my
guilt.

“2. It was my folly to suppose that I should never sin again. He that trust-
eth to his own heart is a fool.

“ 3. Above all I seemed to have received new light upon a point which I never
before thought of as I ought, viz., that God’s chief end in dealing with men’s
souls is not to discipline them, nor save them ; but to promote his own glory.”

In July, 1830, lie was appointed Adjunct Professor of An¬
cient Languages and Literature in the College of Hew Jersey,
with the understanding that he was to reside in the college
and act as tutor. The following extract from his journal, not

116 Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

only gives an account of his studies at this time, hut contains
the first distinct avowal of his purpose to enter the ministry : —

“ December 16. — On the 11th day of November I entered on my duties as actual
tutor and nominal professor in the College of New Jersey. My official labors
are not so burdensome but that they leave me considerable time for study. In¬
deed, I should not have accepted the appointment, except upon the supposition
that I should be able to continue my professional pursuits. Having finally
resolved upon preparation for the ministry, I feel the satisfaction and advantage
of having some one definite object in my studies, instead of wandering amidst a
thousand, under the mere guidance of capricious inclination. I have set before me
as the specific end of my toils, to become thoroughly acquainted with the Scrip¬
tures ; philologically, theologically, practically, and so on, to qualify myself lor
interpreting them properly to others. My studies having this for their chief end,
will, at present, fall under three distinct heads : 1. Biblical criticism. 2. System¬
atic theology. 3. History. To the first I shall for some time devote one whole
day in each week; to the second, four; and to the third, one. The first and
third will, however, receive some attention every day. My course of study in
the first branch will consist in studying the original Scriptures, and in reading
approved works on criticism, under the direction of Mr. Hodge. Before taking up
theology proper, my father advises a course of metaphysics ; upon which I have
already entered. My historical reading will, of course, be chiefly in the ecclesi¬
astical department; but I have determined to embrace this opportunity of laying
a firm, general foundation. This I shall do by reading the best original historical
authorities in the languages with which I am acquainted. I shall avoid compil¬
ers and second-hand retailers. Content adire integros fontes. My object is to
survey for myself the raw stuff — the material from which historiographers have
wrought their patch-work. I shall begin with the historical books of the Bible,
and then probably proceed to Herodotus. Further, I have not yet looked ahead.”

The impression which he made on the students of the college
as a teacher, may be learned from the statement of Parke
Godwin, Esq., of New York, the distinguished editor and
historian. In a note to the biographer he says : —

“ I shall never forget the abruptness as well as the sagacity of the first re¬
mark lie made to our class, during the Sophomore year. ‘Young gentlemen,’
he said, in a quick but positive way, ‘all knowledge is pleasant.’ He then
stopped for a moment that we might digest the truth. ‘AH knowledge is pleas¬
ant,’ he resumed; ‘and I shall therefore take it for granted, when I hear that
any one does not like any particular study, that he does not know any thing
about it.’ That was about the whole of his address, and you may infer from it
that he received few complaints from us, during his incumbency at least.
‘ Addy ’ as we called him familiarly, was held in the profoundest respect by all
the students; and for two reasons: the first was, that nobody ever saw him,
except in the class ; and the second, that we imputed to him a marvellous
amount of human knowledge of all sorts. He was supposed to study about
eighteen hours a day, adding to his already prodigious acquirements; and these
acquirements were computed at no less than thirteen different languages, and all

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

117

1870.J

the then known natural sciences.* You may imagine that we always ap¬
proached him with a feeling of awe and veneration.”

Mr. Godwin adds, “lie was then so close a student that
none hut the members of his family saw much of him, and
when a chance encounter brought you into his presence he
was generally very shy and reserved. It was the ambition of
all of us to become intimate with him ; but we were not per¬
mitted the opportunity. I regret that I cannot furnish other
particulars, as I have never ceased to love and admire the
man, as one of the noblest and most highly gifted of our fel¬
low-countrymen.”

During his connection with the college, Dr. Alexander
wrote constantly for the press. Some of these contributions
were playful ; the great majority, of course, serious and
learned. Of the former we give as a specimen his “ Diagno¬
sis of the I and the Not-I.” designed as a satire on the imi¬
tators of the German metaphysicians.

“ Diagnosis op tiie I and the Not-I. — Assuming as we safely may that all
tlie reflex actings of the rational idea toward the pole of semi-entity are natu¬
rally complicated with a tissue of non-negative impressions, which can only be
disintegrated by a process of spontaneous and intuitive abstraction, it inevitably
follows, as a self-sustaining corollary, that the isolated and connatural concep¬
tions, formed in this antespeculative stage of intellectual activity, must be re¬
flected on the faculty itself, or, to speak with philosophical precision, on the I,
when viewed concretely as the Not-I; and in this reciprocal self-reproduction
carried on by the direct and transverse action of the Reason and the Under¬
standing, modified of course by those extraneous and illusory perceptions, which
can never be entirely excluded from the mutual relations of the pure intelligence
on the one hand and the mixed operations of the will and the imagination on the
other, may be detected, even by an infant eye, the true solution of this great
philosophical enigma, the one sole self-developing criterion of the elementary
difference between the Not-I and the I.” — Princeton Magazine.

“ During the jrear 1832, Mr. Alexander contributed no less than six articles to
the Princeton Quarterly , viz., one on Hengstenberg’s Daniel, one on Arabian and
Persian Lexicography, one on the Historical Statements of the Koran, one on
Gibbs’s Manual, one on De Sacy’s Arabic Grammar, and one on Hebrew Gram¬
mar. There is something in the profusion of his mind at this time thaf strikes
one with fresh astonishment and admiration. His efforts of this period are
equal in most respects to any of his life. His continued preference of oriental
themes to classical, would seem to show that whatever might be the ripening
conclusions of his judgment, the governing bent of his inclinations was still
toward" the tongues that are spoken in the tents of Shera ; though he tells us

* It is due to truth to say that Mr. Alexander’s knowledge of the natural sci¬
ences was but slight. — The Biographer.

118

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

that he was now becoming daily more and more enamored of Greek, and soon
came to rate it as his first choice among all his studies.”

“Perhaps,” says his biographer, “the most remarkable of these contributions
is the one on the ‘Historical Statements of the Koran,’ though the one on
1 De Sacy’s Arabic Grammar’ is of the same general character, and exhibits the
same sort of philological and critical ability, and besides the remarks more
strictly germane to the subject of De Sacy’s volume, is distinguished by a lumi¬
nous exposition of the relation between the Arabic and the Hebrew .

But the article on the Koran is the one in which Mr. Alexander seems to have
exerted the whole force of his mind, and gives what is possibly the best coup
cToeil that can now be had of the grasp aud reach of his acquisitions in Arabic
literature. In this article he not only corrects many of the numerous blunders,
loose translations, and wrong translations, into which Sale has wittingly or un¬
wittingly fallen, but takes 1 the Perspicuous Book ’ to pieces precisely as a
watchmaker takes to pieces a watch, rearranging and systematizing the historical
portions of the volume on a plan of his own. It must have been a gigantic toil,
but it was a labor of love.”

Eminently as Mr. Alexander was fitted for Ills position in
the college of New Jersey, the conviction was universal
among his friends that that was not his appropriate sphere.
His extraordinary acquisitions in the department of Oriental
languages and literature, and his devotion to Biblical studies,
pointed him out as a man raised up by Providence to teach
the Bible. The friends of the Theological Seminary in
Princeton from an early period of his history had fixed their
eyes on him for the department of Oriental and Biblical Litera¬
ture in that institution. To this arrangement Mr. Alexander
was himself very adverse. He was morbidly delicate on the
subject because his father was a professor in the seminary ;
and he shrunk from the responsibility which he saw was in¬
separable from such a position. He feared also that it would
trammel him too much. Accustomed as he had always been
to vary his studies at pleasure, he dreaded being tied down to
any one department. This feeling he never got over. He
was always more or less restless during his connection with
the seminary ; and those who knew his inestimable value to
the institution were in constant fear least he should resign
his post and devote himself to independent studies aud
authorship. He was appointed instructor in Oriental and
Biblical Literature in 1833, but he refused to accept the
appointment except on the concession of a year's absence for
travel in Europe. In 1 S35 he was elected professor in that

• 119

1S70.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

department; in 1851 he was at his own request transferred to
the chair of Ecclesiastical History, and at the time of his
death occupied that of “ Hellenistic and New Testament
Literature.” * We insert the following letter, although long,
because it not only contains interesting revelations of his lit¬
erary history, but especially his views as to the chair which
he tilled the last year of his life. The letter is addi'essed to
his brother James : —

“May 6, 1859.

“ Dear Brother, — Although I never should, have made the recent move with¬
out your strong concurrence and advice, and although I have consulted you at
every step, I feel that I have not put you in complete possession of my views and
feelings, and, more particularly, of my reasons for adhering to a form and title
(viz., of his new professorship), not entirely in accordance with your better taste
and judgment. This I cannot do without being a little autobiographical; to
which I am the less averse, because this is a critical juncture in my history, not
only on account of the proposed change in my position, but because I have just
finished my half century. I need not remind you of my early and almost unnatu¬
ral proclivity to oriental studies; but>it may be news, even to you, that, under
the potent spell of Scheherazade and Sir William Jones, it was my cherished wish
for several years to settle in the East — not New England but Clpn— and so

far from having any missionary zeal, that I was really afraid the Moslems would
be Christianized before I could get at them. This boyish dream was early
broken, and succeeded by a no less passionate desire to be a lawyer; but my
oriental studies were continued after my college course, at which time I read the
whole of the Koran in Arabic, and the Old Testament in Hebrew. It is never¬
theless true that I had begun already to be weaned from Anatolic to Hellenic
studies. The existing cause of this change was the influence of Patton — first as

* In 1835, the General Assembly elected Dr. John Breckonridge (son-in-law of
Dr. Miller) Professor of Pastoral Theology, and Dr. Addison Alexander (son of
Dr. Archibald Alexander) Professor of Oriental and Biblical Literature. It is
due to the truth of history to state, that neither Dr. Miller nor any other of the
faculty of the seminary was cognizant of this arrangement. The facts are these.
As the endowment of the seminary was very inadequate, the directors found it
necessary every year to appoint committees to solicit subscriptions to meet the
current expenses of the Institution. This was very irksome. When the Board
met that year, one of the directors proposed the appointment of a Standing Com¬
mittee of Finance. Another director (Dr. Cyrus Mason, of New York) proposed
that a financial agent, who should be also a professor in the seminary, should be
appointed. Dr. Benjamin H. Rice, at once said, ‘‘That is the plan, and I have
the man — Dr. John Breckenridge.” To this the Board at once acceded, and
agreed to submit the matter to the Assembly, by whom it was sanctioned.
It took all the immediate friends of the seminary completely by surprise, Dr. Miller
as much as anybody else. Mr. Alexander at first declined his appointment, but
at the request of the Board agreed to defer his answer for a year. He was
finally induced after two years to accept.

120

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

a teacher, chiefhr b}r his making me acquainted with the German form of classical
philology; then by means of his Society [The Philological Society] and library;
and lastly, association with him at Edgehill. This influence, however, would
have had no permanent effect, if I had not been led to lay the foundation of my
Greek more firmly than it had been laid by Salmon Strong, Horace Pratt, or
Robert Baird. Whatever accurate Greek scholarship I have is three years ,
subsequent in date to my graduation, and owes its origin to my having under¬
taken to teach the language in Brown’s school, for which I endeavored to
prepare myself by thoroughly mastering Moore’s admirable grammar, which
contains the germ of all the late improvements. This I almost learned by heart
in Latin, going over it a thousand times as I walked up and down in the old gar-
den, where I am often now reminded of that toilsome but delightful process.
Having got the grammar fairly in possession, I read every word of the Anabasis
and Cyropasdia for the purpose of grammatical analysis, and, having done
this, for the first time felt that I was a Greek scholar, even of tire humblest
rank. All this labor seemed then to be thrown away; as I did not go to
Brown’s but to Patton’s, and not as Greek but Latin teacher! This was
more than made good, however, by my lexicographical labors, in translating
parts of Passow, for the new edition of Donnegan; and although in this
case, too, my hard work answered no immediate purpose, its value was
inestimable to ray own improvement, as I found when I began the next
year to teach Greek at college. One effect of all this, never known to
others, was, that when I was appointed tutor in the seminary, I had already
left my first love for a second ; so that when I heard of John Breckinridge’s
saying, in the Board, as an apology for moving me, that I was not a
classical, but an oriental scholar, my conscience smote me as a Literary
hypocrite, for letting the mistake continue. Thus I began my course with
a divided heart, and though I never disliked teaching Hebrew, but preferred
it much to all my other seminary duties, I still spent much time upon Greek in
private ; not without a secret feeling of unfaithfulness to ray official obligations.
It was this, together with my strong distaste for prophetical studies, and the
crushing load of authorship which Dr. Hodge had laid upon me from the first,
that made me catch with a sort of eager desperation at the first suggestion of a
change in my professorship (in 1845) as promising to free me from a very heavy
burden, not so much of labor, as of responsibility, and to bring me somewhat
nearer to the studies which I really preferred. A great stride was taken in the
same direction when I was unexpectedly, and as I now see provident ially, com¬
pelled to study and expound the historical books of the New Testament,
the most delightful labor of my life, and the direct source of my latest and best
publications. I still felt, however, that my studies wore not classical; and
cherished my old, childish prejudice against the Biblical Greek, as something
illiterate and ungrammatical, a mere corruption and abuse of the first language in
the world. My earliest glimpse of the modern German doctrine on this subject
was afforded by Schaff's admirable chapter in his history, containing little of his
own except the clear and captivating mode of presentation, but collecting the
best thoughts of the best writers, in relation to the claims of the Hellenistic dia¬
lect, as a co-ordinate branch of the Hellenic tree, with a distinctive independent
character, and no small merits of its own. From that time (about ten years
since) these have been my favorite studies; none the less because connected

1870.]

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

121

upon one side with the vast domain of classical philology, and, on the other, with
the sacred field of Biblical learning. My interest in the language soon extended
to the literature of the Hellenistic Jews, inspired and uninspired, as a distinct
and well-defined department of ancient learning. It is this that I have always
had before my mind, as my proposed field of study and instruction in my many
schemes and efforts to attain my true position. It is not merely the New Testa¬
ment literature, strictly so called, that I wish to cultivate — though that does lie
at the foundation, and gives character to all the rest ; but I covet the privilege of
making excursions, without any violation of official duty, into the adjacent fields
of Hellenistic learning, having still in view as my supreme end, the defence and
illustration of the Bible, but at the same time opening a new field for literary
culture in this country, and thus gaining for myself a more original position than
that of simply sharing Green’s professorship. I wish it to be fully understood,
if the proposed change should be carried out, that while the New Testament de¬
partment will have greater justice done it than was possible at any former period,
it will have something new connected with it ; which can only be suggested by
a new name, the novelty of which is therefore an advantage, if it be not other¬
wise objectionable, which I cannot see to be the case. The more I reflect upon
it, therefore, the more clearly I perceive that no description could more perfectly
express what I have carved out for myself, than that of ‘ Hellenistic and New
Testament Literature.’

“ Affectionately yours,

“J. A. A.”

It is a melancholy reflection that when he penned this letter,
sketching out for himself a new and more congenial field of
labor, the fatal disease which in a few months closed his
earthly career, had, although unknown to himself or to his
friends, almost completed its work.

As to Dr. Alexander's eminent success as a professor, there
never was but one opinion among his colleagues, his pupils, or
the public. He was from the first and universally regarded
as unequalled as a teacher. His manner was clear, concise,
rapid, and logical. lie always had complete command of his
subject, and had a rare talent for making it intelligible to
others. He felt the importance of what he taught, and
aroused the interest of his pupils. They felt their knowledge
increased, their views enlarged, and zeal enkindled every time
they entered his class-room. They all came to reverence and
love him, and acknowledged themselves under a debt of
gratitude to him which they never could repay. Of all this
his biographer has collected abundant evidence in the cordial
testimonials of his former scholars. Dr. John H. Kice, now
of Mobile, says, “ I have in the course of my life met with

122

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

three teachers of pre-eminent ability as teachers, and he was
the foremost of them all, for pupils of intellect above the
average. For dull boys he was not so good for reasons above
stated. If a young man had any thing in him, and was dis¬
posed to use his advantage, Mr. Alexander could draw it out
better than any teacher I ever saw. His instructions were
characterized by surpassing clearness. There was no mistak¬
ing his meaning; and there was no mixing of subjects, no
confusion of thought.”

Dr. Ramsey, of Lynchburg, Virginia, says : —

“ As an exegete, I hardly know how he could be excelled. His analyses , with
which he introduced each exegetical lecture, so concise, so clear, so simple, were
themselves far better than most commentaries.” [To their class he lectured only
on part of Isaiah and the Messianic Psalms.] “ To his lectures on the first ten
chapters of Isaiah I owe more than to all the other instructions received in the
seminary, as to the method of analyzing and expounding the Scripture.” [Speak¬
ing of the valuable labors of certain other expositors, the writer goes on to say
that he profited comparatively little by them in this respect.] “ I learned indeed
the meaning of much I did not know before; I received a certain quantum of
explanations : but I did not even begin to learn how to explain the Bible myself.
But I had not got through with the first chapter of Isaiah with Dr. Alexander's
lectures till I felt as if I had become conscious almost of a new power. Kvery
passage he touched seemed to be suddenly lighted up with a new beauty and
glory, and often a single remark would be so suggestive that it seemed at once
to pour light all over the Bible, to bring up into new and striking association
other truths and passages, and to stimulate the mind to the highest activity, and
fill it with wonder at the amazing fulness of God’s word.

“ Another striking trait of his exegetical lectures was that his faith in the
simple statements of the Bible was so childlike and so perfect. This reverence
for the sacred text was one of his noblest qualifications for an instructor in these
times. This was abundantly manifest in his works, but the impression made
by his lectures as we heard them, was still stronger.”

“ The class of ’37," says his biographer, “ was pushed forward with the
greatest vigor. The evidence of the professor’s diligence was unimpeachable.
He labored with a will and with quenchless enthusiasm. The poor fellows were
almost exhausted, and some of them completely overwhelmed, in their effort to
keep up with them. The class was divided into two sections ; each section
recited two lessons a day, and each lesson occupied an hour. Saj’S the good-
natured writer to whom I am indebted for these particulars: ‘You may be sure
that neither professor nor the students had much time to eat or sleep. For myself
I was as busy as a nailer; and to keep up with the demands of the teacher, and
attain enough Hebrew to pass the Presbytery, I had to rise up early and sit up late
and eat the bread of sorrows. . . . As one division of our class came out

the other went into the class-room, and mingling thus we were admonished by
those before us of the danger ahead, in some such words as these : “ Oh, you’ll

1S70.]

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. 1-3

catch it to day 1” “ Oh, ’tis dreadful I” and similar encouraging expressions of what
we might expect.’

“ It is but proper to say, however, that we were greatly encouraged by our
progress under the Professor's admirable training; and by the knowledge that it
was all for our own good that our present condition was not joyous, but rather
grievous. The enthusiasm of the teacher imparted itself to the students ; and
under every green tree in the well-beaten garden walks, in the adjacent woods
as well as in the seminary, in the study, and in the class-room, young men were
seen walking, or lying down, or sitting ; with their limbs stretched out on the
grass, or over the mantel-piece, or on the backs of chairs ; all intent on the pe¬
rusal of one book — 1 Bush’s Hebrew Grammar.’ Memory loves to linger round
those days of youth, gone never to return; and upon the pleasant employments
and associations with which they were connected. Of all the great names we
there venerated, not one now remains, except as an object of memory to which
each passing year adds new lustre; for the memory of the just is blessed.”

Mr. J. Park, of Tennessee, gives an amusing account of his
first experience in the seminary, which he entered in the fall
of 1843.

“Wheu the term opened,” he says, “the students came in with remarkable
punctuality, and the ‘old ones’ seemed very kind and attentive to the ‘new ones,’
and took special pains to put us on our guard as to ‘Dr. Addy.’

“ Our first contact with Dr. Addison was on Hebrew Grammar. He had a roll
of the class alphabetically arranged, and called upon the students in that order
always looking steadily at him who rose in reply to the name called ; but that
roll we never saw any more after the last name on it was called once. He knew
every man and called him by his right name after he had once responded to it,
and the roll was no longer used.”

There were two of the name of Park in the same class, and
they were distinguished by their first initials, as Mr. O., and
Mr. J. It was only at the third recitation, that the professor
reached their names on the roll.

“ Every member of the class had manifested some trepidation when he was
first called up. My first appearance on the floor is memorable. I had begun to
get homesick, not a strange circumstance considering this was my first separation
from my family and friends ; and my youthfulness favored it too, for I was next
to the youngest student in the seminary. I rose promptly, very, at the call of my
name, with quickened breath aud bounding pulse. Dr. A.’s spectacles were won¬
derfully bright, yet not so bright as the eyes looking through them. He asked
a question ; I answered ; he smiled ; several students tittered. A second
question, followed by the answer ; Dr. A. smiled more perceptibly ; all the class
snickered, and I broke out in a sweat. A third question was answered; several
students guffawed. Rap, rap, rap, on the desk, and with an indignant voice Dr.
A. called out, 1 Order in the class 1 I see nothing to laugh at.’ And then to me
‘That will do, sir,’ and called the next. I sat down in a state of terrible excite¬
ment, perplexed, confused, and ashamed, supposing I had exposed myself to the
contempt and ridicule of the class, and resolved to start home the next day.

124

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

When the class was dismissed, I was pushing my way to the door, anxious to
escape from the gaze of the students, for some of them were still disposed to
laugh at me ; but as I approached the door, Dr. A. called to me, beckoning with
his finger, ‘Mr. J. P. ! Mr. J. P. !! I was afraid not to go to him, and yet
only expected to hear him say. 1 Young man, you had better go home, you are
too much of a ninny for this place,’ or something else that would be as bad.”

Instead of this, he asked him about two other young men in
Tennessee, who he had heard* were coming to Princeton (sons
of Drs. Edgar and Lapsley, of Nashville).

“ While this was going on, the class passed out, and then he said, 1 Mr. P., I
will remain in the class-room a few minutes each day after the recitation, to an¬
swer any inquiries the students may have to make concerning difficult points
they may meet with, and I hope you will feel perfectly free to ask me any ques¬
tions relating to your studies at such times. And at any other time that I am
not engaged in class, I would be glad to have you call at my stud}’, whenever
you want any explanations or assistance.’ It was all done with such simplicity
and with a countenance and voice so full of kindness, that I choked with emo¬
tion, stammered my thanks, and when he had passed out, hurrying to my room,
1 locked the door and sat down and wept like a child.”

From that moment all his feelings toward him changed,
and while he still revered the dreaded professor of Hebrew
beyond any man he ever saw, he loved him with a deep and
abiding affection.

