THE BOOK WAS
DRENCHED
gj<OU1 60620 >m
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY
OF
ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
RESEARCHES INTO THE DOMAIN OF THE
EARLY SCIENCES, ESPECIALLY FROM THE PERIOD OF
THE REVIVAL OF SCHOLASTICISM, WITH BIOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER
ACCOUNTS OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS
THROUGHOUT THE MIDDLE AGES
COMPILED BY
PAUL FLEURY MOTTELAY, Ph.D.
AUTHOR OP~^
"GILBERT OF COLCHESTER," "THE BIBLIOGRAPHY or ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY," ETC.
WITH INTRODUCTION BY THE LATE
PROF. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.
AND FOREWORD BY
SIR R. T. GLAZEBROOK, K.G.B., D.Sc., F.R.S.
" Historia, quoquo modo scripta delectat."— Pliny.
" Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas."— Virgil.
"II importe beaucoup de connaltre 1'histoire de la science & laquelle on
s'attache. —-£loge de Botrhaave.
"It is of great advantage to the student of any subject to read in the
original memoirs on that subject, for science is always most completely
assimilated when it is found in its nascent state. Every student of science
should, in fact, be an antiquary in his subject."—/. Clerk Maxwtlt.
" Les tatonnements de nos pred£cesseurs nous apprennent & marcher avec
plus de sdrete, et Ton ne sail jamais mieux conduire la science en avant que
forsqu'on sail le chemin qu'elle a parcouru jusqu'a nous." — J. P, JRossignol.
WITH FRONTISPIECE AND PLATES
LONDON
CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY LIMITED
12 EXETER STREET, STRAND, W.C. 2
1922
[All rights
PRINTED IN GREAT BBITAIN BY
RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITKD,
BUNUAY. SUFFOLK.
PORTRAIT OF
TIIH AUTHOR
TAKEN FOR
A r\SSl'OKI TO rRANCE
\ I I \V \\ I !• KS
BE1-ORE HIS DEATH
FOREWORD .
SIR RICHARD T. GLAZEHROOK, K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Past President of the Institute of Electrical Engineers
and late Director of the- National Physical Laboratory
Tins splendid volume has a tragic story. Dedicated to Lord
Kelvin, it opens with an introduction by »Silvanus Thompson and
a preface by the distinguished author who himself passed from us
before the book containing- the fruit of many years of toil was ready
for issue.
And what toil ! A Bibliographical History of Klectricity and
Magnetism covering 4458 years, from 26^7 u.c., when Iloang-Ti,
Emperor of China, is said to have directed the pursuit of his troops
after a rebellious subject by the aid of the compass, up to Christmas
Day, A.D. 1821, when Faraday first caused a wire carrying a cur-
rent to rotate in a magnetic field.
The early centuries are passed over quickly. Homer's name
occurs with quotations from the Odrsser :
<: In wondums ships self-mov'd, instinct with mind,
No helm secures their course, no pilot guides ;
Like men intelligent, they plough the tides/'
Does this mean that the Greeks knew of the compass? The
author is doubtful.
FOREWORD
Thales, 600— 5«So BA\, the discoverer of frictional electricitv,
follows. The Crusaders wrote of the magnet. A facsimile page is
given of Vincent de Beauvais' Sfctnhiiii Natnralc, and Gauthier
d'Kspinois, wlio lived about A.D. 1250, sang" to his mistress :
"Tout autrcsi (ainsi) conime 1'aimant decjoit (detouinc)
L'aij4iilctte pas forte dc vcrtu
A ma cl.inic tot Ic niont (mondc) rclennuc
Oui ba beaute connoit et apcnjoit."
And \vhen one passes to more recent years, there is not a name
one knows omitted from the list. There are also many included
who all contributed in some way to the growth of natural know-
ledge, but who can only be known to the few, the very few, who
have burrowed in past records scattered far and wide with the
perseverance, the patience, and the skill of Dr. Mottelay.
And he has discovered interesting facts without number, and at
the same time has supported his case with full references to
original works. To the question, llow can \ find out what some
unknown writer- has written about Electricity r* there can in
future be but one answer: Look him up in Dr. Mottelay \s
llibliogyaphical Historv. Our debt to the author is no small one ;
our regrets that he is not here to be gratified by the reception his
book must meet with are deep and sincere.
The Great War delayed the issue of the book. The public arc
indebted to Messrs. C. Griffin & Co., Ltd., for bringing out a work
of the kind under the difficulties which all scientific publications
have met with since JQiS, and Dr. Mottelay reali/ed to the full the
value of the assistance they gave him. I trust with confidence
that electricians throughout the world (for the interest of the book
is world-wide) will not be slow to show their appreciation of the
work of all those who have combined to render them so marked
a service.
R. T. GLAXKBROOK.
TO
THE REVERED MEMORY
OF
LORD KELVIN
PREFACE
THE present work is the definitive edition of my " Chronological
History of Magnetism, Electricity and the Telegraph," which had
tentative publication (1891-1892) serially in four leading techno-
logical Journals, viz. " Engineering " of London, " The Electrical
World " of New York, " La Lumiere Electrique " of Paris, and
" L'lndustrie Moderne " of Brussels.
Since the time of that first publication, it has received a most
thorough revision of the original text, for correction of faults of form,
or of substance, suggested by learned critics conversant with the
history of electricity and magnetism; and there have been added
a very large number of new entries besides exhaustive notices of
the work done by Peregrinus, Gilbert, Oersted, Faraday and
other great pathfinders, also biographical and bibliographical notices
of all the prominent ancient writers mentioned in the original
compilation.
This bibliography commences B.C. 2637 — conclusively shown to
be the earliest date at which history notes anything resembling the
application of the magnetic influence — and it ends with Michael
Faraday, esteemed by Tyndall to be " the greatest experimental
philosopher the world has ever seen/' and who is held " to
have done more for the development of electrical science than
any other investigator." Thus is the chronological series shown
to cover 4458 years, being purposely made to terminate at A.D.
1820-1821 (Oersted, Ampe-re, Arago, Faraday, etc.), the culminat-
ing period when, through the splendid discovery of electro-
magnetism, the two immense groups of phenomena were first
linked together.
Besides the matter distinctly involved in the title of the new
work, it has been deemed advisable to note in this History all the
most important forms of the optical telegraph, or semeiograph.
Many of the ancient and historical methods for communicating
intelligence swiftly at great distances are noticed in their chrono-
logical order : doubtless, this will prove to the generality of readers
no less interesting than the vast multitude of curious facts pertaining
to the direct line of researches. An exhaustive cross-entry Index
vii
viii PREFACE
of Selected Names and Subjects, embracing fuller titles and much
additional data that could not well be entered into the body of
the work, will, for the first time, make this mass of historical data
readily accessible.
To bar controversies and partisan discussion as to the relative
merits of different discoverers and inventors, concerning which
authorities are at variance, it has been thought best to quote all
of the weightiest known authorities under the respective heads
and dates of the several claimants. To the would-be historian
and to the delving student, this will certainly appear the better
course. A case in point, and it is no uncommon one, attaches to
the invention of the mariner's compass, where that instrument
and its original employment in navigation are credited with equal
assurance to China, Iceland, France, England and Italy, by equally
eminent historians and scientists. And, as nearly all, except
the very earliest, discoveries of any high importance have already
been traced to their respective origins by many authors, additional
data have been gathered and quoted wherever such data seemed
deserving of more than the ordinary notices previously accorded
them in print, or where the peculiar nature of the discovery, or
the identity of its author, merited authentication to preclude doubt
or controversy.
The imusual number of cumulative references purposely given
throughout many entries (the most important of which were origin-
ally set in italics) cannot be seriously objected to, as they afford ready
means for making searches through different accessible channels,
covering various phases of a subject, and they facilitate the veri-
fication of all extracts and of all quoted passages. They likewise
effectually offset the likelihood of misprints necessarily attaching
to many of the authorities which are cited from, and which often
can be found solely in, rare early publications or in more or less
unintelligible manuscripts. Only those who have had to make
important searches through such can appreciate the difficulties
which continually beset the investigator. Many of "the older
serials likewise prove quite unreliable and disappointing, either
through wrong pagination or irregular and sometimes conflicting
dates of publication, as well as through the rearrangement or
redistribution of parts or series, at various periods and in different
volumes. This is the case, more particularly, with " Le Journal
des Savants " and with " The Philosophical Transactions/' as it
is also with many technical serial publications of various countries
which are referred to in the following pages,
In the Preface to his " Experimental Researches/1 the great
PREFACE ix
Faraday justly remarked that : " The date of a scientific paper
containing any pretensions to discovery is frequently a matter of
serious importance, and it is a great misfortune that there are
many most valuable communications, essential to the history and
progress of science, with respect to which this point cannot now be
ascertained. This arises from the circumstance of the papers
having no dates attached to them individually, and of the Journals
in which they appear having such as are inaccurate, i. e. dates of
a period earlier than that of publication."
Of the aforenamed serials, the very important " Philosophical
Transactions " have doubtless been most frequently alluded to
herein, both in their original and abridged forms, and, for that
reason, the assistance of representatives of the Royal Society has
been sought in order to give a proper account to date, showing
the difficulties which have throughout been encountered by its
many successive editors. It will be seen, at pages 546-547, that
there were numerous irregularities in the publication of the un-
abridged series from the initial date of 1665, only seven numbers
having been issued from 1679 to 1682, whilst neither numbers nor
volumes appeared between 1688 and 1690, and that, through lax
editing, various numbers were often, during subsequent years,
assigned to volumes differently designated. In the many abridged
reports, irregularities are still greater, as shown at pages 547-548.
During 1721, Motte edited " an abridgment, 1700-1720, in three
volumes which was very incorrect " (" Diet. Nat. Biog.," Vol. XXXIX.
p. 194). The six volumes of 1720-1732 also appeared in two
volumes, published 1733. The two volumes of 1719-1733 con-
tained an " Index to the previous seven volumes " by different
authors. This was made up by John Martyn, who published in
five volumes an abridgment of the Transactions for 1719-1750,
which he had previously issued in three sets of two volumes each.
Mr. Samuel H. Scudder's remarks as to various discrepancies are
worthy of notice. He says (" Cat. of Scient. Serials/' 1879, P- 27)
that " the Philosophical Transactions Abridged have been very
irregularly issued. The first five volumes went through several
editions. (from five to two, according to the volume) between 1705
and 1781; the later volumes through only one, 1734-1756." He
adds : " There is a strange discrepancy here, the fourth edition of
the first volume being sometimes dated 1731, sometimes 1781,
and sometimes 1782, whilst the fifth edition of volumes one to three is
dated 1749; the eighth volume is again sometimes dated 1734,
sometimes 1747."
Were I to indite an apologia for the present work, I could not
x PREFACE
hope to express it more happily than does Mr. J. J. Fahie in the
preface to his " History of Wireless Telegraphy, 1838-1899 " ; or,
I might adopt the words of two of the most learned French authors
of the day :
" Si je donne ces details, nouveaux, ou peu connus, c'est qu'il
est toujours int6ressant de remonter & Torigine et au developpement
successifdes inventions.1' (M. Berthelot, in the " Comptes Rendus.")
" S'il n'y a pas beaucoup de gens qu'elles int£ressent, il y en a
qu'elles int£ressent beaucoup. A ceux-ci, nous avons, en r6di-
geant ces notes, eu I'intention et l'esp£rance de venir quelquefois
en aide. Tout catalogue a des points obscurs, m£me les meilleurs.
. . . L'office propre, le devoir de la critique, est de rechercher si
ces points obscurs ne pourraient pas £tre eclaires par quelque
lumifire. II est vrai qu'elle y perd sou vent sa peine. Mais cela
ne doit jamais la d£courager." (M. Haureau, in " Le Journal des
Savants.")
I am especially thankful for the warm encouragement which
I have received, on all sides, since the original work appeared in
serial form. This History has been frequently called for, and I
regret that I have been hitherto prevented from bringing it out
earlier in its present desirable book form. This is the more to be
regretted as it long ago received the practical endorsement of the
doyen of the electrical profession, Lord Kelvin (formerly styled
Sir William Thomson), to whom it is dedicated. Leave to do this
was obtained through a mutual friend in such a cordial manner
that I cannot refrain from giving the correspondence attaching
thereto :
Westminster Chambers,
London, S.W.,
January 4, 1894.
" DEAR MOTTELAY,
" I duly received yours of the 2ist . . . but the point
on which I feel guilty is your dedication. ... I have now started
the matter by writing to Lord Kelvin fully on the subject, and I
hope, within a week, to get his reply, which I shall at once send
to you — he cannot possibly wish to decline the honour. . . .
" I remain,
" Yours very truly,
" LATIMER CLARK."
PREFACE xi
Westminster Chambers,
London, S.W.,
January 13, 1894.
" DEAR MOTTELAY,
" Lord Kelvin's letter is so nice a one that I send you the
original, otherwise I should have liked it as an autograph for rny
library. I shall be glad to hear that it has duly reached you. . . .
" Yours very truly,
" LATIMER CLARK."
The University,
Glasgow,
January n, 1894.
" DEAR CLARK,
" Your letter of the 4th should have been answered sooner,
but for my absence from home at the time it came.
" Will you tell Mr. Mottelay that I shall feel honoured by his
dedicating his " Chronological History of Electricity and Mag-
netism " to me, and express to him my thanks for his kind proposal
to do so.
" Yours very truly,
" KELVIN."
I desire to record my great indebtedness to Dr. Silvanus P.
Thompson, D.Sc., F.R.S., for the interest he has throughout mani-
fested in, and the material aid he has given to, the improvement
and development of the present work. Especial acknowledgment
is made of Dr. Thompson's personal revision of the articles on
Petrus Peregrinus (at A.D. 1269), on William Gilbert (at A.D. 1600),
and on Michael Faraday (at A.D. 1821). With all of these authors,
he has become very prominently identified through the several
special publications concerning them, which have been issued by
him at different periods, and all of which are herein noticed in
their proper order.
Thanks are likewise due, and are also by me hereby tendered,
more particularly to Dr. Elihu Thomson, of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology; to Dr. J. A. Fleming, M.A., F.R.S. ; to
Mr. W. D. Weaver, late Editor of the " Electrical World " ; to
Mr, Wm. J. Hammer, representative of Mr. Thomas A. Edison;
to Mr. A. Hastings White, assistant-librarian, Royal Society,
London; to Messrs. Charles Spon and Louis H. Walter, M.A. ;
to Messieurs Henri Omont, Bibliothdque Nationale; Paul Marais,
Biblioth£que Mazarine; Henri Martin, BibliothSque de 1' Arsenal;
xii PREFACE
Am&le'e Boinet, Biblioth&que Ste. Genevi&ve ; Messieurs Plon Nourrit
et Cie ; as well as to Professors C. F. Bracket!, William Hallock and
Edward L. Nichols, of the Universities of Princeton, Columbia
and Cornell; also to Sir Arthur Schuster, Sir Edwin Durning-
Lawrence, Dr. Robert L. Mond, and Dr. Horace F. Parshall, for
many valuable suggestions and other aid given by all of them at
different periods to the material benefit of this compilation.
It is scarcely necessary adding that, notwithstanding the great
care given to the preparation of this very extensive Bibliography,
and to its difficult " proof " reading, errors will undoubtedly
present themselves. It is, however, hoped these will not prove of
material importance. Such mistakes as are of a typographical
nature can easily be recognized and in due time remedied; those,
however, resulting from the conflict of authorities are more difficult
to trace, and I shall greatly appreciate their being pointed out to
me, with the view to improving future editions.
P. FLEURY MOTTELAY.
INTRODUCTION
ANYONE who enters on the perilous paths of Bibliography realizes,
sooner or later, the truth that " of the making of books there is no
end" But there was a beginning : and if the Bibliography of
Electricity promises to stretch onward into the future in endless
line, at least its backward reach might seem to be finite in date.
Nevertheless, the student of the early periods of book production,
when the science of electricity was literally in that " infancy " from
which in our time it has emerged, is continually finding that there
are early works of which he was unaware, and of which even our best
libraries are destitute. He finds, as he progresses backward, toward
the origins of things, in how many points our ancestors in the domain
of electric science had anticipated the discoveries of later date. He
finds that, again and again, by some rare stroke of insight, the great
minds that had devoted themselves to the research of phenomena
had seen — it may be, with dim or imperfect glimpses — many of the
things which are commonly regarded as quite modern. The pioneer,
unbiased by the views of contemporary philosophers, unhampered
by the load of textbook tradition, often sees further than the pro-
fessed researcher who comes after him.
The art of scientific discovery — for it is an art — can be attained in
but one way, the way of attainment in all arts, namely, by practising
it. In the practice of art, the aspirant may at least learn something
that all the textbooks cannot drill out of him, and which will help
him in his practice, by the careful examination of the actual ways
in which the discoveries of science, now facts of history, were actually
made. But, to do this, he must throw overboard for a time the
systematic textbooks, he must abandon the logical expositions which
embody, at second hand, or at third hand, the antecedent dis-
coveries, and he must go to the original sources, the writings and
records of the discoverers themselves, and learn from them how they
set to work. The modern compendious handbooks in which the
results of hundreds of workers have been boiled down, as it were,
to a uniform consistency, is exactly the intellectual pabulum which
he must eschew. Let him read Faraday, not through the eyes of
Maxwell or of Tyndall, but in his own words in the immortal pages of
the " Experimental Researches," with their wealth of petty detail
xiv INTRODUCTION
and their apparent vagueness of speculation. Let him read Ohm's
own account of the law of the circuit, not some modern watered-down
version. Let him turn over the pages of Franklin's letters to Collin-
son, as his observations dropped red-hot out of the crucible of his
endeavours. Let him read Stephen Gray's charming experiments
in the old-world diction that befitted a pensioner of the Charter-
house. Let him go back to old Gilbert, who had talked with Drake
and Sir Walter Raleigh in the flesh, who had discussed magnetism
with Fra Paolo Sarpi and had experimented on the dip of the needle
with Robert Norman. Gilbert's account of his own experiments is
for the would-be scientific discoverer worth a hundredfold the
Novum Organon of the overpraised Francis Bacon. Nay, let him
go back to Peter Peregrinus, the soldier-pioneer, and see how he
experimented with floating lodestones before he penned his account
of the pivoted magnet — the earliest known instrument that can
rightly be called a mariner's compass. Not until he has thus become
a bit of an antiquary will be have fully understood how the dis-
coveries of old were made. And, in precisely the same spirit of
quest, though with the wealth of modern appliances at his command,
must he go to work, if new discoveries are to be made by him.
But, for all this, he needs a guide to tell him what are the records
of the original pioneers, by what names their works are called, and
where they can be found. Such a guide doubtless exists to some
extent in the mere catalogues of electrical literature, such as the
catalogue of the Ronalds1 Library at the Institution of Electrical
Engineers, in London; or, more fully, even, in the new Catalogue of
the Latimer Clark Library, now known as the Wheeler Collection, at
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, in New York. The
Chronological History of Electricity which Mr. P. F. Mottelay
contributed, week by week, to the columns of the " Electrical World "
and of " Engineering " in the years 1891-1892, was the beginning of
an attempt to provide an even more complete analysis of the earlier
literature of the subject. But these are only the beginnings.
In the "Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism,"
which Mr. Mottelay is now giving to the world, a far more exhaustive
and detailed account is rendered of the earlier workers and writers
in our dual science. He has particularly worked up all important
electrical channels, and in the more extended articles, some of which
it has been the writer 's privilege to peruse in advance, there are
presented valuable monographs dealing with particular workers who
each in his own day made notable contributions to the advance of
the science.
To all who would tread in their paths, and add something to the
INTRODUCTION xv
ever-widening domain of electrical discovery, this Bibliographical
History may be commended, not only for what it contains, but for
the appreciative spirit in which it brings before the reader the work
of those men who made the science what it is.
Pioneers ; O Pioneers !
SILVANUS P. THOMPSON.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
J»AOh.
FOREWORD BY SIR R. T. GLAZEBROOK, K.C.B., D.SC., F.R.S.
PREFACE < vii
INTRODUCTION, BY PROF. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.SC., F.R.S. . . xiii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix
CHRONOLOGICAL SECTION, B.C. 2637 TO A.D. 1821 . . . . I
APPENDIX I
ACCOUNTS OF EARLY WRITERS, NAVIGATORS AND OTHERS, ALLUDED TO
IN GILBERT'S DE MAGNETE 501
"THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS" 542
APPENDIX II
DISCOVERIES MADE BY WILLIAM GILBERT (DESIGNATED IN DE MAGNETE
BY LARGE ASTERISKS) 545
APPENDIX III
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNABRIDGED AND ABRIDGED EDITIONS
OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY "PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS"; ALSO,
OF THE "PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE" AND OF THE "JOURNAL
DBS SCAVANS — SAVANTS " 547
APPENDIX IV
NAMES OF ADDITIONAL ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETICAL WORKS, PUBLISHED
UP TO 1800 . 553
APPENDIX V
MERCATOR'S PROJECTION 559
GENERAL INDEX OF SELECTED AUTHORS AND SUBJECTS . . , 565
xvii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
ST. AUGUSTINE Frontispiece
" La Cite" de Dieu, translated et expose'e par Raoul de Presles." Taken
from the manuscript in the Musec de Chantilly, by permission of the
executors of Monsieur le Due d'Aumale.
Facing page
CAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS n
Page taken from the earliest known edition of the " Naturalis Historiae "
Venetiis, 1469, of which there are only three known original vellum copies.
These now are at Vienna, Ravenna and in the Bibliotheque Sainte
Genevieve, Paris.
ARISTOTLE 11
" De Natural! Auscultatione." Title-page of the Paris 1542 edition. This
belonged to Dr. William Gilberd, when at Cambridge, and is inscribed
with his name and with that of Archdeacon Thomas Drant. (From the
library of the late Silvanus P. Thompson).
GUIOT DE PROVINS 30
"La Bible." Page 93 verso of MS. Fr., No. 25405, Vaiiorum Pocmata, in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
VINCENT DE BEAUVAIS 33
"Speculum Naturale." Page taken from the (Argentorati) '1473 issue, la
premiere edition et la plus rare de tontes. In the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve,
Paris.
BRUNETTO LATINI 43
" Li Livres dou Tremor." Page taken from the XVth Century MS.
(originally copied by Jean du Quesne), No. 191, Trhor de Sapience, in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
DANTE ALIGHIERI 44
" La Divina Commedia/' Mantuae 1472, the first page of what is by many
regarded as the oldest edition of the earliest known poem written in the
Italian language. Now in the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, Paris.
PETRUS PEREGRINUS .46
"Epistola . . . de Magnete." The earliest known treatise of experimental
science. Original photographic reproduction of first page of the almost
illegible MS. No. 7378 A ; page 67 recto (embraced in a geometrical
treatise), now in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
PETRUS PEREGRINUS 52
Facsimile of Bodleian MS., No. 7027 (MS. Ashmole No. 1522), folio 186
verso, being Chap. II, Part II, of the " Epistola . . . de Magnete," wherein
is described the earliest known pivoted compass,
xix
xx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Faci
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS £*/*«» 64 amf 65
Photographic reproduction of his letter, March 21, 1502, to Ntcolo Oderigo,
Ambassador to France and to Spain, which was acquired by the King of
Sardinia and presented by him to the city of Genoa. It is now preserved
in the Palace of the Genoese Municipality.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS JBetwtett 64 out 6$
Translation of the letter written by him to Nicolo Oderigo, shown here
on opposite plate ; made into English by Mr. Geo. A. Barwick, B.A., of
the British Museum. Permission to copy both the original letter and its
translation was given by Messrs. B. F. Stevens and Brown, London.
CECCO D'ASCOLI 524
Last page of the earliest known edition of his " Acerba," Venetia, 1476.
Printed nineteen times up to and including the edition of 1546. Now in
the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, Paris.
LACTANTIUS 524
" De Divinis Institutionibus." Page taken from the Sublacensi 1465
edition, called by Joannis Vogt inter rariora typographiae incunabula rarissi-
nmm. In the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, Paris.
PEDRO NUNEZ 530
"Traitte que le docteur P. Nunes fit sur certaines doubles de la Naviga-
tion." Page 9 verso of MS. Fr. No. 1338, now in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris.
THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
FROM B.C. 2637 TO A.D. 1821
B.C. 2637. — This date has been conclusively shown to be the
earliest one at which history notes anything resembling the appli-
cation of the magnetic influence. It is related that, during this
sixty-first year of the reign of Hoang-ti (Yeou-hioung-che, also
named Koung-fun and Hiuen-yuen) , the emperor's troops, who
were pursuing the rebellious prince Tcheyeou (Tchi-yeou), lost
their way, as well as the course of the wind, and likewise the sight
of their enemy, during the heavy fogs prevailing in the plains of
Tchou-lou. Seeing which, Hoang-ti constructed a chariot upon
which stood erect a prominent female figure which indicated the
four cardinal points, and which always turned to the south what-
ever might be the direction taken by the chariot. Thus he succeeded
in capturing the rebellious prince, who was put to death.
Some say that upo,] this chariot stood a needle, to denote the
four parts of the world. That, states the French author writing
in 1736, would " indicate the use of the compass, or something very
similar to it ... and it is unfortunate that the device has not been
explained more fully."
REFERENCES. — Du Halde, " Description de la Chine . . .," La Haye,
r736. Vol. I. pp. 270-271; B.C. 2634, Klaproth, " Boussole," pp. 33, 34,
71, 74, 76, 79, 82; Azuni, " Boussole," Paris, 1809, pp. 186, 214; Staun-
ton's " China," London, 1797, Vol. I. p. 446; " Encycl. Metrop.," Vol. III.
p. 736; Buffon, " LaTerre," Vol. I. p. 304; Davis, " The Chinese," 1844,
Vol. HI. p. 14; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1848, Vol. V. p. 51, for Ed. Biot
in Comptes Rendus, Vol. XIX. 1844, p. 822 ; Dr. A. T. Thompson, transla-
tion of Salverte's " Philosophy of Magic," 1847, Vol. II. chap. xi. p. 222
(note), wherein he alludes to Davies' " Early History of the Mariner's
Compass"; " British Annual," 1837; Saillant et Nyon, " M£moires
concernant 1'Histoire," Paris, 1788, Vol. XIII. pp. 234-235, giving
chronological tables of the history of China, also p. 227 relative to Hoang-
ti; P. Etienne Souciet, " Observations," Paris, 1732, Vol. II. pp. 94-95.
Hoang-ti (Hoang, supreme king), third in the " Period of the
Five Emperors " (Claude Aug£, " Nouveau Larousse," Vol. V.
p. 134), regarded as the founder of the Chinese Empire, died at the
age of 121, after reigning 100 years, B.C. 2598. Mailla (Joseph
B
2 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A. M, de Moyriac de) in his " Histoire . . . traduite du Thoung-
Kian-Kang-Mou," Paris, 1777, Vol. I. p, 28, makes the latter date
2599, as do likewise, Dr. Hcefer (" Nouvelle Biographic Ge*ne*rale,"
Paris, 1858, Vol. XXIV. pp. 817-819) and Pierre Larousse (" Grand
Diet, du XIXC Siecle," 1873, Vol. IX. p. 317), but Michaud (" Biogr.
Univer.," 1857, Vol. XIX. pp. 476-477) says he reigned from 2698
to 2577 B.C., and, in " La Grande Encyclop.," Vol. XX. pp. 157-
158, we are told that the correct period is 2697-2597 B.C. (" L'art
de verifier les dates/1 Paris, 1819, Vol. IV. p. 8).
The above-named work of Jean Baptiste Du Halde on China is
considered the most complete account of that vast empire that has
appeared in Europe (" New Gen. Biogr. Diet./' London, 1850,
Vol. VIII. p. 175). In any case, remarks Mr. Demetrius C. Boulger
(" History of China/' London, 1881, Vol. I. pp. 4-5), it is incon-
testable that the individuality of Hoang-ti, who was the successor
of " Fo-hi," the first great Chinese emperor, is much more tangible
than that of any of his predecessors.1 By him, it is well recorded
that the extensive Chinese territory (Empire) was divided into ten
provinces, or Chow, each of which was subdivided into ten depart-
ments, or Tsee, and these again into ten districts, or Tou, each of
them containing ten towns, or Ye.
1 Touching the antiquity of the Chinese nation, the distinguished French
author, J. P. Pauthier (" Chine," Paris, 1839, pp. 20, 27), thus expresses
himself : " Son histoire authentique qu'elle fait remonter avec ce characte"re
de certitude, jusqu' a la 6i« annec du rdgne de Hoang-ti, la premiere de leur
premier cycle, 2637 ans avant notre &re. . . . Le cycle de 60 anne*es dont
les series se suivent depuis la 6ie anne*e du r6gne de Hoang-ti, sans interruption
et avec autant de r6gularit6 que les siecles dans les computs Europeans." And
Saillant et Nyon (" M£moires concernant 1'histoire," Vol. XIII. p. 76) add con-
clusively : " JDepuis Tanned courante (1769) jusqu' a la 2637* avant Tdre Chre"ti-
enne, qui r6pond exactement a la 6ifl du rdgne de Hoang-ti, on peut sans
crainte de s'egarer, suivre un des plus beaux sentiers de I'histoire, pendant
1'espace de 4406 ans."
Incidentally, we may add that in his " History of Chaldea," New York,
1866, pp. 195, 213, 364, Mr. Z. A. Ragozin says that that country can point
to a monumentally recorded date nearly 4000 B.C. — more than Egypt can
do — and he says, furthermore, " we cannot possibly accept a date later than
4000 B.C. for the foreign immigration, and, for the Shumiro-Accadian culture,
less than 1000 years, thus taking us as far back as 5000 B.C. The date of
3750 B.C. is that of Naram-Sin, and 3800 B.C. is now generally accepted for
Sargon of Agad£ — perhaps the remotest authentic date yet arrived at in history.
To such as are inclined to doubt the authenticity of these early dates, as
well as the truthfulness of " the mensuration of divine periods," and of " the
observations of celestial bodies throughout the whole of time," it will be
interesting to note the following, taken from the Greek " lamblichus "
translation of Thomas Taylor, Chiswick, 1821, p. 318 : " Proclus (in Tim.,
lib. iv. p. 277) informs us that the Chaldeans had observations of the stars
which embraced whole mundane periods . . . likewise confirmed by Cicero,
who says (in his first book on Divination) that they had records of the stars
for the space of 370,000 years, and by Diodorus Siculus (' Bibl./ lib. xi.
p. 118), who states that their observations comprehended the space of 473,000
years 1 "
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 8
B.C. 1110. — Tcheou-Koung is said to have at this date taught
the use of the needle compass to the envoys from Youa-tchang.
" As the ambassadors sent from Cochin China and Tonquin "
(Humboldt, " Cosmos/1 Vol. V. p. 51) " were about to take their
departure " (which was in the twenty-second cycle, more than
1040 years B.C.), " Tcheou-Koung gave them an instrument which
upon one side always turned toward the north and on the opposite
side to the south, the better to direct them upon their homeward
voyage.1 This instrument was called tchi-nan (chariot of the south),
and it is still the name given to the compass, which leads to the
belief that Tcheou-Koung invented the latter." In his chapter
on " The Magnetic Needle/' Humboldt says the apparatus was
called fse-nan (indicator of the south).
Tcheou-Koung (Ki-tan) was Chinese Minister of State under
both Von-Vang (the first emperor of the Tcheou dynasty, who
ruled seven years) and Tsching-Vang (second emperor, who ruled
thirty-seven years), and lived to be 100 years old. He was one
of the most learned and most popular men China has ever known,
and is spoken of to this day by the Chinese " with an admiration
bordering upon enthusiasm " (Saillant et Nyon, " Memoires con-
cernant I'Histoire," Paris, 1776, Vol. III. p. 37). The emperor
Tsching-Vang caused Tcheou-Koung's body to be interred near his
father's remains, after giving it imperial funeral honours.
REFERENCES. — Du Halde, " Description de la Chine . . ./'La Haye,
1736, Vol. I. p. 312; Klaproth, " Boussole," p. 81 ; Azuni, " Bous-
sole,'1 pp. 190-191; Humboldt, "Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. II. p.
628, and Vol. V. p. 52.
B.C. 1084. — According to ^Eschylus, the father of the Athenian
drama, Agamemnon employed a line of optical signals to advise his
queen Clytemnestra of the fall of Troy. Robert Browning's
translation, London, 1877, runs as follows :
" Troia, the Achaioi hold. . . .
Hephaistos — sending a bright blaze from Id6
Beacon did beacon send, from fire the poster,
Hitherward : Id£ to the rock Hermaian
Of Lemnos : and a third great torch o* the island
Zeus' seat received in turn, the Athoan summit.
And — so upsoaring as to stride sea over,
The strong lamp-voyager, and all for joyance —
Did the gold-glorious splendor, any sun like,
Pass on ..."
1 " Le monument le plus ancien (de pierre scupt&j) signale" par le King-
che-so pprte sur une facade cette scdne d histoire : ' Tcheou-Choung, regent
de Tempire pendant la minorite" de son neveu Tching-Ouang (mo av. J. C.)
recoit les envois du roi des Yue-tchang-che. . . . Les anciens auteurs Chinoia
rapportent que ces ambassadeurs offrirent a la cour de Chine des e'le'phants
ct des faisans blancs et que pour leur retour Tcheou-Koung leur fit present
de chars qui montraient le sud.' " (" L'art Chinois," par M. Paltologue,
Paris, 1888, pp. 132-134; J. P. Pauthier, "Chine," p. 87.)
4 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Anna Swanwick thus renders ^Eschylus' " Agamemnon/1 London,
1881, p. 13 :
" For Priam's city have the Ar gives won.
Hephaeslos sending forth Idaian fire.
Hither through swift relays of courier flame. ..."
At page 193 of his " Agamemnon," London, 1873, E. H. Plumptre
refers to the system of posts or messengers which the Persian kings
seem to have been first to organize, and which impressed the minds
of both the Hebrews (Esther viii. 14) and the Greeks (Herod., viii. 98)
by their regular transmission of the king's edicts or of special news.
What of the passage from the celebrated patriarch Job (xxxviii.
35) : " Canst thou send lightnings, that they may go, and say unto
thee, ' Here we are ? ' " (original Hebrew, " Behold us "). As has
been remarked, this seems prophetic, when taken in connection
with the electric telegraph.
The fire beacons are also alluded to by Plutarch in his Life of
Quintus Sertorius ; and Mardonius prepared fire signals to notify
Xerxes, then at Sardis, of the second taking of Athens.
REFERENCES. — •" Le Theatre dcs Grccs," P. Brumoy, Paris, 1820,
Vol.11, pp. 124-125; "Penny Encyc.," Vol. XXIV. p. 145; Knight's
" Mechan. Diet.," Vol. III. p. 2092.
For a decidedly original explanation of the beacon fires, read
the introduction to " The Agamemnon of ^Eschylus," translated by
A. W. Verrall, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, England.
See, likewise, reference to Act of Scottish Parliament, 1455, c. 48,
made by Walter Scott in a note to his " Lay of the Last Minstrel " ;
" Archeologia," London, 1770, Vol. I. pp. 1-7.
B.C. 1068. — In the obscure age of Codrus, the seventeenth and
last king of Athens, at about the period of the " Return of the
Heraclidae " (descendants of Heracles — Hercules) to the Pelopon-
nesus, the Chinese had magnetic carriages, upon which the movable
arm of the figure of a man continually pointed to the south, and
which it is said served as a guide by which to find the way across
the boundless grass plains of Tartary. Humboldt states, besides,
that, even in the third century of our era, Chinese vessels navigated
the Indian Ocean under the direction of magnetic needles pointing
to the south, and that, at pages xxxviii-xlii, Vol. I. of his " Asie
Centrale," he has shown what advantages this means of topo-
graphical direction, as well as the early knowledge and application
of the magnetic needle, gave the Chinese geographers over the
Greeks and Romans, to whom, for instance, even the true direction
of the Pyrenees and the Apennines always remained unknown.
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, " Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 173,
also his " Examen Critique de 1'histoire de la Geographic," Vol. III.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 5
p. 36; " Moeurs de Reg. Athen.," lib. iii. cap. xi. For Codrus and the
Heraclidae, consult : Chambers' " Encycl.," 1889, Vol. III. p. 329 and
Vol. V. 1890, p. 657; "Encycl. Britan.," gth ed., Edinburgh, Vol. VI.
p. 107 and Vol. XI. p. 92; Hoefer, "Nouv. Biog. Ge"n,," Vol. XI. p. 29.
B.C. 1033-975.— Solomon, King of Israel, son of King David
and of Bathsheba, who, " in the Jewish scriptures, has the first
place assigned to him among the wise men of the East," is believed
by many to have known the use of the compass. The Spanish
Jesuit Pineda and Athanasius Kircher assert the same, and state
that Solomon's subjects employed it in their navigations. Others,
notably Fuller, " Miscel.," iv. cap. 19, and Levinus Lemnius, " De
Occulta Naturae Miracula," lib. iii, have even tried to prove that
Solomon was the inventor of the compass, and that it was in hif
time used by the Syrians, Sidonians and Phoenicians, but the
contrary has been shown by Henricus Kippingius in his " Antiq.
Rom. de exped. Mar./' lib. iii. cap. 6, as well as by Bochart, the
geographer, in his " Geo. Sacr.,1' lib. i. cap. 38.
REFERENCES. — Venanson, " Bonssole," Naples, 1808, p. 34; Enfield,
" History of Philosophy," London, 1819, Vol. I. p. 40; Cavallo, " Mag-
netism," 1787, p. 48; Ronalds' " Catal.," 1880, articles " Hirt " and
" Michaelis," pp. 246, 344.
B.C. 1022. — At this period the Chinese magnetic cars held a
floating needle, the motions of which were communicated to the
figure of a spirit whose outstretched hand always indicated the
south. An account of these cars is given in the " Szuki " (Shi-ki),
or " Historical Memoirs of Szu-ma-thsian " (Szu-matsien) , which
were written early in the second century B.C., and are justly con-
sidered the greatest of all Chinese historical works, containing, as
they do, the history of China from the beginning of the empire to the
reign of Hiao-wou-ti, of the Han dynasty.
REFERENCES. — " Lcs peuplcs Orientaux," L6on dc Rosny, Paris,
1886, pp. 10, 168, 240; Johnson's "Encyclopaedia," Vol. I. p. 929;
Humboldt, "Cosmos," Vol. II. 1849, p. 628; Klaproth, " Boussole,"
1834, p. 79, for further allusion to a passage in the Thoung-Kian-
Kang-Mou, already referred to under date B.C. 2637.
B.C. 1000-907.— -Homer, the greatest of epic poets, called the
father of Greek poetry, and who, according to Enfield (" History
of Philosophy," Vol. I. p. 133), flourished before any other poet
whose writings arc extant, relates that the loadstone was used by
the Greeks to direct navigation at the time of the siege of Troy.
The latter construction has been placed upon several passages
in Homer, the most important being found in Book VIII of the
" Odyssey."
As this appears to be the first attributed allusion to the compass,
it is deemed worth while to give herein several interpretations of the
original Greek. The selections made are as follows :
6 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" In wond'rous ships, self-mov'd, instinct with mind ;
No helm secures their course, no pilot guides;
Like man intelligent, they plough the tides,
Though clouds and darkness veil th' encumbered sky,
Fearless thro' darkness and thro1 clouds they fly."
Alexander Pope, "The Odyssey of Homer," London, 1818,
P- 135-
" . . . ; for here
Tn our Phaeacian ships no pilots are,
Nor rudders, as in ships of other lands.
Ours know the thoughts and the intents of men.
To them all cities and all fertile coasts
Inhabited by men arc known ; they cross
The great sea scudding fast, involved in mist
And darkness, with no fear of perishing
Or meeting harm."
Wm. Cullen Bryant, "The Odyssey of Homer," Boston, 1875,
Vol. I. p. 174.
" For unto us no pilots appertain,
Rudder nor helm which other barks obey.
These ruled by reason, their own course essay
Sparing men's mind . . .
Sail in a fearless scorn of scathe or overthrow."
Philip Stanhope Worsley, " The Odyssey of Homer," London,
1861, Vol. I. p. 198.
" For all unlike the ships of other men,
Nor helm nor steersman have our country's barks,
But of themselves they know the thoughts of men;
. . . and wrapped in gloom and mist
O'er the broad ocean gulfs they hold their course
Fearless of loss and shipwreck . . ."
Earl of Carnarvon, " The Odyssey of Homer," London, 1886,
p. 201.
" These marvellous ships, endued with human sense, and anticipating
the will of their masters, flit unseen over the sea." — " Homer's Odyssey," by
W. W. Merry and James Riddell, Oxford, 1886, Vol. I. p. 353, note.
" That our ships in their minds may know it when they bring thce hither
to hand,
Because amidst us Pha^acians, our ships no helmsmen steer,
Nor with us is any rudder like other ships must bear,
But our keels know the minds of menfolk, and their will they understand,
And therewith exceeding swiftly over the sea-gulf do they go,
In the mist and the cloud-rack hidden . . ."
"The Odyssey of Homer," translated by Wm. Morris, Lon^
don, 1887, p. 145.
The afore-named construction is not, however, alluded to by
Matthew Arnold in his well-known lectures given at Oxford, nor
by the Right Hon. Wm. Ewart Gladstone either in his " Juventus
Mundi " or throughout his very extensive " Studies on Homer and
the Homeric Age."
Sonnini tells us that as this period is about the same as that of
the Chinese chronicles, it can scarcely be doubted that the know-
ledge of both the polarity of the needle and of the use of the compass
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 7
for navigation date back 3000 years (Buffon, " Terre," Paris,
An. VIII. p. 304).
This ill accords, however, with the views of others who have
concluded, perhaps rightly, that the Greeks, Romans, Tuscans
and Phoenicians 1 were ignorant of the directive property of the
magnet, from the fact that none of the writings, more especially
of Theophrastus, Plato, Aristotle, Lucretius and Pliny, make explicit
allusion thereto.
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. p. 51; "Good
Words," 1874, p. 70; Brumoy, " Theatre des Grecs," 1820, Vol. I.
p. 55; Pope's translation of the "Iliad," 1738, Vol. I. pp. 14, 20;
Schafmer, " Telegraph Manual," p. 19; also references under both the
A.D. 121 and the A.D. 265-419 dates.
B.C. 600-580.— Thales of Miletus, Ionia, one of the "seven
wise men of Greece " (the others being Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias,
Cleobolus and Periander), founder of the Ionic philosophy, and from
whose school came Socrates, is said to have been the first to observe
the electricity developed by friction in amber.
Thales, Theophrastus, Solinus, Priscian and Pliny, as well as
other writers, Greek and Roman, mention the fact that when a
vivifying heat is applied to amber it will attract straws, dried leaves,
and other light bodies in the same way that a magnet attracts iron
(" Photii Bibliotheca " Rothomagi, 1653, folio, col. 1040-1041,
cod. 242).
Robert Boyle (" Philosophical Works/' London, 1738, Vol. I.
p. 506, or London, 1744, Vol. III. p. 647) treats of different hypo-
theses advanced to solve the phenomena of electrical attraction,
saying : " The first is that of the learned Nicholas Cabaeus (A.D.
1629), who thinks the drawing of light bodies by amber ... is
caused by the steams which issue out of such bodies and discuss
and expel the neighbouring air ... making small whirlwind. . . .
Another is that of the eminent English philosopher, Sir Kenelm
Digby (A.D. 1644), and embraced by the very learned Dr. Browne
(A.D. 1646) and others, who believed that . . . chafed amber is
made to emit certain rays of unctuous steams, which, when they
come to be a little cooled by the external air, are somewhat con-
densed . . . carrying back with them those light bodies to which
they happen to adhere at the time of their retraction. . . . Pierre
Gassendi (A.D. 1632) thinks the same, and adds that these electrical
rays ... get into the pores of a straw . . . and by means of their
decussation take the faster hold of it ... when they shrink back
1 While the Greeks steered by the Great Bear, which, if a more visible,
was a far more uncertain guide, the Phoenicians had, at an early time, dis-
covered a less conspicuous but more trustworthy guide in the polar star,
which the Greeks call The Phoenician Star (" History of Antiquity," Prof.
M~,x Duncker, translated by Evelyn Abbott, London, 1882, Vol. II. p. 293).
8 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
to the amber whence they were emitted . . . Cartesius (Descartes,
A.D. 1644) accounts for electrical attractions by the intervention
of certain particles, shaped almost like small pieces of riband,
which he supposes to be formed of this subtile matter harboured
in the pores or crevices of glass."
The ancients were acquainted with but two electrical bodies1—
amber (electron), which has given the denomination of the science;
and lyncurium, which is either the tourmaline or the topaz (Dr. Davy,
" Mem. Sir Humphry Davy," 1836, Vol. I. p. 309). From a
recent article treating of gems, the following is extracted : " The
name of the precious stone inserted in the ring of Gyges has not been
handed down to us, but it is probable that it was the topaz, whose
wonders Philostratus recounts in the Life of Apollonius. An attri-
bute of the sun and of fire, the ancients called it the gold magnet,
as it was credited with the power of attracting that metal, indicating
its veins, and discovering treasures. Heliodorus, in his story of
Theagenes and Caricles, says that the topaz saves from fire all those
who wear it, and that Caricles was preserved by a topaz from the
fiery vengeance of Arsaccs, Queen of Ethiopia. This stone was one
of the first talismans that Theagenes possessed in Egypt. The
topaz, at present, symbolizes Christian virtues — faith, justice,
temperance, gentleness, clemency."
REFERENCES. — " Greek Thinkers," by Theodor Gomperz, translation of
L. Magnus, London 1901, p. 532; Zahn at A.D. 1696; Joannes Ruellius,
" De Natura Stirpium," 1536, p. 125; Paul Tannery, " Pour I'Histoire
de la Science Helldne," Paris, 1887, chap. iii. pp. 52-80; Becquerel,
" Trait6 Experimental," Paris, 1834, Vol. I. p. 33; Pliny, " Natural His-
tory," Bostock and Riley, 1858, book 37, chap. xii. p. 403; Pline,
" Ilistoire Naturellc," 1778, livre 37, chapitre iii.; Lardner, " Lectures,"
1859, Vol. I. p. 104; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849, Vol. I. p. 182;
Poggendorff, XI. p. 1088; Apuleius, Floriclor, p. 361; Plato; Timaeus,
The Locrian; " De Anima Mundi . . .," 12, 15; Pauli (Adrian), Dantzig,
1614; Ulysses Aldrovandus, " Musaeum Metallicum," pp. 411-412;
Aurifabrum (Andreas), " Succini Historia," . . . Konigsberg, 1551-1561;
and, for the different names given to amber and the magnet by the
ancients, consult, more especially, the numerous authorities cited by M.
Th. Henri Martin (" M&n. pre'sente' a T Academic dcs Inscrip. et Belles
Lettres," premiere partie, Vol. VI. pp. 297-329, 391-411, Paris, 1860);
J. Matthias Gessner, " De Electro Vcterum " (Com. Soc. Reg. Sc. Gott.,
Vol. Ill for 1753, p. 67) ; Louis Delaunay, " Miner, dcs Anciens," Part 2,
p. 125 (Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 540); Philip Jacob Hartmann, in Phil.
Trans., Vol. XXI. No. 248, pp. 5, 49, also in Baddam's Abridgments,
Vol. Ill, first edition, 1739, pp. 322-366.
B.C. 600. — The Etruscans are known to have devoted themselves
at this period to the study of electricity in an especial manner.1
1 The Etruscans " inquired, under the direction of technical rules, into
the hidden properties of nature, particularly those of the electric phenomena."
" History of the Romans," by Chas. Merivale, New York, 1880, Vol. II. p. 395.
(Cicero, " De Divin.," i. 41-42; Diod. Sic., v. 40; Scnec., "Nat. Qu.," ii.
32; Micali, " 1' Italie," ii. 246 foil.). ,,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 9
They are said to have attracted lightning by shooting arrows of
metal into clouds which threatened thunder. Pliny even asserts
that they had a secret method of not only " drawing it (the lightning)
down " from the clouds, but of afterwards " turning it aside " in
any desired direction. They recognized different sources of lightning,
those coming from the sky (a sideribus venientia), which always
struck obliquely, and others from the earth (in/era, terrena), which
rose perpendicularly. The Romans, on the other hand, recognized
only two sorts, those of the day, attributed to Jupiter, and those of
the night, attributed to Summanus (see Vassalli-Eandi at A.D. 1790).
This Vassalli-Eandi — like L. Fromondi — made special study of
the very extensive scientific knowledge displayed by the ancients
and, as shown in his " Conghietture . . ." he concluded that they
really possessed the secret of attracting and directing lightning.
The above-named extracts concerning the Etruscans and Romans
are made from the subjoined work of Mme. Blavatsky, wherein the
following is likewise given.
Tradition says that Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome,
was initiated by the priests of the Etruscan divinities, and instructed
by them in the secret of forcing Jupiter, the Thunderer, to descend
upon earth. Salverte believes that before Franklin discovered his
refined electricity, Numa had experimented with it most successfully,
and that Tullus Hostilius, the successor of Numa, was the first
victim of the dangerous " heavenly guest " recorded in history.
Salverte remarks that Pliny makes use of expressions which seem to
indicate two distinct processes ; the one obtained thunder (impetrare),
the other forced it to lightning (cogere). Tracing back the knowledge
of thunder and lightning possessed by the Etruscan priests, we
find that Tarchon, the founder of the theurgism of the former,
desiring to preserve his house from lightning, surrounded it by a
hedge of the white bryony, a climbing plant which has the property
of averting thunderbolts. The Temple of Juno had its roofs covered
with numerous pointed blades of swords. Ben David, says the
author of " Occult Sciences," has asserted that Moses (born about
1570 B.C.) possessed some knowledge of the phenomena of electricity.
Prof. Hirt, of Berlin, is of this opinion. Michaclis remarks that
there is no indication that lightning ever struck the Temple of Jeru-
salem during a thousand years : that, according to Josephus, a
forest of points, of gold and very sharp, covered the roof of the temple,
and that this roof communicated with the caverns in the hill by
means of pipes in connection with the gilding which covered all the
exterior of the building, in consequence of which the points would
act as conductors. Salverte further asserts that in the days of
Ctej ias — Ktesias — India was acquainted with the use of conductors
10 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
of lightning. This historian plainly states that iron placed at the
bottom of a fountain, and made in the form of a sword, with the
point upward, possessed, as soon as it was thus fixed in the ground,
the property of averting storms ind lightning.
" Ancient India, as described by Ktesias, the Knidian," J. H.
McCrindle, London, 1882, alludes, p. 68, to iron swords employed fto
ward off lightning. Reference is made to the pantarbe at pp. 7-8*
69-70, and to the elektron (amber) at pp. 20, 21, 23, 51, 52, 70, 86.
See account of Ktesias in " Nouvelle Biogr. G&I&-.," Vol. XII. pp.
568-571, and in " Larousse Diet./1 Vol. V. p. 614.
In his " Observations sur la Physique/1 Vols. XXIV. pp. 321-
323; XXV. pp. 297-303, XXVI. pp, 101-107, M. 1'Abbe Rosier
gives the correspondence between M. de Michaelis, Professor at
Gottingen, and Mr. Lichtenberg, showing conclusively how the
numerous points distributed over the surface of the roof of the Temple
of Solomon effectively served as lightning conductors. Mr. Lichten-
berg in addition shows that the bell tower located upon a hill at
the country seat of Count Orsini de Rosenberg, was, during a period
of several years, so repeatedly struck by lightning, with great loss
of life, that divine service had to be suspended in the church. The
tower was entirely destroyed in 1730 and soon after rebuilt, but it
was struck as often as ten times during one prolonged storm, until
finally a fifth successive attack, during the year 1778, compelled its
demolition. For the third time the tower was reconstructed,
and the Count placed a pointed conductor, since which time no
damage has been sustained.
REFERENCES. — Mme. Blavatsky, " Isis Unveiled," 1877, Vol. I. j>p.
142, 457, 458, 527, 528, and her references to Ovid, " Fast," lib. iii.
v. 285-346; Titus Livius, lib, i. cap. 31 ; Pliny, " Hist. Nat.," lib. ii. cap. 53
and lib. xxviii. cap. 2 ; Lucius Calp, Piso ; Columella, lib. x. v. 346, etc. ; La
Boissiere, " Notice sur les Travaux de 1' Academic du Gard," part I. pp.
304-314; "Bell. Jud. adv. Roman," lib. v. cap. 14; " Magas. Sc. ae
Gottingen/1 3* ann£e 5* cahier; Ktesias, in " India ap. Photum. Bibl.
. Cod./' 72. See also, De La Rive, " Electricity," London, 1858, Vol. Ill,
chap. ii. p. 90 ; " Encycl. Brit./1 8th ed., article " Electricity " ; Lardner,
"Lectures," II. p. 99; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. pp. 502-504;
Boccalini, " Parnassus/' Century I. chap. xlvi. alluded to at p. 24, Vol. I.
of Miller's " Retrospect "; Gouget, " Origin of Laws," Vol. III. book 3;
Themistius, Oratio 27, p. 337; " Agathias Myrenaeus de rebus gestis
Tustiniani," lib. v. p. 151; Dutens, " Origine des d&xmvertes
/"w»«+l«»ma«*o TWa era i\ne* ** -fr\f Tulxr T n& e r\ ci<* • TTalfrvncki* " "R
Magazine" for July 1785, p. 522; Falconer, "Mem. of
Soc. of Manchester/' Vol III. p/278; " Sc. Amer./' No. 7.
p. 99; E. Salverte, " Phil, of Magic," 1847, Vol. II. chaps, viii. and ix.;
Eraser's Magazine" for 1839; H. Martin, Paris, 1865-6; P. F. von
Dietrich, Berlin, 1784.
B.C. 588. — The earliest reliable record of messages transmitted
by the sign of fire is to be found in the book of Jeremiah, vi. i : " O
ye children of Benjamin, gather yourselves to flee out of the midst
of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a Mgn
dc'Jcrat uoorm (axis ut diximus refpondentcm bomini imo ucro fcV ob id loquctcm
(.^iiid lapis rigore pigrms/ecce fcnfus manufque tnbuit ill K Quid fern duritia
pugnatius Sea cedit £ patitur morfu trabitur a magnctc lapide domttrixqt ilia rcru
omnium matcna ad inane oefcio quid cumtatque utpropius ucntt afifht tencturq*
complexuqi bero*- Sydcritu ob id alio nomine uocant quidam beracleon. Magncs
appcllatu* eft ab Inuentore ut audlor eft Nicander in Ida repertus Nanq* cY paflim
Inucniutur ut i bifpanu quoqt mucniflc autc fcrtur clauis crept day & baculnrufpidc
hacrcnnbus cumarmenu pafcer&.Qutnqufrgcnera magnetic Sou cb us monftrat.
Actbiopicum & magncfmm c macedonucontermina abeboue locatu pctentibus
dcxtra T ernum in b^rtio boetie. Quartum cura Alexandnam troadem. Quintum
in magnefia afif .Differentia pnma mas fit an focmina proxima in colore Nam qui
in maccdomca magnefia repermntT rufFi mgriq; fum boetius uero ruffi colons plus
b.ib# q nigri qui Troade muenitur mgcr 6t focmmci fexus. Ideoquc fine uiribus
Octet nmusautem in magnefia afip candidus ncqi attrabens ftrrufimilifcp pumici
(Jomprrtum tan to melt ores c(Tc quanto funt magis ccrulci ctbioptco fumma datur
pondufq; argcnto repcndttur. Inucnitur i actbiopia Zintr uraq; uocafregto barcofa
ibi & cmatites magne (angumei colons fan guicmqt reddens fi tcrat" (ed & crocum
in attrabcndo fcrrum non cad em cmatm naturaquc magncti actbioptct argumctu
eft quod magnctcm quoquliumacl fc trahitomnesaulcmbioculorumedicamctis
prolunt ad fua quifq; portionc maximc cpipboras fiftunt.Sanant 6c aduAa cremati
trtttqt.Alius rurfus in cadcetbiopia no procul monsqui fcry omneabigit rcfpuitq;
dc utraqi natura ffpius diximus.
r i Apidcex Scbiro tnfula integru fludiiare traduteundem mcrgi Commintnu
maflb troadis farcopbagus lapis tiflfih ucna (cmdttur Corpora dcfuncforu cond u
in co abfumicoftat mtra.xl diccxccptts dcnttbus JMuttanu* (pcculaquoq; Ongtlcs
6c ucrtcs &: calctamcnta illata mortuis bptdea fieri audio r eft. Eius generis mfyaa
(.txa funt &: in oncntc qu^ uiucnttbus quoq; adalligata crodunt corpora Mtttor efl
aut (eruandis corportbus nccabfumendiscbemitescbori fimilltrrus in quo Danu
condttum fcrunt parioquc fimilis candore & duricia minus tamcn pondcrofus qui
torrus uocatur TbcopbraOas audlor eft & tranducidos lapides mcgypto mucniri
quospbio ft milis aut quod tortalTis tune fuerant quomam cV.ii.deitnunt & noui
rrpcrumtur Hafius gufbtu falfus podagras lenit pedibus in uafc ex co cauatoiditts
prctcrea cmma crurum uttia in bis lapidicims fa runt" cum metallis omnibus rruta
uiticntur Emfdcm lapidis flos appcllatur farina cxco qucdamollis pcrmdecfficax
Ett aut fimilis pumici rufo admixtus en alias cere cypnp Mammarum uitia cmedat
pici aut refine uc ftrumas 6C panosdifcutit,pdc& ptificis mndacu mcllc ulcera-id
CicatriccspducitexcreilccntiacroditcVad Bcftiarum morfus repugnatia curatiom
fuppurataficcat.FitcatapUfnuexcopodagncis mix to fabf lomcmo.
I DC Tbeop'braikis cV Mutiaus cc aliquos lapides q pariat crcdut tbr opbraftus
auclor eftebur foflile candido tV nigro colore mueniri cV oflae terra nafci Inucniriq?
Lip ides odeos palmatt circa mundam m bifpanta ubi cefar dictator pompctum uictt
rcpenuntur.Iaq; quottcns fregeri* Sunt cV ntgri quo^t audtontas uemt m marmora
ficut tenarius Varro ntgros ex apbiyca firm i ores cc tradit q m Jtalia.E dmcrfo albos
coranos duri ores cj panes. Idem luncfcm (ctlicem ferra fecari tu(culanurrq?di(filire
igm fabmu fufcu addito olco etiam luccrc.Item molas uerfatilcs a nulfmis lucntas
aliquas 6C fpontc motas mucnimus i prodigus.Nufq autc utilior q \ Italia gigmtur
Lapifq; no eft faxti.In quibufda ucro^>umcns orrnmo no Inucmt.Sunt quid.i i eo
gcncrc molhores qui &: cote lcui£;antur ut procultinmcntibus opbitcs uiden poii.t
Cams Plunus Srt-uiulus. Pa^'r takt-n from earliest known edition of tlio Natnrahs
Hislonae Venetiis 140.7, oi whicli there arc- only thiec kno\\n original vellnni ( opies
These aie now at Vienna, Ravenna and in the l)ibliothtN}ue Sainle (k'ncvu^ve, Pans*
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e P.ILI<' ol AnMotlr's " DC \Tattnali Ausc-xil tat ionc," Pans 154^.
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i iliccl \vit1i In-, name ami that i>l Arc^licleacon '1 hoinas Drmii
• Kioni tlie 1 ii>r<u\ of Dr. Silvauns. P. Tlu^ni p^on. '
To ftrcc /></»,'.• 11
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM U
of fire in Beth-haccerem ; for evil appeareth out of the north and
great destruction."
REFERENCES. — Turnbull, " Electro-magnetic Telegraph/' 1853, p.
17; Knight's " Mech. Diet.," Vol. III. p. 2092; Penny and other
Encyclopaedias .
B.C. 341.— Aristotle, Greek philosopher, says (" Hist, of Anim.,"
IX. 37) that the electrical torpedo causes or produces a torpor upon
those fishes it is about to seize, and, having by that means got them
into its mouth, feeds upon them. The torpedo is likewise alluded to,
notably by (Claudius) Plutarch, the celebrated Greek moralist, by
Dioscorides, Pedacius, Greek botanist, referred to in Gilbert's " De
Magnete," Book I. chaps, i, ii, and xiv; by Galen, illustrious Roman
physician, who is also frequently alluded to in " De Magnete/'
and by Claudius Claudian, Latin poet, who flourished at the com-
mencement of the fifth century. Oppian describes (" Oppian's
Halieuticks of the nature of fishes and fishing of the ancients in
five books," lib. ii. v. 56, etc., also lib. iii. v. 149) the organs by which
the animal produces the above effect, and Pliny (" Nat. Hist.,"
Book 32, chap, i) says : " This fish, if touched by a rod or spear,
at a distance paralyzes the strongest muscles, and binds and arrests
the feet, however swift."
" The very crampe -fish tarped, knoweth her owne force and power,
and being herself not benummed, is able to astonish others " (Holland
" Plinie," Book IX. chap. xlii.).
" We, here, and in no other place, met with that extraordinary
fish called the torpedo, or numbing fish, which is in shape very like
the fiddle fish, and is not to be known from it but by a brown circular
spot about the bigness of a crown-piece near the centre of its back "
(Ausonius, " Voyages," Book II. chap. xii.).
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Metr.," IV. p. 41 ; " Encycl. Brit.," article
" Electricity " ; Jos. Wm. Moss, " A Manual of Classical Biography,"
London, 1837, Vol. I. pp. 105-186, for all the Aristotle's treatises, also Com-
mentaries and Translations ; Jourdain (Charles et Amable), " Recherches
. . . traductions latines d' Aristotle," Paris, 1843; Fahie, " Hist, of Elec.
Teleg.," p. 170; " Sci. Amer.," No. 457, pp. 7301, 7302; " Aristotle," by
Geo. Grote, 'London, 1872; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vols. I and
II passim, Vol. III. pp. 13-15, 29-30, 124; " Journal des Savants," for
Feb. 1861, March and May 1872, also for Feb., May and Sept. 1893.
Aristotle is alluded to in Gilbert's " De Magnete," at Book I. chaps,
i. ii. vii. xv. xvi. xvii. ; Book II. chaps, i.1 iii. iv. ; Book V. chap. xii. ;
Book VI, chaps, iii. v. vi.
1 In this Chapter I of Book II Gilbert says that Aristotle admits only
of two simple movements of his elements, from the centre and toward the
centre ... so that in the earth there is but one motion of all its parts towards
the centre of the world — a wild headlong falling. Johannes Franciscus
Offusius (the author of " De divina astrorum facultate," Paris, 1570), says he
distinguishes several magnetic movements, the first to the centre, the second
to ti|e pole, traversing seventy-seven degrees, the third to iron, the fourth to
a loadstone.
12 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
B.C. 341. — ^Eneas, the tactician, believed to be the
of 'Stymphale alluded to by Xcnophon, invented a singular method
of telegraphing phrases commonly used, especially in war. These
were written upon exactly similar oblong boards placed at the
dispatching and receiving stations, where they stood upon floats in
vessels of water. At a given signal the water was allowed to flow
out of the vessel at each station, and, when the desired phrase on
the board had reached the level of the vessel, another signal was niade
so that the outflow could be stopped and the desired signal read at
the receiving station.
REFERENCES.— Laurencin, " Lc Tel6graphe," Chap. I ; " Penny Encycl.,"
Vol. XXIV. p. 145 ; " Midland Bio./' Paris, 1855, Vol. XII. pp. 459-460.