Mr. Park’s own language is essential to the effect of what

© ©

follows : —

“ When my emotion subsided, and I had washed my face and brushed my

hair, a rap on the door led me to open it. - came in, his countenance

bright with good humor, to explain the conduct of the class during my recitation.
He said every one saw my excitement when I was called up ; my first answer
was given in full voice, tremulous, from agitation; the second in a tone loud
enough to have been distinctly heard at a distance of forty yards ; and the third,
as if Dr. A. was in a mill in full clatter, and I on the outside, thirty or forty feet
from the door.

“His kindness and sympathy overpowered me, and ever afterward I felt
indignant at the bare suggestion of his being unfeeling or ungenial. As long as
I remained in the seminary, nothing ever occurred to cause me to change my
opinion. His heart was as great as his head. No man ever won my affections
so completely, and it was an instantaneous transformation. The terrible dread
and dreadful terror of him up to that time was never afterward experienced by
me. Still, I had lost none of my profound reverence for him, nor did my desire
to appear well before him abate one whit ; but I had a new motive.”

The testimony of his pupils is unanimous as to his pre¬
eminent success as a teacher. Ilis biographer has brought to¬
gether an array of testimony on this point, which leaves the

1S70.]

125

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

matter beyond dispute. They regarded him with reverence,
“ with awe,” with fear, with admiration and confidence. Dr.
Sprague, of Albany, says Dr. Addison Alexander “ was a man
of so much mark, and in some respects stood perhaps so entirely
alone, that it was hardly possible to move in any intellectual
circle without having a definite idea of him. So often as
I met a Princeton student during the period of his professor¬
ship, I was sure to hear the highest possible testimony ren¬
dered to his great talents and learning, and to his almost
matchless facility at communicating knowledge.”

The testimony is almost equally strong and equally unani¬
mous as to his severity in the class-room. On this point we
confess ourselves to be surprised. We had of course heard of
his being now and then irritated, and impatient, and on occa¬
sions painfully sarcastic, but we were not aware of this trait
of his character being so prominent as his biographer, in his
honesty, has represented. He tells us on p. 336, “ The amount
of truth I have arrived at in the premises is this : Mr.
Alexander made his first classes in Hebrew work like Tro¬
jans ; and was out of patience with gross negligence, vanity,
or dulness, and sometimes treated the offenders without
measure or mercy. But he was very peaceable after all
was over, and gradually he became more and more tolerant
and gentle, until toward the last his steady meekness was
more noticeable than the occasional flashes of his first or mis¬
taken resentment.” Dr. Lyon, of Mississippi, one of his
earlier pupils, says : —

“ He was not considered amiable during the first years of his service in the
seminary, but, on the contrary, rather severe and unforbearing. The students
were afraid of him. How he became afterward, I am not able to say. Doubt¬
less, however, he became more patient as he grew older. He was sometimes
fearfully sarcastic, having no tolerance for the proud, impertinent, or self-conceit¬
ed, whom, indeed, he did not hesitate to cut in twain with a word, or a look, or
a sneer.”

Dr. Rice, of Mobile, a student of a later date, says : —

“He seemed to entertain toward the very dull or incorrigibly stupid youths,
who are found in almost every academical class, a feeling akin to resentment or
indignation ; and he frequently showed them no mercy. There are, I believe,
several traditions in the seminary, of his unsparing severity to some very pious,
good brethren, or who were esteemed such, which (so run these traditions)
aroused the feeling of the class against him.”

126

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [J anuary

His biographer, on p. 384, speaks of “ the intense abhorrence
and disgust which the Professor ever showed to seminary
drones.” It is evident, however, the severity, such as it was,
of Dr. Alexander, amused the students more than it either
frightened or offended them. This appears from the humor¬
ous way in which his pupils commonly refer to this subject.
Dr. Moore, of Richmond, tells us, —

“ On one occasion, after a very lame recitation in Genesis, which tried his pa¬
tience no little, he abruptly brought it to a close, and announced that he would
give a lesson for the next day adapted to the capacities of the class, and they
would, therefore, take the next verse ! The usual lesson being from twelve to
twenty verses, the rebuke was keenly felt, and he had no more such recitations.
Sometimes he used his satire severely, though I do not think unjustly. On one
occasion, a young gentleman gave a discourse in the oratory, on the destruction
of Sodom, that was very pretentious; and Dr. A., being in the chair, thought it
needful to perforate his mental cuticle somewhat, and remarked when it came
his turn to criticise, that Mr. D’s. discourse consisted of two parts: that which
everybody knew, and that which nobody knew; and that he did not think that
under either head Mr. D. had added ter the stock of our knowledge.”

Professor Charles Phillips, of Chapel Ilill, H. C., says: —

“ I was a'pupil of Dr. Addison Alexander for one year only, and that, the first
year of the course at the seminary. It was fashionable then to be afraid of him.
- used to say that he went into his recitation-room thinking of the sign¬
board on a railroad, ‘ Look out for the locomotive 1’ Once when he asked me at
the close of a recitation to come to his study at a certain hour, the members of
my own little coterie bade me an afi'ectionate farewell. When I returned safe>
they pretended to be very much astonished, and to be incredulous that the awe-
full professor only wanted me to study Arabic. But I had been taught to admire
Dr. Alexander before I went to Princeton, so that I had only to learn to love him,
and this I did easily and quickly, as any Freshman will a great professor who is
courteous to him and inspires him with the hope of doing something in this
world.”

On this subject it is to be remarked, that these complaints of
his severity were confined almost exclusively to the first few
years of his professional life. These exhibitions were more¬
over impulsive and momentary. The impression they made
was counteracted by the clear manifestations of goodness
and real kindness of heart, and especially by the discovery
which the students did not fail to make, that he himself regret¬
ted them. Much of the effect produced by his censures was
due to the inherent power of the man. If you lift the lid
ironi a tea-kettle the steam escapes in harmless vapor ; but,

1870.]

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

127

if you raise the safety-valve of a boiler, the rush of scalding
steam is impetuous, and excoriates any living tissue it touches.
It was so with him. He could not fail to give force and pun¬
gency to what he said. Dr. Green tells us that Dr. Alexan¬
der disliked presiding when the students delivered their ora¬
tions, because “criticise as gently as he could, the students
who had undergone the process were sure to be coming to his
room to ask if he did not think they had mistaken their call¬
ing, in seeking the ministry.” Whatever of blemish must be
conceded in this matter, we know that the students as a body
loved,. reverenced, and trusted him, and regarded it as an hon¬
or and a blessing to be under his instructions.

Dr. Alexander was licensed by the Presbytery of Hew
Brunswick, April, 1838, and at once took his place in the
foremost rank of preachers. His power in the pulpit did not
depend on elocution. There are men who, in reading a
familiar hymn, will arrest the attention and sway the feeling
of an audience. There are others who, as speakers, have their
hearers completely at command, whose discourses when read
are found to be below mediocrity. It was not so with Dr.
Alexander. He owed little to his manner of delivery. He
was even apparently often careless and indifferent until ex¬
cited by his subject. His power was due to his thoughts, his
feelings, to his imagination, to his pure, faultless, and most
felicitous diction. A great part of the charm of his sermons
belongs to his printed discourses. Dr. Moore records his
disappointment on hearing in Richmond, sermons which he
had previously heard elsewhere with deeper emotion. But
Dr. Alexander was then suffering under the ravages of the
disease which, a few months later, carried him to his grave.
And a distinguished physician, quoted by his biographer,
says : —

“I remember hearing him deliver a sermon on the text, ‘Remember Lot’s
Wife,’ which I shall never forget while I live, if I forget it ever. The effect upon
the audience was visible and audible ; all present seemed drawn forward in their
seats, and holding their breath ; and when he paused to breathe, you could hear
the inhalation of the mass of his hearers over the whole church. It always
seemed to me that if there ever was a man whose sermons would read as well
as they sounded, it was Addison Alexander; but many years after I read this
very sermon, printed among others in the volume of his sermons, and I must say

128

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

that I felt as if a portion surely had been left out. I missed something — which
something I now feel must have been the intense biotic force, magnetism, brain¬
power of the man. This sermon was one which no one but himself could have
produced, or have delivered with the same effect.” >

This is true and forcible. No doubt the orations of
Cicero and Webster bad a power as delivered before an ex¬
cited audience, which we miss on the printed page. Every
thing is comparative. All we mean to say is, that the success
of Dr. Alexander as a preacher was less due to what was
physical — to tone, intonation, manner — and far more to what
was intellectual and spiritual, than is the case in the great
majority of distinguished speakers.

His brother James once remarked that Addison was very
unequal in his preaching. This is of course true in a measure
of every public speaker ; but we think that it was less true of
Dr. Addison Alexander than of any other preacher whom we
ever heard. His sermons were of very different kinds, and
therefore their appropriate effects were different. Such graphic
and emotional discourses, as those on “ Remember Lot’s
Wife,” “There is a City which hath Foundations,” “It doth
not yet appear what we shall be,” had of course a power of a
very different kind from that which belonged to his exegetical
sermons. But the intellectual and moral power of the latter
was not a whit less than that of the others, etc. We select a
few of the many testimonies given by his biographer of the
impression produced by Dr. Alexander in the pulpit. Ilis
colleague Dr. Green, says : —

“The first time he ever saw Dr. Addison Alexander, was in the pulpit at
Trenton, shortly before he came himself as a student to the seminary. He had
no suspicion who the strange minister was when the service began, but he had
not proceeded far in his discourse before he felt sure that he was ‘listening to
the prince of American preachers.’ His text was, ‘ Awake, thou that sleepest,
and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light,’ one of the most strik¬
ing and masterly of his discourses. Dr. Green’s admiration of him as a speaker
was always mingled with wonder.”

Dr. Hall, of Trenton, his intimate friend, and himself one of
our best preachers and best judges of preaching, was one of
his greatest admirers. He thus writes : —

“ It was a fault of his doings in the pulpit that he seemed to be afraid of the
least approach to mannerism. There was a sort of carelessness in his reading
and preaching which sometimes gave the appearance of hurry or negligence.

1S70.]

129

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

He wduld not try to give effect to a hymn or chapter by his mode of reading, and
usually tumbled into his sermon as if it was to be dispatched as soon as possible.
But he soon showed that he felt his subject, and though he got no nearer to
artificial oratory or elocution, there came an earnestness and often an awful
solemnity in his tones which literally thrilled his audience. His voice was
delightful, and to me more melting in pathetic parts than any I ever heard, ex¬
cepting perhaps Jenny Lind’s. Some of his long sentences, rolling on to a grand
climax, occur to me, which have made me put my handkerchief to my mouth
lest I should scream. It of course happens with his printed sermons, as with all
others that were delivered with feeling and melody, that their effect can be
realized only by those who are so familiar with his manner of delivery that they
can hear him while they read.”

Eev. Dr. T. L. Cnyler thus describes the effect of his
preaching in Philadelphia : —

The second evening, which now comes before me, was passed, not beside
Dr. Alexander at the fireside, but before him in the pulpit. It was during that
winter of 1847 when he supplied the pulpit of the Rev. Dr. Boardman, then
travelling in Europe. All Philadelphia flocked to hear him. The most distin¬
guished lawyers of that city were glad to find seats in the aisles, or a standing-
place in the crowded vestibule. It was during that season that he delivered
nearly all of liis most celebrated and powerful discourses. Among them were
his sermons on ‘ The Faithful Saying,’ ‘The Broken and Contrite Heart,’ ‘Awake,
Thou that Sleepest,’ ‘It doth not yet appear what we shall be,’ and ‘Remember
Lot’s Wife.’ The first-mentioned of these was the most perfect; but the last
one was the most popular. The impressions produced by the matchless dis¬
courses of that series can never be effaced. Finer displays of concinnate exegesis,
of bold imaginative flights, of soul-moving appeals, of rich, strong, arousing pre¬
sentation of Calvary and Christ, the Presbyterian pulpit of our day has not heard.
His manner, at that period of his life, was exceedingly animated. He was in his
splendid prime. His voice often swelled into a volume that rolled through the
lobbies of the church, and reached to the passers-by in the street. In pathetic
passages, that same voice had the plaintive melody of a lute. The rising inflec¬
tion with which he was wont to close his sentences will at once occur to many
of my readers. This peculiarity was sometimes insensibly imitated by the semi¬
nary students, who betrayed thus their Princeton origin by this rising Addisonian
inflection. Well would it be if all the superb attributes of Professor Alexander’s
ministrations could be transferred to every pulpit in the land! On the evening
of which we write, his theme was ‘ The Broken Heart.’ That whole marvellous
discourse, with its pictures of the scenes 1 behind thy veil ’ where the sacrifices
were being offered; with its wailing outcry of contrite spirits; with its melting
exhibitions of the soul’s penitence and the Saviour’s love ; all moved before us
like one of the inspired panoramas of the Apocalypse. When the sermon was
over, a clergyman whispered to me, ‘No such preaching as that has been heard
since the days of Dr. Mason. ’ ”

His biographer gives the following glowing account of his
own experience under his uncle’s preaching : —

VOL. xlii. — no. i. 9

130

Life of Joseph Addison Alexander. [January,

“One Sunday- night, the preacher, who had been expected to officiate in the
First Church in Princeton, was absent, or for some reason unable to speak, and
Mr. (then Dr.) Addison Alexander was applied to take his place. Seeing at
once how the matter stood, he swiftly ascended the steps of the pulpit, and after
the preliminary services, in which he seemed to be altogether at his ease, poured
out one of the most enrapturing and overwhelming discourses to which I ever
had the privilege of listening. It was spoken of by some as an extempore effort,
but was the famous sermon on the ‘ City with Foundations,’ which is printed
in his works. He fairly ravished me with his enchanting imaginative pictures,
and his wild bursts of music and pathos. He went through it as a summer wind
goes through the trees before the outbreak of a thunderstorm. His voice was
plaintive, but too low for the greatest popular impression. His tones, however,
were diversified, and to him perfectly natural; though his intonation was singu¬
larly peculiar, and by the rules of rhetorical elocution, faulty. But it was the
best manner for him, and with its wailing cadence and rising inflection was ex¬
tensively copied by his students, much to their own detriment, and somewhat to
the astonishment and amusement of their audiences. But there was no time to
see or think of faults. The speaker was in breathless haste, and was going at
1 railroad speed.’ Sometimes he would glide in nobly and gracefully to the end
of a paragraph or period, very much as a locomotive glides in through a fair
prospect to the swinging bell which indicates the next stop. Now and then he
would suddenly lift his right hand with a sort of upward wave, and theu drop it
again. This was almost his only gesture. To change the figure used just now,
the sermon was a widening and foaming torrent, and closed in a perfect cataract
of glorious imagery and high religious feeling.

“ Of all Mr. Alexander’s sermons this one is the most imaginative, in the
popular sense of that term, that is, the most ornate and highly wrought, the most
full of rare and captivating fancy. It is, also, in the strictest sense of the term,
a noble work of imagination. It is, from beginning to end, a mass of gorgeous
imagery, describing the kindred yet opposite illusions of the saint and the world¬
ling. The peroration is descriptive of the rupture (fearful in the one case, and
transcendent in the other) of these life-long deceptions. The Christian who had
sought the glimmering city in the sky, with faint heart but steadfast purpose,
finds that all beneath that city is shadow, and that this alone is substance. He
awakes from his dream to pass an eternity in transport. The wicked man awakes
from his dream also ; he had thought the world was every thing, and had made
light of the celestial vision as a puerile vanity. He awakes to shame and ever¬
lasting contempt.

“ It is as sustained a description as any thing in Bunyan ; but is not at all
quaint, not primitive, not antique, homely, or crude. It is perfectly modern ; and
very rich in its elaborate coloring, as well as superb in its minute finish. The
difference between the two in these respects is analogous to the difference be¬
tween Perugino and Paul de la Roche. It was one of the earlier and more florid
efforts for which, in after life, he had a supreme contempt. Macaulay thus
despised the essay on Milton, and pronounced its noble ornaments gaudy.”

Dr. Alexander’s reputation as an interpreter of the Bible
rests, so far as his pupils are concerned, largely on the impres-

131

1870.] Life of Joseph Addison Alexander.

sion made by his exegetical exercises in the seminary. They
never can forget the clearness of his expositions, and the
power which lie possessed of unfolding the Word of God in its
connections; nor can they ever lose the impression made on
their minds of his reverence for the Scriptures, and his child¬
like submission to their authority. So far as the general pub¬
lic are concerned, his reputation must rest on his published
commentaries. Of these, alas! he lived to complete only a
small part of those which he intended to write. His works
on Isaiah, on the Psalms, on the Acts of the Apostles, on the
Gospel of Mark, and of the first sixteen chapters of Matthew,
are enough to keep his name in grateful and perpetual re¬
membrance. They evince great learning, accurate scholar¬
ship, great powers of analysis, sound judgment, wonderful
clearness of statement and felicity of expression, and a devout
and reverent spirit.

There are two kinds of commentaries. With the one the
text and context are the immediate and special object ; with
the other, the truths the sacred writer intends to teach. The
one is characteristical, verbal; the other doctrinal. These
two methods can never be, or should never be, entirely disso¬
ciated. Grotius furnishes an example of the former, Calvin
of the latter class of commentators. Dr. Alexander belongs
to the former rather than to the latter. His work on the
Psalms is the most verbal in its character. It is designed to
give in English a fac-simile of the original. In his other com¬
mentaries his scope is wider ; but in all there is the strictest
attention to verbal exposition, giving each word, tense, case,
and particle its proper force. Besides this, however, the sub¬
ject-matter is exhibited in the clearest light ; and the hand of
a master is visible throughout.

Dr. Addison Alexander was for a long course of years one
of the most frequent contributors to the Princeton Review.
His contributions are on such a wide range of subjects, are so
diversified in character, they exhibit such amplitude in his
resources, such refined wit and sarcasm, such power of ar¬
gument, such research, and such perfection of style, that many
of his friends are disposed to think that they afford the best
means for forming a correct estimate of the man — of his

132 The Presbyterian Church — [January,

tastes, talents, and attainments. On this subject his biographer
says : —

“ It is the judgment of some thorough Biblical scholars that Dr. Addison
Alexander’s contributions to the Review set forth his splendid literary abilities in 3
much stronger light than any of his other writings. It is very certain he wrote
in the quarterlies and magazines with a bold, free hand which was somewhat
fettered when engaged on the commentaries. He writes in the same free way in his
newspaper-squibs, children’s books, and some of his letters, and in his European
journals. The greater part of what he did, however, in this reckless, slap-dash
style, was not intended for preservation, and, though on merely literary grounds
it is often exquisite, is for other but equally weighty reasons kept back from the
eye of curious readers. The essays in the Repertory , on the whole, give one
the best notion of the variety of his gifts and accomplishments as a writer of
English. They give the best notion, too, of his masculine tastes, his general
knowledge, his progressive moderation, his sterling good sense, his genial
humor and true politeness, his fine wit, his facetious irony, his power (never
used without provocation) of withering sarcasm, and the marvellous cunning of
his diction. Viewed as an unbroken collection, these pieces certainly possess
extraordinary merit ; and all the more so that some of them were floated off as
the veriest waifs.”

By common consent of all who knew him, Addison Alex¬
ander was a "man of profound and varied erudition ; of
extraordinary and manifold mental endowments; of sound
judgment and practical wisdom ; of elevated piety and of
firm faith in the Divine authority of the Scriptures ; he
occupied a position in the first rank of teachers, of preachers,
of commentators, and of reviewers or essayists. If there be
any other man, whom our country has produced, of whom all
this can be truthfully said, we do not know who he is. This
man we lost in the maturity of his power and usefulness .

Aet. VIII. — The Presbyterian Church — its Position and

Woi'h

The feeling is general throughout the land that the Presby¬
terian Church, by the recent re-union of the two branches, has
entered upon a new career of spiritual life and missionary
labor. It must, however, be kept in mind that the mere con-

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

133

junction of two smaller bodies will not in itself necessarily pro¬
duce any marked change upon the character and operations of
the enlarged organization.

A large body is not always the most efficient. In certain
lines of duty and of effort, the co-existence of two similar yet
independent churches may be weakness, but in others, they
may so act and react upon each other as to arouse a higher
devotion to Christ’s cause, call forth a larger amount of indi¬
vidual strength, and sustain greater endeavors for the promo¬
tion of truth and righteousness in the earth. Something more
is needed for the accomplishment of any great enterprise or
moral result than mere bulk. Inertia is a danger of large
bodies. This the re-united church must at the outset under¬
stand, so as to comprehend the pressing duties of the present,
and the dawning necessities of the future, and rise at once to
meet them.

The present time is auspicious for enlarged spiritual efforts.
The idea has grown up in the church, that the two portions
coming together harmoniously can do more for the great
benevolent movements of the age, than by acting apart. This
is in itself a power. If real, it will soon assume shape and be
clothed in deeds which will give a quickening impulse to
thought and a broader sweep to endeavor. The achievements
of the past and the practical forces of the present will not suffice.
These, however grand in themselves, are not, under this pre¬
vailing sentiment, what the united body can content itself to
simply sustain. Nobler deeds must mark its future, holier
zeal its movements, and the flow of its benevolence must be
more generous and deep. The change of vote, on the day of
the union of the two branches, from one million to five millions
of dollars must be an index of the advanced position which the
church is ready to take in regard to work. Upon this every
thing must tell. The exuberant joy, the earnest desire, the
hopeful wish, the doubting spirit of different individuals or
parties must now commingle, and these, if rightly blended and
properly directed, may be the means, in the hands of the
Spirit, of giving higher vigor to the action of the body.

The similarity of views in all that enters into and sustains
Christian life and aggressive action will do much to fulfil the

134 The Presbyterian Church — [January,

general expectation for enlarged effort. The same standards
are acknowledged, the same doctrines are avowed, and the
same measures of policy are adopted by each. There is to be
no change in ecclesiastical institutions and no re-adjustment
of church relations. Both branches have been laboring in
most departments of work, and both in their united capacity
are prepared to give the preference to the ecclesiastical over
the voluntary organization. Each has reached this result, if
not in the same Avay and time, yet by such a process as to
give the promise of unity in all co-operative movements in the
future. Then there may be found on investigation in the dif¬
ferent schemes, snch variety in the details of labor and in modes
of procedure as may impart to them hereafter greater vigor
and efficiency — yea, there may be born in the very inquiry,
What is this nnion to accomplish? some more decisive
means of developing the resources and consolidating the
strength of the church.

In aid of this feeling is the fact that this one church is
not composed of two hitherto independent churches, with
different names and principles. Each has kept, since the
division, the same name, each has held to the same creed, each
has the same polity, each has a common ancestry and a
common heritage ; the fathers of the one are those of the
other, great names of the past are alike dear to both, and
to them they have in turn appealed, or have gloried together
in their labors, influence, and successes. Their origin is the
same ; but, like a river that is separated by a portion of land in
its onward course, the two parts have flowed in parallel lines
until the intervening obstacle is removed, when they have
again met. The two were formerly one, and whatever their
differences, jealousies, and alienations, they now believe that
they see eye to eye in the essentials of faith, government, and
work. In their aims and aspirations, in the forms of spirit¬
ual life, in geographical boundaries, and in administrative
economy, the two are one. Side by side they have labored.
The ministers of the one have passed over to the other, and
the same has been freely done by the members, and each of
these has felt at home in his new communion and relations.
This frequent interchange has done much to smooth the way,

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

135

wear down the barriers that had been reared, and bring to a
point the increasing tendencies of the two separate parts
toward union. They can thus, without friction, readily fall
into line and prepare themselves, with their combined ener¬
gies, for work. In the separation, with its attendant conflicts,
lessons have been learned and experience gained that will
have a hallowed influence over modes of thought, policy, and
life; and, in the future, they will live in more accord with
the principles of their faith and with the policy of their
church. If the one part be numerically the stronger, this will
be generously used for the common good, while the other
may seek to infuse new energy into the whole, to make up
in any thing which either lacketh, that the cause of Christ may
be more rapidly advanced and God’s glory be promoted in
the earth. But the dissolving process of the two parts may
go on so rapidly that it may soon be difficult to tell to which
distinctive organization any one belonged—

Tros Tyriusque — nullo discrimine agetur.

One other hopeful sign n>ay here be mentioned — that this
re-union is effected without loss. Before this, Presbyterian
bodies have been incorporated into one. The Secession
Church in Scotland was made up of two parts. The United
Presbyterian Church there and in this country were each
composed of two distinct organizations, with different
names. But in all of these, and others that could be mentioned,
there was a part missing, that would not go into the union.
Thus far, we have heard of no separatists from the joint body.
Previous to its consummation, tliei’e was considerable discus¬
sion as to the desirableness of union, and not a few objections
urged against the thing itself. These were generally set forth
with manliness and frankness, and did much to prepare the
way for the harmonious action of the two Assemblies at Pitts¬
burg. The men who feared and doubted will neither leave
the church nor work coldly in it. They feel that it is not now
a mere policy or party, but a beloved church whose interests
and success are involved, and these will receive their sympathy,
prayers, and active, generous aid. They can individually say,
with deep and true emotion — “ Thy people shall be my people,

The Presbyterian Church —

13G

[January,

and thy God my God : the Lord do so to me, and more also,
if aught but death part thee and me.”

But turning from these tilings, which promise increased,
strength and efficiency, we find much that is encouraging,
with God’s blessing, in the numbers, wealth, ministry, and
creed of the combined host.

There is, first, the force of numbers. The union has brought
into one organization the largest body of Presbyterians in
the world, which, when thoroughly compacted together with
buoyant energies and bright anticipations, can do much for the
enlargement of its borders. It embraces 4,532 ordained min¬
isters and licentiates, 4,371 churches, and 431,463 communi¬
cants. In sympathy with this church, or brought under its
influence, are at least two millions of people. These are
found in most of the States and Territories. The chief
strength of Presbyterianism in the South is, since the com¬
mencement of the war, independent of the re-united church.
Few efforts, and these of a desultory nature, have been made
to establish Presbyterianism in New England, though the
time is coming, when, without entering upon any crusade, more
decided measures must be taken to meet the wishes of those
in that section who prefer our faith and polity.

Brino-ino- together the churches in the different States, and
considering them in round numbers, we have the following
figures: In New England are 2,500 members; New York,
107,000; New Jersey, 36,000; Pennsylvania, 98,000; Dela¬
ware, 3,500; Maryland, 8,500; Western Virginia, 3,500;
Ohio. 54,000; Michigan, 12,500; Illinois, 33,000; Indiana,
22,500; Wisconsin, 5,500 ; Minnesota, 3,500; Iowa, 12,500;
Missouri, 6,500; Kansas, 2.000; California, 3,000; Oregon,
300 ; Kentucky, 5,000 ; Tennessee, 3,000, and a smaller num¬
ber in several of the Southern States and Territories. It will
be seen from this enumeration that the strength of our body
is massed in certain great States of growing influence and
power, which can do much for aggressive movements. Whilst
influential in most of the cities of the country, it has a home
and powerful hold in rural parishes and growing towns.

But these numbers do not simply stand tor so many ot the
population in these different localities ; they generally repre-

Its Position and Work.

137

1870.]

sent the, thinking, thrifty, and influential class in each com¬
munity. There is something in the Calvinistic faith that
develops thought, conserves morals, upholds religious insti¬
tutions, encourages educational efforts and philanthropic
schemes, and gives an impulse to all that is lovely and
good. J!lot out the direct and indirect aid of our members to
the humane institutions of our land, and to all enterprises
that have a reformative and elevating power, and a vast benefi¬
cent agency would disappear. The strength of the body
cannot be gauged by mere numbers or by considering these
as so much in bulk for doing good. They constitute in them¬
selves a vast power for impressing others, arresting unbelief,
and transfusing their influence among those who are reached
by them.

2d. Wealth in itself is no indication of the moral power
and efficiency of a church, any more than poverty is a
mark of its general prosperity — yet it is a power, when
viewed in the light of accountability and used in conscious
stewardship as a trust. God has given great wealth to the
Presbyterian Church, and this is not centralized, but diffused.
Men of large means are found in every section, and in many
congregations. This is inevitable, from the character of its
members, the state of the country, and the condition of things.
The pecuniary ability of the church was never so great as at
the present time. This has fully kept pace with the growth
of the country and the development of its resources. Gov¬
ernment draws its greatest revenue from incomes from New
York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Ohio — States where
our own church is numerically the strongest. In not a few
of our congregations wealth may be reckoned by millions,
and it is an interesting fact that this increase has taken place
at a time when new and enlarged demands are to be made
upon it. Commercial enterprise, opening up new avenues for
emigration and settlement in certain regions, the presence and
continuance of a heathen population in our borders, the needs
of the freedmen, the growing necessities of our educational
institutions, the enlarged operations of evangelistic agencies,
work out a claim or make claimants upon this increase of
wealth. This is more than a coincidence, it is a law in the

13S

The Presbyterian Church —

[January,

divine economy, and at this juncture it lias a voice which the
united body should hear, and a call which it should obey.
The Methodist denomination utilized its centenary to enlarge
the benevolent action of their people, to give greater perma¬
nency to their institutions, and lay a broader foundation for
important religious enterprises. The monuments of their
efforts, enthusiasm, and thanksgiving abound. This our
church must do, if it wisely interprets Providence, rises to
the dignity of its position, understands its mission, and accom¬
plishes any thing great at this important period of its history.
The rich must do much, for they have received much ; and
what an opportunity is now offered them to rise to the great¬
ness of the occasion, deepen the stream of their benevolence,
and do something noble for the cause of Christ and humanity !
Let them read in the events of the day why they are the
stewards of such riches, and how they are to transmute it into
spiritual wealth.

3d. The United Church has an able and effective ministry to
.preach the truth and do work for the Lord. It has ever been
the aim and characteristic of Presbyterianism to demand and
foster an educated ministry. The schools, colleges, and theo¬
logical seminaries planted and sustained in the land, and some
of these very early in its history, show how our church sought
preachers thoroughly indoctrinated in the truth, and capable
of teaching others. This has given the church power over the
thinking portion of the country. Its past history is radiant
with names eminent for their devotion, zeal, and intellectual
prowess, who will be held in remembrance by present and
future generations. But its ministers of to-day are in no
way behind those of former times in scholarship, piety, love
for souls, and in their efforts to advance genuine religion in the
hearts and lives of men ; and, to say the least, they are the
peers in learning, eloquence, and devotion to the ministry, of
those of any other denomination of Christians.

Now, as along the whole line of our church’s history, it has
men who have stood forth, when assailed, to defend its faith
and polity, and it has many who have enlarged by their writ¬
ings the streams of Christian thought. Its literature is rich
in varied treatises of didactic, polemic, and practical theology,

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

139

ecclesiastical history, Biblical exegesis, mental and moral
science. Among the living are not a few who have devoted
their talents and energies to the elucidation of God’s Word,
to meeting attacks upon it, or setting forth in systematic form
the great principles of our faith. Still, the leading character¬
istic of the ministers of our body is that of activity and direct
practical effort — seeking, by their pulpit ministrations, their
pastoral labors, and through the press, to reach the hearts of
men, and build up an intelligent people in the doctrines of
the Gospel.

It is a pleasing thought that in deep reverence for God’s
Word, and in an earnest desire to understand its utterances,
our ministers may be said to be of one heart and of one mind.
With a great diversity in their mental structure and modes of
thought, we know of none who discredit the teachings of
revelation, or reject the idea of the supernatural. Yea, we
doubt if an equal body of men, on the whole, can be found in
any land, whose theological opinions are so just and compre¬
hensive, whose training has been so thorough, whose views of
faith and duty are so decided and complete, and who preach
the truth with as much clearness and boldness. By this we
do not mean that all are equally fervent and devoted, and that
there are no important shades of difference in their theological
opinions, this would be to expect impossibilities ; but that, as
a class, they are thoroughly in earnest, and endeavor to set
forth fully and distinctly, as they believe it, the faith once
delivered to the saints. Then everywhere they are at work —
in Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America, and in the
islands of the sea — preaching a pure Gospel and winning souls
to Christ.

This ministry has not labored in vain. If their success has
not been so great in numbers as that of the Methodist Church,
yet it may be said, without boasting, that if it has not brought
so many to a knowledge of Christ, it has done more for the
spiritual elevation and perfection of those in the church ; and
that is just as important for building up a people for the Lord
as the other. The relative growth of the different denomina¬
tions in this country from 1800 to 1850 is thus set forth by a
Methodist writer, Rev. Abel Stevens, LL. D. lie says, in his

140

[January

The Presbyterian Church —

“ Centenary of American Methodism,” “ During this period the
ratio of the increase of the ministry of the Protestant Episco"
pal Church, has been as 6 to 1, of its communicants 0 to 1 ; of
the ministry of the Congregation alists as 4 to 1, of their com¬
municants as 2f to 1 ; of the ministry of the Regular Bap¬
tists as 4 to 1, of their communicants as 5§ to 1 ; of the min¬
istry of the Presbyterians (O. S. and A. S.) as 14 to 1, of
their communicants as 8T\j- to 1 ; of the ministry of the Metho¬
dist Episcopal Church (North and South) as 19f to 1, of its
communicants as lTf to 1.” If, then, in the past the ministry
has so greatly increased and they have been enabled to ac¬
complish so much for Christ, how much more, with multiplied
means and agencies at their command, should those of to-day
attempt to build up his kingdom and achieve great things
for him !

4th. The one faith of the whole church must also be consid¬
ered as a means of strength. This faith, formulated in our noble
Confession and Catechisms, draws its life from the Scriptures.
The union changes not a letter nor an article of the standards.
The creed is intact. No revision of its statements, 7io lower¬
ing of its doctrines, no drifting; from old landmarks have been
proposed. “The Confession of Faith shall continue to be
sincerely received and adopted, as containing the system of
doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures,” is the basis which
brought the two branches together, and nothing less than this
could ever have effected the union.

Others can, then, know our creed. It remains the same.
It is not toned down to gratify the wishes of any assailant, nor
enlarged to guard against or meet every conceivable error.
It sets forth no new opinions, it enters into no new domain of
thought or speculation. It stands in the same stately integrity
of form as of old, and as it was committed to the separate
organizations to believe, guard, and defend, so the United
Church is to transmit it unimpaired to others, with its living
facts and grand dogmas to mould their character and fit them
for Christian work and heavenly glory.

The statements of this faith are definite, and in a terminol¬
ogy sufficiently clear and intelligible for the conveyance of
Christian truth to all. These can be scrutinised, thoroughly

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

141

investigated, and tried by the light of experience and the Word.
Whilst making no attack, vet presented in a dogmatic form,
and buttressed by the truth, they invite examination, and
court the fullest inquiry. This faith is not obsolete. We are not
of those who believe that every generation is to work out a
new system of theology, and that each age must have its own
confession. Ours sets forth the way in which we understand
divine revelation. It is not above the Bible, nor independent
of the Bible, but is in the Bible.

No faith can be more positive than what is embodied in the
Confession. It deals with the grandest verities, with the most
transcendant themes, with the richest doctrines, and views
them in their correlation to each other and to God. It
abounds in infallible truths, and, as a system, it is rational,
consistent, divine. It speaks for God to man. It addresses
the intellect and the heart, and when its truths are grasped by
the soul, and allowed to permeate the life, its transforming
power is seen in the massive character which it creates, the
strong principles which it nurtures, and the consistent godly
life which it sustains.

This faith is not now for the first time promulged. It has
been tried. It has been in the fire. It has stood the test.
No other religious system has passed through such a fearful
ordeal. It has a long list of martyrs and confessors. Thou¬
sands and tens of thousands, who spoke different tongues and
lived in different lands, and, at various times, have sealed their
testimony to its truth with their blood. This faith makes
heroes, not your petit-maitres of sentiment, or your admirers
of a loose, flabby, or negative theology, but strong men who
feed npon the living word — men of thought and of action,
of resolute purpose and unflinching integrity — men who can
wield a strong arm for the right, and, when need be, die in its
defence — men who have in the past initiated great moral en¬
terprises, who have done much to carry them forward or
bring them to a successful issue.

This is the faith of our church. The world disrelishes it, error
fears it, infidelity makes its strongest assaults upon it, a liberal
Christianity seeks its overthrow. This faith, assailed all
through the ages, maligned, caricatured, and denounced as

142 The Presbyterian Church — [January,

partial, cruel, dark, vindictive, is ours — ours to preach in its
fulness, ours to hold up, to defend, and to propagate — ours
to amplify, illustrate, and explain, and ours to clothe with
living beauty and spiritual warmth. This faith lives. It has
lost none of its power. It is still mighty in pulling down
strongholds. Let it be faithfully proclaimed, fully presented,
and God will own it, as he has ever done, to arouse the con¬
science, touch the heart, and draw souls to the cross. It is suited
to saint and sinner, to the conversion of the ungodly, and to
the edification, growth, and prosperity of the church. It is
suited to the present as well as to the past, to all classes and
conditions of humanity, and with it the herald of the cross
has the fullest liberty to set forth the law in all its strictness,
purity, and force, the Gospel in all its divine amplitude and
richness, and to build the whole fabric of doctrine and duty,
of faith and practice upon Christ, the great corner-stone.

Here, then, are four elements of power for the future, not in
themselves, but only as they are vitalized from above. The
Holy Ghost must move in them and by them. They receive
strength, and efficiency, and might from him. Their power
is his. If a love of truth and a love for the God of truth have
brought the two branches together, its influence will be seen,
for life and love cannot be separated. Their one system of
faith must show its divinity by what they are and what they
do. No creed, however correct, will save ; no ministry, how¬
ever gifted, can renovate ; and no combination of numbers and
wealth has any supernatural energy. These are only great in
the greatness of the divine strength. This being so, it shows
where the church has to look, and what the church has to
seek.

If this re-union, as is believed, has been effected by the Holy
Spirit, his aid must be specially sought in consolidating the
different parts, and in making the one body a grander agency
for the accomplishment of his gracious purposes in the earth.
This is the first of duties, for it is only under his genial smiles
that the church can grow in spiritual beauty, and only under
his renewing energy that it can expand. Let it then be
understood, and let it animate the body itself, that the noblest
offering which it can make to all concerned, is a revived

Its Position and Work.

143

1870.]

church — a church all aglow with his quickening presence
and sanctifying power.

The evils of past years have not been so much in the divi¬
sion of the body as in supineness, worldly conformity, and
indifference to the wants of Zion, and the urgent claims of a
dying world. This must be remedied. The church’s strength
has been consumed too much in and by itself. Congregations
have sought their own good, and not that of the whole ; large
churches have frequently nursed their greatness, and allowed
feeble enterprises to die under their shadow ; virtual indepen¬
dency has wielded too much influence in cities, and movements
for church extension, instead of receiving the encouragement
and aid of wealthy and united churches, have started with a
sickly existence, or have perished through their neglect. We
have seen many wrecks of such. The union should teach the
need of association, combination, and mutual help in establish-i
ing young enterprises, and in fostering them in their early
history. But the defect referred to is seen in other depart¬
ments. The church has not given its strength to the Lord,
nor looked for its power in the number of converts brought to
him. In neither body, the past year, was there an average of
six persons from the world to each church, and that with all
the appliances of the pulpit and the press, the Sabbath-school
and home influences. Souls, not territory, must be the cry,
and strength in the future must be measured by the multitudes
born into the kingdom. Content with a moderate growth, the
church has allowed great causes to languish, and to do little
more than hold their own ; and thus it feebly received because
it feebly gave. Now, though visibly larger, it is not really in¬
creased. Its numbers and equipments are the same.

If the late incorporation into one does not create more
enthusiasm, develop more vigor, inspire more daring, and
awaken a greater missionary spirit, then little, if any thing, is
gained — nay, there will be a loss. Life and force, warmth
and energy are needed ; but these will not come by resolu¬
tions, but by acts; not by wishes, but by prayers; not by
looking on, but by comprehending the magnitude of the work
and the issues involved ; not by the union of the Old School
and the New School, but by the weakness of both taking hold

144

The Presbyterian Church —

[January,

of the Omnipotent. Let churches in different parts of the
land come together, — not to talk over the past, with its divisive
tendencies and alienations re-union is the pledge that these
have gone, and to dwell upon them is to perpetuate weakness,
— let them come together to plead with the Most High for his
reviving presence and sanctifying power. Having ascended,
in the act of re-union, to an eminence, let it be to see God
more clearly, and to commune with him more fully — let it be
a mountain of vision, where duty can be more distinctly seen,
and the wants of a dying world more vividly known. Then
numbers will speak, but it will not be in mere glorying, but
for new conquests and possessions; wealth will speak, but not
for architecture, music, and respectability, but in larger
measures for Christ’s cause; and ministers will speak, but it
will be in the cry, “ Awake, O north wind, and come thou
south, blow upon our garden, that the spices thereof may flow
out.” May this idea of a revived church as a thank-offering
speedily take possession of the whole body !

But there must be work as well as life, and a fuller corre¬
spondence between them. The work before the church is vast
and accumulating, and is assuming new and varied forms.
Within the pale of our own Zion are precious interests. The
children of the church are to be trained and gathered into its
fold as living members ; Sabbath-schools are to be watched,
controlled, directed, sustained, and means put forth to secure
the children to its communion ; students for the ministry have
to be educated ; ministers, incapacitated for official duties and
in need, have to be aided ; ministerial support has to be in¬
creased ; efforts to free congregations from debt prosecuted,
and new houses of worship reared. Then, around each local
organization are many to be reached with the Gospel ; the
growing heathenism in cities has to be confronted with a
living Christianity, and the wants of the freedman are to be
met and supplied. The church has to be brought face to face
with home evangelization in all its departments, which has to
be taken hold of as a necessity and a duty, with alacrit}- and
joy ; yea, the missionary spirit, intensified by increasing de¬
mands, must know no one locality, color, or class, but must see
in the home wants a feeble type of what the heathen need and

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

145

what their condition requires. The material resources of the
church have been mentioned as vast, but the power of combi¬
nation to draw them forth and concentrate them on the given
work is lacking. A grand centralizing uniting force is needed
to bring into one the little and the large sums, to set all to
work, and make the life of each fruitful. Our machinery is
splendid, but it has never been fully operated. A greater de¬
nominational, yet none the less catholic, spirit must be devel¬
oped. We must love our own, sustain that which has in it most
truth, carries with it most power, and will accomplish ulti¬
mately the best results. If we have any ground whatever for
our separate distinctive existence, it is the faith we profess, and
which, as Christians, we are obligated to diffuse. Enlightened
denominational zeal, drawing its life from the cross, and
working through an organized church, makes no man a bigot.
It, from the very nature of the case, habituates the mind to
the mastery of important principles, gives scope and power to
religious effort, and enlarges Christian benevolence. The
greatest bigot is generally the man of no fixed princi¬
ples, and the most illiberal are those who hoast of their
liberalism.

The church carries on its benevolent operations through
certain Boards or Committees. The consolidation of these is
desirable for future efficient action. Enthusiasm is to be spe¬
cially awakened in this direction, and the attention of the
people turned toward them, that, by a united and determined
effort, a great impetus may be given to each. There may be
some little delay about combined action in the foreign work,
but if this cause has to receive any lasting impulse from the
re-union of the two branches, it must be in the line of distinc¬
tive ecclesiastical co-operation. A steady but gradual transfer
of support from the American Board would be crippling to that
great institution, and directly interfere with generous appro¬
priations to its missions, while it woflld weaken the church
itself. The able committee to whom this matter is intrusted
will no doubt be able to make such arrangements with the
Board, in regard to certain missions and mission property, as
will do much to bring our whole denomination soon into
cordial and liberal support of its own institutions. This is
VOL. xx.ii. — no. i. 10

146 The Presbyterian Church — [.January,

desirable for tlie best interests of the body and for a speedy
development of its strength.

Grave responsibilities are connected with the church’s
present position. It occupies a new vantage ground, and this
has been deliberately taken. It stands in a new relation to
the world and to the communion of saints. The eyes of
many are turned upon it, and increased power and influence
are demanded of it. Within its own pale men’s hearts are
warmed, their feelings are interested, their attention is quick¬
ened, their hopes are excited, and the enthusiasm of many is
aroused. Shall these evaporate and die, or under their stimu¬
lating agency shall the church, as such, expect greater things
from God, and attempt greater things for him ? If this
opportunity is lost, it can never be recovered. May the
solemnity of this thought affect all, and lead them to read
duty and a holier consecration to God in it.

But whilst called to more efficient action and more strenu¬
ous endeavors for Christ’s cause, the present is an auspicious
time for witnessing for him, and bringing prominently before
the people of the land the great principles of our faith and
practice. In this we need not be aggressive, or assail the be¬
lief of other evangelical denominations, but only seek to show
the minds of our own people, especially the young, why we
are Presbyterian and Calvinistic, that they may cherish these
principles in turn as a priceless treasure, and transmit them to
future generations ; yea, we should take advantage of the
present epoch in our history, and set forth, in a proper form,
up to the demands of the age, our distinctive sentiments.
Many are ready to listen and to investigate. Let the press be
used and let pulpits speak.

Every thing in and around our Zion, and every thing in our
own and other lands, calls upon us at this juncture to hold
forth a pure faith, and witness a noble confession for Christ.
The minds of men are unsettled ; multitudes are drifting away
from the faith of their fathers ; the profoundest verities of the
Word are questioned, and even inspiration itself is denied by
some within the pale of the visible church. Some are mani¬
festing a reckless iconoclastic spirit, and others are cherish¬
ing or panting after a heartless symbolism. The moral, po-

1870.]

Its Position and Work.