B.C. 337-330. — From the well-known work by Mine. Blavatsky
(" Isis Unveiled," New York, 1877) the following curious extracts
are made regarding " The Ether or Astral Light " (Vol. I. chap. v.
pp. 125-162) :
" There has been an infinite confusion of names to express one
and the same thing, amongst others, the Hermes-fire, the lightning
of Cybele, the nerve-aura and the fluid of the magnetists, the od
of Reichenbach, the fire-globe, or meteor-az£ of Babinet, the physic
force of Sergeant Cox and Mr. Crookes, the atmospheric magnetism
of some naturalists, galvanism, and finally, electricity, which are
but various names for many different manifestations or effects of
the same all-pervading causes — the Greek Archcus. ..." Only in
connection with these discoveries (Edison's Force and Graham Bell's
Telephone, which may unsettle, if not utterly upset all our ideas of
the imponderable fluids) we may perhaps well remind our readers
of the many hints to be found in the ancient histories as to a certain
secret in the possession of the Egyptian priesthood, who could
instantly communicate, during the celebration of the Mysteries,
from one temple to another, even though the former were at Thebes
and the latter at the other end of the country; the legends attri-
buting it, as a matter of course, to the " invisible tribes " of the air
which carry messages for mortals. The author of " Pre-Adamite
Man " (P. B. Randolph, at p. 48) quotes an instance, which, being
merely given on his own authority, and he seeming uncertain
whether the story comes from Macrinus or some other writer, may be
taken for what it is worth. He found good evidence, he says, during
his stay in Egypt, that one of the Cleopatras actually sent news
by a wire to all of the cities from Heliopolis (the magnificent chief
seat of sun-worship) to the island of Elephantine, on the Upper Nile.
Further on, Mme. Blavatsky thus alludes to the loadstone :
" The stone magnet is believed by many to owe its name to
Magnesia. ..." We consider, however, the opinion of the Hermetists
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 18
to be the correct one. The word magh, magus, is derived from the
Sanscrit mahaji, meaning the great or wise ... so the magnet
stone was called in honour of the Magi, who were the first to discover
its wonderful properties. Their places of worship were located
throughout the country in all directions, and among these were
some temples of Hercules, hence the stone — when it became known
that the priests used it for their curative and magical purposes —
received the name of Magnesian or Herculean stone. Socrates,
speaking of it, says : " Euripides calls it the Magnesian stone, but
the common people the Herculean " (Plato, " Ion " — Burgess —
Vol. IV. p. 294). In the same Vol. I. of " Isis Unveiled," we are
likewise informed that Electricity in the Norse legends is personated
by Thor, the son of Odin, at Samothrace by the Kabeirian Demeter
(Joseph Ennemoser, "History of Magic," London, 1854, Vol. II.;
J. S. C. Schweigger, " Introd. to Mythol. through Nat Hist.," Halle,
1836), and that it is denoted by the " twin brothers," the Dioskuri.
Also that the celestial, pure fire of the Pagan altar was electrically
drawn from the astral light, that magnetic currents develop them-
selves into electricity upon their exit from the body, and that the
first inhabitants of the earth brought down the heavenly fire to
their altars (J. S. C. Schweigger in Ennemoser's " Hist, of Magic/'
Vol. II. p. 30; Maurus Honoratus Servius, "Virgil," Eclog. VI.
v. 42).
B.C. 321. — Theophrastus, Greek philosopher, first observed the
attractive property of the lyncurium, supposed by many to be the
tourmaline, and gave a description of it in his treatise upon stones
(" De Lapidibus," sec. 53 ; or the translation of Sir John Hill, 1774,
chap, xlix.-l., p. 123). This crystal was termed lapis lyncurius by
Pliny in his " Nat. Hist.," and lapis electricus by Linnaeus in his
"Flora Zeylanica " (U. Aldrovandus, " Mus. Metal."; Philemon
Holland, " The Historic of the World," commonly called " The
Naturall Historic of C. Plinius Secundus," London, 1601).
Theophrastus and Pliny speak of this native magnet as
possessing, like amber, the property of attracting straw, dried leaves,
bark and other light bodies. The different sorts of loadstones, of
which the best were blue in colour (as stated by Taisnier, Porta,
Barthol. de Glanville and others), are thus alluded to by Pliny
(" Nat. Hist.," lib. xxxvi. cap. 16) : " Sotacus describes five kinds :
the ^Ethiopian; that of Magnesia, a country which borders on
Macedonia ; a third from Hyettus, in Boetia ; a fourth from Alex-
andria, in Troas ; and a fifth from Magnesia, in Asia " (Porta,
" Natural Magick," Book VII. chap. L). He further says that iron
cannot resist it ; " the moment the metal approaches it, it springs
14 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
toward the magnet, and, as it clasps it, is held fast in the
magnet's embrace." It is by many called ferrum vivum, or quick
iron.1
Claudian speaks of it as " a stone which is preferred to all that is
most precious in the East. . . . Iron gives it life and nourishes it "
(Claudian, Idyl V; Ennemoser, " Hist, of Magic/1 Vol. II. p. 27).
Hippocrates, the father of medical science, calls it " the stone
which carries away iron."
Epicurus, an Athenian of the ^Egean tribe, says : " The loadstone
or magnet attracts iron, because the particles which are continually
flowing from it, as from all bodies, have such a peculiar fitness in
form to those which flow from iron that, upon collision, they easily
unite. . . . The mutual attraction of amber and like bodies may be
explained in the same manner."
Hier. Cardan intimates that "it is a certain appetite or desire
of nutriment that makes the loadstone snatch the iron ..."
(" De Subtilitate," Basileae, 1611, lib. vii. p. 381).
Diogenes of Apollonia (lib. ii. " Nat. Qusest.," cap. xxiii.)
says that " there is humidity in iron which the dryness of the magnet
feeds upon."
Cornelius Gemma supposed invisible lines to stretch from the
magnet to the attracted body, a conception which, says Prof.
Tyndall, reminds us of Faraday's lines of force.
Lucretius accounts for the adhesion of the steel to the load-
stone by saying that on the surface of the magnet there are hooks,
1 At p. 1 6, note No. 4, of his " Dawn of Civilization," New York, 1894,
Mr. G. Maspero says that the well-known French archaeologist, Charles
Theodule Deveria (1831-1871), was the first to prove that the Egyptians
believed the sky to be made of iron or steel. This was done in his mono-
graph entitled " Le fer et 1'aimant, leur nom et leur usage dans Tancienne
Egyptologique," issued in Paris during 1897. So well established was the
belief in a sky-ceiling of iron, says M. Charas, that it was preserved in common
speech by means of the name given to the metal itself, viz. Bai-ni-pit (in the
Coptic, Benipi, benipe) — metal of heaven. Reference is thereto made in " The
Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature," Vol. XIV. second series,
p. 291, by Mr. J. Offord, Jr., who speaks of the splendid and exceedingly
valuable papyrus in the Louvre " Catalogue des Manuscripts," Paris, 1874,
pp. 170-171 of M. Deveria, who frequently referred to it in the preparation
of the monograph above alluded to upon Iron and the Loadstone in Ancient
Egypt (" Zeitschrift fur ^gyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde " —
Review founded by M. le Docteur H. Brugsch). Deveria says : " Cette
matiere celeste (dont parle Plutarque) devait Stre I'aimant, la substance
d'Horus, la siderites des Romains, plut6t que le fer non-magne*tique, sub-
stance typhonienne. ... Us disent aussi que la pierre d'aimant est un des
os de Horus et le fer un des os de Typhon : c'est Manathon qui nous
1'apprend." For Deveria, see " La Grande Encyclopedic," H. Lamirault et
Cie., Paris, n. d., Vol. XIV. p. 375.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 15
and, on the surface of the steel, little rings which the hooks catch
hold of.
Thales, Aristotle, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae and the Greek
sophist Hippias, ascribe the loadstone's attractive virtue to the
soul with which they say it is endowed. Humboldt (" Cosmos/'
article on the Magnetic Needle) says soul signifies here " the inner
principle of the moving agent," and he adds in a footnote : " Aristotle
(" De Anima," I. 2) speaks only of the animation of the magnet as
of an opinion that originated with Thales." Diogenes Laertius
interprets this statement as applying also distinctly to amber, for
he says : " Aristotle and Hippias maintain as to the doctrine
enounced by Thales."
The native magnet appears to have long been known in nearly
every quarter of the globe (Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1848, Vol. V,
and Harris, " Rudimentary Magnetism," Parts I and II).
In the Talmud, it is called achzhdb'th, the stone which attracts ;
in the Aztec, tlaihiomani tell, the stone that draws by its breath ; in
the Sanscrit, ayaskdnta, loving toward iron ; in the Siamese, me-lek,
that which attracts iron; in the Chinese, thsu-chy, love stone, also
hy-thy-chy, stone that snatches up iron ; in the French, I'aimant, and
in the Spanish, iman, loving stone; in the Hungarian, magnet kd,
love stone; while in the Greek it is called siderites, owing to its
resemblance to iron.
For lyncurium of the ancients see Phil. Trans., Vol. LI. p. 394,
and Hutton's " Abridgments," Vol. XI. p. 419.
Euripides (" Fragmenta Euripidis," Didot edit., 1846, p. 757)
called it lapis herculaneus, from its power over iron, and it was also
known as lapis heracleus, doubtless because the best was, at one
time, said to be found near Heraclea in Lydia (Plato, " Ion "
• — Burgess — Vol. IV. p. 294; see, besides, Blavatsky, " Isis Un-
veiled," Vol. I. p. 130; Hervart (J. F.), Ingolstadii, 1623).
It has likewise been designated as follows : Chinese, tchu-chy,
directing stone; Icelandic, leiderstein, leading stone; Swedish,
segel-sten, seeing stone ; Tonkinin, d'dnamtchtim, stone which shows
the south ; and, by reason of its great hardness, the Greeks called
it calamita ; the Italians calamita ; the French calamite, also
diamant ; the Hebrews khalamish or kalmithath, and the Romans
adamas, while adamant was the name given to the magnetic needle
(compass) by the English of the time of Edward III (T. H. H. Martin,
" De I'aimant, de ses noms divers et de ses varie'te's," Paris, 1861;
Buttmann, " Bemerkungen . . . des Magnetes und des Basaltes,"
1808, Band II. ; G. A. Palm, " Der Magnet in Alterthum," 1867).!
1 The word calamita was first used by the Italians. It is employed by
Petri ,de Vineis (Pierre des Vignes), Matthieu de Messine, the notary of
16 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" This stone adamas is dyners and other than an Magnas, fcr
yf an adamas be sette by yren it suffryth not the yren come to the
magnas, but drawyth it by a manere of vyolence fro the magnas "
(Trevisa, " Earth, de Prop, reb.," XVI. 8).1
" The adamant cannot draw yron if the diamond lye by it "
(Lyly, " Euphues/' sig. K. p. 10).
" Right as an adamound, iwys, can drawen to hym sotylly the
yren " ("Rom. Rose ").
" In Ynde groweth the admont stone . . . she by her nature
draweth to her yron " (Caxton, " Myrrour," II. vii. 79).
" The adamant placed neare any iron will suffer it to be drawen
away of the lode stone " (Maplet, " Greene Forest," I.).
" You draw me, you hard-hearted adamant ; but yet you draw
not iron; for my heart is true as steel " (Shakespeare, " Midsum.
Night's Dream/' Act. ii. sc. i).
" As sun to day, as turtle to her mate, as iron to adamant "
(Shakespeare, " Troilus and Cressida," Act iii. sc. 2).
" The grace of God's spirit, like the true load stone or adamant,
draws up the yron heart of man to it " (Bishop Hall, " Occas.
Meclit.," 52.).
Lentino, and by Guido Guinicclli of Bologna (Libri, " Hist, dcs Sc. Math6m.,"
Vol. II. pp. 06-69). Consult likewise C. Falconet, " Dissert Histor.,"
Paris, 1746; " Le Journal des S9avans " for July-December 1724, Vol.
LXXV. pp. 22-28; W. Falconer, Vol. III. of the " Mem. of the Society of
Manchester," also " Bibl. Britan.," 1798, Vol. VIII. p. 281.
In the " Essai d'un Glossairc Occitanicn " (" Lc Journal des Savants " for
June 1820, pp. 369-370) it is said about M. de Rochcgudc that he discovered
in " La Vie de St. Honorat de Lerins," written by Raimont Feraut in 1300,
the words caramida, carannta, which he interprets as catamite, aimant,
boussole, and that he also read in Ihe " Bcrgerics " of Remy Belleau (1528-
1577) the words catamite on aiguille aimantee. He found that Joachim du
Bellay (1524-1560) had written " Comme le fcr qui suit la calamitc," and
Nicholas Rapiii (1540-1608) " Tournc ma calamite," but, after examining
all the ancient works obtainable, he concluded that the poem of Raimont
Feraut, admitted by him to have been translated from an old Latin MS.,
is the earliest publication containing the word adopted by many to designate
the compass. The poem alluded to is the only one extant of Raimont
Feraut — Raymond F6raudi de Thoarc] — a troubadour, long at the court of
Charles II of Naples, who died about A.D. 1324 (" Biogr. Gener." — Hoefer —
Vol. XVII. p. 354)-
1 " If an adamant be set by iron, it suffereth not the iron to come to the
magnet, but it draweth it by a manner of violence, from the magnet, so that
though the magnet draweth iron to itself, the adamant draweth it away from
the magnet " (Mediaeval Lore, " Gleanings from Barthol. de Glan villa," by
Robert Steele, London, 1893, Chap. IX. p. 32). The great " Liber de Pro-
prietatibus Rerum," which has been elsewhere cited in this compilation,
was undoubtedly written by Glanvilla (who, according to Salimbene, author of
the " Chronicles of Parma," had been a professor of theology in the Paris
University) before the year 1260, for, as Steele remarks, he cites Albertus
Magnus, who was in Paris during 1248, but does not quote from either Vincent
de Beauvais, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon or Egidius Colonna, all of whom
were in Paris during the second half of the thirteenth century.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 17
" The adamant ... is such an enemy to the magnet that, if
it be bound to it, it will not attract iron " (Leonardus, " Mirr.
Stones," 63).
According to Beckmann (Bohn, 1846, pp. 86-98) the real tour-
maline was first brought from Ceylon (where the natives called it
tournamal), at the end of the seventeenth century or beginning of
the eighteenth century (see A.D. 1707).
It is classed by Pliny as a variety of carbuncle (lib. xxxvii.
cap. vii.). John de Laet says (" De Gemmis," 1647, 8vo, p. 155) :
" The description of the lyncurium docs not ill agree with the
hyacinth of the moderns." Watson thinks likewise (" Phil. Trans.,"
Vol. LI. p. 394) and so does John Serapion-Serapio Mauritanus —
Yuhanna Ibn Serapion Ben Ibrahim (alluded to by Gilbert, " De
Magnete," Book I. chap, i.) in his " Lib. de simplicibus medicinis,"
Argent. 1531, fol. p. 263; and Anselm Boece de Boot, Flemish
naturalist (" Gem. et Lap. Hist.," Leyden, 1636); while Epiphanius
(" De Gemmis," XII.) states that he could find in the Bible no
mention of the lyncurium, which latter he also believes to have been
the hyacinth. On the other hand, the Duke de Noya Caraffa
(" Recueil de Mem. yEpinus," Petersb. 1762, 8vo, p. 122) considers
the tourmaline to be identical with the theamedes of the ancients
(Pliny, lib. xx. 50, and xxxvi., 25; Cardan, " De Subtilitate,"
lib. vii. p. 386).
The betylos has doubtless been likewise named in this connection.
Strabo, Pliny, Helancius — all speak of the electrical or electro-
magnetic power of the betyli. They were worshipped in the re-
motest antiquity in Egypt and Samothrace as magnetic stones
" containing souls which had fallen from heaven/' and the priests
of Cybele wore a small betylos on their bodies (Blavatsky, " Isis
Unveiled," Vol. I. p. 332).
REFERENCES. — Enficld, " Diet. Phil.," I. 152 : Marbodeus Callus,
1530-1531 Friburg, pp. 41 and 1539, Cologne, p. 39; Bostock's "Pliny,"
Book XXXVII. chap. xii. ; Azuni, " Boussole;," 1809, p. 37; Venanson,
" De 1'invention de la Boussole Nautique," Naples, 1808, pp. 27-29;
Thomas, " Sc. An.," 1837, p. 250. See also De Noya, " Encycl. Brit.,"
1855, VIII. p. 529, and Priestley, " History of Electricity," 1775, p. 293;
A. Carealpini, " De Metallicis," Roma?, 1596; Th. Browne, " Pseudodoxia
Epidemica," 1650, p. 51; St. Isidore, " Originum," lib. xvi. cap. 4;
Corn. Gemma, " De Natura Divinis," lib. i. cap. 7; Alb. Magnus, " De
Mineral.," lib. ii. ; Joseph Ennemoscr, "History of Magic," Vol. II.
pp. 27, 29, 51; Julius Solinus, " De Mirabilibus," cap. 34; Johann
S. T. Gehler, " Physik. Worterbuch," article " Magnet ismus "; Joannes
Langius, " Epistolarum Med.," Epist. Ixxv. For extract of Scrapio's
work see Fernel's "Coll. . . . Greek Writers," 1576. Consult likewise
" Collection des anciens Alchimistes Grecs," par M. Marcellin Berthelot,
Paris, 1887, p. 252 : siderites, aimant ou magnes, ferrum vivum, male et
femelle — with references to Dioscorides, Pliny and Lexicon Alch. Rulandi.
c
18 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
For Pliny, see also " Manual of Classical Biography," by Jos. Wm. Moss,
London, 1837, Vol. I. pp. 473-504.
" For lyke as ye lodestone draweth vnto it yron : so doeth beneficence
and well doyng allure all men vnto her." — Udal. Marke, c. 5.
B.C. 285-247.T-Ptolemy (Ptolemseus II, surnamed Phila-
delphus, or the brother-loving, son of Ptolemy Soler) ordered
Timochares, the architect of the palace, to suspend the iron statue
of Arsinoe in the temple of Pharos.
Although Pliny says (lib. xxxiv. cap. 14) that the statue was
never completed owing to the death of both Ptolemy and his
architect, Ausonius (Decimus Magnus), Roman poet (A.D. 309-393),
asserts the contrary in his most important work, " Mosella " (vv. 314-
320), translation of Mr. de la Ville de Mirmont, the first edition of
which was published by Ugollet at Venice in 1499. Therein it is
said : " Timochares (and not Dinochares, Dinocrates, Demochrates
or Chirocrates) suspended the statue in mid-air (dans les hauteurs
aeriennes du temple). , . . Under the ceiling- vault crowned with
loadstones, a bluish magnet draws, by means of an iron hair, the
young woman it holds in its embrace."
" Dinocrates began to make the arched roofe of the temple of
Arsinoe all of magnet, or this loadstone, to the end, that within
that temple the statue of the said princesse made of yron, might
seeme to hang in the aire by nothing " (Holland, " Plinie/' Book
XXXIV. cap. 14).
King Theodoric alludes (Cassiodor, " Variar," lib. i. epist. 45)
to a statue of Cupid in the temple of Diana at Ephesus (one of the
seven Wonders of the World), and St. Augustine (" De Civitate
Dei/' XXI. 6) speaks of a bronze figure in the temple of Serapis at
Alexandria, both suspended by means of a magnet attached to the
ceiling.1
REFERENCES. — De Mirmont, " La Moselle," 1889, " Comment aire/'
PP- 93 and 95; St. Isidore, " Originum," lib. xvi. cap. 4; G. Cedrinus,
" Compend. Hist.," cap. 267; Knight's " Mech. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1370;
Knight's " Cyclopaedia," Vol. I. p. 363 ; J. Ennemoser, " Hist, of Magic,"
Vol. II. p. 35; Ath. Kircher, " Magnes," 1643, lib. ii. prob. vi. ; Dino-
chares, with translation of poem (Claudian, Idyl V) at pp. 61—62 of
"Antique Gems," by Rev. C. W. King, London, 1866; Vincent de
Beauvais, "Spec. Mai," Douai, 1624, Vol. L, lib. viii. cap. 34; Alb.
Magnus, " De Mineralibus," 1651, lib. ii. cap. 6, p. 243; Ausonio Lucius
Ampelius, "Lib. Memorialis," Paris, 1827, cap. viii.; T. H. Martin,
" Observ. et Theories," 1865, pp. 5-7 ; Thos. Browne, " Pseud. Epidem.,"
1658, Book II. p. 79; W. Barlowe's " Magneticall Advertisements,"
1 It is scarcely necessary to add that the afore-named method of sus-
pension is impracticable. This curious problem was deemed worthy of a
memoir by M. J. Plateau, communicated to the " Acade"mie des Sciences "
at its stance of November 28, 1864 (" Le Moniteur Scientifique," par le Dr.
Quesneville, Vol. VI. p. 1146).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 19
1616, p. 45 ; " Simonis Maioli . , . dies Caniculares, seu Colloqui, XXIII,"
*597» P- 782 »' Rumnus, "Prosper d'Aquitaine " ; Porta, " Magia
Naturalis," lib. vii. cap. 27; " Mosella," in Wcrnsdorf's " Poetae Latini
Minores"; E. Salverte, " Phil, of Magic/' 1847, Vol. II. p. 215.
B.C. 200. — Polybius, a Greek statesman and historian, describes
(lib. x. cap. 45, " General History ") his optical telegraph — pyrsia —
because the signals were invariably produced by means of fire-
lights— an unquestionable improvement upon the modes of com-
munication which had been previously suggested by Cleoxenes and
Democritus. It consisted of a board upon which the twenty-four
letters of the Greek alphabet were arranged in five columns, one
space being vacant. The party signalling would hold up with his
left hand a number of torches indicating the column from which the
desired letter was to be taken, while in the right hand he would
hold up to view as many torches as were necessary to designate
the particular letter required.
REFERENCES. — Rollin's " Ancient History, 9th Dundee/' Vol VI.
p. 321 ; " Emporium of Arts and Sciences," Vol. I. pp. 296-299; " Penny
Encycl.," Vol. XXIV. p. 145. A good cut of the Polybius telegraph
will be found at p. 2 of "Wireless Telegraphy," by Wm. Maver, Jr.,
New York, 1904, and a very detailed account of all known lire signals is
given at pp. 148 and 373, Vol. IV of " The History of Herodotus," by
Geo. Rawlinson, London, 1880.
B.C. 60-56. — Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus), Roman poet,
alludes to the magnet in his poem " De Rerum Natura " ("The
Nature of Things "), thus translated by Dr. Thomas Busby, London,
1813, Book VI. vv. 1045-1059 :
" Now, chief of all, the Magnet's powers I sing,
And from what laws the attractive functions spring.
(The Magnet's name the observing Grecians drew
From the Magnet's region where it grew.)
Its viewless, potent, virtues men surprise;
Its strange effects they view with wondering eyes,
When without aid of hinges, links or springs,
A pendent chain we hold of steely rings,
Dropt from the stone; the stone the binding source,
Ring cleaves to ring, and owns magnetic force;
Those held superior those below maintain;
Circle 'neath circle downward draws in vain,
While free in air disports the oscillating chain.
So strong the Magnet's virtue as it darts
From ring to ring and knits the attracted parts."
A rendering by Thomas Creech, A.M., London, 1714, Book VI.
w, 894-989, likewise deserves reproduction here :
" Now sing my muse, for 'tis a weighty cause.
Explain the Magnet, why it strongly draws,
And brings rough Iron to its fond embrace.
This, Men admire; for they have often seen
Small Rings of Iron, six, or eight, or ten,
Compose a subtile chain, no Tye between;
20 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
But, held by this, they seem to hang in air,
One to another sticks and wantons there;
So great the Loadstone's force, so strong to bear !
Fiist, from the MAGNET num'rous Parts arise,
And swiftly move; the STONE gives vast supplies;
Which, springing still in Constant Streams, displace
The neighb'nng air and make an EMPTY SPACE ;
So when the STEEL comes there, some PARTS begin
To leap on through the VOID and enter in.
The STEEL will move to seek the STONE'S embrace,
Or up or down, or 1' any other place,
Which way soever lies the EMPTY SPACE."
The transmission of the magnetic attraction through rings or
chains is also alluded to in Plato's " Ion," p. 533, D. E. Ed.
Stephanus ; by Pliny, lib. xxxiv. cap. 14 ; St. Augustine, " De
Civitate Dei/' XX. 4; Philo, " De Mundi Opificio," D. ed., 1691,
p. 32; likewise by the learned Bishop Hall, " The English Seneca/'
as follows : " That the loadstone should by his secret virtue so
drawe yron to it selfe that a whole chaine of needles should hang
by insensible points at each other, only by the influence that it
sends downe from the first, if it were not ordinary, would seeme
incredible " (" Meditations," 1640, con. 3, par. 18).
REFERENCES. — " Le Journal dcs Savants " for January 1824, p. 30,
also for March 1833, June 1866 and December 1869; Plutarch, " Platon-
Qmcst.," Vol. 11. p. 1004, ed. par.; St. Isidore, " Ktymologiarum,
Originum," lib. xvi., iv. ; the Timrcus (Bohn, 1849, Vol. II. p. 394);
Platonis, " lo," Lugduni, 1590, pp. 145, 146; " Houzeau ct Lancaster,
Bibliographic G6neralc," Vol. I. part i. pp. 440-442; Gco. Burgess, tr.
of Plato's " Ion," London, 1851, Vol. IV. pp. 294-295 and notes.
A.D. 50. — Scribonius Largus, Designations, Roman physician,
relates (Chaps. I. and XLI. of his " De Compositione Med. Medica ")
that a freedman of Tiberius called Anthero was cured of the gout
by shocks received from the electric torpedo, and Dioscorides advises
the same treatment for inveterate pains of the head (" Torpedo,"
lib. ii.). Other applications are alluded to by Galen (" Simp.
Medic./' lib. xi. ; Paulus /Bgineta, " De Re Medica/' lib. vii. ;
"Encycl. Met./' article "Electricity/' IV. p. 41). See also
Bertholon, " Elec. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I. p. 174.
Fahie states (" History of Electric Telegraphy," p. 172) that,
along the banks of the Old Calabar River, in Africa, the natives
employ the electrical properties of the gymnotus for the cure of their
sick children. They either place the ailing child close by the vessel
of water containing the animal, or the child is made to play with a
very small specimen of the fish.
REFERENCES.— " La Grande Encycl., " Vol. XXIX. p. 831;
Humboldt, " Voyage Zoologique/' p. 88; " New Gen. Biogr.," London,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 21
1850, Vol. XI. p. 501; " Larousse Diet.," Vol. XIV. p. 427; " Hoefer
Biogr./' Vol. XLIII. p. 654.
A.D. 121. — The Chinese knew of old the magnet, its attractive
force and its polarity, but the most ancient record made of the
peculiar property possessed by the loadstone of communicating
polarity to iron is explicitly mentioned in the celebrated dictionary
" Choue-Wen," which Hin-tchin completed in A.D. 121, the fifteenth
year of the reign of the Emperor Ngan-ti o* the Han dynasty.
This dictionary contains a description of the manner in which
the property of pointing with one end toward the south may be
imparted to an iron rod by a series of methodical blows, and alludes
to (" Tseu ") the " stone with which a direction can be given to the
needle."
" In Europe it has been thought that the needle had its chief
tendency to the north pole ; but in China the south alone is con-
sidered as containing the attractive power " (Sir G. Staunton,
" Account of an Embassy," London, 1797, Vol. I. p. 445).
Le Pere Gaubil, who was sent to China in 1721 and died in
Pekin 1759, says (" Histoire . . . dc la dynastic de Tang," in
" Memoires concernant ..." Vol. XV) that he found, in a work
written towards the end of the Han dynasty, the use of the compass
distinctly marked to distinguish the north and the south. He also
states, though doubtless erroneously, that that form was given it
under the reign of Hian-Tsoung.
With reference to the magnetic attraction to the pole, it is well
to bear in mind that no allusion whatsoever is made thereto by any
of the writers of classical antiquity. This much has already been
stated under date B.C. 1000-907. It certainly appears to have
escaped the attention of the ancient Greeks and Romans, whose
admiration, according to the learned French physician Falconet
(" Dissert. Hist, et Crit "), was excited solely by the attractive
property of the loadstone.
The Rev. Father Joseph de Acosta (" Natural and Moral History
of the Indies," translation of C. R. Markham, lib. i. cap. 16) thus
alludes to the above subject : "I finde not that, in ancient bookes,
there is any mention made of the vse of the Iman or Loadstone, nor
of the Compasse (aguja de marear) to saile by ; I beleeve they had
no knowledge thereof. . . . Plinie speakes nothing of that vertue
it* hath, alwaies to turne yron which it toucheth towards the
north. . . . Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Lucretius, Saint
Augustine, nor any other writers or Naturall Philosophers that I
have scene, make any mention thereof, although they treat of the
loadstone."
Thomas Creech, in the notes to his translation of Lucretius'
22 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" De Natura " says : " Nor indeed, do any of the ancients treat
of this last (the directive) power of the loadstone . . . and Guido
Pancirollus justly places it among the modern inventions."
REFERENCES. — Klaproth, " La Boussole," Paris, 1834, pp. 9, 10,
66; Azuni, "Boussole," Paris, 1809, p. 30; "English Cycl." — Arts
and Sciences — Vol. V. p. 420; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1848, Vol. II.
p. 628; John Francis Davis, "The Chinese," London, 1836, Vol. II.
pp. 221, etc., or the 1844 edition, Vol. HI. p. 12; Geo. Adams, " Essay
. . ." 1785, p. 428. »
A.D. 218. — Salmasius, in his Commentary upon Solinus, asserts
that, at this date, amber was known among the Arabs as Karabe,
or Kahrubd, a word which, Avicenna states, is of Persian origin and
signifies the power of attracting straws; the magnet being called
Ahang-rubd, or attractor of iron.
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Met.," Vol. IV. p. 41; Fahie, "Hist, of
Elec. Teleg.," p. 29.
A.D. 232-290. — Africanus (Sextus Julius), an eminent Christian
historical writer, author of a chronicle extending from the date of
the creation to A.D. 221, as well as of an extensive work entitled
" Kestoi," states that the Roman generals perfected a system for
readily communicating intelligence by means of fires made of
different substances.
REFERENCES. — Shaffner, "Teleg. Man.," 1859, p. 19; Appleton's
" Cyclopaedia," 1871, Vol. XV. p. 333.
A.D. 235. — It is related that one Makium, who was ordered by
the Chinese emperor to construct " a car which would show the
South/' succeeded in doing so, and thus recovered the secret of
manufacture which had for some time been lost. The " Amer.
Jo urn. of Science and the Arts " (Vol. XL. p. 249) adds that, from
this date, the construction of a magnetic car seems to have been
a puzzle , . . and the knowledge of the invention appears to have
been confined within very narrow limits. Humboldt says that the
magnetic wagon was used as late as the fifteenth century of our era ;
the " American Journal " states that it cannot be traced later than
1609.
A.D. 265-419. — What is by many believed to be the earliest
reliable, distinct mention or actually printed record of the use of
the magnet for navigation, appears in the justly prominent Chinese
dictionary or rather encyclopaedia, " Poei-wen-yun-fou," wherein
it is mentioned that there were during this period (that of the second
Tsin dynasty) ships directed to the South by the ching or needle.
It is likewise therein stated that the figure then placed upon the
magnetic cars represented " a genius in a feather dress " and that,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 23
when the emperor went out upon state occasions this car " always
led the way and served to indicate the four points of the compass/'
REFERENCES. — Homer at B.C. 1000-907; Davis, " The Chinese,"
Vol. III. p. 12; Klaproth, " Boussole," pp. 66, 67; Johnson, "Univ.
Cycl.," Vol. I. p. 927, ed. 1877; Miller, " Hist. Phil. Illust.," London,
1849, Vol. I. p. 180.
In a later work called " Mung-khi-py-than " will be found the
following : " The soothsayers rub a needle with the magnet stone,
so that it may mark the south; however, it declines constantly a
little to the east. It does not indicate the south exactly. When
this needle floats on the water it is much agitated. If the finger-
nails touch the upper edge of the basin in which it floats, they
agitate it strongly; only it continues to slide and falls easily. It
is preferable, in order to show its virtues in the best way, to suspend
it as follows : Take a single filament from a piece of new cotton
and attach it exactly to the middle of the needle by a bit of wax
as large as a mustard seed. Hang it up in a place where there is
no wind. Then the needle always shows the south; but among
such needles there are some which, being rubbed, indicate the
north. Our soothsayers have some which show the south and some
which show the north. Of this property of the magnet to indicate
the south, like that of the cypress to show the west, no one can tell
the origin."
A.D. 295-324. — Koupho, Chinese physicist as well as writer, and
one of the most celebrated men of his age, compares the attractive
property of the magnet with that of amber animated by friction
and heat. In his " Discourse on the Loadstone " he says : " The
magnet attracts iron as amber draws mustard seeds. There is a
breath of wind that promptly and mysteriously penetrates both
bodies, uniting them imperceptibly with the rapidity of an arrow.
It is incomprehensible."
REFERENCES. — Klaproth, " Boussole," p. 125 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos,"
1848, Vol. V. p. 51 ; Libri, " Hist, des Mathem.," Vol. I. p. 381, note 2.
A.D. 304. — St. Elmo (St. Erasmus) Bishop of Formiae, in ancient
Italy, who suffered martyrdom about this date at Gaeta, is the one
after whom sailors in the Mediterranean first named the fires or
flames which by many are believed to be of an electric nature and
which appear during stormy weather, either at the yardarms, mast-
heads, in the rigging, or about the decks of a vessel. When two
flames are seen together, they are called Castor and Pollux, " twin
gods of the sea, guiding^he mariner to port/' and are considered by
seamen an indication of good luck and of fine weather; but when
only one flame is visible it is called Helena, and is supposed to be an
evil omen, the beacon of an avenging God luring the sailor to death.
24 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
St. Elmo's fire is also known to the Italians as the fire of SI. Peter
and of 5/. Nicholas, to the Portuguese as San Telmo and as Corpos
Santos, and to the English sailors as comazant or corposant.
The historian of Columbus' second voyage says that during the
month of October 1493 "St. Elmo appeared on the topgallant-
masts with seven lighted tapers." It is also alluded to by Pliny,
" Nat. Hist." lib. ii. cap. 37; by Stobaeus, " Eclogarum Phys.," I.
514; Livy, "Hist.," cap. 2; Seneca, "Nat. Quaest.," I. i; by
Caesar, " de Bello Africano," cap. 6 edit. Amstel., 1686; and by
Camoens, " Os Lusiades," canto v. est. 18.
" Last night I saw St. Elmo's stars,
With their glimmering lanterns all at play
On the tops of the masts and the tips of the spars,
„ And I knew we should have foul weather to-day."
Longfellow, " Golden Legend," Chap. V.
"... Sometimes I'd divide,
And burn in many places — on the topmast,
The yards and bowsprit, would I flame distinctly,
Then meet and join. . . ."
Shakespeare, " The Tempest," Act i. sc. 2.
REFERENCES. — " Nouvelle Biographic Gene"rale," Vol. XVI. p. 179;
" Grand Diet. Univ. clu xixe siccle " of Pierre Laroussc, Vol. VII. p.
786; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 245; Becquerel, " Traite"
Exper.," 1834, Vol. I. p. 34, and his " R6sum6," Chap. I; Le Breton,
" Histoire," 1884, p. 43; " La Lumidre Klectrique," Juin 1891, p. 546,
likewise Procopius, " DC Bcllo, Vandal," lib. ii. cap. 2 ; William Falconer's
" Observations," etc. in Vol. 111. p. 278 of " Mem. Lit. and Ph. Soc.
Manchester," 1790 (translated in Italian, 1791), for an account of the
flames appearing upon the spear points of the Roman legions.
A.D. 400. — Marcellus Empiricus, who was magister officiorum in
the reign of Thcodosius the Great (379-395) states in his " De Medi-
camentis Empiricis," Venetiis, 1547, P- $9, that the magnet called
antiphyson attracts and repulses iron. This, adds Becquerel in
his " Resume*," Chap. Ill, further proves that these properties were
known in the fourth century.
REFERENCES. — Klaproth, " Boussole," 1834, p. 12 ; Harris, " Magnet-
ism," I and II ; " New Gen. Biogr. Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. IX. p. 475.
A.D. 425. — Zosimus (Count), Greek historian, who lived under
Theodosius II (401-450), " sometime advocate of the Treasury of the
Roman Empire," wrote the history of that empire from the reign
of Augustus to the year A.D. 410, wherein he is the first to call atten-
tion to the electrolytic separation of metals, i. e. that the latter
acquire a coating of copper upon being immersed in a cupreous
solution. *
REFERENCES. — Gore, " Art of Electro-Met.," 1877, p. i, or the London
1890 edition, p. B; "A treatise on Electro-Metal.," by Walter G. Mc-
Millan, London, 1890, p. 2; " Journal des Savants " for June 1895, pp.
382-387; Dr. Geo. Langbein's treatise, translated by W. T. Brannt,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 25
Chap. I; " Nouvelle Biogr. Gen." (Hoefer), Vol. XLVI. p. 1022; Schoell,
" Hist, de la Litt6r. Grecque " ; Pauly, " Real Encycl. . . . Alterthums " ;
"Biogr. Univ." (Michaud), Vol. XLV. p. 606; " Nouveau Larousse,1'
Vol. VII. p. 1429.
A.D. 426. — Augustine (Aurelius, Saint), the most prominent of
the Latin Fathers of the Church, finishes his " De Civitate Dei/'
which he began in 413, and which is considered the greatest monu-
ment to his genius. He was probably the most voluminous writer of
the earlier Christian centuries. He was the author of no less than
232 books, in addition to many tractates or homilies and innumerable
epistles (" Books and their Makers, during the Middle Ages/' Geo.
Haven Putnam, New York, 1896, Vol. I. p. 3). In the " De Civitate
Dei "he tells us (Basilcse, 1522, pp. 718-719) of the experiment alluded
to herein at A.D. 1558. This had better be given in his own words
(" De Civitate Dei/' lib. ii. cap. 4, Dod's translation, Edinburgh,
1871) :
" When I first saw it (the attraction of the magnet), I was
thunderstruck (vehcmentcr inhorrui), for I saw an iron ring attracted
and suspended by the stone; and then, as if it had communicated
its own property to the iron it attracted and had made it a sub-
stance like itself, this ring was put near another and lifted it up,
and, as the first ring clung to the magnet, so did the second ring
to the first. A third and fourth were similarly added, so that
there hung from the stone a kind of chain of rings with their hoops
connected, not interlinking but attached together by their outer
surface. Who would not be amazed by this virtue of the stone,
subsisting as it does, not only in itself, but transmitted through
so many suspended rings and binding them together by invisible
links ? Yet far more astonishing is what I heard about the stone
from my brother in the episcopate, Severus, Bishop of Milevis. He
told me that Bathanarius, once Count of Africa, when the Bishop
was dining with him, produced a magnet and held it under a silver
plate on which he placed a bit of iron ; then as he moved his hand
with the magnet underneath the plate, the iron upon the plate
moved about accordingly. The intervening silver was not affected
at all, but precisely as the magnet was moved backward and forward
below it, no matter how quickly, so was the iron attracted above.
I have related what I have myself witnessed : I have related what
I was told by one whom I trust as I trust my own eyes."
REFERENCES. — " Vie dc St. Augustin," by Poujoulat, second edition,
Paris, 1852, and by G. Moringo, 1533; Possidius, also Rivius, " Vitae de
St. Angus."; L. Tillcmont, " Memoires Eccles.," 1702 (the i3th Vol.
of which is devoted to an elaborate account of his life and controversies) ;
Bindemann, "Der heilige Augustinus," 1844; Butler, "Lives of the
Saints " ; Lardner, " Credibility of the Gospel History," Vol. VI. part i. pp.
58-59, and Vol. X. pp. 198-303 ; Neander, " Geschichte der Christlichen
26 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Religion und Kirche "; Pellechet, " Catalogue General des Incunables,"
1897, pp. 339-370 ; Alfred Weber, " History of Philosophy/' tr. by Frank
Thilly, New York, 1896, pp. 188-198; " St. Augustine's City of God/1
tr. by Rev. Marcus Dods, Edinburgh, 1871, Vol. II. book xxi. pp. 420.
457 » " Journal des Sea vans/' Vol. XIV. for 1686, pp. 22-23, mentions
the above-named experiment and the effect of diamond on the loadstone ;
"Journal des Savants" for Sept. 1898; Ueberweg, "Hist, of Philo-
sophy" (Morris' tr., 1885), Vol. I. pp. 333-346.
A.D. 450. — Aetius (Amidenus), Greek physician, informs us
(Aetii, op. lib. xi. cap 25) that " those who are troubled with the
gout in their hands or in their feet, or with convulsions, find relief
when they hold a magnet in their hand. Paracelsus recommended
the use of the magnet in a number of diseases, as fluxes, haemorrhages,
etc., while Marcellus (" Steph. Artis. Med. Princip./' II. p. 253) and
Camillus Leonardus (" Speculum Lapidum," lib. ii.) assert that it
will cure the toothache.
During the year 1596, Jean Jacques Vuccher published " De
Secretis " (" The secrets and marvels of Nature "), wherein, at
p. 166, he thus advises the application of a loadstone for curing the
headache : " La pierre d'aymant appliquee et misc contre la teste,
oste toutes les douleurs ct maux d'icelle-ce quc nostre H oiler ius escrit
comme I' ay ant prins [sic] des commentaires des anciens." And, in
1754, Lenoble constructed magnets that were readily used in the
treatment of various diseases (" Practical Mechanic," Vol. II.
P- *7*)-
The application of the magnet for the relief of various complaints
is treated of at pp. 334-335, Vol. II. of J. Ennemoser's " History of
Magic," where will be found a list of works containing accounts
of the oldest and most extraordinary known cures on record.
Additional references to cures by the magnet, as well as with iron
or amber — besides those named more particularly at A.D. 1770
(Maxim. Hell) and at A.D. 1775 (J. F. Bolten) — are to be found in
the following works :
Avicenna, " Canona Medicinas," Venice, 1608, lib. ii. cap. 470; Pliny,
"Natural Historic," Holland tr., 1601, Chap. IV. p. 609; Hah Abas,
"Liber totius medicinae," 1523, lib. i. ; Serapio Mauritania, " De
simplicibus medicinis," Argent., 1531, pp. 260, 264; Antonius Musa
Brasavolus, " Examen omnium simplicium medicamcntorum," Rome
I53^» Santes de Ardoynis Pisaurensis, " Liber de Venenis " (Venetiis,
1492), Basilae, 1562; Oribasius, " De facilitate metallicorum," lib, xiii. ;
Joannes Baptista Montanus, " Metaphrasis Summaria . . ." 1551;
G. Pictorio, in his poem published at Basel in 1567, or in the 1530-1531
editions of " Marbodei Galli Poetac vetustissimi de lapidibus pretiosis
Enchiridion " (J. A. Vander Linden, " De Scriptis Medicis, 1651,
pp. 210-211); Rhazes, " De simplicibus, ad Almansorem," Venetiis,
1542, lib. ult. cap 295 ; Joannes Lonicerus (author of " De Meteoris,"
Frankfort, 1550), " In Dioscoridas Anazarbei de re medica ..." 1543,
p. 77; Matthseus Silvaticus, " Opus Pandectarum Medicinae," 1498,
1511, 1526 (1541), cap. 446; Petrus de Abano, " Tractatus de Venenis/'
1490, also " Conciliator DifTerentiarum Philosophorurfl ;| (1496), 1520,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 27
1526; Nicolaus Myrepsus, "Liber de compositione medicamentorum,"
1541, 1549, 1567, 1626; Joannes Manardus, " Epistolarum medicina-
lium " (Basilae, 1549) ; Dioscorides Pedacius, " De materia medica,"
Spengel ed., 1829, Chap. CXLVII. or in the 1557 ed. p. 507, or in the
translation made by Joannes Ruellius in 1543; Nicholas Monardus,
" Joyfull newes out of the new-found worlde," Frampton tr., London,
1596; Arnaldus de Villa Nova, " Tractatus de virtutibus herbarum "
(i499) » Amatus Lusitanus, " Enarrationes Eruditissimae," 1597, pp.
482, 507; Gabriellus Fallopius, " De Simplicibus Medicamentis purgenti-
bus tractatus," and " Tractatus de compositione Medicamentorum,"
Venetiis, 1566, 1570; Joannes Langius, "Epistolarum Medicina-
lium . . .," Paris, 1589; Petri Andriae Mathiolus, " Commentarii . . .
Dioscoridis . . . de materia medica," 1598, p. 998; W. Barlowe,
" Magneticall Advertisements/' 1616, p. 7, or the 1843 reprint; Albertus
Magnus, " De Mineralibus " (1542), lib. ii. ; Oswaldus Crollius, " Basilica
Chimica," 1612, p. 267; Nicolaus Curtius, " Libellus de medica-
mentis . . ." Giessae Cattorum, 1614; Rudolphi Goclenii — Goclenius —
" Tractatus de magnetica curatione," 1609, 1613, also " Synarthosis
Magnetica," Marpurgi, 1617 (Eloy " Diet. Hist, de la He'd.," Vol. II.
pp. 359-360) ; Luis de Oviedo, " Methodo de la Coleccion y Reposicion
de las medicinas simples," 1622, p. 502; W. Charleton, " A Ternary of
Paradoxes of the Magnetic cure of Wounds/' 1650 ; the " Pharmacopoeia
Augustana/' Augsburg, 1621, p. 182 ; Patrick Brydone in " Phil. Trans./'
Vol. L. pp. 392, 695, and Vol. LXIII. p. 163. Consult also the abridg-
ments by Hutton, Vol. XL p. 262, Vol. 3
otheca Therapeutica," London, 1878.
ments by Hutton, Vol. XL p. 262, Vol. XIII. p. 415; Waring's " Bibli-
" The magnet . . . gives comfort and grace, and is a cure for
many complaints ; it is of great value in disputes. When pulverised,
it cures many burns. It is a remedy for dropsy " (I Sermone . . .
di F. Sacchetti . . . § 18).
According to Bias, " the magnet reconciles husbands to their
wives/' and Platea remarks that " it is principally of use to the
wounded/' while Avicenna says "it is a remedy against spleen,
the dropsy and alopecian."
For additional information, consult J. Beckmann's " History
of Inventions/' Bohn, 1846, Vol. I. p. 43, and the article " Som-
nambulism " in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica."
A.D. 543. — The Japanese say that at about this date the Mikado
received from the Court of Petsi in Corea " the wheel which indicates
the south."
REFERENCE. — Knight, " Mechanical Dictionary," Vol. II. p. 1397.
" A.D. 658.— As shown by Kai-bara-Tok-sin, in the " Wa-zi-si/1
the first magnetic cars were constructed during this year in Japan ;
the loadstone was not, however, discovered in that country until
A.D. 713, when it was brought from the province of Oomi (Klaproth,
"Boussole," p. 94). The " Journal of the Franklin Institute"
(Vol. XVIII. for 1836, p. 69), gives a description and illustration
of one of these magnetic chariots, taken from the thirty-third volume
of the Japanese Encyclopaedia.
A.D, 806-820.— Between these dates, under the Thang dynasty,
28 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
were first made the cars called Kin-Koung-yuan, which were mag-
netic chariots similar to those previously known, but bearing in
addition a drum and a bell. Both the latter were struck at regular
intervals by an erect male figure placed at the head of the car
(" American Journal of Science and the Arts," Vol. XL. p. 249).
A critic named Tchen-yn admits, as already indicated herein
under the A.D. 235 date, that the knowledge of the mode of con-
struction of the magnetic cars was by no means general. " I know
well," adds he, " that, at the time of the Thang, under Hien-toimg
(who ascended the throne 806 A.D., and reigned seventeen years)
a chariot was made which always showed the four parts of the earth,
in imitation, it was said, of those constructed at the time of Hoang-
ti. . . . Upon it stood the figure of a spirit, whose hand always
pointed to the south."
REFERENCES. — " Mdmoircs concernant 1'histoirc . . ." by Saillant
et Nyon, Paris, 1776-1788, Vol. XIII. p. 234; Klaproth, " Boussolc,"
p. 72.
A.D. 968. — Kung-foo-Whing is said to have invented a method
of transmitting sound through wires by means of an apparatus called
thumthsein, although no trace whatever of the latter is to be found
in any of the numerous authorities herein quoted.
A.D. 1067-1148.— Frode (Ari Hinn— Ara Hin— or the Wise),
Arius Polyhistor (Ari Prestrinha Frodi Thorgillsun), Icelandic
historian, " than whom there is no higher authority," was the first
compiler of the celebrated " Landnanm-Bok," which contains a
full account of all the early settlers in Iceland, and is doubtless the
most complete record of the kind ever made by any nation.
In it, he says that, at the time Floke Vilgerderson left Rogoland,
in Norway, about A.D. 868, for another visit to Gardansholm (Ice-
land), of which he was the original discoverer, " the seamen had no
loadstone (leider stein) in the northern countries," thus showing,
according to Prof. Hansteen, that the directive power of the needle
and its use in navigation were known in Europe in the eleventh
century. In this manner is given the first intimation of the know-
ledge of the mariner's compass outside of China. The passage
quoted above is by many supposed to be an interpolation, for it
is not found in several manuscripts, and it has even been asserted
(" Br. Ann./' p. 296), that its origin does not antedate the fourteenth
century, thus strengthening the claims of the French in behalf of
Guyot De Provins.
REFERENCES. — " Landnama-Bok," Kioebenhaven, 1774, T. I. chap. ii.
par. 7 ; John Angell, " Magnet, and Elect.," 1874, p. 10 ; Lloyd, " Magnet-
ism," p. 101 ; " Pre-Col. Disc, of Am.," De Costa, pp. xxiii and n ; " Bull,
de G6ogr.," 1858, p. 177; " Good Words," 1874, p. 70; Klaproth,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 29
" Boussole," p. 40; Hansteen, "Inquiries Concerning the Magnetism
of the Earth," and " Magazin fur Naturvidenskaberne Christiana," I.
2, " Encycl. Metrop.," Vol. III. p. 736; the 1190-1210 entry herein.
A.D. 1111-1117. — Kcou-tsoungchy, Chinese philosopher and
writer, gives, in the medical natural history called " Pen-thsao-yan-
i," written by him under the Soung dynasty, the earliest description
of a water compass found in any Chinese work, viz. : " The magnet
is covered over with little bristles slightly red, and its superficies is
rough. It attracts iron and unites itself with it; and, for this
reason, it is commonly called the stone which licks up iron. When
an iron point is rubbed upon the magnet, it acquires the property of
pointing to the south, yet it declines always to the east, and is not
perfectly true to the south. ... If the needle be passed through
a wick or a small tube of thin reed, and placed upon water, it will
indicate the south, but with a continual inclination towards the
point ping, that is to say, East five-sixths South."
In the " Mung-khi-py-than," also composed under the Soung
dynasty, it is stated that fortune-tellers rub the needle with the
loadstone in order to make it indicate the south.
REFERENCES. — Comptes Rendus, Vol. XIX. p. 365; "Am.
Journal Sc. and Arts," 1841, XL. p. 248; Davis, " The Chinese," 1844,
Vol. III. p. 13 ; Bccquerel, " Elec. et Mag.," p. 58; Klaproth, " Boussole,"
pp. 67-69, 95; Humboldt," Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 656, and Vol. V.
p. 52; Knight, " Mech. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1397; Humboldt, " Examcn
Critique," Paris, 1836, Vol. III. p 34.
A.D. 1160. — Eustathius, Archbishop of Thessalonica, relates in
his commentary on the Iliad of Homer, that Walimer, father of
Theodoric and King of the Goths, used to emit sparks from his body ;
also that a certain philosopher observed sparks occasionally issuing
from his chest accompanied with a crackling noise.
Leithead tells us that streams of fire came from the hair of Ser-
vius Tullius, a Roman King, during sleep, when he was about seven
years of age (Dionysius, " Antiq. Rom." lib. iv. ; Pliny, "Hist.
Nat." lib. ii. cap. 37) ; that Cardan alludes to the hair of a certain
Carmelite monk emitting sparks whenever it was rubbed backward
("De Rerum Varietate," lib. viii. cap. 43); that Father Faber,
in his " Palladium Chemicum," speaks of a young woman whose
hair emitted sparks while being combed, and also refers to allusions
made in the same line by Thomas Bartholinus, " De Luce Ani-
malium," Lugd. 1647, p. 121; Ezekiel di Castro, " De Igne Lam-
bente "; Johann Jacob Hemmer, "Trans. Elec. Soc. Mannheim,"
Vol. VI ; and Phil. Trans., Vol. V. pp. i, 40.
REFERENCES. — Eustath in Iliad, E. p. 515, ed. Rom.; "Encycl.
Brit.," 1855, VIII. p. 571 ; Priestley, " History of Electricity," London,
J775» PP- *28, 129; Phil. Trans., abridged, Vol. X. pp. 278, 343, 344,
357-
30 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1190-1210. — Guyot de Provins, minstrel at the Court of
the Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), gives the first French mention
of the water compass in a manuscript " politico-satirical " poem
entitled " La Bible/' to be found in the Biblioth£que Nationale.
It is therein said that sailors were at that time in the habit of rubbing
needles upon the ugly brown stone called mariniere, " to which iron
adheres of its own accord/' and that, as soon as placed afloat upon a
small piece of straw in the water, the needles would point to the
North. The passage alluding to the compass has been copied by
D. A. Azuni, member of the Turin Academy of Sciences, from the
original manuscript, and is given entire, with the French trans-
lation, at p. 137 of his " Dissertation . , ." second edition, Paris,
1809 ;
"De notre pdre 1'apostoile (le pape)
Us 1'appellent la tresmontaigne
Par la vertu de la marinie're,
Unc pierre laide et brumidre,
Ou li fers volontiers se joint. . . ."
The passage is also given by Klaproth, at pp. 41-43, and by Venan-
son, at p. 72, of their respective works already cited; likewise by
Bertelli, p. 59 of his Memoir published in 1868.
Sonnini (C. S.), in Buff on " Mineraux," Vol. XV, p. 100, says
that Azuni has successfully established the claims of France to the
first use of the mariner's compass. Other writers herein, who follow
in their order, will doubtless show to the satisfaction of the reader
that, as the Arabs possessed it at the same time, they must have
received it from the Chinese, and therefore transmitted it to the
Franks during the first Crusades, as stated by Klaproth in his
" Lettre a M. de Humboldt," Paris, 1834, pp. 64-66.
REFERENCES. — Becquerel, " Trait6 d'Elect. et de Magn./' Vol. I.
p. 70 ; Bertelli, " Mem, sopra P. Peregrine," 1868, p. 59; R. M. Ferguson,
" Electricity," 1867, p. 43; J. F. Wolfart, " Des Guiot von Provins,"
Halle, 1861 ; "Bulletin de Geographic," 1858, p. 177; Barbazan,
" Fabliaux," Vol. II. p. 328 : Becquerel, " Resume"," Chap. Ill; Hum-
boldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. pp. 628-630; " Amer. Journ. Sc. and
Arts," Vol. XL. p. 243; " Guiot von Provins," in Meyers Konvers. Lex.,
Vol. VIII. p. 81 ; " Encycl. Met.," Vol. III. p. 736, gives a verbatim copy
of part of Guyot's poem, with its literal translation ; Libri, " Hist, des
Sc. Math&n.," Paris, 1838, Vol. II. p. 63; " Encycl. Met./' Vol. XII.
p. 104; J. Lorimer, " Essay on Magnetism," London, 1795; Sir John
Francis Davis, " The Chinese," Vol. III. p. xii, or " China/' London,
1857, pp. 184-187; Whewell, " Hist, of Ind. Sc./' Vol. II. p. 46.
A.D. 1204-1220.— Jacobus de Vitry, Cardinal Bishop of Ptole-
mais, in Syria, one of the Crusaders, thus speaks of the compass in his
qtti^tcnnrru^ ^
de IVovins ll i a Bilile " In the Bibliothrque Nntionale, Pans,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 31
"Historic Hierosolimitanae/'1 cap. 89 and gi : " The Magnet [diamant,
as shown under the B.C. 321 date] is found in the Indies. . . .
It attracts iron through a secret virtue ; after a needle has touched
the loadstone, it always turns toward the North Star, which latter
is as the world's axis and is immobile, while the other stars turn
around it ; that is why the compass is so useful to navigators, valde
necessarius navigantibus. ' '
REFERENCES. — Azuni, " Boussole," p. 140; Venanson, " Boussole,"
p. 77 ; Klaproth, pp. 14, 43-44 ; Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 1 184 ; Becquerel,
" Elec. ct Magn.," Vol. I. p. 70; Knight, " Mech. Diet./' Vol. II. p. 1397.
A.D. 1207. — Neckam (Alexander of), 1157-1217, Abbot of St.
Mary's, alludes in his " De Utensilibus " to a needle carried on board
ship, which, being placed upon a pivot and allowed to take its own
position of repose, " showed mariners their course when the Polar
Star is hidden." In another work, " De Naturis Rerum " (lib. ii.
cap. 89), he writes: " Mariners at sea, when, through cloudy weather
in the day, which hides the sun, or through the darkness of the night,
they lose the knowledge of the quarter of the world to which they
are sailing, touch a needle with a magnet which will turn around until,
on its own motion ceasing, its point will be directed toward the
North (Chappell, "Nature/' No. 346, June 15, 1876; Thomas
Wright, " Chronicles and Memoirs . . . Middle Ages/' 1863).
REFERENCES. — "La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XXIV. p. 898;
Hcefer, " Nouv. Biogr. Ge"nerale," Vol. XXXVII. p. 570.
A.D. 1235-1315.— Lully (Raymond) of Majorca (often con-
founded with Ramond Lull, who is the author of several alchemical
books and of whose biography very little is known), was, by turns,
a soldier, a poet, a monk, a knight, a missionary and a martyr, and
is referred to by Humboldt as " the singularly ingenious and eccen-
tric man, whose doctrines excited the enthusiasm of Giordano Bruno
when a boy, and who was at once a philosophical systematizer and
an analytical chemist, a skilful mariner and a successful propagator
of Christianity/'
During the year 1272 Lully published his " De Contemplatione,"
which was followed by " Fenix de las maravillas del orbe " in 1286,
and by his " Arte de Naveguar " in 1295. In these he states that
the seamen of his time employed instruments of measurement, sea
charts and the magnetic needle (tenian, los mareantes, instrumento,
carta, compas y aguja), and he describes the improvements made in
1 The " Historiae Hierosolimitanoe " relates all that passed in the king-
dom of Jerusalem from 1177 to the siege of Ptolemais inclusively (" History
of the Crusades/' Joseph Francois Michaud, translated by W. Robson, Vol.
I. p. 456).
32 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the astrolabes (designed for the determination of time and of geo-
graphical latitudes by meridian altitudes and capable of being
employed at sea) from the period that the astrolabium of the
Majorcan pilots was in use.
The application of the astrolabe to navigation, Mr. Irving says
(" Hist, of the Life ... of Columbus/' London, 1828, Vol. I. pp.
76-78), was " one of those timely events which seem to have some
thing providential in them. It was immediately after this that
Columbus proposed his voyage of discovery to the crown of
Portugal."
Lully also confirms the fact that the Barcelonians employed
atlases, astrolabes 1 and compasses long before Don Jaime Ferrer
penetrated to the mouth of the Rio de Ouro, on the western coast
of Africa, which was about fifty years after the date of the last-
named work.
Incidentally it may be added that Lully, posing as an alchemist,
is said to have in the presence of the English King, Edward I,
converted iron into gold, which latter was coined into rose-nobles
(Bergman, "Hist, of Chem."; Louis Figuier, " L'Alchimie et les
Alchimistes," Paris, 1860, p. 148).
REFERENCES. — For Lul. Raimon, or Raymunrlus, or Lullius (1235-
1315), " Diet, of Philos. and Psych.," by J. M. Baldwin, New York, 1902,
Vol. II. p. 32; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. pp. 629-631, 670,
and 1859, Vol. V.p. 55; Miller, " Hist. Phil. 111.," London, 1849, Vol. II.
p. 217; Whewell, " Hist. Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol. 1. p. 169; also his " Phil,
of the Ind. Sc.," London, 1840, Vol. II. pp. 320-323; " Journal des
Savants," 1896, pp. 342, 345-355; " Biogr. G6ner.," article " Lulle " ;
Helffcrich, " Raym. L.," Berlin, 1858; Nicolai Eymerici, " Direct Inq.,"
Rome, 1578; Bolton, " Ch. Hist, of Chem.," pp. 1000— 1001 ; Ueberweg,
"Hist, of Philos." (Morris' translation, 1885), Vol. I. pp. 457, 459;
" Lives of Alchemysiical Philosophers," by Arthur Edward Waitc,
London, 1888, pp. 68-88, in which is given, at pp. 276-306, an alpha-
1 THE ASTROLABE. — For descriptions of astrolabes used by the Arabs,
see pp. 338-357 of " Mat£riaux . . . Sciences Mathem.," by L. A. Sedillot,
Paris, 1845, and for plates showing the construction of the compass and other
nautical instruments of his time, consult Crcscentio (Bartolomeo), " Nautica
Mediterranea," Rome, 1602.
The invention of the astrolabe is ascribed to Hipparchus, and Chaucer's
description in 1391 is the first book treating of it in time and importance.
In Chaucer's " Treatise on the Astrolabe," he declares his intention of making
use of the calendars of the reverend clerks John Somer and Nicholas of Lynne.
His reference here is to the Minorite astronomer John Somer — Semur — Somer-
arius — and to the Carmelite Nicholas, who was lecturer in theology at Oxford
(" Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. LIII. p. 219).
See the illustrated description of an astrolabe by S. A. lonides, in " Geog.
Journ." for Oct. 1904, pp. 411-417, accompanying references to other works
treating of astrolabes ; " Le Courrier du Livrc," Quebec, 1899, Vol. III. p. 159,
alluding to three works on the astrolabe of Samuel Champlin and Geoffrey
Chaucer; "Canada," by J. G. Bourinot, London, 1897, p. 79, with cut of
Champlin 's lost astrolabe made in Paris during 1603; also the entry for
Nicholas Bion to be found herein at A.D. 1702.
mer
'0 oomitriy ao mane eft ineiHo q*o cur;
91110 wn it adifti'c -ac tenet* -et s»ple
:m ob boc alio nomine ajpeltant
i Afptrllacue auc eft magnes ab
e auto* eft Nicanoei t inou regcu*-
[w tnurnic- vt in bifpania quoqj-b?
f fotacue oemofirac fcj etbiopum
uctnacroontJ-Teroa hi ecbto bo?
a croaoern alexanotte-O,ahicu
ifteretia pma ma» fit an FeTa
. <?ui reperiunt* m magndia *t
.^w -rnffi fi»t « ni^ri-Boediw xvro plue
babet rttfft colons: y nign-Qui trcace hiuenitt
nicer eft « Wa feTU«:|oeo fine vi'nbua cxr^rri
mw i maonefu cannious neq3 jrcr^bce frrrura
fcnwHfoj p'""'^'-Ptbi'opiau Uue fu«na rat .pen'
c f iota ptnum rvpcrtu«:clauia crepioaz^
f?io\ brrco-cu io< magnea armcnca
ea paflTim eft hiuentue- Eft «ut colo
r*cuferro4
rapcu: woe et eo vulgua fcrrii t>iufi ajptl;
' eTabcrt crrot?
Ob ante magn£fl_Hjif ° mcjic^ eft- <|alro wagift
ccniUoa-iLArrft^nlce mtAioo« Upioibo* • /
lapfe magnca fen? crabit:et fctriebrQieite eft
twtc lapioi g Tt'rttitetn occulta:<joe imrft ill -tpfn
iBooec ao <e p oia cotga foUoa tftcnr p aera<6< x»
«o qoio< tpius angulo trabft frrru • ej ofpofito
«gcangulo f ugat ipm Angulue ^cfduo.fui v;
tm eft atfrabrbi frrrfi :eft ao jaron -t -feprfmoj
Aagoloe *ut oflpofitue ao afon i mrnoi<f Itjqj
jpneeariF babct mjgneo:<p fi ajpjrimeo et ferni}
ao aognlu ipiue-.qui jaron- i -fcptf tnone rcfpt'f ;
ao (epcfcTtonc fc coucrnt St Tero ao an^nlu op
pofitufmu aMnoucrie:ao afo-i-mrnoie (c mo?
wbtr-Qt ft bate fcrro fcrru af jao ao^>^maue -
ii« tpm oe magnece ao fe era bit hoc ct Uptfaoa
maa faat juouj m<D conoemnac magnrrie .
nc - <7pe mijaculo magnctia in fern amacff
|< • <Otnguftinu»» oe cioiratc oei-i^t -libio-
k Agnere lapioi nottimns cfle mirabdem
I ferti raptor? -Q.uoo eft ^mu vioi vebe
mnnecr cjtbo?rui -O.ui|pV cmteb! a U-
n'M Strrru anoln rapcu acqj fu fpenfu oeni^ti
yferro quoo rapuerjc:rtm foJ Deot'Oec »mune
9 fectffirrJoJanulua alten aomotne efcennoe
49^tfeenou>Stcaccri1ic ec tera'us re quartuo :
la^fibi'p mtMMa drcaUe nextetnon Fplicatoiuj
Mcrmfrc»»:fcD aoberenrt'S rxtriwfrcua: ^nafi ca
tfccna prprocrar a»ulo^ Qo»» tftam rim Up» ;
o*»»6 ftoprm:o»e flb won Tola mcrat:feo ettaj
f toe f »fpki crAba* -« murfbiltbus ca vfcolie
c.S<t» Mko mtrabit? cfhqoooa ff*
> l««en> mi1knica»o oc ifto U*
e warrant: o
moorfca^ iij arg#to ftwofo irf
««urncc cocitatiflimo cuffa «c nec«rfa •«
J Upw ab bo*e:fupra ferru rap**ba^ a bpfec
oixi ^ ipv rofpext :oijd a ab Aim auoiw.cui can
9? «P« vioenro creoioi Quto ecia oe ifto magnc*
(b'anr opmcnnir rflr oi««««aliaHii«fliim eft q
hi qpojoam teplo Lapio
6C in camera
niolacru ferreu aerie Hiiro n
pioem quaft numfe potcftare prawwt-qwale aK
quio eti'am t lacetna venerie oe UpiiDC abrftoab
artifice fieri potuit-quoo gmoWn* mirarenf -In
quo laptoe mi^ eft :q? cu ignem nollu babe«t ft
piiuraccepto came: he aroet al*eno:iptejcth»giri
no poftit-ftc ergo ec hi magnecr;qoof> nefdo S f
fcnhbili foibinone ftipiuUiajafi!LSc>ttrc:^r5¥ °*
rapit- -rr)- </pe watte tptug m titrg
cxcrna • (rpyafcorfoea*
\gnc8 gignit* circa ttto«occeatii:apao
I trogooirjs magnaw babes virtu m» -6C
Tel ut fpititu in attrabenoo frriji:nBr«o
roomd vt pdofa oeiiptfttincra qoattt*
ox angulo0 oomus carbone* atoe'crs ponont:ee
Upioe minute pofu fupmicxfit Bcq} »encr» 6c o
coloe eoa5» qui afftitK: aaertutivt a MM
paunceo fag fr raere oorofi -Habct jftc v*r« p"
gatoii«9 et ob boc y o»p»ei« eft molfii OM?:gtoT
Ucuoinc wo0at;6i o*e» ba*»ore»p vcnrrf mf-
fbjajuZa£Pf' ctU ** rMMfpctf«8 flb«Ha fanae>
CLC^r^Su. *#,*,&*,»« **$»** m ripa
marte int>»e rrprrtf coin* natwra caboa eft et ftc
ca m tercio graoo Diem cd2 gat/mas n> li
oc bptoibuetq? nacite naoe frrreo* claoovbabc
ccmt Mac no aaoewe oacerr Nee vtta frtri aiw
ftciu inra babere Naai e* OUeatovcameajpbv
qiunte:oef ctaoi et qVxjuio firm f ea babje^j m^
ranie accrabttne* fiu fl?iirtare-Hi< lap«» poorf
ojtue: optima eft ei qni oe frrro Mpcaeo wine
r Jtos eft Et «e qai HifiniunWr 5 f<iimjiiM catba
ptafmaobua vri empUftita c6mixroe: valet •& G
gietaj vetgtaoifi extrabenou oe vttlnoY Ruffnf
oi^ic eunoj lapioe meUcc4tCflflLftte«re->nm<>te«
6C raffMctone eie *tt«krre <maVrar7«ii vo« fap-
AVagnre eft calioua et ftccwMb cerciograont wi
let pzedpue vulneract»:qaia feri? attrabir pal*
a is ceil «'ue oacua in face* firntcctU: wlec cocrai
yoropifim et fptane er*k>pgfil . AttraDtc e£ ffe
gma et meUncolu- .
cfi aourtc fit enutbtee»:et vtrraicfMi fi
tue rtUue MeUm» eft «iger ibtbicM r
rue atir abfterfwus^ mfioificicf •
<yMo3eifeKy«t
reooei»:f« terrf-fco ec eoa crocfi> ftc '
Vincent do r.enuvnm " Sflpruluni Naturals."
takftii from thr 1^73 < of>v, no\v in the Bibliof h^qu^, Sir Onrvi?-vp, Pan'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 83
betical catalogue of all works on Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy;
Humboldt, " Examen Critique," Paris, 1836, Vol. I. pp. 7, 283.
For the Dominican Giordano (Jordano) Bruno, see " The Course
of the History of Modern Philosophy," by Victor Cousin, New York, 1872,
Vol. II. pp. 56-58 ; " English Cycl." (Biography), Vol. I. p. 979; Libri,
" Hist, des Sc. Math6m.," Paris, 1838, Vol. I. p. 141 ; " La Grande
Encycl.," Vol. VIII. pp. 258-259, reviewed in the " London Athenaeum,"
Nov. 28, 1903, p. 711.
A.D. 1250. — Vincent de Beauvais, another Crusader, writes his
" Mirror of Nature " (" Bibliotheca Mundi, Speculum Ma jus, Specu-
lum Triplex ") for St. Louis and his consort, Marguerite de Provence,
and speaks therein of the polarity of the needle (" Speculi Naturalis,"
Vol. II. lib. ix. cap. 19). He cites Aristotle as having written a
book, " De Lapide," containing a notice of the magnet's use in naviga-
tion, but none of Aristotle's known works appear to have the passage
given. Cabseus and others rather judge that book to be the work
of some Arabic writer (Thomas Creech, " Lucretius "). Libri,
however, says that a translation or abrege of the MS. of " De Lapide "
is at the Paris Library — MSS. Arabes, No. 402 (" Hist, des sc.
Mathe'm.," Vol. I. p. 101).
Le Sieur Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (see A.D. 1269) alludes
clearly to the polarity of the needle in an epistle, " Ad Sigerum de
Foucaucourt — Fontancourt — militem de Magnete," written toward
the end of the thirteenth century, and the magnet is, at about the
same period, referred to in the following lines of the minstrel Gauthier
d'Espinois, contemporary of the Count of Champagne, Thibaud VI,
who lived before the middle of the thirteenth century (" Hist.
Lit. de la France/' 1856, Vol. XXIII — chansonniers — pp. 576, 831) :
" Tout autresi (ainsi) comme I'aimant de^oit (cletourne)
L'aiguilette par force de vertu
A ma dame tot le moiit (monde) rctennue
Qui sa beaute" connoit et apercoit."
Vincent de Beauvais applies the terms zohron and aphron (not
afori) to the south and north ends of the needle, and Mr. J. Klaproth
(" Lettre a M. de Humboldt sur 1'invention de la Boussole," Paris,
1834, PP- 49~5I)» savs these words are Arabian, notwithstanding
assertions made to the contrary by Martinus Lipenius in his " Navi-
gatio Salomonis Ophiritica Illustrata," 1660, cap. v. sec. 3, as well
as by many others who have written upon the compass.
REFERENCES. — Sonnini, in Buffon, " Mine'raux," VIII. p. 76; Hum-
boldt, " Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vol. II. pp. 253-254, and Vol. V. p. 54;
Azuni, " Boussole," pp. 41, 42, and 44 ; Klaproth, p. 13 ; Miller, " History
Philosophically Illustrated," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 179, note. " Simonis
Maioli . . . Dies Caniculares, seu Colloqui," XXIII. 1597, p. 783 ;
Dr. F. Ueberweg, " Hist, of Phil." (Morris' translation, 1885^, Vol. I.
PP- 433* 435 » "Journal des Savants " for Feb.-Mar. 1892; ''Vinceuti
Bellov. Speculi Naturalis," Vol. II. lib. ix. cap. 19.
D
34 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
It may be added that the " Mirror of Nature " l is one of the
four pretentious works which, however popular they may at any time
have been and however powerfully they may have influenced the
age in which they were written, do not, says Humboldt, fulfil by
their contents the promise of their titles. The other three are the
" Opus Majus " of Roger Bacon, the " Liber Cosmographicus "
(Physical Geography) of Albertus Magnus, and the " Imago Mundi "
(Picture of the World) of Cardinal Petrus de Alliaco — Pedro de
Helico — Pierre d'Ailly. (For the celebrated French theologian
Pierre d'Ailly (1350-1420), Chancellor of the Paris University, see
" Histoire de TAstronomie," J. F. C. Hcefer, Paris 1873, p. 290;
" Paris et ses historians/1 Le Roux de Lincy et L. M. Tisserand,
Paris, 1867, p. 402 (etched portrait); "New Int. Encycl./' New
York, 1902, Vol. I. p. 231; " La Grande Encycl./' Vol. I. pp. 952-
954; also works relating to him by Aubrelicque, Compiegne, 1869,
by Arthur Dinaux, Cambrai, 1824, and by Geo. Pameyer, Strasbourg,
1840.) The last-named work by Pierre d'Ailly was the chief authority
at the time and exercised a greater influence on the discovery of
America than did the correspondence with the learned Florentine
Toscanelli (Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 621; " La lettre
et la carte de Toscanelli/' par Henri Vignaud, Paris, 1901, or " Tosca-
nelli et Christophe Colomb " in the " Annales de Geographic/' No.
56, ne annee, Mars 15, 1902, pp. 97-110; "Toscanelli in der
alteren und neurcn Columbus literatur," E. Geleich Mitteil. Wien,
Vol. XXXVI. 10, 1893).
Two of the above-named works partake of the encyclopaedic,
and in this class likewise properly enter the twenty books " De
Rerum Natura " of Thomas Cantapratensis of Lou vain (1230), the
" Book of Nature," by Conrad Van Meygenberg of Ratisbon (1349),
and the great " Margarita Philosophica," or " Circle of the Sciences,"
1 Vincent de Bcauvais desired to facilitate the pursuit of learning by
collecting into one large work everything useful to be known in art, history,
natural science and philosophy, " so that the great edifice of science should
be once more presented with all its halls and porticos forming one harmonious
whole, domed over, if we may so express ourselves, with theology and sur-
mounted by the Cross" ("Keel. History," Rohrbacher, Vol. XVIII. p. 444,
quoted at pp. 86 and 89 of " Christian Schools and Scholars," London, 1867).
His " Speculum Majus," of which the most trustworthy edition was that
published at Strasbourg in ten large folio volumes during 1473, consisted of
three parts : " Speculum Naturale," 32 books and 3718 chapters; " Speculum
Doctrinale," 17 books and 2374 chapters; " Speculum Historiale," 31 books
and 3793 chapters, a total of 80 books and 9885 chapters (" Encycl. Britan.,"
ninth ed., Vol. XXIV. p. 235; " Paris et ses historiens," Paris, 1867, P- Ioo»
note, indicating that, according to Fabricius, the " Speculum Naturale " men-
tions as many as 350 different names of Arabian , Greek and Latin authors) . The
influence of the mediaeval encyclopaedias of Vincent de Beauvais, Brunette
Latini and Bartholomew Anglicus on Western Literature of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries is presented in Liliencron's " Festrede," Miinchen,
1876 (J. E. Sandys, "Classical Scholarship," 1903, p. 558).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 35
of Father Gregorius Reisch (1486). (Sec the different entries con-
cerning the last-named work at pp. 663-664 of Libri's Catalogue,
Vol. II, for 1861.) One more work bears title " Picture of the
World " — " r Image du Monde " — written by Gautier de Metz, a
French poet of the thirteenth century, on the lines of still another
encyclopaedic " Imago Mundi," by Honorius d'Autun (Neubauer,
" Traductions historiques de 1'Image du Monde," 1876, p. 129;
Haase, likewise Fritsche, " Untersuch . . . der Image du Monde/'
1879 and 1880; Fant, " r Image du Monde, etudie dans ses diverses
redactions franchises," Upsal, 1886. Chas. Bossut, in his " Hist.
Generale des Mathem.," Paris, 1810, Vol. I. p. 229, also mentions
an encyclopaedic " Mirroir du Monde," in Turkish Gian Numah ;
" The Final Philosophy," Chas. W. Shields, New York, 1877, p. 133).
A.D. 1254. — Albertus Magnus, of the family of the Counts of
Bollstadt, one of the most prominent philosophers and theologians
of the Middle Ages, likewise alludes to the book " De Lapide "
already referred to at A.D. 1250, and to the Arabic terms zohron
and aphron, giving to these words, however, a wrong interpretation.1
Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) was justly styled Doctor Univer-
salis, for, from the time he entered the Order of the Dominican
Friars in 1221, as well as throughout his teachings, mainly at
Bologna, Strasburg, Freiburg and Cologne, he displayed an intimate
acquaintance with almost all branches of the natural sciences. He
was especially well versed in philosophy, astronomy and mathe-
matics— in rebus magicis cxpertus fuit — and was justly considered
by many as the most erudite philosopher of his generation ; an
encomium of the very rarest kind, when such rivals as Alexander of
Hales and Thomas Aquinas could dispute the palm with him.
Natural science, says Humboldt (" Cosmos," 1860, Vol. II. pp. 243-
245), was intimately associated with medicine and philosophy
among the learned Arabs, and, in the Christian Middle Ages, with
theological polemics. The latter, from their tendency to assert
an exclusive influence, repressed empirical inquiry into the depart-
ments of physics, organic morphology, and also astronomy, the last
being, for the most part, closely allied to astrology. The study of
the comprehensive works of Aristotle, introduced by Arabs and by
1 In his " De Mineralibus " (Lyons ed. 1651, Treat. III. lib. ii. cap. 6,
p. 243), Albertus says : " One angle ... is to the zohron (north) . . .but
another angle of the magnet opposite to it attracts to the aphron (south)."
Cardan (" De Subtilitatc," Lugduni, 1663); Salmanazar (Book II. " of the
Egyptian Hermitus, 19 stars, and 15 stones, and 15 herbs, and 15 figures " :
" on one side the magnet attracts iron, on the other side repels it) ; Pielro
d* Abano (" Conciliator Differentiarum," Mantua?, 1472, Diff. 51, p. 104,
or the 1520 Venice edition, p. 73 : " know that a magnet is discovered which
attracts iron on one side and repels it on the other ").
36 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Jewish Rabbis, had tended to lead to a philosophical fusion of all
branches of study (Jourdain, " Sur les traductions d' Aristotle,"
p. 256 ; Michael Sachs, " Die Religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien/'
1845, s. 180-200), and hence Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn-Roschd
(Averroes), Albert us Magnus and Roger Bacon passed for the
representatives of all the knowledge of their time. The fame which
in the Middle Ages surrounded the names of these four great men
was proportionate to the general diffusion of this opinion of their
endowments.
Albertus was the first scholastic who systematically reproduced
the philosophy of Aristotle with reference to the Arabian com-
mentators and who remodelled it to meet the requirements of
ecclesiastical dogma. The cause of the new development of
scholasticism in the thirteenth century was the translation, for the
first time, into Latin of the complete works of Aristotle, which
latter only came to the knowledge of the scholastics (1210-1225)
through the agency of Arabian philosophy. The leading Arabian
philosophers were Avirenua, Averroe's and Avempace, whilst, in
the new movement, Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas Aquinas and
Joannes Duns Scotus represented the culmination of scholastic
thought and its consolidation into a system.1
Albertus, according to Humboldt, must be mentioned as an
independent investigator in the domain of analytic chemistry,
improving as he did the practical manipulation of ores, and having
actually enlarged the insight of men into the general mode of action
of the chemical forces of nature. His " Liber Cosmographicus " is
a singularly able presentment of physical geography. He also
wrote very extensively upon plant-life, and is the author of com-
mentaries upon practically all the physical works of the Stagirite,
although in the commentary on Aristotle's " Historia Animalium "
he is said to have closely followed the Latin translation of Michael
Scotus from the Arabic. Albertus doubtless owes the praise
conferred upon him by Dante less to himself than to his beloved
pupil Aquinas, who accompanied him from Cologne to Paris in
1245, and returned with him to Germany in 1248.
1 Albertus was the first schoolman who lectured on the Stagirite, and who
in his unbounded range of knowledge comprehends the whole metaphysical,
moral, physical, as well as logical system of Aristotle (" History of Latin
Christianity/' by the Rev. H. H. Milman, London, 1857, Vol. VI. pp. 270,
277). The first knowledge of the Aristotelian philosophy in the Middle
Ages was acquired by translators of Aristotle's works out of the Arabic.
The Arabian commentators were considered the most skilful and authentic
guides in the study of his system (" Hist, of the Reign of Charles V," Robertson
and Prescott, Philad., 1883, Vol. I. p. 308; Conring, " Antiq. Acad./' Diss.
III. p. 95, Supplem. p. 241 ; Murat, " Antiq. Ital.," Vol. III. p. 392 ; " Aristotle
and the Arabs," at pp. 257—268 of " Classical Studies in Honour of Hy.
Drissler/' New York, 1894 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos/' 1860, Vol. II. pp. 215-216).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 87
" Quest i, che m' e* a dcstra piu vicino,
Frate e maestro fummi; ed' esse Alberto
E' di Cologna, cd io Thomas d' Aquino."
" II Paradiso," X. 97-99.
Gilbert refers to Albertus in " De Magnete," Book I. chaps, i.
and vi., also in Book II. chap, xxxviii.
REFERENCES. — " Albert the Great," by Dr. Joachim Sighart, translated
by Rev. Fr. J. A. Dixon, London, 1876; " Journal des Savants" for
May 1848 (" D'un ouvrage ine'dit de Roger Bacon " : Albertus is called
Magnus in magia naturali, major in philosophia, maximus in theologia ;
Tritheim, " Annales Hirsaug.," Vol. I. p. 592) ; for May 1851, pp. 284-298
passim ; for Nov. and Dec. 1884; for June 1891 (" Traditions . . . du
Moyen Age "), for Feb. 1892 (" Traductions des ouvrages alchimiques
. . . arabes ; 1'alchimie dans Albert le Grand," pp. 126-128), as well as
for March 1892; " Histoire des Sciences," par. F. M. L. Maupiccl, Paris,
1847 (Albert le Grand), Vol. II. pp. 1-95; Barlhol. Glanvilla, " Liber,
de Proprietatibus Rcrum," Book VII; Pcllechct, "Cat. Gen. des
Incunables," 1897, pp. 57-81 ; Bolton, " Chronol. Hist, of Chemistry,"
I^97> P- 917 > " The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages," by W. J.
Townscnd, London, 1881, Chap. X. pp. 165-173; " Siger dc Brabant
et 1'Averroisme Latin an xiii° siecle," par. Pierre Maudonnct, Fribourg,
1899, pp. li~lii notes passim ; Walton and Cotton, " Complete Angler,"
New York and London, 1847, Pt. I. p. 62; " New Int. Encycl.," New
York, 1902, Vol. I. p. 279; "Aristotle and the Arabs," by Win. M.
Sloane, pp. 257-268 of " Classical Studies in Honour of Henry Drissler,"
New- York, 1894; Sonnini, Buffon, " Mine'raux," V11I. p. 76; Enfield,
"History of Philosophy," Book VII. chap iii. ; Humboldt, "Cosmos,"
1849, Vol. II. pp. 617—619; Qu6tif and Echard, " Scriptor. Orel. Predicat,"
Vol. I. p. 171; Brande, "Manual," 1848, Vol. I. p. 8; Dr. Fricdrich
Ueberwcg, " History of Philosophy," tr. by Geo. S. Morris, New York,
1885, Vol. I. pp. 436-440; J. B. Haurcau, " La Philos. Scholas.," Paris,
1850, Vol. II. pp. 1—103 ; Dr. W. Windelband, " History of Philosophy,"
auth. tr. by Jas. H. Tufts, New York, 1853, pp. 311, 313; "Diet.
Hist.de la Medccme," N. F. J. Floy, Mons, 1778, Vol. I. pp. 63-65;
" Christian Schools and Scholars," Augusta Th. Drane, London, 1867,
pp. 69, etc.
Of authors prominently cited by Albertus Magnus, or alluded to
in the foregoing, the following accounts are given :
Alfarabius — Alpharabius — Abn Nasr Muhammed . . . al Farabi —
(A.D. 870-950), celebrated Arabian philosopher, native of
Turkestan, one of whose most important works, " Liber de
scientiis . . ." is an encyclopaedia, giving in five chapters
a classification of all known sciences. It is said he could speak
in as many as seventy languages (J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
" Historical View of the Literature of the South of Europe/'
London, 1846, Vol. I. p. 65). He was a most zealous student
of Aristotle, and is one of the authors (Aristotle, Avicenna and
Al-gazel being the others) from whom David the Jew compiled
his work " De Causis." Of the latter, Albertus gives a long
description, and it is likewise cited both by Thomas Aquinas
and Bacon, " Opus Majus," J. H. Bridges, Oxford, 1897,
38 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Vol. I. pp. 100-101, who quotes : Jourdain, pp. 112, 138-145,
184-185, and Wiistenfeld, " Geschichte," Gottingen, 1840.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. I. p. 195; " Biog.
Gen.," Vol. I. pp. 951-952 and the references therein given; " New
Int. Encycl.," New York, 1902, Vol. I. pp. 329-330; M. Steni-
schncider, " Al-Farabi," St. Petersb., 1869; Friedrich Dieterici,
" Al-Farabi's Philosophischc Abhandlungen," Leyden, 1890, and
his " Die Philosophic der Araber," Leyden, 1892, 1895 ; Dr. Friedrich
Ueberweg, " History of Philosophy," tr. by Geo. S. Morris, New
York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 407, 411-412.
Al-gazel — Al-Ghazzali — (1058-1111), another prominent Arabian
philosopher, who was for a long time professor of theology in
the Bagdad University, and became the ruler of the Sufis
or Mystics, in whose behalf he travelled extensively.1
The biography in " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XVIII.
pp. 899-900, gives a full account of his most important works
and several valuable references, his principal book being " The
Destruction of the Philosophers," which called forth a reply in
one of the two most important works of Averroes, entitled
" The Destruction of Destruction."
Tholuck says : "If ever a man hath deserved the name,
Ghazzali was truly a divine, and he may justly be placed on
a level with Origen [Fr. Dietericii, " Die Philosophic der
Araber," Leipzig, 1876, pp. 28-31], so remarkable was he for
learning and ingenuity, and gifted with such a rare faculty
for the skilful and worthy exposition of doctrine."
REFERENCES. — " Kncycl. Britann.," ninth ed., Vol. I. p. 510;
" New Int. Kncycl.," Vol. I. p. 337; " The Alchemy of Happiness,"
by Mohammed Al-Ghazzali, tr. of Henry Guy Homes, Albany,
1873, pp. 6—7, also Dr. Friedrich Ueberwcg, " History of Philo-
sophy," tr. by Geo. S. Morns, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 407 and
413-414.
Alexander of Hales, so called because he made his studies at the
Monastery of Hales in Gloucestershire (d. 1245), called
" Doctor Doctorum " or " Doctor Irrefragabilis," also " Theo-
logorum Monarcha," was a celebrated English theologian.
He became a noted professor of philosophy and then a lecturer
among the Franciscans, being succeeded in turn by his pupils,
John of Rochelle (who died in 1271) and John Fidanza, better
1 See " Omar Khayyam and his position in the History of Sufism," to
be found at end of the singularly attractive volume entitled " Sufi Interpreta-
tions . . ." by C. H. A. Bjerregaard, New York, 1902. For an account of
Omar Khayyam — Kheyyam (died in 1123), who was a very distinguished
Persian philosopher, mathematician, poet and astronomer, also Director of
the Bagdad Observatory, consult the ninth ed. of the " Encycl. Britann.,"
Vol. XVII. pp. 771-772; " La Grande Encycl.," Vol. XXV. pp. 372-373;
" The Universal Cyclopaedia," Chas. Kendall Adams, New York, 1900,
Vol. VIII. p. 588.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 39
•
known as Bonaventura (1221-1274). He was the first scholastic
acquainted with the whole of the Aristotelian works and with
the Arabian commentaries upon them. The only authentic
work of his is the ponderous " Summa Universae Theologiae "
(best edition, Venice, 1576), much of the substance and even
the text of which is said to be found in the " Summa " of
Aquinas and in the " Speculum Morale " of Vincent de
Beauvais.
REFERENCES. — " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," London, 1885, Vol. I.
p. 271; " La Grande Encycl.," Vol. II. p. 121; Fleury, "Hist.
Eccles,," Vol. XX; Du Boulay, " Hist, de 1'univ. dc Paris,"
Vol. L; Stoeckl, " Gcschichte d. Phil. d. Mittelalters," 1865, Vol. II.
pp. 317-326; " Chambers 's Encycl. ," 1888, Vol. I. p. 148; Ninth
"Encycl. Britann.," Vol. XXI. p. 427; "Diet, of Philos. and
Psychol.," by J. M. Baldwin, New York, 1901, Vol. I. pp. 30, 124;
Wadding, " Annales Orel. Min."; " New Int. Encycl.," New York,
1902, Vol. L pp. 321-322; Fabricius, " Bibl. Lat. mediae et inf.
aetat.," Vol. I. p. i; "Biog. Ge"n.," Vol. I. pp. 923-927; J. B.
Haur6au, " Hist, de la Philos. Scholastiquc," 1880, Vol. I. part ii.
pp. 131-141, or the 1850 Paris eel., Vol. I. p. 418; Dr. Fricdrich
Ueberweg, " History of Philosophy," tr. by Geo. S. Morris, New
York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 433 434; Thos. Fuller, "Church History
of Britain," London, 1837, Vol. I. pp. 398-402.
Avempace — Abn Bekr Muhammed Ibn Yahga, Arabic philosopher,
physician and poet (d. 1138), introduced the peripatetic
philosophy into Andalusia, and wrote commentaries on
Aristotle, in addition to a book, " Conduct of the Individual,"
alluded to by Averroes, likewise several works upon medicine
and music.
REFERENCES. — " The History of Philosophy " of Dr. Friedrich
Ueberweg, tr. by Geo. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. p. 414
(Munk, "Melanges de Philosophic," pp. 383-410); "New Int.
Encycl.," New York, 1902, Vol. II. p. 281 ; Brockelmann, " Ges-
chichte dcr Arabischen Litteratur " ; James Gow, " A Short History
of Greek Mathematics," Oxford, 1884, pp. 203-205 for Arabic
learning in Spam.
Averroes — Muhammed Ibn Ahmed Ibn-Roschd, " the commen-
tator," " the last great thinker of the Moslem world in the
West " (1120-1198), was an illustrious Moorish philosopher and
physician best known by his commentaries and paraphrases
upon Aristotle. It is said Averroes was recommended to the
Calif as the fittest person to expound the works of Aristotle
and make them accessible to all (" History of Classical Scholar-
ship/' J. E. Sandys, Cambridge, 1903, p. 541).
REFERENCES. — Renan, "Averroes et 1'Avcrroisme," Paris,
1852; " Diet, of Philos. and Psychology," by J. M. Baldwin, New
York, 1901, p. 96; " Journal des Savants " for Feb. 1892, pp. 118-
126 passim; Antonii, " Bibl. Hisp. Vetns," Vol. II. pp. 240-248;
Wustenfeld, " Geschichte d' Arab. A. V. N.," 1840; " Engl. Cyci.,"
40 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
•
Vol. I. pp. 448-449; Eloy, "Diet. Hist, de la M6decine," Vol. I.
pp. 220-221; Dr. Friedrich Ueberweg, " History of Philosophy,"
tr. by Gco. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 407-408, 415-417;
Dr. W. Windelbancl, " History of Philosophy," auth. tr. by
Jas. H. Tufts, New York, 1893, pp. 317, 338; " Dictionnaire des
Sciences Philosophiques," par une societ^ de savants, Paris, 1852,
Vol. III. pp. 157-172.
" Euclide geometra e Tolommeo,
Ippocratc, Avicenna, e Galieno
Avcrrois che '1 gran comento feo."
(Dante, " Divina Commcdia," Inferno, Canto IV.)
Augusta Th. Drane places Averroes at the head of all Arabic
interpreters of Aristotle, and incidentally says it would be
hard to determine his religion, for he scoffed alike at Chris-
tianity, Judaism and Mahometanism.
Avicenna — Abohalis, Ibn Sina, Al Rayis or " the chief " — (980-1037),
" the greatest thinker of the Moslem world in the East," a
native of Aschena, near Bokhara, was the most celebrated
physician of his day. In the " Journal des Savants " for March
1892, " 1'Alchimie d'Avicennc " is very extensively treated of
at pp. 179-189, and Avicenna is said (" Journal des Savants " for
February 1892, pp. 118-128) to be the alchemist most frequently
alluded to in the " Speculum Naturale " of Vincent de Beauvais.
His writings were so highly esteemed that the Sultan of Egypt
ordered them to be translated by the celebrated Jewish Rabbi,
Maimonides — Moses Ben Maimon — (born at Cordova, in Spain,
about A.I). 1132).
REFERENCES. — Casiri, " Bibl. Arab. Hispan.," Vol. 1. p. 268;
Hottinger, " Bibl. Quadnp.," 1664, pp. 256, 261 ; " Diet, des Sciences
Philosophiques," pliris, 1852, Vol. Ill pp. 172-178; S. Klein, " Dis-
sertatio," 1846; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I.
pt. i. pp. 469-470; "The Edinburgh Encycl.," 1830, Vol. III.
p. 107; " Engl. Cycl.," Vol. I. pp. 449-450; Gilbert, " De Magnete,"
Book I. chaps, i., viii., xv. and Book II. chap. ii. ; Eloy, " Diet.
Hist, de la Medccine," Vol. I. pp. 223-227; Dr. Friedrich Ueberweg,
" History of Philosophy," tr. by Gco. S. Morris, New York, 1885,
Vol. I. pp. 407, 412-413; Dr. W. Windelband, " History of Phil-
osophy," auth. tr. by Jas. II. Tufts, New York, 1893, p. 317;
" New Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. XII. p. 43; " Diet, of
Philosophy and Psychology," by J. M. Baldwin, New York, 1901,
Vol. I. p. 97; " Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic," by Sir Wm.
Hamilton, London, 1860, Vol. II. pp. 167, 171; "Historical View
of the Literature of the South of Europe," by J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
London, 1846, Vol. 1.
Duns Scotus, John, " Doctor Subtilis " (born about 1270, died in
1308), a very prominent schoolman, who was educated at
Oxford, entered the Order of St. Francis, and became one of
the great founders of scholastic thought. But little is known
as to his origin, except that a monument, erected to his memory
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 41
at Cologne during the year 1533, bears the following : " Scotia
me genuit, Anglia me suscepit, Gallia me docnit, Colonia
(Ger mania) me tenet."
As shown by Luc. Wadding in his " J. Duns-Scoti Opera/1
twelve volumes, published at Lyons in 1639, his works are
quite numerous, the most important consisting of questions
and commentaries on the writings of Aristotle and on the
" Sentences " of Peter Lombard.
Joannes Duns Scotus is very frequently referred to by
Dr. W. Windelband (" History of Philosophy," auth. tr. by
Jas. H. Tufts, New York, 1893, pp. 311, 314-315, 321-326,
344), and is mentioned as " the aaitest and deepest thinker of
the Christian Middle Ages, who brought the germs of the philo-
sophy of the will, contained in Augustine's system, to their
first important development, and so from the metaphysical
side gave the impulse for a complete change in the direction
of philosophical thought."
REFERENCES.—" Diet, of Nat. Uiog.," London, 1888, Vol. XVI.
pp. 216-220; Kilter's " Gcschichlc dor Philosophic " ; Dr. Fricdrich
Uebcrweg, " History of Philosophy," tr. by Gco. S. Morris, New
York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 452-457; Laroussc, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VI.
P- 1398, containing an extensive list of references; Alfred Wcbcr,
" History of Philosophy," New York, 1896, pp. 2.16-252 (tr. of
Frank Thilly) ; " Biog. Gen.," Vol. XV. pp. 256-257; " La Grande
Fncycl.," Vol. XV. pp. 71-72; Pluanski, " Thdsc sur Duns Scot,"
Pans, 1887; "The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages," W. J.
Townsend, London, 1881, " Duns Scotus," Chap. XV. ; J. 13. llaurca.ii,
" La Philosophic Srholastiqne," Pans, 1850, Vol. II. pp. 307-417.
Consult also the biographies written by Fci chins, Berti, Caveili
and Veglensis, and, lor a complete exposition of his system, C.
Werner, " Die Scholastik des Spateren Mittelalters," Vienna, 1881,
Vol. I; " Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought,"
by R. L. Poole, London, 1884.
A.D. 1254. — Bacon (Roger), " the most remarkable man in the
most remarkable century of the Middle Ages " (K. H. Plumptre,
1866), sometimes called Friar Baron (1214-1294), a Franciscan
monk of Ilchester, who devoted himself to the study of science at
Oxford and Paris and " whose deep penetration into the mysteries
of nature justly entitled him to the appellation of " The Wonderful
Doctor/' treats of the magnet and of its properties at pp. 383-384
of his " Opus Minus " (J. S. Brewer, " Fr. R. Bacon," London, 1859),
and dwells upon the loadstone as a miracidum in parte notum.
Bacon is also the author of many other works, the most im-
portant of which are his " Opus Ma jus " and " Opus Tertium " (first
published in English respectively in 1733 and 1859), the last named
having been originally written out for Pope Clement IV and intended
to serve as a preamble to the " Opus Minus " and " Opus Ma jus/'
42 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
although it was later than either in the date of its composition
(Brewer, op. cit. p. xliv) . Leland has said that it is easier to collect the
leaves of the Sybil than the titles of all of Bacon's works. At pp. 218-
222, Vol. Ill, of the ninth edition "Encyclopaedia Britannica" will be
found a synopsis of the six parts into which Jebb divided the " Opus
Majus " (pronounced by Whewell " at once the Encyclopaedia and
the Organum of the thirteenth century "), and likewise an account
of his other works, besides numerous references to leading authorities.
In the "Opus Tertium," the last of the series of three which, it is
said, were all completed in about eighteen months, he speaks more
than once of A.D. 1267 as being the then current year. This happens
to be but two years prior to the date of the epistle of Pierre Pelerin
de Maricourt, the great experimentalist (Petrus Peregrinus), whom
he commends (p. Ixxv) in the following words : " For there are only
two perfect mathematicians, Master John of London l and Master
Peter of Maricourt, the Picard . . . who is worth more than any
of them ... of whom I have fully written in my ' Opus Minus ' and
of whom I shall write more in its proper place." Of this Master
Peter, whom he calls one of his most illustrious pupils, he further
says that, being " struck with the genius that dawned in his counten-
ance," he took him under his protection from his fifteenth year and
instructed him so carefully that he outstripped all of his contem-
poraries both at Oxford and at Paris. " There is no one," adds he,
" who knows so much of the root of Philosophy ..." and one
who, " through experiment, gains such knowledge of things natural,
medical, chemical; indeed, of everything in the heavens or earth."
Gilbert states (" De Magnete," Book I. chap, i.) that many
believe the work of Peter Peregrinus on the magnet owes its origin
to the opinions of Roger Bacon. And in the Appendix I to Brewer's
work — p. 537, chap. vi. " De Experimentis Mirabilibus " — will be
found Bacon's views fully exposed on the operations of the magnet.
REFERENCES. — " Fratris Roger! Bacon, O. M. Opus Majus," S. Jebb,
Londini, 1733; " L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes," Paris, 1860, by Louis
Figuier, who, at p. 97, calls Roger Bacon La plus vaste intelligence que
I'Angleterre ait possedSe ; " Kssai Th6orique . . . des connaissances
humaines," par G. Tiberghien, Bruxelles, 1844, Vol. I. pp. 388-389;
Dr, Geo. Miller, " History Philosophically Illustrated," London, 1849,
Vol. II. p. 112; Humboldt, " Cosmos," New York, 1860, Vol. II. pp. 43,
229, 241, 245, 318; " Journal des Savants " for March, April, May and
August 1848, also for December 1859 and February 1891; "Origin,
Progress and Destiny of the English Language and Literature," by
John A. Weisse, New York, 1879, pp. 28, 233—234, 236, 424; " History
of Latin Christianity," by Henry Hart Milman, London, 1857, Vol. VI.
1 Identified by some authors as John Peckham, a disciple of St.
Bonaventura, who became Archbishop of Canterbury from 1278 to 1293
(" Christian Schools and Scholars," by Augusta Th. Drane, London, 1867,
Vol. II. p. 172).
ft /a pffwior /*wc c/t to
crt M miart^u vvue femwO*? <jwdte a&wir
/HteU « Jii Burner J< Wtme ^^^ ^nec
»cJa
itcriirtncmt ?c fcdnc^ ttc. fnjif la i^tnic ^ lainuUr
r htutitfnr 0- «/U ^ iv4V. cttc a /hm^M^ ortk ttr
ut ^Ut la prcutvc
a- Muif /c^ti nra
'jKttttftcw
i^c JlatucccwinncntcUc ^
^ic-ainAcpmt
/C^ 010*0 ?MHC rf WCttt -
po w ft n4^citt /c^ inatJ
^ cpmmcnr iip»bfj>
nruiu'lto Latini. (> Li livres ilou Tu'sDr "
taken fioni the T^tli reutuiy Ms. in th«- l^hhotlx^tnu' Nat inn.-iU ,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 43
pp. 279-303; "Opus Majus," by John Henry Bridges, Oxford, 1897,
Vol. I. pp. xxv-xxvi, and Vol. II. pp. 203-206, containing a valuable tabu-
lated list of facts relating to Bacon's life; " Roger Bacon," par Emile
Charles, Paris, 1861, pp. 15-19, 339-391 ; " De Bibliorum Textibus,"
by Dr. Hody; Wm. Whewell, " History of the Inductive Sciences,"
1858, Vol. I. pp. 512-522, or 1859, Vol. I. pp. 209-219, 245-246, 512-
522, Vol. II. p. 55; also "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,"
London, 1840, Vol. II. pp. 323-337; " The Philosophical Magazine,"
Vol. XII. pp. 327-337; Enfield, Book VII. chap. iii. ; "Catalogue
G6ne"ral des livres imprimis de la Bibliothe"que Nationale," Paris, 1901,
Vol. VI. pp. 256-259; " Encyclopaedia Britarmica," Edinburgh, 1842,
seventh edition, Vol. I. as per Index at p. 17; " Lcs Editions de Roger
Bacon " in the " Journal dcs Savants " for July 1905.
A.D. 1260. — Brunette Latini, b. 1230, d. 1294, " maestro del
divino poeta Dante," celebrated Florentine encyclopaedist, composes
his " Tesoro/' rewritten in French (" Livres dou Tresor "), wherein
he speaks clearly of the compass as at some time likely to be useful
at sea. But he adds : " No master mariner dares to use it, lest he
should fall under the supposition of being a magician ; nor would
even the sailors venture themselves out to sea under his command
if he took with him an instrument which carries so great an appear-
ance of being constructed under the influence of some infernal spirit."
The " Tesoro " is said to be a kind of abridgment of the Bible,
of Pliny, of Solinus, of the Ethics of Aristotle, of the rhetorical
writings of Cicero and of the political works of Aristotle, Plato and
Xenophon ("New Biog. Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. IX. p. 205).
It would be well to consult " La Table Gen era le des bulletins . . .
Socie'te's Savantes," par M. Octave Teissier, Paris, 1873, p. 44,
regarding the collection of different manuscripts of Brunette's
extensive work.
REFERENCES. — Davis, " The Chinese," 1844, Vol. III. p. xi; Vcnan-
son, "Boussole," pp. 75, 148-154; Azuni, " Boussole," p. 139; Klap-
roth, " Boussole," pp. 45-46; " Journal des Savants " for January 1865,
also for January and February 1880; "The Monthly Magazine" for
June 1802; Libri, " Hist, des Sciences Math6matiques," Paris, 1838,
Vol. II. pp. 64, 152-156.
A.D. 1265-1321 .—Dante— Durante— (Alighieri) , illustrious
Italian poet, regarded as the greatest poetical genius that flourished
between the Augustan and Elizabethan ages, composed, during his
exile, the " Divina Commedia," which was the first poem written in
the Italian language. In Canto XII. vv. 28-30 of his " Paradise/1
translated by Dr. Plumptre, he thus alludes to the mariner's
compass :
" Then from the heart of one of those new lights,
There came a voice which made me turn to sec,
E'en as the star the needle's course incites."
Guido Guinicelli (1240-1276), priest and scholar, and whom
Dante considered not only the greatest of living Bolognese poets,
44 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
but his master in poetry (Note : " Purg.," XXVI. Vol. I. p. 327,
v. 92) refers to the nautical compass in nearly the same terms as
Dante ("Rime. Ant./' p. 295). He adds: "The mountains of
loadstone give the virtue to the air of attracting iron, but, because
it (the loadstone) is far off, (it) wishes to have the help of a similar
stone to make it (the virtue) work, and to direct the needle toward
the star" (P. L. Ginguene, "Hist. Lit. d' Italic," Vol. I. p. 413;
Guido delle Colonne — lo Colonna da Messina — Mandella Lett,
p. 81, Florence, 1856).
At pp. 35 and 130 of Bertelli's " Pietro Peregrino di Maricourt,"
Roma, 1868, Memoria prima, appear verses said to be by Guinicelli
and by Guido delle Colonne, judge of Messina, who flourished about
1250, and which are translated literally into English as follows :
" In those parts under foreign skies
Are the mountains of loadstone,
Winch give power to the air
To attract iron, but, because distant ,
It requires to have assistance from similar stones,
To bring it into use,
And direct the needle towards the star.
The learned relate that the loadstone
Could not attract
Iron by its power,
Were it not that the air between them aids ;
Although the calamite is a stone,
The other existing stones
Are not so powerful
To attract, because they have not the influence."
The " Paradise," translated by A. J. Butler, London, 1885,
Canto XII. v. 29, reads : " Si mosse vocc, die I' ago (needle) alia stella,"
and Fazio degli Uberti in the " Dittamondo " (about 1360) has
" Quel gran disio, che mi, traeva addictro come ago a calamita " (III. 2).
REFERENCES. — Hcefcr, " Nouv. Biog. Gen.," Vol. XIII. pp. 21-50, the
last-named page containing an unusual number of citations ; " Biblogr.
Dantesca," by Colomb de Batmcs, Prato, 1845-1846; " La Grande
Ency eloped ie," Vol. X11I. pp. 887-901, embracing many additional
references ; the note at p. 154 of Plumptre's " Dante," also Humboldt's
" Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 629; Libri, " Hist, des Sc. Math.," Paris,
1838, Vol. II. pp. 164, etc.; Frederic C. Harrison, " The New Calendar
of Great Men," London, 1892, pp. 310-315.
A.D. 1266.— It is shown by Th. Torffaeus (Latin for Thormodr
Torfason), an Icelandic scholar (b. 1636, d. 1719), who published
" Historia Rerum Norvegicarum " (Hafniae, 1711, IV. c. 4, p. 345),
that at this date the northern nations were acquainted with the
mariner's compass. In the " History of Norway " here alluded to,
he mentions the fact that the poem of the Icelandic historian, Jarl
Sturla (Snorri Sturlason) written in 1213, on the death of the Swedish
DANTTIS ALtGER.Il POETAE
FLOR.ENTINI PAR.ADISI CA .
PiTVLVM PR.IMVM INCIPIT*
A gloria dicollui che tutto mouc
pcrluniuerfo penetra c rifplcnde
in una parte piu emen altroue
Nctcfel che piu dela fua lucie prende
fu io euidf cofe che ndire
ne fa ne puo chi dilafu difcende
PcrcK* a rrQndefe ilfuo difir -
i, of no mf-llefo fi profundta tanro
rl-c c7i :l ioh rremc-na non puo ire
\VrTr>-nf\ c;mntio c'el rc^nofinto
rJ!.i a i i rr< -r tc potei far tKft-'ies
Cira on rrntcra del mic canto
C1 buono n polio alultiir'O lauoro
fm>i Hoi tuo uaior fi fat to uifo
coruc dimandi dir UrrMto alloro
li.fina qui lun gio^o o'lpdrrafo
afTai mi fu rnaor chon .imcnduc
rnc uopo cntrar ncl arringo rimjfo
Entr i nJ petto mio cfpirj tuc
G come cjuando marfia traeCti
dclla uagina dcllc mcnbra fue
O diuina uirtu fcmiti prefti
tanto che lombra delb^ato regno
ftrgnata nel mio capo manifefti
Vcnir ucdrami altuo dilctco lejno
ccoronarmi alor dicjuellc foglic
che lam tcra ctu mi farai degno
Si radeuolte padre fene coglfc
per triumphare ocefarc opojta
col pa e ucrgogna del humane uoglie
Che parturir letrcii infu lalieta
delptifca delta douria lafronda
peneia quando alchun dife afTeta
Poca fauiila gran fiamma fccondi
dictro dame forfc chommig1ior uocf
i pregh
rche c
^ rifpondi
-°tn-gic amort ^li per diucrfe foci
I » iuc- -rm del mondo madi^ujlLi
chcr ^tro ctv-rdbi giungic chon trc crcci
Cl-on iDig'ior corfo e chonmigliorc ItAia
c fr.ic congiupt i clli mondin < ci . r i
piu afuo n)odo temper «i cfu^u'la
Fatto hiu/a dil.i m«?ne cdiqin fcta
tal foce cp ifi L t uteri labnnco
cjnjllo hcmifperio elaltn pirtc ncra
Q_ti"ndo be t» fee infill Gniih'o fiauco
ndi rirjoltd eriguqrd^ir n,:lfo!e
rqtii^ ri noIifififTe unquanco
E fi cl onx f^chondo riv^to fuol
ufcir d^l primo criC4ir infufo
pur <v!;orrv percgnni ch lotinr tin •'
C hofl- de^hati fuoi per liocbi infaf.>
re!!im-^inj rr)i i il mfo fi fecic
• fifli ^ochi a.fo!/ o'ti\.- nc't,-o ufo
T '«n re i_ :ci:c. i c'-' <jni DOP lecio
at <- i.o re ujrL'j metce J.rl!oco
f ;tro -o r • re -t io H.'il'ima.jj Tp, eiL
io nci ' t , it r.jci .'"o n1 Ti ooeo
chio nt'ltucic-'ii (Ti^ii iar dintorno
crrrre. f^rro bc-^ientc i.fcie aeiroco
E difubito parac giorru i ^torno
effer a^iunto chon\- jjti i c L: puot\
KittefTc ilciel d;.-) i t.-o io!t i jot no
Beatrice tut,i n:ll*' rerre ' o e
fiiT^ cogliorVi ffrtU.i no • <i J
Icluci fifft. Ji^lTu nu/ou.
Hante Alighien. " La Divina Cornmodia," M.intuae M72, the first pa^e
'what is by manx rrg:u fled as the oldest edition of the earliest knouu poem
xvi ittcn in the Italian language.
N'o^ in llir l^iblsolh* <]iir S.untn ( irncvirvr, Pans
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 45
Count Byerges, was rewarded with a box containing a mariner's
compass.
REFERENCES. — Suhm, "In effigien Torfaei, una cum Torfaenis " ;
"Nouv. Biogr. G£nerale de Hoefer," Vol. XLV. p. 405 ; " New Gen. Biog.
Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. XII. p. 263; Jcssen, " Norge," pp. 83-99;
Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XV. p. 312; Michaud, "Biog. Univ.,"
Vol. XLI. p. 683.
A.D. 1269. — Peregrinus (Petrus), Pierre Pelerin de Maricourt,
Mehdricourt — Magister Petrus de Maharnecuria, Picardus — doubtless
a Crusader, was, as Roger Bacon tells us (" Opus Tertium," cap, xi)
the only one, besides Master John of London, who, at this period,
could be deemed a thoroughly accomplished, perfect mathematician,
and was one who understood the business of experimenting in
natural philosophy, alchemy and medicine better than any one
else in Western Europe.
Peregrinus is the author of a letter or epistle, " Written in camp
at the Siege of Lucera (delle Puglie — Nucerne) in the year of our
Lord 1269, on the 8th day of August," addressed to his Amicorum
intime, a soldier, by the name of Sygerus de Fontancourt — Foucau-
court — Foucancort .
Of this epistle, which is the earliest known work of experimental
science, there are but few reliable complete manuscript copies.
Most of these have been very ably analyzed by P. I). Timoteo
Bertelli Barnabita in the exhaustive Memoirs published by him
in Rome during 1868, and still better detailed by Dr. Silvanus
P. Thompson in his several valuable printed researches and lectures
on the subject, but there has been of it only one printed issue in
book form, that of the Lindau physician, A. P. Gasser, which
appeared at Augsburg during 1558.
Several attempts at translation have been made, notably by
Guillaume Libri (" Histoire des Sciences Mathematiques ..."
Paris, 1838, Vol. II. p. 487) who admitted that, with the aid of
several paleographers, he could not decipher many of the abbreviated
faint characters existing in the Bibliotheque Nationale manuscript
(No. 7378Ain quarto, at folio 67), and by Tiberius Cavallo, who does
scarcely better witli the Leydcn copy (Fol. Cod. No. 227) which
was discovered by him, and but a portion of which he transcribes
in the supplement to his " Treatise on Magnetism," London, 1800,
pp. 299-320. A translation was also made by Brother Arnold, of
the La Salle Institute in Troy, N.Y., and published during 1904,
but the most meritorious version now existing is the one entitled
" Done into English by Silvanus P. Thompson from the printed
Latin versions of Gasser 1558, Bertelli 1868, and Hellmann 1898,
and amended by reference to the manuscript copy in his possession,
46 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
formerly amongst the Phillipps' manuscripts, dated 1391. " This
translation, " printed in the year 1902, in the Caxton type, to the
number of 250 copies," reflects very great credit upon Prof. Thomp-
son, who has given us such a faithful interpretation of the original
work as would naturally be expected at his hands, and who has,
besides, rubricated this right royal little volume and caused it to
be issued in one of the most attractive typographical fashions of the
Chiswick Press.
The Hellmann 1898 Berlin version just alluded to, which ap-
peared in " Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten . . ." No. 10
(Kara Magnetica], contains a photographic reproduction of the
Augsburg 1558 title-page, and, it may be added, the volume of
Phillipps' manuscripts, of which Prof. Thompson became the
fortunate possessor, includes one of Chaucer's treatises on the
Astrolabe, besides the Peregrinus' manuscript in question.
During the year 1562 much of the original epistle was pilfered
by Joannes Taisnier Hannonius, who badly condensed and de-
formed it and incorporated it as new matter, conjointly with some
papers of his own, in a book entitled " Oposculum . . . de Natura
Magnetis et ejus effectibus . . ." Colonise, 1562; and that much
was translated " into Englishe " by Richarde Eden, London, about
1579, under title of " A very necessarie and profitable booke
concerning navigation . ' '
Much has been said at different times regarding the contents of
the above-named epistle, the full title of the Paris MS. No. 7378 of
which reads
" Epistola Petri Percgrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt
mil item de magnete,"
but no resume of it could better be given than by quoting here its
first page, which has been translated as follows :
This treatise on the magnet contains two parts, of which Part I
is complete in ten chapters, and Part II in three.
Of Part I : Chap. I states the object of the work;
Chap. II, of what the investigator in this line of work
should be;
Chap. Ill, of a knowledge of the load stone;
Chap. IV, of the science of the discovery of the parts
of the loadstone ;
Chap. V, of the source of the discovery of poles in the
loadstone — which of them is the north and which
the south;
Chap. VI, in what manner a magnet attracts a magnet ;
Pctius Peregnnu-5. " Lpistola . . de Magneto '
The earliest known treatise of experimental science,
now in the Ribliotheque Nationale, Paris
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 47
Chap. VII, how Iron touched with the magnet turns
towards the poles of the globe ;
Chap. VIII, in what manner a magnet attracts iron;
Chap. IX, why the northern part attracts the southern
part, and the converse;
Chap. X, of the inquiry whence the magnet derives
the natural power it possesses.
Of Part II : Chap. I, on the construction of an instrument (floating
compass) by which the azimuth of the sun and
moon, and of any star above the horizon, can
be ascertained;
Chap. II, on the construction of a better instrument
(pivoted compass) for like purpose ;
Chap. Ill, on the construction of a wheel for perpetual
motion.
An analyzation of each chapter in turn will show how satis-
factorily Peregrinus has developed, in connected series, all of the
early experiments upon which are based his theories of the loadstone.
PART I
Chap. I states that the intention or object of the work is to make
known the hitherto hidden nature, occult properties, of the
loadstone, the art of treating the latter, the making of scientific
instruments, and matters of interest to students of nature,
astrologers and sailors.
Chap. II. The investigator in this line should know the natures of
things and understand the motions of the heavenly bodies,
but, above all, he should be assiduous in handiwork for
experimental research.
Chap. Ill indicates four different requisite qualities of the loadstone,
and tells where they are to be found and how to select and
test them — the best of them being free from flaws, of great
density and of a bluish or celestial colour.
Chap. IV shows how to find in the loadstone the two poles, one
north and the other south, using preferably a globular magnet,1
1 To Peregrinus is due the first inception of the terrella. He makes the
magnet round, and says, " You must know that this stone bears in itself a
likeness of the heavens and contains two points, one North and the other
South, thus resembling the poles of the sky. ..." In his Memoria Prima,
" Sopra P. P. de Maricourt," 1868, P. D. Timoteo Bertelli Barnabita states
(Chap. VI. p. 22) that, besides the terrella, Gilbert appropriated other observa-
tions and experiments of Peregrinus, and, farther on (Chap. VII. p. 28), he
gives us the following extract from Th6venot : " L'on voit encore que la pluspart
des choses que I'on attribue d Gilbert et qui luy ont donne la reputation de Pere
de la Philosophic de VAyman estaient scues d£s le treizi&me sidcle." This,
48 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
placing thereon a needle or an oblong piece of iron, and, either
drawing lines in the direction taken by the needle, so that they
" may meet at two points, just as all the meridian circles of the
world meet at the two opposite poles of the world/' or, by
merely marking the magnet so that " the opposite points will
be correctly placed just as are the poles in a sphere."
Chap. V. In order to find the poles in a stone — which of them is the
North and which the South — take a round wooden vessel
shaped like a skiff (paropsidis, parascidis), and place the stone
therein, then put the vessel containing the stone into another
large vessel filled with water, so that the first-named vessel
may float into the larger one : " The stone in the first vessel
will be like a sailor in a ship, and the iirst vessel may float
roomily into the second as does a ship in a river, and the stone
so placed will turn its small vessel acting as the Northern pole
in the direction of the Northern heaven. ... If this pole were
then turned away a thousand times, a thousand times would it
return to its place by the will of God."
Chap. VI. Having found which pole is the Northern, mark it so
that it may be known when necessary. Place the stone into
a small vessel, as shown in Chap. V, then hold another stone
in the hand and approach its Northern part to the Southern
part of the stone floating in the vessel, and the floating stone
will follow the other " as if it wished to adhere thereto. . . .
Know that, as a rule, the Northern part of one stone attracts
the Southern part of another stone and the Southern the
Northern/'
Chap. VII. When the needle or oblong piece of iron (alluded to in
Chap. IV) has touched the magnet and been attached to a
light piece of wood or stalk and then placed in a vessel of
says he (in a note, pp. 28-29), is doubtless an exaggeration. That Gilbert
took from P. Peregruuis his ierrella and many excellent scientific plans on
magnetism, the ideas of others also, is probable, but it is indubitable that
much was his own, and that, for his time, his work is a veritable chej-d' ceuvre
of inductive and experimental method and the most finished treatise on
magnetism which had up to that time appeared.
In this connection, Bertelli adds (Part III. p. 92) : " We must conclude
that historical truth was undoubtedly distorted when, for so long a period,
it was asserted and repeated, without any sufficient mature investigation,
that the famous William Gilbert of Colchester was the real and sole founder
of magnetism and of the inductive method in experimental science. We
certainly must not deny him the no small merit which is his due, nor the share
he had in the discoveries at the commencement of the seventeenth century,
but we must, likewise, confess that the copious collection of facts which he
gives us, and the experimental and discursive method with which he presents
them is neither altogether his own nor is it new " (see W. Wenkebach,
" Sur Petrus Adsigerius." Rome, 1865, p. 8; " Universal Lexicon," Leipzig,
1741; N. Cabaeus, " Phil. Magn.," Ferrara, 1629, p. 23).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 49
water, one part will be turned towards the mariner's star
because it is near the pole, " the fact being that it does not
turn towards the aforesaid star but towards the pole." That
end of the iron which has touched the Southern end of the
stone turns towards the Northern quarter of the sky, and vice
versa.
Chap. VIII. If you wish to attract iron floating on water, hold the
Southern part of a loadstone to the Northern part of the iron
and the iron will follow. But, if you bring the North end of
the stone near the North end of the iron, the latter will avoid
the stone. ';" If, however, violence is used towards the ends,
so that, for instance, the Southern end of the iron which was
touched with the Northern end of the magnet is now touched
with the Southern end of the magnet . . . the power in the iron
will easily be changed, and that will become Southern which was
previously Ndrthern, and the converse."
Chap. IX. " The Northern part of the magnet attracts the Southern
and the reverse, as has been shown; in which attraction the
magnet is an ' agent ' of greater power while the ' patient '
(i. e. the other which is acted upon) is^ of weaker." This is
proved by taking a loadstone — marking it, for instance, AD —
dividing, separating it into two parts, and placing one part
(the Northern, marked A, called the " agent ") into water so
that it will float. It will turn " to the North, as before, for
the division does not deprive the parts of the stone of their
properties, if it be homogeneous." The other part (the Southern,
marked D, called the " patient ") is next to be floated in a
similar manner. When this is done, the other ends of the two
stones should be marked respectively B and C. It will then
be observed that " if the same parts are again brought near
each other, one will attract the other, so that they will be joined
together again at B and C where the division took place.
Whence it is that they become one body with the same natural
propensity as at first. The proof of this is that rf they are
joined together they will possess the same oppositions (opposite
poles) they first contained. The ' agent/ therefore, as you
will see by experiment, intends to unite its ' patient ' to itself,
and this takes place on account of the similitude between
them. . . . And, in the same way, it will happen that if A is
joined with L), the two lines will become one, by virtue of
that very attraction, in this order CD — AB . . . there will
then remain the identity of the extreme parts as at first, before
they were reunited, for C will be the North point and B the
South point, as B and C were before. ... It is therefore
E
50 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
evident, from these observations, why the Southern parts do
attract the Northern, and the reverse, and why the attraction
of the South by the South, and the North by the North, is not
according to Nature/'
Chap. X. " Some weak inquirers have imagined that the power
which the magnet exercises over iron lies in those mineral places
in which the magnet is found . . . but it is found in different
parts of the world. . . . Besides, when iron or the magnet
turns towards the Southern as well as to the Northern quarter,
as is evident from what has already been said, we are compelled
to decide that the attraction is exercised on the poles of the
magnet not only from the locality of its quarry, from which
ensues the evident result that, wheresoever a man may be,
the direction of this stone appears to his eye, according to the
position of his meridian circle. All the meridian circles,
however, meet together at the poles of the globe, wherefore it
is that the poles of the magnet receive their power from the
poles of the world. From this, it manifestly appears that the
direction of the magnet is not towards the mariner's star, as
the meridian circles do not meet there, but all the poles, for the
mariner's star is always found beyond the meridian circle of
any region unless it be twice in a complete revolution of the
firmament. Likewise from this, it is manifest that the parts
of the magnet receive their power from the world's poles . . .
the whole magnet from the whole heavens." 1 Then follows
a suggestive experiment looking towards perpetual motion,
by which one may secure " a wonderful secret " and even
" be saved the trouble of having any clock." Here, it is given
that a terrella, poised on its poles in the meridian, moves
circularly with a complete revolution in twenty-four hours.
This is explained by N. Cabseus in his " Phil. Magn.," lib. iii.
cap. 4.
PART II
Chap. I. He takes a round, or an ovoid magnet, and, after noting
its poles, files it between the two poles on both sides so that
it may be like a compressed sphere and thus occupy less space.
He then encloses this magnet between two light wooden cap-
sules, or boxes (cassulas) after the manner of a mirror ... so
1 In this same sense does Ristoro d' Arezzo write in his " La Compositione
del Hondo . . . del 1282," transcribed by Enrico Narducci, Roma, 1859, pp.
172, 316, xi, xii. Ristoro calls the needle angola (lib. xxxix. p. 326,), which,
says he, guides the mariner and which is itself directed (per la virtu del cielo)
by the star called tramontane (pp. no, 263-4, 326); see " Pietro Pere-
gtino," Bertelli, 1858, pp. 55, 130.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 51
fastened (with glue) that they cannot be opened and water
cannot enter. Then, says he, " place the capsules thus adjusted
in a large vessel full of water in which the two quarters of the
globe, viz. the South and the North, are found and marked,
and let them be indicated by a thread extending from the
Northern to the Southern part of the vessel ; allow the capsules,
or boxes, to float and let there be above them a slender piece
of wood in the form (position) of a diameter. Then move this
piece of wood above 'the boxes until it is equidistant from the
meridianal line previously found and indicated by the thread,
or is the same (line) itself. This being done, according to the
piece of wood so situated, draw a line on the capsules, or boxes,
and it will be the perpetual meridianal line in all countries.
That line, therefore, when cut at right angles by another will
be divided in the centre and will be the line of the East and
West. You will thus have four quadrants actually marked
on the capsules, or boxes, representing the four quarters of the
globe, of which each will be divided into ninety, so that there
may be in the universe CCCLX parts (degrees) in the entire
circumference of the capsules, or boxes. Inscribe divisions
on it as they were formerly inscribed on the back of the astro-
labe. There should be, besides, a slender and light ruler above
the capsules so inscribed after the manner of the ruler on the
back of the astrolabe. Instead, however, of the sights (pinnu-
larum), should be erected at right angles two pins over the
ends of the ruler."
This floating compass and the pivoted compass described
in the following chapter are to be found illustrated, pp. 67-77,
figs. 10 and 12, at end of Part II of Bertelli Barnabita's Memoirs
above referred to.