147

litical, and social world is astir. Radical changes are taking
place. The indifference of the past is disappearing. A new
era of thought, of investigation, of doubting, of testing every
thing has dawned. Men are unwilling to take any thing on
trust. Error is rife, and science, falsely so called, is arraying
itself against the truth. Rome is busy, and is helped by the
ritualistic tendencies of the day. The agencies of hell and of
an ungodly world are leagued in every conceivable form to
lead men astray. They are banded together against the Lord,
and against his anointed. Then old superstitions are decay¬
ing, and their political organizations are tottering. Moham¬
medanism has no aggressive power ; heathenism is losing
its hold upon the masses. The facilities for the diffusion
of the truth are multiplying, and the world is open and is
being prepared for a pure Gospel. Amidst these wondrous
movements the reunion of our church has taken place to
combine its accumulating experience and resources for a
nobler work for humanity, and a holier devotion to the
Lord. Let us see God in it and hear his voice calling us to
walk in his ways, and uphold the great principles of truth
and love. Let us maintain the doctrines of the Apostles and
the Reformation, which we have hitherto loved, simplicity
of worship and healthy discipline, which will make us strong.
Let us consolidate our strength, lengthen our cords, multiply
our forces, and in our various organizations and relations
“keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace.”

And now, arise, O Lord, into thy rest, thou and the ark of
thy strength ; let thy priests be clothed with righteousness and
thy saints shout aloud for joy.

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

148

Art. IX.— NOTICES OF RECENT PUBLICATIONS. ’

. An Inquiry into the usage of BAIITIZfi, and the nature of Judaic Baptism ,
as shown by Jewish and Patristic writings. By James W. Dale, D. D.,
Pastor of the Media Presbyterian Church, Delaware Co., Pa.
Philadelphia: Wm. Rutter & Co. 1870. 8vo, pp. 400.

The Baptists have seen fit to make immersion the corner-stone of their denomi¬
national structure. And the natural result of the inordinate attention paid to
the outward mode of administration in the initiatory Christian rite, has been the
magnifying of it out of all due proportion in the ecclesiastical system. Not content
with the liberty which all would freely accord to them of applying the element
of water in whatever mode they judge most suitable or most in accordance with
Scriptural example, or with primitive usage, they require the whole Christian
world to utter their shibboleth, or incur their anathema. Any thing but immersion
is peremptorily declared to be no baptism. And the members of non-immersing
churches as an unbaptized throng are debarred from all church fellowship with
themselves, who alone have the true baptism, even at the table of the Lord,
designed to be the symbol of unity and communion among all the true followers
of Christ. The most offensive imputations of want of candor and common
honesty are freely flung at those who cannot see that the baptism enjoined by
our Lord requires the submersion of the entire body in water, and that the
validity of the rite is vitiated or destroyed by the admission of any thing less.

And this breach of charity and open schism is all for the sake of exalting a
rite which is sadly marred by the process. The pursuit of the shadow endangers
the substance. The inordinate pressing of the one mode of applying water
diverts attention from that essential quality which is equally represented in any
mode of application, its cleansing virtue, and thus tends to obscure its proper
design and character. And the particular mode so strenuously insisted upon
unfortunately mars the emblem in so far as it is designed to set forth the washing
away of sin, by the cleansing efficacy of the Holy Ghost poured out from heaven
and the sprinkling of the blood of Jesus. To those who would thus hamper our
Christian liberty we are bound to give place by subjection — no, not for an hour.

The volume which has suggested these reflections is a sequel to “ Classic
Baptism” by the same author, whose line of argument it continues and whose
results it further fortifies. The Baptists have loudly boasted that their position
rests on the impregnable basis afforded by the true meaning of the original
word. Their recognized champions have claimed that Barri^u means “to dip”
and nothing but “ dip,” throughout the entire range of Greek literature. Dr.
Dale takes up this challenge and meets it by a counter-assertion equally broad
and unqualified, that Baar/fta does not mean “to dip,” in even a single instance
in any ancient author. His position is that Barreto is not a modal term, that it

149

1870.] Notices of Recent Publications.

does not describe any specific act. but that it denotes a condition or result
altogether irrespective of the mode or act by which it is brought about. Least
of all is it the equivalent of “dip,” by which a body is put within a foreign
element so as to be enveloped by it and then immediately withdrawn. In its
primary physical sense it denotes the “ intersposition ” of a body altogether irre -
spective of the way in which this has been effected and with no reference to its
ever being withdrawn.

In the ordinary language of every-day life among the Greeks a ship wa3
baptized when it was sunk in the depths of the sea ; the coast was baptized when
the tide flowed in upon it; a wave rolling over a vessel and sinking it baptized it
with its contents : a man was baptized when he was drowned ; the suicide
baptized his sword when he plunged it into his own throat. These and similar
cases, Baptist writers, by means of dexterous manipulation and an adroit change
of terms, are in the habit of claiming as though they made in their favor ; there
is a watery or some other envelopment and therefore in baptism the whole body
must go under. But Dr. Dale will not allow any shuffling ; he holds them to the
strict terms of the bond and with a great amount of good-humored banter, but
with clinching force, shows that “ dip ” will not answer in a single instance.
The coast is not taken up and “ dipped ” in the sea which rolls back upon it.
Drowned ships and drowned men are not “dipped,” i. e., plunged beneath the
watery element and then immediately withdrawn. If the word is to have its
primary physical sense in the Christian rite in question, “dipping” does not meet
the requisite conditions ; the hapless candidates for baptism must be not dipped,
but drowned. The word describes a submergence, no matter how effected, and
with no limitation as to the period of continuance.

From this primary physical sense of “intersposition.” without limitation of
manner or duration, the word passed in classic Greek to a secondary use, that of
describing a condition of complete subjection to some controlling power or
influence, particularly a ruinous, destructive subjection. As the man or the
vessel swallowed up in the sea had come completely under the power of the
watery element to their own destruction, so any other absolute and ruinous con¬
trol was called a baptism, where no envelope, watery or otherwise, existed or
could be imagined. Thence a man drowned in wine, not dipped over head and
ears in the vinous liquid, but overpowered by too frequent potations, or in other
words dead-drunk, was freely said to be baptized. The same term was applied
to the man stupefied by gluttony, ruined by debts, broken down by hard study,
consumed by cares, or the victim of disease or melancholy; also to a state or
city torn by dissensions and doomed to destruction. Baptized by wine or busi¬
ness or study, was to a Greek a totally different thing from what we might mean
by speaking of a man as immersed in his cups, or occupations, though even with
us the primary physical sense has given place to one of an entirely different de¬
scription. The word has reached a secondary sense, which has passed beyond
the mere region of trope and conscious figure or figurative application, and has
become a new and veritable meaning. From all these the Baptists endeavor to
extort some image or emblem, which may be set to the account of their exclusive
theory, but Dr. Dale pertinaciously meets them at every turn, and in the most
provoking manner holds them up to merited ridicule.

This volume brings us one step nearer than its predecessor to the New Testa¬
ment meaning of the term, reviewing as it does in detail every instance of its

150

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

employment by Hellenistic writers. Every passage pertinent to the case is culled
from Josephus, Philo, the Septuagiut and other ancient Greek versions of the Old
Testament, including the Apocrypha, and the comments upon all these by the
Christian fathers, a term for which Dr. Dale appears to have an unconquerable
aversion, and for which he regularly substitutes “ the patriots.” In addition to
the primary and secondary uses of Ba;rW<j<j in secular matters, as already
developed from classic writers, there is here found for the first time a religious
application of the term. The fundamental idea involved in this new usage is
stated in the same terms as before ; it is the subjection of an object to some
foreign controlling influence, not, however, for its destruction, but for its
purification and salvation. It is applied to ceremonial purgations effected by
sprinkling clean water, the ashes of a heifer or the blood of a lamb, or by washing
the body in whole or in part ; not plunging it under water, but washing the hands
or feet at (not in) a river, washing a person resting on his couch, or bathing the
entire body which in the arrangements of the ancients, as abundantly shown from
illustrative figures that have been preserved, involved no submersion. And when
the washing was in order to a ritual cleansing, the purifying material might be
never so limited in its amount and in its application, its virtue extended to the
whole person. Blood applied with the tip of the finger to the thumb, the ear, and
the great toe, was as effective and even more so, than plunging in a bloody bath
could possibly have been.

And the essential idea in the patristic usage of the term, is not the envelopment
in some external medium, but the cleansing, purifying, regenerating effect pro¬
duced or represented. They see a type of baptism in the bitter waters of Marah
healed, by casting in the tree, which symbolized to them the doctrine of the
cross; in Haaman washing in the Jordan, not because he immersed himself be¬
neath the surface of the stream, but because the waters healed his leprosy ;
in the curative properties of the pool of Bethesda, exerted not upon he who
was dipped in it, but whoever first stepped in ; in the right of circumcision, and
the flaming sword at the gate of paradise, and the coal of fire which touched
Isaiah’s lips, etc., etc. The mourner is baptized by his tears, the martyr by his
painful death.

Pr. Dale has in these volumes put the Baptists upon the defensive instead of
merely repelling their attacks. And it may be safely said that he has provided
them with occupation for some time to come. His arguments are not to be
turned aside by vituperation ; and it is to be hoped that they will be met in a
better spirit than that displayed in some of the criticisms passed upon his former
treatise, which he takes occasion to gibbet at the beginning of this. We wish
we could anticipate that they might have the effect of leading them to a less
exclusive and supercilious treatment of their brethren, and to the acknowledg¬
ment that all candor, and learning, and truly administered sacraments are not
restricted to the. immersionist body; while the rest of Christendom is uncom¬
promisingly classed with the heathen as alike unbaptized, out of the pale of
communion, equally destitute of any orderly administration of the rites of
Christ’s house.

But whatever may be their reception by, or their effect upon, our Baptist
brethren, these volumes constitute an armory on this subject, which no minister
who is subjected to sectarian intrusion from this source can well afford to be
without. The prolixity and repetitiousness with which they are chargeable, is

1870.]

151

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in a measure due to the nature of the subject and the detail with which it is
rreated. But a lopping off of some of the superfluities might hare effected a
reduction in compass not only without detriment, but with positive gain in point
of interest and power. These volumes cover the entire territory of the classical
and Hellenistic usage of the word to be examined and are so far exhaustive.
The passages adduced are discussed with great ingenuity and ability, and we
may add fairness. Though there may be an occasional appearance of special
pleading, there is no resort to the arts or tricks of evasion, but rather an intoler¬
ance of the subterfuges of others, which are relentlessly exposed, and with an
unsparing hand. Frank and straightforward, never intentionally unfair, with an
overplus almost of pleasant raillery, but without harsh words cr abusive epithets,
these books cannot be regarded otherwise than as an important contribution to
the Baptist controversy.

A Vocabulary of the Shanghai Dialect. By J. Edkins, B. A., Univ. Coll,
of the London Missionary Society. Author of a Grammar of the
Shanghai Dialect, etc., etc. — Shanghai, Presbyterian Mission Press ,
1869.

From the title page it will be seen, that this is not Mr. Edkins' first effort to
cultivate the Shanghai patois.

The value of this book depends upon the importance of the dialect ; if it is of
no use, the work, however well performed, is one of supererogation.

The importance of any dialect or language depends upon its fulness and variety
of expression, the extent to which it is spoken, and the character, political and
commercial importance, of its people.

Let us look at the extent to which the Shanghai dialect is used, and the settle¬
ment of this question may help us to judge of what must be its richness and
flexibility. For while a most meagre vocabulary will suffice for a few peasants
to convey their thoughts, a great, cultivated, and influential people would require
more.

What then is the geographical extent of the Shanghai dialect? One has re¬
plied to this question that it is spoken in its purity, only within the walls of the
city from which it takes its name. But below we quote an able writer, who
some ten years ago said : —

“ The Shanghai dialect is fully in use as far as Sungkiang, and in a circle of
that distance around Shanghai as a centre. This is assuming a diameter of sixty
miles: and within this space, or very little beyond it, are two cities of over one
hundred and fifty thousand, two or three of forty thousand , four or five of over
twenty thousand souls.

“In the same place are also many un walled towns, with villages and hamlets
innumerable.

“ From the pagoda near Shanghai I have counted upward of thirty hamlets.

“ The whole population of this circular area must be nearly one million and
a-half.

“ But this alone would give a very inadequate idea of the use of the Shanghai
dialect.

“ In this circle a man is, so to speak, at home in speaking the Shanghai collo¬
quial. It is here the vernacular tongue.

“ But beyond this limit as far as Ka-hing in one direction, Soo-chow in another
and Changshuh in another, the same dialect prevails with so little variation that,
no other need be learned, to enable a person to coifverse easily with the people.

152

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

This greatly extends the range of this dialect. It takes in a circle, or rather a
triangle, of nearly two hundred miles diameter, including Soo-chow, a city of
2,000,000 inhabitants, two cities of 200,000, several under 100,000, and the usual
crowded country population. There may, therefore, be stated to be upward of
6.000,000 of people properly belonging to the range of the Shanghai dialect.”

We have given this lengthy quotation because we respect the writer as a man
of learning and close observation. Though from our own experiences, we be¬
lieve the Shanghai dialect extends much beyond Ka-hing and is quite intelligi¬
ble even as far as Hangchow.

But taking the view given above ; we have a surface of country nearly equal
in extent to England, with a soil as perhaps fertile as any the sun ever shone
upon, with an extensive commerce, and supporting, in those days, some six mil¬
lions of people !

How does this extent of country and population compare with some of the
smaller European and other states and countries?

In the latest work at hand, Greece is set down as containing a population of
1,000,000, Portugal 3,500,000, Denmark 2,500,000, Sweden and Norway 4,600,
000. The Sandwich Islands 120,000, and the now much talked of Abyssinia but
3,500,000, scarcely more than half the number of people speaking the Shanghai
patois before the Rebellion. And though the number may have been reduced
since, still that was the normal state of the country where this dialect is
spoken.

It is easy to infer that a language spoken by some six millions of people in¬
habiting a country of such extent, wealth, and commercial importance must be
extensive, flexible, and rich enough for the literature of any people.

But we are not left to mere inference ; There is nothing more satisfactory than
a practical test. Can this dialect be used for the conveyance of ideas, to such
an extent, as to warrant the expectation, that it will yet contain the literature of
such a great and intelligent people, as this promises to be?

The first fact bearing upon this question we adduce, is that there have been,
more than fifty volumes, written in this dialect already. Fifty books, upon a
variety of subjects, must, of necessity, bring into use an extensive vocabulary.
Beyond this we cannot say much, except that Mr. Edkins’s new work must em¬
brace about six thousand English words for which equivalents are given in the
Shanghai dialect. But as two or three of these are often given for each English
word, we have probably no less than ten or twelve thousand of these words, in
this little volume.

Mr. Edkins’s work, however, does not profess to be exhaustive. It is not a
dictionary, but merely a vocabulary. The dialect may therefore contain many
thousand more words. So much for its richness.

We know how much our own language is indebted to others, for its great
flexibility and variety. We have readily absorbed and anglicized from all we
have come in contact with.

How is it with the Shanghai dialect? Can it take up and appropriate words
from other dialects and languages, or is there any resources from which it may
be enriched?

We reply, there seems no more difficulty in this direction than there is with
our own language. And besides all the other dialects and languages with which
it may be brought in contact, there is the Chinese language, to which it is so

1870.]

153

Notices of Recent P ublications.

closely allied, and from which, as from a never-failing treasury, it may always
draw new terms and new words, if there be any paucity.

The only other two questions bearing directly upon the subject are its relation
to the Chinese written language and the Mandarin dialect.

With reference to the first it is not spoken, and for this reason, as well as
others, it is most difficult of acquisition, and therefore unfit to contain the litera¬
ture of a people. It occupies some such place as the Greek and Latin Classics
have always occupied in Europe and America. And while the literature of the
country is confined to this channel, learning will necessarily be confined to a
comparatively few, as it was before the discovery of the art of printing and the
multiplying of books and newspapers in the several vernaculars. But may not
the Mandarin dialect become the common vehicle of communication, and contain
the literature of the empire? Although we have not here the same difficulty,
since the Mandarin is a spoken language, yet it is not the language of this people,
and, therefore must always labor under something of the disadvantages of a
foreign tongue.

It would be as if the English had not written or printed any thing in their own
beautiful Anglo-Saxon, but contented themselves with the Gallic literature.

But do not the missionaries, who are supposed to understand these things
best, usually make use of the Mandarin dialect both in their books and preach¬
ing? The experiment has doubtless been tried by almost every new missionary ;
and in one case by a large Mission and for years. Neither preaching nor prayers
was in the language of the people — all, even to the hymns, was in the learned
style or Mandarin dialect. But this experiment has been as often abandoned as
undertaken, and no one now addresses the people in a plainer and simpler ver¬
nacular than the members of that Mission. Missionaries have had the greatest
success where they have given the people the Bible and its teachings in the
native tongue.

Our opinion of the book, whose title we have placed at the head of this article,
from a philological point of view, may easily be inferred.

Every student of the dialect, must hail this book as an invaluable aid ; and
every philologist will gladly place it upon his library shelves.

Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church , with an Introduction to
the Study of Ecclesiastical History. By Arthur Penrhyn Stanley,
D. D., Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University
of Oxford, and Canon of Christ Church. From the Second London
Edition, revised. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. 1870.

This same publishing house has also brought out from the same author —

Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. In two volumes of the
same size and style as that on the Eastern Church, with Maps and
Plans. Yol. I., extending from Abraham to Samuel. Vol. II., from
Samuel to the Captivity.

Dr. Stanley has not adopted the plan of continuous historical narration in these
volumes. They are rather a series of lectures on successive topics or characters
that are prominent in sacred history. This enables him to escape the dulness to
which mere dry mechanical narration is exposed, and to confine himself to those
parts, and that line, of history, of which he is specially master, on which he can
throw new light, and expatiate with enthusiasm. His learning, culture, insight,

154

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

taste, mastery of language, and of a style classic, brilliant, and vigorous, appear
throughout these volumes. The light they throw upon the events and persons
in sacred history, ana the pleasure they afford a cultivated reader by their
artistic finish and beauty, must render them a treasure not only to ministers and
theological students, but to scholars and men of letters generally.

The history of the Eastern Church is especially valuable, as giving us access
to knowledge in regard to that great section of Christendom not elsewhere
within easy reach, and which is, in regard to the salient points in the life of that
church, thorough and reliable. The account of the Council of Nicaea, of Constan¬
tine, Athanasius, Arius, the Nicene Creed in itself, its genesis, and the controver¬
sies and discussions which culminated in it, is of great value; and well worthy
of the large space it fills in the book. Scarcely less so is the account of Peter
the Great, the Russian Church, and the mutual relation between the two. The
introductory lectures on the uses of the study of church history, are also full of
profound thought, forcibly and beautifully expressed. It is quite obvious, how¬
ever, that the author’s sympathies are not with very strict orthodoxy. Speaking
of the term “ orthodox ” he says, “ It is a term which implies, to a certain extent,
narrowness, fixedness, perhaps even hardness of intellect, and deadness of
feeling ; at times, rancorous animosity.” — P. 348.

The two volumes on Jewish History, exhibit the admirable qualities of that
already noticed, with some more glaring out-croppings of rationalism. In regard
to the prophecies he says much tending to reduce them to the level of the unin¬
spired foresight of sagacious men, especially in the sphere of political forecasting.
He says, “Everyone knows instances, both in ancient and modern times, of
predictions which have been uttered and fulfilled in regard to events of this kind.
Sometimes such predictions have been the result of political foresight. ‘ To
have made predictions which have been often verified by the event, seldom or
never falsified by it,’ has been suggested by one well competent to judge (J. S.
Mill), as an ordinary sign of statesmanship in modern times. 1 To see events in
their beginnings, to discern their purport and tendencies from the first, to fore¬
warn his countrymen accordingly,’ was the foremost duty of an ancient, orator,
as described by Demosthenes. Many instances will occur to the students of
history. Even within our own memory the great catastrophe of the disruption
of the United States of America was foretold, even with the exact date, several
years beforehand.” Thus he brings the Hebrew prophets “ most nearly into
comparison with the seers of other ages and other races.” The former he tells
us do not excel the latter “iu particulars of time and place.” “ Our Lord himself
has excluded the precise knowledge of limes and seasons from the widest and high¬
est range of the prophetic vision.” — (Yol. i., pp. 514-516.) According to this,
prophetic inspiration is of the same grade as the wise foresight of far-seeing
minds. “In the sublime elevation of the moral and spiritual teaching of the
Psalmist and prophets, in the eagerness with which they look out of themselves,
and out of their own time and nature, for the ultimate hope of the human race —
far more than in their minute predictions of future events — is to be found the
best proof of their prophetic spirit. In the loftiness of the leading characters of
the epoch, who stand on the truth, each succeeding as the other fails, with a
mingled grace and strength which penetrate even into the outward form of the
poetry or prose of the narration — rather than in the marvellous displays of
power which are found equally in the records of saints of other times and in

1870.]

155

Notices of Recent Publications.

other religions — is the true sign of the supernatural, which no criticism or fear
of criticism, can ever eliminate.” — (Yol. ii., p. 11.) It is clear that his doctrine
of inspiration as well as prophecy, indeed of the supernatural, is broadly
rationalistic. We find traces of the same thing in his analysis of priesthood and
sacrifice.

These volumes with all their high merits, should be studied with a discrimi¬
nating eye, on its guard against this rationalizing element.

As they are finished in all other respects, so they are very complete in the
tables of contents and indexes, which are so helpful to the student. The pub¬
lishers have made these volumes still more attractive with the clear and beautiful
type of the “Riverside Press.”

History of the Church in the 18 th and, 19 th Centuries. By K. R. Ila-
genbach, D.D., Professor of Theology in the University of Basle.
Translated from the last German edition with additions by Rev.
J. F. Hurst, D.D. Two vols., 8vo. New York: Charles Scribner
& Co.

Like most German authors, of whatever doctrinal cast, Dr. Hagenbach displays
great industry and carefulness of research in this and the numerous other works
which have made him favorably known as an author. His great work, the “ His¬
tory of Christian Doctrine,” has long been a standard and of high authority, not
only in Germany but in Britain and America, where it has been extensively
known, not only in the original, but in two translations, one of which, by Dr.
II. B. Smith, contains large and needed additions on Anglican and Armenian
theology.

The volumes before us are of great value and interest, and ought to be in every
clergyman’s library. The author presents the course of Christian life and doc¬
trine, in their various types, evolutions, and vicissitudes, prosperous and adverse,
the antagonisms of science and philosophy, falsely so called, of ecclesiasticism and
infidelity, of spiritual and secular despotism. There could not be a grander
field. The sketches he gives of the great masters and leaders of thought, as
related to Christianity, and of the development of the various systems they origi¬
nated or promoted, together with the corresponding revival or decline of spiritual
and practical religion, supply a great desideratum alike to Christian and sceptical
inquirer. It is only necessary to mention such names as Zimmerman, Bogatzky,
Yoltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Semler, Gellert, Euler, Haller, Zinzeudorf, Wesley,
Whitefield, Lavater, Lessing, Herder, Goethe, Reinhard, Schiller, Pestalozzi,
Fichte, Schelling, Jacobi, Schlegel, Schleiermacher, Strauss, Swedenborg, Bruno
Bauer, all of whom, with many others, are surveyed and sketched with eminent
ability, to evince the high importance and interest of the work.