Chap. II. For the construction of a " better instrument and of
more certain effects " (the pivoted compass) he says : " Let
there be made a vessel of wood, brass or any other solid material
that you desire, and let it be turned in the shape of a jar (pixidis
tornatum) somewhat deep and tolerably large and let a cover of
transparent material, such as glass or crystal, be fitted to it.
If the whole vessel were of transparent substance so much the
better. Let there be placed in the centre of the same vessel
a slender axis of brass or silver, applying its extremities to the
two parts of the jar, that is to say (to the) higher and lower.
Let two holes be then made in the centre of the axis facing
each other at right angles. Then let a piece of iron wire,
like a needle, be passed through one of these holes and another
wire of silver or brass be passed through the other, intersecting
52 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the iron at right angles. Let the cover at first be divided into
quadrants and each of the quadrants into ninety parts, as was
taught regarding the other instrument. Let North and South
and East and West be marked on it and let a rule of transparent
material be added to it with wires set upright at the ends. You
will approach what part of the magnet you please, whether
North or South, to the crystal until the needle moves towards
it and receives virtue from it. When this is done, turn the
vessel until one end (of the needle) stands directly over the
North in the instrument coinciding with the Northern quarter
of the sky. This being done, turn the rule to the sun, by day,
and to the stars, by night, in manner above indicated. By
means of this instrument, you will be enabled to direct your
footsteps to states and islands and to any places on the globe,
and wheresoever you may be, whether on land or on sea, so
long as their latitudes and longitudes are known to you."
Chap. III. He constructs " a wheel which shall be constantly in
motion," by making a very thin concave, silver case, after the
manner of a mirror, suitably perforated, around the rim of
which he inserts small iron nails, or teeth, bent closely toward
each other and which he then places upon an immovable axis
so that it may revolve easily." He continues : " Let a silver
wire be added to this axis, fixed to it and placed between two
bowls on the end of which let a magnet be set, prepared in
this manner. Let it be rounded and its poles ascertained, as
before indicated ; afterwards, let it be fashioned in the shape of
an egg with the poles intact, and let it be somewhat filed down
in two intermediate and opposite parts with the object of its
being compressed and occupying less space so that it may not
touch the inner walls ... let the magnet be placed on the
wire . . . and let the North pole be somewhat inclined towards
the small teeth of the wheel so that it may exercise its power . . .
so that each tooth shall arrive at the North pole and, owing to
the impetus of the wheel, shall pass it by and approach the
Southern quarter. Thus every small tooth will be in a per-
petual state of attraction and avoidance. And, in order that
the wheel may perform its duty with greater rapidity, insert,
between the cases, a small round brass or silver pebble of such
size that it may be caught between any two of the small teeth,
so that, as one part of the wheel comes uppermost, the pebble
may fall to the opposite part. Wherefore, whilst the motion
of the wheel is perpetual on one side, the same will be in the
case of the pebble on the other side, or the fall of the pebble
caught between any two of the teeth will be perpetual to the
Petrus Peregrinus. Facsimile of a Ms. at the liodleiau Library,
of the *' Kpistola cle Magnate,"
wherein is described the earliest known pivoted compass.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 53
opposite side because as it is drawn towards the centre of the
earth by its weight, it assists the motion by not suffering the
small teeth to remain at rest in front of the stone. Let there
be spaces, however, between the small teeth conveniently
curved, so as to catch the pebble as it falls in the way the present
description indicates."
Gilbert alludes to this perpetual-motion engine as having been
devised or delineated by Peregrinus after he had got the idea from
others (" De Magnete," Book II. chap, xxxv.), and says that Jerome
Cardan writes ("Opera," Batav., 1663; " De Rermn Varietate,"
Book, IX. chap, xlviii.) he could construct one out of iron and load-
stone— not that he ever saw such a machine ; that he merely offers
the idea as an opinion and quotes from a report of the physician
Antonio de Fantis of Treviso published in " Tabula generalis ac mare
magnum scotice subtilitatis. ..."
In the " Magisterium Naturae ct Artis," P. Francisci Tertii de
Lanis, Brixiye, 1684, Tractatus Tcrtius, Caput Secundum, p. 489,
under Problema, I, Motus pcrpctuus magnctis, will be found allusion
to the machines of (i) P. Peregrinus, as described in his epistle;
(2) Taisnier; (3) Ant. de Fantis (cited by Cardan, as stated above);
also mention of those of P. Schottus, Athan. Kircherus, Hieronhnus
Finugius and others ; the most important of these being again
alluded to throughout the third chapter of the same tract.
Gilbert makes further allusion to P. Peregrinus in his Book I.
chap, i.; Book II. chap, xxxv.; Book III. chap, i.; Book IV.
chap. i. ; Book VI. chap. iv.
The Peregrinus' Lcyden manuscript (Fol. Cod. No. 227) already
alluded to, Libri says (" Histoire des Sciences Matliem. . . ." 1838,
Vol. I. p. 383, note), is but a poor copy of the manuscript in the
Paris Library (No. 7378A), from which latter the words Petri ad
Sygcnim have been unfortunately transformed into Petri Adsigcrii.
He adds (Vol. II. pp. 70-71) that Humboldt cites (" Examen
Critique," p. 243) several authors who have alluded to the pretended
Adsigerius. Mention is also made of the fact that W. Wenkebach,
professor at the Hague Military School, examined the manuscripts in
the Bodleian Library, Nos. 1629, 1794 and 2458, containing the
treatise of Peregrinus, and that not one of them has the passage
alluding to the decimation. The Leydcn manuscript, by the way, is
said to be the only one, besides the Vatican copy, No. 5733, bearing
the full date, which latter was first made known by Thevenot in his
" Recueil de Voyages." And it was a passage found in the Leyden
manuscript (Q 27) which led to the belief that Peregrinus had first
observed the variation or declination of the magnetic needle. The
54 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
passage is as follows : " Take note that the magnet, as well as the
needle that has been touched by it, does not point exactly to the
poles, but that the part of it which is supposed to point to the South
sometimes declines a little to the West, and that the part which
looks towards the North sometimes inclines to the East. The exact
quantity of this declination I have ascertained, after numerous
experiments, to be five degrees. However, this declination is no
obstacle to our guidance, because we make the needle itself decline
from the true South by nearly one point and a half towards the
West. A point contains five degrees." This passage is unquestion-
ably a late addition, being written in a different hand in a circle
which itself is an incomplcted outline of one of the figures of Pere-
grinus' primitive compass.
REFERENCES. - " Encyclopedia Metropolitan^" Vol. III. p. 737
(" Bibhothcca Bibliothecarnm," fol. n, p. 1400; " Catalogue of the MSS.
in the library of Geneva," by Sencbier, p. ^07); " Bullctino di biblio-
graphia c di stona dclle scicnzc . . ." B. Boncompagni, Vol. I. pp. 1-32,
65-99, 101-139, 3 19-. \ 20; Vol. IV. pp. 257-288, 303-331; "Cat. bibl.
publicaj univeis. Lug. L>;it.," p. 365; W. Wciikebach, " Sur Petrus
Adsigcnus . . ." Koine, 1865 (taken from Vol. VII. No. 3 of the " Annah
Puia cd Apphcata ") ; Brunei, "Manuel du Libraire," 1863, Vol. IV.
p. 493; " Br. Museum Libiaiy," 538, G 17; "Journal des Savants,"
for April-May 1848, and September 1870; Walker, " Magnetism," 1866,
p. 6; "English Cyclopaedia," Vol. VIII. p. 160, also Dr. Mutton's
" Phil, and Math. Dictionary"; Thos. Young, "A Course of Lectures
on Nat. Phil, and the Mechanical Arts," London, 1807, Vol. I. pp. 746,
756; " Electro-magnetic Phenomena," by T. A. Lyons, New York, 1901,
Vol. I. pp. 105-106; Vol. II. p. 565 (with translation of a portion of the
original manuscript); " Examen Critique," A. de Humboldt, Paris,
1836, Vol. III. p. 31 ; " Science and Literature of the Middle Ages,"
Paul Lacroix, London, pp. 88-89, 280-282; Silvanus P. Thompson,
Proceedings of the British Academy," 1905-6, p. 377. It may be added
that Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Generale," Vol. I. part i. p. 640,
allude, at No. 3197, to a manuscript of P. Pcrcgrinus, " Nova compositio
astrolabii particulars, " as being in the Library of Geneva and as citing
the year 1261 in connection with the astronomical tables of John Campan
(Campanus, Italian mathematician, who died about 1300) : " Biog.
Generale," Vol. VIII. p. 373.
A.D. 1270. — Riccioli (Giovanni Battista), an Italian astronomer,
member of the Society of Jesuits, b. 1598, d. 1671, asserts that at
this period under the reign of St. Louis (1226-1270), French navi-
gators were already using the magnetic needle, which they kept
floating in a small vase of water, and which was supported by two
tubes to prevent its falling to the bottom.
For a detailed account of the work of this well-known scientist
consult : " Biographic Generate," Vol. XLII. pp. 147-149; Fabroni,
" Vitae Italorum," Vol. II; Jean Baptiste Delambre, "Hist, de
1'Astron. Mod./' 1821; Davis, "The Chinese/' Vol. III. p. n;
Venanson, " Boussole," pp. 70-71; Klaproth, " Boussole/' p. 54;
Becquerel, " ResumeV' p. 59; Alex. Chalmers, " Gen. Biog. Diet./'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 55
1811, Vol. XXVI. pp. 182-183; Fischer, " Gcschichtc dcr Physik,"
Vol. I ; Tiraboschi, " Storia dclla letter. Ital.," Vol. VIII ; " English
Cyclopaedia," Vol. V. pp. 76-77. Riccioli's " Almagestum Novum,"
Bologna, 1651, in two volumes, gives in book nine of the second
volume the sentence of Galileo. This is the work which an old savant
called " the pandects of astronomical knowledge " (Morhof Poly-
histor, Vol. II. p. 347).
A.D. 1271-1295. — Polo (Marco), Paulum Venctum, is reported
by many to have brought the compass from China to Italy. This is,
however, supported by no evidence, nor is any allusion whatever
made to the fact in the account he rendered of his voyage. Before
Marco Polo set out on his travels, as Humboldt states, the Catalans
had already made voyages " along the northern islands of Scotland
as well as along the western shores of tropical Africa, while the
Basques had ventured forth in search of the whale, and the
Northmen had made their way to the Azores (the Bracir islands
of Picignano)."
Polo relates that he set out from Acre in 1271, and returned to
Venice " in the year 1295 of Christ's Incarnation." His " Travels "
(" II Milione di Messcr Marco Polo ") according to the review of
Col. Henry Yule, consists of a prologue and four books. It was
dictated by him to a fellow prisoner, Rtisticiano or Rusticello, of
Pisa, and " it would appear now to be definitely settled that the
original was ... of just such French as we might expect in the
thirteenth century from a Tuscan amanuensis following the oral
dictation of an Orientalized Venetian."
Polo's journeyings extended " so far to the north that he leaves
the North Star behind him, and thence so far to the south that the
North Star is never seen."
REFERENCES. — Becquercl, " Elec. et Magn.," Vol. I. p. 70; Sonnini,
in Buffon, " Mindraux," Vol. VI. p. 84; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849,
Vol. II. pp. 625, 656, or 1860, pp. 250-251 ; " The Book of Scr
Marco Polo," by Sir Henry Yule, New York, 1903, which contains
a very extensive bibliography at end of the second volume; Libri,
"Hist, dcs Sc. Mathem.," Paris, 1838, Vol. II. pp. 26, 140, etc.;
D. A. Azuni, "Dissertation sur la Boussole," p. 69; Miller, "Hist.
Phil. 111.," 1849, Vol. I. pp. 179-180; " Encycl. Brit.," ninth ed.,
Vol. XIX. p. 407; "Journal des Savants" for September 1818,
also May 1823, and the five articles published January to May 1867;
see also " Ccntennaire de Marco Polo," par. H. Cordier, Paris, 1896,
containing " bibliographic tres complete de toutes les editions de Marco
Polo et des ouvrages qui lui sont consacr£s."
A.D. 1282. — Ba'ilak, native of Kibdjak, wrote this year, in
Arabic, his book on " Stones/' wherein he says that he saw during
his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria, in 1242, the captains of the
Syrian sea construct a compass in the following manner : " When
56 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the night is so dark as to conceal from view the stars which might
direct their course according to the position of the four cardinal
points, they take a basin full of water, which they shelter from wind
by placing it in the interior of the vessel ; they then drive a needle
into a wooden peg or a corn-stalk, so as to form the shape of a cross,
and throw it into the basin of water prepared for the purpose, on
the surface of which it floats. They afterwards take a loadstone of
sufficient size to fill the palm of the hand, or even smaller ; bring
it to the surface of the water, give to their hands a rotatory motion
towards the right so that the needle turns on the water's surface ;
they then suddenly and quickly withdraw their hands, when the
two points of the needle face north and south. I have seen them,
with my own eyes, do that during my voyage at sea from Tripolis
to Alexandria."
REFERENCES.— K Salvertc, " Phil, of Magic," New York, 1847,
Vol. II. pp. zzi -222, note; "American Journal of Science and Arts,"
Vol. XL. p. 217; Davis, "The Chinese,5' Vol. III. p. xii ; Klaproth,
" Lcttre a M. de Humboldl," pp. 59, 60, 67; Knight, " Mech. Diet.,"
Vol. II. pp. 1371 and 1307 ; " F.lcctro-Magn. Phenoni./' by T. A. Lyons,
New Voi k, 1901, Vol. 11. p. 504.
A.D. 1302. — Gioia — Goia (Flavio or Joannes), an Italian pilot
reported born at Positano, near Amalfi, is said by Flamnius
Venanson (" DC I'invention dc la boussole nautique," Naples, 1808,
pp. 1 38 and 168) to be the real inventor of the mariner's compass.
This view is supported by Briet (Philippe), " Aumiles Mimdi,"
Vol. VI: Geog. ct Hydrog., lib. x. cap. 8; by Voltaire (" Essai
sur les Mceurs," 1819, Vol. III. chap, cxli.), and by many others,
but Klaproth ("Lcttre . . ." 1834, pp. 132-136) quotes Anthony of
Bologna, called the Panormitan, as saying that Gioia lived in the
fourteenth century and wrote both " Prima dedit naiilis usum
magnetis A mat phis" and " Invcntrix praetor a jitit magnetic Amal-
phis." He adds that a statement to the same effect was made by
Arrigi Brechmann in his " Historia Pandcctarum Amalphitorum,"
Dissertatio I, No. 22, Neapoli, 1735, p. 925, but that both are equally
incorrect, for Gioja could not have invented an instrument which had
already been in use more than a hundred years before his time.1
1 Dr. Gco. Miller names (" Hist. Phil. 111.," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 180,
note) Gnyot de Proving, Jacques dc Vitry and Brnnctto Latini, as referring to
the compass. He adds that the Chronicle of France intimates the use of this
instrument under the name of marinette towards the 1imc of the first of the
voyages of the Crusaders undertaken by Louis IX, and that Hughes dc Bercy,
a contemporary of that prince, speaks of it as well known in that country,
.tor these reasons, says he, " the credit of the invention must be denied to
Flavio de Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, who is commonly said to have
constructed the first compass about the year 1302, on account of which the
province of Principato, in which he was born, bears one of these instruments
for its arms,1'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 57
In his " Essay on Several Important Subjects," London, 1676,
Joseph Glanvill remarks (p. 33) : " I think there is more acknowledg-
ment due to the name of this obscure fellow, that hath scarce any
left, than to a thousand Alexanders and Caesars or to ten times the
number of Aristotles and Aquinas'. And he really did more for the
increase of knowledge and advantage of the world, by this one
experiment, than the numerous subtile disputers that have lived ever
since the creation of the School of Wrangling."
In the " Navigator's Supply," published 1597, William Barlowe
speaks of " the lame tale of one Flavins at Amclphus in the Kingdome
of Naples ; for to have devised it (the compass) is of very slender
probabilitie."
M. D. A. Azimi says (" Boussole," 1809, p. 144) that Gioja may
have possibly invented the method of suspending the magnetic
needle upon a perpendicular pivot so that it would remain horizontal
whatever the movements of the vessel. This is very likely; at
any rate, it must be admitted that this particular mode of support
permits a freer movement to the needle in any direction and admits
of more exact observations than when the needle is floating upon
the water.
At pp. 487-505, Vol. II of his " Histoire dcs Sciences Mathe'-
matiques," Guillaume Libri transcribes all he is able to from the
almost illegible Peter Peregrmus' manuscript, No. 7378A, in the Paris
Bibliotheque, and refers to the imperfect mode of suspending the
magnetic needle therein shown. It is, says he, similar to that
spoken of by Francesco da Buti (Libri, Vol. II. pp. 67-68; Bertelli,
" Pictro Pcregrino," pp. 63-66), who makes first mention of the
compass in the Dante commentary (" Comment, sopra la Divina
Commcdia ") to be found in the collection of manuscripts No. 29,
held by the Magliabcchiana Library of Florence. He adds that
the suspension of the needle is likewise alluded to by Guerino dctto
il Mcschino, in a work first composed prior to the " Divina Corn-
media " (an Italian romance, attributed to one Andrew the Floren-
tine) as imbellico, or in bcllico, in bilico, meaning in suspense, through-
out the editions of Padua, 1473, Bologna, 1475, Milan, 1482 and
Venice, 1480, 1498. Mention is also made by Libri of the writings
of Adelard de Bath on the compass, at p. 62 of his second volume.
REFERENCES. — Camillus Lconardus, "Speculum Lapidum " ; the
notes at p. 180, Vol. I. of Dr. Geo. Miller's " Hist. Phil. 111.," London,
1849, Vol. I. p. 170, note; Venanson, " Boussole," pp. 158, 160; Knight,
" Mech. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1398; Collcnutius — Collenuccio— " Com-
pcndio . . . rcgno di Napoli," Venice, 1591 ; " Discussione della leg-
gcnda di Flavio Gioia, inventore della bussola " (T. Bertelli, in " Rivista
di Fisica Mat. e Sc. Nat.," Pavia, 1901, II. pp. 529-541) ; Matteo Camara,
" Mcmoric . . . di Amalfi," Salerno, 1876; " Literary Digest," July 6,
1901, translated from " Le Cosmos," Paris, June 8, 1901; Giraldi,
58 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Libellus de Re Nautica/' Bale, 1540; Admiral Luigi Fincati, "II
Magnete, la calamita c la bussola," Rome, 1878; " Annalcs de G6o-
graphie," Vol. XI. No. 59, pp. 7-8 for September 15, 19°''. and G.
Grimaldi in the " Mem. d. Accad. Etrus. di Cortona "; Paulus Jovius,
" Historiarum," Florence, 1552; Pictro Napoli Signorelli, " Sull' inven-
zione della bussola nautica . . ."; M. A. Blondus, " De Ventis,"
Venice, 1546; Caelius Calcagninus, " Thesaurus Grcecarum Antiqui-
tatum," 1697, Vol. XI. p. 761 ; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G6n.,"
Vol. II. p. 149; " Riv. G. Ital.," X. 1903, pp. i, n, 105-122, 314-334.
For Briet (Philippe), b. 1601, d. 1668, see Michaud, "Biog.Univ.,"
Paris, 1843, Vol. V. p. 527. The best, most complete edition of
Briefs " Annales Mundi " is the Venice, 1693.
A.D. 1327-1377.— It has been claimed by F. M. Arouet de
Voltaire, who asserts it at Vol. III. pp. 251-252 of his " Essai sur
les Moeurs et 1'Esprit des Nations," Paris, 1809, " that the first well-
authenticated use of the compass " was made by the English during
this period, which is that of the reign of King Edward III.
By Voltaire, the extraordinary (prodigicusc) antiquity of the
Chinese is not questioned. They knew of the compass, but he says
" it was not employed by them for its proper use, that of guiding
vessels at sea. They travelled only along the shores. Possessed,
as they were, of a country that furnished everything, they did not
feel the need of going, as we do, to the other end of the world "
(Vol. I. pp. 239, 247). Speaking of the Portuguese (Vol. III. p. 257)
he says : "It was not before known if the magnetic needle would
point to the south on approaching the South Pole ; it was found
to point constantly to the north during the year 1486."
From the time of Edward III, the compass was known in England
by the names of adamant, sailing needle and sail-stone dial, as has been
shown in the writings of Chaucer and others, the most important of
which will be duly quoted in their order. The compass was alluded
to, more particularly, by John Gower, "Confessio Amantis/'1 Books I
and VI; by Richard Hakluyt, " Voyages/' Vol. I. pp. 213, 215; and
by Edward Fairfax, " Godefroy de Boulogne," Book XV. s. 18.
It may be well to record here that Voltaire was " confessedly
the foremost name, the acknowledged head of European literature
of his time." Goethe calls him " the greatest literary man of all
time, the most astonishing creation of the Author of Nature "
(" Nouvelle Biographic," Vol. XLV. i. p. 445). Though not the first
French author who wrote on the wonderful discoveries of Newton,
he was the first to make them extensively known on the Continent.
1 It is interesting to note that the " Confessio Amantis," which went
through as many as four editions before the year 1560, is a huge work of
nearly thirty-five thousand lines which was written at the desire of King
Richard II of England between the years 1377 and 1393.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 59
REFERENCES. — Sir Harris Nicolas, " Hist. Roy. Navy/' 1847,
Vol. II. p. 180 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. p. 57, note ; Whewell,
" Hist, of the Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol. I. p. 431 ; " Crit. and Misc. Essays,"
by Thomas Carlyle, Boston, 1860, pp. 5-78. " La France Litteraire,"
par Joseph M. Querard, Vol. X. Paris, 1839, pp. 276-457, devotes as
many as 182 pages to bibliographical notices of Voltaire and names 1131
publications written by or relating to him, whilst in Qu6rard's " Biblio-
graphic Voltairienne " will be found a still more extended account at
pp. i-xxxvi and at pp. 1-84.
THE MARINER'S COMPASS
Regarding the mariner's compass, it can scarcely be doubted,
from what precedes, that it came to the knowledge of Europeans
in the manner indicated under the A.D. 1190 date.
Bailik of Kibdjak — Batiak Kibdjaki — spoke of its use as generally
well known by the Syrian navigators, who constructed it in exactly
the same way as did the Chinese (A.D. 1111-1117 an(^ A-D- 1282),
and which resembled the compass seen by Brunette Latini in the
possession of- Friar Bacon while in England prior to the year 1260
(Knight, " Mech. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1397).
Edrisi (Idrisi or Aldrisi), the most eminent of the Arabian
geographers, is said by Boucher to have given a confirmed account
of the polarity of the magnet, the early knowledge of which by the
Arabs has been shown conclusively by Jacob de Vitry, Vincent de
Beauvais and Albert us Magnus.
Signor P. T. Bertelli, who has been mentioned under the
A.D. 1190 date, could not mid any reference, however remote, to
the directive property of the loadstone throughout a careful examina-
tion of Latin and Greek works dating from the sixth century B.C.
to the tenth century A.D. He admits that the directive property
was known to the Chinese, who had made rude floating needle
compasses before the beginning of the Christian era, although these
compasses are likely to have been brought home by the Amalfian
sailors, who are, by some writers, represented as having substituted
the pivoted needle as well as added the Rose of the Winds.1 He
will not, however, recognize the claims made in favour of Flavio
Gioja. On the other hand, A. Botto has shown that the Amalfitans
introduced the compass between the tenth and the eleventh
centuries (" Contribute agli studi storici sull' origine della bussola
nautica," 1899). Consult likewise Vol. IX of " Annales de G£ogr.
et de Bibliogr.," 1899, p. 8.
At p. 195 of the December 1904 issue of " Terrestrial Mag-
1 Les Roses des Vents n'apparaissent pas sur les cartes avant le xvie
stecle (" Annales de Geographic," VI. 1897, p. 14 de la Bibliographic). See
A.D. 1436 entry.
60 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
net ism " is a short article relative to the claim made that the com-
pass was invented by a Veronese named Salomone Ireneo Pacifico
(A.D. 776-846) during the first half of the ninth century. It states
that Bertelli considers this due to a misinterpretation of an inscrip-
tion on Pacifico 's tomb, and it alludes to Bertelli 's previous paper
on the subject in " Terrestr. Magn.," Vol. VIII. No. 4, p. 179
(see also the number of " Terrestr. Magn." for June 1905, p. 108,
and the " Geographical Journal" for March 1905, pp. 334-335).
The earliest recorded use of the compass in a Spanish vessel,
according to Capmany (" Memorias Historicas," 1792), is to be
found in the Chronicle of Don Pedro Nino, Conde de Buelna,
as follows : " It is reported that Condc's galleys left the island
of La Alharina along the coast of Bombay . . . and the pilots
compared their needles which had been rubbed with the magnet
stone. . . ."
In Dr. Plumptre's notes on Dante, reference is made to the fact
that the European knowledge of the magnetic needle came from
Arabia, and, like Humboldt, he quotes in support thereof an
allusion from the Spanish " Leyes de las Partidas " belonging to the
first half of the thirteenth century. The passage in the last named
is spoken of by M. Fern de Navarrete in his " Discurso historico,"
etc., 1802 (II. tit. ix. ley 28) and reads thus : " The needle which
guides the seaman in the dark night and shows him, both in good
and in bad weather, how to direct his course is the mediatrix
(medianera) between the loadstone (la picdva) and the north star ..."
Humboldt adds : " See the passage in ' Las siete Partidas del sabio
Roy Don Alonso el IX' [according to the usually adopted chrono-
logical order, Alfonso the tenth], Madrid, 1829, Vol. I. p. 473." *
On the other hand, the knowledge of the compass by the Arabs
in the thirteenth century has been most decidedly contested by
E. Renaudot (" Anciennes Relations dcs Indes et de la Chine,"
Paris, 1717, p. 3) ; by D. A. Azuni (" Dissertation sur 1'origine de
la Boussole," Paris, 1809, pp. 102, 127; by Giovanni Battista
Ramusio (" Coll. Voy.," 1554, Vol. I. p. 379) ; by A. Collina (" Con-
siderazioni," etc./Faenza, 1748, p. 121, etc.). Buffon says (" Theorie
de la Terre," Paris, An. VIII. tome i. p. 300) : "I know that some
pretend the Arabs have invented the compass and have used it
long before the French (sec ' Abrege de 1'histoire des Sarrazins,'
de Bergeron, p. 119) . . . but that opinion always appeared to me
1 Incidentally, it may be mentioned that when the laws of Castile were
collected in a Code, during the reign of Alfonso the tenth, surnamed El Sabio,
the learned, the compilers divided the work into seven volumes or parts (siele
partidas] in order that each volume or part might be dedicated to one of the
seven letters constituting Alfonso's name (" Dedication of Books," New
York, 1881, pp. 17-18).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 61
devoid of reason ; for there is no word in the Arabian, Turkish or
Persian tongue which can be made to signify the compass. . . .
They employ the Italian word bossola. ..."
The same view is entertained by Dr. William Robertson, principal
of the University of Edinburgh, who, after announcing in his
" History of the Reign of Charles V," London, 1769, Vol. I. p. 78,
that the mariner's compass was invented soon after the close of the
Holy War, gives at pp. 333-335 of his " Historical Disquisition/'
London, 1812, a translation of the above passage taken from an
early edition of that illustrious French naturalist George Louis Le
Clerc, Comte de Buff on. Robertson adds : " This shows that the
knowledge of this useful instrument was communicated to them
(the Arabs) by the Europeans. There is not one single observation of
ancient date made by the Arabians on the variation of the needle, or
any instruction deduced from it for the assistance of navigators. . . .
When Mr. Niehbuhr was at Cairo, he found a magnetic needle in
the possession of a Mohammedan which served to point out the
Kaaba, and gave it the name of el magnetic, a clear proof of its
European origin."
The claims of France to the discovery of the compass have been
laid by some to the fact that the north point of the early instruments
was generally drawn in the form of a fleur dc lys, but Voltaire says
("Essai," etc., Vol. 111. p. 251), that the Italians drew this in honour
of the sovereigns of Naples, a branch of the French royal family.
The able writer in the English Cyclopaedia (" Arts and Sciences,"
Vol. III. p. 102) considers the design to be only " an ornamented
cross which originated in devotion to the mere symbol ; though, as
the compass undoubtedly came, he says, into Europe from the
Arabs, the fleur de lys might possibly be a modification of the
mouasala, or dart, the name by which the Arabs called the needle
(" Phil. Mag.," Vol. XVIII. p. 88).
REFERENCES. — Hallam, " Middle Ages," Vol. III. chap. ix. part ii.;
Klaproth, " La Boussole," pp. 53, 54 and 64 -66; Davis, " The Chinese,"
Vol. III. p. 12; " Silliman's Journal," XL. 242-250; "Nautical
Magazine," April 1903; " Ciel ct Terre," Juin i, 1904, pp. 156-158;
" Histoire de la Boussole," par P. D. M. Boddaert; Libri, " Hist. des.
Sc. Mathem.," Paris, 1838, Vol. I. pp. 136-137, 382, etc.; Article " Bus-
sola" in " Nuova Encycl. Italiana," by Bocardo; Vol. IV. Torino, 1877,
p. 377, poesia di Ugo di Sercy (Bercy) c di Giovanni di Mehun ; " Harper's
Magazine," New York, for February, 1904; V. Molinicr, " Notice . . .
boussolc an xiii" sidcle," Toulouse, 1850; G. Grimaldi, "Dissert . . .
della bussola," Roma, 1741; McCulloch, " Traites . . . boussole,"
Paris, 1853; Magliozzi, " Notizie . . . bussola," Napoli, 1849; Dr.
Geo. Miller, " Hist. Phil. Illust.," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 180, note.
For Edrisi, sec " Journ. dcs Savants," issued in April and August 1843,
and in December 1846.
A.D. 1391. — Chaucer (Geoffrey), the father of English poetry,
62 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
thus expresses himself in " The Conclusions of the Astrolabie "
(" English Poets," London, 1810, Vol. I) : " I haue giuen thee a
sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont compowned after the latitude
of Oxenforde. . . . Now hast thou here, the fower quarters of thin
astrolabie, deuided after the fower principall plages or quarters of
the firmament. . . . Now is thin Orisonte departed in XXIIII
partiez by thi azymutz, in significacion of XXIIII partiez
of the world; al be it, so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in
XXXII."
" Now maugrc Juno, Aneas
For all her sleight and her compas
Atcheiued all his auenture."
" House of Fame/' B. I.
" The stone was hard of adamaunt,
Whereof they made the foundemaunt,
The tour was round made in compas,
In all this world no richer was."
" Rom. of the Rose."
" Right as betwene adamants two
Of euen weight, a pece of yron set,
Ne hath no might to moue to ne fro
For what that one may hale, that other let."
" Assem. of Foules."
REFERENCES. — "English Poets/' London, 1810, Vol. I. p. 453;
Ch. Wells Moulton, " Library of Literary Criticism," Vol. I. pp. 77-81.
A.D. 1436. — Bianco — Blanche — (Andrea), was an Italian carto-
grapher living at Venice early in the fifteenth century, who pub-
lished, in 1436, an atlas exhibiting charts of the magnetic variation.
The knowledge of the latter, which is so indispensable to the correc-
tion of a ship's reckoning, was then ascertained less by the sun's
rising and setting than by the polar star.
One of Bianco 's charts, now in the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice,
shows two islands at the West of the Azores, leading many to believe
that he possessed some knowledge of the existence of North and
South America.
In Justin Winsor's description of Dr. John G. Kohl's collection
of early maps (" Harvard Univ. Bulletin," Vol. III. pp. 175-176),
it is said that the original of Andrea Bianco 's Map of the World
A.D. 1436, now at Venice, was reproduced by Joachim Lelewell
(" Ge.ographie du Moyen Age," PI. XXXII), and also in M. F. de
Barros de Santarem's " Essai sur Fhistoire de la cosmographie et
de la cartographic " (Pis. XXIII, XLIII).1 Reference is also made
thereto in Winsor's " Bibliography of Ptolemy's Geography," sub
1 See "Geographical Journal/' Vol. V. March 1895, No. 3, "Pre-Columbian
Discovery of America/' pp. 222, 224, 226, for sketches of Andrea Bianco's
Map of 1448.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 63
anno 1478. Mr. Winsor adds : " Bianco 's views are of interest in
early American cartography from the deductions which some have
drawn from the configuration of the islands ' Antillia ' and ' De la
man Satanaxio ' — (two islands on its western verge) — that they
represent Pre-Columbian discovery of South and North America."
Humboldt (" Crit. Untersuchungen," I. 413, 416) has discussed
the question, and pointed out that one island, " Antillia," had earlier
appeared on a map of 1425, and D'Avezac finds even earlier references
to the same island.
To Andrea Bianco may be ascribed the best of all known forms
of wind-roses. Admiral L. Fincati illustrates, in his well-known
pamphlet " II Magnete, la Calamita e la Bussola," Rome, 1878,
all the best-known examples from 1426 to 1612, those of Bianco
having upon them either the fleur de lys (referred to at A.D.
1327-1377) or the letter T, or designs of a triangle or trident,
to indicate the north, whilst the east is designated by a cross,
in same manner as shown in the 1426 Giraldi and the Oliva 1612-
1613.*
For other forms and accounts of these rose-of-the-winds or
compass cards, it would be well to consult more particularly Norden-
skiold, Nils Adolf Erik (1832-1901), " Periplus " (1897), as well
as his " Facsimile Atlas " published eight years previously; Pedro
de Medina, " Arte de Navegar " ; Francesco Da Buti, " Comment,
sopra la Div. Com. " ; Simon Stevin's " Haven-finding Art " ; Athan.
Kircher, " Magnes, sive de Arte Magnetica"; and Guillaume de
Nautonniez, " Mecometrie cle TEymant . . . declinaison guidey-
mant pour tous les lieux ..." published 1602-1 6o4.2
1 In Kohl's collection of early maps already alluded to as given in " Harv.
Univ. Bull./' Vol. Ill, reference is made (p. 175) to the portolano — A.D. 1426 — •
of a Venetian hydrographer, Giacoino Giraldi, which has been preserved in the
Biblioteca Marciana and which was reproduced at Venice by Ongania in 1881,
also (p. 303) to the Map of America published during 1570 by Abraham
Oertel— Orteli — b. 1527, d. 1598, and at p. 365 to the Map of the World by
Joannes Oliva, A.D. 1613, as well as to an Atlas by Salvatore Oliva, A.D. 1620,
showing both the Americas. In an article headed " The first true Maps,"
to be found in " Nature " of December 15, 1904, pp. 159-161, mention is
made that the oldest dated portolan is the first of Pietro Vesconte — Visconti —
executed in 1311.
2 For Nautonniez, see Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I.
part ii. p. 1193, als° J- G. T. Groesse, " Tr6sor de Livres Rares," Dresde,
1863, Vol. IV. p. 651, and Brunet, " Manuel," p. 827, at which latter appears
the statement of M. Frere to the effect that Guillaume de Nautonnier —
Nautonniez— caused to be reprinted, under the above-named title of " M£co-
m6trie de 1'Eymant," the " Dialogue de la Longitude " of Toussaincte de
Bessard originally published at Rouen in 1574.
For the reported investigation of Pedro da Medina, who, Gilbert says,
(" De Magnete," Book IV. chap, viii.) does not accept variation and has with
many errors disgraced the art of navigation, consult, preferably, the Venetia
1555 edition entitled " L'Arte del navegar," Libro sesto, "Delia Aguggia,
64 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Gen.," Vol. V, pp. 922-923, Mazzuchelli,
" Scrittori d' Italia"; "New Int. Encycl.," New York, 1902-1903,
Vol. II. p. 796; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 672; Humboidt,
" Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. p. 55; Johnson's " New Univ. CycL," 1878,
Vol. III. p. 230; " Dcr Atlas des Andrea Bianco vom Jahre 1436 of
Osrar Pcschel," Venedig, 1869; Justin Winsor, " Narrative and Critical
Hist, oi America," Boston, 1889, Vol. I. pp. 50-56, 114, 117; " Formal-
eoni, saggio snlla nautica antica de Veneziani," Vencz., 1783, pp. 51-59
(Libri, " Hist. des. Math.," Vol. HI).
A.D. 1490-1 541. —Paracelsus (Aureolus Theophrastus)— the as-
sumed name of Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohen-
heim — a native of Switzerland, admitted by unprejudiced writers
to have been one of the greatest chemists of his time (Hemmann,
"Medico — Sur. Essays," Berlin, 1778). The author of " Isis Un-
veiled " states that he made use of elcctromagnetism three centuries
before Prof. Oersted's discovery, and that he rediscovered the occult
properties of the magnet, " the bone of Horus," which, twelve
centuries before his time, had played such an important part in the
theurgic mysteries, thus very naturally becoming the founder of
the school of magnetism and of mediaeval magico-theury. But
Mesiner, who lived nearly three hundred years after him, and as a
disciple of his school brought the magnetic wonders before the public,
reaped the glory that was due to the fire-philosopher, while the great
master died in want (" Isis Unveiled/' Vol. I. pp. 71, 72, 164).
Madame Blavatsky further adds (Vol. I. p. 167) that the full
views of Paracelsus on the occult properties of the magnet are
explained partially in his famous book " Archidoxorum," wherein
he describes the wonderful tincture, a medicine extracted from the
magnet, and called " Magisterium Mngnetis," and partially in the
" De Ente Dei " and " I)e Ente Astrorum," lib. i.
In the words of Paracelsus, we give the following extracts
concerning the loadstone, taken from " The Hermetic and Alchemical
Writings . . ." by A. E. Waite, London, 1894 :
Vol. I. p. 17.— "The adamant. A black crystal called . . .
Evax ... is dissolved in the blood of a goat."
over bossolo da navegar," pp. cviii-cxvi. The leaf xxiii contains a Map of
America. This last-named map of the Nuevo Mundo " may be taken to
represent the results of Spanish discovery about 1540, Pedro da Medina having
been the official examiner of pilots. It is interesting as showing the mouth of
the Spirito Santo (the Mississippi) and the lands around the river and gulf
of St. Lawrence. The Island of Cape Breton appears as part of Nova Scotia
and of the mainland; but Newfoundland is represented as three islands,
divided from Northern Canada by a much wider expanse of water than the
actual Straits of Belle Isle. This is, however, a striking instance of the great
extent of Medina's geographical knowledge. The river Saguenay is shown at
its entry into the St. Lawrence, which is also a remarkable feature in so early
a map."
om.M'liu rof)r(Kliifti(Ui c»f Ins Iftrer, M.irc li 2tst. if/^'
<!'M to I' ! in' f and to ^p i'ii, \\ 1m li v js :u ']iHK'il In
np.l | i f -,< rt!f H 1)\ li'ui to th'3 (.' i< v ol OIM IM
in th." r.il.-c*1 of t!o (i(ihM-i- Munu iprililj .
soiedad feic,— 'ZI^c lorulf ru00 i n tolj(ct) pott tjatje left u0 cannot be tolfc,
«, ««« »os fcao* e- 3 ,jatje ff(tjen t,,e book of mp torftf ng0 tt goffer JFcanee0co
iado non s* puede
dezir. EI ubro de &f SUbarola, in ocbrc tfcat lie ma? 0enb ft to pott, toft} another
m>s escrow, di tcan0eript Of imer0 m^ite. Retfpcetfng tbe receipt tfjere*
amifer Francisco de
Ribarol,para que 03 °f> airt *&« Pla« {n tottfcf) ?«W \»ai put it, 3 bfff J»OU tO bt 00
U enbie, con otro gooD fl0 fo tor(te ^ 35 „„ j^fe00> attOt^C 0(m(IaC OIU 0(aU
traslado de cartas
fa? tfje
0atne 9Qt&Stt Jfratice0co i pou tofll find a ntto tori ting fn it*
porney* en etlo, 03 ^^ Diftnt**t# HtaHf me ft prOtttfcfe CD ffftt ttlf all t*at be*
/j(fo />or merfed que
lo escrivay* a Don longjf tO FW, 85* tO ptlt 3>0n j^ffffO (nt0^00f00<OTl Of ftlft?.
Di^o. cxro M « tbinf,«0 *ou MI 0ee. 3 am tecitinff to 9^r0ecdfian Eutrrt
acabara,y se o* tn~
biara por la mtsma «nb to tlje feiffnoca m? l*&p Catttina; t|e letter (0 gof iif toitb
mifer Franfitco: en
eito fauerey, ***- **' ^°^ ^rtll^> tot^ & *«« fine toeatber, t»it| a great
tura nueba. Sus At- equipment* Jl (Kirolanto Ha feanto.fetef ano come0> |e mu0t
* me pertenfe y de tfcep toill takt from I? (tit tD^atetier t|ep can, ant toUl t|en
[«,] ^eno»
de todo aDon Diego
como veyrey*. AI €Uieen tDOl tecette bim until 3 atrttie* 9N? «>uc lotu babe
Senor mi[» JMa»
L«ys y ala Senora
crivo. La carta va
con *,ta. Yo e,toy
de partida en nonbre >§. ^ .§.
de la Santa Trinidad
yr JLj Y
tienpo, con mncbo Xpo FERENS.
atabio. SiGeronimo
de Santi Efteban viene aebeme esperar y no se en6[a«]>ar con nada por qite tomar[a]n del lo que
pudieren y despite* le deaaran en bianco. Venga aca y el Key y la Reyna le recibiran fasta que yo
venga. Nvestro SeOor oa aya en su santa guardta. Fecba a xxi de marfo en Sebilta 1502.
Alt que mandardes. •§
•S- A -S-
X M Y
Xpo FERENS.
Christopher Columbus. Translation of the letter written by him to Nicolo ()den£o,
shown opjxisite , ni.'ide into Fn<j;hsh by Mr ( i. A U.orwirk, P> A , of the ! British Museum
Permission to repro<lu< e bolh original letter and its translation was given by
Messrs li I'' Stevens <S: Hiown, London
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 65
" The magnet. Is an iron stone, and so attracts iron to itself.
Fortified by experience. ... I affirm that the magnet . . . not
only attracts steel and iron, but also has the same power over the
matter of all diseases in the whole body of man."
Vol. I. pp. 132 and 145. — " A. magnet touched by mercury or
anointed with mercurial oil, never afterwards attracts iron . . .
same if steeped in garlic. . . ."
Vol. I. p. 136. — " The life of the magnet is the spirit of iron which
can be taken away by rectified vinum ardens itself or by spirit of
wine."
Vol. II. p. 59. — " Wherever the magnet has grown — there, a
certain attractive power exists, just as colocynth is purgative and
the poppy is anodyne. ..."
Mr. A. E. Waite says (Vol. II. p. 3) that the ten books of Para-
celsus' Archidoxies stand in the same relation to Hermetic Medicine
as the nine books Concerning the Nature of Things stand to Hermetic
Chemistry and to the science of metallic transmutation.
REFERENCES.— Biography of Paracelsus, in Larousse, " Diet Univ.,"
Vol. XII. pp. 171-172, in F. Hartmann, 1887, and in the ninth eel. of
the " Encycl. Brit.," Vol. XVIII. pp. 234-236; Van Swindcn, " kecucil,"
etc., La Haye, 1784, Vol. I. pp. 350-358 ; Gilbert, " De Magnete," Book I.
chaps, i. and xiv., also Book 11. chap. xxv. , " Journal des Savants " for
November 1849; Walton and Cotton, " Complete Angler," New York
and London, 1847, pp. 212-213, for notes regarding Paracelsus, Robert
Fludd, Jacob Behmcn and the Rosicrueians ; " Dictionnaire Hisloriquc de
la Medccine," N. F. Eloy, Mons, 1778, Vol. III. pp. 461-471 ; " History
and Heroes of the Art of Medicine," J. Rutherfurd Russell, London,
1861, pp. 157-175; " Histoire Philosophique de la McVlccine," Elienne
Tourtelle, Paris, * An. XII. (1804) Vol. 11. pp. 326-346; "History of
Magic," Joseph Ennemoser, London, 1854, Vol. II. pp. 229-241.
At p. 55 of the first supplement to " Select. Bibliog. of Chemistry,"
by H. C. Bolton, Washington, 1899, mention is made of the Paracelsus
Library belonging to the late E. Schubcrth of Frankfort-on-the-Main . . .
as containing 194 titles of works on Paracelsus and 548 titles of works
relating to Paracelsus and his doctrines ; the section on Alchemy embra-
cing as many as 351 titles.
A.D. 1492. — Columbus, Colombo, Colon (Christopher), the dis-
coverer of America, is the first to determine astronomically the
position of a line of no magnetic variation (on which the needle
points to the true north) the merit of which discovery has, by Livio
Sanuto, been erroneously attributed to Sebastian Cabot. (Livio
Sanuto, " Geographia distincta in XII libri ..." wherein the
whole of Book I is given to reported observations of the compass
and to accounts of different navigators.)
Columbus did not, as many imagine, make the first observations
of the existence of magnetic variation, for this is set down upon
the charts of Andrea Bianco, but he was the first who remarked, on
the I3th of September, 1492, that " 2\ degrees east of the island of
F
66 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Corvo, in the Azores, the magnetic variation changed and passed
from N.E. to N.W." Washington Irving thus describes the dis-
covery (" History . . . Ch. Columbus," Paris, 1829, Vol. I. p. 198) :
" On the i3th of September, in the evening, being about two hundred
leagues from the island of Ferro (the smallest of the Canaries),
Columbus, for the first time, noticed the variation of the needle,
a phenomenon which had never before been remarked. He per-
ceived, about nightfall, that the needle, instead of pointing to the
North Star, varied about half a point, or between five and six
degrees to the north-west, and still more on the following morning.
Struck witli this circumstance, he observed it attentively for three
days and found that the variation increased as he advanced. He
at first made no mention of this phenomenon, knowing how ready
his people were to take alarm; but it soon attracted the attention
of the pilots, and filled them with consternation. It seemed as
if the laws of nature were changing as they advanced, and that they
were entering into another world, subject to unknown influences
(Las Casas, ' Hist. Ind./ 1. i. c. 6). They apprehended that the
compass was about to lose its mysterious virtues ; and, without
that guide, what was to become of them in a vast and trackless
ocean ? Columbus tasked his science and ingenuity for reasons
with which to allay their terrors. He told them that the direction
of the needle was not to the polar star but to some fixed and invisible
point. The variation, therefore, was not caused by any fallacy in
the compass, but by the movement of the North Star itself, which,
like the other heavenly bodies, had its changes and revolutions,
and every day described a circle around the pole. The high opinion
that the pilots entertained of Columbus as a profound astronomer
gave weight to his theory, and their alarm subsided."
Humboldt says : " We can, with much certainty, fix upon three
places in the Atlantic line of no declination for the I3th of September,
1492, the 2ist of May, 1496 and the i6th of August, 1498."
REFERENCES.—" Columbus and his Discoveries," in the " Narrative
and Critical History of America," by Justin Winsor, Boston, 1889,
Vol. II. pp. 1-92 ; " Christopher Columbus, His life, work . . ." by John
I3oyd Thachcr, 1903; Giov. Bat. Ramusio, " Terzo volume delle
Navigation! e Viaggi . . ." 1556; Dr. Geo. Miller, "History Phil.
Tllust.," London, 1849, Vol. IL *pp. 216-219; David Hume, "History
of England," London, 1822, Vol. III. pp. 387-398; Guillaume Libri,
" Histoire des Sciences Mathe'matiques en Italic," Halle, 1865, Vol. III.
pp. 68-85; " Columbus, a Critical Study," by Henry Vignaud, London,
1903; Weld, "Hist. Royal Society," Vol. II. p. 429; Thos. Browne,
" Pseudodox. Epid.," 1658, Book II. pp. 68-69; Humboldt, " Cosmos,"
1849, Vol. I. p. 174; Vol. II. pp. 636, 654-657, 671-672, and Vol. V.
(1859) pp. 55-56, 116; Knight, " Mech. Diet.," Vol. II., pp. 1374, 1397;
Poggendorff, " Geschichtc dcr Physik," Leipzig, 1879, p. 270; " Raccolta
di document i e studi publicati della R. Com. Coiumb. pel 40 Centenario
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 67
dalla scoperta dell' America," Roma, 1892; Humboldt, " Examen
Critique . . . progres de 1'astronomie nautique," Paris, 1836, Vol. I.
pp. 262-272, etc.
It may be worth noting here that the ashes of Columbus,
removed from the Cathedral of Havana, were placed in a mausoleum
at Seville, November 17, 1902 (" Science," Dec. 12, 1902, p. 958).
Amongst the numerous claimants to the discovery of America,
some have placed the great navigator Martin Behaim— Belie m —
(1430-1506), who received his instruction from the learned John
Miiller (Rcgiomontanus) and became one of the most learned
geographers as well as the very best chart maker of his age. Cel-
larius, Riccioli and other writers assert that Behaim had, before
Columbus, visited the American Continent, while Stuvenius shows,
in his treatise " De vero novi orbis inventore," that the islands of
America and the strait of Magalhaens were accurately traced upon
the very celebrated globe called the " World Apple " completed by
Behaim in the year 1492, and which is still to be seen in Behaim 's
native city of Niirnberg.1 (See Mr. Otto's letter to Dr. Franklin,
in the second volume of the " Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society held at Philadelphia for promoting useful know-
ledge," likewise Humboldt, " Examen critique de 1'histoire de la
Geographic," Vol. II. pp. 357-369; "The Reliquary," London,
Vol. VI. N.S. Jan .-Oct. 1892, pp. 215-229; Justin Winsor, " Narra-
tive and Critical History of America," Boston 1889, Vol. II. pp. 104-
105; " Geogr. Jour.," Vol. V. March 1895, p. 228.)
It was this same Martin Behaim (Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1860,
Vol. II. p. 255) who received a charge from King John II of Portugal
to compute tables for the .sun's declination and to teach pilots how
to " navigate by the altitudes of the sun and stars." It cannot
now be decided whether at the close of the fifteenth century the
use of the log was known as a means of estimating the distance
traversed while the direction is indicated by the compass; but it
is certain that the distinguished voyager Francisco Antonio Pigafetta
(1491-1534) the friend and companion of Magellan — Magalhsens—
speaks of the log (la catena a poppa) as of a well-known means of
measuring the course passed over. Nothing is to be found regarding
way-measurers in the literature of the Middle Ages until we come
to the period of several " books of nautical instruction," written
or printed by this same Pigafetta (" Trattato di Navigazione,"
probably before 1530); by Francisco Falero, a brother of Ruy
Falero, the astronomer (" Regimiento para observar la longitud
1 Behaim's justly famous globe was made up from the authorities of
Ptolemy, Pliny and Strabo, as well as from the reports of Marco Polo's
travels and the semi-fabulous travels of Sir John Mandeville (" English
Cyclopaedia," Vol. I. p. 617).
68 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
en la mar," 1535); by Pedro da Medina, of Seville (" Arte de
Navegar," 1545) ; by Martin Cortez, of Bujalaroz (" Breve Compendio
dc la esfera, y de la arte de navegar," 1551), and by Andres Garcia
de Cespedes (" Rogimicnto de Navigacion y Hidrografia," 1606).
From almost all these works — some of which, if not all, have naturally
become very scarce— as well as from the " Summa de Geografia "
which Martin Fernandez de Enciso had published in 1519, we learn
most distinctly that the " distance sailed over " was then ascer-
tained in Spanish and Portuguese ships not by any distinct measure-
ment, but only through estimation of the eye, according to certain
established principles. Medina says (lib. iii. caps. 11-12) : " In order
to know the course of the ship, as to the length of distance passed
over, the pilot must set down in his register how much distance
the vessel hath made according to hours (i. e. guided by the hour-
glass, ampoleta) ; and, for this, he must know that the most a ship
advances in an hour is four miles, and, with feebler breezes, three
or only two." Cespedes, in his " Regimiento " (pp. 90, and 156)
calls this mode of proceeding cchar punto poy fantasia, and he justly
remarks that if great errors are to be avoided, this fantasia must
depend on the pilot's knowledge of the qualities of his ship.
Columbus, Juan de la Cosa, Sebastian Cabot and Vasco da Gama,
were not acquainted with the log and its mode of application, and
they all estimated the ship's speed merely by the eye, while they
ascertained the distance they had made merely through the running
down of the sand in the glasses known as ampoletas.
IvEi-FRKNc KS.— For F. A. Pigafctta, for Pctro de Medina and for Martin
Cortez, Ilouzcau el Lancaster, " Bibl. Gener.," Vol. 1. pi. ii. pp. 1221-^
1223; "New (ion. Hiog. Diet.," Jas. Rose, London, 1850, Vol. XL
p. 113; " Biog. Univ." (Midland), Vol. XXXIII. p. 297; " Grand Did.
Univ." (Laionsse), Vol. XII. p. 999; " Nouv Biog. Gen." (Hcefer), Vol.
XL. p. 207. Also Dr. G. Hcllmann's " Neudrucke," 1898, No. 10, for
reproduction of Francisco Falcro's " Tratato del Esphcra y del arle del
marear " (Del Nordesfear dc las Agujas), 1535, as well as for reproduction
of Martin Cortez' " Breve Compendio " (De la piedra Yman), 1551.
A.D. 1497. — Gama (Vasco or Vasquez da), celebrated Portuguese
navigator, is known positively to have made use of the compass
during the voyage he undertook this year to the Indies. He says
that he found the pilots of the Indian Ocean making ready use of
the magnet. The first book of the history of Portugal by Jerome
Osorius — wherein he gives (pp. 23-24, Book I. paragraph 15, 1581
ed.) a very extended "description de 1'aiguille marine, invention des
plus belles et utiles du monde " — states that, instead of a needle,
they used a small magnetized iron plate, which was suspended like
the needle of the Europeans, but which showed imperfectly the
north.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 69
Gilbert says (" De Magnete," Book IV. chap, xiii.) that, as the
Portuguese did not rightly understand the construction and use
of the compass, some of their observations are untrustworthy and
that in consequence various opinions exist relative to magnetic
variation. For example, the Portuguese navigator Roderigues
de Lazos — Lagos — takes it to be one-half point off the Island of
St. Helena; the Dutch, in their nautical journal, make it one point
there; Kendall, an expert English navigator, makes it only one-
sixth of a point, using a true meridional compass. Diego Alfonso
finds no variation at a point a little south-east of Cape das Agulhas,1
and, by the astrolabe, shows that the compass points due north
and south at Cape das Agulhas if it be of the Portuguese style, in
which the variation is one-half point to the south-cast.
REFERENCES. — Azuni, " Boussolc," p. 121; Klaproth, " Boussole,"
p. 64; Knight, " Mcch. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1398; Larousse, "Diet.,"
Vol. VIII. p. 977; " Voyagcurs anciens ct mcxlcrnes " (Charton), 1855;
" Le Comtc Amiral D. Vasco da Gama," par D. Maria T. da Gania,
Paris, 1902.
A.D. 1497. — Cabot (Sebastian), a prominent English navigator,
lands, June 24, 1497, on the coast of Labrador, between 56 degrees
and 58 degrees north latitude.
At p. 150 of the 1869 London edition of Mr. J. F. Nicholl's
" Life of Seb. Cabot," it is said the latter represented to the King
of England that the variation of the compass was different in many
places, and was not absolutely regulated by distance from any
particular meridian ; that he could point to a spot of no variation,
and that those whom he had trained as seamen, as Richard
Chancellor and Stephen Burrough, were particularly attentive to
this problem, noting it at one time thrice within a short space.
REFERENCES.— Richard Hdkluyt, " The Principal navigations,
voyages, traftiqucs and diseovciics of the Knglish nation," 1599 : at
pp. 237-243, for the voyage of Richard Chancclor, pilotc maior, and, at
p. 274, for " the voyage of Sleucn Bunough, master of the pinncsse
called the Serchtrift "; Livio Sanuto, " Geografia," Venice, 1588, lib. i. ;
Fournier, " Hydrographie," lib. xi. ; " Library of Am. Biog.," by Jarcd
Sparks, Boston, 1839, Vols. II and VII as per Index at pp. 318-319;
" Jean et Seb. Cabot," par Hy. Harissc, Paris, 1882; Geo. P. Winship,
"The Cabot Bibliography," London and New York, 1900; Ilumboldt,
" Examcn Critique," Vol. IV. p. 231, and "Cosmos," Vol. II. (1860)
pp. 640, 657-658; Biddle, " Memoir of Seb. Cabot," 1831, pp. 52-61.
A.D. 1502. — Varthema-Vertomannus (Ludovico di) leaves
Europe for the Indies, as mentioned at p. 25 of his " Travels/'
translated by J. Winter Jones, London, 1863, from the original
" Itenerario . . . ne la India ..." Milano, 1523. He states that
1 Aguilhas, in Portuguese, signifies needles: Walker, "Magnetism of
Ships," 1853, p. 2; Sir Thomas Browne, " Pseud. Epidem.," Book II. p. 70.
70 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the Arabs who navigated the Red Sea were known to have long since
made use of the mariner's chart and compass, and he tells us, in
the introduction and at p. 249, that " the captains carried the com-
pass with the needle after our manner," and that their chart was
" marked with lines perpendicular and across/' When the polar
star became invisible, they all asked the captain by what he could
then steer them, and " he showed us four or five stars, among which
there was one (B. Hydrus) which he said was opposite to (contrario
delta) our North Star, and that he sailed by the north because the
magnet was adjusted and subjected to our north, i. e. because this
compass was no doubt of European origin — its index pointing to
the north, and being unlike that of the Chinese pointing to the
south."
REFERENCES.— Cavallo, " Magnetism," London, 1787, Chap. IV; also,
" Hakluyt's Collection of the early voyages, travels and discoveries,"
London, 1811, Vol. IV. p. 547, for " The navigation and voyages of
Lewes Vertomannus."
A.D. 1530-1542. — Guillen (Felipe), an ingenious apothecary of
Seville, and Alonzo de Santa Cruz (who was one of the instructors
of mathematics to young Charles V, King of Spain and Emperor
of Germany, and the Cosmografo Mayor of the Royal Department
of Charts at Seville), construct variation charts and variation
compasses by which solar altitudes can be taken.
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 658, and
1859, Vol. V. p. 56; L. A. Bauer, " U. S. Magn. Tables," 1902, p. 26.
Although based upon very imperfect observeitions, the magnetic
charts thus devised by Alonzo de Santa Cruz antedate by more than
one hundred and fifty years the work of Dr. Halley (at A.D. 1683).
A.D. 1544. — Hartmann (Georg) a vicar of the church of Saint
Sebaldus, at Nuremberg, writes March 4, to the Duke Albrccht of
Prussia, a letter which was brought to light by Moser and which
reads as follows : " Besides, I find also this in the magnet, that it
not only turns from the north and deflects to the east about nine
degrees, more or less, as I have reported, but it points downward.
This may be proved as follows : I make a needle a finger long,
which stands horizontally on a pointed pivot, so that it nowhere
inclines toward the earth, but stands horizontal on both sides;
but, as soon as I stroke one of the ends (with the loadstone) it
matters not which end it be, then the needle no longer stands
horizontal, but points downward (fdllt unter sich) some nine degrees,
more or less. The reason why this happens I was not able to
indicate to his Royal Majesty.'1 The above seems to establish the
fact that Hartmann first observed the dip of the magnetic needle
independently of Robert Norman.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 71
Gilbert refers (" De Magnete/' Book I. chap, i.) to Fortunius
Affaitatus — Affaydatus — an Italian physicist who, says he, has
some rather silly philosophizing about the attraction of iron and
of its turning to the poles, thus alluding to the latter fs small work
called " Physical (et) ac astronomiae (astronomic^) considerations ,"
which appeared at Venice in 1549. Nevertheless, it is a question
whether Affaitatus was not actually the first to publish the declina-
tion of the magnetic needle. (" Biogr. Ge*n.," Vol. I. p. 346;
Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia "; Bertelli, " Mem. sopra P. Pere-
grino," p. 115; Adelung, Supplement a Jocher, " Allgem. Gclehrtcn-
Lexicon"; Johann Lament, " Handbuch des Magnetisrnus,"
Leipzig, 1867, p. 425; J. C. Poggendorff, " Biogr.-Lit. Handworter-
buch," Leipzig, 1863, Vol. I. p. 15; Michaud, " Biogr. Univ. Anc.
et Mod./' Vol. I. p. 208, Paris, 1843; Brunet, "Manuel," Paris,
1860; " Biog. Cremonese de Lancetti"; M. le Dr. Hoefer, " Biog.
Gen.," Paris, 1852, Vol. I. p. 346.)
REFERENCES. — Dove, " Rcpcrtorium tier Physik/' Vol. II, 1838, pp
129-130; Poggendorff, " Gcschichtc der Physik," 1879, p. 273; L.
Hulsius, " Descriptio et usus," Niirnbcrg, 1597; " Kucy. Brit.," 1883,
Vol. XV. p. 221; P. Volpicclli, " Inlorno allc prime . . . magncte "
(Atti dell Acad. Pont, dc Nuov. Lincci, XIX. pp. 205, 2ip).
A.D. 1555. — Olaus Magnus, a native of Sweden and Archbishop
of Upsala (where he died during 1568) issued in Rome his great
work " Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus," which, for a long
time, remained the chief authority on Swedish matters. In this
book, Gilbert says (" De Magnete," lib. i. cap. i) allusion is made
to a certain magnetic island and to mountains in the north possessing
such power of attraction that ships have to be constructed with
wooden pegs so that as they sail by the magnetic cliffs there be
no iron nails to draw out.
To this, reference is made by Thos. Browne (" Pseud. Epidem.,"
1658, Book II. p. 78) as follows : " Of rocks magnetical, there are
likewise two relations; for some are delivered to be in the Indies
and some in the extremity of the North and about the very pole.
The Northern account is commonly ascribed unto Olaus Magnus,
Archbishop of Upsala, who, out of his predecessors — Joannes,
Saxo and others — compiled a history of some Northern Nations ;
but this assertion we have not discovered in that work of his which
commonly passeth among us ; and should believe his geography
herein no more than that in the first line of his book, where he
afnrrneth that Biarmia (which is not 70 degrees in latitude) hath
the pole for its zenith, and equinoctial for the horizon."
In a Spanish book entitled " The Naval Theatre," by Don
Francisco de Seylas and Louera, we find two causes assigned for the
72 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
variation of the declination ; one is " the several mines of load-stones
found in the several parts of the earth ..." the other being that
" there is no doubt but large rocks of load-stones may affect the
needles when near them ..."(" Philos. History . . . Roy. Acad.
Sc. at Paris," London, 1742, Vol. II. pp. 279-280).
KKFEKLNCES. — Claudus Plolema'us, " Geographia," lib. vii. cap. 2
(and others named by Bcrtelli Barnabita at foot of p. 21 of his " Pietro
Peregrine de Maricourt," Roma, 1868, viz. Klaproth, " Lettrc sur la
Boussole," Pans, 1834, p. 116; Thos. H. Martin, " Obscrv. ct Th6or. des
ancicns," Koine, 1865, p. 304; Steinschneider, " Intorno. alia calamita,"
Koma, 1868); also Albcrtus Magnus, Lugduni, 1651; Mr. (Thomas)
Blundcville, " His Exercises " ; Fracastorio, in the seventh chapter of
his " De Sympathia ct Anlipathia "; F. Maurolycus, " Opusciila," 1575,
p. i22n; Lipcnius, " Navigatio Salomon is Ophiritica " ; Paulus Merula,
" Oosmographia Gcneralis," Leyden, 1605; Toussaincte tie Bessard,
" Dialogue de la Longitude," Rouen, 1574 ; U. Aldrovandi, " Musanim
Metalheum," 3648, pp. 554, 563, wherein he alludes to the magnetic
mountains spoken of by Sir John Mandcvillc; Ninth " Encycl. Brit.,"
Vol. XVII. p. 752; also the entry at A.D. 1265-1321.
A.D. 1558.— Porta (Giambattista della), Italian natural philoso-
pher (1540-1615), carries on a series of experiments with the magnet
for the purpose of communicating intelligence at a distance. Of
these experiments, he gives a full account in his " Magia,1 Naturalis,"
the first edition of which is said to have been published at Naples
when Porta was but fifteen years of age (" Encycl. Brit./' article
" Optics "). Prof. Stanley Jones says this is the earliest work in
which he has found allusions to a magnetic telegraph.
Porta's observations are so extraordinary — and they attracted so
much attention as to justify eighteen separate editions of his work
in different languages prior to the year 1600 — that extracts must
needs here prove interesting. They are taken out of " Natural
Magick in XX Bookes by John Baptist Porta, a Neapolitainc . . .
London 1658," the seventh book of which treats " Of the wonders
of the loadstone."
Proem : " And to a friend that is at a far distance from us and
fast shut up in prison, we may relate our minds ; which I doubt not
may be done by two mariner's compasses, having the alphabet
writ about them ..."
Chap. I (alluding to the loadstone) :
" The Greeks do call it M agues from the place,
For that the Magnet's hand it doth embrace."
Nicander thinks the stone was so called—and so doth Pliny— from
one Magncs, a shepherd.
In Chap. XVIII lie states that " the situation makes the Vertues
of the Stone contrary . . . for the stone put above the table will
do one thing, and another thing if it be put under the table . . . that
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 73
part that drew above will drive off beneath; and that will draw
beneath that drove off above : that is, if you place the stone above
and beneath in a perpendicular."
In Chap. XXV, in allusion to " a long concatenation of iron
rings/' he thus quotes Lucretius :
" A stone there is that men admire much
That makes rings hang in chains by touch.
Sometimes five or six links will be
Fast joyn'd together and agree.
All this vert nc fiom the Si one aribeth,
Such foice it hath . . ."
Chap. XXVII alludes to the Statue hung by Dinocrates : " . . .
but that is false, that Mahomet's chest hangs by the roof of the
Temple. Petrus Pcllegrinus saith, he shewed in another work how
that might be done : but that work is not to be found . . . But I
say it may be done — because I have now done it — to hold it fast by
an invisible band, to hang in the air : onely so, that it be bound
with a small thread beneath, that it may not rise higher : and then
striving to catch hold of the stone above, it will hang in the air,
and tremble and wag itself."
In Chap. XXVI II he says that " Whilst the loadstone is moved
under a table of wood, stone or any metal, except iron, the needle
in the mariner's compass will move above, as if there is no body
between them. St. Augustine (' Liber de Civitate Dei ') knew this
experiment (likewise alluded to by Camillas Leonardus in his
' Speculum Lapidum/ published 1502). But that is much more
wonderful that I have heerd : that if one hold a loadstone under
a piece of silver, and put a piece of iron above the silver, as he moves
his hand underneath that holds the stone, so will the iron move
above; and the silver being in the middle, and suffering nothing,
running so swiftly up and down, that the stone was pulled from the
hand of the man, and took hold of the iron."
Chap. XXX is headed : " A loadstone on a plate of iron, will not
stir iron," and he again quotes Lucretius :
" Pieces of iron 1 have seen
When onely brass was put between
Them and the Loadstone, to recoil :
Brass in the middle made this broil."
In Chap. XXXII he tells us that an Italian " whose name was
Amalphus . . . knew not the Manner's Card, but stuck the needle
in a reed, or a piece of wood, cross over : and he put the needles into
a vessel full of water that they might flote freely : then carrying about
the loadstone, the needles would follow it : which being taken away,
as by a certain natural motion, the points of the needles would turn
74 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
to the north pole : and, having found that, stand still . . . Now
the Mariner's Compass is made, and a needle touched with the Load-
stone, is so fitted to it, that, by discovering the pole by it, all other
parts of the heavens are known. There is made a rundle with a
Latin-navel upon a point of the same metal, that it may rim roundly
freely. Whereupon, by the touching onely of one end, the needle
not alone partakes of the vertues of it, but of the other end also,
whether it will or not ..."
Chap. XLVIII is headed " Whether Garlick can hinder the vertues
of the loadstone." By Porta we are informed that " Plutarch saith
Garlick is at great enmity with the loadstone; and such antipathy
and hatred there is between these invisible creatures, that if a load-
stone be smeered with Garlick, it will drive away iron from it,"
which is confirmed by Ptolemy, who states " that the loadstone will
not draw iron, if it be anoynted with Garlick; as Amber will no
more draw straws, and other light things to it, if they be first steeped
in oyl." He found that when the loadstone " was all anoynted
over the juice of Garlick, it did perform its office as well as if it had
never been touched with it."
In Chap. LIII Porta denies " that the diamond doth hinder the
loadstone's vertue." " Some pretend," says he, " there is so much
discord between the qualities of the loadstone and the diamond,
and they are so hateful, one against the other, and secret enemies,
that if the diamond be put to the loadstone, it presently faints and
loses all its forces. (Pliny.) The loadstone so disagree th with the
diamond, that if iron be laid by it, it will not let the loadstone draw
it ; and if the loadstone do attract it, it will snatch it away again
from it. (St. Augustine.) I will say that I have read of the load-
stone : how that, if the diamond be by it, it will not draw iron ; and,
if it do when it comes necr the diamond, it will let it fall " (Marbo-
deus, of the Loadstone . . . Marbodei Galli . . . de lapidibus
prctiosis Enchiridion . . . Freiburg, 1530, 1531) :
" All loadstones by their vertue iron draw;
But of the diamond it stands in awe :
Taking the iron from't by Nature's Law."
" I tried this often, and found it false ; and that there is no truth in
it."
With reference to the above, see Plat (at A.D. 1653), who also
alludes to the fact of the softening of the diamond with Goat's blood.
This is alluded to by Porta in the next chapter.
Chapter LIV contains extracts from Castianus in Geoponic.
Grace., Marbodeus and Rhenius, the interpreter of Dionysius.
In 1560 there was established at Naples, by the versatile Giam.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 75
della Porta, the first Academy of Sciences — Academia Secretum
Naturae — to which were admitted only those who had contributed
to the advancement of medicine or to scientific studies in general
(" Science," December 19, 1902, p. 965).
REFERENCES. — Libri, " Hist, des Sc. Mathem." Vol. IV. pp. 108-140,
399-406; Houzeau ct Lancaster, Vol. II. p. 229; The Fourth Dissertation
of the " Encycl. Brit.," p. 624; Sarpi, at A.D. 1632; Poggendorff, " Ges-
chichte der Physik," 1879, pp. 133, 273-274 ; " Encycl. Brit./' the article
on " Optics "; " Journal des Savants " for September 1841.
A.D. 1575-1624. — Boehm — Bohme — Behmen (Jacob) , a
mystical German writer, known as the theosophist par excellence,
is the author of " Aurora," etc. (1612), " De Tribus Principiis " (1619)
and of many other treatises, which were reprinted under the title of
" Theosophia Revelata," and which contain his many very curious
observations concerning astrology, chemistry, theology, philosophy
and electricity.
REFERENCES. — " Notice sur J. Boehm," La Motte-Fouqu6, 1831 ;
" Notes and Queries " for July 28, 1855, p. 63; Ninth " Britan.," Vol.
III. p. 852; J. Ennemoscr, " History of Magic," Vol. II. pp. 297-328.
A.D. 1576. — Norman (Robert), a manufacturer of compass
needles at Wapping, is the first who determined the dip or inclination
to the earth of the magnetic needle in London, by means of a dipping
needle (inclinatorium) of his own making. Five years later (1581)
Norman publishes a pamphlet " The Newe Attractive, containing
a short discourse of the Magnes or Lodcstone, and amongest other
his vertues, of a newe discouered secret, and subtill propertie
concernyng the Declinyng of the Needle, touched therewith, under
the Plaine of the Horizon ..." from which is taken the following :
" Hauing made many and diuers compasses and using alwaics
to finish and end them before I touched the needle, I 'found con-
tinuallie that after I had touched the yrons with the stone, that
prcsentlie the north point thereof woulde bend or decline downwards
under the horizon in some quantitie; in so much that to the flie
of the compass, which was before levell, I was still constrained to
put some small piece of ware on the south point and make it equall
againe . . ." (Weld, " History of the Royal Society," 1848, Vol. II.
P- 432).
In the fourth chapter of his work, Norman describes the mode
of making the particular instrument with which he was enabled to
establish the first accurate measurement of the dip " which for
this citie of London, I finde, by exact obseruations to be about
71 degrees 50 mynutes."
Whewell thus alludes to several investigations in the same
line :
76 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Other learned men have, in long navigations, observed the
differences of magnetic variations, as Thomas Hariot, Robert Hues,
Edward Wright, Abraham Kendall, all Englishmen : others have
invented magnetic instruments and convenient modes of observation
such as are requisite for those who take long voyages, as William
Borough, in his book concerning the variation of the compass ;
William Barlo, in his ' Supplement ' ; Robert Norman, in his
' Newe Attractive.' This is that Robert Norman (a good seaman
and an ingenious artificer) who first discovered the dip of magnetic
iron " (" Enc. Metr.," p. 738; read also paragraph 366 of J. F. W.
Herschel's " Prelim. Disc.," 1855).
In Book I. chap. i. of Gilbert's " De Magneto," he says that
Norman posits a point and place toward which the magnet looks
but whereto it is not drawn : toward which magnetized iron,
according to him, is collimatcd but which does not attract it. Pie
alludes again to this " respective point " (Book IV. chaps, i. and vi.),
saying that Norman originated the idea of the " respective point "
looking, as it were, toward hidden principles, and held that toward
this the magnetized needle ever turns, and not toward any attrac-
tional point : but he was greatly in error, albeit he exploded the
ancient false opinion about attraction. Gilbert then proceeds to
show how this theory is proved by Norman. The original passage
in Norman's " Newe Attractive " (London, 1581, Chap. VI) is as
follows :
" Your reason towards the earth carricth some probabilitie,
but I prove that there be no Attractive, or drawing pro port ic in
neyther of these two partcs, then is the Attractive poynt lost, and
falsly called the poynt Attractive, as shall bo proved. But because
there is a certain poynt that the needle alwayes respecteth or
sheweth, being voide and without any Attractive propertio : in my
judjmcnt this poynt ought rather to bee called the poynt Respective.
. . . This poynt Respective, is a certaync poynt, which the touched
needle doth always Respect or shew. ..."
For the means of determining the dip or inclination, see " English
Ency." — Arts and Sciences — Vol. VIII. p. 160.
We have thus far learned that the declination or variation was
alluded to by Peter Peregrinus (A.D. 1269) in the Leyclen MS. ;
that Norman was the first to determine the dip or inclination, and
we shall, under the 1776 date, find that Borda determined the third
magnetic element called the intensity.
In 1581 appeared " The riewe attractive ... a discours of
the variation of the cumpas . . . made by W. B(orough)." This
wjs followed, in 1585 and in 1596, by " The ncwe Attractive . . .
newly corrected and amended by M. W. B.," also, in 1614, by
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 77
" The New Attractive, with the application thereof for finding the
true variation of the compass, by W. Burro wes."
Norman is also the author of " The safegarde of Saylers, or
Great Rutter . . . translated out of Dutch ... by R. Norman,"
1590, 1600, 1640.
REFERENCES. — Noad, " Manual of Electricity," London, 1859, p.
525; Gassendi, at A.D. 1632; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vol. I.
p. 179; Vol. II. pp. 281, 335; Vol. V. p. 58; Geo. Hartmann, A.D. 1543-
1544; " Mature," Vol. XI 11. p. 523; Walker, " Magnetism," p. 146, and,
for a photo reproduction of the title-page to the 1581 edition as well as
a copy of its contents, see G. Hellniann " Ncudrucke . . ." 1898, No. 10;
also Sidney Lee, " Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," Vol. XLI. p. 114, and William
Winston (1667-1752), " The Longitude and Latitude, discovered by the
Inclinatory or Dipping Needle," London, 1721.
A.D. 1580. — The celebrated naturalist Li-tchi-tchin, who
finished his Pen-thsao-Kang-Mou towards the end of 1580, says :
" If the loadstone was not in love with iron it would not attract the
latter." Eight and a half centuries before, about the year A.D. 727,
the same allusion had been made by Tchin-Thsang-Khi in his
" Natural History " (Klaproth, " Lettre a M. de Humboldt ..."
Paris, 1834, p. 20).
A.D. 1580.— In Parke's translation of the " History of the
Kingdom of China," written by Juan G. de Mendoza, a Spanish
missionary sent to the Chinese Empire by Philip II, appears the
following (Vol. II. p. 36) : " The Chinos doo gouerne their ships
by a compasse deuided into twelue partes and doo vse no sea cardes,
but abriefe description of Ruter (Ruttier — Routier — direction book)
wherewith they do nauigate or saile."
A.D. 1581. — Burrowes — Borough — Burroigh (William), " a man
of unquestionable abilities in the mathematiques," Comptroller of
the English navy in the reign of Elizabeth, who has been alluded
to as Robert Norman, is the first in Europe to publish well authenti-
cated observations upon the magnetic variation or declination made
by him from actual observation, while voyaging between the North
Cape of Finmark and Vaigatch (Vaygates). These are recorded at
length in his little book dedicated to " the travaillers, sea-men and
mariners of England " and entitled " A Discourse of the Variation
of the Cumpas, or Magneticall Needle. Wherein is Mathematically
shewed, the manner of the observation, effects, and application
thereof, made by W. B. And is to be annexed to The Newe Attrac-
tive of R. N. 1581 (London)."
At pp. 7 and 8 of his " Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism,"
Cambridge, 1866, Mr. Walker gives extracts from the twelve chapters
of Burrowes' work which, " containing, as it does, the first recorded
78 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
attempt at deducing the declination of the needle from accurate
observations, must be considered as making an epoch in the history
of terrestrial magnetism/'
REFERENCES. — Johnson, " New Univ. Encycl.," 1878, Vol. III.
p. 230, and the tables of the variations at pp. 274-275 of Vol. II. of
Cavallo's " Elements of Natural Philosophy," 1825. See the photo
reproduction of " A Discourse . . ." 1596 ed. in G. Hellmann's
" Neudrucke . . ." 1898, No. 10.
A.D. 1585. — Juan Jayme and Francisco Galli made a voyage
from the Phillipines to Acapulco, solely for the purpose of testing
by a long trial in the South Sea a declinatorium of Jayme 's
invention, from which M. de Humboldt says (" Cosmos," 1859,
Vol. V. p. 56) some idea may be formed of the interest excited in
reference to terrestrial magnetism during the sixteenth century.
A.D. 1586. — Vigenere (Blaise de), in his annotations to Livy
(" Les cinq premiers livres de Tite-Live," Paris, 8vo, Vol. I. col. 1316)
alludes to the possibility of communicating the contents of a letter
through a thick stone wall by passing a loadstone over correspond-
ing letters circumscribing the compass needle.
REFERENCES. — "Emporium of Arts and Sciences," Vol. I. p. 302;
Fahic, p. 20.
A.D. 1589. — Acosta (Joseph d'), learned Jesuit, who has been
already mentioned under the A.D. 121 entry, says in Chap. XVII.
lib. i. of his masterly " Historia Natural de las Indias " (" Histoire
Naturelle et Moralle des Indes tant Orientalles qu'Occidentalles,"
traduite par Robert Reynault Cauxois, 1598, 1606) that he is able
to indicate four lines of no variation (instead of one only discovered
by Columbus) dividing the entire surface of the earth : " foure
poyntes in all the world, whereas the needle looked directly towards
the North." Humboldt remarks that this may have had some
influence on the theory advanced, in 1683, by Halley, of four mag-
netic poles or points of convergence.
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vol. I. pp. 66, 193,
note; Vol. II. pp. 280, 281; Vol. V. p. 140.
A.D. 1590. — Caesare (Giulio-Moderati) , a surgeon of Rimini,
observes the conversion of iron into a magnet by position alone.
This effect was noticed on a bar which had been used as a support
to a piece of brickwork erected on the top of one of the towers of
the church of St. Augustine as is mentioned at the 1632 entry of
Pietro Sarpi.
A.D. 1597. — Barlowe — Barlow (William) — who died May 25,
1625, and was Archdeacon of Salisbury — publishes his " Navigators'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 79
Supply/' from which the following is extracted : " Some fewe
yeares since, it so fell out that I had severall conferences with
two East Indians which were brought into England by Master
Candish (Thomas Cavendish, one of the great navigators of the
Elizabethan Age) and had learned our language. . . . They shewed
that in steade of our compas they (in the East Indies) use a mag-
neticall needle of sixe ynches long . . . upon a pinne in a dish of
white china earth filled with water; in the bottome whereof they
have two crosse lines for the foure principal! windes, the rest of the
divisions being reserved to the skill of their pilots."
Barlowe also published in 1613, 1616 and 1618 different editions
of his work on the magnet, the full title of the last named being
" Magneticall Advertisements or diners pertinent obseruations and
approued Experiments concerning the nature and properties of
the Load-stone. Whereunto is annexed a briefe Discoverie of the
idle Animadversions of Mark Ridley, Dr. in Physike upon this
treatize." 1 Therein (Preface to the reader), he speaks of " That
wonderful propertie of the body of the whole earth called the
magneticall vertuc (most admirably foundc out and as learnedly
demonstrated by Doctor Gilbert, physitian vnto our late renowned
soveraigne Queen Elizabeth of happy memory) is the very true
fount aine of all magneticall knowledge. So that although certain
properties of the load-stone were knowne before; yet all the reasons
of those properties were vtterly vnknowne and never before revealed
(as I take it) vnto the sonnes of man. ..." Just before the Preface
appears the following letter which (as William Sturgeon remarks)
affords a good idea of the opinion entertained by Gilbert of Barlowe's
talents in this branch of science : "To the Worshipfull, my good
friend, Mr. William Barlow, at Easton by Winchester. Recom-
mendations with many thanks for all your paines and courtesies,
for your diligence and enquiring, and finding diuers good secrets,
I pray proceede with double capping your Loadstone you speake
of, I shall bee glad to see you, as you write, as any man. I will
haue any leisure, if it were a moneth, to conferre with you, you haue
shewed mee more, — and brought more light than any man hath*
done. Sir, I will commend you to my L. of Effingham, there is
heere a wise learned man, a Secretary of Venice, he came sent by
that State, and was honourably receiued by her Majesty, he brought
me a lattin letter from a Gentleman of Venice that is very well
learned, whose name is lohannes Franciscus Sagredus, he is a great
Magneticall man and writeth that hee hath conferred with diuers
1 It is in the " Epistle Dedicatorie " to this work that Barlowe is shown
to have been the first to make use of the word magnetisme.
80 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
learned men of Venice, and with the Readers of Padua, and reporteth
wonderfull liking of my booke, you shall haue a coppy of the latter :
Sir, I purpose to adioyne an appendix of six or eight sheets of paper
to my booke after a while, I am in hand with it of some new inuen-
tions, and I would haue some of your experiments, in your name and
inuention put into it, if you please, that you may be knowen for an
augmenter of the art. So far this time in haste I take my leaue
the XIII of February. Your very louing friend, W. GILBERT."
Speaking of William Barlowe, Anthony a Wood says : " This
was the person who had knowledge of the magnet twenty years
before Dr. Will. Gilbert published his book of that subject, and
therefore by those that knew him he was accounted superior, or
at least equal, to that doctor for an industrious and happy searcher
and finder out of many rare and magnctical secrets " (" Athenae
Oxonicnses," London, 1813, Vol. II. p. 375). Under heading of
Gilbert, the " British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books," 1888,
has it that " Mag. Adv." was compiled partly from " Do Magnete."
KLi'KUKNci'S. -— Maik Ridley, " Magn Animnd.," 1017, p. xi ;
('avallo, " Magnetism," 1787, p. 46; A.D. J3<>2; Sidney Lee, " Did. of
Nat. Biogr.," Vol. III. pp. 233-234; " La Grande Encyd." (II. Laiiii-
sanlt), Vol. V. p. 430; Pierre Laronsse, "Grand Diet. Univ. du xixe
siecJe," Fans, 1867, Vol. II. p. 2 Y) ', Claude Auge, " Le Nouveau
Larousse," Vol. I. p. 738; " Wood's Ath. Ox." (Bliss), Vol. 11. p. 375;
Hoofer, " Nouv. Riogr. Univ.," Vol. IV. p. 53; " Biogr. Bntannira " ;
Hutton, " Mathem. Diet."; " British Annual," 1.
A.D. 1599. — Wright (Edward), English mathematician, con-
nected with the East India Company and author of the Preface to
Gilbert's original " I)e Magnete," published in London " Die Haven-
vinding — The Haven-finding Art : Translation of Simon Stevinus'
' Portuum investigandorum ratio/ " in which is urged the advantage
of keeping registers of the variations observed on all vojTages. Thus,
says Lardner, the variation of the variation not only as to time,
but as to place, had at this period begun to receive the attention
of those engaged in navigation.
Wright constructed for Prince Henry a large sphere which
represented the motion of the planets, moon, etc., and he predicted
the eclipses for seventeen thousand one hundred years. He is
said to have discovered the mode of constructing the chart which
is known by the name of Mercator's Projection.
Simon Stevinus, above mentioned, also called Stephanus — Simon
of Bruges — was a most distinguished mathematician and physicist
(1548-1628), and is alluded to by Edward Wright not only in the
Preface to Gilbert's " De Magnete " above referred to, but also
in Book IV. chap. ix. of the latter work The English translation
of " Portuum investigandorum ratio " was afterwards attached to
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 81
the third edition of Wright's " Ccrtaine errors in navigation detected
and corrected/'
REFERENCES. — "English Cyel.," Vol. VI. p. 834; " Hiogr. G6n6r.,"
Vol. XL1V. pp. 496—408; Laroussc, "Diet.," Vol. XIV. p. 1100; G.
Hellmann, " Neudruekc . . ." 1898, No. 10; "Chambers' Encycl.,"
1892, Vol. IX., p. 725; " La Grande Encycl.," Vol. XXX. pp. 489-490;
Montucla, " Hist, des Mai hem.." Paris, An. VIII. Vol. 11; Quelelet,
also Van dc Wcycr, " Simon Stexin," 1845; " Memoircs de I'Acad^mie,"
Paris, 1753, p. 275; Steirhen, " Vie et Travaux dc S. Stevin," 18^6;
" Terrestrial Magnetism," Vol. 1. p. 153, and Vol. II. pp. 37, 72, 78.
A.D. 1599.— Pancirollus (Guido)— Panciroli (Gui)— already
quoted at A.D. 121, further remarks : " The ancients sailed by the
pole star, which they call Cynosura. The compass is believed to
have been found at Amalii, about 300 years ago by one Flavins.
And this unknown fellow (if it was Flavins) hath deserved more
than 10,000 Alexanders and as many Aristotles. . . . This single
act hath improved knowledge and done more good to the world
than all the niceties of the subtle schools."
REFEEF.NCKS. — "History of Things Lost," London, 1715, Vol. IF.
P- 338; ('Hesse, Vol. V. p. 117; also his biography in Laroussc, " Diet.
Univ.," Vol. XII. p. 108, and in the "Diet, de "Biographic," Vol. IT.
p. 2012.
A.D. 1600. — Schwonter (Danicll), Professor of Oriental
languages at Altdorff, describes, under the assumed name of Janus
Hercules de Sunde, in his " Steganologia et Steganographia," the
means of communicating intelligence at a distance by employing two
compass needles circumscribed with an alphabet, the needles being
shaped from the same piece of steel, and magnetized by the same
magnets.
Under caption " The First Idea of the Electric Telegraph," the
following appeared in the " Journal of the Franklin Institute,"
Vol. XXI. 1851, p. 202 : " In the number of the Philosophical
Magazine for May, 1850, I [N. S. Heine ken] observe that Prof.
Mauiioir claims, for his friend Dr. Odier, the first idea of the
electric telegraph. I herewith send you a translation of ' How
two people might communicate with each other at a distance
by means of the magnetic needle/ taken from a German work
by Schwcnter, entitled ' Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae/ and
published at Nurnberg in 1636 . . . upward of a century before
the period alluded to by Prof. Maunoir. Indeed, Oersted's grand
discovery was alone wanting to perfect the telegraph in 1636.
The idea, in fact, appears to have been entertained prior even to
this date, for Schwenter himself quotes, at p. 346, from a previous
author." This " previous author " is either Giambattista della
G
82 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Porta, mentioned at A.D. 1558, or Famianus Strada, who appears
herein under the A.D. 1617 date.
Tho passage from Dr. Louis Odier's letter relative to an electric
telegraph is given at A.D. 1773 (see J. J. Fahie, " A History of
Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837," London, 1884, pp. 21-22).
A.D. 1600.— Gilbert— Gilberd— Gylberde (William), of Col-
chester (1544-1603), physician to Queen Elizabeth and to James I of
England, justly called by Poggendorff " The Galileo of Magnetism,"
publishes his " DC magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, el de Magno
ma gncte tcllure ; Physiologia nova, plurimis d argument^ d experi-
ment! s dcmonstrata," to which he had given " seventeen years of
intense labour and research " l and which he dedicates " alone to the
true philosophers, ingenuous minds, who not only in books but in
things themselves look for knowledge/' and wherein the phenomena
of electricity arc first generalized and classified.
This great work is subdivided into six books, which respectively
treat of the loadstone, of magnetic movements (coitio), of direction
(direct to), of variation (variatio), of declination (declinatio), and of
the great magnet, the earth 2 of circular movement (revolutio).
BOOK I
After Gilbert has given in this Book an account of ancient and
modern writings on the loadstone,3 he indicates exactly what the
latter is, where found, its different properties, and, having introduced
1 " Imperial Diet, of Universal Biography," Vol. II. p. 626.
2 The earth itseli is a magnet according to Gilbert, who considered that
1he inflections of the lines of equal declination and inclination depend upon
the distribution of mass, the configuration of continents, or the form and
extent of the deep, intervening ocean basins. It is difficult to connect the
periodic variations which characterize the three principal forms of magnetic
phenomena (the isoclinic, the isogonic and the isodynamic lines) with this
rigid system of the distribution of force and mass, unless we represent to
oui selves the attractive force of the material particles modified by similar
periodic changes of temperature in the interior of the terrestrial planet. . . .
Of these lines, the isogonic are the most important in their immediate applica-
tion to navigation, whilst we find from the most recent views that the isody-
namic, especially those which indicate the horizontal force, arc the most
valuable elements in the theory of terrestrial magnetism (Humboldt,
"Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vol. 1. pp. 180-181, 185; Vol. II. p. 334, wherein
references are made to Gauss, " Resultate der JBeob. des Magn. Vereins,"
1838, s. 21 ; Sabinc, " Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity,"
P- 63).
3 The reader is referred to Appendix I herein for " Accounts of early
writers and others alluded to in Gilbert's ' De Magriete,' not already disposed
of throughout this Bibliographical History." Gilbert says that only a few
points touching the loadstone are briefly mentioned by Marbodeus Gallus,
Albert us, Mattoeus Siivaticus, Hermolaus Barbarus, Camillus Leonhardus,
Cornelius Agrippa, Fallopins, Joannes Langius, Cardinal de Cusa, Hannibal
Rosetius Calaber, all of whom repeat only the figments of others.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 88
us to his terrella-microge, or little earth1 — a globular loadstone,
showing that it has poles answering to the earth's poles, he tells us
all about iron ore, its natural and acquired poles, the medicinal
virtues attributed by the ancients to iron as well as to the loadstone ;
and he ends this First Book with the announcement that loadstone
and iron ore are the same, that iron is obtained from both, like
other metals from their ores, and that all magnetic properties exist,
though weaker, both in smelted iron and in iron ore ; furthermore,
that the terrestrial globe is magnetic and is a loadstone; and that
just as in our hands the loadstone possesses all the primary powers
(forces) of the earth, so the earth, by reason of the same potencies,
lies ever in the same direction throughout the universe.
BOOK II
The justly famous Second Book contains Gilbert's electrical
work and, as is generally known, the second chapter thereof is the
earliest ever published on electricity. We are here introduced to
Gilbert's versorium — a rotating needle electroscope 2 — and are
given the results of his many experimental observations 3 and the
opinions of others relative to magnetic coition or attraction. We
find, throughout the whole of the second chapter, the first systematic
study of amber, with an interesting list of electrics and the recogni-
tion of a groiip of anelectrics — non-electrics. After pointing out
the different kinds of attractions admitted by Galen and other
ancient writers, we are told that :
1 Sir Kenelm Digby (" Treatise of the Nature of Bodies," 1645, Chap. XX.
p. 225) says that the manner in which Gilbert " arrived to discover so much
of magnetical philosophy " and " all the knowledge he got on the subject,
was by forming a little loadstone into the shape of the earth. By which
means he composed a wonderful dcsigne, which was to make the whole
globe of the earth maniable ; for he found the properties of the whole earth
in that little body . . . which he could manage and try experiments upon
at his will . . ." In the note at p. 47 (P. Peregrinus, A.D. 1269), it will be
seen that the terrella was constructed by both in practically the same manner :
only Peregrinus considered it " a likeness to the heavens," whilst Gilbert
regarded it as the earth itself.
2 The magnetized versorium consisted of a piece of iron, or needle,
resting upon a point, or pin, and was put in motion, excited, by the loadstone
or natural magnet. The non-magnetized versorium was made of any sort
of metal, for use in electrical experiments (" De Magnetc," Book II. chap. ii. ;
Book III. chap. i.).
3 Asterisks. As Gilbert remarks in his Author's Preface, he has set over
against " the great multitude " of his discoveries and experiments larger
and smaller asterisks according to their importance and their subtility; all
of his experiments having been, says he, " investigated and again and
again done and repeated under our eyes." There are, in all, 178 small and
21 large asterisks, some of them being attached to illustrations, of which latter
there are as many as 84 throughout the work. See Appendix II herein.
84 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Only feeble power of attraction is possessed by some electrics
(all which have their own distinct effluvia) in favouring dry atmo-
sphere : observable in midwinter while the atmosphere is very cold,
clear and thin, when the electric effluvia of the earth offer less impedi-
ment and electric bodies are harder—that these bodies then draw,
as well, all metals, wood, leaves, stones, earths, even water and oil,
in short, whatever things appeal to our senses or are solid.
" All bodies" are attracted by electrics, save those which are afire
or flaming or extremely rarefied.
" Very many electric bodies do not attract at all, unless they are
first rubbed. An ordinal*}' piece of amber does not attract by heat,
even when brought to the flaming point, but it attracts by friction,
without which latter few bodies give out their true natural electric
emanation and effluvium. By friction, the amber is made moder-
ately hot and also smooth; those conditions must in most cases
concur; but a largo polished piece of amber or of jot attracts even
without friction, though not so strongly ; yet, if it be carefully brought
nigh to a flame or a red coal, it does not attract corpuscles; further,
the sun's heat heightened by means of a burning-glass imparts no
power to amber, for it dissipates and spoils all the electric effluvia.
Again, flaming sulphur and burning sealing-wax (of lac) do not
attract.
" The loadstone, though susceptible of very high polish, has not
the electric attraction. The force does not come through the lustre
proceeding from the rubbed and polished electric ; for the vincentina,
diamond and pure glass attract when they are rough. Effluvia that
attract but feebly when the weather is clear produce no motion at
all when it is cloudy. For the effluvium from rock crystal, glass,
diamond— substances very hard and very highly compressed — there
is no need of any notable outflow of substance. Such an electric
as sound cypress-wood, after a moment's friction, emits powers
subtle and fine, far beyond all odours ; but sometimes an odour is
also emitted by amber, jet, sulphur, these bodies being more readily
resolved; hence it is that, usually, they attract after the gentlest
friction because their effluvia are stronger and more lasting.
" Rock crystal, mica, glass, and other electric bodies do not attract
if they be burned or highly heated, for their primordial humour is
destroyed by the heat, is altered, is discharged as vapour. All
bodies that derive their origin principally from humours and that
are firmly concreted attract all substances whether humid or dry;
but bodies consisting mostly of humour and not firmly compacted
by nature, wherefore they do not stand friction but either fall to
pieces or grow soft or are sticky, do not attract corpuscles.
" Electrical movements come from the matter (materia) but
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 85
magnetic from the prime form (forma). Moist air blown from the
mouth, moisture from steam, or a current of humid air from the
atmosphere chokes the effluvium. But olive oil that is light and
pure does not prevent it ; and, if a sheet of paper or a linen cloth be
interposed, there is no movement. But loadstone, neither rubbed
nor heated, and even though it be thoroughly drenched with liquid,
and whether in air or water, attracts magnetic bodies, and that
though solidest bodies or boards or thick slabs of stone or plates
of metal stand between.
" Electrics attract all things save flame and objects aflame, and
thinnest air . . . for it is plain that the effluvia are consumed by
flame and igneous heat . . . yet they draw to themselves the smoke
from an extinguished candle ; and, the lighter the smoke becomes as
it ascends, the less strongly is it attracted, for substances that are
too rare do not suffer attraction."
This Chapter II ends with the following explanation of the differ-
ence between electric and magnetic bodies, viz. all magnetic bodies
come together by their joint forces (mutual strength) ; electric
bodies attract the electric only, and the body attracted undergoes
no modification through its own native force, but is drawn freely
under impulsion in the ratio of its matter (composition). Bodies
are attracted to electrics in a right line toward the centre of elec-
tricity ' a loadstone approaches another loadstone on a line perpen-
dicular to the circumference only at the poles, elsewhere obliquely
and transversely, and adheres at the same angles. The electric
motion is the motion of conservation of matter ; the magnetic is that
of arrangement and order. The matter of the earth's globe is brought
together and held together by itself electrically. The earth's globe
is directed and revolves magnetically; it both coheres, and, to the
end it may be solid, it is in its interior fast joined.
Of the other interesting chapters in this Book II, attention is
called more particularly to :
Chap. IV. " Of the strength of a loadstone and its form : the cause
of coition." The magnetic nature is proper to the earth and
is implanted in all its real parts . . . there is in the earth a
magnetic strength or energy (vigour) of its own . . . thus we
have to treat of the earth, which is a magnetic body, a loadstone.
An iron rod held in the hand is magnetized in the end where
it is grasped and the magnetic force travels to the other ex-
tremity, not along the surface only but through the inside,
through the middle. . . . Iron instantly receives from the
loadstone verticity and natural conformity to it, being abso-
lutely metamorphosed into a perfect magnet. As soon as it
86 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
comes within the loadstone's sphere of influence it changes
instantly and has its form renewed, which before was dormant
and inert, but now is quick and active.
Chaps. VI and XXVII illustrate the Orbis Virtutis (Orb of Virtue,
or the magnetic atmosphere surrounding both earth and load-
stone alike), showing how the earth and loadstone conform
magnetic movements, the centre of the magnetic forces of the
earth being the earth's centre and in the terrella the terrella's
centre. All loadstones alike, whether spherical or oblong, have
the selfsame mode of turning to the poles of the world . . .
whatever the shape, verticity is present and there are poles.
Chap. VII. "Of the potency of the magnetic force, and of its
spherical extension." The magnetic energy is not hindered
by any dense or opaque body, but goes out freely and diffuses
its force every whither : in the case of the terrella, and in a
spherical loadstone, it extends outside the body in a circle,
but, in the case of an oblong loadstone, it extends into an area
of form determined by the shape of, and is everywhere equi-
distant from, the stone itself.
Chap. XIII. " Of the magnetic axis and poles."
Chap. XV. " The magnetic force imparted to iron is more apparent
in an iron rod than in an iron sphere or cube, or iron in any
other shape."
Chap. XVI. " Motion is produced by the magnetic force through
solid bodies interposed : of the interposition of a plate of iron."
Chaps. XVII-XXII. Herein are detailed as many as twelve different
experiments to prove the increased efficiency of armed load-
stones.
Chap. XXV. " Intensifying the loadstone's forces." Magnetic
bodies can restore soundness (when not totally lost) to magnetic
bodies, and can give to some of them powers greater than they
originally had; but to those that are by their nature in the
highest degree perfect, it is not possible to give further strength.
Chap. XXVIII. " A loadstone does not attract to a fixed point or
pole only, but to every part of a terrella, except the equi-
noctial line."
Chap. XXIX. " Of differences of forces dependent on quantity or
mass." Four experiments.
Chaps. XXXVIII and XXXIX are the last, and they treat of the
attractions of other bodies and of mutually repellant bodies.
All electrics attract objects of every kind : they never repel
or propel.
In the preceding Chapter XXXV, Gilbert had alluded to
the perpetual-motion engine actuated by the attraction of a
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 87
loadstone, which we have given an account of at Peter Pere-
grinus, A.D. 1269.
BOOK III
In this Third Book, we learn of the directive (or versorial) force
which is called vcrticitas — verticity — what it is, how it resides in
the loadstone, and how it is acquired when not naturally produced ;
how iron acquires it and how this verticity is lost or altered; why
iron magnetized takes opposite verticity; of magnetizing stones of
different shapes ; why no other bodies save the magnetic are imbued
with verticity by friction with a loadstone and why no body which
is not magnetic can impart and awaken that force ; of disagreements
between pieces of iron on the same pole of a loadstone, and how they
may come together and be conjoined ; that verticity exists in all
smelted iron not excited by the loadstone, as shown by its lying,
being placed — or, preferably, by hammering hot iron — in the
magnetic meridian ; that the magnetized needle turns to conformity
with the situation of the earth; of the use of rotary needles and
their advantages ; how the directive iron rotary needles of sundials
and the needles of the mariner's compass are to be rubbed with
loadstone in order to acquire stronger verticity.
BOOK IV
The Fourth Book treats of the variation at different places ;
says that it is due to inequality among the earth's elevations ; 1
shows that variation and direction are due to the controlling force
of the earth and the rotatory magnetic nature, not by an attraction
or a coition or by other occult cause; explains the different modes
of constructing the mariner's compass, in vogue at the time,2 and
how the deviation of the needle is greater or less according to the
distance of place.
BOOK V
In this Fifth Book is to be found everything relative to the dip
of the magnetic needle, likewise the description of an instrument
for showing, by the action of a loadstone, the degree of dip below
the horizon in any latitude ; and the announcement that the magnetic
1 Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. I. p. 170, and Vol. II. pp. 717-718.
2 Sir Wm. Thomson, " Good Words," 1879, p. 445.
We have already indicated several modes of construction, notably at
A.D. 1282 (Bailak of Kibdjak), at A.D. 1558 (G. B. Porta), as well as at A.D. 1597
(Wm. Barlowe), and it is interesting to observe how all these vary, more
particularly from the types described by Levinus Lcmnius in the " De
Occulta Naturae Miracula," mentioned at B.C. 1033, and by Martinus Lipenius
in his " Navigatio Salomonis Ophiritica " noted at A.D. 1250.
88 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
force is animate or imitates a soul ; in many respects, it surpasses
the human soul while that is united to an organic body.
BOOK VI
Throughout this last Book, Gilbert glories in the Copernican
theory, the open, unquestioned, advocacy and endorsement of
which according to many seems, after all, to have been the object
of the work. He maintains that the magnetic axis of the earth
remains invariable; he treats of the daily magnetic revolution of
the globes, as against the time-honoured opinion of a primum
mobile, the fixed stars being at different distances from the earth ;
of the circular motion of the earth and of its primary magnetic
nature, whereby her poles are made different from the poles of the
ecliptic, as well as of the precession of the equinoxes and of the
obliquity of the zodiac.
According to Humboldt,1 Gilbert was the first to make use of the
words electric force, electric emanations, electric attraction, but, he
says, there is not found in " De Magnete " either the abstract
expression electricitas or the barbarous word magnctisimts introduced
in the seventeenth century. We likewise owe to Gilbert the words
equator, magncticum, tcrrclla, vcrsoriitm and vcrticitas, but not the
word pole, which had before been used by P. Percgrinus and others.
The second edition of " De Magnete " appeared at Stettin in
1628, " embellished with a curious title-page in the form of a monu-
ment . . . and a fantastic indication of the earliest European
manner's compass, a floated lodestone, but floating in a bowl on
the sea and left behind by the ship sailing away from it." 2
The third edition was also published at Stettin during 1633.
Gilbert left, besides, a posthumous work, " De Mundo Nostro
Sublunari Philosophia Nova," Amsterdam, 1651, which latter, says
Prof. Robison, consists of an attempt to establish a new system
of natural philosophy upon the ruins of the Aristotelian doctrine.3
To give here such an analysis as Gilbert's admirable work merits
would be impracticable, but the short review of it made by Prof.
Robison (at p. 209 of his " System of Mechanical Philosophy,"
London, 1822) deserves full reproduction, as follows : " In the
1 " Cosmos," i8f)O, Vol. IT. p. 3^1, or prior edition, 1849, Vol. II. p. 726.
2 " Good Words," 1879, with a facsimile of the title-page at p. 383.
3 According to Dr. John Davy, this " DC Mundo Nostro," which is but
little known, "is a very remarkable book, both in style and matter; and
there is a vigour and energy of expression belonging to it very suitable to
its originality. Possessed of a more minute and practical knowledge of
natural philosophy than Bacon, his opposition to the philosophy of the schools
Wcis more searching and particular, and at 1he same time probably little less
efficient " (" Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy," London, 1836,
Vol. I. p. 311).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 89
introduction, he recounts all the knowledge of the ancients on the
subject treated, and their supine inattention to what was so entirely
in their hands, and the impossibility of ever adding to the stock
of useful knowledge, so long as men imagined themselves to be
philosophizing, while they were only repeating a few cant words
and the unmeaning phrases of the Aristotelian school. It is curious
to mark the almost perfect sameness of Dr. Gilbert's sentiments
and language with those of Lord Bacon. They both charge, in a
peremptory manner, all those who pretend to inform others, to give
over their dialectic labours, which arc nothing but ringing changes
on a few trite truths, and many unfounded conjectures, and im-
mediately to betake themselves to experiment. He has pursued
this method on the subject of magnetism, with wonderful ardour,
and with equal genius and success; for Dr. Gilbert was possessed
both of great ingenuity, and a mind fitted for general views of things.
The work contains a prodigious number and variety of experiments
and observations, collected with sagacity from the writings of others,
and instituted by himself with considerable expense and labour.
It would, indeed, be a miracle if all of Dr. Gilbert's general inferences
were just, or all his experiments accurate. It was untrodden ground.
But, on the whole, this performance contains more real information
than any writing of the age in which he lived, and is scarcely exceeded
by any that has appeared since. We may hold it with justice as
the first fruits of the Baconian or experimental philosophy/' Else-
where, Prof. Robison remarks : " it is not saying too much of
this work to affirm that it contains almost everything we know of
magnetism. His unwearied diligence in searching every writing
on the subject and in getting information from navigators, and his
incessant occupation in experiments, have left very few facts
unknown to him. We meet with many things in the writings of
posterior inquirers, some of them of high reputation and of the
present day, which are published and received as notable discoveries,
but are contained in the rich collection of Dr. Gilbert."
The Rev. Win. Whewell says in his " History of the Inductive
Sciences " (Vol. III. p. 40.) that in the " De Magnete," a book of only
240 pages, upon which Dr. Gilbert has been engaged for nearly
eighteen years, are contained " all the fundamental facts of the
science, so fully examined, indeed, that, even at this day, wre have
little to add to them."
Dr. John Davy remarks (" Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry
Davy," London, 1836, Vol. I. p. 309) : " Gilbert's work is worthy
being studied, and I am surprised that an English Edition (transla-
tion) of it has never been published." He also alludes to the well-
known reproach thrown upon Gilbert's philosophy by Francis
90 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Bacon, who, in his " De Augmentis Scientiarum," observes that
" Gilbert has attempted to raise a general system upon the magnet,
endeavouring to build a ship out of materials not sufficient to
make the rowing-pins of a boat." On the other hand, Digby and
Barlowe place Gilbert upon a level with Harvey, Galileo, Gassendi
and Descartes (" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale," 1858, Vol. VIII.
p. 494) while the celebrated historian of the Council of Trent,
Fra Paolo Sarpi — who will not be thought an incompetent judge —
names Gilbert, with Francis Vieta (the greatest French mathemati-
cian of the sixteenth century) as the only original writer among
his contemporaries (" Lettere di Fra Paolo," p. 31 ; Hallam, " Intro,
to Lit.," 1859, Vol. II. p. 464).
In Thos. Thomson's " History of the Royal Society," London,
1812, the " De Magnete " is thus alluded to : " Dr. Gilbert's book
on magnetism, published in 1600, is one of the finest examples of
inductive philosophy that has ever been presented to the world.
It is the more remarkable because it preceded the ' Novum Organum '
of Bacon, in which the inductive method of philosophizing was first
explained." How far Gilbert was ahead of his time is best proven
by the works of those who wrote on magnetism during the first
few decades after his death. They contributed in reality nothing
to the extension of this branch of physical science. Poggendorff,
from whose " Geschichte der Physik," p. 286, this is extracted,
as already stated, calls Gilbert " the Galileo of Magnetism." By
Dr. Priestley, he was named " the Father of Modern Electricity."
The tribute of Henry Hallam is to the following effect : " The
year 1600 was the first in which England produced a remarkable
work in physical science ; but this was one sufficient to raise a lasting
reputation for its author. Gilbert, a physician, in his Latin treatise
on the magnet, not only collected all the knowledge which others
had possessed on the subject, but became at once the father of
experimental philosophy in this island, and, by a singular felicity
and acuteness of genius, the founder of theories which have been
revived after a lapse of ages, and are almost universally received
into the creed of science. Gilbert was one of the earliest Copernicans,
at least as to the rotation of the earth, and, with his usual sagacity,
inferred, before the invention of the telescope, that there are a
multitude of fixed stars beyond the reach of our vision " (" Intro-
duction to the Literature of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries," London, 1859, Vol. II. p. 463).
In the " Principal Navigations ..." Edinburgh, 1889, Vol. XII.
p. 10, Richard Hakluyt speaks of ^ ... my worshipfull friend
M. douctour Gilbert, a gentleman no lesse excellent in the chiefest
secrets of the Mathematicks (as that rare iewel lately set forth
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 91
by him in Latine doeth euidently declare) then in his oune
profession of physicke."
We conclude this account of Gilbert in the quaint words of old
Dr. Fuller : " He has (said my informer l) the clearness of Venice
Glass without the Brittlcncss thereof, soon Ripe and long lasting
is his Perfection. He commenced Doctor in Physick, and was
Physician to Queen Elizabeth, who stamped on him many marks
of her Favour, besides an annuall Pension to encourage his studies.
He addicted himself to Chemistry, attaining to great exactness
therein. One saith of him that he was Stoicall, but not Cynicall,
which I understand Reserved ; but not Morose, never married,
purposely to be more beneficial to his brethren. Such his Loyalty
to the Queen that, as if unwilling to survive, he dyed in the same
year with her, 1603. His Stature was Tall, Complexion Chearful,
an Happiness not ordinary in so hard a student and so retired a
person. He lyeth buried in Trinity Church in Colchester under a
plain monument."
" Mahomet's Tombe, at Media, is said strangely to hang up,
attracted by some invisible Loadstone, but the memory of this
Doctor will never fall to the ground, which his incomparable book
' De Magnete * will support to eternity " (" The History of the
Worthies of England Endeavoured by Thomas Fuller, D.D.,"
London, 1662, p. 332 — Essex).
In his Epistle to Dr. Walter Charleton, physician in ordinary
to King Charles I (Epist. III. p. 15, Vol. XI of the Works of Dryden,
London, 1803) the celebrated English poet predicts that :
" Gilbert shall live till loadstones cease to draw
Or British fleets the boundless ocean awe."
REFERENCES. — "La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XVIII. p. 930;
" Dictionary of National Biography," London, 1890, Vol. XXL p. 338;
" Bibliographica Britannica," London, 1757, Vol. IV. p. 2202; Laroussc,
"Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. p. 123; " Freeman's Historic Towns " (Col-
chester), by Rev. E. L. Cutts, 1888, p. 172; " Beauties of England and
Wales," by E. W. Brayley and John Britton, 1810, Vol. V. (Colchester)
pp. 318-319; Cooper, " Athena? Cantabrigienses," Cambridge, 1858;
Anthony a Wood, " Athcnac Oxonienses," Ixmdon, 1813, Vol. I ; Thomas
Wright, " Hist, and Top. of the County of Essex," 1866, Vol. I ; " Journal
des Savants " for June 1859, Sept. 1870; Wm. Munk, " The Roll of the
Royal College of Physicians of London," 1878, Vol. L p. 77; Humboldt,
"Cosmos," 1859-1860, Vol. I. pp. 158-159, note, 177, 179, 182, note;
Vol. II. pp. xvii, 279-281, 334-335, 341-342; Vol. V. p. 58 for references
to and extracts from Dr. Gilbert's work; Wm. Wheweil, " Hist, of tho
Ind. Sciences," Vol. L pp. 274-275, 394; Vol. II. pp. 192, 217-220, 224,
225, and " Philosophy of the Ind. Sciences," London, 1840, Vol. II.
pp. 374-379; " M6moires de Physique," Lausanne, 1754, pp. 123, etc.;
" U.S. Magnetic Tables and Isogonic Charts for 1902," L. A. Bauer,
1 Gilbert's near kinsman, Rev. William Gilbert, of Brental Ely, in Suffolk.
92 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
pp. 1-77; " Popular Science Monthly," August 1901, pp. 337-350 for
" Gilbert of Colchester," by Bro. Potamian, also its translation in " Ciel
et Terrc " for Dec. i, 1902, pp. 472-480 and for Dec. 16, 1902, p. 489;
" New, International Encyclopaedia," New York, 1903, Vol. VIII. p. 368;
" William Gilbert of Colchester," by Conrad Wm. Cooke, London, 1890
(reprinted from " Engineering," 1889) ; " William Gilbert of Colchester,"
by Dr. Silvanus P. Thompson, London, 1891 ; " William Gilbert of
Colchester," a translation by P. Floury Mottclay, New York and London,
1893; "William Gilbert of Colchester," a translation by members of
the Gilbert Club, London, 1900, to which is appended a valuable collection
of " Notes on the De JMagnete " of Dr. William Gilbert, by Dr. Silvanus
P. Thompson, who therein also gives an interesting bibliography of this
great work; " William Gilbert of Colchester," a sketch of his magnetic
philosophy by Chas. K. Benham, Colchester, 1902 ; " Zur bibliographic1
von W. Gilbert's De Magneto," Von. G. Hellmann (" Terrestrial Magnet-
ism and Atmospheric Electricity" for June 1902); " Teir. Magn. and
Atm. Elect.," Vol. II. p. 45 for " The Earth a Great Magnet," by J. A.
Fleming; " The Earth a Great Magnet," by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer, New
York, 1872; Philip Morant, "History and Antiquities of Colchester,"
London, 1748; Bacon, " Novum Organum," Leyden, 1650, pp. 263-265;
Kees' " Encyclopaedia," 1819, Vol. XVI. article " (Gilbert "; " A Course
of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," by Thos.
Young, London, 1807, Vol. L pp. 686, 747, 756; Vol. II. pp. in, 324, 436;
" Critical Dictionary of Engl. Literature," S. Austin Allibone, Phil ad.,
1888, Vol. I. p. 668; " General Biographical Dictionary," John Gorton,
London, 1833, Vol. II, mentioning Wood's " At hen. Ox.," Ilutchinson's
" Biog.-Med.," and Allan's " G. Biography"; Phil. Trans, for 1667,
Vol. II. pp. 527-531, also Baddam's abridgments, London, 1739, Vol. III.
p. 129 and London, 17-15, Vol. L p. 97.
A.D. 1601.— Brahe (Tycho— Tygge— Thygho— Tyge), who has
been several times mentioned in this compilation and is referred to by
Gilbert (" De Magnete," Book IV. chap. xii. also Book VI. chap, v.),
was a distinguished Danish astronomer (b. 1546, d. 1601), the
founder of modern astronomical calculations, whose investiga-
tions and records of the positions of the stars and planets made
possible the brilliant discoveries of Kepler and Newton. As
Humboldt expresses it, the rich abundance of accurate observations
furnished by Tycho Brahe, himself the zealous opponent of the
Copernican system, laid the foundation for the discovery of those
eternal laws of planetary movements which prepared imperishable
renown for the name of Kepler, and which, interpreted by Newton,
proved to be theoretically and necessarily true, have been now
transferred into the bright and glorious domain of thought as
the intellectual recognition of nature (" Cosmos," 1860, Vol. II. p. 313).
As his very able biographer, Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer, of the Armagh
Observatory, remarks in his admirable work (Edinburgh, 1890) :
" Without Brahe, Kepler never could have found out the secrets of
the planetary motions, and, in the words of Dclambre, ' Nous
ignorerions pent etre encore le veritable systeme du mcmde.' The
most important inheritance which Tycho left to Kepler and to
posterity was the vast mass of observations all which, Kepler justly
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 98
said, ' deserved to be kept among the royal treasures, as the reform
of astronomy could not be accomplished without them . . / at
one breath blowing away the epicycles and other musty appendages
which disfigured the Copcrnican system. . . . Tycho Brahe had
given Kepler the place to stand on and Kepler did move the
world ! "
Brahe was the first to recognize the variation, /. e. the inequality,
in the moon's motion. Tn opposition to the opinion of Sedillot,
M. Biot maintains that this fine discovery of Tycho by no means
belongs to Abul-Wcfa, and that the latter was acquainted not with
the " variation " but only with the second part of the " cvcction "
(" Cosmos/' 1860, Vol. II. p. 222, wherein are many references to
the Comptcs Rendus and to the " Journal des Savants ").
The biographical division of the " English Cyclopaedia/' 1866,
Vol. I. pp. 898-903, gives a list of Brahe's numerous writings,
headed by his earliest publication, " DC Nova Stella," 1573, which
is so extremely rare that, until 1890, when Dr. Dreyer gave a
description of it, not a single historian of astronomy had ever seen
it or been able to even give its title correctly (" Journal of Br.
Astron. Assoc,/' Vol. XII. No. 2, p. 95; Houzeau et Lancaster,
Vol. II. p. 598). A detailed account of its contents is given at
pp. 44-56 of Dr. Dreyer 's 1890 work above alluded to, wherein we
are further told of the protection given Brahe by the Landgrave
William of Hesse-Cassel, as well as of the consequent aid so liberally
extended by King Frederick II. Reference is likewise made to
the fact that in December 1584 the King turned to Tycho for help,
writing that he was under the impression he had returned a compass
made by Tycho, believing there was something wrong with it ;
that, if this proved to be the case, Tycho was to send back the
compass, but, if not, he was to make two new ones similar to the
old one (F. R. Friis, " Tyge Brahe/' p. 147).
RKKKRKNCES.— " Life of Tycho Brahe," by Gasscndi, containing the
" Oratio Funcbris," etc., of John Jcsscnius ; Tessicr " Klogcs des homines
illustres," Vol. IV. p. 383; Blount, " Censura/' etc.; " Epistohr ad
Joh. Keplcrum," 1718; Riccioli, " Chronicon in Almagcsto Novo,"
Vol. T. p. 46; the biogreiphy by Malte-Brim in the " Biog. Univ./'
wherein is to be found the list of all of Tycho Brahe's writings ; " English
Cycl.," Supplement to Biography, p. 376, at Scipione Chiaromonti, for
" Anti-Tycho " ; " Bulletin de la Sociele Astronomique de France,"
Janvier 1903; "Journal des Savants," Juin 1864; Humboldt,
"Cosmos," 1860, Vol. III. pp. 158, 160, 162; "Nature" of Dec. 27,
1900, p. 206, and " Nature," Vol. LXV. pp. 5-9, 104-106, 181, as well
as the " Bulletin Astronomique," Paris, Avril 1902, pp. 163-166, for
account of the celebrations of the Tercentenary of Tycho-Brahe's
death, held at Prague and elsewhere, on Oct. 24, 1901, with illustrations
of his observatory, etc. etc. ; " Gcschichtc der Mathcm. von Abraham
G. Kastner/' Vol. II. pp. 376, etc., 613, etc. ; R. A. Proctor, " Old and
New Astronomy," 1892 passim; " Biog. Gener.," 1890, Vol. XLV.pp. 750,
94 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
755; "La Grande Encycl.," Vol. VII. pp. 962-963; Larousse, "Diet.
Univ.," Vol. XV. pp. 613-614 ; " Encycl. Brit.," Edin., 1876,
Vol. IV, p. 200.
Consult likewise for Abul Wefa : " Le Journal des Savants," for
Nov. 1841, Sept. 1843, Mar. 1845 and Oct. 1871; Houzeau et
Lancaster, " Bibliog. Gen.," 1887, Vol. I. pp. 598-600, and Vol. II.
pp. 92-93 ; " Bull, de la Soc. Acad. de Laon, " Janvier 1903, pp. 40-
48 ; Leopold Von Ranke, " History of England," Vol. I. p. 367 and notes ;
Wm. Whewell, " Phil, of the Ind. Sc.," London, 1840, Vol. II. pp. 386-
388; Harold Hoffding, "A Hist, of Mod. Phil.," translated by B. E.
Mayer, London, 1900, Vol. I. p. 428.
A.D. 1602.— Blundeville (Thomas) publishes at London, " The
Theoriques of the Seuen Planets/1 etc., which, as the lengthy title
goes to show, indicates " the making, description and vse of two
ingenious and necessarie instruments for sea men to find out thereby
the latitude of any place upon the sea or land, in the darkest night,
that is, without the helpe of sunne, moone or starre ; first invented
by M. Dr. Gilbert, a most excellent philosopher, and one of the
ordinarie physicians to Her Majestie."
He had previously published, in 1589, " A briefe description
of universal mappes and cardes and of their use ; and also the use
of Ptolemy his Tables/' which was followed, during 1594, by his
well-known work on navigation. From the rare sixth edition of the
latter (London, 1622) the curious title page is worth reproducing
as follows : " M. Blundeville, His Exercises, contayning eight
treatises, the titles whereof are set down in the next printed page :
which treatises are very necessary to be read and learned of all
Young Gentlemen that haue not beene exercised in such Disciplines
and yet are desirous to haue knowledge as well in Cosmographie,
Astronomic and Geographic, as also in the art of navigation, in
which art it is impossible, to profit without the helpe of these or
such like Instructions. To the furtherance of which Art of Naviga-
tion the sayd Master Blundeville especially wrote the said Treatises
and of meere good will doth dedicate the same to all Young Gentle-
men of this Realme." The contents of this curious work treat of
Arithmetic, Cosmography, Terrestrial and Celestial Globes, Peter
Plancius, his Universal Map, Mr. Blagrau, his Astrolabe, The First
Principles of Navigation, etc. etc.
The Mr. Blagrau here mentioned is John Blagrave, eminent
English mathematician, author of " The Mathematical Jewel,"
as well as of " The making and use of the familiar staffe/' of " The
Art of Dialling," and of " Astro labium Uranicum Generate, a
necessary and pleasunt solace and recreation for Navigators in
their long journeying, containing the use of an instrument or
astrolabe." From the last named, it appears that Blagrave was
a convert to the heliocentric theory of Copernicus (" New Gen.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 95
Biog. Diet./' by Rev. H. J. Rose, London, 1850, Vol. IV. p. 277).
The invention of the dipping needle by Mr. Blagrave was before
the discovery of the change of the needle's variation by Mr. Gelli-
brand (" Philos. Britan.," Benj. Martin, London, 1771, Vol. I.
p. 46).
REFERENCES. — " Gen. Biogr. Diet." (Gorton), London, 1833, Vol. I;
Mutton's abridgments of the Phil. Trans., London, 1739, Vol. IV.
p. 103; "Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Leslie Stephen, London, 1886, Vol. V.
pp. 157 and 271-272; "Gen. Biog. Diet.," Alex. Chalmers, London,
1812, Vol. V. pp. 370-371 ; " Biog. Univ.," Paris, 1843, Vol. IV. p. 397;
" Nouv. Biog. Generate " (Hoefer), Paris, 1853, pp. 170-171 ; Baddam's
abridgments of the Phil. Trans., London, 1739, Vol. IV. p. 103;
"Ames* Typog. Antiq." (Herbert), pp. 693, 694, 697-701; Bloomfield's
"Norfolk," Vol. LX1V. pp. 68-70; Cooper's " Athene Cantab.";
Davy's "Suffolk Coll.," Vol. LXXXIX. p. 215; Ilazlitt, "Coll. and
Notes," 1876, also the second series.
A.D. 1609. — Kepler (Johann), who succeeded Tycho Brahe in
1 60 1 as astronomer to the German Emperor Rudolph II, is the
author of a treatise " On the Magnet," which was followed, during
1609, by his greatest work, the " Astronomia Nova." The latter
was deemed by Lalande of such importance that he considered it
the duty of every astronomer to read it from beginning to end at
least once in his lifetime.
The " Astronomia " contains the extraordinary book " on the
motion of Mars," and is said to hold the intermediate place, besides
being the connecting link between the discoveries of Copernicus and
those of Newton. Kepler's doctrine is thus enunciated by Dr.
Whewell (" Physical Astronomy," Chap. I) : "A certain Force or
Virtue resides in the sun by which all bodies within his influence are
carried around him. He illustrates (' De Stella Martis/ Chap.
XXXIV. p. 3) the nature of this Virtue in various ways, comparing
it to Light and to the Magnetic Power, which it resembles in the
circumstances of operating at a distance, and also in exercising a
feebler influence as the distance becomes greater." In the Table of
Contents of the work on the planet Mars, the purport of the chapter
to which allusion has been made is stated as follows : "A Physical
speculation, in which it is demonstrated that the vehicle of that
virtue which urges the planets, circulates through the spaces of the
universe after the manner of a river or whirlpool (vortex), moving
quicker than the planets." It will doubtless be found by anyone
who reads Kepler's phrases concerning the moving force — the
magnetic nature — the immaterial virtue of the sun, that they convey
no distinct conception, except so far as they are interpreted by the
expressions here quoted : " A vortex of fluid constantly whirling
around the sun, kept in this whirling motion by the rotation of the
sun himself and carrying the planets around the sun by its revolution,
96 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
as a whirlpool carries straws, could be readily understood; and
though it appears to have been held by Kepler that this current
and vortex was immaterial, he ascribes to it the power of overcoming
the inertia of bodies, and of putting them and keeping them in
motion, the only material properties with which he had anything
to do. Kepler's physical reasonings, therefore* amount, in fact,
to the doctrine of vortices around the central bodies and are
occasionally so stated by himself; though by asserting these
vortices to be ' an immaterial species/ and by the fickleness and
variety of his phraseology on the subject, he leaves his theory in
some confusion ; a proceeding, indeed, which both his want of sound
mechanical conceptions and his busy and inventive fancy might
have led us to expect. Nor, we may venture to say, was it easy
for any one at Kepler's time to devise a more plausible theory than
the theory of vortices might have been made. It was only with
the formation and progress of the science of mechanics that this
theory became untenable."
RTCFKKKNCKS.— " Kepler, sa vie et sos onvrages," in the " Journal
dcs Savants " for June, July and August 18^7; Kepler's manuscripts,
" Phil. Trans.," Vol. XI. p. 27; Win. Whcwcll, " Phil, ot the Ind. Sc.,"
London, 1840, Vol. J I. pp. 383-386; " Kpistola* ad J. Keplerum,"
published by M. G. llanseh in 1718; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibliogr.