We find occasion to dissent from some of the author’s views. He is anti-
Calvinistic. He adopts in the main Schleiermacher’s theology, but is essentially
evangelical. His treatment of Pietism, Illuminism, Wesleyanism, Rationalism,
Romanism, may be consulted by friend and foe with great profit. With the ex¬
ception of the chapter on Wesleyanism, he ignores the church in Britain and
America — the chronic distemper of German authors. This is the great defect of
the book.

The translator, Dr. Hurst, has already made himself known by his “History of

156

Notices of ■ Recent Publications. [January,

Rationalism,” and is one of those fruits of the advancing scholarship, education,
culture, and learning among our Methodist brethren, which is the earnest of still
greater things to come.

Autobiography of Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher. Translated by Rev.

M. G. Easton. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers.

Krummacher has so long been a favorite with the Christian public through his
unique and admirable portraitures of Elijah, Elisha, and David, that he can
scarcely fail to have created a keen appetite for his biography of himself, which is
here presented to us in a volume so attractive as to mechanical execution, paper,
and type, as to increase the luxury of reading it. The spiritual richness, raci¬
ness, and unction which gave such a charm to his writings, will also beget a
craving to know his life, training, antecedents, experiences of every kind, and
especially his relations to the contest between rationalism and faith, his judg¬
ments upon it and the parties respectively involved in it, together with the mould¬
ing influence from these sources upon the writer, who knew them as none
else can know them. Hence it results, that, in delineating his own life, he
sketches that of others, and lets us into their souls as well as his own. As he
became evangelical, though educated in schools, and under teachers almost wholly
rationalistic, so his autobiography, with other merits, is a valuable supplement
to that of Hagenbach, just noticed, in portraying some of the chief German polit¬
ical and religious movements of the present century, especially their personnel.

Many of our readers will remember that Dr. Krummacher was invited to
Mercersburg, but declined, and named Dr. Schaff in his place, who accepted, and
has become one of the pillars and ornaments of the American Church. Although
he resigned that professorship some years ago, he is indefatigable as a professor,
lecturer, commentator, and a promoter of evangelical union and Sabbath observance.
Dr. K. became court preacher at Berlin in 1846, and remained such until his
death in 1848. As a specimen of his presentations of men and things we give
his portraiture of Wegscheider: —

“If the rationalism of Niemeyer presented itself in a gentle and veiled form,
that of Wegscheider stood forth in an open, decided, outspoken manner in his
theological teachings at Halle. The only source of religious and moral truth
which he then recommended to us was reason, which, in searching the Holy
Scriptures, had to determine whether the Biblical statements were worthy of
being received, or were to be rejected. As a consequence of this, we saw the
Lord of Glory stripped of all his supernatural majesty, shrivelled into the rank of
a mere Rabbi, noble indeed, and highly gifted, but yet always entangled by the
prejudices of his time. He had never performed a real miracle, and had neither
risen from the dead nor ascended up into heaven. We saw also the whole con¬
tents of the Gospel, after being stripped of its particularistic and mythic veilings,
reduced to a mere moral system, for the manifestation of which no divine reve¬
lation was needed.

“ What was to us a psychological mystery in a man, otherwise so learned and
altogether so honorable as Dr. Wegscheider, was the remarkable naivete with
which, like a very conjuror, he interpreted the language of Scripture in accord¬
ance with his own ideas, though it manifestly taught the very opposite of that
which he set forth and wished to prove. But that which infused into us a rev¬
erence for this Corypheus of Rationalismus vulgaris, was, along with the devotion
he showed to his God of nature, and his fidelity to his convictions, the high
moral earnestness which breathed in all his words, and indeed revealed itself in
his whole life. And yet how could a theology so jejune and so destitute of heart
and feeling as his was, possess any attraction for those of his hearers whose souls

1870.]

Notices of Recent P ublications.

157

were capable of a higher elevation, especially as it depended on an exegesis
which, by its capriciousness, violated in the most arbitary manner all sound taste?
From Wegscheider’ s Dogmatics, I learned more about rationalism than I did
about Christianity, and knew that it was so also with many others of my fellow-
students, who, at the most, were pleased only with the logical frame in which his
caricature of the Gospel was set. Thousands, indeed, there were who carried
away with them front Wegseheider’s class-room more than the frame, and many
congregations are to this day doomed to spiritual famine, because they had pre¬
sented to them only the husks and chaff which were there gathered by his
students.”

John's Gospel — Apologetical Lectures. By J. J. Van Oosterzee, D. D.,
Professor of Theology in the University of Utrecht. Translated,
with additions, by J. F. Hurst, D. IX Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
New York: Scribner & Co. 1869.

Dr. Van Oosterzee is quite at the head of the evangelical preachers, commenta¬
tors, and theologians of Holland. He early achieved distinction in the pulpit,
whence he was transferred to the chair of theology, from both which positions
he has given forth numerous valuable contributions to apologetics, Biblical exe¬
gesis, and dogmatic and practical divinity. By the English translation of some
of his contributions to Lange’s Commentary, and his reply to Renan’s “ Life of
Jesus,” he has become favorably known to American scholars and divines.

These lectures were prepared to vindicate the supernatural origin^aud super¬
natural truths of the fourth gospel, always the special target for the assaults of
anti-supernaturalists, and all who are possessed by the “fanaticism of negation.”
They were delivered to an educated, though not a learned, audience. They pre¬
sent the results of learning, rather than its details, which would be lost upon all
but an audience “fit though few," of scholars as such. Such more thorough
learning on the subject may be found in the late works of Riegeubach, De Groot,
and Tischendorf, as well as elsewhere.

We think these lectures admirably adapted to their purpose of parrying scep¬
tical objections to the supernatural in revelation, miracles, and grace, as these
are levelled at the gospel of John.

It may tone down the conceit of the authors of the Essays and Reviews, their
admirers, confederates, and abettors, to learn that they are only giving us a crude
rehash of the productions of German infidels, such as would hardly be respect¬
able in undergraduates. Says Hengstenberg, as quoted by the translator, Dr.
Hurst : —

“ The authors of the Essays and Revievjs have been trained in a German school.
It is only the echo of German infidelity, which we have from the midst of the Eng¬
lish Church. They appear to us as parrots, with only this distinction common
among parrots, that they imitate more or less perfectly. The treatise of Temple
is, in its scientific value, about equal to an essay written by the pupils of the
middle class of our colleges. The essay of Goodwin on the Mosaic cosmogony,
displays the naive assurance of one who receives the modern critical science from
the second or tenth hand.”

We are glad to see how well our author handles those who deny the historical
truth and credibility of the miracles, volatilizing them into mere ideas, or artificial
imaginary symbols of ideas. It is true that every miracle has a doctrinal or spir¬
itual significance, beyond the bare facts contained in it, and its force as a divine
attestation of the divine truth or person to prove which it was wrought. Miracles
of healing represent various spiritual maladies and cures, etc. But this is only
on the supposition that the miraculous facts themselves are first admitted to be

153

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

true. If true we may look after their higher spiritual import. If not, the whole
is a sham and imposition, from beneath, not from above, and deserves the atten¬
tion of the children of the father of lies, not of the adherents of his great con¬
queror, the Way, the Truth, and the Life.

Lectures on Natural Theology ; or , Nature and the Bible, from the same
Author. Delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston. By P. A.
Chadbourne, A. M., M. D., Professor of Natural History in Williams’
College ; Author of Lectures on the <l Relations of Natural History,”
etc. New York: G. P. Putman & Sons. 1809.

Professor (now, we believe, President) Chadbourne we heard of, when just
graduated from college, as a young man of high endowments and promise. His
subsequent career has fulfilled these early prophecies. In this series of lectures
he concentrates the rays of light from every department of nature into one
bright focal evidence of the being and perfections of God, and of the records of
his works with his Word. While his general method is substantially that of
Paley, he greatly amplifies and strengthens the argument by the new lights and
vast discoveries of science since his time, and by giving it a broader and deeper
reach into man’s intellectual and moral being as related to Nature and Revela¬
tion.

There is one point which writers on this subject are so apt to miss, and
which Professor Chadbourne comes so near seizing, that we will note it. In
reconciling the evil and sufferings laid upon men with the Divine benevolence
it is common to rest the argument upon the tendency of this suffering to promote
their happiness or moral discipline. But then the question arises, Why might
not man be so made as to attain this happiness and moral improvement without
pain ? Does he not attain it without pain in heaven, and was not Eden painless
and unsorrowing? Why then, if God is all benevolence, is man subjected to the
tribulation and anguish which everywhere besets him now ? No explanation of
this can be given but sin in man, and justice in God. visiting indignation and
wrath upon that sin. The mystery of suffering only finds its solution in the
deeper mystery of sin. And so the most awful of mysteries is that in which
all others culminate and find their solution. Omnia exeunt in mysteriuml

Evidences of Natural and Revealed Theology. By Charles E. Lord.
Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1869.

The present season seems especially fertile of apologetic literature, as the range
of our book notices now indicates. The supply is doubtless responsive to a
legitimate demand and a felt need. These assume different forms according to
the classes which the different writers aim to reach, and the sceptical objections
they seek to obviate. Rev. Mr. Lord, the author of this work, is the nephew of
President Lord, and brother of Dr. John Lord, the historical lecturer and writer,
another of whose works we bring to the attention of our readers in these
notices. The range of subjects, in connection with which various classes of
persons find objections more or less formidable relative to natural and revealed
religion, is very large. Our author treats of no less than fifty such topics, in as
many separate chapters, in this large and handsome volume. It is a necessity,
therefore, that they should be treated briefly, and with greater or less ability,
according as they are nearer to, or more remote from, the author’s more intense
personal thinking and habitual studies. The whole is well adapted to aid the

1870.] Notices of Recent Publications. 159

student in meeting difficulties that stagger his faith. The divisions into chapters
render its form convenient for a text-book. Most of the topics now in question
between faith and unbelief, scientific, philosophic, and theologic, are touched
upon. We are glad to find our author an advocate for plenary verbal inspiration,
although he thinks that a lower view may be held without peril to Christianity,
or the authority of the written Word. We do not often see the doctrine of per¬
manence of species as distinguished from varieties, and related to the unity of
our race, better set forth than by him. But we think that the criterion of
similarity of external configuration, physiological structure, and psychological
habits, as common to all the varieties under the same species, can be put with
more telling force than we often see.

We will just call attention to the author’s solution of the origin of sin — in
the nature of moral agency, since, if it involves capacity for virtue, it involves
power to sin, and the prevention of sin might imply a compulsion inconsistent
with free agency and accountability. This can hardly be satisfactory, so long as
it remains true, that God can and will forever keep the holy angels and saints
in heaven from sin without impairing their free agency. We do not see that
this relieves the difficulty. Our only solution is: “ Even so, Father, for so it
seemeth good in thy sight.”

Lamps , Pitchers , and Trumpets. Lectures on the Vocation of the Preach¬
er. Illustrated by Anecdotes: Biographical , Historical , and Eluci¬
datory. , of every order of Pulpit Eloquence , from, the Great Preach¬
ers of all Ages. By Edwin Paxton Hood, Minister of Queen Square
Chapel, Brighton. Second series. New York: M. W. Dodd. 1869.

We noticed the first series of the papers bearing this somewhat sensational
title at the time of their appearance. This volume abounds in all the peculiari¬
ties and idiosyncrasies of its predecessor. It consists of the substance of lec¬
tures delivered to the students in Mr. Spurgeon’s Pastor’s College; if not directly
on the subject of sacred rhetoric, yet on the requisites to effective aDd powerful
preaching, illustrated by sketches of great preachers, and copious illustrative ex¬
tracts from their great and characteristic discourses. The topics are, — The Pul¬
pit of our Age and Times ; Arrangements of Texts by Division ; Written and
Extemporary Sermons; Effective Preaching, and the Foundation of Legitimate
Success ; the Mental Tools and Apparatus needful for the Pulpit, illustrated by
Pulpit Monographs on the following representative preachers : Frederic Robert¬
son, Pusey, Manning, Newman, Spurgeon, Lacordaire, and Thomas Binney.

The author’s views are generally sound, judicious, instructive, not without a dash
of extravagance and paradox, that, at the least, add sprightliness to a style that
is never dull, but often striking, always entertaining and instructive. Preachers
may find much in this volume which they can both enjoy and study with profit.
A single quotation hits a great vice of much popular preaching in these days.

“Every thing (in preaching) that tends to lower the tone of devotion and sa¬
credness is illegitimate ; every thing that stirs the passions or excites the curi¬
osity, or the passions without quickening the conscience is illegitimate ; every
thing that is simply secular, and does not relate the hearer to the life to come,
and to the Saviour as the anchor and centre of the life to come, is illegitimate.
All prettinesses, artificialities, — a sort of paper floral- wreath, not growing out of,
but stuck on to a subject — all these are illegitimate, and all illegitimate means will

1G0 Notices of Recent Publications. [January

in the end , he unsuccessful means." — P. 174. Would that these words could be
graven ineffaceably on the mind of every Christian preacher, and all, whether
ministers or laymen, who are set in charge of Christian work I

Thoughts on Holy Scripture. By Francis Bacon, Lord-Chancellor of
England. Compiled by Rev. John G. Hall. Published by the Ameri¬
can Tract Society, New York.

No reader of Lord Bacon’s writings can fail to have noticed the frequency,
depth, and force of his utterances on religion, Christianity, and the Word of God.
They mostly occur in brief, apliorismic passages, which concentrate vast truth
and wisdom in the fewest words. They are germinant, full of the seeds of
things, and capable of indefinite expansion. And so they become germs of life and
growth in every mind which embraces them. Bacon himself was wont to mag.rfy
the vitalizing power of aphorisms upon the mind, in contrast to the more me¬
chanical and lifeless nature of formal systems. The compiler of this volume
has gathered into it all the religious utterances related to passages of Scripture
which his works contain, and has thus made a very valuable and readable book.
At the head of the expounders of nature, he was never swerved from the sim¬
plicity of faith. Few have ever lived who could write a more comprehensive and
concise symbol than the following : —

“ The nature of God consisteth of three persons in unity of Godhead. The
attributes of God are either common to the Deity or respective to the persons.
The works of God summary are two, that of creation and redemption ; and both
these works as in total, they appertain to the unity of the Godhead ; so in their
parts they refer to the three persons ; that of the creation, in the mass of the mat¬
ter, to the Father; in the disposition of the form to the Son ; and in the contin¬
uance and conservation of the Being to the Holy Spirit ; so that of the redemption,
in the election and counsel to the Father; in the whole act and consummation,
to the Son ; and in the application, to the Holy Spirit ; for by the Holy Ghost was
Christ conceived in the flesh, and by the Holy Ghost are the elect regenerate in
spirit.”

From Dawn to Dark in Italy. A Tale of the Reformation in the Six¬
teenth Century. Philadelphia : Presbyterian Board. Pp. 538.

Martyrs who die in a cause which is successful, are held in everlasting re¬
membrance. Those who suffer in behalf of a cause that fails are apt to be forgot¬
ten. The heroic witnesses for truth in Italy are comparatively unknown to many
who are familiar with the sufferings of their lellovv-believers in Germany and
Scotland. We regard it, therefore, as a good and timely service that our Board
has issued this interesting volume, on the accuracy of whose historical details
the public are assured they may rely.

History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth.
By John Anthony Froude, M. A. Late Fellow of Exeter College,
Oxford. New York: Chas. Scribner & Co. 1870. Vols. I.-IV.

Hume was greatly mortified by the reception given to his History of England.
He says of the first portion, that “the book seemed to sink into oblivion,” and
“ in a twelvemonth only forty-five copies of it were sold." The first volumes
were published in 1754 and the last in 1761, and the work met with “but toler¬
able success.”

Perhaps the feelings it excited and the reception accorded to it were due not
merely to the fact that he “ had presumed to shed a tear for the fate of Charles

1870.]

Notices of Recent Publications. 1G1

I. and the Earl of Strafford,” or that it favored the Tory rather than the Whig
party. It may be that he did not avail himself of the materials within his reach.
We have somewhere seen the statement that there are still extant in the English
State Department piles of MSS. which had been copied from the public records
at Hume’s request, but which he had never used. Froude cannot certainly be
charged with any such neglect. lie has enjoyed free access to the archives of
England and France, of Holland and Belgium and Spain ; and the correspondence
of the monarchs and ambassadors of the period embraced in his history have
been at his disposal. Every page shows the diligent and conscientious use Mr.
Froude has made of these rich materials. The result has been to shed a flood
of light upon this most important period of English history, and to give new
and in some respects truer views of the great actors in the English Reformation.
We well remember not merely the pleasure but the astonishment with which we
read his account of the opening struggle, of the defeats and successes of the con¬
tending parties. We were obliged to abandon some of our preconceived notions,
especially in reference to the character of Henry VIII., and to admit that he was
not the monster he has been usually represented to be. Certainly until he
reached middle age no monarch had a fairer reputation ; it is sad to think that
his latter years were stained with lust and crueltj'.

We need not, however, enter into the merits of this admirable history, which
by its excellent style, judicial spirit, and great power, has grown in popularity
with each succeeding volume. We regret that the author has changed his plan
and proposes to finish his work with the destruction of the Spanish Armada.
We hope that he may be induced to return to his, original purpose and to com¬
plete the history to the death of Elizabeth, its only fitting conclusion.

We welcomed the republication of this work in Messrs. Scribner & Co.’s ele¬
gant Library Edition; but we are still more pleased to see this Popular Edition.
In typography, paper, binding, and price it is all that can be desired for a general
library. The two editions differ only in paper and in price. We trust that with
the fall in gold books may return to reasonable prices, and that other publishers
may imitate the good example of Messrs. Scribner & Co. It is not the wealthy
but the men of moderate means who are the students and patrons of literature;
and we think that publishers would find it to their interest to address themselves
more frequently to this class of purchasers.

The History of Rome. By Theodor Mommsen. Translated with the
author’s sanction and additions by the Rev. William P. Dickson,
D. D., Regius Professor of Biblical Criticism in the University of
Glasgow, late Classical Examiner in the University of St. Andrews.
With a preface by Dr. Leonhard Schmitz. New edition, in four
volumes. Vol. I. New York: Charles Scribner & Company. 1869.

This first volume of the greatest history of Rome yet produced, will be wel¬
come to all students of general history, and especially to those wrlio desire to
understand the organization, development, institutions, conquests, government,
legislation, jurisprudence of that old empire so mighty in itself, and scarcely less
so in its formative influence on modern civilization. For Christianity did not
destroy ; it rather used, purified, and ennobled the literary, civil, political, judi¬
cial, and social frame-work made ready to its hands by the old classic nations —
especially Rome.

VOL. XLTI. — NO. I.

11

162

Notices of Recent P ublications. [January,

This work, while of a more popular east than Niebuhr’s, is no less learned,
and embodies in itself not only all the results ascertained and confirmed by his
exhaustive researches, but the corrections and amplifications of them which sub¬
sequent investigations have effected. There is a wonderful process going on in
reference to ancient and mediaeval history of turning the most unquestioned tradi¬
tions into undoubted fables, and, in a less degree, what have passed for fables
into veritable history. We need not wonder at this, in regard to the records
made before the era of printing, when, even now, we seldom find the representa¬
tions flying over the country through our newspapers thoroughly correct in
regard to events of which we have any personal knowledge. When once these
errors, winging their way in print through a million of impressions, get started,
they outrun all correction. The falsehood is seen by a thousand where the cor¬
rection is seen by one — and, when once ossified into the form of history, shows
a vitality that is often proof against the most persistent attempts to kill it. We
have lived in the town where the elder Aaron Burr, first President of Princeton
College was born. We now live in the town where he and his son, Col. Aaron
Burr, Vice President of the United States, now lie, the former in an honored, and
the latter in a dishonored grave. We have labored hard, with others, to correct
certain fables in regard to the parentage of the former, and the funeral and mon¬
ument of the latter, but though oft slain, they as often rise again, and reappear
in new historical sketches, as undisputed history. Having gone thus far, we
will say that President Aaron Burr, the father, was not the son of Jonathan
Burr, of Dorchester, Mass., or of Isaac Burr, but of “Daniel Burr, of Upper
Meadows,” Fairfield, Conn., and that Vice President Aaron Burr, the son, was
buried in broad daylight, after suitable funeral solemnities in the chapel of
Princeton College : and that the simple stone which marks his grave was set in
its place also in open daylight, by the direction, and at the expense of relatives.

Returning from this digression, which we have allowed ourselves to run into
for the double purpose of correcting history, and illustrating the necessity of its
correction, we close with the observation that the great work of Mommsen is
fortunate in having a competent translator sanctioned and aided by the author.

Ancient States and Empires : for Colleges and Schools. By John Lord,
LL.D., author of the “ Old Roman World,” “ Modern History,”
etc. Hew York : Charles Scribner & Company, 1869.

This book is divided into three leading parts. I. The Ancient Oriental Na¬
tions. II. The Grecian States. III. The Roman Empire. It is not a mere
compendium of history, or skeleton of dry and dead annals. It has, like all the
author’s productions, the flesh and blood hues, the motion, breath, pulsations
of life. It is full of graphic portraitures of the life, manners, customs, in¬
stitutions of the ancients, and of the growth of Oriental, Grecian, and Roman
culture and civilization. There are few, who have not known and felt the in¬
spiration of the author’s enthusiasm, poetic eloquence, and vivid delineations in
his great historic lectures. They will find all these animating the printed page.
They will also find the condensation and clearness required in a text-book for
the young, enlivened with all the brilliancy of which the matter and space ad¬
mit. We think that it is highly adapted to the use of students in schools and
■colleges, and of all, who, before going into thorough historical research, wish a
pleasant introduction to the elements of ancient history.

1870.]

Notices of Recent Publications.

163

A Dictionary and Concordance of the Names of Persons and Places and
of some of the more Remarkable Terms, which occur in the Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments. Compiled by William Henderson,
M. D. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. New York: Scribner & Co.
1869.

This is a very elaborate and complete work, in the field it occupies. The
original Hebrew and Greek as well as the English proper name is given, and so
far as we have been able to examine, it is done in a thorough and scholarly
manner. It meets a real want, which most persons, especially ministers, ac¬
customed to search the Scriptures, have often felt. Its typography and whole
style of publication are excellent. It is a credit to the medical profession to
have produced such a work so far outside of their own field.

The Science of Thought ; A System of Logic. By Charles Carroll Ev¬
erett. Boston: WTilliam Y. Spencer. For sale by James Miller,
647 Broadway, New York. 1869.