Ge"nerale," 1887, Vol. I. part i. pp. 612-614, detailing the contents ot
Kepler's " Opera Omma," also Vol. 1. part ii. pp. 1315-1316, 1330-1331,
1383, and Vol. II. pp. 175-176, 456-462 and 1581; Robert Small,
" An Account of the Astronomical Discoveries oi Kepler," London,
1804; Hnmbohlt, "Cosmos," 1860, Vol. II. p. 710, notes, for Laplace,
Chasles and Hrewster on the writings and theories of Kepler; " Jour, des
Savants " for June, July and August 1847; " Geschichte dcr Mat hem.,"
Vol. III. p. 318, and Vol. IV. pp. 216, 311; Dr. Geo. Miller, " Hist.
Phil. 111.," London, 1840, Vol. III. notes at pp. 1^4 135 ; Fourth Dissert,
of " Encycl. Brit."; Whevvell, "Hist, of the "hid.' Sc.," 1859, Vol. I.
pp. 291-311, 320, 386, 387, 415, 462, 532-534, and Vol. II. pp.* 55, 56.
It will be well to look at the last-named work of Dr. Whevvell
for references to Jeremiah Horrox — Horrockes — (1619-1641), the
celebrated young English scientist, who wrote in defence of the
Copernican opinion in his " Keplerian Astronomy defended and
promoted " (" Hist, of the Ind. Sc./' Vol. I. Book V. chap. iii.
p. 276, and Chap. V. p. 303), as well as for references to Giovanni
Alfonso Borelli (1608-1679). Borelli, who has by many been errone-
ously called a pupil of Galileo, was a distinguished Italian physicist
and astronomer, born at Naples in 1608, who founded what has been
called the iatromathematical school, which, under the protection
of Leopold of Tuscany, became known as the Accadcmia del Cimento.
Whewell speaks of him in Vol. I. at Book VI. chap. ii. p. 323, at
Book VII. chap i. pp. 387, 393, 394, and at Chap. II. pp. 303, 395,
405, 406. Horrox is mentioned, more particularly, by Houzeau et
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 97
Lancaster (" Bibliog. Generate, " Vol. II. p. 167), also at pp. 12 and
220, Vol. II of Hutton's abridgments of the Phil. Trans. ; while
full accounts of the many important works of Borelli are to be found
in " Biogr. Generale," Vol. VI. pp. 700-701; Ninth " Britannica,"
Vol. IV. p. 53; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 1003;
" Chambers' Encycl.," 1888, Vol. II. p. 328; " La Grande Encycl.,"
Vol. VII. p. 405; Niceron, " Mi' moires," Vol. VIII. p. 257;
Vigneul-Marville, " Melanges," Vol. II. p. 122 ; Sachs, " Onomasticon
Literarium," V. 40; Hagcn, "Memoriae Philosophorum," Frank-
fort, 1710.
A.D. 1613.— Ridley (Marke), "Doctor in physicke and philoso-
pliic, latly physition to the Emperour of Russia and one of ye eight
principals or elects of the College of Physitions in London," is the
author of a small quarto entitled " A Short Treatise of Magnetical
Bodies and Motions," published in London, 1613. Of this treatise,
Libri says that the author, in his preface, deals tolerantly with the
many and varied theories concerning magnetic bodies, instancing
many of the most notable from those of Pliny and Nicander to
those of Robert Norman. He is particularly emphatic concerning
the production of perpetual motion by means of the loadstone,
finding it " by the experience of many ingenious practices . . .
impossible to be done."
From the notice given him in " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," 1896,
Vol. XLVIII. pp. 285-286, we learn that in the above-named work,
he claims acquaintance with William Gilbert, whom he commends
as the greatest discoverer in magnetical science, and that after
giving twenty-four chapters on the properties and description of
the magnet, lie discusses the vaiiation of the compass and method-'
of estimating it in eight chapters, the inclmatory needle in V
others, concluding with a chapter on finding the k- vxveli as
"' of the matter of the magnetical globe of the earth by tfieli
In 1617, he published " Animadversions on a late work entitllVl
Magnetical Advertisement ; or, Observations on the Nature and
Properties of the Loadstone."
REFERENCES. — A. Watt, " Bibliothcca Britannira," Vol. II. p. 804,
at P- 75g Vol. I. of which (article, " Wm. Barlowe ") is " A bricfe discovery
of the idle animadversions of Marke Ridley, M.D.," upon a treatise
entitled " Magneticall Advertisements," London, 1618. Consult also
" The Lancet " of August 7, 1897, p. 349; Munk's " College of Phys.,"
Vol. I. p. 1 06; Ridlon's " Ancient Ryedales," p. 425.
A.D. 1616. — Schouten (Guillaume Cornelissen — Willem Corne-
Hsz), Dutch navigator, indicates points lying in the midst of the
Pacific and south-east of the Marquesas Islands in which the
H
98 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
variation is null. Humboldt alludes to this (" Cosmos/' 1859, Vol. I.
p. 182, and Vol. V. p. 59) and says, " Even now there lies in this
region a singular, closed system of isogonic lines, in which every
group of tha internal concentric curves indicates a smaller amount
of variation."
For Schouten, consult " Relation," published by Aris Classen,
Amst., 1617; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. XIV. p. 375.
Under this same date, A.D. 1616, Chas. Pickering tells us that
Wm. Baffin (Churchill Coll. and Anders. II. 268) continued North
to " severity-eight degrees," as far as a Sound called by him
" Thomas Smith's," where the compass varied " fifty-six degrees
to the westward," making the true North bear N.E. by E. The
northern expanse of water received the name of Baffin's Bay "
(" Chron. Hist, of Plants/' Boston, 1879, p. 933).
A.D. 1617. — Strada (Famianus), an Italian author and Jesuit
priest, publishes his curious " Prolusiones Academicae," wherein
he describes (lib. ii. prol. 6) a contrivance consisting of two
magnetic needles attached to two dials each bearing a circle of
letters so arranged that when one needle is made to point to any
letter on one dial, the other needle points to the same letter upon
the other dial.
The description is best given in his own words taken from the
original Latin (Stradae, " Prol. Acad./' Oxoniae, 1662, " Magnes
cur ferrum aut aurum trahat," pp. 326-335) : "... If you wish
your distant friend, to whom no letter can come, to learn something,
take a disc or dial, and write round the edge of it the letters of the
alphabet in the order in which children learn them, and, in the centre,
place horizontally a rod, which h^^*^Vd a magnet, so that it
mav move and indicatp -^ver letter you wish. Then a similar
^ r jbbession of your friend, if you desire privately to
. to tne friend whom some share of the earth holds far from you,
iu.y your hand on the globe, and turn the movable iron as you see
disposed along the margin of all the letters which are required for
the words. Hither and thither turn the style and touch the letters,
now this- one, and now that. . . . Wonderful to relate, the far-
distant friend s^es the voluble iron tremble without the touch of
any person, and run now hither, now thither ; conscious he bends
over it and marks the teaching of the rod. When he sees the rod
stand still, he, in his turn, if he thinks there is anything to be
answered, in like manner, by touching the various letters, writes
it back to his friend. ..."
REFERENCES.—" The Student; or, Oxford and Cambridge Misc./'
1750, Vol. I. p. 354; Abbe" Moigno's *' Trait6 de Tel. Elec./' p. 58;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 99
Addison (Joseph), " Spectator" for December 6, 1711, No. 241 (p. 273,
Vol. II. London cd., 1854); the "Guardian" for 1713, No. 119, and
" Nature," Vol. XVI. pp. 268, 269. Also " Academy and Literature "
of January 7, 1905. Zachary Grey, in 1744 edition of Butler's " Hudi-
bras," quotes from the " Guardian."
A.D. 1620. — Bacon (Sir Francis), by many considered the
greatest of English philosophers and philosophical writers (1561-
1626), who was knighted in 1603, became Earl of Vernlam in 1618
and Viscount St. Albans in 1620, produces the masterpiece of his
genius, the " Novum Organum," after having twelve times copied
and revised it. The last-named work, observes Macaulay, " takes in
at once all the domains of science — all the past, the present and the
future, all the errors of two thousand years, all the encouraging
signs of the passing times, all the bright hopes of the coming age."
Prof. Playfair says of it that " the power and compass of the mind
which could form such a plan beforehand, and trace not merely
the outline but many of the most minute ramifications of sciences
which did not yet exist, must be an object of admiration to all
succeeding ages."
It was Sir John Herschel wrho remarked that " previous to the
publication of the ' Novum Organum ' natural philosophy, in any
legitimate and extensive sense of the word, could hardly be said to
exist." In the address presented in 1623 by the University of
Oxford to Sir Francis Bacon, he is represented " as a mighty Hercules
who had by his own hand greatly advanced those pillars in the
learned world which by the rest of the world were supposed
immovable."
Treating of the electric fluid, Bacon has given (" Physiological
Remains," London, 1648) a detailed list of attractive and non-
attractive bodies and the results of his very extensive experiments
and observations in physical science generally, as well as of the
investigation* contained in Di. Gilbert's work. To the latter,
however, many allusions had already ucan made in Bacon's "«The
Advancement of Learning," published during 1605, two yenr« 1W"
he was made Solicitor-General.
The most satisfactory analyzation of Bacon's re.
found in the attractive edition of his complete works
Spedding, Ellis and Heath, fifteen volumes, Boston, 186^
will be seen the following references to the magnet and
virtue :
Vol. I. p. 435 (note). In Gilbert's philosophy, the earth's mag-
netic action is not distinguished from gravity (De Mundo,
II. c. 3). That the magnetic action of the earth or of a magnet
100 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
is confined to a definite orb, appears from a variety of passages
(see " De Magnete," II. c. 7, and the definitions prefixed to this
work). Gilbert distinguished between the " Orb of Virtue,"
which includes the whole space through which any magnetic
action extends, and the " Orb of Coition," which is Mum illud
spatium per quod minimum magndicum -per magnetem movelur.
He asserts that the orb of the magnetic virtue extends to the
moon and ascribes the moon's inequalities to the effects it pro-
duces (" De Mundo," II. c. 19).
Vol. VIII. Aphorisms. " If, before the discovery of the magnet,
any one had said that a certain instrument had been invented
by means of which the quarters and points of the heavens could
be taken and distinguished with exactness ... it would have
been judged altogether incredible . . ." (pp. 141-142). " The
' Clandestine Instances '—-which I also call ' Instances of the
Twilight ' [the attraction or coming together of bodies] —
and which are pretty nearly the opposite of ' Striking In-
stances. . . .' The most remarkable ' Striking Instance
is the magnet ... a ' Clandestine Instance ' is a magnet
armed with iron; or, rather, the iron is an armed magnet ..."
(pp. 224-226). " The polarity of the iron needle when touched
with the magnet " (p. 261). " The magnetic or attractive virtue
admits of media without distinction, nor is the virtue impeded
in any kind of a medium " (p. 269). "There is no medium
known by the interposition of which the operation of the
magnet, in drawing iron, is entirely prevented " (pp. 285-286).
" A piece of a magnet docs not draw so much iron as the whole
magnet " (p. 301). " As for the help derived from the virtue
of a cognate body, it is well seen in an armed magnet, which
excites in iron the virtue of detaining iron by similarity of
substance ; the torpor of the iron being cast off by the virtue of
the magnet " (p. 311). " '01^e arc 1()ur virtues- ^ onorqtions
in the magnet . . kic mst *s ^ie attraction of magnet to
* or of ir^'.to niagnct> or °f magnetised iron to iron ; the
polarity, and at the same time its declination ; the
power of penetrating through gold, glass, stone,
ang; the fourth, its power of communicating its virtue
stone to iron, and from iron to iron, without communi-
-xon of substance " (p. 313). " But the flight of iron from
one pole of the magnet is well observed by Gilbert to be not
a flight strictly speaking, but a conformity and meeting in a
more convenient situation " (p. 315). " The magnet endues
iron with a new disposition of its parts and a conformable
motion, but loses nothing of its own virtue " (p. 318).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 101
Vol. IX. In the fifth book of " De Augmentis Scientiarum,"
these questions are asked : (i) A magnet attracts a solid piece
of iron ; will a piece of a magnet dipped in a dissolution of iron
attract the iron itself and so get a coating of iron ? (2) Again,
the magnetic needle turns to the pole; does it, in so doing,
follow the same course as the heavenly bodies ? (3) And,
if one should turn the needle the wrong way, that is, point it
to the South and hold it there for a while, and then let it go ;
would it, in returning to the North, go round by the West
rather than by the East ? (pp. 75-76).
Vol. X. This contains, at pp. 269-272, the " Inquiry respecting
the Magnet/' of which the original paper is to be found in Vol.
IV. pp. 121-125. In Dr. Rawley's list of works composed by
Bacon, during the last five years of his life, this " Inquisitio de
Magncte," first published in 1658, stands last but two. At
P- 335 of this same Vol. X will be found an extract from " De
fluxu et reflexu maris " (" The ebb and flow of the sea ") re-
lative to the inquiry as to whether the earth itself is a magnet,
as was asserted by Gilbert.
Besides the " Clandestine Instances " or " Instances of the
Twilight " alluded to above, mention could have, been made more
particularly of Bacon's observations (ins. 3 of the " Nov. Organ/')
under the direct headings of " Instantise Citantcs . . . Supple-
ment i . . . Radii . . . Magicie," as well as of " Mot us Magnet i-
cus . . . Excitationis . . . Fugae," etc., which arc fully explained
at ss. 190-200 of Sir John Herschel's " Discourse on the study of
Natural Philosophy/'
They have been analyzed as follows :
Instantice Citantcs, to which may be reduced the " discovery of a
moving magnetic fluid, or an action circular and. perpendicular
to the electrical current, yet connected with it."
Instanticv Supplement}, such as the magnet which attracts iron
through many substances that may be interposed. Perhaps,
says he, " some medium may be found to deaden this virtue
more than any other medium ; such an instance of substitution,
would be in the way of degree, or approximation"', that is,
it would approach toward destroying the magnetic virtue.
Iron possesses, perhaps, this quality in a more marked manner
than any other substance.
Instanticz Radii, leading to the suggestion that there may exist
some kind of " magnetic virtue which operates by consent,
102 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
between the globe of the earth and heavenly bodies ; or between
the globe of the moon and the waters of the sea; or between
the starry heavens and the planets, by which they may be
drawn to their apogees," or greatest distances from the earth.
Instantia Magicce, such as the loadstone animating a number of
needles without loss of its own magnetism.
Motus Magneticus, such as the attraction of the heavenly bodies,
from an idea, perhaps, that it might be due to a species of
magnetism.
Motus E xcitationis , such as the new property which is given to iron
by the magnet without any loss of power by the latter.
Motus Fugcc, such as " the repulsion of electrified pith balls ; also
of the similar poles of two magnets. In the latter case, all
the force of a strong man has proved insufficient to make the
two north poles touch each other/'
The last-named work of Sir John Herschel is alluded to, under
the heading of " Prerogative Instances " (" Prerogative Instan-
tiarum ") by Thomas Fowler, who calls attention to the fact that
among the contemporaries of Francis Bacon by whom the Copernican
theory was rejected are : Tycho Brahe (who, however — having died
in 1601 — did not live to become acquainted with the discoveries
of Galileo) ; Vieta, the greatest mathematician of the sixteenth century
(who died as early as 1603) ; Christopher Clavius (who was employed
by Gregory XIII to reform the Calendar and was called the Euclid
of his age) ; and possibly, from his silence, the famous mechanician
Stevinus (Delambre, " Histoire de r Astronomic Moderne ").
REFERENCES. — The works of Sir Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor
of England, by Basil Montagu, 16 vols., London, 1825-1834, and the
review thereof made by Thomas Babington Macaulay (" Essays,"
1855, Vol. II. pp. 142-254 (" Edinburgh Review," July 1837); Dr. W.
Windclbrand, " History' of Philosophy, New York, 1893, translated by
Jas. H. Tufts, pp. 380-388; Dr. Ericdrich Uebcrweg, "History of
Philosophy," translated by Geo. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. II.
PP- 33-38; Leopold Von Ranke, "History of England," Vol. I. pp.
455-459, Vol. III. p. 383; -William Whewell, "The Philosophy of the
Inductive Sciences," London 1840, Vol. II. pp. 388-413; "Critical
Dictionary of English Literature," S. Austin Allibone, Philad. 1888,
"The Grammar of Science," by Karl Pearson, London, 1900,
pp. 506-508; " Encycl. Britann.," Edinburgh, 1842, seventh edition,
Vol. I. as per Index pages 16-17 and at " Dissertation First," pp. 32-40 •
" Essai Theorique . . . des connaissances humaines," par G. Tiberghien,
Bruxelles, 1844, Vol. II. pp. 409-419; Gco Miller, "History Philoso-
phically Illustrated," London, 1849, Vol. II. p. 430; " Francis Bacon,"
by B. G. Lovcjoy, London, 1888; " His Life and Character," pp. 1-188,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 103
and "His Essays and Extracts," pp. 19-277; "Francis Bacon," by
Kuno Fisher, London, 1857; " Encycl. Brit." ninth edition, Vol. III.
pp. 200-218; Bacon's "Novum Organum," by Thomas Fowler, New
York, 1881, and Oxford, 1889; " Histoire des Sciences," par F. L. M.
Maupied, Paris, 1847, Vol. II. pp. 252-281, for " Enumeration Method-
ique — E16ments — Analyse — des ouvrages de Francis Bacon " ; " library
of Useful Knowledge," for account of Lord Bacon's " Novum Organum " ;
" Epitome of Electricity and Galvanism," Philad., 1809, pp. xvi, 105;
Whewell, " History of the Inductive Sciences," Vol. I. pp. 339, 385, 494,
530; Van Swinden, " Recueil de Me"moires . . ." La Haye, 1784,
Vol. II. pp. 355, 364, 369-370; and, for an exhaustive biographical
account of Francis Bacon, consult the " English Cyclopaedia," Vol. I.
pp. 470-476. It is stated by C. R. Weld in his " History," Vol. I. p. 64,
that the establishment of the Royal Society was much accelerated by
the writings of Lord Bacon (Buchmeri, " Acad. Nat. curi. Hist.").
A.D. 1620-1655. — Bergerac (Savinien Cyrano de), a very witty
French writer, is the author of a fragment on physics, as well as of
a curious philosophical romance, " Histoire comique des etats et
empires de la lune," a translation from which latter is here given,
as in a measure suggesting the phonograph : " On opening the box,
I found a number of metallic springs and a quantity of machinery
resembling the interior of our clocks. It was, in truth, to me a book,
indeed, a miraculous book, for it had neither leaves nor characters,
and to read it, one had no need of eyes, the ears alone answering
the purpose. It was only necessary to start the little machine,
whence would soon come all the distinct and different sounds
common to the human voice."
Another translation reads as follows : " On opening the box
I found inside a concern of metal, something like one of our watches,
full of curious little springs and minute machinery. It was really
a book, but a wonderful book that has no leaves or letters ; a book,
for the understanding of which the eyes are of no use — only the ears
are necessary. When any one wishes to read, he winds up the
machine with its great number of nerves of all kinds, and turns the
pointer to the chapter he wishes to hear, when there come out, as
if from the mouth of a man or of an instrument of music, the distinct
and various sounds which serve the Great Lunarians as the expres-
sion of language."
As has been said by one of his biographers, " amid the extrava-
gance of some of his works, Bergerac nevertheless exhibited a
pretty good acquaintance with the philosophy of Descartes."
REFERENCES. — Article " Aeronautics" in the " Encycl. Brit.," 1853,
Vol. II. p. 168; Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. V. p. 730.
A.D. 1621.— Helmont (Jean Baptiste van), famous Belgian
scientist, publishes in Paris his " De Magnetica," etc. (on the
magnetic cure of wounds). His theories on magnetism greatly
104 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
resemble those of Paracelsus, but in his treatment of them he shows
himself much superior to the Swiss alchemist, whom Dr. Hcefer
says he took as his model. " Magnetism/' Vein Helmont observes,
" is an unknown property of a heavenly nature, very much re-
sembling the stars, and not at all impeded by any boundaries of
space or time. . . . Every created being possesses his own celestial
power and is closely allied with heaven . . . the spirit is everywhere
diffused; and the spirit is the medium of magnetism ... it is not
the spirits of heaven and of hell which are masters over physical
nature, but the soul and spirit of man which are concealed in him
as the fire is concealed in the flint."
The above-named work of Van Helmont was " translated,
illustrated and ampliatecl," in 1650 by Dr. Walter Charlcton,
physician in ordinary to King Charles I, under the name of " A
Ternary of Paradoxes." From its interesting contents, we make the
following extracts :
Page 10. " A loadstone placed upon a small trencher of wood,
floating on water, docs instantly in one determinate point
aiistralizc, and in the other scftcntrionatc . . . all which
various and admirable effects of the loadstone, thou maiest,
if thy judgement relish them, iindr made good by multiplycd
observations, by William Gilbert, not many yccrs past, a
physician in London, in his book, ' DC Mag note ' : of which
subject no man ever writ more judiciously or experimentally :
and by whose industry the variation of the compasse may be
restored ..."
Page 12. " There is a book imprinted at Franekera, in the year
1611, by VJdericns Dominicus Balck, of the Lamp of Life. In
which you shall fmde, out of Paracelsus, the true magneticall
cure of most diseases, as of the Dropsie, Gout, Jaundice, etc."
Page 15. " Doth not the needle of the Mariner's Compasse, through
a firme glasse, closely sealed up with melted so dor (in which
there can be no pore or crany discovered) steer it self to the
Article pole ? . . . wherefore the same mimerieall accident
streaming in one continued radius from the loadstone into the
aer, passes through the glasse, and perhaps goes as farre as to
touch the pole it self . . ."
Page 38. " Wherefore the loadstone owes its polarity to a natural
inherent faculty, flowing from its owne seminall entity, and
not to any forreigne alliciency, or attractive influx transmitted
from the north star. But that otherwise the loadstone may,
by its own instinct, be elevated towards the Zenith, we have
upon ocular demonstration found it true, by a certain instrument
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 105
invented by Guilielme Guilbert (the glory of which excellent
invention Ludovicus Fonseca hath lately endeavoured to
ravish) . . . which by the spontaneous elevation of the load-
stone in a brasse ring suspended by a thread or small wier,
shews not only the latitude but also the altitude of the pole,
in all places of the earth."
Page 39. " . . . the loadstone is endued with a domcstick pilot,
a directive faculty, which guides it to some determinate place,
but is not at all attracted by the pole."
Page 40. " The loadstone onely by the affliction of GaYlick, amits
its vcrticity, and neglects the pole, conserving to it self, in the
meane time, its peculiar forme, materiall constitution, and all
other dependent proprieties. The reason, because Garlick is
the loadstone's proper Opium, and by it that spirit uall sensation
in the magnet is consopited and layd asleep. . . . Verily, that
alliciency of the pole must be extreame wcake and of incon-
siderable energy, which passing through so many and so im-
mense orbcs of heaven, and striking through great and Anne
buildings, and thick walls, cannot yet be of power sufficient to
pierce the thin juice of Garlick or the fume of Mercury . . ."
Page 42. " There is therefore inherent in the magnet an in fin-
cntiall rirtnc, which, being not obliged to the propinquinty or
contiguous admotion of its object, is after the nobler names of
coclestiall influences, freely and without interruption or languor
transmitted so farrc as to the pole it self : since there is a
spontaneous eradiation, or emission of atomicall radii from the
body of the magnet to the pole."
Page 74. " That the magnetisme of the loadstone and other inani-
mate1 creatures is performed by a ccrtaine naturall sensation, the
immediate anthrix of all sympathy, is a truth unquestionable.11
Page 75. " For by one phansy it is directed to iron, and by another
to the pole . . . the phansy of amber delights to allect strawes,
chaffe, and other festucous bodies; by an attraction, we con-
fesse, observe obscure and wcake enough, yet sufficiently
manifest and strong to attest an Electricity or attractive
signature ..."
REFERENCES. — " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. X. pp. nfi-rig, contain-
ing a full list of Charleton's works; Thomson, " Hist, of the Roy. Soc.,"
1812, p. 3; Munk, "Coll. of Phys.," 1878, Vol. J. p. 390; " Journal
dcs Savants " for February and March 1850, June 1851 ; Mmc. Blaval-
sky, " Isis Unveiled," Vol. I. p. 170 ; Kloy, " Diet. Hist, dc la Mcdeeme,"
Vol. II. pp. 478-482 ; " Diet. Hist, de la Medccine," par. J. E. Dezeirners,
Paris, 1839, Vol. III. pp. 97-10 j; " Ency. Brit.," ninth edition, Vol. XI.
p. 638; " History and Heroes of the Art of Medicine," by J. KiUherfurd
Rubscll, London, 180 1, pp. 197-204; Laroussc, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX.
106 BIBLIOGRAPICAL HISTORY OF
p. 158; Van Swinden, " Recueil," La Haye, 1784, Vol. II. pp. 351-352,
361-363; Joseph Ennemoser, " The History of Magic/' London, 1854,
Vol. II. pp. 242-253.
A.D. 1623. — Hervart — Heroart — Herwart — Horwarth (Joannes
Fridericus), son of Johann Georg Hervart ab Hohenburg, the
well-known scientist (1554-1622), who during forty-five years
occupied the post of Bavarian Chancellor under three reigning
"princes — completes his father's work entitled " Admiranda ethniccz
theologies ..." which, Larousse says (" Dictionnaire Universel,"
Vol. IX. p. 250), was published at Munich, 1624, and in which
he demonstrates that the earlier Egyptian divinities were natural
phenomena personified and adored under symbolic names.
Michaud, who reiterates this (" Biographic Universelle," Vol. XIX.
p. 364), speaks of the edition which appeared at Munich in 1626,
and he also states that, at the end of the latter, will be found " Ex-
acta tempomm . . . chronologic? vulgaris errores," which is the
continuation of the " Chronologia Nova," left unfinished by the
Bavarian Chancellor. This is, in fact, so mentioned in the only
copy possessed by the British Museum, which was published by
J. F. Hervart ab Hohenburg at Ingolstadii, 1623, and of which the
title reads : " Admiranda Ethnicce Theologies Hysteria propalata.
Ubi lapidem magnetem antiquissimis passim nationibus pro Deo-deo-
cultum : ct artem qua navigationes magneticcc per universmn orbem
instituerentur. ..."
Libri's " Catalogue/' 1861, Part I. p. 405, No. 3703, has the
following entry : " Admiranda Ethnicce . . . ubi Lapidem Magnetem
antiquissimis Nationibus pro Deo cultum commonstratur ..."
Ingolstadii, 1623. The work itself endeavours to prove that the
loadstone's properties were well known to the ancients.
The " General Biographical Dictionary " of Alexander Chalmers,
London, 1814, Vol. XVII. p. 426, makes following entry : " Herwart
(or Hervart) John George, Chancellor of Bavaria at the beginning
of the seventeenth century, published some works wherein his
learning was more displayed than his judgment, in supporting the
most extravagant systems. Two of his works are : ' Chronologia
nova et vera,' in two parts, 1622 and 1626, and ' Admiranda Ethnica
Theologies Hysteria propalata, de antiquissima veterum nationum
super stitione, qua lapis Hagnes pro Deo habitus colebatur,' Monach,
1626, quarto. It was here asserted that the ancient Egyptians
worshipped the magnet," etc. (see Deveria, under B.C. 321).
REFERENCES.— Allusions to Hervart, made at p. 546, Vol. XXIV.
of Dr. Hcefer's 1861 " Nouvellc Biographic Generate," or at p. 546,
Vol. XXVIII of the 1858 edition, and also at p. 163, Vol. II of the
" Bibliographic Ge"ne"rale de 1' Astronomic," by Houzeau et Lancaster,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 107
Bruxelles, 1882. Likewise Chr. G. Jocher, " Compendioses Gelehrten
Lexicon," Leipzig, 1787, Vol. II. p. 1969, and " A New General Biogr.
Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. VIII. p. 304.
A.D. 1624. — Gunter (Edmund), professor of astronomy at
Gresham College, publishes his work " Of the Sector, Cross-Staff,
and other Instruments/' at Chap. V of the second book of which
he gives the result of the eight observations he made on the varia-
tion of the variation " in various parts of the ground " at Lime-
house on the I3th of June, 1622. His observations of the declination,
as given by Prof. Gellibrand, are detailed at Chap. I of Walker's
" Ter. and Cos. Mag./' Cambridge, 1866.
REFERENCES. — De La Rive, "Electricity," etc., Vol. I. p. 165;
Poggcndorff, " Geschichte dcr Physik," Leipzig, 1879, p. 275.
A.D. 1625. — Carpenter (Nathaniel), Dean of Ireland, well-known
mathematician, publishes at Oxford, " Geography delineated forth
in two bookes, containing the sphsericall and topicall parts thereof,"
wherein he thus alludes to Dr. Gilbert's " De Magnete " : " Mag-
neticall proprieties, I find in ancient writers, as little knowne as
their causes ; and if any matter herein were broached, it was merely
conjectural, and depending on no certain demonstration; neither
had we any certain or satisfactory knowledge of the thing vntill
such time as it pleased God to raise vp one of our countrymen,
D. Gilbert, who, to his euerlasting praise, hath trodden out a new
path to Philosophic, and on the Loadstone, erected a large Trophic
to commend him to posterity. This famous Doctor being as
pregnant in witty apprehension as diligent in curious search of
naturall causes, after many experiments and long enquiry, found
the causes of most magneticall motions and proprieties hid in the
magneticall temper and constitution of the Earth, and that the
earth it selfe was a mecre magneticall body challenging all those
proprieties, and more than haue expressed themselves in the Load-
stone; which opinion of his was no sooner broached than it was
embraced, and wcl-commed by many prime wits as well English
as Forraine. Insomuch that it hath of late taken large root and
gotten much ground of our vulgar Philosophic. "
REFERENCES. — " Nature," September 26, 1901 ; " Diet, of Nat.
B/ogr.," Vol. IX. pp. 161-162 ; Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. IV. p. 438; Prince's
" Worthies " (1810), pp. 173-175, 603.
A.D. 1625. — Naude (Gabriel), a celebrated French savant and
one of the most learned of his day, also physician to King Louis
XIII, and an intimate friend of Gassendi, is the author of " Apologia
pour tons," etc. (" Apology for great men falsely accused of magic "),
of which other editions appeared in 1652, 1669 and 1712. The
108 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
magico-theosophical philosophy, as Madame Blavatsky expresses
it, is fully indicated in his work, and he proved to be the warmest
defender of the doctrines of occult magnetism, of which he was
one of the first propounders.
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Gencrale," Vol. XXXVII. pp. 514-518;
P. Halle, " Oab. Nande Elognim " ; N. Sanson, " Hist. Chr. d'Abbeville,"
1653 ; Saintc Bcuve, " Portraits Littcraircs," 1855 ; Alf. Franklin, " Hist,
dc la, Bibhoth. Mazarine," 1860.
A.D. 1627. — Hakewill (George), Archdeacon of Surrey, publishes
at Oxford, England, the first edition of " An Apologie or Declaration
of the Power and Providence of God," the tenth chapter, fourth sec-
tion of the third book of which alludes to the use of the " mariner's
compass or sea-card, as also of another excellent invention sayd
to be lately found out upon the loadstone." As the reviewer
justly observes : " While perusing his description one can hardly
imagine that the writer had not in his mind's eye one of our modern
telegraphic instruments . . . and it will be seen that the date at
which his work is written was nearly two hundred years prior to
the first attempt made to communicate at a distance by means of
magnetic needles."
Hakewill alludes ("Apologie," 1635, lib. ii. p. 97) to Hipparchus —
Abraxis — " who reports that, in his time, the starre commonly
called the Polar Starre, which is in the tayle of the lesser Beare,
was twelve degrees and two-fifths distant from the Pole of the
/Equator. This starre, from age to age, hath insensibly still crept
nearer to the pole so that at this present it is not past three degrees
distant from the pole of the /Equator. When this starre then
shall come to touch the Pole, there being no farther place left for
it to go forward (which may well enough come to pass with five
or six hundred yeares) it is likely that then there shall be a great
change of things, and that this time is the period which God hath
prefixed to Nature " (see Morell's " Elein. . . . Phil, and Sc.,"
London, 1827, pp. 116-119 et seq.).
Mention of the star in the tail of Ursa Major is made by Gilbert,
(* DC Magnete "J,1 in connection (i) with Maudlins Ficinus, who, says
he, seeks in that constellation the cause of the magnetic direction,
as he believes that in the loadstone the potency of Ursa prevails
and hence is transferred to the iron ; (2) with Cardan, who assigns
the cause of variation to its rising, for he thinks variation is always
to be relied upon at the rising of the star ; (3) with Lucas Gauricus,
who holds that the loadstone beneath the tail of Ursa Major is ruled
by the planets Saturn and Mars ; (4) with Gaudentius Merula, who
1 At the first chapter of Books L, III. and IV.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 109
believes that the loadstone draws iron and makes it point North
because it is of a higher order than is the iron in the Bear.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 26; " Diet, of
Nat. Biog.," Vol. XXIV. pp. 6-8; Walton and Cotton, "Complete
Angler," New York and London, 1847, Part I, p. 118.
A.D. 1628. — Lcurechon (Jean), a student belonging to the Order
of Jesuits (1591-1670), who became the confessor of Charles IV of
Lorraine, publishes, under the name H. Van Etten, " La Recreation
Mathematique," carefully revised editions of which were made by
Claude Mydorge and Denis Henrioti in 1630, 1638 and 1661. In
these, Leurechon alludes to the reported transmission of intelligence
by the agency of a magnet or other like stone, saying : " The in-
vention is beautiful, but I do not think there can be found in the
world a magnet that has such virtue."
REFERENCES. — Georges Maupin, " Opinions touchant la matheina-
tique," Paris, 1898, pp. 20-24; Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. X. p. 436; " Sc.
Am. Snppl.," Nos. 56, p. 881, and 384, p. 6125.
The curious title-page of the English version of Leurechon 's
work, published by T. Cotes in 1633, merits reproduction :
" Mathematical! Recreations, or a Collection of sundrie Problcmes,
extracted out of the Ancient and Moderne Philosophers, as secrets
in nature, and experiments in Arithmeticke, Geometric, Cosmog-
raphie, Horologographie, Astronomic, Navigation, Musicke, Op-
tickcs, Chimestrie, Watcrworkcs, Fireworks, etc., Fit for Schollcrs,
Students, and Gentlemen . . . lately compiled in French by
Henry Van Hctten. And now delivered in the English tongue."
Claude Mydorge, as stated in the " Biog. Gen./' Vol. XXXVIL
p. 87, was a French scientist (1585-1647), a very close friend of
Descartes, and, according to Baillet, was next to Vieta, the fore-
most mathematician of his day. The second edition of his " Examen
du livre des Recreations Mathematiques (du Pere Leurechon),"
contains notes of Denis Henrion following the observations of
Pere Mersenne in " Universae ..." Paris, 1639 (see Bouillct,
" Vie de Descartes," Vol. i. pp. 36-37, 149-150, and Vol. II. pp.
43, 76, ?8> 325).
Denis Henrion was also a French mathematician, who died
about 1640. He was the author of many very meritorious papers,
notably of a " Traite des Globes et de leurs usages," 1618, translated
from the Latin of Robert Hues, 1593, 1594 (Larousse, " Diet.
Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 192).
A.D. 1629, — Cabaeus — Cabeo (Nicolaus), a learned Jesuit of
110 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Ferrara, describes (" Philosophia Magnetica ") 1 numerous experi-
ments made by him to ascertain the possibility of two persons
communicating intelligence by means of magnetized needles.
Cabseus was the first to observe electrical repulsion, and he thus
announces his discovery in the tenth chapter of the above-named
work : " Magnetic attractions and repulsions are physical actions
which take place through the instrumentality of a certain quality
of the intermediate space, said quality extending from the in-
fluencing to the influenced body. . . . Bodies are not moved by
sympathy or antipathy, unless it be by means of certain forces which
are uniformly diffused. When these forces reach a body that is suit-
able they produce changes in it, but they do not sensibly affect the
intermediate space nor the non-kindred bodies close by it. . . ."
The " Philosophia Magnetica " is the second Latin book pub-
lished on electricity, Gilbert's " De Magneto " being the first.
REFERENCES.— Becquercl, "Resume," Chap. Ill; Studio, " Bibl.
Scrip. S. J.," Rome, 1676; Francisco de Lanis, " Magist. nat. et artis,"
1684 ; L. L. de Vallemont, " Description de I'aimanr/' 1692, pp. 167,
170; Dechalcs C. F. Millict, " Cursus sen Mundus Mathem.," 1674, 1690.
A.D. 1632.— Sarpi (Pietro) — Fra Paolo Sarpi— Father Paul—
Paulus Venet us-— Paolo Sarpi Vcneto (b. 1552, d. 1623), who was the
author of the celebrated history of the Council of Trent (" the rarest
piece of history the world ever saw ") is referred to by Gilbert in
" De Magnete," Book I. chap. i. Therein, he says that Baptist a Porta,
who has made the seventh book of his " Magia Naturalis " a very
storehouse and repertory of magnetic wonders, knows little about
the movements of the loadstone and never has seen much of them,
and that a great deal of what he has learned about its obvious
properties, either through Messer Paolo, the Venetian, or through
his own studies, is not very accurately noted and observed.
In the introduction to the 1658 edition of his " Natural Magick,"
Porta admits that he gained some knowledge of Sarpi, who, says he,
is of all men he ever knew the most learned and skilful and the orna-
ment and splendour not only of Venice or of Italy, but of the entire
world. Bertelli refers (" Memor. sopra P. Peregrino," p. 24, note) to
P. Garbio's " Annali di Serviti," Lucca, 1721, Vol. II. pp. 263, 272,
274, and to Fra Fulgenzio Micanzio's " Life of Sarpi," Helmstat —
Verona, 1750, in which it is stated that not only Porta but likewise
1 " Philosophia magnetica in qua magnctis natnra penitus cxplicatur. . . ,"
An important work on the loadstone, in which the author often confutes the
published treatise of Dr. Gilbert of Colchester, and quotes the inedited
writings of L. Garzoni, who, even before Gilbert, had made researches re-
spec ting the magnet. A curious chapter in the " Philosophia " institutes a
comparison between electrical and magnetical attraction (Libri, " Cata-
logue/' 1871, Part. I. p. 161)
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 111
a celebrated ultramontane studied magnetism under him. Gar bio
asks : " Could this ultramontane be Gilbert of Colchester? "
By Griselini (" Vita de Fra P. Sarpi " — memoria anecdote-
Lausanne, 1760), Paolo is said to have written a treatise on the
magnet and to have therein recorded many observations, including
the earliest mention that magnetic properties are destroyed by fire.
Bertelli — whose afore-named memoir we must confine ourselves
to, as it is more satisfactory than are the accounts elsewhere given —
makes mention that he has had in his possession, by courtesy of
Sig. Giuseppe Valentinelli, the Royal Librarian of the Marciana at
Venice, copy of a manuscript (Cod. CXXIX, classe 2, MS. Ital.)
containing a brief comparison of Sarpi's magnetic researches with
those of Musschenbroek. This manuscript is again alluded to by
Bertelli (Memor., p. 88) wherein it is said that lines 5-38 of the first
column, p. 170, are headed " Observations of F.P.S. on the loadstone,
collated with P. Musschenbroek's Researches/' and embrace five
paragraphs translated as follows :
1. The author had first tried the action of one magnet on another
without entering into the question of calculation, but modern
authors have, in view of the observations made, endeavoured
to discover a method of computing magnetic forces in any
proportion to the distances, and in the same better regulated
systems they have discovered the cause to be uncertain (or
varying) owing to the contemporaneous action of magnetic
repulsion.
2. He was acquainted with the well-known action of the magnet
on iron, but he understood — as even at this day some .under-
stand— that it was caused by the atmosphere. New experi-
ments have made us seriously doubt this. He did not pay
attention to the proportion of the magnetic forces as compared
with the distances of iron, to the discovery of which the efforts
of present philosophers are directed but in vain. He saw,
however, that the facility or difficulty of attraction depends
upon the size of the iron (maximum and minimum).
3. He was not ignorant of the direction of the magnet and of iron
rubbed with the magnet towards certain quarters of the sky
when he mentions the new discovery of the poles in the magnet,
and the variation of the magnetized needle, from the Northern
or the Southern quarters, but he did not know a greater number
than two poles found in the magnet, the variation of the declina-
tion, or, I should rather say, the uncertainty of the variation
and the different inclinations of the needle at different places
on the earth.
112 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
4. Almost all the experiments referred to by Academies, with
reference to the action of one piece of iron on another piece ot
iron, magnetized and not magnetized, and with regard to the
changes of forces which arise from the various inflections of
iron, have been sufficiently sketched out by F. P. S.
5. The magnetic effects acquired by an old piece of iron continually
exposed to the air have also been alluded to. Now, however,
natural philosophers have observed that this iron exposed for
a length of time in the magnetic meridian points with greater
readiness to the above-mentioned quarters. They have,
moreover, ascertained that iron when heated and afterwards
cooled in water is more sensitive to magnetization : which is
directly opposed to the opinion of F. P. S.
Bertelli further remarks that, from information given in the
manuscript, it is seen that Sarpi was at that time acquainted with
the greater number of the magnetic phenomena referred to by
Porta, and developed by Gilbert, viz. :
1. The reciprocal action of magnets;
2. The action of magnets on iron ;
3. The manifestation of magnetic activity about the poles (sphere of
action or field of force) ;
4. The Maximum and the Minimum of the attractive force of magnets
on iron, according to the size of the latter;
5. The inversion of polarity which may aiise in the magnetization
of needles — (but not the corresponding poles —the magnetic
variation or declination— Pctrus Peregrinus, A.D. 1269 — yet
not the variation of the variation — Henry Ciellibrand, A.D. 1635
— nor the dip or inclination — Robert Norman, A.D. 1576).
6. The magnetic properties acquired by iron constantly exposed to
the air.
After detailing the observations of Giulio Cesare Moderati,
Filippo Costa (Costaeus) of Mantua, Ulysses Aldrovandi, Francesco
Acoromboni, Luigi Matteini, Father Garzoni and Father Caboeus
concerning the magnetized ironwork of the belfry of the church
of St. Augustine at Arimini (the parochial church of St. John the
Baptist, which at that time, 1586, belonged to the monks of St.
Augustine) and relative to the iron rail in the belfry of the tower of
St. Laurence at Rome, Bertelli says : " From all that precedes, we
gather at all events, that the fact of the spontaneous magnetization
of iron was well known in Italy before Sarpi, Porta and Gilbert.
This, Gilbert, and still better Cabaeus, explained as the influence of
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 113
terrestrial magnetism. However, with regard to the observations
of the needle's deviation made by Father Garzoni at Rome, we can,
without having attributed it, as docs Cabceus, to the magnetization
of pieces of iron concealed in its wall, explain it, as is done in the new
and important experiments of the illustrious professor Silvestro
Gherardi, who attributes it to the magnetic polarity of the Mattoni
[bricks] in the structure itself."
It is said by Humboldt (" Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 718, note)
that this observation, the first of the kind, was made on the tower
of the church of the Augustincs at Mantua (Mantova) and that
Grimaldi and Gassendi were acquainted with similar instances
(instancing the cross of the church of St. Jean, at Aix, in Provence),
in geographical latitudes where the inclination of the magnetic
needle is very considerable. Some writers give Gassendi 's oVx.erva-
tion as occurring during 1632 (see Rohaulti, " Physica," 1718,
Par. III. cap. 8, p. 399; or, Rohault's "System of Nat. Phil./'
1728, p. 176).
" As the iron cross of an hundred weight upon the Church of
St. John in Ariminum, or that load-stoned iron of Caesar Moder-
atus, set down by Aldrovandus " (Sir Thomas Browne, " Pseudo-
do xia Epidemica," 1658, p. 66).
Consult " Lettcra dell' Ecccl. Cavallara./1 Mantova, 1586, for a
detailed account of this discovery, made January 6, of the last-
named year. The iron rod supported a brick ornament in the form
of an acorn, and stood on a pyramid at the summit of the belfry
of the church of St. Augustine (Cabaeus, " Philos. Magn.," p. 62;
" Ulysses Aldrovandi, Patr. Bon on . . . Barthol. Ambros ..."
Lib. i, cap. 6, p. 134).
For the account given by Aldrovandi of the Arimini observation
and for references to Browne's " Pseudodoxia Epidemica," as well as
to Boyle's " Experiments," see p. 53 of the valuable " Notes on the
' De Magnete ' of Dr. William Gilbert," by Silvanus P. Thompson,
attached to the English translation of the original 1600 edition,
which was so attractively produced by the Gilbert Club during the
year 1900. Dr. Thompson further gives, at the page following (54),
additional references to examples of iron acquiring strong permanent
magnetism from the earth.
REFERENCES. — Biography of Sarpi in the " Encycl. Brit.," ninth
edition, Vol. XXI. pp. 311-313; F. Micanzio, " Vita dc F. P. Sarpi/'
Verona, 1750; Rev. Alex. Robertson, " Fra Paolo Sarpi — the greatest
of the Venetians," 189} ; Hallam, " Intro, to Lit.," 1839, Vol. II. p. 464;
U. Aldrovandi, " Musacum Metallieum," 1648, p. 134; Tiraboschi,
" Storia della Lettera," Modena, 1794, Vol. VI. part ii. p. 506; Sarpi's
Complete Works, first published at Ilelmstat, 1750; Fabroni, " Vitae
Italorum," Pisa, 1798; Giovini, " Vita," Brussels, 1836; " Engl. Cycl.,"
I
114 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Biography, Vol. IV. pp. 695-697; Larousse, " Diet. Univ." Vol. XIV.
pp. 230-231 ; " History of the reign of Charles the Fifth," by Wm.
Robertson and Wm. H. Prescott, Philadelphia, 1883, Vol. III. p. 68;
" Diet. Hist, de la M£decine," N. F. J. Eloy, Mons, 1778, Vol. IV. pp.
180-181 ; " The Atlantic Monthly," New York, January and February,
1904, wherein the author, Andrew D. White, ranks Sarpi with Machia-
vdli and Galileo; Libri, " Hist, des So. Malhem." Paris, 1838, Vol. IV.
p. 214, note.
A.D. 1632. — Gassendi (Pierre), an eminent French savant,
professor at the Royal College of France, " ranked by Barrow
among the most eminent mathematicians of the age, and mentioned
with Galileo, Gilbert and Descartes/' discovers that a part of the
iron cross of the Church of St. Jean at Aix possesses all the
properties of a loadstone after being struck by lightning and lying
in one position a certain length of time. Gilbert mentions, " De
Magnete," 1600, Book III. chap, xii.) that the fact of magnetism
being imparted to an iron bar by the earth was first ascertained by
examining the rod upon the tower of the church of St. Augustine
at Arimini (Sir Thomas Browne, " Pseud. Epidemica," London,
1650, p. 48; U. Aldrovandi, " Musaeum Metallicum," Milan, 1648,
P- 134)-
In the " Vie de Pierre Gassendi/' par le Pere Bougerel de
1'Oratoire, Paris, 1737, p. 14, it is related that during the month
of September 1621, while promenading about three leagues' dis-
tance from Aix in a village named Peynier, he observed a light in
the heavens to which he gave the name of aurora borealis, as
much on account of its location as by reason of its resemblance
to the light which precedes the rising of the sun.
From the " History of the Royal Society," by C. R. Weld,
1848, Vol. II. p. 430, is taken the following, communicated by
Humboldt :
" The movement of the magnetic lines, the first recognition of
which is usually ascribed to Gassendi, was not even yet conjectured
by William Gilbert ; but, at an early period, Acosta, ' from the
information of Portuguese navigators/ assumed four lines of no
declination upon the surface of the globe. ... In the remarkable
map of America appended to the Roman edition of the Geography
of Ptolemy in 1508, we find, to the north of Gruentland (Greenland),
a part of Asia represented and the magnetic pole marked as an
insular mountain. Martin Cortez, in the ' Breve Cornpendio de
la Sphera ' (1545), and Livio Sanuto, in the ' Geographia di
Tolomeo ' (1588), place it more to the south. Sanuto entertained
a prejudice, which, strange to say, has existed in later times, that
a man who should be so fortunate as to reach the magnetic pole
(// calamities) would then experience alcun mimcoloso stupendo
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 115
effecto " (" Cosmos/1 translated under the superintendence of Col.
Sabine, Vol. II. p. 280). In a footnote to the Ott^ translation of
Humboidt, 1859, Vol. V. p. 58, it is stated that calamitico was the
name given to the instruments in consequence of the first needles
for the compass having been made in the shape of a frog.
In Gilbert's " De Magnete," allusion is made to Martinus Cortez,
Book I. chap, i., also Book III. chap. i. and Book IV. chap, i.,1
and to Livio Sanuto in Book I. chap, i., also in Book IV. chaps,
i. and ix. In these several passages, Gilbert tells us that Martinus
Cortez holds the loadstone's seat of attraction to be beyond the
poles, and he states the views of other writers in this respect, citing
more particularly T. de Bessard (author of " Le Dialogue de la
Longitude "), Jacobus Servertius (who wrote " De Orbis Catop-
trici "), as well as Robert Norman, Franciscus Maurolycus, Marsilio
Ficino, Cardan, Scaliger, Costa and Petrus Peregrinus (M. J.
Klaproth, " Lettre a M. le Baron de Humboidt/' Paris, 1834,
pp. 16-17, 37)-
REFERENCES. — Enfield, " Hist. Phil./' Vol. III. p. 430 ; " Le Cosmos "
for May and June 1859, containing a very interesting series entitled,
" Les Annees Me'te'ores " ; Lardner, Vol. II. p. 113; Humboidt, "Cos-
mos," 1859-1860, Vol. II. p. 335, and Vol. V. pp. 146-153; Julius
Caesar at A.D. 1590; Houzeau et Lancaster, Vol. II. p. 146; " Mem. de
1'Acad. Royalc des Sciences," Vol. X. p. 737; " Phil. Hist, and Memoirs
of the Royal Acad. of Sc.," Vol. II. p. 281 ; " Geschichte der Mathe-
matik," Vol. IV. p. 474.
A.D. 1632. — Galileo (Galileo Galilei), Italian philosopher and
mathematician, publishes his celebrated " Dialogo sopra i due
massimi sistemi del mondo tolemaico e copernicano," 4to, Fiorenza,
from p. 88 of which is extracted the following passage :
Sagredus : " You remind me of a man who offered to sell me a
secret for permitting one to speak, through the attraction of a
certain magnet needle, to someone distant two or three thousand
miles, and I said to him that I would be willing to purchase it,
but that I would like to witness a trial of it, and that it would
please me to test it, I being in one room and he being in another.
1 It is in the afore-mentioned Book IV. chap. i. that Gilbert makes
mention of Norumbega, "the lost city of New England," regarding which
latter very interesting particulars will be found in the following publications :
" Magazine of Ainer. Hist." for 1877, pp. 14, 321, and for 1886, p. 291 ;
" New England's Lost City Found " ; Lang's " Sagas of the Kings of Norway " ;
" Antiquitates Americana?/' Royal Soc. of Copenhagen; Shea's "Catholic
Church in Colonial Days "; " Narrative and Critical History of America,"
by Justin Winsor, Boston, 1889, Vol. II. pp. 451, 453, 459, 472; Vol. III.
pp. 169-218 ; Vol. IV. pp. 53, 71, 88, 91-99, 101, 152, 373, 384 ; Vol. V. p. 479 ;
R. Hakluyt, " The Principal Navigations/' Edinburgh, 1889, Vol. XIII.
p. 162, note; J. G. Bourinot, "Canada," London, 1897, p. 28; Horsford,
" Cabot's Landfall in 1497, and the site of Norumbega " ; " Discovery of the
Ancient City of Norumbega"; also " Defences of Norumbega."
116 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
He told me that, at such a short distance, the action could not be
witnessed to advantage ; so I sent him away and said that I could
not just then go to Egypt or Muscovy to see his experiment, but
if he would go there himself I would stay and attend to the rest
in Venice."
This Sagredus (Johannes Franciscus), or Sagredo (Giovanni
Francisco), besides being " a great magneticall man," was a noble
Venetian, even a doge, and had represented his country as am-
bassador at several courts. We read in Mr. Conrad W. Cooke's
very able article on William Gilbert of Colchester, originally printed
in London " Engineering/' that this same Sagrcdus was the intimate
friend of Galileo, and that, together with the powerful Sarpi, he
used the whole might of his name and influence to protect the
great philosopher and mathematician from the attacks of the
clerical party. Pietro Sarpi, otherwise known as Father Paul,
was, as already shown, a most illustrious Venetian scholar, who
attained great proficiency in the medical and physiological sciences
as well as in mathematics and in natural philosophy. Sagrcdus
made several meritorious researches in magnetism, and, while on
a voyage to Aleppo, ascertained the declination of the magnetic
needle at that place. As a tribute to the scientific attainments of
Sagrcd'iis, Galileo gave his name to one of the characters in his
" Systema Cosmicum," and many references to the work by William
Gilbert are put into the mouth of Sagr edits.
In further illustration of Galileo's appreciation of Gilbert, the
following is quoted from the great astronomer's own writing : " I
extremely admire and envy the author of ' De Magneto.' I think
him worthy of the greatest praise for the many new and true ob-
servations which he has made, to the disgrace of so many vain and
fabling authors, who write not from their own knowledge only, but
repeat everything they hear from the foolish and vulgar, without
attempting to satisfy themselves of the same by experience ; perhaps
that they may not diminish the size of their books " (Drinkwater's
" Life of Galileo ").
Galileo had also published, in 1630, the first edition of his " I
discorsi e demons trazioni . . ." which Lagrange considers to be
Galileo's most substantial title to scientific glory.
REFERENCES. — Galileo's Biography in " Engl. CycL," Vol. III.
pp. 13-17; Miller, " Hist. Phil, lllust.," London, 1849, Vol. III. p. 203,
note; Nelli, "Vita," 1793; Libri, "Hist, dcs Sc. Math./' Paris, 1838,
Vol. IV. pp. 157-294, 473-484; Houzeau ct Lancaster, " Bibliog.
G6nerale," Vol. I. part i. pp. 655-657 for an analyzation of the works
of Galileo, also Vol. II. pp. 137-145", 1576-1578; Wm. Whcwell, " Phil,
of the Ind. Sc.," London, 1840, Vol. II. pp. 379-383; Guillaume Libri,
" Histoire des Sc. Math.," Halle, 1865, Vol. IV. pp. 157-302, and the notes ;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 117
" Journal des Savants " for September and October 1840, for March
and April 1841, for July to November 1858, for September 1868 and for
October 1877; " Geschichtc der Mat hem.," Vol. IV. pp. 4, 173, etc.;
Larousse, "Diet.," Vol. V11L p. 954; "La Grande Eneycl.," Vol.
XVJIL pp. 383-385; " Biog. Gen.," Vol. XI. pp. 252-267; Fabroni (A.),
" Vita; Italorum," 1778-1805, also "Elogid' lllustiiltaliani," 1786-1789;
likewise the very numerous entries concerning Galileo's history, his Op-
ponents, Supporters and School, which appear at pp. 331-357, Part I. of
Libri's " Catalogue," published in 1861. Consult also " Galileo," by
Ed. S. Holden, in the " Popular Sc. Monthly " for January, February,
May and June 1905; " Bibliot. Brit.," Vol. XVI. N.S., 1821, pp. 3-21,
79-100, for an account of the life of Galileo by M. G. B. C16ment de
Nelli; " Journal des Scavans," Vol. LXX. for 1721, p. 350 in his " Sag-
giotorc " ; "Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography," published
by Wm. McKenzie, London, pp. 536-539, giving an account of Galileo's
other discoveries.
A.D. 1635.— Delambre (J. B. J.) (1749-1822), professor of
astronomy at the Royal College of France, refers (Vol. II. p. 545 of
his " Histoire de 1'Astronomie Ancienne," 1817) to the mention
made in " Procli Diadochi Paraphrasis Ptolem./' lib. iv. " de siderum
effectionibus," 1635, p. 20, of the notion long current, especially
along the shores of the Mediterranean, " that if a magnetic rod be
rubbed with an onion, or brought into contact with the emanations
of the plant, the directive force will be diminished, while a compass
thus treated would mislead the steersman/'
REFERENCES. — Humboldr, " Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. p. 156, also
the entry at A.D. 1653. See likewise Whcwcll, " Hist, of the Ind. Sc.,"
Vol. I. pp. 442, 443, 447, and the biography in the Supplement of the
"English Cyclopedia," pp. 539-5 fi; "Journal des Savants," for
April 1828.
A.D. 1635. — Gellibrand (Henry), prominent English mathe-
matician, professor of geometry and the successor of Edmund
Gunter (A.D. 1624), in the chair of astronomy at Gresham College,
publishes his discovery of the secular variation of the declination.
The credit of this discovery has been by many given to John Mair.
The diurnal and horary variation was found by Graham in 1722,
and the annual variation was discovered by Cassini, 1782-1791.
Gellibrand's discovery is published in a small quarto pamphlet
entitled " A discourse mathematical on the variation of the mag-
neticall needle — together with the admirable diminution lately
discovered," and is the result of his study of the observations made
by Burrough and Gunter as well as of observations made by himself,
all showing that the north-east of the needle was gradually moving
to the westward.
Mention has already been made of the fact that the variation
of the variation was at this period attracting the attention it deserved,
and it is worth while giving here an account of the discovery in the
author's own words :
118 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Thus, hitherto, according to the Tenents of all our Magnetical
Philosophers, we have supposed the variations of all particular
places to continue one and the same. So that when a Seaman shall
happly return to a place where formerly he found the same varia-
tion, he may hence conclude he is in the same former longitude.
For it is the assertion of Mr. Dr. Gilbert's Variatio unicuiusq ; loci
constant estt that is to say, the same place doth always retaine the
same variation. Neither hath this assertion, for ought I ever
heard, been questioned by any man. But most diligent magneticall
observations have plain ely offered violence to the same, and
proved the contrary, namely, that the variation is accompanied
with a variation."
A.D. 1637. — Bond (Henry), Professor of Mathematics in London,
and who appears in one of his treatises as "a famous teacher of
the art of navigation," is the author of the " Sea-man's Kalen-
dar . . . with a discovery of the . . . secret of longitude ..."
of which other editions appeared during 1640 and 1696.
This was followed by many papers on the variation (the most
important of which are to be found in Phil. Trans, for 1668, 1672,
1673) and, during 1678 by " The Longitude not found, or an
answer to a treatise written by H. B. . . ." This treatise was in a
sixty-five page pamphlet which had been issued by Mr. Bond's
father during 1676, under caption : " The Longitude Found ; or a
treatise shewing an easie and speedy way, as well by Night as by
Day, to find the Longitude, having but the Latitude of the Place
and the Inclination of the Magneticall Inclinatorie Needle ..."
wherein he explains his discovery of the progress of the deviation
of the compass and foretells the variations for London, 1663 to
1716. This treatise led to the controversy with Peter Blackborrow
(Beckborrow), the title to whose published work reads : " The
Longitude not found : or an answer to a treatise written by H. Bond,
senior, shewing a way to find the longitude by the magnetical
inclinatory needle : wherein is proved that the longitude is not nor
cannot be found by the magnetic inclinatory needle."
As Humboldt remarks, the resulting controversy, together with
Acosta's view that there were four lines of no variation which
divided the earth's surface, may, as already stated, have had
some influence on the theory advanced, in 1683, by Edmund
Halley, of four magnetic poles or points of convergence (" Cosmos,"
1859-1860, Vol. I. p. 193, note; Vol. II. pp. 280-281, note; Vol. V.
p. 58; also Humboldt's " Examen Critique de 1'Histoire de la
Geographic," Vol. III. p. 60. See likewise the Phil. Trans, for
October 19, 1668, p. 790, and for 1673, Vol. VIII. p. 6065, also
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 119
following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. II. p. 78, and Lowthorp,
Vol. II. p. 610).
REFERENCES. — Walker, " Magnetism," Chap. I; John Pell, " Letter
of Remarks on Gcllibrand's Math. Disc.," 1635; " Annalcs de Chimie et
de Physique," Mars 1902, Vol. XXV. pp. 289-307 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos,"
1859, Vol. V. pp. 61, 116; Whewell, " Hist, of the Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol.
II. p. 219; G. Hellmann, " Neudrucke vonschriften," No. 9; Baddam's
abridgments of the Phil. Trans., 1739, Vol. IV. p. 102.
A.D. 1641. — Wilkins (John), Bishop of Chester in the reign of
Charles II, publishes the first edition of " Mercury, or the secret
and swift messenger, showing how a man, with privacy and speed,
may communicate his thoughts to a friend at any distance." l
In the above, he thus alludes to the possibility of making u
contrivance similar to our modern phonograph : " There is another
experiment . . . mentioned by Walchius, who thinks it possible
so to contrive a trunk or hollow pipe that it shall preserve the voice
entirely for certain hours or days, so that a man may send his
words to a friend instead of his writing. There being always a
certain space of intermission, for the passage of the voice, betwixt
its going into these cavities and its coming out; he conceives that
if both ends were seasonably stopped, while the sound was in the
midst, it would continue there till it had some vent. Hmc tubo.
verba nostra insusurrcmus, ct cum probe munitur tabcllario com-
mitiamus, etc. When the friend to whom it is sent shall receive
and open it, the words shall come out distinctly, and in the same
order wherein they were spoken. From such a contrivance as this
[saith the same author] did Albertus Magnus make his Image, and
Friar Bacon his Brazen Head, to utter certain words."
In the eighteenth chapter, he makes suggestions for "a lan-
guage that may consist of only tunes and musical notes, without
any articulate sound."
He had previously described a novel mode of telegraphing by
the use of only three torches (or lights), to designate the twenty-four
letters of the alphabet. These letters were, according to the plan
of Joachimus Fortius, to be placed in three classes of eight each.
One torch indicated Class I, two torches Class II, three torches
Class III, and the number of the letter was shown by the number
of times a torch was elevated.
1 " That which first occasioned this Discourse, was the reading of a little
Pamphlet, stiled, Nuntius Inanimatus (by Dr. Francis Godwin) ; wherein he
affirms that there arc certain ways to discourse with a Friend, though he
were in a close Dungeon, in a besieged City, or a hundred miles off. . . .
After this, I did collect all such Notes to this purpose, as I met with in the
course of my other Studies. From whence when I had received full satis-
faction, I did for mine own further delight compose them into this method." — »
The Author.
120 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Bishop Wilkins also described a method of telegraphing by
means of two lights attached to long poles, which, he says, " for
its quickness and speed is much to be preferred before any of the
rest." To interpret messages at long distances, he suggested the
use of the then newly invented telescope ; which he called " Galileus
his perspective."
REFERENCES. — The third edition of above-named work, Chap. XVII.
pp. 71, 72, also the fifth edition of Wilkin's " Mathematical Magick,"
London, 1707, Chap. XIII. pp. 147 -150, " concerning several attempts of
contriving a perpetual motion by magnet ical virtues." Likewise
Whewell, " Hist, of the Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol. I. pp. 332, 395; Mendoza,
" Tratado cle Navcgacion," Vol. II. p. 72; Alex. Chalmers, " Gen. Biog.
Diet.," London, 1811, Vol. XXXI I. pp. 74-82.
A.D. 1641. — Kircher (Athanasius), a German writer on physical
and mathematical science (1601-1680), member of the Order of
Jesuits, possessed of immense erudition and believing in the mag-
netism of all things, speaks in his " Magncs sive de arte magnetica "
(Book II. pt. iv. chap, v.), of the recently advanced idea of being
able to correspond at short distances by employing two spherical
vessels bearing the letters of the alphabet, each of the letters having
suspended from it a magnetized figure attached to a vertical wire.
He likewise alludes to Gellibrand's discovery, A.D. 1635, of which
he was informed by John Greaves, the eminent English mathe-
matician, and he communicates a letter received from the learned
French philosopher, le Pcre Mann Mersenne, containing a distinct
account of the same.
His definition of universal magnetism, according to Madame
Blavatsky, is very original, for he contradicted Gilbert's theory
that the earth was a great magnet. He asserted that, although
every particle of matter and even the intangible " powers " were
magnetic, they did not themselves constitute a magnet. There is
bid one Magnet in the universe, and from it proceeds the magnetization
of everything existing. This magnet is, of course, what the Kabalists
term the central Spiritual Sun, or God. ... He demonstrates the
difference between mineral magnetism and zoomagnetism, or animal
magnetism, and says that the sun is the most magnetic of all
bodies. ... It imparts the binding power to all things falling
under its direct rays (" Isis Unveiled," pp. 208-210).
Another Jesuit, Jacobo Grandamico (1588-1672), published in
1645, " Nova demonstratio immobilitatis terrae petit a ex virtute
magnetica/' wherein he shares fully the views of Niccolas Cabseus,
Athanasius Kircher, Vincentus Leotaudus and others of the same
Order relative to the earth's magnetism (Larousse, " Diet.," Vol.
VIII. p. 1445).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 121
REFERENCES. — " Journal des Scavans " pour 1665 et 1666, pp.
519-525, 571-578; " Nouvcau Larousse," par Claude Auge, Pans,
Vol. V. p. 485; " Salmonscn . . . konvcrsationsleksikon," 1900, p. 480;
Van Swindcii, " Recucil," 1784, Vol. II. pp. 352, 361, 394, and the
different works named in Ronalds's "Catalogue," pp. 266-267; ninth
ed. " Encycl. Brit./' Vol. XIV. pp. 93-94.
A.D. 1644. — Digby (Sir Kenclme), the very famous Englishman
to whom allusion has already been made under the B.C. 600-580
entry, publishes, in Paris, " Two Treatises, in the one of which
the Nature of Bodies : in the other, the nature of Man's Soule is
looked into : in Way of Discovery of the Immortality of Reasonable
Soules." l In a chapter of this work, entitled " Of the loadstone's
generation and its particular motions," appears the following
interesting reference to Gilbert's work and reputation : " But to
come to experimcntall proofes and obseruations vpon the loadstone
by which it will appcare that these causes are well esteemed and
applyed, we must be beholding to that admirable searcher of the
nature of the loadstone, Doctor Gilbert : by means of whom and
of Doctor Haruey, our nation may claim euen in this latter age
as deserued a crowne for solide Philosophicall learning as for many
ages together it hath done formerly for acute and subtile Speculations
in Diuinity. But before I fall to particulars, I thinke it worth
warning my Reader, how this great man arriued to discouer so
much of Magneticall Philosophy ; that he, likewise, if he be desirous
to search into nature, may, by imitation, advance his thoughts
and knowledge that way. In short, then, all the knowledge he
gott of this subject was by forming a little loadstone into the shape
of the earth. By which meanes he compassed a wonderful designe,
which was to make the whole globe of the earth maniable; for he
found the properties of the whole earth in that little body; which
he therefore called a Terrella, or little earth ; and which he could
manage and trye experiences vpon att his will. And, in like
manner, any man that hath an ayme to aduance much in naturall
sciences, must endeauour to draw the matter he inquireth of, into
some such inodell, or some kinde of manageable methode; which
he may turne and winde as he please th. And then lett him be
sure, if he hath a competent vnderstanding, that he will not misse
of his marke."
REFERENCES. — " The Private Memoirs of Sir Kenclme Digby, Gen-
tleman of the Bedchamber of King Charles I," London, 1827; " Diet.
1 In the second edition of Digby's " The Immortality of Reasonable
Soules " (" a treatise on the soul proving its immortality "), published during
the year 1645, are to be found attractive portraits of himself and of his wife,
Venetia Anastasia Stanley, daughter of Sir Edward Stanley, of Tongue
Castle, one of the celebrated beauties of her day.
122 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of Nat. Biog.," Vol. XV. pp. 60-66; " New Gen. Biog. Diet.," London,
1850, Vol. XI. p. 390; " Gen. Biog. Diet. " of Alex. Chalmers, London,
1811, pp. 70-78; "Emerson's Works," London, 1873, Vol. II. p. 35;
" The Library" for April 1902, has, at pp. 131-132, the arms of the
Digbys.
A.D. 1644. — Descartes (Rene), a prominent French philosopher
and mathematician, publishes his " Principia Philosophise/' divided
into four parts ; the first giving an exposition of the principles of all
human knowledge, the second treating of the principles of natural
things, and the third and fourth parts developing his theory of
vortices. His main idea was that a rush of subtle matter passes
very rapidly through the earth from the equator towards each pole,
being opposed by magnetic substances throughout its passage and
that the sun is the centre of a vortex of an ethereal fluid, whose
whirling motion produces the revolution of planets about the sun,
or around the fixed stars. Moreover, as Noad states it, " the vortex
moves with the greatest facility in a particular direction, one of its
ends being always turned toward the north."
One of the most prominent fellow-students of Descartes was
Marin Mersenne, who joined the religious Order of " Minimes/'
and who, after publishing in 1634 and 1639 " Les Mccaniques de
Galilee " and " Nouvelles De'couvertes de Galilee," brought out,
during the years 1644 and 1647, his well-known " Cogitata phisico-
mathematica," which, Montucla says, contains un ocean d' observations
de toutes especes . . . and embraces a very interesting treatise on
navigation besides many letters from leading scientists of that
period not elsewhere to be found.
REFERENCES. — " La grancle Encyclopedic," Vol. XXIII. pp. 730-731 ;
Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. XL p. 94 ; " Biographic Generate," Vol. XXXV.
pp. 118-123; "The English Cyclopaedia," Vol. IV. p. 206; Alex. Chal-
mers, "Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1811, Vol. XXII. pp. 81-83; " Bio-
graphic Universelle," Vol. X. pp. 465-473; Whcwell, " Hist, of the Ind.
Sc.," Vol. I. pp. 323, 328, 338, 339, 343, 354, 387, 423, 429, 430 ; Vol. II. p.
220 ; likewise pp. 320 and 390 of Vol. I. relative to Le Pere Marin Mersenne
and pp. 391 and 423 concerning the " Trait 6 de Physique " of James
Rohault; Playf air's Fourth Dissertation in the eighth edition of the
" Encycl. Britann." ; " Essai th£orique . . . des connaissances humaines,"
par G. Tibcrghien, Bruxelles, 1844, Vol. I. pp. 472-495 ; Dr. W. Windel-
band, " History of Philosophy," New York, 1893, pp. 380-381, 391-396;
Dr. F. Ueberweg, " History of Philosophy," New York, 1885, Vol. II.
pp. 41—55 ; Alfred Weber, "History of Philosophy," translated by Frank
Thilly, New York, 1896, pp. 305-323; Ruard Andala, "Descartes in
reality the overturner of Spinosism and the architect of experimental
Philosophy "; Erasmus Bartholinus, " DC Cometis," Copenhagen, 1664-
1665 ("Biog. Univ."; Weidler, p. 508) Mahaffy, 1880; Houzeau et
Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. for Descartes, p. 119, and for Mersenne,
p. 204; " Journal des Savants " for Feb. 1826, p. 103, for Feb. 1827, p.
no, also for Aug.-Oct. 1850, Dec. 1860, Jan.-Feb. 1861, Oct. -Nov. 1869,
Feb. April and July 1870, M.ar--Aprjl j88o, Aug. 1884, April 1898,
Feb. 1899.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 123
A.D. 1646. — Browne (Sir Thomas), an eminent English physician
and writer, publishes the well-known treatise " Pseudodoxia Epi-
demica, or Inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors/' which ran
through six editions in twenty-seven years, and upon which his
fame is principally established.
With regard to the possibility of such a magnetic telegraph as
Strada speaks of he says (Book II. chap, iii.) : "The conceit is excel-
lent and, if the effect would follow, somewhat divine; whereby we
might communicate like spirits, and confer on earth with Menippus
in the moon. And this is pretended from the sympathy of two
needles, touched with the same loadstone, and placed in the centre
of two abecedary circles or rings, with letters described round about
them, one friend keeping one and another keeping the other, and
agreeing upon the hour when they will communicate, at what dis-
tance of place soever, when one needle shall be removed unto another
letter, the other, by wonderful sympathy, will move unto the
same/'
As the result of experiment, he found that " though the needles
were separated but half a span, when one was moved the other would
stand like the pillars of Hercules, and if the earth stand still, have
surely no motion at all. . . . By electrical bodies," he says, " I
understand not such as are metallical, mentioned by Pliny and the
ancients ; for their clectmm was a mixture made of gold, with the
addition of a fifth part of silver ; a substance now as unknown as true
aurichalcum , or Corinthian brass, and set down among things lost by
Pancirollus. Nor by electric bodies do I imagine such only as take
up shavings, straws and light bodies, amongst which the ancients
placed only jet and amber, but such as, conveniently placed unto
their objects, attract all bodies palpable whatsoever. I say conve-
niently placed, that is, in regard of the object, that it be not too
ponderous or any way affixed; in regard of the agent, that it be
not foul or sullied, but wiped, rubbed and excitated; in regard of
both, that they be conveniently distant, and no impediment inter-
posed. I say, all bodies palpable, thereby excluding fire, which
indeed it will not attract, nor yet draw through it, for fire consumes
its effluxions by which it should attract."
The different chapters of this second book treat of the loadstone,
of bodies magnetical and electrical, of magnetical rocks and attrac-
tive mountains, and also make allusion to the cross oh the church
of St. John in Ariminium, to the reported magnetical suspension of
Mahomet's tomb, etc. etc.
At pp. 64, 81 and 87 of Chap. II he says : " Neither is it onely
true, what Gilbertus first observed, that irons refrigerated North and
South acquire a directive faculty ; but if they be cooled upright and
121 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
perpendicularly, they will also obtain the same . . . Now this
kind of practice, Libavius, Gilbertus and lately Swickardus, condemn,
as vain and altogether unuseful ; because a loadstone in powder hath
no attractive power ; for, in that form, it omits the polarity and loseth
those parts which are the rule of attraction. . . . Glasse attracts but
weakely though cleere, some slick stones and thick glasses attract
indifferently; Arsenic not at all; Saltes generally but weakely, as
Sal Gemma, Allum and also Talke, nor very discoverably by any
frication ; but, if gently warmed at the fire and wiped with a dry
cloth, they will better develop their Electricities."
At Chapter XVII of the seventh book of the above-mentioned
treatise, Browne makes allusion to " the story of Frier Bacon that
made a Brazen Head to speak these words : " Time is . . ."
REFERENCES. — " Library of Literary Criticism," Chas. Wells Moulton,
Vol. II. p. 330-345; " Fortnightly Review," for Oct. 1905, pp. 616-626,
" Sir Thomas Browne and his Family " ; Edmund Gossc, in the " English
Men of Letters Scries " ; Browne's " Letter " inserted in the " Biographia
Britannica," also his entire works, recognized as an encyclopaedia of
contemporary knowledge, and which were published in four octavo
volumes by Simon Wilkins, F.S.A., London, 1836.
A.D. 1653.— In the third edition of " The Jewell House of Arte
and Nature," by Sir Hugh Plat, originally published in 1594, and
wrongly attributed in Weston's " Catalogue " to Gabriel Plattes, is to
be found the following allusion to the loadstone : " And though
. the adamant be the hardest of all stones, yet is it softened with Goa's
blood and there is a special antipathy between that and the loadstone,
which is of the colour of rusty iron, and hath an admirable vertuc
not onely to draw iron to it self, but also to make any iron upon
which it is rubbed to draw iron also, it is written notwithstanding
that being rubbed with the juyce of Garlick, it loseth that vcrtue
and cannot then draw iron, as likewise if a Diamond be layed close
unto it."
This " special antipathy " of garlick, and of the diamond — whether
or not the latter be softened with Goa's (goat's) blood — is treated
of very fully by many other authors, notably :
Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," Holland tr. 1601, Chap. IV. p. 610; Plutarch,
" Quocstoncs PlatonicaV lib. vii. cap. 7; Claudius Ptolcmacus, "Opus
Quadripartitum," lib. i. cap. 3; St. Augustine, " De Civitate Dei,"
lib. xxi. ; Bartholom. dc Glanvilla, "Liber de Proprietatibus Rerum,"
lib. xvi. ; Pictro di Abano, "Conciliator Dififcrenliarum," 1520, pp.
72-73, or the Venice edition of 1526, cap. 51; Joannes Ruellius, " De
Nat ura Stirpium," 1536, pp. 125, 530; Ibn Roschd's "Comment on Aris-
totle," 1550, T. IV. p. 143^; Cardinal de Cusa, " Opera," 1565, p. 175;
C. Julius Solinus, " De Memorabilibus," cap. 64; Walter Charleton,
" A Ternary of Paradoxes," London, 1650, pp. 40-41 ; Thomas Browne,
" Pseudodoxia Epidcmica," 1658, p. 74 ; G. B. Porta, " Naturall Magi k,"
1658, Chap. XLVHIand Chap. LI 1 1 — from both of which chapters extracts
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 125
appear at the A.D. 1558 entry ; " Journal dcs Savants " for January 1894 ;
Chas. de R6musat, " Hist, de la Philos.," Paris, 1878, Vol. II. p. 187.
Rohault— at p. 186 of his 1728 " Syst. of Nat. Phil."— says :
"As to what some writers have related, that a loadstone will not
attract iron if there be a diamond near and that onions and garlic
will make it lose its vertue; these are contradicted by a thousand
experiments which I have tried. For I have shown that this stone
will attract iron through the very thickest diamonds and through a
great many thick skins which an onion is made up of."
REFERENCES.---" Diet, of Nat. Biography," Vol. XLV. pp. 407-400,
giving many particulars; J. 13. J. Delambre, at A.D. 1635. For (iabru>l
Plattcs, sec the same " Diet, of Nat. Biography," Vol. XLV. p. 410.
A.D. 1657. — Schott (Caspar) — P. Caspar Schott — a German
Jesuit who was sent to teach natural philosophy and mathematics
at Palermo, Sicily, is the author of several very curious works on
physics, of which the most important alone will here be noted.
" Magiae Universalis Naturae et Artis," etc., appeared at Herbipoli
in 1657, 1658, 1659. In the first book of the fourth volume (or
part) he indicates, according to Kirclier, whom he had met while in
Rome, the means of conveying one's thoughts at a distance by the
loadstone, and he alludes to the speaking head constructed by
Albertus Magnus, while, in the third and fourth books of the same
volume, he gives a long treatise on the loadstone as well as an account
of numerous experiments made with it.
" De Arte Mechanica," etc. (" Mechanics, " etc.), Herbipoli,
1657-1658, contains, in Part II. class i. p. 314, the first published
notice of Von Cuericke's experiments.
" Physica Curiosa sive Mirabilia Naturae," etc., Herbipoli, 1662
(which may justly be considered a continuation of the " Magiae
Universalis "), treats in the eleventh book of St. Elmo's lire, thunder
and meteors in general.
11 Technica Curiosa sive Mirabilia Naturae," etc., Herbipoli,
1664, alludes, in the first two books, to the experiments made by
Von Cuericke and by Boyle, and gives the contents of eight letters
written him by the first named.
" Schola Steganographica," etc., Norimbergac, 1665, gives, at
pp. 258-264, a description of the dial telegraph of Daniell Schwenter.
" Jocoseriorum Naturae et Artis," etc., published about 1666,
alludes to the " Thaumaturgus Mathematicus " of Caspar Ens,
published at Cologne, 1651, as well as to the " Deliciae Physico-
Mathematicae " of Daniell Schwenter and Geo. Philippi Harsdoerffer
(Senator of Nuremberg), to " La Recreation Mathematique " of
126 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Jean Leurechon, and to the works of Cardan, Mizauld, Aldrovandi
and others.
REFERENCES. — " Notice Raisonn6e des Ouvrages cle Caspar Schott,"
par M. L'Abbe" Mxxx de St. J,e"ger dc Soissons, Paris, 1785, pp. 6, 31,
32, 37, 44, 70; Muirhead's translation of Arago's Eloge dc James Watt,
London, 1839, p. 51.*
A.D. 1660. — Guericke (Otto von), a burgomaster of Magdeburg,
Prussian Saxony, constructs the first frictional electric machine.
It consisted of a globe of sulphur, cast in a glass sphere, and mounted
upon a revolving axis, which when rubbed by a cloth pressed
against it by the hand, emitted both sound and light. It was
Guericke who " heard the first sound and saw the first light in arti-
ficially excited electricity." He proved that light bodies, when
attracted by an excited electric, were immediately repelled by the
latter and became incapable of a second attraction until touched by
some other body ; also that light bodies develop electrical excitation
when suspended within the sphere of an excited electric.
REFERENCES. — " Experimcnta Nova Magdeburgica," 1672, lib. iv,
cap. 15, p. 147, also all relating to the sulphur globe reproduced from the
" Experimenta Nova " at end of Figuier's " Exposition et Histoire," etc.,
Vol. IV. Paris, 1857; Moncony, Voyages, 1665; Schott (Caspar), " Tech-
nica Curiosa," etc., Norimbergse, 1664; " Abhandlungen zur Geschichte
der Mathem.," Leipzig, 1898, Vol. VIII. pp. 69-112, for the two articles
by Ferdinand Rosenberger on the development of the electric machine,
etc., from the time of Von Guericke.
A.D. 1660. — At the meeting of the English Royal Society, held
June 5, 1660, Magnetical Remedies were discoursed of. Sir Gilbert
Talbot promised to bring in what he knew of sympatheticall cures,
and those who possessed any powder of sympathy were requested to
fetch some at the next meeting.
A.D. 1661. — Somerset (Edward), second Marquis of Worcester,
an English inventor, announces, in his " Century of Inventions,"
that he has discovered " a method by which at a window as far as
the eye can discover black from white, a man may hold discourse
with his correspondent, without noise made or notice taken ; being,
according to occasion given, or means afforded, ex re nata, and no
need of provision before-hand : though much better if foreseen, and
course taken by mutual consent of parties/' This method, he
1 Libri says (" Catal.," 1861, Pt. II. p. 701) that the learned Jesuit, Schott,
seems to have been very conversant with angels, for he not only dedicated
his " Magia Naturalis " to an angel, but likewise another of his works, the
" Magia Arithmetica," wherein he indicates the total number of the angels in
existence, that number being composed of sixty-eight numerical figures.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 127
asserts, he can put into practice " by night as well as by day, though
as dark as pitch is black."
REFERENCES. — Dircks' "Life of Worcester," p. 357; " Dictionary of
National Biography," Vol. LIU. pp. 232-237.
A.D. 1662.— Rupert (Prince Robert), of Bavaria, son of
Frederick V, elector palatine, and one of the founders of the Royal
Society of London, is credited with the discovery of the curious
glass bubbles called " Rupert's drops." These are merely drops
of glass thrown, when melted, into water, and thus becoming suddenly
consolidated into a shape somewhat resembling the form of a tear.
The globular end may be subjected to quite a smart stroke without
breaking, but if a particle of the tail is nipped off, the whole flies
into fine powder with almost explosive violence.
' ' Mr. Peter did show us the experiment (which I had heard talked
of) of the chymicall glasses, which break all to dust by breaking off
a little small end; which is a great mystery to me " (Samuel Pepys,
" Diary," January 13, 1662).
Sir David Brewster discovered that the fracture of these un-
annealed drops was accompanied by the evolution of electrical
light, which appears even when they are broken under water.
Mr. Bennet observed that when one of the drops was placed upon
a book, the latter was electrified negatively.
REFERENCES. — The articles on " Annealing," " Optics," and " Elec-
tricity " in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " ; also the biography in
"Penny Cycl.," Vol. XX. pp. 226-227; Le Cat, "Memoir," London,
1749-1750, or Philos. Trans. , XLVI. p. 175.
A.D. 1665. — Grimaldi (Francesco Maria), Italian philosopher
(1618-1663), member of the Order of Jesuits and an associate of
the astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli (at A.D. 1270) is the
author of the important work " Physico mathesis de Lumine . . ."
which cites the discovery of magnetism produced by the perpen-
dicular holding of an iron bar.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans, for 1665 ; " Engl. Cycl.," article
"Biography," Vol. CXI. p. 207; Larousse, "Diet.," Vol. VIII, p. 1531.
And, for Riccioli's works, see Houzcau et Lancaster, " Bibliog. Gen.,"
Vol. III. p. 238; " Jo'urn. desSfavans" pour 1665 et 1666, pp. 642-647.
A.D. 1665. — Glanvill (Joseph), an eminent English divine and
philosopher, Chaplain to King Charles II and F.R.S., sometimes
called " Sadducismus Triumphatus Glanvill," endorses in his " Scepsis
Scientifica " (" the vanity of dogmatizing recast ") — published
originally in 1661 — the views advanced previously by the Jesuit
Leurechon, and, after discussing the objections of Sir Thomas
Browne, expresses the belief that " to confer at the distance of the
128 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Indies by sympathetic conveyances may be as usual to future times
as to us in literary correspondence."
A writer in the " Bath Chronicle " reproduced a long extract from
GlanvilTs work, the concluding sentence of which, he says, seems
to have anticipated the electric telegraph. It is as follows : " But
yet to advance another instance. That men should confer at very
distant removes by an extemporary intercourse is a reputed im-
possibility; but yet there are some hints in natural operations
that give us probability that 'tis feasible, and may be compassed
without unwarrantable assistance from demoniack correspondence.
That a couple of needles equally touched by the same magnet,
being set in two dials exactly proportioned to each other, and
circumscribed by the letters of the alphabet, may effect this ' mag-
nale ' (i. e. important result) hath considerable authorities to
avouch it.
" The manner of it is thus represented : Let the friends that
would communicate take each a dial, and, having appointed a time
for their sympathetic conference, let one move his impregnate
needle to any letter in the alphabet, and its affected fellow will
precisely respect the same. So that, would I know what my friend
would acquaint me with, 'tis but observing the letters that are
pointed at by my needle, and in their order transcribing them from
their sympathized index, as its motion directs ; and I may be assured
that my friend described the same with his, and that the words on
my paper are of his inditing. Now, though there will be some ill-
contrivance in a circumstance of this invention, in that the thus
impregnate needles will not move to, but avert from each other (as
ingenious Dr. Browne hath observed), yet this cannot prejudice
the main design of this way of secret conveyance; since it is but
reading counter to the magnetic informer, and noting the letter
which is most distant in the Abecederian circle from that which the
needle turns to, and the case is not altered.
" Now, though this desirable effect may possibly not yet answer
the expectations of inquisitive experiment, yet 'tis no despicable
item, that by some other such way of magnetick efficiency it may
hereafter with success be attempted, when magical history shall
be enlarged by riper inspections; and 'tis not unlikely but that
present discoveries might be improved to the performance."
Glanvill is also the author of " Philosophical Considerations
Touching Witches and Witchcraft," 1666, and of " The Sadducismus
Triumphatus," 1681.
REFERENCES.— " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," 1908, Vol. VII. pp. 1287-8;
Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. VII I. pp. 1294-1295 ; "Nature," Vol. XVI. p. 269;
" Histoire de la Philosophic," par Charles de R6musat, Paris, 1878, Vol. II.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 120
chap. xi. pp. 184-201 ; " The General Biog. Diet.," Alex. Chalmers,
London, 1811, Vol. XVI. pp. 12-17; " Joseph Glanvill," by Ferris
Greenslet, New York, 1905; Imperial Diet, of Universal Biography/1
Vol. II. p. 642.
A.D. 1666. — Denys (William), hydrographer, of Dieppe,
observes that the compasses placed in different parts of a vessel
give different indications (Becquerel, " Magnetisme," p. 119;
" Journal des Sgavans " pour 1665 et 1666, p. 538).
A.D. 1671. — -Richer (T.), French philosopher, who was sent by
the Paris Academy of Sciences to the island of Cayenne for the
purpose of determining the amount of terrestrial refraction and for
other astronomical objects, is the first to make known the electrical
powers of the gymnotus electricus.
REFERENCES. — Leithead, "Electricity," Chap. XII; Fahie, "El.
Tel./' p. 171; Bertholon, " Eiec. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I.
p. 171 ; Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1677, Art. VI; Richer, " Observa-
tions," etc., Paris, 1679; Bancroft, at A.D. 1769; "Cosmos," 1859,
Vol. V. pp. 23-24.
A.D. 1671. — Rohault (Jacques), a French philosophical writer,
and one of the earliest, ablest and most active propagators of the
Cartesian philosophy in France, publishes at Paris the first edition
of his " Traite de Physique," at Part III. chap. viii. pp. 198-236
of which he treats especially of amber and of the loadstone. The
same passages can be seen at Vol. II. part iii. chap. viii. pp. 163,
etc., of Rohault 's " System of Natural Philosophy," published in
London during the year 1723, and at the same chapter, pp. 388, etc.,
of " Jacobi Rohaulti Physica," Londini, 1718.
The latter is the last and best edition of the well-known classical
translation, originally made in 1697, by Dr. Samuel Clarke, who
was the friend of Sir Isaac Newton and chaplain to Bishop Moore,
of Norwich. Through this work Clarke introduced very many
critical notes exposing the fallacies of the Cartesian system. The
" Physica " passed through four editions as the Cambridge University
textbook before it was made to give way to the treatises of Newton.
A.D. 1672. — Sturm (John Christopher), a very able German
mathematician, who was for thirty-four years professor of natural
philosophy at the University of Altdorf (Franconia), and who, after
vainly attempting to satisfactorily unite the Aristotelian and Carte-
sian doctrines finally adopted the Baconian philosophy, establishes
the " Collegium Curiosum " on the plan of the celebrated Italian
" Accademia del Cimento," alluded to under the A.D. 1609 date.
The society was founded for the purpose of studying, repeating
•and even modifying the most notable philosophical experiments of
K
130 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the day, such as those made by Von Guericke, Boyle, Hooke and
others, and its proceedings were published in 1676 and 1685 under
the title of " Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, etc."
A.D. 1673.— Hevelius— Hevel— Hovel— -Hovelke (Joannes), an
eminent Polish astronomer, member of the English Royal Society,
and a great friend more particularly of le Pere M. Mersenne, of
Gassendi and of Kircher, publishes during 1673 the first part of
his great work " Machina Ccelestis "—dedicated to Louis XIV —
the entire second part of which, issued in 1679, was destroyed by
fire with the exception of seven copies. This explains its extreme
scarcity. It was this work which led to the public controversy
between Hevelius and Dr. Hooke who published, in London, during
1674 his " Animad. in Mach. Celest. Hevelii."
It is said that, next to John Flamsteed, Hevelius was the most
accurate observer of the heavens in his day (" The Reliquary,"
London, Vol. XIV. pp. 149-159 and Vol. XV. pp. 34-38; " Journal
des Savants " for March, June and November 1836). He had
already published " De Variatione acus magnetics " (Opusc. Act.
Erudit. Lips., Vol. I. p. 103), also a report of the variations of the
magnetical needle during 1670, which can be found in the Phil.
Trans., Vol. V. for 1670, p. 2059, or in Hut ton's abridgments,
London, 1809, Vol. I. p. 514.
REFKUENCKS.— Laroussc, "Diet.," Vol. IX. pp. 266-267; " Biog.
(ien.," Vol. XXV. pp. 285-2(>4; Delambrc, " Hist, de I'Astron. Mod.,"
Vol. II. pp. 434—484; Weidlcr, " Hist. Astron.," p. ^85; " Mom. Roy.
Soc.," 1739, Vol. I. p. 274.
A.D. 1675. — Boyle (Robert), Irish natural philosopher and
chemist, seventh son of Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork, and one of the
first members of what he calls the " Invisible " or " Philosophical "
College, which has since become the Royal Society,1 gives, in his
" Philosophical Works," the result of his many experiments upon
magnetism and electricity.
John Evelyn in his letter to Mr. Wotton, March 30, 1695
(" Memoirs, Diary and Correspondence/' by Win. Bray, London,
p. 716), says of Boyle : " It must be confessed that he had a rmir-
vailous sagacity in finding out many usefull and noble experiments.
Never did stubborn matter come under his inquisition but he ex-
torted a confession of all that lay in her most intimate recesses ; and
1 " The meetings, from which the Royal Society originated, commenced
about the year 1645, a number of persons having then begun to assemble for
the consideration of all subjects connected with experimental inquiries; all
questions of theology and policy being expressly precluded " (Dr. Geo. Miller,
from Harris's " Life of Charles II," Vol. I. p. 7, London, 1766).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 131
what he discover'd he as faithfully registered, and frankly com-
municated. ..."
Prof. Tyndall remarks (" Lecture," February 4, 1875) : " The
tendency to physical theory showed itself in Boyle. He imagined
that the electrified body threw out a glutinous or unctuous effluvium,
which laid hold of small bodies, and, in its return to the source from
which it emanated, carried them along with it."
A few of his many characteristic remarks and observations are,
however, best given in his own words, as extracted from the
" Philosophical Works " above alluded to :
" The invention of the mariner's needle, which giveth the
direction, is no less benefit for navigation than the invention of the
sails, which give the motion " (London, 1738, Vol. I. p. 62).
" I, with a certain body (rough diamond), not bigger than a pea,
but very vigorously attractive, moved a steel needle, freely poised,
about three minutes after I had left off rubbing it " (Vol. I. p. 508).
Speaking elsewhere of his experiments with diamonds, he says :
" But when I came to apply it (the loadstone) to one more, which
look'd somewhat duller than almost any of the rest, I found that it
had in it particles enough of an iron nature to make it a magnet ical
body and observed without surprise that not only it would sutler
itself to be taken up by the strongest pole of the loadstone, but when
the pole was offer'd within a convenient distance it would readily
leap through the air to fasten itself to it."
" I removed a piece of amber in the sunbeams till they had made
it moderately hot and then found it would attract those light bodies
it would not stir before " (Vol. I. p. 400, and Vol. III. p. 52).
" Whether from such experiments one may argue that it is but,
as it were, by accident that amber attracts another body, and not
this the amber; and whether these ought to make us question, if
electrics may, with so much propriety, as has been generally supposed,
be said to attract, are doubts, that my design does not oblige me to
examine " (Vol. IV. p. 350).
REFERENCES. — John Evelyn's " Diary," Letter to Mr. Wotton,
March 30, 1696; Libes' " Histoire Phil, du Progres de la Physique,"
Paris, 1810; Boyle's " Mechanical Origine or Production of Electricity,"
1675; Birch, " Life of Hon. R. Boyle," 1743-1744; Secondat's " His-
toire d'Electricite " (Observations physiques), 1750, p. 141 ; Whewell,
" Hist, of Ind. Sciences," 1859, Vol. 1. pp. 395, 396. Priestley's " History
of Electricity," 1775, pp. 5-8; M. Reael, " Observ. a. d. Magnectsteen,"
1651, alluded to at note, p. 486, Vol. I. of Van Swinden's 1784 " Recueil,"
etc.; Van Swinden, Vol. II. pp. 353, 359-361; " Biblioth. Britan."
(Authors), Robt. Watt, Edinburgh, 1824, Vol. I. pp. 142-3; Aikin's
" G. Biography," and Martin's " Biog. Philosophical' in " General Biog.
Diet.," by John Gorton, London, 1833, Vol. I; Phil. Trans., Vol. VIII
for 1673, p. 6101 and Hutton's abridg., Vol. II. p. 90; Boyle, London,
1673, "Essays of the . . . Effluviums" (Subtility), pp. 38-42, 52-53;
132 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
(Efficacy) pp. 18, 19, 32, 33; (Determinate Nature) pp. 21, 57; "An
Kssay ... of Gems/' London, 1672, pp. 108-129; Ch. W. Moulton,
" Library of Literary Criticism/' Vol. II. pp. 416-420; " Critical Diet.
of Engl. Lit./' S. Austin Allibone, Philad., 1888, Vol. I. pp. 232-233;
" Essays in Historical Chemistry/ "T. E. Thorpe, London, 1894, pp. 1-27;
Eighth " Britannica," V. p. 259 for notes of Boerhaave, also the
"Britannica" ist Dissertation, p. 47, and 4th Dissertation p. 597;
" History and Heroes of the Art of Medicine/' J. Rutherfurd Russell,
London, 1861, pp. 233-246.
Consult also Boyle's " New Exper. Physico-Mechanical," etc., in
which the i6th Exp. is " concerning the operation of the loadstone ";
Boyle's " A Continuation of New Exp./' etc., in which the 3ist Exp. is
" about the attractive virtue of the loadstone in an exhausted receiver,"
and in which are " Notes, etc., about the atmospheres of consistent
bodies," etc., as well as " Observations about the exciting of the electricity
of bodies," and concerning the electrical emanations and effluviums.
Boyle's " Tracts Containing Some Suspicions Concerning some Occult
Qualities of the Air ; with an Appendix Touching Celestial Magnets," etc.
His " Phil. Works," London, 17.44, Vol. III. pp. 65, 67 and 70, 647, etc.,
give " Experiments and Notes about the Mechanical Origin or Production
of Electricity."
Eor full accounts of the Royal Society, alluded to above, see the
histories written by Thomas Sprat (1667), by Thomas Birch (1756), by
Thomas Thomson (1812), and by Chas. Hie hard Weld (1847-1848).
A.D. 1675. — Picard (Jean), eminent astronomer, who succeeded
Gassendi (A.D. 1632) as professor of astronomy at the College de
France, is the lirst to observe electric light in vacuo. According to
Tyndall ("Lessons in Electricity," p. 88) it was while carrying a
barometer from the Observatory to the Porte Saint-Michel in Paris
that he noticed light in the vacuous portion. Sebastien and
Cassini observed it afterwards in other barometers (see Tyndall's
" Lecture V." p. 91, for Priestley's description of the electric light
in vacua).
It was this same scientist who had already given, in his " Mesure
de la Terre," 1671, Article IV, the description of the measurement of
a degree of latitude made with instruments of his own manufacture.
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. pp. 23, 24;
Larousse, "Diet.," Vol. XII. p. 937; "Phil. Hist, and Mem. of the
Roy. Acad. at Paris," London, 1742, Vol. I. pp. 208—221.
A.D. 1675. — Newton (Sir Isaac), prominent English mathemati-
cian and natural philosopher, of whom Macaulay says that " in no
other mind have the demonstrative faculty and the inductive
faculty coexisted in such supreme excellence and perfect harmony,"
communicates to the Royal Society his discovery that excited glass
will attract any light bodies even to the surface opposite to that
upon which it has been rubbed. This was successfully demonstrated
by the Society, January 31, 1676.
He improved the electric machine by substituting a glass globe
for the globe of sulphur made use of by both Von Guericke and Boyle,
the rubbers in every case being the hands of the operator.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 133
He appears to have somewhat anticipated Franklin's great
discovery, judging by the following letter he addressed, December 15,
1716, to the Rev. Dr. Law, in Suffolk :
" Dear Doctor/' it begins, " He that in ye mine of knowledge
deepest diggeth, hath, like every other miner ye least breathing
time, and must sometimes at least come to terr; alt (terra alta)
for air. In one of these respiratory intervals I now sit doune to
write to you, my friend. You ask me how, with so much study, I
manage to retene my health. Ah, my dear doctor, you have a
better opinion of your lazy friend than he hath himself. Morpheus
is my best companion ; without eight or nine hours of him ye corre-
spondent is not worth one Scavenger's peruke. My practizes did at
ye first hurt my stomach, but now I eat heartily enow, as y' will see
when I come down beside you. I have been much amused by ye
singular (pevopeva resulting from bringing a needle into contact with
a piece of amber or resin fricated on silke clothe. Ye flame putteth
me in mind of sheet lightning on a small — how very small — scale.
But I shall in my epistles abjure philosophy, whereof when I come
down to Sakly I'll give you enow. I begin to scrawl at five mins.
from nine of ye elk, and have in writing consumed ten mins. My
Lord Somerset is announced."
^Ether, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is a thin subtile matter
much finer and rarer than air. Sometimes, it is termed by him, a
subtil spirit, as in the latter part of his " Principia," and sometimes
a subtil aetherial medium, as in his " Optics," By many it is sup-
posed to pervade all space, also the interior of solid bodies, and to
be the medium of the transmission of light and heat. The aether
of Descartes was his mater ia subtilis or his First Element : by
which he understood a " most subtil matter very swiftly agitated,
fluid, and keeps to no certain figure, but which suits itself to the
figure of those bodies that are about it. His Second Element con-
sists of small Globules ; that is, bodies exactly round and very
solid, which do not only, like the First Element, fill up the pores of
bodies but also constitute the purest substance of the ^Ether and
Heaven" (Blome's translation of Descartes' " Philosophy," p. 101;
R. Lovett, " The Subtil Medium Prov'd " ; Phil. Mag., Vol. XVIII.
P- 155).
During the years 1686 and 1687 Newton composed his " Prin-
cipia," a work which Lagrange pronounced " la plus haute produc-
tion de 1'esprit humain " : " the greatest work on science ever pro-
duced " (Sir Robt. Ball), and " which will be memorable not only
in the annals of one science or of one country, but which will form
134 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
an epoch in the history of the world." This was published at
Halley's expense. As Brewster says (1686, Chap. XII) : " It is
to Halley alone that science owes this debt of gratitude. It was he
who tracked Newton to his college, who drew from him his great
discoveries, and who generously gave them to the world/'
In the twenty-third proposition of the second book, fifth section,
Newton says : " The virtue of the magnet is contracted by the
interposition of an iron plate and is almost terminated at it, for
bodies further off are not so much attracted by the magnet as by the
iron plate." And in Book III. prop. vi. he thus expresses himself :
"The magnetic attraction is not as the matter attracted; some
bodies are attracted more by the magnet, others less ; most bodies
not at all. The power of magnetism in one and the same body may
be increased and diminished, and is sometimes far stronger for the
quantity of matter than the power of gravity; and in receding
from the magnet decreases, not in the duplicate, but almost in the
triplicate proportion of the distance, as nearly as I could judge from
some rude observations."
Newton is said to have carried in his ring a magnet weighing
but three grains, which could raise 746 grains, or nearly 250 times
its own weight. This magnet naturally excited much admiration,
but is greatly surpassed in power by that formerly belonging to Sir
John Leslie, and now in the Physical Collection at Edinburgh,
weighing three and one-half grains, and having a carrying power of
1560 grains.
REFERENCES. — Brcwsler's " Life of Sir I. Newton," pp. 307, 308;
" Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. XL. pp. 370-393 ; Cb. W. Moulton, " Library
of Literary Criticism," Vol. II. pp. 710-726; " Bibl. Britan." (Authors),
Robt. Watt, Edinburgh, 1824, Vol. 11., p. 701 ; Harris, " Magnetism,"
Vol. 111. p. ii ; Ninth " Britannica," Vol. XV. p. 274 ; WhcvvclJ, " Hist,
of the Ind. Sciences," 1858, Vol. 1. pp. 385-488; the interesting note
at foot of p. 083 of the Fourth Dissertation in the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica"; " Muspratt's Chemistry," Vol. II. p. 255; the English
"Chemical News" for November 1867, and January 1808, reproducing
Sir David Brewster's letters to the London " Athenaeum " and London
" Times," likewise Dr. Crompton's paper read before the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society in October 1866; Phil. Trans.,
Vol. LXIV. Part I for 1774, p. 153: "Remarks of John Winlhrop
upon . . . Castillione's Life of Sir Isaac Newton"; Dr. Geo. Miller,
"Hist. Phil. 111.," London, 1849, Vol. III. pp. 414-415; " Newton, sa vie
et ses ceuvres " in "Cosmos," September 27, 1890 to December 13,
1890; " Journal des Savants " for April, May and June 1832 ; for April
1846, March, April, May, June, July and August 1852, October, Novem-
ber 1855; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II, 1882, pp. 213-
214, 1586; " Hist, de la Philosophic," par Chas. de Rgmusat, Paris, 1878,
Vol. II. chap. xii. pp. 202-222.
A.D. 1676. — Ha ward, master of several sailing vessels, and a
man of good credit (Phil. Trans., Vol. XL No. 127, p. 647, of July 18,
1676), states that " being on board of the ship Aibernarle, July 24,
P:LECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 135
1641 ... in latitude of Bermuda . . . after a terrible clap of
thunder . . . it was found that the compass card was turned around,
the N. and S. points having changed positions and, though Mr.
Grofton brought with his finger the flower-de-lys to point directly
N., it would immediately, as soon as at liberty, return to this new
unusual posture, and upon examination he found every compass
(three) in the ship of the same humour; which ... he could
impute to nothing else but the operation of the lightning or thunder
mentioned." The above is also alluded to at p. 33 of Vol. III. of
Boyle's " Phil. Works," London, 1738, with this addition : " One of
the compasses, pointing West, was brought to New England, where,
the glass being broke and the air gaining entrance, it lost its virtue.
But one of the others is in that country possessed by Mr. Encrease
Mather, the North point of the needle remaining South to this day."
A.D. 1677. — At p. 14 of an exceedingly curious publication
entitled " A Rich Cabinet with a Variety of Inventions," etc.,
written by J. W. (i. e. John White, of London), who calls himself
" a lover of artificial conclusions," will be found an article on
" Divers rare, conceited motions performed by a magnet or load-
stone."
A.D. 1678. — Redi (Francesco), well-known Italian scientist,
physician to the Grand Duke Ferdinand II, publishes his " Experi-
menta circa res diversas Naturales," wherein he is iirst to communi-
cate the fact that the shock of the raia torpedo can be transmitted
to the fisherman through the line and rod connecting him with the
fish.
REFERENCES. — Leithead, "Electricity," Chap. XII; the Fircnzc.
1671 cd. of Kedi's " Espericnze," etc., pp. 47-54, Phil. Trans, for 1673,
Vol. VIII. p. 6003; Set. Am. Supp.t No. 457, pp. 7300-730.2; Matteucci,
" Rccherches," 1837 an(l 1867; Kschinardi (F. della Compagnia di (iesii),
" Lettera al S. Francesco Redi," Roma, 1681, wherein are detailed many
curious experiments, including some treating of the magnetic needle by
which agency are foretold sudden attacks of earthquakes, etc. etc.
A.D. 1679. — Maxwell (William) — Guillelmo Maxvollo — native of
Scotland, author of " Medicina Magnetica," offers to prove to various
medical faculties that, with certain magnetic means at his disposal,
he could cure any of the diseases abandoned by them as incurable
(Blavatsky, " Isis," Vol. I. p. 215).
REFERENCE. — J. H. Van Swinden, " Recucil de Memoires," etc.,
La Haye, 1784, Vol. II. p. 367.
A.D. 1683. — Arrais (Edoardo Madeira), who had been physician
to — JoS.0 — John IV, the first Portuguese king of the house of
136 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Braganza, is the author of this much-delayed edition of a book
entitled " Arbor Vitae, or a physical account of the Tree of Life
in the Garden of Eden." It treats of occult qualities under the
headings of " Doubts/' of which latter there are eight separate
ones which constitute as many different chapters, from which the
following extracts will prove interesting :
" Doubt " 5, p. 45. " Doth not the fish called Torpedo render the
fishes that swim over it immovable, and stupefy the fisher's
arm with its virtue diffused along his spear ? "
" Doubt " 5, p. 46. " ... as also there are divers sorts of fishes
that bring numness, as our Torpedo doth."
" Doubt " 5, p. 49. " And those that travail the coasts of Brasile
make mention of another fish, which causeth numness as our
Torpedo doth : whence it becomes sufficiently manifest that
there are many kinds of Torpedoes to be found. But this kind
lives especially in the river Itapecuro, in the country of the
Maragnani, and it is called Per ache, or, as Caspar Barlaeus
observed, Pitraquam, among those Barbarians. In shape and
greatness it resembles a kind of lamprey (or Mursena) ; they
use to kill it by striking it with staves ; but the arm of him that
strikes and then his whole body is stupefied, and shakes
presently. Of which thing, Frier Christopher Severineus,
Bishop elect of Angola is my ocular witness. . . ."
" Doubt " 7, p. 93. " For it is evident from experience that iron
is so indisposed by some qualities that it cannot be moved by
the magnet. That fishes swimming over the Torpedo, enclosed
in the mud or sand for the purpose, when they come to the
places whereto the virtue of the Torpedo is extended can stir
no further ; by which art she catches and eats them, as Aristotle
relates (6 ' de Hist. Animal./ cap. 10; and 9 ' de Hist./
cap. 37)."
" Doubt " 7, p. 94. " For if amber be dulled by moisture, its virtue
cannot produce motion in straws. If the virtue of the Torpedo
reach the fishes swimming over her, or the fisher's arm their
motive power cannot produce motion."
" Doubt " 7, p. 96. " And for this cause, the virtue of the magnet
can produce motion in iron, not in other bodies, because it
finds in it Dispositions necessary on the part of the agent which,
being present, it can operate; not in other things. And, for
the same reason, amber moves straws, not iron nor stones."
The preface to the " Arbor Vitae . . ." is written by Richard
Browne, M.L. Coll. Mcd., London, who translated out of Latin " The
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 137
Cure of Old Age," by Roger Bacon, wherein he gives quite a good
account of the latter's life and writings, and from which we extract
but one passage likely here to be of some little interest, viz. at
p. 155, regarding the component parts of a medicine : " By Amber
here our author intends Amber Gryse (a bituminous body found
floating on the sea) : For he calls it Ambra and not Succinum (which
is solid Amber). Besides, Succinum was never reckoned a spice
as Amber is here. And though both Ambra and Succinum be
great restorers of the animal spirits, yet the former is more
efficacious."
The " Biographic Generate," Vol. III. p. 348, says that Duarte
Madeyra Arracss, who died at Lisbon in 1652, was the author also
of " Apologia," 1638, of " Methodo/' 1642, and of " Novse Philoso-
phise/' 1650.
A.D. 1683.— Halley (Edmund), LL.D., who became English
astronomer royal, makes known his theory of four magnetic poles
and of the periodical movement of the magnetic line without de-
clination. He states that the earth's magnetism is caused by four
poles of attraction, two of them being in each hemisphere near each
pole of the earth. By the word pole he means a point where the
total magnetic force is a maximum, or, as he himself styles it, " a
point of greatest attraction" (Walker, " Magnetism," p. 317, etc.).
One of the magnetic poles he places near the meridian of Land's
End, not above 7 degrees from the North Pole, the other being
about 15 degrees from the North Pole in the meridian of California,
while the two south magnetic poles are placed respectively about
16 and about 20 degrees from the South Pole of the earth, and 95
degrees west, 120 degrees east of London.
In order to test Halley 's theory, the English Government per-
mitted him to make three voyages in the Atlantic Ocean (1698,
1699, 1702), in vessels of which he had the command as post-captain.
Humboldt states that these were the first expeditions equipped by
any government for the establishment of a great scientific object —
that of observing one of the elements of terrestrial force on which
the safety of navigators is especially dependent.
The result of these voyages was the construction of the first
accurate Magnetic Chart, whereon the points at which navigators
have found an equal amount of variation were connected together
by curved lines. This was the model of all charts of a similar nature
since constructed. Halley remarked upon its completion : " The
nice determination of the variation, and several other particulars
in the magnetic system, is reserved for a remote posterity. All that
we can hope to do is to leave behind us observations that may be
138 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
confided in, and to propose hypotheses which after-ages may
examine, amend or refute.''
See copy of his chart in Vol. I. No. I of " Terrestrial Magnetism/'
also in Musschenbroek's " Essais de Physique," or, preferably,
in Bouguer's " Traite de Navigation," where the lines for 1700 are
in red ink, while those for 1744 are traced in black, thus readily
indicating the changes in the declination.
REFERENCES. — Cavallo, " Magnetism," and " Nat. or Exp. Phil.,"
Vol. II. p. 273; Lloyd, "Treatise on Magnetism," 1874, p. 102; Sci.
Am, Suppl,, No. 224, pp. 3570, 3571 ; Whewell, " Hist, of the Inductive
Sciences," 1859, Vol. 1. pp. 396-8, 435-7, 450, 451, 480, 481, and Vol. II.
p. 225; Giambattista Scarella, " De Magncte," 1759, Vol. II; also
G. Casali, " Sopra la Grandinc," etc., 1767; " The Phil. Hist, and Mem.
of the Roy. Ac. of Sciences at Paris," London, 1742, Vol. L p. 245 ; Vol. II.
pp. 240-244, 270, 349; "Magnetic Results of Halley's Expedition
(1698-1700)" in "Terrestrial Magnetism," September 1913, pp. 113-
132; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. pp. 156-7; Dr. G.
Hcllmann " Ncudrucke von schriften," Nos. 4 and 8; LIumboldt,
"Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. pp. 59-60; John Wallis's letters to Halley,
London (Phtl. Trans, for 1702-1703), p. 106; Phil. Trans, for 1667,
1683, 1692; " Memoirs of the Roy. Soc.," 1739, Vol. 11. p. 195; " A
Bibliography of Dr. Edmund Halley," by Alex. J. Rudolph, in the
" Bulletin of Bibliography " for July 1905 ; " Old and New Astronomy,"
by Richard A. Proctor, 1892, pp. 37-38; 'Phil. Trans. Vol. XIII for 1683,
No. 148, p. 208; Vol. XVII. p. 563;' Vol. XX1I1. p. 1106; Vol. XXIX.
p. 165; Vol. XLIL p. 155; Vol. XLVIII. p. 239, also the following
abridgments : Hulton, Vol. II. p. 624 ; Vol. VI, pp. 99, 112 ; J. Lowthorp,
Vol. II. p. 285; Reid and Gray, Vol. VI. p. 177; Eamcs and Martyn,
Vol. VI. pp. 28, 286; Baddam, 1745, Vol. II. pp. 195-202; Vol. HI.
pp. 25-32.
AURORA BOREALIS, OR NORTHERN POLAR LIGHT
Dr. Halley was the first to give (Phil. Trans., No. 347) a distinct
history of this phenomenon, which has certainly an electric as well
as magnetic origin, and to which Gassendi originally gave the name
it now bears, as has been stated at A.D. 1632.
According to Dr. Lardner (" Lectures," Vol. I. p. 137), Prof.
Eberhart, of Halle, and Paul Frisi, of Pisa, first proposed an ex-
planation of the aurora founded upon the following : I. Electricity
transmitted through rarefied air exhibits a luminous appearance,
precisely similar to that of the aurora borealis. 2. The strata of
atmospheric air become rarefied as their altitude above the surface
of the earth is increased, a theory which has since been counten-
anced by many scientists. It has been observed, notably by Dalton,
of Manchester, that the primitive beams of the aurora are constantly
in a direction parallel to that of the dipping needle, and that the
latter appears most affected when the aurora is the brightest.
Arago noticed that the changes of inclination amounted, upon one
occasion to 7' or 8'. The discovery that the magnetic needle was
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 139
agitated during the presence of an aurora has been ascribed to
Wargentin (Am. Journal Sc., Vol. XXX. p. 227), though it is claimed
by the friends of Olav Hiorter (see A.D. 1740), that it was independ-
ently ascertained by the latter during the year 1741.
The well-known Swiss chemist Auguste Arthur De la Rive has
made many important observations upon the electric character of
the aurora, the experiments carried on by him in the mountains
of Finland being thus described : " We surrounded the peak of a
mountain with copper wire, pointed at intervals with tin nibs.
We next charged the wire with electricity, and nearly every night
during our stay produced a yellowish white light on the tin points,
in which the spectroscope analysis revealed the greenish yellow
rays so characteristic of the aurora borealis. On the peak of
Pietarintumturi we were especially successful, an auroral ray
making its appearance directly over and about 150 yards above
the copper coil."
A complete list of all auroras appearing prior to 1754 is to be
found in Jean Jacques d' Or tons de Mairan's, Paris, 1731, " Trait e
Physique de 1'Aurore Boreale," and a catalogue of aurora observed,
1800-1877, has been made up by M. Zenger (Set. Am. Supp.,
p. 10915). One of the most interesting displays is known as the
purple aurora, alluded to in the Annals of Clan-mac-noise as having
appeared A.D. 688 (Biot " Note sur la direction/' etc., Comptes
Rendus, Tome XIX for 1844, p. 822). Between September 19,
1838, and April 8, 1839, Lottin, Bravais, Lilliehook and Siljestrom
observed 160 auroras at Bossekop (69° 58' N. lat.) in Finmark and
at Jupvig (70° 6' N. lat.) ; they were most frequent during the period
the sun remained below the horizon, that is, from November 17 to
January 25. During this night of 70 times 24 hours there were
64 auroras visible (Comptes Rendus, Tome X. p. 289; Martin,
" Meteorologie," 1843, p. 453; Arge hinder, in the " Vortriigen geh.
in der Konigsberg Gesellschaft," Bd. I. s. 259).
A Finnish physicist, named S. Lcustrom, who had been attached
to the Nordcnskjold Polar Expedition of 1868, visited Lapland in
1871, and, after a series of important observations, constructed an
apparatus that permitted him to " artificially reproduce the light
of the aurora." The intensity of this light is so great at times that
Lowenorn perceived the coruscations in bright sunshine on the
29th of January, 1786, and Parry saw the aurora throughout the
day during the voyage of 1821-1823.
The height of the aurora has been variously estimated, but it
is seldom found to be less than forty-five miles above the surface of
the earth. Father Boscovich estimated at 825 miles the height of
the one observed by the Marquis of Poleni on the i6th of December,
140 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
1737. The extent of the aurora, according to Dalton, has been
known to cover an area of 7000 or 8000 square miles.
REFERENCES. — "Mem. de Turin," An. 1784-5, Vol. I. part ii.
pp. 328, 338; Young, "Lectures," Vol. I. pp. 687, 716; Herschel,
" Prelim. Discourse," pp. 93, 329, 330; Phil. Trans., 1753, p. 350;
Mailer's " Kosmischcn Physik " ; Noad, "Manual," pp. 225-237; also
all the references at pp. 187-196, Vol. I of Humboldt's " Cosmos,"
Bonn, London, 1849, as well as in Ronalds' "Catalogue," pp. 23-24;
Mairan, at Vol. X. p. 961, " Diet. Univ.," and Vol. XXVI. p. 161, of
the " Biog. Univcrselle " ; Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol. I; " Isis
Unveiled," Vol. I. pp. 417, 418.
See likewise the " Pharsalia " of Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, trans-
lated by J. Krais, I. pp. 518-527; Plutarchus, " De facie in orbe luna?,"
cap. -26; the "Annals"' of Cains Cornelius Tacitus, Germania, XLV.
isted., Venice, 1470; " Das Polarlicht," H. Fritz, Leipzig, 1881, pp. 4-6,
332; Mairan's " Traite" Physique," etc., 1731, pp. 179-181; Gregoirc
du Tour, Lumiere Electnque, 1882, Vol. VII. p. 389; Elias Loomis,
" The Aurora Borcalis," etc., p. 220 of the Reports of Smiths. Inst.,
1865; A. M. Mayer, " Observations," etc., Amer. Jour, of Sc., February
1871 ; " A copy of the Catalogue of Aurorae Boreales observed in Norway
from the earliest times to June 1878" (" Nature," December 4, 1902,
p. 112); "La cause de Taurorc boreale," Claudius Arrhenius, in the
Revue Generale des Sciences for January 30, 1902, pp. 65-76 ; " Les Annexes
MeHeores," in " Le Cosmos," Paris, May 25, 1889, etc.; "Terrestrial
Magnetism," March 1898, p. 7 for Chronological Summary of Authors
re Aurora; Rev. Jas. Farquharson in "Abstracts of Sc. Papers Roy.
Soc.," Vol. II. p. 391; Wm. Dobbie, Phil. Mag., Vol. LXI for 1823,
p. 252 ; W. Derham, for description of Auroras (in Phil. Trans, for
1728', p. 453); see, for Boscovitch, " Journal des Savants," February
1864; "journal des Savants," for August 1820; C. H. Wilkinson,
"Elements," 1804; Vol. II. p. 279 and note; Calogera's " Raccolta,"
XVII. 47, Proc. of the Royal Soc. of Edinburgh for the observations of
J. A. Brown and others on the aurora; F. C. Meyer, De luce boreali,
1726; Poggcndorff, I. 135; Sturgeon, " Sc. Res." 4th Sec. p. 489;
Phil. Trans., Vol. XXXVIII. p. 243; Vol. XLVL p. 499: F. Zollner's
paper in " L. E. and D. Philos. Mag.," for May and July, 1872; C. A.
Young, Amer. Jour, of Sc., Vol. ill., 3rd s., p. 69; Baron Karl Von
Reichcnbach's " Physico-Physiological Researches," trans, of Dr. John
Ashburner, London, 1851, pp. 5-36, also pp. 445, etc., of the translation
of Dr. W. Gregory, London, 1850; J. II. Van Swinden, " Recueil de
M&noircs," etc., La Have, 1784, Vol. III. p. 187, etc.; J. E. B. Wicde-
burg, " Beobachtungen und Math.," etc., 1771 ; G. W. Krafft, " Observ.
Meteor," etc., in Novi Com. Acad. Pelrop., Vol. V. p. 400; Giuseppe
Toaldo, " Descrizione," etc., in Saggj . . . Accad. di Padova, Vol. I.
p. 178; Louis Cotte, "Table of Aurora*, Observed . . . 1768-1779,"
Paris, 1783; Journal de Physique for 1775; Recueil de Mem. de I' Acad.
des Sciences for 1769; A. S. Conti, " Rifflessioni sull* Aurora Boreale." l
For Auguste Arthur De la Rive, consult " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XV f,
N.S., 1821, p. 201, likewise the " Annalcs de Chimie et de Physique," Phil.
Mag.t Phil. Trans., Comptes Rendus, more especially, as well as the
" Bibl. Univ." and the " Mem. de la Soc. de Geneve," at which latter
place he was born in 1801.
For Jean Jacques d'Ortons de Mairan, consult " Me'm. de Paris "
for the years 1726, 1731-1734, 1747, 1751, also abridgments of the Phil.
1 In the entry at p. 223, Part I of Libri's " Catal." for 1861 it is said that,
in the first volume of the works of A. S. Conti, who was the intimate friend of
Sir Isaac Newton, we find for the first time mention of the fact that the aurora
is supposed to be an electrical phenomenon.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 141
Trans, by Hutton, Vol. VII. p. 637, and by Baddam, 1745 ed., Vol. IX.
pp. 490-497-
For W. Derham (1657-1735) consult also " Nouv. Biog. Gen." (Hoefer),
Vol. XIII. p. 712; the Phil. Trans, unabridged, Vol. XXIV. for 1704-
1705, pp. 2136-2138; Vol. XXXVI. pp. 137, 204, also the following
abridgments : Hutton, Vol. V. pp. 258-263; Hy. Jones, Vol. IV.
part ii. pp. 290-291 ; Baddam, Vol. IV. pp. 473-478. In the last-named
volume is thus given an account of Mr. Derham's experiments : " He
shows (Phil. Trans., No. 303, p. 2136) that, having consulted what
others had writ of magnets, he finds in Grimaldi's De Lumine et colore
that both he and M. De la Hire (Phil. Trans., No. 188) had hit upon the
same discovery before him." Mr. Derham also alludes, more particularly,
to the observations of Ridley, Barlow and Dr. Gilbert.
For Claudius — Claes — Arrhenius (1627-1694) Swedish scientist,
professor at the Upsal University, consult " La Grande Encycl.,"
Vol. HI. p. 1107; " Diet. Biog. Suedois," Vol. XXII. pp. 385-389.
For John Wallis, the celebrated English mathematician (1616-1703),
in addition to the above-named Phil. Trans., Vol. XXII I for 1702-1703,
p. 1106, consult Phil. Trans., Vol. XII for 1677, No. 135, pp. 863-866
(meteors), also the abridged editions as follows : Hutton, Vol. IV.
pp. 196, 639, 655; Hy. Jones, Vol. IV. part ii. p. 286; Baddam,
London, 1739, Vol. III. p. 228 and Vol. IV. pp. 100-104 (manner's
compass); " Nouv. Biog. Gen." (Hoefer), Vol. XLVI. p. 530.
AURORA AUSTRALIS, OR SOUTHERN POLAR LIGHT
The earliest account of this phenomenon was given by Don
Antonio de Ulloa, as will be seen under date A.D. 1735-1746.
RKFERKNCES. — VV. L. Krafft, " Observation," etc., in Acta Acad.
Petropol. for 1778, Part I. Hist., p. 45; Phil. Trans., XLI. pp. 840, 843;
XLVI. pp. 319, 345; Chr. Hansteen, " On the Polar Lights," London,
1827.
ZODIACAL LIGHT
This phenomenon, from its occasional faint resemblance to and
association with the auroras, would seem to deserve mention here,
though none of the conjectures formed, more particularly by Cassini,
Euler, Mairan, Kepler, Laplace, Fatio de Duiller, Schubert, Poisson,
Olmsted, Biot, Herschel, Delambre, Olbers or Sir Wm. Thomson
attribute to it any electric or magnetic origin.
In the Report of the Proceedings of the Reale Istituto Lombardo,
1876, however, appears the account of many observations confirmed
by M. Serpieri which " demand absolutely " the conclusion that
the zodiacal light "is an electrical aurora preceding and following
the sun round the earth."
Angstrom asserted that he observed the auroral line in the
spectrum of the zodiacal light, and Lewis saw the latter during
the aurora of May 2, 1877. Humboldt, who observed it (" Cosmos,"
1849, Vol. I. p. 126) in the Andes at an elevation of 13,000 to 15,000
feet, as well as on " the boundless grassy plains, the Llanos of
Venezuela, and on the seashore, beneath the ever-clear sky of
142 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Cumana," believes it to be caused by " a very compressed annulus
of nebulous matter, revolving freely in space between the orbits
of Venus and Mars/' In this connection he refers to Arago in the
Annuairc for 1832, p. 246, and to a letter published in Comptes
Rendus, XVI, 1843, p. 687, from which the following is extracted :
" Several physical facts appear to indicate that, in a mechanical
separation of matter into its smallest particles, if the mass be very
small in relation to the surface, the electrical tension may increase
sufficiently for the production of light and heat."
In Chambers' " Descript. Astronomy," p. 257, the historian
Nicephorus is credited with first calling attention to the existence
of this phenomenon, to which Giovanni Domenico Cassini gave the
name of Zodiacal Light, after determining its relations in space
during the year 1683 (Mem. de I' Academic, 1730, Tome VIII. pp.
188 arid 276), but to Childrey belongs the credit of having given
to Europe the first explicit description of this phenomenon at p. 183
of his 1661 " Britannia Baconica."
KKKKKKNCKS.— -Sturgeon's Annuls, etc., Vol. II. pp. 140-1/12; Prof.
C. W. Prichett's paper in Set. Am. Supp., No. 126, p 2008, and the
com lusions reached by Herr Gronemann (Archives Neerlandaises) in vSV;.
Am. Supp., No. 327, p. 5221, Whcwcll, " Hist, of the Ind. Sciences,"
1859, Vol. I. p. 531, and Vol. 11. p. 609; Tyndall, " Heat as a Mode of
Motion," 1873, pp. 57, 58, .497, 498 ; J. Jr. J. Schmidt, " Das Zodiacallicht,"
.Braunschweig, 1856 ; the very interesting abstract given in " The Journal
of the Bri\. Assoc.," Vol. XI T. No. 5, of paper read by Rev. J. T. VV.