The prevalent definition of Logic as the science of the laws of thought, and
of Pure Logic as the science of the necessary and formal laws of thought or
thinking, would suggest the inference, that the above title means one of the
usual run of treatises on logic, elementary or advanced, of which we have some
new samples every year. But it is far otherwise. It is more of a treatise on
metaphysics and philosophy than logic. The several departments, terms, and
technics of logic are merely the thread on which these philosophical specula¬
tions are traced and strung. We should better express our conception of the
book by styling it, Logic in its applications to Philosophy. So Mill’s Logic, is
really the application of logic to the inductive, more especially the physical
sciences. Dr. Gerhart some years ago published a volume entitled, “Philosophy
and Logic,” which was principally a sort of philosophical christology, followed by
Beck’s short and compact synopsis of the elements of logic.

I The philosophy of the present work is essentially Hegelian. But it must bo
allowed the merit of treating the themes involved with a freshness, clearness,
vigor, and pith, which present this system in a garb the most attractive, and an
aspect the most plausible, to the Anglo-Saxon mind. In a large portion of the
work the reader is conscious only of being in communion with a learned and
powerful thinker, who knows full well how to say what he thinks ; who eluci¬
dates many profound and difficult problems, and makes us think he is quite as
often establishing as destroying the foundations of morality and religion.

He gives the following analysis of Hegel’s famous formula that “pure being
is nothing.” “This is not true, he (Hegel) says, for the one is the iufinite ful¬
ness and the infinite possibility. Pure, absolute, undetermined, undeveloped
being is not any thing, because every thing involves limitation. We say of an
object, It is. The listener wants to know what it is.” — Page 391. “If you say
God is, veVy well, what is he ? When you say is, you say nothing till you say
what is, and what it is, you might as well say is not, as is. Thus pure, abso¬
lute, undivided being would be nothing, because it is not as yet subjected to the
limitations by which it becomes something. Pure, unbroken light is indistin¬
guishable from darkness. If the universe were full of light, with no object to
break this light into color, you might as well say that the universe is dark as
that it is light.” — Page 28.

164

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

But is it indeed so, that being, in order to be “ pure,” must be non-being, and
by becoming infinite becomes mere blankness and non-entity ? In order to have
qualities, must it come into finite limitations, and can it only pass out of them by
vanishing into non-entity? Is light nothing, if boundless and unbroken ?

The other great formula of Hegelianism, that “thought and being are identi¬
cal ” the author also presents. He claims to have shown us that “ Reason,
being outside of us and the thought within us were only opposite sides of the
same thing, that they were at heart identical, and thus that in thought we find
the reality we seek.” — P. 314. This identifies all beyond us with our own thought,
and turns every non-ego into a form of the ego. Of course it runs into Hegelian¬
ism, or Pantheism.

Yet it must not be inferred hence, that our author intends to undermine mo"
rality, religion, or even revelation, whatever he may do in fact. He gives us
his “ Logic of Ethics,” with no mean ability, and even lays a quasi, if not a
real foundation for the possibility of miracles. “If there is a sphere of spiritual
life above us, it has its laws as fixed as those of our own life; and any manifes¬
tation of them in our own life would be miraculous, but not lawless.” — P. 189.

The Principles of Logic, for High Schools and Colleges. By A. Schuyler,
M. A., Professor of Mathematics and Logic, in Baldwin University.
Cincinnati: "Wilson, Ilinkle & Co. Philadelphia: Claxton, Rem-
sen & Haffelfinger. New York: Clark & Maynard.

Prof. Schuyler has given us another of those treatises on Logic, of which we
have more or less every year. Some have for their chief aim original contri¬
butions in the way of discovery and elucidation in the science; others the adap¬
tation of principles already known to the purpose of teaching in text-books ele¬
mentary or advanced; and a still larger number seek to combine both ends in
various proportions, in the same book.

Prof. Schuyler’s work belongs to the third class, although adaptation to the
purposes of teaching has had a leading place in his aim and plan.

His arrangement of topics and order of treatment are in many respects novel ;
sometimes an improvement on the past, oftener not. Like some other late treat¬
ises, he seeks to combine the results of the old school logic, with the later analytic
initiated by Kant and further developed by Hamilton, Mansel, Thompson, Bowen
and others. Among the different manuals of elementary logic, some are better
suited to beginners, some to more advanced students, some to the first and some
to the second drill in the science. And for either stage some teachers would
prefer one text-book, or another, according to their own special forte, or that of
their pupils.

The present volume surpasses all others in illustrations to the eye by dia¬
grams. It is, however, characterized by an extreme measure of that condensation
almost to the briefest and barest definition, a sufficiency of which is requisite to
in any good text-book. But this process is overdone, when what is gained in
density is at the expense of clearness, or necessitates too much preliminary
training on the part of the student. It has been the way of the most accom¬
plished educators to take their pupils through the elements of logic, before in¬
troducing them to mental philosophy. They need the intellectual gymnastics
furnished by logic as a propaedentic to psychology and metaphysics. But our
author begins his work with a series of definitions in psychology and metaphysics,

1870.] Notices of Recent Publications. 165

almost every word of which needs defining to those uninstructed in these
branches, and must disable teacher and pupil alike, unless the former is perfect
master of them, and of the art of teaching them. Thus he begins by defining
intuitions, and then classifying them as empirical or real intuitions, subjective and
objective, and rational or formal. intuitions ; those whose objects are apprehended
by the reason as necessary: 1st, Logical; 2d, Mathematical, and then, in the
words and letters following, states, —

“ 3 Conditions.

1. Of objective empirical intuitions.

1st. Objective conditions: external phenomena.

2d. Subjective conditions: the senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell.

2. Of subjective empirical intuitions.

1st. Objective conditions: mental phenomena.

2d. Subjective conditions : consciousness.

3. Of rational intuitions.

1st. Objective conditions : necessary reality.

a Absolute -j ^ ®Pace‘

{ p time.

( a substance.
i Conditional -j /? cause.

( y self-evident relations.

2d. Subjective condition : reason.”

So half of the second page contains quite the skeleton of a profound metaphysi¬
cal system, which it takes a proficient in the science to understand. We think it
presumes too much on the knowledge of pupils, and of the majority of “ High
School ” teachers.

Daily Bible Illustrations ; being Original Readings for a Year on Sub¬
jects from Sacred History , Biography , Geography , Antiquities , and

Theology , especially designed for the Family Circle. By John Kitts,

D. D., F. S. A. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1870.

These readings are for every day in the week, and every week in the year,
founded upon the salient events in the Scriptural narratives, from the beginning
of Genesis, onward to the end of the Acts of the Apostles. They fill four large
and closely-printed volumes. Without being exhaustive, they are not shallow in
scholarship or theology, while they possess those characteristics which have made
the author’s Cyclopedia and other productions so welcome and precious to minis¬
ters and Christians. They are simple and concise, often shedding light on some
difficulty, or clearing some obscurity, and, with great freshness and naivete,
drawing, through new lines of association, doctrinal and practical suggestions
and inferences, which are at once new without being crude, and old without being
common-place. They are, in form and amount, convenient for daily study, and
seem to us profitable, not only as helps to private and family devotion, to Sabbath
school and Bible-class teachers and theological students, but as suggestive to
the pastor of edifying topics and material for his public ministrations.

We have to thank the Messrs. Carter for bringing this rich repository of Scrip¬
tural knowledge down to a price which does not, as in so many books, make it
forbidden fruit to those who most need and crave it. What has hitherto been
published in eight volumes at $14, is brought within four volumes, and in good
style, at $7. We know not where $7 can be turned to better account. In no way

1GG

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

can a greater boon be conferred on the ministry and other reading classes than by
lowering the price of good books to something like former figures.

History of the Reformation in Europe in the time of Calvin. By J. H.
Merle D’Aubign6, D.D., author of the “History of the Reformation
of the 16th Century,” etc. Yol. V. England, Geneva, Ferrara.
New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1869.

Ou the appearance of the first volume of this great historical work, we devoted
a full article to the consideration of its distinctive features. To the accuracy of
history it joins the charm of romance, and it enlivens the great current of Ref¬
ormation history, by the accession of living streams of original research. No
wonder that the previous volumes had a sale rivalling, if not surpassing, that of
Macaulay’s England, we had almost said, the great novels of the time. All will
surely wish to enjoy D’ Aubigne’s graphic sketches of the course of the Reforma¬
tion in England and Geneva, while Presbyterians will be especially eager to be¬
hold the portrait, life, and labors of Calvin, so conspicuous in the Reformation
that his church and theology bore, by way of eminence, the name, “ Reformed.’’

Paul , the Preacher ; or, a Popular and Practical Exposition of his Dis¬
courses and Speeches, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. By
John Eadie, D.D., LL. D., Professor of Biblical Literature in the
United Church. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1870.

Dr. Eadie has become so well and favorably known by his commentaries, that
almost any work bearing his name will have a passport to public favor. This
volume, however, although indirectly related to his studies as professor of Bibli¬
cal literature, is not directly in the line of Biblical learning and exegesis. It is
really a series of popular and practical essays relative to the great apostle’s
speeches, which read jat least many of them) as if they might have been ser¬
mons, or parts of sermons, founded on them. But they evince the learning
and culture, the logical power, freshness, and force, the warmth and vividness,
sometimes risirg to brilliancy, the evangelical truth, earnestness, and unction,
which usually pervade the author’s productions. Wherever we open the
volume we find sentences or trains of thought or outbursts of feeling which
stir us.

Sorroiv. By Rev. John Rei^d, author of “ Voices of the Soul answered
in God.” New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1870.

This book speaks to the sons and daughters of affliction and sorrow. Prob¬
ably no other could speak to so large an audience. And it speaks with tender¬
ness, pathos, and delicacy, yet with scriptural wisdom, to men on the various
phases of sorrow which it sets forth. The author, as we noticed in his previ¬
ous volume, brings to the topics of which he treats “thoughts that breathe, and
words that burn but he also brings to bear sound and wholesome common
sense where it is greatly needed, and yet, from reluctance to invade the sacred¬
ness of sorrow, is apt to be withheld, even when most needed. “ The art and
show that sometimes connect themselves with funerals are distasteful to a sad
spirit that is pure and refined. The least vestige of ostentation runs counter to
unmixed sorrow.” “ There is a peculiar practice with some persons of staying a ;
home on the Sabbath after a friend has died ; sometimes a whole family will thus
be absent from the sanctuary. Such a practice cannot be justified. A stronger

1870.] Notices of Recent Publications. 167

desire than usual should prompt to attend church, rather than stay away from it.
If Divine help is needed at any time, it is certainly needed in time of trouble.”
There is much mingling of refined Christian sentiment and feeling with plain and
sober truth. The type, paper, and binding are a credit to the publishers.

The Shepherd of Israel ; or, Illustrations of the Inner Life. By the
Rev. Duncan McGregor, M. A., Minister of St. Peter’s, Dundee,
Scotland. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1870.

We take it for granted that this work, which unfolds the saving offices of
Christ, as related to the inner life of his people, with reference to his high place
as Shepherd and Bishop of souls, gives to a larger audience through the press,
the substance of what had been previously given by the author to his own con¬
gregation from the pulpit. It is discriminating, experimental, and full of Christ.

Adventures on the Hunting- Grounds of the World. By Victor Meunier.
Illustrated with twenty-two wood-cuts. New York : Charles
Scribner & Co. 1869.

This is another volume of Scribner’s Illustrated Library of Wonders, designed
at once to instruct and entertain, especially the young. It is a compilation,
gathered from all quarters, of the extant narratives of the most desperate and
terrible encounters of man with the most mighty and ferocious of animals.

The Crown without the Conflict ; or, Musings on the Death of Children.
By Rev. R. H. Lundie, M. A. Fairfield, Liverpool. New York:
Robert Carter & Brothers. 1870.

This neat little tract is for the consolation of parents, whose young children
are taken away, only that they may gain the “ Crown without the Conflict.”

American Institutions. By Alexis de Tocqueville. Translated by Henry
Reeve, Esq. Revised and edited with notes, by Francis Bowen,
Alford Professor of Moral Philosophy in Harvard University.
Sever, Francis & Co., Boston and Cambridge. 1870.

The character of De Tocqueville’s great work, the first, if not the only, real
philosophic treatise upon our democratic institutions, in the concrete forms of
their actual existence, wras fully established among statesmen and thinkers in
Europe and America, immediately after its original publication. This high
character it has never lost. Very largely its doctrines, if sometimes contra¬
dicted, have been re-echoed by subsequent history. We will only add the pub¬
lishers’ advertisement.

“The present publication is identical with Yol. I. of the “Democracy in
America.” It is issued in its preseut style, to furnish the most valuable portion
of the work in a cheaper and more popular form, and with especial reference to
its use as a text-book.”

Life of Oliver Cromwell. By Charles Adams, D. D. New York: Carl¬
ton & Porter, Sunday School Union, 200 Mulberry Street. l’p.
268.

“This book attempts a true and unprejudiced picture of a great and good man
— a man who, with some marked faults, was distinguished by eminent virtues —
who was great in arms and in statesmanship; and, in his views of religious lib-

168

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

erty, stood a century in advance of his times, and who, from early manhood to
death, feared and served God with an earnestness of purpose and a depth and
constancy of devotion rarely surpassed.” Thus writes the author in his preface.
This extract enables the reader to determine what to expect. That Cromwell
was great no man doubts; his goodness has ever been a mooted point. We shall
rejoice if Dr. Adams settles it to the satisfaction of the public as thoroughly as
he has done to his own.

A Collection of the Proverbs of all Nations. Compared, explained , and
illustrated. By Walter B. Kelly. Andover: Warren F. Draper.
1809.

Everybody can understand what a book must be at all answering to such a
title. There are few that could not find interest and profit in the study or
perusal of it, if it be well executed. As far as we can judge from a hurried
glance, it has this merit.

Stepping Heavenward. By E. Prentiss, author of the “Flower of the
Family,” the “Susy Books,” etc., etc. New York: Anson D. F.
Randolph & Co. 1870.

Mrs. Prentiss lias earned a high reputation as an authoress who presents
religious truth in the form of narratives attractive to juvenile and often older
readers. In this she shows how the course of Providence is full of incidents,
which, however grievous or joyous in themselves, rightly improved, at once
bring the Christian nearer to heaven, and ripen him for it.

Bible Animals: being a Description of every Living Creature mentioned
in the Scriptures , from the Ape to the Coral. By the Rev. S. G.
Wood, M. A., F. L. S. (Pp. xxix., 652.) New York : Charles Scrib¬
ner & Co.

The author of this very attractive and valuable volume is well known for his
former works in the department of natural history. His books have been dis¬
tinguished for extended and thorough research, freshness and vivacity in style,
and beautiful illustration. He here offers us an exhaustive work, designed not
to discuss every separate passage in which the Scriptures make mention of ani¬
mals, but every one in which identification is important, and those besides in
which the beauty or force depends on the perception of specific characteristics.
It is therefore a most valuable supplement to our commentaries and Bible dic¬
tionaries. Without indorsing in detail every identification and interpretation,
we take pleasure in commending this volume to intelligent readers as well as to
critical students of God’s Word. It will commend itself to every eye that sees
it by the excellence of the mechanical execution. Porter, Pierotti, Palgrave,
Tristram, and other recent travellers and writers, are made tributary as well as
the older authorities. We cannot doubt that this will be not only a favorite
gift-book for the holiday season, but a work that will gain and hold its place in
many a lay and clerical library.

The Satires , Epistles , and Art of Poetry of Horace. Translated into
English verse by John Conington, M. A., Corpus Professor, etc.
London : Bell & Daldy. 1870.

In his earty prime the accomplished Professor of Latin at Oxford has been
taken away. The tidings of his death anticipated in this country the reception of

1870.] Notices of Recent Publications. 169

this latest of his works. His edition of Virgil in the Bibliotheca Classica , of
which Vol. III. has not yet appeared, his admirable metrical translation of
Virgil, and that of Horace, perhaps a little less felicitous, together with occa¬
sional and various contributions to periodical literature, had made him widely
and favorably known, and excited high hopes for the future. This last work
will, as his last, have its peculiar interest, and will be judged with the tenderness
of a bereaved friend, except by those accomplished critics who know no persons
and own no friendships in literature. The spirit of many of these satires and
epistles has been admirably caught and given, and the difficulty of the task
makes any such measure of success no slight triumph. No one is better aware
of this than our translator himself, as his introduction distinctly recognizes. We
might cite many a line, couplet, or longer passage that will often come back with
pleasure to those who have wearied themselves with the endeavor to reproduce
some of the wonderfully happy phrases of Horace ; and if we should adduce
other examples of a more partial success, it would only illustrate the difficulty of
clothing the witty, polished poet of the Augustan age of Rome in a becoming
English dress.

Howe's Pictures of English Poets, for Fireside and School-room. New
York: D. Appleton & Co. 1869.

Our esteemed and accomplished friend, the authoress, has proposed in this
volume to supply in a somewhat familiar and popular form, a sort of introduction
in one department to the more formal and elaborate histories of English literature.
To this end she has selected fifteen of our chief poets, between Chaucer and
Burns, and has sketched their lives, their times, their chief productions in a grace¬
ful and lively'-, and at the same time solidly instructive way, so as to guide and
quicken, especially in our young people, the desire for a better knowledge of our
standard poets. We congratulate her on her success, and anticipate for her
book a welcome iu many homes and schools.

The Pursuit of Holiness. A sequel to ‘‘ Thoughts on Personal Religion. ”
Bv Edward M. Goulburn, D. D. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
1870.

The sacramentarian element in the author’s writings, it will readily be believed,
is little to our taste. We have not understood the spirit of all grace as moving
so exclusively in the right lines of ecclesiasticism. Apart from this, we know
few modern works or topics connected with practical religion more refreshing!
or better adapted to be useful, than Dr. Goulburn’s. The volume before us will
in many a Christian’s experience promote very effectively the end indicated in
the title.

The Sacrifice of Praise. Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs, designed
for public worship and private devotion. New York : Charles
Scribner & Co. 1869.

This collection, prepared by a committee of the session of the Brick Church
in New York, cannot fail to commend itself as an aid to private Christian devo¬
tion, and will make its way into not a few other sanctuaries than that for which
it was prepared. The selection and arrangement are very judicious, and satisfy¬
ing both to critical judgment and Christian feeling. Forms of the hymns are
restored in many instances where mutilation had been the law. Some of the finest

170

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

hymns in the volume are from living or recent English authors, such as Grant,
Kelly, Conder, Edmiston, Gill, and Lyte, imperfectly known, if known at all, in
this country. The collection is of manageable size, 616 hymns, and has attached
to it an appendix of thirty-four pages, containing useful biographical and other
notices of the chief authors of our hymnology. Each recurrence to the volume
has given a fresh satisfaction.

Janet's Lore and Service. By Margaret M. Robertson. New York.
A. D. F. Randolph & Co. 1869. 12mo, pp. 581.

A pleasant story of a servant, the happy influence of whose good sense and
piety is shown in her charge of a motherless family. The scene is laid in
Canada.

The Spanish Barber : a Tale of the Bible in Spain. By the author of
“Mary Powell.” New York: M. W. Dodd. 1869. 12mo, pp. 309.

A simple story of Bible distribution in a land to which the hearts of Christians
have been turned by recent events with no common interest.

Bameses the Great , or Egypt 3,300 Years Ago. Translated from the
French of F. de Lanoye, with thirty-nine wood-cuts. 12mo, pp.
296. New York : C. Scribner & Co., 1870.

Raineses IT. was the Sesostris of Greek historians, and probably the Pharaoh
at whose court Moses was trained. The fame of his arms and the grandeur of
his military expeditions filled the ancient world with wonder. Some of the
most maguificent structures of ancient Egypt, and its most colossal figures, bear
his legend, and works of domestic antiquity ascribed to him, such as his arte¬
sian well, and his canal linking the Red Sea with the Nile, remind us of the sci¬
entific achievements of recent times. The writer of this sprightly little volume
has sought to combine in a popular form some of the striking results of learned
investigations into the history and antiquities of the land of the Pharaohs.
Among the curiosities which it contains, is an extract from a papyrus, giving an
insight into the literature of the period, in which a contemporary celebrates the
valor of this prince displayed on an occasion of extraordinary peril. His cruel
edict relating to Hebrew children finds its parallel in his inhuman treatment of
helpless captives. The bitter bondage imposed on the Israelites is abundantly
illustrated by representations of slaves urged by taskmasters to fulfil their tale
of bricks. The very features of this ancient monarch became as familiar from
the monuments as those of a modern statesman, and the numerous wood-cut3 of
restored buildings and scenes from actual life place that long-buried epoch
almost before our eyes.

Admiral Coligny , and the Rise of the Huguenots. By Rev. W. M. Black¬
burn, Professor of Biblical and Ecclesiastical History in the Theo¬
logical Seminary of the Northwest, and author of “William Fare],”
“Ulrich Zwingli,” “Young Calvin in Paris,” etc. Philadelphia:
Presbyterian Board of Publication. Yol. i., pp. 384; vol. ii., pp.
387.

Professor Blackburn is already favorably known as a graphic historical writer.
In these volumes he has chosen an interesting and important theme. The Hu¬
guenots, from their character, their sufferings, their fidelity, and their influence,

1S70.] Notices of Recent Publications. 171

have strong claims on the admiration and gratitude of all Evangelical Chr:s-
tians, and, on some accounts, specially on Americans. Thousands of American
Christians have Huguenot blood in their veins. From the intrinsic importance of
his subject, as well as for the lively manner in which it is treated, Prof. Black¬
burn’s book will commend itself to a wide circle of readers. It is, in fact, a his-
tor\r of the French Protestants during the most important part of their exist¬
ence. as connected with the chivalrous leader whose life forms the immediate
subject of these volumes.

Seed Thoughts, or Selections from Caryl's Exposition of Job. With an
Introduction by Rev. J. E. Rockwell, D. D. Philadelphia: Pres¬
byterian Board of Publication. Pp. 180.

It is enough to make the men of this generation hang their heads, when they
look on a commentary on a single book of Scripture in two bulky folio, or twelve
quarto volumes, and remember their ancestors read such books, and called for
one edition of them after another. They are immeasurably beyond our strength
or patience. It is a good service, therefore, to select from these, to men as they
now are, unreadable volumes, the pithy and precious thoughts with which they
abound, and feed them as crumbs, as mothers feed their children. We, there¬
fore, thank Dr. Rockwell for his labor of love in behalf of his feeble brethren.

Golden Hills : a Tale of the Irish Famine. By the author of “ Cedar
Creek.” Presbyterian Board. Pp. 376.

A very painful, yet instructive subject. The sufferings of the Irish during the
famine have been overruled, as the author endeavors to show, for the per¬
manent improvement of the condition of the peasantry.

Lectures , Expository and Practical, on the Boole of Ecclesiastes. By
Ralph Wardlaw, D.D. Philadelphia: Wm. S. Rentoul. Svo, pp. 428.

This volume has a well-established reputation. It consists of twenty-three
lectures upon the book of Ecclesiastes delivered in course in the years 1810 and
1811, by the author, to his congregation in Glasgow, and subsequently revised
and published in London in 1821. Without any pretence of critical or philologi¬
cal research, and based almost exclusively on the common Euglish version, with
little discussion of variant opinions, it presents a sober, judicious investigation
into the scope of the book, and the aim of its several parts, with the view mainly
to develop their practical bearings, and inculcate the lessons of wisdom and
experience which are here recorded. In this aspect the work is one of solid and
sterling merit. It promises well for Rentoul’s projected “ Library of Standard
Bible Expositions,” that the beginning has been made with publications of the
high character of Wardlaw on Ecclesiastes, and Moody Stuart on the Song of
Solomon. The third volume of the series, “ Expositions of the whole Books of
Ruth and Esther,” by George Lawson, D.D., is propaised in the course of the
present mouth.

The Sony of Songs : an Exposition of the Song of Solomon. By the Rev.
A. Moody Stuart, one of the ministers of the Free Church of Scot¬
land. Philadelphia : Wm. S. Rentoul. 1869. 8vo, pp. xiv. and 518.

This is a delightful book, full of the marrow of Divine truth and abounding in
the suggestions of a ripe Christian experience. The devout earnestness which

172

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

pervades it, the vigorous freshness of its style, and the varied imagery with
which it is adorned, borrowed from this highly figurative song, but with novel
applications, and brought into new connections, lend it a peculiar charm, and
show it to be the work of a skilful householder able to bring forth out of his
treasure things new and old. Like his friend, McCheyne, for whom, as for many
in every age who have combined ardent piety with an imaginative turn of mind,
canticles possessed special attractions, the author finds celestial mysteries spring¬
ing out of every verse.

The volume before us should be styled a devout application rather than a strict
exposition of the Song of Solomon. Few books of Scripture present more diffi¬
culties, or have been the subject of more discordant and conflicting interpreta¬
tions ; and few, if any, have been more frequently commented upon. Many of
these professed expositions are wholly unprofitable, or worse. Some utterly
deny or overlook its Divine character, making of it a mere song of worldly love
with no meaning beyond that which appears upon the surface. Amid all varie¬
ties of opinion, however, one thing has been intuitively true to the Christian
consciousness from the beginning, that this Song has a spiritual significance, sug¬
gestive of the mutual love of God and his people, of Christ and his church. If
this cardinal truth be held fast, great latitude may safely be allowed in the use
made of its particular expressions, and the devout meditations gathered about
them. If a lively fancy, and an affluent imagination, is in place anywhere in
the handling of the Word of God, it may be tolerated amid these rich oriental
symbols, and these doubtful enigmas, which seem to challenge it to a trial of
strength, and tempt it to essay the unriddling of their hidden meaning. And
whether the true solution be furnished in all its parts or not, it is no unworthy
or unremunerative service to find in this captivating Song, so fragrant with the
charms of nature and of art, a parable of sacred things, to gather devout and
quickening thoughts about its glowing words, to bring out fresh analogies be¬
tween things human and Divine, and to hold up its polished gems where they
may sparkle in the rays of heavenly light.

This is what the Rev. Mr. Stuart has done. He has not supplied an exposition
of the Canticles, which could be defended by strict rules of hermeneutics. lie
does not even claim that the application which he has made of it is the only
proper one. He explicitly declares the reverse. But while conceiving it to be
“a many-sided mirror designed to reflect, and reflecting most truly whatever por¬
tion of the Lord’s dealings with his people is placed before it,” he has chosen to
make a specific application of it to the gospel history, of which he regards it as
a prophetic epitome, or to which at least he fancies that he finds constant parallels
and suggestive analogies throughout. The basis of his view is thus stated by
himself: —

“We find three notes of time which have commended themselves to general
reception, and which we shall give in the words of three of our old Bibles. Com¬
mencing with the last: 1 We have a little sister,’ the note is, ‘ The Jewish Church
speaketh of the Church of the Gentiles’ (viii. 8); then in the centre, ‘Eat, O
friends, drink,’ it is ‘ Christ speaketh to the Apostles ’ (v. 1); and in the commen¬
cing verse of all, 1 Let him kiss me,’ the note is, ‘ The church of the coming of
Christ speaketh, saying.’ Combining these three, we shall have at the beginning
of the Song, Christ about to come ; in the middle of it, Christ finishing his work
on earth ; and in the end, Christ ascended and having poured out the Spirit. If
there is individual historic reference in each of these three points, their remark¬
able conjunct feature is, that they are not isolated points, but three distinct links

1870.]

173

Notices of Recent Publications.

belonging to one chain in regular order of history — the cry for the advent, the
last supper, and the calling ot the Gentiles. Now, it appears to us that this out¬
line may be filled up by the intermediate history taken from the Gospels and Acts,
and that not merely in a few occasional texts, but in a narrative consecutive
throughout in its leading features.”

This view has greatly the advantage of other applications of this book, which
have been attempted, to periods past or future, whether in Israelitisli or Ecclesias¬
tical history, and which have so generally lost themselves in unimportant details,
or assumed almost the aspect of mere secularity. This carries the writer and
his readers into the very centre and groundwork of the religious life. Many
plausible coincidences are pointed out; great ingenuity is shown in the adapta¬
tion ; points are adroitly made, and various particulars are skilfully woven in. It
is not likely that many persons will be convinced that this is the specific design of
the Song; but they will find much precious truth set forth in a lucid and edifying
manner. The value of the volume is also enhanced by select notes added from
other sources, and by the succinct, but discriminating review, given of preceding
commentators upon the Song.

The American publisher has added a metrical version of his own, in which he
adopts the divisions and the verbal explications of Mr. Stuart. A composition so
highly poetical and of such artistic finish, can best be appreciated in a transla¬
tion, not only transfused with the spirit of the original, but which shall emulate
the decoration and embellishment of its outward form. Instead of requiring the
apology made for occasional deviations from strict literality, we would have been
better pleased if he had allowed himself yet more liberty, and suffered his muse
to soar with fewer trammels. A graceful versification and elegance of diction are
necessary to represent worthily the beautiful charm which invests it in the ori¬
ginal. As a sample, we give the following paraphrase of vii. 1,2, which is inter¬
esting likewise from the principle of interpretation adopted in a much-disputed
passage : —

How beauteous are thy feet,

In glitt'ring sandals seen ;

O prince’s daughter fair !

Thy jewelled zone, I ween,
Which all thy vests unites
In one compacted band,

IIow skilfully ’tis wrought
By cunning workman’s hand !

“ Thy girdle-clasp appears
Like to a goblet round,
Well-filled with choicest wine,
With mantling rubies crowned ;
Thy broidered vesture fine
Of golden tissue bright,

Is like a heap of wheat
Hailed round with lilies white.”

Diomede : from the Iliad of Homer. By William R. Smith. New York :

D. Appleton & Co. 1869.

How shall Homer be translated ? If the true character of the Iliad as a
work of art is to be retained, then the translation should be rhythmical. The
rhythmical laws, however, of the ancient Greek and the modern English differ
so greatly, that all efforts to reproduce the hexameter have utterly failed. Not
even the beauty and exquisite harmony of Longfellow’s muse can reconcile us
to the attempt he makes in Evangeline to naturalize hexameters in English.
The earliest metre adopted was the fourteen syllabled Iambic, by Chapman, in
“The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before in any language truly
translated, &c., done according to the Greek, by George Chapman.” There was
an earlier translation of a portion of the Iliad but we have never met with it.
The Spenserian stanza, the fatally facile ballad style, blank verse, and the rhymed
couplet have each had their advocates ; and the best scholars in England are

174

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

now discussing this Homeric question. Prof. Arnold prefers the hexameter, and
Prof. Newman the ballad measure, while Prof. Blackie by precept and example
shows the power of the “ fourteen-syllabled ” rhymed verse. Pope’s Iliad, as
his translation has been well styled, is not that of Homer; and the same re¬
mirk may be made of the other versions. Mr. Smith’s translation of the fifth
book of the Iliad is in rhyming verse of ten syllables, easy and flowing, and
possessing considerable merit. But it lacks the simplicity, the power, and the
poetic fire of Homer. It is a paraphrase rather than a translation. Of all the
recent translations, those of Prof. Blackie and Lord Derby are the best, the
former containing some passages of greater power than the latter, and in the
judgment of many manifesting higher poetical power; but the latter combines
with great fidelity to the original a high degree of poetic merit, which, in our
opinion, renders it the best production of the Iliad we have ever seen. We have
put it to the severest test by reading portions of it aloud to successive college-
classes, and have never known an instance in which it did not completely absorb
their attention, and meet with their warmest approbation.

The following, also late issues of the Presbyterian Board of Publication, are
choice, readable, and even when largely fictitious, so far founded on fact as to be
instructive and profitable. They are fresh in style and topic, and out of the
hackneyed line of stories. We wrill briefly describe them.

Margaret Gordon; or, Can I Forgive? By Mrs. S. A. Myers, author of
“Poor Nicholas,” “Gulf Stream,” “Railroad Boy,” “Margaret
Ashton,” etc.

A narrative of the early life, the pleasures and trials, and especially the spirit¬
ual struggles and triumphs of Margaret Gordon. The book is founded upon facts
drawn carefully from personal experience, and is full of important suggestions
and instructions in regard to the Christian life.

The Manuscript Man. By the author of “ Golden Hills.”

A picture of life in the western part of Ireland. A few rays of gospel light
are introduced by the agency of two or three pious persons into the midst of a
community plunged into Papal darkness, superstition, and bigotry. Yet the truth
gradually worked its way, and triumphed in many hearts and homes. It is a
book to circulate among Romanists, but not them exclusively.

Fivers of Water in a Dry Place. An account of the Introduction of
Christianity into South Africa, and of Mr. Moffat's Missionary
Labors. Designed for the Young.

An account of the missionary labors of Mr. Moffat and other Christian pioneers
in Southern Africa, containing many incidents of a highly instructive, and some¬
times amusing character, with many hairbreadth escapes from wild beasts and
wild men, presented in sprightly style.

Alypius of Tagaste. By Mrs. Webb, author of “Naomi” and “ Pom-
ponia.”

This volume opens with a vivid picture of a terrible scene in the amphitheatre
at Alexandria in Kgypt, where several Christians were killed by wild beasts be-

1S70.J

Notices of Recent P itblications.

175

cause of their Christian faith. It presents to the reader, in a connected narra¬
tive, views of the persecutions and struggles of the Christians in an early age of
the church, and exhibits the power of Christian faith to triumph over all oppo¬
sition.

Pomponia; or , the Gospel in Cassar's Household. By Mrs. Webb, author
of “Naomi,” “ Alypius of Tagaste,” etc.

This graphic narrative describes the way in which the leaven of Christianity
worked and spread among the people in the days of its early purity and power.
The scene is laid partly in Britain, and partly in the city of Rome, while the
Apostle Paul was still living. Many of the personages mentioned are historical ;
some of them are mentioned in Scripture. The author depicts in vivid colors the
difficulties and the triumphs of early Christianity in the courts of Tiberius Cicsar
and Nero.

The following contributions to juvenile and Sunday-school literature have also
been received from the Presbyterian Board of Publication: —

Lore's Labor ; or. the Seed and its Blossom. By Abby Eldredge, author
of “Lucy Clifton,” “Hattie Powers,” etc.

Grace Harland ; or, Christ's Path to Happiness. Bythe author of “ The
Little Watchman.”

True Riches , and Other Stories. Compiled for the Presbyterian Board of
Publication.

The Child of the Rocks: a Tale for Youth. Translated from the German
of Dr. Chr. G. Barth.

luirdoo, the Hindoo Girl ; and Other Stories. Compiled for the Presby¬
terian Board of Publication.

The Brave Heart. By Fleeta.

The Straw-bonnet Maker ; or, Ways of Usefulness.

Mabel Clarke ; or, Looking unto Jesus.

Tim, the Collier Boy.

I have, and Oh, had L ; or. Lessons in Contentment.

Cornelia's Visit to Roseville. By the author of “ Ilarry and his Dog,”
“ Kitty Dennison,” etc.

Martyrs and Sufferers for the Truth. By William S. Plumer, D. D.

Setma , the Turkish Girl. Translated from the German of Dr. Barth.
Little Girls' Habits. By Zell.

Talks with Little Emily. By Zell.

Lucy at Home. By Zell.

Mrs. Latimer's Meetings. By Nellie Grahame.

The Willow Basket. By Mrs. E. J. Wylie.

Stories for the Little Ones: — Home Missionaries ; Contrast ; The Lion’s
Den ; The Golden Rule ; Stray Lambs ; The Watchful Eye ; Carrie’s
Hard Lesson ; Alice Townsend’s Garden ; Shining Lights ; The Cas¬
ket of Gems.

The Two Little Cousins. By Zell.

A Little More, and Other Stories. Compiled for the Presbyterian
Board of Publication.

176

Notices of Recent P ublications. [January

PAMPHLETS.

An Address at the Centennial Celebration of the American Whig Society
of the College of Nexv Jersey , June 29, 1869. By Eicliard S. Field,
LL. D. Princeton : Stelle & Smith. 1869.

The subject of this able and scholarly address is the “ Obligations of Christian¬
ity to Learning.” Judge Field insists with great force that knowledge is a good
in itself, and that, as all truth is harmonious, so its parts are mutually supporting,
and truth in science and literature must, if understood aright, harmonize with
and corroborate the truths of religion. He also maintains that the culture of the
intellect as one, and that the guiding element in our higher nature, must be pro¬
pitious to religion. He traces historically the services which learning and
science have rendered to .Christianity, and combats the arguments offered by
superficial religionists against them, to prove them inimical or injurious thereto.
We are glad to see eminent jurists, like Judge Field, showing the taste for let¬
ters, and the interest in the great questions related to religion in its connections
with literature and science, evinced in this address. We think that all the pro¬
fessions gain strength, as well as refinement, from the literoe humaniores.

The American Colleges and the American Public. By Prof. Noah Por¬
ter, Yale College. From the New Englander for October, 1869.

This is the last of a series of articles in the New Englander , on the same topic,
by the same author, which, with other articles from other writers, relative to the
same subject in general, or Yale College in special, have occupied a large portion
of that Quarterly during the past year. These discussions are valuable, nor can
those who have any responsibility in guiding or shaping American colleges be
wisely ignorant of them. This is especially true of Dr. Porter’s papers on the
subject, which, though of various merit, and a little intense on some points,
nevertheless show the true characteristics, functions, and needs of these institu¬
tions, as developed from their origin, genesis, traditions, surroundings, and the
ideal at which they should aim. They are full of sensible, judicious statements and
suggestions, evident enough to all who have had much experimental knowledge
of these institutions, but greatly in danger of being lost sight of, or disregarded,
by those who have not.

The pamphlet before us defends the religious organization which prevails
in most American colleges, and secures religious instruction on the basis of
Catholic Christianity, but under the control of some one Christian denomination;
indicates aversion to the system of choosing trustees by meetings of alumni
lately inaugurated at Harvard ; insists on the necessity of a good understanding
between the trustees and faculty ; and the impossibility, for a long time to come,
of developing an American University which shall be able to attract to itself the
great body of American students that now repair to European universities.
“That material is something more than a few millions of money, and a score of
brilliant occasional lectures. A great community of highly cultured scholars and
literary men must first exist before the representatives of knowledge can appear
who are competent to teach the choicest youth of the world, and before a large
body of American pupils will be satisfied that they will find no advantage in
going abr*od.” Besides, other things being equal, they prefer going abroad, if they

177

1870.] Notices of Recent PuUications.

have the means. They love foreign travel, and the Yankee is a great cosmo¬
politan.

The Liturgical Movement in the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches. By
Charles P. Krauth, D. D., Norton Professor of Theology in the E. L.
Theological Seminary, in Philadelphia, and Professor of Intellectual
and Moral Philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania. Lutheran
Book Store, 807 Vine Street ; Reform Publication Rooms, 54 N.
Sixth Street, Philadelphia.

This is an able, critical, and historical survey of the liturgical question, begin¬
ning with some notice of the books issued by Dr. Shields and Rev. Charles W.
Baird relative to this subject. It is more prominently, however, a review of the
controversy between Drs. Nevin and Bomberger in regard to the liturgy of the
German Reformed Church. Dr. Krauth strongly sides with Dr. Nevin, on whom,
along with some minor criticisms, he bestows the highest praise. He evidently
favors that view of public service and of liturgical forms, which exalts the altar,
and maintains a real presence of the substance of our Lord's body and blood in
the eucharist, i. e., conformed to the Lutheran doctrine of con-substantiation.
The tendency to exalt the pulpit he opposes as Puritanical. We cannot assent
to his main idea, whatever we might think of the propriety of a brief authorized
liturgy, to be tolerated, but not enforced. But while we thus differ from Dr.
Krauth, we think his pamphlet of high historical and critical value.

Third or Walnut Street Presbyterian Church , Louisville , Ky. — Jurisdic¬
tion of Federal and State Courts — Civil v. Ecclesiastical Courts —
Rights in Church Property, etc. Opinion of Special Chancellor A.
Barnett, member of the Louisville B ir, October, 1869. Louisville:
Courier Journal Job Department. 1869.

The Great Presbyterian Case. The Declaration and Testimony v. The
General Assembly. Decision of the Supreme Court of Missouri in
he Lindenwood Female College Controversy in favor of the General
Assembly. Opinion of Judge Wagner. Published in the Missouri
Democrat of Nov. 23, 1869.

These are the decisions of the courts thus far reached in the litigation arising
upon the claim of the declaration and testimony secession to the rights, franchises,
and possessions of the Prcsbjrterian Church in Kentucky aud Missouri. In the
latter State the case has gone through the court of last resort, and been decided
in favor of the adherents of the Assembly. The case arose upon the claim of the
Presbytery of St. Louis, composed of seceders, to the Lindenwood Female
College, which, according to its charter, is to be held and controlled by trustees
appointed by the Presbytery of St. Louis “connected with the General Assembly
of the United States of America, usually styled the Old School.” This claim
was met by the counter-claim of that Presbytery of St. Louis which adheres to
the Assembly, to the custody and control of the college. The court unani¬
mously came to the following result, which they sustain by incontestible
argument : —

“ That under proper construction of the charter, it was indispensable to a valid
election that it should be held by the Presbytery of St. Louis, being at the time
in connection'with the Old School Presbyterian General Assembly

YOL. XLII. — NO. I. 12

178

Notices of Recent Publications. [Janttaet,

“ That the decision of the General Assembly as to the status and ecclesiastical
rights of the two bodies in question, each claiming to be the Presbytery of St.
Louis, being a matter solely of ecclesiastical right and organization, is conclusive
on the civil tribunals, and must be adopted by them.

“'Jhat even if this court had felt authorized to review or control the action of
the General Assembly in respect to such questions, its action in these matters
would ltave been sustained as lawful, and in entire conformity with the consti¬
tution of the Presbyterian Church.”

The great and conclusive feature of this opinion is, that the judgments of ec¬
clesiastical courts are conclusive in their own sphere, and not to be interfered
with by civil tribunals, aud that the determination of the highest court of a
church, as to courts and members below, and who are and are not such, is con¬
clusive. It is the prerogative of the General Assembly to decide who are in
connection with it. It is not the province of the State to review, or hear appeals
from such decisions. If it were, the church has lost its spiritual independence,
and is bound, hand and foot, to the State.

The Walnut Street Church case of Louisville appears at first to have been
decided in the same way, in favor of the body adhering to the Assembly.
Here the question was, who were true elders of that church? those adhering to
the Assembly, or those disobeying its orders, and withdrawing from its jurisdic¬
tion? On appeal, the higher court reversed the judgment of the lower, and de¬
cided in favor of the Declaration and Testimony appellants. Meanwhile the case
was brought before the United States Court which, like the Supreme Court of
Missouri, decided in favor of the adherents of the Assembly. At this stage, the
seceders invoked the interposition of the Louisville Chancery Court, which gave
the decision referred to at the head of this article, denied the jurisdiction of the
Federal court, and awarded the property to the seceders. If this is persisted in,
we doubt not the United States Supreme Court will set all right. The ground
taken in this decision is, that “a claim of eldership asserted, involves a claim to
the right of control, use, and management of the church property, and that far
and no farther have the civil tribunals, etc. ... If not elders, they had no such
right, and in determining whether they were or were not elders, the civil court
was forced to look into the form of church government to see if the rules gov¬
erning its action had been complied with . . . to adjudge who are, and who are not
elders.” That is, when the General Assembly representing the whole church,
and its supreme authority, has decided which of the two sets of claimants are
true elders, the courts of Kentucky are to review their proceedings and judg¬
ments, and if they can find any thing therein, which stems to them contrary to
the Presbyterian standards, they are to set aside the ecclesiastical judgment, and
declare them no elders. Such a doctrine would render every ecclesiastical de¬
cision — Congregational, Episcopal, Papal, Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist — a
nullity. An appeal, under pretext of litigating civil rights, would lie from
all their decisions to the civil tribunals. True, the court must find who are
elders. But how ? Plainly by finding who have been constituted or decided
to be such by the proper ecclesiastical body. And if they are adjudged
elders by the body having jurisdiction in the premises, there is an end of
the matter. Otherwise, religious independence and church authority are at
an end.

This is not altered by the decision in the great Presbyterian Church case

1870.]

Notices of Recent Publications.

179

in 183S. The issue then was, which was the true General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church — the true supreme tribunal. This required to be de¬
termined. It could turn on nothing else than the question, which was regularly
and constitutionally established? But when this was ascertained, no court
has undertaken to review the action of this supreme tribunal, to ascertain
whether such action is ecclesiastically valid — whether those whom it decides
to be elders are such. This field of judicial investigation and authority has
not been claimed by civil courts, until recently. It cannot be conceded with¬
out a struggle.

Our Creeds. A Sermon preached in the Collegiate Reformed Dutch
Church , New York , October, 1809. By James M. Ludlow, one of
the Pastors of the Church. Printed by order of the Consistory.
Ne>v York : Sutton, Bowne & Co. 1869.

A timely and wholesome discourse, which we are glad the young pastor was
moved to preach, and the venerable Consistory to publish in exquisite style.
The historical account given in it of the genesis and uses of the great symbols
of the church, ending with the Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms, is per¬
spicuous and earnest. And we hope the closing exhortation to the adherents of
each to “stand together in nearer sympathy and mutual co-operation," will not
be lost.

Plans of Systematic Beneficence , prepared for theme of the Churches , by
a Special Committee of the General Assembly of 1869. Presbyte¬
rian Board of Publication.

This is a carefully elaborated document, containing a great variety of plans for
promoting systematic and increased giving in our church. We are glad that
they will be furnished gratuitously to congregations applying for them. They
ought to be sown broadcast throughout the whole church. We are well aware
that no plans can be successful unless actuated and inspired by living piety. On
the other hand, good working plans greatly facilitate and augment the contri¬
butions of Christian benevolence.

Two Letters on Causation and Freedom in Willing , addressed to John
Stuart Mill; with an Appendix on the Existence of Matter, and on
our Notions of Infinite Space. By Rowland G. Hazard, author of
“Language,” “Freedom of the Mind in Willing,” etc. Boston:
Lee & Shepard. 1869.

Mr. Hazard is, we believe, a civilian of some prominence, residing in the State
of Rhode Island, He has long shown a taste and aptitude for metaphysical
studies, the fruits of which have already appeared in volumes that have attracted
considerable attention. His work on “Freedom of Mind in 'Willing,” along with
another on the same subject, by Dr. Whedon, was reviewed in an extended arti¬
cle in the October number of this journal for 1804 In that review it was shown
that the author, on the one hand, appeared to admit and insist that the miud in
willing is guided by its intelligence and its wants or desires, and, though deter¬
mining itself freely, determines itself none the less, as it pleases, in accordance
with its wants and conditions; while yet, on the contrary side, he carried the
absolute autonomy of the will to the extreme of putting its volitions beyond the
reach of the Divine foreknowledge.

180

Notices of Recent Publications. [January,

In the two letters to Mr. Mill which swell out to this good sized volume,
while he justly redargues the idealistic materialism and fatalism of that renowned
and acute writer, he sets in opposition to them the views of his previous work
on the will, many of them just, but sometimes verging to the extreme just in¬
dicated.

In the paper “ On the Existence of Matter” he virtually takes ground against
its existence. His concluding words are, “ That the changes in our sensations
are, in all cases, caused by intelligent effort within or without us, in neither case
requiring the existence of matter as a distinct entity to account for the phenom¬
enon, nor furnishing any proof or indication of such existence.” — P. 273.

His reasonings take for granted that all our cognition of matter is in a change
of sensations within us. He ignores any direct and immediate perception of ex¬
ternality and external objects, such as every human being is conscious of, with
a certainty as complete as we have of our sensations, or of ourselves. It is quite
as reasonable to deny the Ego as the non-Ego. If we must enter on this annihil¬
ating process, we think our true goal will be the nihilism of Mr. Mill, who
attenuates and volatilizes both mind and matter into mere “ permanent possibili¬
ties of sensations.” For ourselves, if we had reduced matter to a nonentity, we
should hardly think it worth while to attempt to preserve spirit and its preroga¬
tives. We have no evidence of the existence of mind stronger than that for
the existence of matter.

1870.]

Literary Intelligence.

181

Art. X.— LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

GERMANY.

No other recent theological production has caused as much sensation in Ger¬
many as an article which appeared a few months since in the Augsburg Allge-
meine Zeitung, entitled “Das Concil und die Civiitd,” and which has since been
expanded and published in a volume (pp. xix., 450) with the title “ Der Papst
und das Concil.” It appears anonymously, the author assuming the pseudonym
“Janus.” It has already been published in England in a translation, and is there
attracting great attention. It is written in the interest of the so-called “ liberal ”
Catholicism, and exposes and denounces the doctrines and policy of the Jesuitical
and ultramontane party with extraordinary ability, point, and learning. Hun¬
dreds of foot-notes refer to the literature and the authoritative documents of the
church, and show how wide is the departure of the assailed party and tendency
in Catholicism from the doctrine and practice of early Christianity. The first
division of the book (pp. 8-37) relates to the proposed elevation of the proposi¬
tions of the Pope’s syllabus to the position of dogmas of the church. The
second section (pp. 37-40) discusses the proposed development of Mariolatry,
in the assertion of the assumption into heaven of the body of the Virgin Mary.
The remainder is devoted to the proposed authoritative declaration of Papal
infallibility. The doctrine of the early church (presented, of course, from a Cath¬
olic point of view) in respect to the simple primacy of the Bishop of Rome is set
forth with great fulness and variety of illustration, and then the successive steps
by which the Papacy was built up are clearly traced. The falsification of prim¬
itive documents, early undertaken in the interest of Romish claims and as¬
sumptions, the “ magnificent fabrications ’’ of the Decretals of Isidorus, and
their influence from the middle of the ninth century, the decree of Gratian
about the middle of the twelfth, the various assumptions of power by Gregory
VII., Innocent III., etc., the services rendered by the great monastic orders
in their turn, and especially the Jesuits, the occasional protests and oppositions
in the church to these novel doctrines and usages — all this, and much more, is
presented with a most masterly and unsparing hand. Modern interpretations
of Scripture (i. e., the Papist) are exhibited in most significant and effective
contrast with those of the Greek and Roman fathers, and the ingenuity and un¬
scrupulousness with which history has been falsified at every critical point are
set forth with great plainness of speech and ample illustration. The consequences
to many unfortunate Popes of the past, if the doctrine of Papal infallibility should
be made a dogma, are so presented that one would think that the kind, tender¬
hearted Pius IX. would beg his zealous bishops not thus to defame and hold up
to ridicule his illustrious predecessors, and to spare him what the future may
yet have for him.

182 Literary Intelligence. [Jan u art,

The hopeless and pitiable attitude of the Council itself, if the ultramontane
spirit rules it, is not the least telling point in this remarkable hook.

As a contribution to church history it is a monograph of great value. It
secures our warmest sympathy as a high-toned, eloquent, profoundly learned
and intensely earnest protest against a monstrous error, threatening society as
well as the church. Within about twenty-four years this reactionary movement
has acquired a great momentum. As Protestants, we might perhaps rejoice to
see every one of its demands granted by the Council, and the Papacy involved
in all the natural and just results of such a course : as lovers of truth we would
not see even Rome take one more false step, either to save or to complete her
consistency, or for any other purpose whatsoever.

Not a few other books and pamphlets have appeared on the same general
subject, or some of its kindred. We have, however, seen none that approaches
this in power and value. It is republished by Roberts Brothers, Boston.

The most important contribution of the last quarter in the department of dog¬
matic theology is Part I. of Rothe’s Dogmatik, edited by Schenkel, from manu¬
scripts left by the author. The volume just issued (pp. 325, 8vo) treats of “The
Consciousness of Sin.” Other works in this department are “Theology of the Old
Testament: Revealed Religion in the Ani e-Christian Stage of its Development”
(vol. i.), by Hermann Schultz (Prof, at Basle); H. Plitt’s “ Zinzendorf ’s Theol¬
ogy" (vol. i.), treating of “ Zinzendorf ’s Original Sound Doctrine ; ” 0. Fliigel’s
“Das Wuuder und die Erkennbarkeit Gottes; ” Prof. W. G. Schmidt’s (of Leipsic)
“ Doctrine of the Epistle of James — a Contribution to the Theology of the New
Testament;” H. Ritter’s “Evil and its Consequences.” From closely-related
departments we select W. Otto’s “Evangelical Practical Theology” (vol. i.) ; a
second edition of Prof. C. L. W. Grimm’s “Institutio Theologiae Dogmatic*
Evangelic* Historico-Critica ;” “The Christian’s Faith and Life,” posthumous
sermons by C. Harms; an eighth edition of Hagenbach’s “Methodology;” P.
Zimmermann’s “Immortality of the Soul in Plato's Phaedo E. Buchholz’s
“ Moral View of the World in Pindar and ASschylus;” Vol. I., Part 2, of Alex,
von Oettingen’s “ Moral Statistics and Christian Ethics,” containing an analysis
of the data, and a tabular supplement of 176 tables.

Among the late contributions to ecclesiastical and religious history we find
Forster’s “ Chrysostom in his Relation to the Antiochene School ;” Dr. E. Sachau’s
edition and version of “ Syriac Fragments of Theodore of Mopsuesta, found in
Nitrian Manuscripts in the British Museum;” Vol. VII., Part 1, of Hefele’s “His¬
tory of Councils,” containing the history of the Council of Constance; Baumgar-
ten’s “ Twelve Lectures on Church History, in Illustration of the Present State
of the Church ;” and Schiefner’s translation from the Thibetan of Taranatha’s
“ History of Buddhism in India.”

In exegesis very little calls for our notice. We record Moll’s “Commentary
on the Psalms ” (in Lange's Bibelwerk), vol. i. ; Neteler’s “ Structure of the
Book of Isaiah, as a Basis for its Exposition, etc.;’’ “A Practical Exposition of
Paul’s Epistle to the Colossians,” by Prof. Thomasius, of Erlangen ; Seydel’s
“ Prophecy of Obadiah;” Stein’s “ Talmudic Terminology, compiled and alpha¬
betically arranged;” the third edition of the “Commentary on Job," in the
Kurzyef. exeg. Handb. zum A. T. (previously edited by Hirzel and J. Olshausen),
revised by Prof. Dillmann, who succeeds Hengsienberg at Berlin.

In philosophy we find Vol. II. of Baumann’s “Doctrines of Space, Time, and

1870.]

Literary Intelligence.

1S3

Mathematics in Modern Philosophy,” Perty’s “Mature in the Light of Philo¬
sophical Contemplation;” Biedermann’s “Kant’s Kritik and Hegel’s Logic in
their Significance with respect to the Science of Thought;” J. G. Meyer’s “Kant’s
Psychology;” Hermann’s “ Philosophy of History;” Geiger’s “Origin of Lan¬
guage;” Frohscliammer’s “ Right of Private Judgment;” and Menzel's “Kritik
des modernen Zeitbewusstseins.” Several works of considerable interest and
importance in philology and archaeology are to be found among the quarter’s
issues, such as Lorinser’s translation and interpretation of the “Bhagavad-Gita;”
Vol. IL of A. Weber’s “Indische Streifen;” Lauer’s “Grammar of the Classic
Armeniau Language Schroder’s “ Phoenician Language L. Meyer’s “Gothic
Language;” Zschokke’s “ Institutiones Fundamentales Linguae Arabic®;” Yol.
III., Part 2 (the conclusion), of Koch’s very valuable “ Historical Grammar of the
English Language;” C. F. W. Muller’s “ Prosody of Plautus;” Vol. II. of Halm's
edition of “Quintilian;” Vol. I. of a new edition of Overbeck’s “Grecian Plastic
Art;’’ Madsen’s “ Antiquites Prehistoriques du Danemark, l’Age de la Pierre;”
and Part 1 of Eisenlohr’s “ Analytic Interpretation of the Demotic Part of the
celebrated Rosetta Inscription.”

There remain on our list, Vol. II. of the German (enlarged) edition of the “Life
of Bunsen;” “Humboldt’s Letters to Bunsen;” Vol. II., Part 2 (conclusion) of
Strodtmanu’s “Life and Works of H. Heine;” Part 1 of Hoffmann’s “ History of
the Jesuits;” Vol. III. of Pertz’s “Life of Field-marshal Gneisenau;” 3d and 4th
Books of Part 2 of Klippel’s “Life of General Von Scharnhorst ;” Bengel’s “Ta¬
ble-talk,” edited by Ehmann ; a monograph by Hetzel on “ Capital Punishment in
its Relation to the History of Civilization;” and Passarge’s German translation of
the “Narrative of the Swedish Expeditions to the Arctic Regions in 1861, 1864,
and 1863.”

FRANCE.

In France, even more than in Germany, the Ecumenical Council and its various
relations to religious and political questions have called forth no small number of
treatises, more or less elaborate and valuable. Of this theologico-political char¬
acter are Deschamps’ “ L’Infallibilite et le Concile General ;” Stap’s “ L’lmmaculee
Conception;” Jaugey’s “Le Concile;” Michon’s “Le Concile et la Science Mo-
derne;” Bobart’s “ Le Sanctuaire;” Maret’s “ Du Concile General et de la Paix
Religieuse;” Perrot’s “Le Libre Examenet la Presse;” Regis’ “Le Christianisme
et la Papaute au Moyen Age;” Sauvage’s “La Clerge et la Democratic ;” Fer-
rari's “ Summa Institutionum Canonicarum ;” and Desjardins’ “Le Pouvoir Civil
au Concile de Trente.” These are but samples.

Among the works more nearly related to theology as a science are Auber-
tin's “ Seneqtie et Saint-Paul ;" Schcebel’s “Demonstration de 1’ Authenticity Mo-
sai'que du Levitique et des Nombres;” Trognon's “L’Apatre Saint-Paul;”
Bois’ “ Evangile et Liberte;” Pressense’s “La Vraie Liberte;” Lambert’s
“L’Homme Primitif et la ible;” Le Lievre’s “ La Science et la Foi;” Lenor-
mant’s “ De la Divinite du Christianisme dans les Rapports avec l’Histoire ;”
Ravelet’s “Traitedes Congregations Religieuses;” and Lefranc’s “ De l’Esprit
Hoderne.”

In church history we find Jelian’s “ Le Christianisme dans les Gaules” (which
evidently lias at least one eye turned toward questions in which France is con¬
cerned with the Pope); Pilliers’ “Les Benedictins de la Congregations de

1S4 Literary Intelligence. [January,

France;" De Montalembert’s “ Les Moines en Gaule sous les Premiers Merovin-
giens;” Darras’ “Histoire Generale de l’Eglise” (which at least promises to be
voluminous) Part 12; and Vol. IV. of D’Haussouville's ‘‘L’Eglise Romaine et
le Premier Empire."

From the department of general history and biography we select Vol. VII. of
Mortimer Ternaux’ “Histoire de la Terreur;’’ Capeflgue’s “ Clovis et les Mero-
vingiens;” Leveque's “ Recherches sur l’Origine des Gaulois;” Garat’s “ Ori-
gines des Basques de France et d’Espagne;” Jolly’s “Philippe le Bel;” Cava
lier’s “ Histoire de France depuis Louis XIV. ;’’ Vol. V. of Sauzay’s “ Histoire de
la Persecution Revolutionnaire dans le Departement de Doubs ;” Vol. VIII. of
Gabourd’s “ Histoire Contemporaine.” Also, Vol. I. of Gauthier’s “Histoire de
Marie Stuart;’’ Desnoiresterres’ “Voltaire a la Cour;” two works on the philoso¬
pher Porlalis — Lavollee’s “ Portalis, sa Vie et ses CEuvres,” and Fregier’s “ Porta-
lis, Philosophe Chretien ;” Colombel-Gabourd’s “ Vie de Saint Charles Borromee ;”
Dourlens’ “ M. de Montalembert ;” Vol. I., Part 1, of “ La Vie et les Ouvrages de
Denis Papin,” by La Soussaye and Pean ; Biart’s “Benito Vasquez;” and Bolana-
chi’s “ Precis de l’Histoire de Crete.”

The most elaborate philosophical work of the quarter is Fouillee’s “ La Phi¬
losophic de Platon” (2 vols., 8vo). Among the works belonging to this depart¬
ment, with that of political science, we find Robidon’s “Republique de Platon;”
De la Gneronniere’s “La Politique Nationale;” Midy’s “La Regime Constitu-
tionnel;” Vols. V. and VI. of Clement’s edition of “Colbert’s Letters, etc. ;” Caze-
nove’s “La Guerre et l'Humanite au XIX,ne Steele;” Duval’s “ Memoire sur
Antoine de Montchretien” (author of the first treatise on political economy) ”
Bergmann's “ Resume d’Etudes d'Ontologie Generate.”

We complete our survey for the quarter with Smolka’s “ Autriche et Russie ;”
Girard’s “France et Chine;” Bourlot’s “Histoire de l’Homme Prehistorique;”
Beauvois’ “Les Antiquite’s Primitives de la Norvige;” Vol. II., Part 3, of Bour-
lier’s “ Recherches sur la Monnaie Romaine ;” a new edition of Ampere’s “ His¬
toire de la Formation de la Langue Framjaise;” Reaume's “Les Prosateurs Fran-
(^ais du XVIme Siecle;" Vol. II. of Dumeril’s “Histoire de la Comedie An-
cienne;" Egger’s “La Hellenisme en France” (2 vols., 8vo) ; and Vidal’s “Ju¬
venal et ses Satires.”

From Holland two late publications possess more than ordinary interest — a
new translation of the New Testament from the original, made under the au¬
spices of the General Synod of the Reformed Church of the Netherlands, and ac¬
companied by introduction, tables of contents, parallel passages, etc., (royal 8vo,
pp. 575); and Part 2 of the “History of the Christian Church in the Nether¬
lands,” by Prof. Haar and Wm. Moll, with the co-operation of Prof. Hofstede do
Groot (8vo, pp. viii. and 715); Vol. II., Part 3, of Moll’s “Church History of
the Netherlands before the Reformation" is also out (8vo, xiv., 37G); and
Kovacs’ “ Protestantism in Hungary during the past Twenty Years (Introduc¬
tion by Kuenen).”

ENGLAND.

Bishop Wordsworth’s Commentary is pushed rapidly onward toward comple
tion — Part 2 of Vol. V. contains the books of Jeremiah, Lamentations, and
Ezekiel. Of the Collins Commentary a new volume has also just been issued —
Vol. II., containing the books of the Old Testament from Joshua to Esther, with

1870.]

185

Literary Intelligence.

notes by Dr. Jamieson; anew “ Commentary on the Book of Job,” by Rev. J. N.
Coleman; Dr. Wardlaw’s “Lectures on Ecclesiastes;” Littledale’s “ Commentary
on the Song of Songs;” a third edition of Dr. Lightfoot’s excellent “Commen¬
tary on Galatians;” Dr. H inna’s “Close of our Lord’s Ministry:” a transla¬
tion of Dr. W. Hoffman’s “ Prophecies of our Lord and his Apostles a continu¬
ation of Bonar’s “Light and Truth; Bible Thoughts and Themes” (based on
the Epistles); Bishop Wilberforce’s “Heroes of Hebrew History;” Pounds'
“Story of the Gospels;” Henderson’s “Dictionary of Scripture Names;”
Birks’ “The Pentateuch and its Anatomists;” new editions of Rev. Isaac Wil¬
liams’ “ Characters of the Old Testament," and “ Female Characters of Holy
Scripture;” Saphir “On the Lord’s Prayer;” Whitfield’s “Christ in the Word;”
the B.impton Lectures for 1869, by Dr R. Payne Smith, on “Prophecy a Prep¬
aration for Christ,” and Lightfoot’s “ Epistles of Clement of Rome to the Corin¬
thians,” belong, by closer or more remote affinity, to the same general depart¬
ment.

Among the later issues in Doctrinal and Practical Theology are the following :
Field’s “Student’s Handbook of Christian Theology” (Wesleyan); Garbett’s
“Soul’s Life — its Commencement, Progress, and Maturity; ” Bartle’s “ Scriptural
Doctrine of Hades ;” T. Y. French’s “ Old Commandment New and True in
Christ;” Westcott’s “Christian Life, Manifold and One;” “Our Common Faith,”
a volume of Essays by such men as Bishop Alexander, Dean Mansel. Dr. Hanna,
Dr. Vaughan, Prof. W. L. Alexander; Hunt’s “History of Religious Thought
in England from the Reformation to the End of the last Century ;” Burgess’
“ Reformed Church of England;” a translation of some of Lacordaire’s Discourses
or *’ Conferences,” delivered at Notre Dame, under the title, “Jesus Christ;”
Vol. II. of Tnman’s “Ancient Faiths embodied in Ancient Names;” and Yol. III.
of Bunsen’s “God in History.”

Among the recent contributions to ecclesiastical literature and church his¬
tory we find De Pressense’s “Early Years of Christianity;” “Ecclesin, or
Church Problems,” considered by various writers (the general editor being Dr.
Reynolds, President of Cheshunt College); Vols. III. and IY. of Dr. Stoughton's
“ Ecclesiastical History of England;” “The English Church Canons of 1604,”
with historical introduction, etc., by Rev. C. H. Davis; “First Book of Common
Prayer of Edward VI., and the Ordinal of 1549, etc.,’’ edited by Rev. H. B. Wal¬
ton; “Review of Mariolatry, Liturgical, Devotional, Doctrinal;” and Marriott's
“Vestments of the Church.”

Arnot’s “ Life of Dr. James Hamilton ” is just ready for publication ; likewise
Prof. Maurice’s “Lectures on Morality;” Vols. VII. and VIII. of the Sunday
Library are Maclear’s “ Apostles of Mediaeval Europe,” and T. Hughes’ “ Alfred
the Great.” A second series of Dr. Butler’s “ Harrow School Sermons ” is just
published ; also a volume entitled “ Foreign Protestant Pulpit,” containing
twenty-eight sermons from the most distinguished preachers of France, Swit¬
zerland, Germany, and Holland.

In Bohn’s Classical Library a new edition of the “Thoughts of Marcus Aure¬
lius Antoninus,” in Long’s translation, is one of the latest issues. Mr. Long
notices the American reprint of his first edition, and its dedication by the Ameri¬
can publisher to an American, and says that he has never dedicated a book to
any man, and adds — “ I would dedicate it to him who led the Confederate armies
agaiust the powerful invader, and retired from an unequal contest, defeated but

186

Literary Intelligence.

[Jan., 1870.

not dishonored — to the noble Virginian soldier, whose talents and virtues place
him by the side of the best and wisest man that ever sat on the throne of the
imperial Caesars.”

In philosophy, philology, and politics we find Sir A. J. E. Cockburn’s “Na¬
tionalities;” Burgess’ “Relation of Language to Thought;” Semple’s transla¬
tion of Kant’s “Metaphysics of Ethics,” with a preface by Prof Calderwood, of
Edinburgh: R. ’Williams’ translation of “ Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics;”
Reichel’s translation of Zeller’s “Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics;” a new edi¬
tion of Shaftesbury’s “Characteristics;” a new volume by P. W. Farrar, entitled
“Families of Speech;” and Vol. I. of Ferrar’s “Comparative Grammar.”

In history and the kindred departments we find announced a new edition of
Sir John Lubbock’s “Prehistoric Times;” Vol. T. of the translation of Lenor-
mant’s admirable “History of the East” (American publishers, J. B. Lippincott
& Co); Vol. III. of Freeman’s “ History of the Norman Conquest;” Vol. VIII. of
Dean Hook’s “Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury;” Cobbe’s “History of
the Norman Kings of England;” J. R. Andrews’ “Life of Oliver Cromwell;”
J. F. Nicholls’ “Life of Sebastian Cabot;” A. J. Patterson’s “Magyars, their
Country and its Institutions;” Dickson’s “Japan;” Petherick’s “Travels in
Central Africa;” “Life of the Sculptor Gibson;” “Life and Letters of Faraday,”
by Dr. Bence Jones; Scott’s “Life and Works of Albert Durer;” “Life and
Remains of Dr. Robert Lee, of Edinburgh ;” and Krummacher’s “ Autobiography”
(American publishers, R. Carter & Bros.)

“ The Letters of Sir George Cornwall Lewis;” the “ Poems and Prose Remains
of A. H. Clough;” “Scotland, Social and Domestic,” by Charles Rogers; F. W.
Newman’s “Miscellanies;” and three new versions of portions of Horace — the
“ Odes and Epoles,” by Lord Lytton, the “First Baok of Satires” by Milling¬
ton. and the “ Satires and Epistles,” by the lamented Prof. Couington, of Oxford,
must close our present summary.