Claiidge, F.R.S., Jan. 9, 1902 , ITouzcau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Generale,"
Vol.11. 1 882, pp. 763-771; "Pr. Koy.Soc. of Edm.," XX.pt. 3; C. Wilkes,
"Theory of Zod. Light," Philad., 1857; Phil. Trans., Vof. XXXVIII.
p. 2.\g; " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. 1. pp. 126-134; " Anc. Mem. de Paris,"
1, VIIF and X, J. J. de Mairan, Pans, 17^3: " U- S. Japan Expedition,"
Vol. Ill, Washington, 1856.
A.D. 1684. — Hooke (Dr. Robert), English natural philosopher
(I^35~"I7°3)> who, in 1677, had succeeded Oldenburg as Secretary to
the Royal Society, gives the earliest well-defined plan of telegraphic
transmission, in a paper addressed to the Royal Society " showing
a way how to communicate one's mind at great distances ... 40,
100, 120, etc., miles ... in as short a time almost as a man could
write what he would have sent." His apparatus consisted of an
elevated framework supporting an open screen, behind which were
suspended as many wooden devices, or symbols, such as circles,
squares, triangles, etc., as there were letters in the alphabet. In
the daytime these devices were drawn up by a rope behind the
screen and made visible in the open space, while during the night
use was made of torches, lanterns or lights.
Hooke also showed, in 1684, that iron and steel rods can be
permanently magnetized by strongly heating them and by rapidly
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 143
cooling them in the magnetic meridian (" Enc. Brit./' 1857, Vol.
XIV. p. 3).
But, what is still more singular, he had, even previous to the
above-named date (i. e. in 1667), alluded to the possibility of tele-
phoning, that is, communicating sound through a wire. He thus
expresses himself : " And as glasses have highly promoted our
seeing, so it is not improbable that there may be found many
mechanical inventions to improve our other senses — of hearing,
smelling, tasting, touching. . . . Tis not impossible to hear a
whisper a fur long's distance, it having been already done ; and
perhaps the nature of the thing would not make it more impossible
though that furlong should be ten times multiplied. And though
some famous authors have affirmed it impossible to hear through
the thinnest plates of Muscovy glass, I know a way by which it is
easy to hear one speak through a wall a yard thick. It has not
been examined how far acoustics may be improved, nor what
other ways there may be of quickening our hearing, or conveying
sound through other bodies than the air, for that is not the only
medium. I can assure the reader that I have, by the help of a
distended wire, propagated the sound to a very considerable dis-
tance in an instant, or with as seemingly quick a motion as that
of light, at least, incomparably swifter than that which at the same
time was propagated through the air ; and this not only in a straight
line, or direct, but in one bended in many angles."
REFERENCES. — Hookc's entire paper in Derham's " Phil. Exp. and
Obs." for 1726, pp. 142-150; Phil. Trans, for 1684; for his observations
on atmospheric electricity consult Hoiizcau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.,"
Vol. II- p. 166; " Journal cles Savants" for April 1846; " The Post-
humous Works of Robert Hooke," London, 1705, p. 424, "Revue
Scicntifique," Mars 15, 1902, p. 351 ; for a complete list of all his works,
consult Ward's " Lives of the Grcsham Professors " ; for description of his
telegraph and reference to Amontons, etc., see Phil. Mag., Vol. I. pp.
312-316.
A.D. 1684. — Sturmy's " Mariner's Magazine " for this year, of
which a copy can be seen in the library of the British Museum,
contains an account of the deviation of the compass and its tendency
to give misleading directions on account of local attraction.
REFERENCES. — Chambers' Journal, Vol. III. No. 60 for Feb. 24,
1855, p. 132, and Vol. XII. No. 300 for Oct. i, 1859, p. 246; Capt. Sam.
Sturmy's " Magn. Virtues and Tides," in Phil. Trans. , No. 57, p. 726,
or " Memoirs of the Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 134; Phil. Trans., abridg-
ments : by Hutton, Vol. II. p. 560, and by Lowthorp, Vol. II. p. 609;
" Journal des Scavans " for 1683, Vol. XI. pp. 267-293.
A.D. 1684. — In the " Essayes of Natural Experiments made in
the Accademia del Cimento " (Englished by Richard Waller),
London, 1684, by direction of the Royal Society, there are given,
144 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
respectively at pp. 53, 123 and 128-132, accounts of the operation
of the magnet in vacuo, details of several magnetical experiments
and experiments touching amber as well as other electrical bodies.
A.D. 1686. — Maimbourg (Louis), French historian, relates this
instance of the employment of the magnet at Chap VI of the
Rev. W. Webster's translation of his " Histoire de TArianisme " :
" Whilst Valens (the Roman emperor) was at Antioch . . . several
pagans of distinction, with the philosophers . . . not being able
to bear that the empire should continue in the hands of the Chris-
tians, consulted privately the demons ... in order to know the
destiny of the emperof and who should be his successor. . . . For
this purpose they made a three-footed stool . . . upon which,
having laid a basin of divers metals, they placed the twenty-four
letters of the alphabet around it ; then one of these philosophers,
who was a magician . . . holding in one hand vervain and in the
other a ring which hung at the end of a small thread, pro-
nounced . . . conjurations . . . at which the three-footed stool turn-
ing around and the ring moving of itself, and turning from one side
to the other over the letters, it caused them to fall upon the table
. . . which foretold them . . . that the Furies were waiting for
the emperor at Mimas ; . . . after which the enchanted ring,
turning about again over the letters in order to express the name
of him who should succeed the emperor, formed first of all
these capital letters, T H E O. After adding a D, to form
T H E O D, the ring stopped, and was not seen to move any more,
at which one of the assistants cried out . . . ' Theodorus is the
person whom the gods appoint for our emperor ' " (" History of
Christianity," by the Rev. Henry Hart Milman, London, 1840,
Vol. III. p. 120).
Maimbourg's biography is given at p. 58, Vol. IV. of the " English
Encyclopaedia."
A.D. 1692. — Dr. Le Lorrain de Vallemont relates, in " Descrip-
tion de 1'Airnant," etc., which he published at Paris, that, after a
very severe wind and rain storm during the month of October 1690,
the new steeple of the Church of Notre Dame de Chartres was found
to be so seriously injured as to necessitate demolition. It was then
observed that the iron cross was covered with a heavy coating of
rust, which latter proved to be so highly magnetic that a special
report upon it was made in the " Journal des Sgavans " by M. de la
Hire, December 3, 1691, at the request of Giovanni Dom. Cassini,
and of other members of the French Royal Academy.
REFERENCES. — " Journal des S9avans," Vols. XX, 1692, pp. 357-364
and Vol. XXXV, 1707, pp. 493-494 for additional accounts of the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 145
Church of N. Dame de Chartrcs by M. de la Hire and M. de Vallcmont,
and for a review of M. de Vallemont's work, of which latter pp. 4, 30,
66, 74, 89 to 90 merit special attention.
A.D. 1693. — Gregory (David), an eminent mathematician, who,
in 1691, had been made Savilian Professor of Astronomy in Oxford
mainly through the influence of Newton and Flamsteed, communi-
cates the result of his observations on the laws of magnetic action.
REFERENCES. — Noad, " Manual of Electricity," 1859, p. 525, Phil.
Trans., Vols. XVIII-XXV; " Biog. Generale," Voh XXI. p. 902;
Ninth " Britannica," Vol. XI. p. 182; J. J. Fahie, " A History of El.
Tel. to the year 1837," London, 1884, p. 24.
A.D. 1693.— In the first volume (Letter IV. pp. 25-28) of the
" Memoirs for the Ingenious . . ." by J. de la Crosse, are given
accounts of several " New experiments on the loadstone ; of a
needle touch'd with it, and plac'd directly over the needle of a
compass ; of two Mariner's Needles hang'd freely over one another,
at several distances ; of a touch'd steel-ring. Reasons of these
experiments. The earth magnet ical."
In explanation of all this, M. de la Hire supposes " that the
mass of the earth is a great loadstone, which directs the poles of
the same name in all the loadstones and touch'd needles, towards
the same place of the earth ; so that the two hang'd needles do but
remove from this natural position by the particular force they
have of driving away each other's poles of the same name ; which
force, in a certain degree, is not sufficient to overcome the power
of the great loadstone of the earth."
An account of M. P. de la Hire's " new sort of a magnetical
compass " had already appeared in the Phil. Trans, for 1686-1687,
Vol. XVI. No. 188, p. 344.
REFERENCES. — For De la Hire, the following abridgments of the
Phil. Trans. : Lowthorp, London, 1722, Vol. II. pp. 620-622; Baddam,
London, 1739, Vol. IV. pp. 473-478; Hutton, London, 1809, Vol. III.
icrs, L
pp. 272-282 and the " Table Alptiab. . . . Aca'd". Iloyale," by M.
p. 381; also " The Phil. Hist, and Mem. of the Roy. Acad. at Paris,"
by Martyn and Chambers, London, 1742, Vol. IT. pp. 273-277; Vol. V.
ad.
Godin, Paris, Vol. II. p. 16 and Vol. X. pp. 164 and 734.
A.D. 1696. — Zahn (F. Joannes), prebendary of the Pr<§montres
Order at Celle near Wurtzburg and provost of the convent of
Niederzell, celebrated for his philosophical and mathematical
studies, publishes his highly valued " Specula physico-mathematico-
historica-notabilium ac mirabilium sciendorum . . ." throughout
the three folio volumes of which he treats extensively of the wonders
of the entire universe.
In his tabulated list of the origin and properties of all the
different known gems and stones (Vol. II. chap. vii. p. 55), he states
L
146 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
that the loadstone, first discovered at Magnesia in Lydia (Caria — on
the Maeander) is heavy, very well shaped, and of a dark colour
verging upon blue. The marvellous properties of gems and stones
are detailed at pp. 59-73 of the same volume, the fifth paragraph of
('hap. VIII treating of the loadstone's many virtues and admirable
qualities, as exemplified in the writings of Guilielmus Gilbertus,
Nicolaus Zucchius, Nicolaus Cabseus, Athanasius Kircherus, Eusebius
Nierembergius, Laurentius Forerus, Hieronymus Dandinus, Jacobus
Grandamicus, Ludovicus Alcazar, Claudius Franciscus Millie t de
Chales, as well as of many others.
REFERENCES. — Michaud, " Biog. TTniv.," Vol. XLV. p. 340; Dr.
John Thomas, " Universal Pron. Diet./' 1886, p, 2514 ; Brunei, " Manuel
du Libraire," Vol. V. p. 1519.
A.D. 1700. — Bernoulli (John I), son of Nicolas, the foundei of
the celebrated family of that name, improves upon Picard's dis-
covery of the electrical appearance of the barometer, made A.D. 1675,
by devising a mercurial phosphorus or mercury shining in vacno
(" Diss. Physica de Mercurio Lucente/' etc., Basel, 1719). This
procured the favourable notice of King Frederick I, of Prussia, who
rewarded him with a medal. John Bernoulli I (1667-1748) was
a member of nearly every learned society of Europe and " one of
the first mathematicians of a mathematical age." His exceedingly
valuable memoirs, found in all the scientific transactions of the
day, were first collected in their entirety during the year 1742, by
Cramer, Professor of Mathematics, and published at Lausanne and
Geneva.
" Is it not surprising/' remarks Prof. Robison, in his able
article on ''Dynamics " (Eighth " Britannica/' Vol. VIII. p. 363),
" that, twenty-five years after the publication of Newton's ' Prin-
cipia,' a mathematician on the Continent should publish a solution
in the Memoirs of the French Academy, and boast that he had
given the first demonstration of it ? Yet, John Bernoulli did this
in 1710. Is it not more remarkable that this should be precisely
the solution given by Newton, beginning from the same theorem,
the 4oth I., Prin., following Newton in every step and using the
same subsidiary lines? Yet, so it is." This was five years after
he had accepted (1705) the chair of mathematics made vacant by
the death of his brother, James I.
BERNOULLI FAMILY
The Bernoulli family is as well known in the history of mathe-
matics, by the distinguished services of eight of its members, as is
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 147
the Cassini family through the successes achieved by four of its
representatives in the development of astronomical studies.
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), second son of John I, constructed
a dipping needle, which is described on p. 85 of the Eighth " Britan-
nica," Vol. XIV, and with which he observed the dip to diminish
half a degree during an earthquake in the year 1767. Before
Daniel was twenty-four years old he had declined the Presidency
of the Academy of Sciences at Genoa, and, at the age of twenty-five,
was appointed Professor of Mathematics at St. Petersburg.
John Bernoulli II (1710-1790), youngest of the three sons of
John I, gained three prizes from the French Academy of Sciences
for Memoirs on the Capstan, on the Propagation of Light and on
the Magnet.
John Bernoulli III (1744-1807), grandson of John I, took the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the age of thirteen, and, when
nineteen years old, was appointed Astronomer Royal of Berlin.
He published several volumes of travels, in one of which he relates
(A. L. Ternant, " Le Telegraphe," 1881, p. 32) that he saw, in the
last-named city, an instrument constructed of five bells, with which
all letters of the alphabet could be expressed.
James Bernoulli I (1654-1705), brother of John I, while at
London, was introduced into the philosophical meetings of Boyle,
Hooke, Edward Stillingfleet and other learned and scientific men.
He opened, in 1682, the Collegium Experimental Physico-Mcchani-
cum for public instruction, but his lasting fame dates from the year
1684, when the great Von Leibnitz published his treatise " De
Gravitate Athens." Three years later, in 1687, James occupied
the mathematical chair of the University of Basel, made vacant by
the death of the learned Megerlin.
REFERENCES. — Whcwell, " Hist, of the Inductive Sciences," 1859,
Vol. I. pp. 358-366, 375-380, 393, 430, and Vol. II. pp. 32-39, 42 ;
" Hist, de i'Acad. Royalc dcs Sciences," 1700-1707; Edin. " Encycl.,"
1813, Vol. III. pp. 464-470; " Med. Library and Historical Journal,"
New York, 1903, Vol. I. pp. 270-277.
For Bernoulli family sec " Histoire des Sc. Math, et Phys.," Maxim.
Marie, Paris, 1888, Vols. Vil-XI; " Geschichle der Mathemathik,"
Moritz Canton, Leipzig, 1898, Vol. III. pp. 207-261 ; " Histoire G6ne*rale
des Mathe*matiques," Chas. Bossut, Paris, 1810, Vol. II. s. 2, as
at table, p. 512. See the family tree in " Eng. Cycl.," Vol. VI. p. 972,
and all the Bernoullis at p. 84 of Vol. II, Houzeau et Lancaster's
"Bibl. G6n.," 1882.
A.D. 1700. — Morgagni (Giovanni Battista), while practising
medicine at Bologna and at Venice, uses the magnet to remove
particles of iron which had accidentally fallen into the eyes, exactly
in the same manner as Kirkringius and Fabricius Hildanus had
done before him.
148 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — Maunder's " Biog. Treasury"; also Beckmann's
" History of Inventions," Vol. I. p. 44, and biography in Larousse,
Vol. XT, as well as in Vol. XVI of the Ninth " Britannica."
A.D. 1700. — Duverney (Joseph Guichard), an eminent French
anatomist, knew at this date that the limbs of a frog are convulsed
by the electric current (as shown in the " Histoire de 1' Academic
des Sciences," 1700, p. 40, and 1742, vol. I. p. 187), and the Italian
physician L. Marco Antonio Caldani, assistant to Morgagni, alludes
to the " revival of frogs by electrical discharges."
REFERENCES. — " Ency. Metrop.," Vol. IV. p. 220; Highton's " Elect.
Tel." ; Fahie, " 1 list, of Elcc. Tel.," pp. 175 and 176 and notes; Knight's
" Mech. Diet.," Vol. IT. p. 936; G. H. Browne, London, 1704, and in
" Phil. Mag.," Vol. XVIII. p. 285, also note p. 83 of Ronalds' "Catalogue."
A.D. 1701-1702.— Le Brun (Pierre), French theologian (1661-
1729), publishes his " Histoire Critique des Pratiques Supcrstitieu-
ses," wherein he makes mention (Vol. I. p. 294) of the possibility
of transmitting intelligence in the manner indicated by the Jesuit
Leurechon .
He is also the author of " Lettres qui decouvrent I'illusion des
philosophes sur la baguette divinatoire," Paris, 1693 (Larousse's
" Dictionnaire," Tome X. p. 292).
A.D. 1702. — Bion (Nicolas), French engineer and manufacturer
of mathematical and astronomical instruments (1652-1733), is the
author of " Usage des Astrolabes," which was shortly after followed
by his well-known " Traite de la construction et des principaux
usages des instruments de mathcmatique." In the preparation of
the last named, which was translated into German (Leipzig, 1713,
Nuremberg, 1721) as well as into English (London, 1723, 1738),
Bion admits the assistance afforded him by Lahire, Cassini and
Delisle the younger.
The whole of Book VII (pp. 267-290) of the " Traite/' is devoted
to the description of instruments employed in navigation, the com-
pass and the astrolabe in particular, with instructions for ascertaining
the declination and variation.
Bion is also the author of " L'Usage des Globes Celestes et
Terrestres et des spheres suivant les differents syst ernes du monde,"
Amsterdam, 1700. Much of the matter, however, is said to have
been copied by Bion from Pierre Poliniere's " Experiences de
Phisique," of which latter five editions were printed respectively
in 1709, 1718, 1728, 1734 and 1741.
REFERENCES. — "La Grande Encycl.," Vol. VI. p. 897; Michaud,
"Biog. Univ.," Vol. IV. p. 354; Dr. J. Thomas, "Univ. Pr. Diet.,"
1886, "p. 386.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 149
A.D. 1702. — Marcel (Arnold), Commissioner of the Navy at
Aries, publishes a pamphlet dedicated to the King, and entitled
" The Art of Making Signals, both by Sea and by Land," wherein
he affirms that he has " communicated frequently at the distance
of two leagues (in as short a space of time as a man could write
down and form exactly the letters contained in the advice he would
communicate), an unexpected piece of news that took up a page
in writing/' The particulars of this invention are, however,
wanting.
Marcel reports many well-authenticated instances where, as
already mentioned by Maestro Giulio Ciesare (A.D. 1590), iron bars
have become temporarily magnetic by position alone.
REFERENCES. — Snow Harris, " JRudim. Mag.," I and II. pp. 91, 92;
also " Emporium of Arts and Sciences," 1812, Vol. T. p. 301 ; Phil. Traus.,
Vol. XXXVII. p. 294, also the following abridgments : Badclam, Vol. IX,
1745, p. 278; Eames and Martyn, Vol. VI. part. ii. p. 270; Ilutton,
Vol. VII. p. 540.
A.D. 1702. — Kaempfer (Engelbrecht), German physician and
naturalist (1:651-1716), describes in his " Amcenitates Exotica?,"
experiments made by him upon the electric torpedo (Leithead, 1837,
Chap. XII). He insists that any person may avoid all sensation
of the shock by merely holding the breath while touching the
animal. This apparently improbable fact has since been confirmed,
however, by many scientists ; the accurate observations of Mr. Walsh
(A.D. 1773) on the subject, reported in the Phil. Trans, for 1773-1774-
1775, claiming especial attention (Larousse, " Diet.," Vol. IX. p.
1144).
A.D. 1704. — Amontons (Guillaume), an ingenious mechanician
and scientist, exhibits before the royal family of France, and before
the members of the Academic des Sciences, his system of com-
municating intelligence between distant points through the agency
of magnifying glasses — telescopes. The " Memoires de 1' Academic,"
1698-1705, contain an account of his many scientific productions.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, "Diet.," Vol. I. pp. 282-283; Appleton's
" Cyclop.," Vol. I. p. 432.
A.D. 1705. — Witson (Nicholaes), Burgomaster of Amsterdam,
announces at p. 56 of his " Noord en Oost Tartarye," that the
nautical compass was in use by the Coreans in the second half of
the seventeenth century.
A.D. 1705. — Hauksbee (Francis), English natural philosopher
and Curator of the Royal Society, makes, before the latter, several
150 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
experiments on the mercurial phosphorus. He shows that a con-
siderable quantity of light can be produced by agitating mercury
in partly exhausted as well as in thoroughly exhausted glass vessels.
When the mercury is made to break into a shower, flashes of light
are seen to start everywhere " in as strange a form as lightning/'
He also showed light in vacuo produced by rubbing amber and
by rubbing glass upon woollen. He says (Priestley, " Hist, and
Present State of Electricity," London, 1775, p. 19) that every fresh
glass first gave a purple and then a pale light, and that woollen,
tinctured with salt or spirits, produced a new, strong and fulgurating
light.
Hauksbee constructed a powerful electrical machine wherein
the Von Guericke sulphur globe was replaced by one of glass, as
had already been done by Sir Isaac Newton (at A.D. 1675). With
it he found that upon exhausting the air, whirling the globe rapidly
and placing his hand upon the outside, a strong light appeared upon
the interior, and that the light would show itself also upon the
outside when air was let into the globe (" Physico-Mech. Exp.,"
pp. 12, 14, 26, 32, 34).
The machine, which the celebrated mechanician Leupold had
constructed at Leipzig for Mr. Wolfius, only differed from the
original one made by Hauksbee in that the glass globe turned
vertically instead of horizontally.
Other experiments with coated glass globes, globes of sulphur,
etc., are detailed in the " Physico-Mech. Exp./' as indicated at
pp. 21-24 °f the Priestley work above alluded to. At the last-named
page he says : " That Mr. Hauksbee, after all, had no clear idea of
the distinction of bodies into electrics and non-electrics appears
from some of his last experiments, in which he attempted to produce
electrical appearances from metals, and from the reasons he gives
for his want of success in those attempts."
Hauksbee also gave some attention to the study of the laws
of magnetic force, and the results published in the Phil. Trans.,
Vol. XXVII. for 1710-1712, p. 506, giving a law of force varying
as the sesqui-duplicate ratio of the distances, were subsequently
confirmed by Taylor and by Whiston in the Phil. Trans, for 1721
(Noad, " Manual of Elec.," 1859, p. 579).
REFERENCES. — Aglave et Boulard, " LumiSre Elcctrique," Paris,
1882, p. 18; Priestley, "Familiar Intr. to Study of Elcc.," London,
1786, p. 60; Phil, Trans., Vol. XXV. pp. 2327, 2332 ; Vol. XXVI, 1708-
1709, pp. 82-92; Vol. XXIX, 1714-1716, p. 294 (with Brooke Taylor);
also the following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. V. pp. 270, 307, 324,
344, 355, 411-416, 452, 509, 528,696; Jones, Vol. IV. p. 295 ; Baddam,
1745, Vol. V. pp. 33-37, 41-43, 112, 114-117, 483 ; Trios. Thomson, " Hist,
of the1 Roy. Soc.," London*, 1812, p. 430, Chemical News, Vol. II. p. 147;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 151
Nicolas Desmarets, " Experiences," etc., Paris, 1754, in " Recueil des
Me'moires de 1'Acad. dcs Sciences."
A.D. 1705.— Keill (John), M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of
Astronomy, is the author of " Introductio ad Veram Physicam,
etc./' of which other editions appeared in 1725, 1739 and 1741, and
a good English translation of which was published at Glasgow
in 1776.
The last named is entitled " An Introduction to Natural Phil-
osophy, or Lectures in Physics read in the University of Oxford
in the Year 1700." In Lecture VIII he states : " It is certain
that the magnetic attractions and directions arise from the structure
of parts ; for if a loadstone be struck hard enough, so that the
position of its internal parts be changed, the loadstone will also
be changed. And if a loadstone be put into the fire, insomuch
that the internal structure of the parts be changed or wholly de-
stroyed, then it will lose all its former virtue and will scarce differ
from other stones. . . . And what some generally boast of, con-
cerning effluvia, a subtile matter, particles adapted to the pores
of the loadstone, etc., does not in the least lead us to a clear and
distinct explication of these operations; but notwithstanding all
these things, the magnetick virtues must be still reckoned amongst
the occult qualities."
A.D. 1706. — Hartsoeker (Nicolas), Dutch natural philosopher,
friend of Christian Huyghens, while Professor of Mathematics at
Diisseldorf, writes his " Conjectures Physiques," four editions of
which were published during the three years 1708, 1710 and 1712.
The Tenth Discourse of the Second Book (pp. 140-182) treats
of the nature and properties of the loadstone and gives numerous
observations concerning magnetical phenomena, which are well
illustrated. He says that many ordinary stones have become
magnetic after being long exposed to the air, in consequence of
iron penetrating them. He believes that the native loadstone is
made up of ordinary stone and of iron containing many small
bodies through which run magnetic channels; that the latter are
held together so strongly as to be disintegrated with difficulty,
and that they are filled with a subtile matter which circulates
incessantly through and around them.
The First Discourse of the Fourth Book treats of Meteors, and
at pp. 91-99 of his " Eclair cissements, . . /' published in 1710 he
gives further reports of his curious observations on magnetic
phenomena.
REFERENCES. — " Journal des S9avans," Vol. XXIV for 1696, pp.
649-656.
For particulars of the very celebrated natural philosopher, Christian
152 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Huyghens — Hugenius van Zuglichen (1629-1695) above alluded to,
consult : the " Vita Hugenii," prefixed to his " Opera Varia," published by
Van'Sgravesandein 1724 ;" Meyer's Konvcrsations-Lexikon, Leipzig und
Wicn, 1895, Vol. IX. pp. 93-94, also the biography, embracing a detailed
list of his geometrical, mechanical, astronomical and optical works at
PP- 536-538 of the " English Cyclopaedia"; Vol. II. of Houzeau et
Lancaster, " Bibliog. GeneVale," p. 169; " Le Journal des Savants"
for May 1834, April 1846, July 1888, April 1896, Feb. 1898, Oct. 1899;
" Histoire des Sciences Math, et Phys.," Maximilien Marie, Paris, 1888,
Vol. V. pp. 15-140; " Hist, et Mem. dc 1'Acad. Roy. des Sc.," Vol. I.
p. 307; Hartsoeker's biography at pp. 307-308 of the " Engl. Cycl.,"
Vol. Ill, 1867.1
A.D. 1707. — J. G. S. (not, as many suppose, Jean George Sulzer)
publishes " Curious Speculations during Sleepless Nights," 8vo,
Chemnitz, wherein appears the first account of the development,
by heat, of electricity in the tourmaline, which latter, it is therein
stated, was first brought from Ceylon by the Dutch in 1703, Another
report of the above appears in the Memoir es de I' Academic des
Sciences of Paris for 1717.
REFERENCE. — Bcckmann, Bohn, 1846, Vol. I. pp. 86-98.
A.D. 1708. — Wall (Dr. William), a prominent English divine,
communicates to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., Vol. XXVI.
No. 314, p. 69) the result of his experiments, showing him to have
been the first to establish a resemblance of electricity to thunder
and lightning.
He found that, upon holding tightly in the hand a large bar
of amber and rubbing it briskly against woollen cloths, " a pro-
digious number of little cracklings was heard, every one of which
produced a small flash of light (spark) ; and that when the amber
was drawn lightly through the cloth it produced a spark but no
crackling." He observed that " by holding a finger at a little
distance from the amber a crackling is produced, with a great flash
of light succeeding it, and, what is very surprising, on its eruption
it strikes the finger very sensibly, wheresoever applied, with a push
or puff like wind. The crackling is fully as loud as that of charcoal
on fire. . . . This light and crackling seem in some degree to
represent thunder and lightning."
REFERENCES. — Bakewell, "Electric Science," p. 13; Aglave et
Boulard, " Lumidre Electrique," 1882, p. 17; Thos. Thomson, "An
Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity," London, 1830, pp. 314,
^63; Thos. Thomson, " Hist of the Roy. Soc.," London, 1812, p. 431 ;
* " La perte de 1'illustre M. Huygens est inestimable, peu de gens le
savent autant que moi; il a £gal£, a mon avis, la reputation de Galilee et
de Descartes, et, aid 6 par ce qu'ils avaient fait, il a surpass^ leurs de"couvertes."
(Extracted from a letter written by Leibnitz to Bosange, July 26, 1695 —
" Journal des Savants," for Novf 1905, " Qeuvres compldtes de Christian
Iluygens," La Hayc, 1905.)
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 153
see also the following abridgments of the Phil. Trans. ; Hutton, Vol. V.
p. 408 and Baddam of 1745, Vol. V. p. in.
A.D. 1712. — The great Japanese Encyclopaedia, Wa-Kan-san siil
tson-ye, describes the compass, zi-siak-no-fari, at Vol. XV. folio 3,
recto (Klaproth, " Lettre a M. de Humboldt," etc., 1834, p. 107).
A.D. 1717. — Lemery (Louis), two years after the death of his
distinguished father, Nicolas Lemery, exhibits a stone (the tour-
maline) brought from Ceylon, and announces, to the French
Academic des Sciences, that it possesses the electrical property of
attracting and repelling light bodies after being warmed.
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1777) alludes to the experiments of Lemery,
in his Flora Zeylanica, and mentions the stone under the name of
lapis electricus. (See, for Carl Linnaeus, " Thesaurus Litteraturae
Botanicae," G. A. Pritzel, Lipsiae, 1851, pp. 162-169, also " Guide
to the Literature of Botany," by Benj. Daydon Jackson, London,
1881, pp. xxxvi, etc.)
The first scientific examination of the electric properties of the
tourmaline was, however, made by ^Epinus in 1756, and published
in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy. yEpinus showed that a
temperature of between 99^° and 212° F. was necessary for the
development of its attractive powers.
Of the electricity of crystals, Gmelin, in his " Chemistry "
(Vol. I. p. 319), names the following discoverers : /Epinus (tour-
maline)— see A.D. 1759; Canton (topaz) — see A.D. 1753; Brard
(axinite) — see A.D. 1787; Haliy (boracite, prehnite, sphene, etc.) —
see A.D. 1787; Sir David Brewster (diamond, garnet, amethyst,
etc.) — see A.D. 1820; and Wilhelm Gottlieb Hankel (borate of
magnesia, tartrate of potash, etc.).
REFERENCES. — Becquerel, " Resume," 1858, p. n ; Lcithcad, " Elec-
tricity," p. 239; " Ph. Hist, and Mem. of Roy. Ac. of Sc. at Paris,"
London, 1742, Vol. V. p. 216; " Journal des Scavans," Vol. LXX for
1721, pp. 572-573 on the tourmaline.
A.D. 1720. — Grey — Gray (Stephen), a pensioner of the Charter
House and Fellow of the Royal Society, makes known through his
first paper in the Phil. Trans, the details of the important line of
investigation which finally led to the discovery of the principle of
electric conduction and insulation as well as to the fact, not the
principle, of induction (see ^Epinus, A.D. 1759). Thus, to Grey is
due the credit of having laid the foundation of electricity as a science.
He proved that electricity can be excited by the friction of
feathers, hair, linen, paper, silk, etc., all of which attract light
bodies even at a distance of eight or ten inches. He next discovered
that electricity can be communicated from excited bodies to bodies
154 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
incapable of ready excitation. When first suspending a hempen line
with pack threads he could not transmit electricity, but when suspend-
ing the line with silken threads he transmitted the electrical influence
several hundred feet. The latter he did at the suggestion of his
friend Granville Wheeler — Wheler — (not Checler, as Aglave et
Boulard have it in " Lumiere Electrique," p. 20), thinking that
" silk might do better than pack thread on account of its smallness,
as less of the virtue would probably pass off by it than by the
thickness of the hempen line which had been previously used/'
They both tried experiments with longer lines of pack thread, but
failed, as they likewise did after substituting thin brass wire for
the thread. This afterwards led to the discovery of other insulating
substances, like hair, resin, etc. During the months of June 1729,
and August 1730, Grey and Wheeler succeeded in transmitting
electricity through pack thread supported by silken cords a distance
of 765 feet, and through wire at a distance of 800-886 feet.
Grey demonstrated also that electric attraction is not propor-
tioned to the quantity of matter in bodies, but to the extent of
their surface, and he likewise discovered the conducting powers
of fluids and of the human body. Of the cracklings and flashes of
light he remarks : " And although these effects are at present but
in minimis, it is probable, in time, there may be found out a way
to collect a greater quantity of the electric fire, and consequently
to increase the force of that power, which by several of those ex-
periments, if we are permitted to compare great things with small,
seems to be of the same nature with that of thunder and lightning "
(Phil. Trans., abridgment of John Martyn, Vol. VIII. p. 401).
Stephen Grey may be said to have continued his experiments
while lying upon his death-bed, for, unable to write, he dictated to
the last, as best he could, the progress he had made in his studies
to Dr. Mortimer, the Secretary of the Royal Society (Phil. Trans.,
1735-1736, Vol. XXXIX. p. 400).
Grey's own description of a new electric planetarium deserves
reproduction here : " I have lately made several new experiments
upon the projectile and pendulous motions of small bodies by
electricity; by which small bodies may be made to move about
larger ones, either in circles or ellipses, and those either concentric
or excentric to the centre of the large body about which they move,
so as to make many revolutions about them. And this motion will
constantly be the same way that the planets move around the
sun, viz. from the right hand to the left, or from west to east.
But these little planets, if I may so call them, move much faster
in their apogeon than in the perigeon part of their orbits, which
is directly contrary to the motion of the planets around the sun."
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 155
,To this should be added the following description of the manner
in which these experiments can be made : " Place a small iron
globe, of an inch or an inch and a half in diameter, on the middle
of a circular cake of rosin, seven or eight inches in diameter, greatly
excited; and then a light body, suspended by a very fine thread,
five or six inches long, held in the hand over the centre of the cake,
will, of itself, begin to move in a circle around the iron globe, and
constantly from west to east. If the globe is placed at any dis-
tance from the centre of the circular cake, it will describe an ellipse,
which will have the same excentricity as the distance of the globe
from the centre of the cake. If the cake of rosin be of an elliptical
form, and the iron globe be placed in the centre of it, the light body
will describe an elliptical orbit of the same excentricity with the
form of the cake. If the globe be placed in or near one of the foci
of the elliptical cake, the light body will move much swifter in the
apogee them in the perigee of its orbit. If the iron globe is fixed on a
pedestal an inch from the table, and a glass hoop, or a portion of a
hollow glass cylinder, excited, be placed around it, the light body
will move as in the circumstance above mentioned, and with the
same varieties."
REFERENCES. — Priestley, " Hist, and Present State of Elec.," 1775,
pp. 26-42, 55-63 ; and " A New Universal History of Arts and Sciences,"
Electricity, Vol. 1. p. 460, Saturday Revieiv, August 21, 1858, p. 190;
Wilson, "Treatise," 1752, Section IV. prop. i. p. 23, note; Phil. Trans.,
Vol. XXXI. p. 104; Vol. XXXVII. pp. 18, 227, 285, 397; Vol. XXXIX.
pp. 16, 166, 220, also the following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. VI.
p. 490; Vol. VII. pp. 449, 536, 566; Vol. VIII. pp. 2, 51, 65, 316, Reid
and Gray, London, 1733, Vol. VI. pp. 4-17 (Granville Wheler) ; Eames
and Martyn, Vol. VI. part ii. pp. 7, 9, 15, and Part IV. p. 96; Vol. VH.
pp. 18-20, 231; John Martyn, Vol. VI11. part ii. pp. 397, 403, 404
(Dr. C. Mortimer); Baddam, Vol. IX, 1745, pp. 145-160, 244, 272,
340, 497; " An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity,"
Thomas Thomson, London, 1830, p. 344; and Thos. Thomson's " Hist,
of the Roy. Soc.," London, 1812, p. 431 ; Weld, " Hist, of Roy. Soc.,"
Vol. I. p. 466; " A course of lectures on Nat. Philos. and the Mechanical
Arts," by Thos. Young, London, 1807, Vol. JI. p. 417; " Hist, de 1'Aca-
de"mie des Sciences," 1733, p. 31 ; " Jour. Litter." de 1732, a la Haye,
pp. 183, 186, 187, 197; " Hist de 1'Academie Royale de Berlin," 1746,
p. ii ; " Journal des S9avans," Vol. CXXV for 1741, pp. 134-141, and
Vol. CXXVI for 1742, pp. 252-263. For Granville Wheeler, consult
Phil. Trans., Vol. XLL pp. 98, 118, also the following abridgments :
Hutton, Vol. VIII. pp. 306-320; John Martyn, Vol. VIII. part ii.
pp. 406, 412, 415. For Dr. C. Mortimer, consult Phil. Trans., Vol. XLI.
p. 112 and John Martyn's abridgments, Vol. VIII. part ii. pp. 404-412.
A.D. 1721.— Taylor (Brooke), LL.D., F.R.S. (1685-1731), an
eminent English mathematician, past Secretary of the Royal
Society, and one of the ablest geometers of his time — " the only
one who, after the retreat of Newton, could safely enter the lists
with the Bernoullis " — publishes his " Experiments on Magnetism "
in Phil. Trans., No. 368.
156 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
In order to arrive at a proper determination of the laws of
magnetic force, Dr. Taylor — and also Whiston and Hauksbee —
according to Sir David Brewster, considered " the deviation of a
compass needle from the meridian, produced by the action of a
magnet at different distances ; and the conclusion which they all
drew from their experiments was that the magnetic force was
proportional to the sines of half the arcs of deviation, or nearly in
the inverse sesqui-duplicate ratio of the distance, or as the square
roots of the fifth powers of the distances. Dr. Taylor had already
come to the conclusion that the force was different in various
magnets, and decreased quicker at great distances than at small
ones, an experimental fact, as shown by Sir W. S. Harris, ' Rud.
Mag./ Part III. p. 224."
In Dr. Thomas Thomson's " History of the Royal Society " we
read, however (p. 461), that Brooke Taylor, and after him Musschen-
broek, attempted without success to determine by experiment the
rate at which the magnetic attractions and repulsions vary. This
rate was successfully investigated by the subsequent experiments of
Lambert, Robison and Coulomb. The nature of magnetic curves
was first satisfactorily explained by Lambert, Robison and Playfair.
Brooke Taylor gave four poles to a wire by touching it at one end
or at various parts, as indicated in Phil. Trans., Vol. XXIX. p. 294,
and Vol. XXXI. p. 204.
REFERENCES. — Whewell, " Hist of the Ind. Sciences," 1859, Vol. I.
PP- 359» 3751 Vol. II. p. 31; " General Biog. Diet.," London, 1816,
Vol/XXlX: pp. 163-166; Phil. Trans, for 1714-1716, Vol. XXIX. p.
294 and the following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. VI. p. 528; Keid and
Gray, Vol VI. pp. 17, 159; Hy. Jones, Vol. IV. part ii. p. 297; Eames
and Martyn, Vol. VI. part ii. p. 253.
A.D. 1722. — Graham (George), a celebrated optician and instru-
ment maker in London, is the first to distinctly make known the
diurnal and horary variations of the magnetic needle, traces of
which had been merely recognized as facts by Gellibrand, in 1634,
and by the Missionary Father Guy-Tachard at Louvo, in Siam,
during 1682. He finds that its northern extremity begins to move
westward at about seven or eight o'clock in the morning, and
continues to deviate in that direction until about two o'clock in
the afternoon, when it becomes stationary ; it soon begins to return
to the eastward and becomes again stationary during the night.
Graham made nearly a thousand observations, between the 6th of
February and the I2th of May, 1722, and found that the greatest
westerly variation was 14° 45', and the least 13° 50'; in general,
however, it varied between 14° and 14° 35', giving 35' for the
amount of the daily variation.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 157
Graham's discovery — afterwards amplified by Anders Celsius
(A.D. 1740) — attracted but little attention until 1750, when the
subject was ably taken up by Wargentin, Secretary to the Swedish
Academy of Sciences. Between 1750 and 1759 Mr. John Canton
made about 4000 observations on the same subject, and was
followed by the Dutch scientist Gerard van Swieten, the favourite
pupil of Boerhaave, with like results.
As Dr. Lardner states (" Lectures on Science and Art/' 1859,
Vol. II. p. 115), the same phenomenon has been observed more
recently by Col. Beaufoy (at A.D. 1813), by Prof. Hansteen (at
A.D. 1819) and by many others. He further states that Cassini,
who observed the diurnql variation of the needle at Paris, found
that neither the solar heat nor light influenced it, for it was the
same in the deep caves constructed under the Observatory in Paris,
where a sensibly constant temperature is preserved, and from which
light is excluded, as at the surface. In northern regions these
diurnal changes are greater and more irregular; while, toward the
line, their amplitudes are gradually diminished until at length they
disappear altogether.
It was Graham who first entertained the idea of measuring the
magnetic intensity through the vibrations of the needle, a method
subsequently used by Coulomb, and which many believe was in-
vented by the latter. From the observations made by Humboldt
and by Gay-Lussac in this manner, Biot has reduced the variation
of intensity in different latitudes.
REFERENCES. — " Am. Journal Science," Vol. XXX. p. 225 ; Walker,
" Magnetism," Chap. II; Fifth Dissertation of the Eighth " Britannica,"
Vol. I. p. 744; also Phil. Trans. 1724-1725, Vol. XXX11I. p. 332, and
pp. 96-107 (" An Account of Observations Made of the Horizontal
Needle at London, 1722-1723, by Mr. George Graham ") and the following
abridgments : Reid and Gray, Vol. VI. pp. 170, 187; Hutton, Vol. VII.
pp. 27, 94; Vol. IX. p. 495; Eames and Martyn, Vol. vi. part ii. pp.
28, 280, 290; Baddam, 1745, Vol. VIII. p. 20; John Martyn, Vol. X.
part ii. p. 698; An de chimie for 1749, Vol. XXV. p. 310.
A.D. 1725. — Horrebow — Horreboe — (Peter), was a Danish
physicist (1679-1764), who studied medicine for a time and then
became a pupil of the celebrated mathematician and astronomer
Olaus Rcemer (1644-1710, best known by his discovery of the finite
velocity of light), whom he succeeded in the University of
Copenhagen.
His earliest work, " Clavis Astronomue," first appeared during
1725, but it is only in the second and enlarged new edition of it
in Horrebow's " Operum Mathematico-Physicorum/' Havn. 1740,
Vol. I: p. 317, that will be found the passage (s. 226) in which the
luminous process of the sun is characterized as a perpetual northern
158 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
light. Humboldt, who mentions the fact (" Cosmos/' 1859, Vol. V.
p. 81) suggests that a comparison be made of Horrebow's statement
with the precisely similar views held by Sir William Herschel
(1738-1822) and Sir John Frederick William Herschel (1792-1871).
He says that Horrebow, who did not confound gravitation with
magnetism, was the first who thus designated the process of light
produced in the solar atmosphere by the agency of powerful mag-
netic forces (" Memoires de Mathematiques et de Physique,
presenters a 1'Academie Royale des Sciences/' Vol. IX. 1780, p. 262;
Hanow, in Joh. Dan. Tit ins 's " Gemeiniitzige Abhand. iiber
natur. Dinge/' 1768, p. 102), and, with reference to the Herschels
he thus expresses himself : " If electricity, moving in currents,
develops magnetic forces, and if, in accordance with an early
hypothesis of Sir Wm. Herschel (Phil. Trans, for 1795, Vol. LXXXV.
P- 318; John Herschel, "Outlines of Astronomy/' p. 238; also,
Humboldt, " Cosmos," Vol. I. p. 189), the sun itself is in the con-
dition of a perpetual northern light (I should rather say of an
electro-magnetic storm) we should seem warranted in concluding
that solar light transmitted in the regions of space by vibrations
of ether, may be accompanied by electro-magnetic currents " (" Diet,
of Nat. Biog.," for John and William Herschel, Vol. XXVI. pp.
263-274).
REFERENCES. — Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 397; Wolf,
" Hist. Ordbog.," Vol. VII. pp. 194-199; Nyerup, " Univ. Annalen ";
Houzcau ct Lancaster, " Bibliographic," 1882, Vol. 11. p. 166.
Three of the children of Peter Horrebow, almost equally dis-
tinguished for their learning, are : Nicolas Horrebow (1712-1760),
who made physical and astronomical observations in Iceland and
published an able report thereon during 1752 ; Christian Horrebow
(1718-1776), who succeeded his father in 1753 as astronomer in
the Copenhagen University and who wrote several important
scientific treatises; and Peter Horrebow (1728-1812), who was
professor of mathematics and philosophy, and published works on
geometry, meteorology and astronomy.
Much of interest concerning the above will also be found in
the " Abstracts of Papers . . . Roy Soc./' Vol. II. pp. 208, 249,
251, and in the " Catalogue of Sc. Papers . . . Roy. Soc./' Vol. III.
pp. 322-328; Vol. VI. p. 687; Vol. VII. p. 965.
A.D. 1726.— Wood (John), an English architect of considerable
repute, is said to have shown that the electric fluid could be conveyed
through wires a long distance, and, during the year 1747, one of
the earliest applications of Wood's discovery was made by Dr.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 159
William Watson (see A.D. 1745), who extended his experiments
over a space of four miles, comprising a circuit of two miles of
wire and an equal distance of ground.
REFERENCES. — Alexander Jones, " Sketch of the Elect. Teleg.," New
York, 1852, p. 7; Charles F. Briggs, " Story of the Telegraph," 1858, p. 18.
A.D. 1729. — Hamilton (James), who became sixth Earl of
Abercorn — also called Lord Paisley — publishes " Calculations and
Tables relating to the attractive virtue of loadstones ..." con-
taining very valuable data and wherein he is the first to give the
true law of the lifting capacity of magnets, as follows : " The prin-
ciple upon which these tables are formed is this : That if two load-
stones are perfectly homogeneous, that is if their Matter be of the
same specifick parity, and of the same virtue in all parts of one
stone, as in the other; and that like parts of their surfaces are
cap'd or arm'd with iron ; then the weights they sustain will be as
the squares of the cube roots of the weights of the loadstones ; that
is, as their surfaces."
Gilbert treats of armed loadstones, Book II. chaps, xvii-xxii.
In connection with the increased energy which magnets acquire
by being armed, that is, fitted with a cap of polished iron at each
pole, Dr. Whewell remarks that it is only at a later period any
notice was taken " of the distinction which exists between the
magnetical properties of soft iron and of hard steel; the latter
being susceptible of being formed into artificial magnets, with
permanent poles ; while soft iron is only passively magnetic, receiving
a temporary polarity from the action of a magnet near it, but
losing this property when the magnet is removed. About the
middle of the last century various methods were devised of making
artificial magnets, which exceeded in power all magnetic bodies
previously known " (" Hist, of the Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol. II. p. 220),
Hamilton alludes to a loadstone weighing 139 grains, with a
lifting power of 23,760 grains ! We have referred, amongst others,
to the loadstone belonging to Sir Isaac Newton at A.D. 1675, and
to the wonderful collection belonging to Mr. Butterfield at A.D. 1809.
A loadstone weighing twelve ounces, capable of lifting sixty pounds
of iron, is referred to in Terzagus, " Musieum Septalianum," 1664,
p. 42, while another weighing two and a half grains and lifting
783 grains is mentioned at p. 272, Vol. III. of the " Records of
General Science " ; and Salviatus ( Dialogues of Galileo," Dial. Ill)
alludes to one in the Academy of Florence which, unarmed, weighed
six ounces and could lift but two ounces, but when armed had a
lifting power of 160 ounces. At pp. 317-318, Part III of Nehemiah
Grew's " Musseum Regalis Societatis," London, 1681 — also 1686 —
160 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
allusion is made to a loadstone found in Devonshire, weighing about
sixty pounds, which moved a needle nine feet distant. Grew then
refers to Athan. Kircher and to Vincent Leotaud as having pub-
lished what is said of the loadstone by Gilbert and others, and he
likewise states : " Those that travail through the vast deserts of
Arabia, have also a needle and a compass whereby they direct
themselves in their way, as Mariners at sea [Majoli, ' Colloquia '] ;
the power of the magnet dependeth not upon its bulk — the smaller
being usually the stronger. . . ."
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans, for, 1729-1730, No. 412, Vol. XXXVI.
p. 245, and for July 1888, also Mutton's abridgments, Vol. VII. p. 383;
V. T. M. Van der Willigcn, " Arch, du Musec Teyler," 1878, Vol/IV ;
Jacob! Rohaulti, " Physica," 1718, Part III. cap. 8, p. 403, or the
English translation by Dr. Clarke, 1728, Vol. II. p. 181 ; P. W. Hacker,
" Zur theorie des magnctismus," Nurnberg, 1856; Alh. Kircher, " Mag-
ncs. . . ." 1643, lib. i. part ii. p. 63; Daniel Bernoulli, "Ada
Helvetica," 1758, Vol. III. p. 223; Nic. Cabaeus " Philosophia Mag-
netica," 1629, lib. iv. cap. 42, p. 407; Kenelme Digby, " The Nature
of Bodies," 1645, Chap. XXII. p. 243; "Diet, of Nat. Biog ," Vol.
XXIV. p. 185.
A.D. 1729-1730. — Savery (Servington), English mechanician,
succeeds in imparting magnetism to hard steel bars three-fourths
of an inch square and sixteen inches long, by fitting one bar with
an armature at each end and touching other bars with it whilst
held in the magnetic meridian in the line of the inclined needle.
It was shown by Savery that his artificial magnets were prefer-
able to loadstones. The first recorded attempt to make artificial
magnets is credited to one John Sellers, believed to be the author
of " The Practical Navigator," of which the earliest edition ap-
peared in 1669, and of " The Coasting Pilot," published about 1680.
An " Answer to Some Magnetical Inquiries Proposed in (the pre-
ceding) No. 23, pp. 423-424," will be found in Phil. Trans, for 1667,
Vol. II. pp. 478-479 and in the following abridgments : Baddam,
*745> Vol. I. p. 86; Mutton, Vol. I. p. 166 (as of No. 26, p. 478) ;
John Lowthorp, Vol. II. p. 601. Reference is likewise made to
this invention of Sellers at Vol. I. p. 86 of the " Memoirs of the
Royal Society," London, 1739, and in a paper by Reaumur, in the
" Memoires de T Academic Fran$aise " for the year 1723.
REFERENCES. — Savery, " Magnetical Observations and Experi-
ments," also Phil. Trans., Vol. XXXVI. pp. 295-340; and the following
abridgments: Hutton, Vol. VII. p. 400; Reid and Gray, Vol. VI.
p. 166; Eames and Martyn, Vol. VI. p. 260; Baddam, 1745, Vol. IX.
p. 57; Geo. Adams, " Essay on Electricity," 1785, p. 451.
A.D. 1731. — On the 25th of November the Royal Society were
honoured by a visit from the Prince of Wales and the Duke of
Lorraine, the last named being enrolled as a member during the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 161
evening. Experiments were performed " On the strength of Lord
Paisley's loadstone/' " On Dr. Frobenius's phlogiston/' and " On
the electrical observations of Mr. Stephen Grey/' These experi-
ments which, it is said, " succeeded notwithstanding the largeness
of the company," showed the facility with which electricity passes
through great lengths of conductors and are worth noting as being
the first of their nature.
A.D. 1732.— Regnault (Le Pere Noel) gives in " Les Entre-
tiens Physiques," etc., Vol. I. Nos. 15 and 16, the tables of the
declination at Paris from the years 1600-1730, and treats at length
of the merits of the loadstone and of the magnetic needle.
In Vols. II, IV and V he discourses about the extent of the
magnetic fluid and explains the phenomena of meteors, St. Elmo's
fire, thunder, etc., besides recording the experiments of Grey, Dufay
and others.
A.D. 1733. — Dufay (Charles Fran9ois de Cisternay), French
scientist and superintendent of the Jardin du Roit now the Jardin
des Plantes, of Paris (in which latter position he was succeeded by
Buffon), communicates to the French Academy of Sciences the
history of electricity brought down to the year 1732 (Dantzig
Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 195).
He is said to have originated the theory of two kinds of 'elec-
tricity permeating matter and producing all the known phenomena
of attraction, repulsion and induction, though the honour of this
important discovery should be shared by M. White, who was asso-
ciated at one time with Stephen Grey and who, it appears,
independently discovered the fact while in England. Dufay thus
announces his discovery : " . . . there are two kinds of electricity,
very different from one another, one of which I call vitreous (positive)
and the other resinous (negative) electricity. The first is that of
glass, rock crystal, precious stones, hairs of animals, wool and many
other bodies. The second is that of amber, copal, gum-lac, silk,
thread, paper and a vast number of other substances. The char-
acteristics of these two electricities are that they repel themselves
and attract each other. Thus a body of the vitreous electricity
repels all other bodies possessed of the vitreous, and, on the con-
trary, attracts all those of the resinous electricity. The resinous
also repels the resinous and attracts the vitreous. From this
principle one may easily deduce the explanation of a great number
of the phenomena ; and it is probable that this truth will lead us
to the discovery of many other things " (see Franklin, at A.D. 1752,
and Symmer, at A.D. 1759).
M
162 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Upon repeating Grey's experiments, Dufay observed, amongst
other things, that, by wetting pack thread, electricity was more
readily transmitted through it, and he was enabled thus easily to
convey the fluid a distance of 1256 feet, though the wind was high
and although the line made eight returns.
REFERENCES. — Fontenelle, " Eloge " ; Priestley, " History and
Present State of Electricity," 1775, Period IV. pp. 43-54; Sturgeon,
Lectures, 1842, p. 23; "An Epitome of El. and Mag.," Philad., 1809,
p. 29; Mem. de I'Acad. Royale des Sciences for 1733, pp. 23, 28, 76,
83, 233-236, 251, 252, 457; also for the years 1734, pp. 303, 341, and
1737, pp. 86, 307; Phil. Trans., Vol. XXXVIII. p. 258; also the follow-
ing abridgments : Hntton, Vol. VII. p. 638; John Martyn, Vol. VIII.
part ii. p. 393 , Baddam, Vol. IX. p. 497; Thos. Thomson, "An Outline
of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity," London, 1830, p. 344 and Thos.
Thomson, "Hist, of the Roy Soc.," London, 1812, p. 432; "Electricity
in the Service of Man," R. Wormell (from the German of Dr. Urbanitzky),
London, 1900, p. 14; "Journal des S^avans," Vol. XCIII for 1731,
pp. 383-388; Vol. C for 1733, p. 244; Vol. CIV for 1734, p. 479; Vol.
CXfl for i 737, p. 65 ; Vol. CXV for 1738, p. 173 ; Vol. CXXIX for 1743,
p. 501.
A.D. 1733. — Winckler (Johann Heinrich), a philosopher of
Wingendorf, Saxony, and Professor of Languages in the University
of Leipzig, first uses a fixed cushion in the electric machine for
applying friction instead of by means of the hand, and is, by many,
believed to have been the first to suggest the use of conductors as
a me'ans of protection against lightning (see B.C. 600).
In March 1745, Winckler read a paper before the Royal Society,
in which he describes machines for rubbing tubes and globes, also
a contrivance with which he can give his globes as many as 680
turns in a minute. Priestley states that the German electricians
generally used several globes at a time and that they could excite
such a prodigious power of electricity from " globes, whirled by a
large wheel and rubbed with woollen cloth or a dry hand, that, if
we may credit their own accounts, the blood could be drawn from
the finger by an electric spark ; the skin would burst and a wound
appear, as if made by a caustic."
During the year 1746 Winckler made use of common electricity
for telegraphic communications by the discharge of Leyden jars
through very long circuits, in some of which the River Pleisse
formed a part, and it may be added that Joseph Franz had previously
discharged the contents of a jar through 1500 feet of iron wire
while in the city of Vienna.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIII. p. 307; Vol. XLIV. pp. 211,
397; Vol. XLV. p. 262; Vol. XLVII. p. 231; Vol. XLVIII. p. 772; also
following abridgments: Hutton, Vol. IX. pp. 74, 109, 251, 345, 494;
Vol. X. pp. 197, 529; John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 269, 273, 327,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 168
345» 3991 Priestley, 1775, on the discoveries of the Germans, pp. 70-77;
" Thoughts on the Properties," etc., Leipzig, 1744, pp. 146, 149.
A.D. 1733. — Brandt (Georg), Swedish chemist, gives in the
" Memoirs of the Academy " of Upsal an account of the experi-
ments made by him to show the possibility of imparting magnetism
to substances which are not ferruginous. He proved it in the case
of the metal cobalt, and during the year 1750 the able discoverer
of nickel, Axel. F. de Cronstedt, showed that the latter is likewise
susceptible of this property.
REFERENCES. — Thomas, "Diet, of Biog.," 1871, Vol. I. p. 428;
English Cyclopaedia (Biography Supplement), 1872, p. 423.
A.D. 1734. — Poliniere (Pierre), French physician and experi-
mental philosopher (1671-1734), member of the Society of Arts,
entirely revises the fourth edition of his " Experiences de Phisique "
originally issued in 1709. While the second volume contains but a
short chapter relative to electricity, meteoric disturbances, etc.,
the remainder of the work gives very curious and interesting
experiments with the loadstone, making allusion to the observa-
tions of John Keill, besides treating of the declination of the
needle, etc.
REFERENCES. — " New Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. XL
p. 177; Moreri, "Grand Diet. Hist."; "Biog. Univ." (Michaud),
Vol. XXXIII. p. 637; "Nouv. Biog. Gen." (Hcefer), Vol. XL. p. 614;
Chaudon, " Diet. Hist. Univ."
A.D. 1734. — Swedenborg (Emanuel), founder of the Church of
New Jerusalem, details in his " Principia Rerum Naturalium/' etc,,
the result of experiments and sets forth the laws relating to magnetic
and electric forces and effects. The first explicit treatise upon the
close relationship existing between magnetism and electricity was,
however, written fourteen years later by M. Laurent Beraud
(1703-1777), Professor of Mathematics at the College of Lyons.
Both Swedenborg and Beraud recognized the fact that it is, as
Fahie expresses it, the same force, only differently disposed which
produces both electric and magnetic phenomena.
In " Results of an Investigation into the MSS. of Swedenborg,"
Edinburgh, 1869, p. 7, No. 16, Dr. R. L. Tafel makes following
entry :
" A treatise on the magnet, 265 pages text and 34 pages tables,
quarto. This work is a digest of all that had been written up to
Swedenborg's time on the subject, with some of his own experi-
ments. According to the title page, Swedenborg had intended it
for publication in London during the year 1722."
164 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
The " Principia Rerum Naturalium " is the first volume of
Swedenborg's earliest great work, " Opera Philosophica et Mineralia,"
originally published in Leipzig and Dresden 1734, which has justly
been pronounced a very remarkable cosmogony. In the " Principia,"
Part I. chap, ix., is to be found his treatment of what he calls the
second or magnetic element of the world; in Part III. chap. i. he
gives a comparison of the sidereal heaven with the magnetic sphere,
but he devotes the whole of Part II to the magnet in following
chapters :
I. On the causes and mechanism of the magnetic forces;
II. On the attractive forces of two or more magnets, and the ratio
of the forces to the distances ;
III. On the attractive forces of two magnets when their poles are
alternated ;
IV. On the attractive forces of two magnets when their axes are
parallel or when the equinoctial of the one lies upon the
equinoctial of the other;
V. On the disjunctive and repulsive forces of two or more magnets
when the cognomical or inimical poles are applied to each
other ;
VI. On the attractive forces of the magnet and of iron;
VII. On the influence of the magnet upon ignited iron;
VIII. On the quantity of exhalations from the magnet and their
penetration through hard bodies, etc.;
IX. On the various modes of destroying the power of the magnet;
and on the chemical experiments made with it ;
X. On the friction of the magnet against iron, and on the force
communicated from the former to the latter;
XI. On the conjunctive force of the magnet, as exercised upon
several pieces of iron ;
XII. On the operation of iron and of the magnet upon the mariner's
needle ; and on the reciprocal operation of one needle upon
another ;
XIII. On other methods of making iron magnetical;
XIV. The declination of the magnet calculated upon the foregoing
principles ;
XV. On the causes of the magnetic declination ;
XVI. Calculation of the declination of the magnet for the year 1722,
at London.
REFERENCES. — B£raud, "Dissertation," etc., Bordeaux, 1748;
also Priestley, 1775, p. 191; "Biographic Universelle," Vol. III.
?. 687; " Biog. Gener.," Vol. XLIV. pp. 690-703; Daillant de la
ouche, " Abr6ge des ouvrages de Swedenborg," 1788; J. Clowes,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 165
" Letters on the writings of Swedenborg," 1799; " Svenskt Biogra-
fiskt Handlexikon," Herm. Hofberg, Stockholm, pp. 368-369;
" Swedenborg and the Nebular Hypothesis," Magnus Nyre"n,
astronomer at Observatory of Pulkowa, Russia, translated from
the " Viert el jahrschrift der Astronomischcn Gesellschaft," Leipzig,
1879, p. 81, by Rev. Frank Sewall.
A.D. 1735-1746.— Ulloa (Don Antonio de), Spanish mathe-
matician, who left Cadiz May 26, 1735, for South America, whither
he was sent with Condamine and other French Academicians, as
well as with Spanish scientists, to measure a degree of the meridian,
returned to Madrid July 25, 1746, and shortly after gave an account
of his experiences during an absence of eleven years and two months.
In his " Voyage Historique de rAm6rique Meridionale,"
Amsterdam and Leipzig, 1752, he speaks (Vol. I. pp. 14-18 and
Vol. II. pp. 30-31, 92-94, 113, 123, 128) of the defective magnetic
needles given him as well as of the means of correcting them, and
he details at great length the variations of the needle observed
during the voyage. He also alludes to the variation charts of
Dr. Halley and to the alterations therein made by advice of William
Mountaine and Jacob Dooson — James Dodson — of London, as well
as to the methods of ascertaining the variation of the magnetic
needle pointed out both by Manuel de Figueyredo, at Chaps. IX-X
of his " Hidrographie ou Examen des Pilotes," printed at Lisbon
in 1608, and by Don Lazare de Flo res at Chap. I, part ii. of his
" Art de Naviguer," printed in 1672. The latter, he says, asserts,
in Chap. IX, that the Portuguese find his method so reliable that
they embody it in all the instructions given for the navigation of
their vessels.
At pp. 66, 67, Chap. X of vol. ii. Ulloa makes the earliest
recorded reference to the aurora australis, as follows : "At half -past
ten in the evening, and as we stood about two leagues from the
island of Tierra de Juan Fernandez, we observed upon the summit
of a neighbouring mountain a very brilliant and extraordinary
light. ... I saw it very distinctly from its inception, and I noticed
that it was very small at first, and gradually extended until it looked
like a large, lighted torch. This lasted three or four minutes, when
the light began to dimmish as gradually as it had grown, and finally
disappeared."
Incidentally, it may be stated here that the very learned Dr.
John Dalton reported having seen the aurora australis in England,
and to have besides observed the aurora borealis as far as 45°
latitude south (see accounts in Philosophical Transactions, Philo-
sophical Magazine, Manchester Transactions and Nicholson's Journal),
while Humboldt remarks (" Cosmos/' 1849, Vol. I. p. 192, note)
that in south polar bands, composed of very delicate clouds,
166 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
observed by Arago, at Paris, on the 23rd of June, 1844, dark rays
shot upward from an arch running east and west, and that he had
already made mention of black rays resembling dark smoke, as
occurring in brilliant nocturnal northern lights.
References to the aurora australis are made by the naturalist
John Reinhold Forster, in the article on " Aurora Borealis " of the
" Encycl. Britannica."
For Mountaine and Dodson, consult tlieP/w'/. Trans., Vol.XLVIII.
P- 875; Vol. L. p. 329, also Button's abridgments, Vol. XL p. 149.
A.D. 1738.— Boze— Bose— (Georg Matthias) (1710-1761), Pro-
fessor of Philosophy at Wittemburg, publishes his " Oratio
inauguralis de electricitate," which is followed, in 1746, by " Recher-
ches sur la cause et sur la veritable theorie de Telectricite," and, in
1747, by his completed " Tentamina electrica."
To him is due the introduction in the electrical machine of the
prime conductor, in the form of an iron tube or cylinder. The
latter was at first supported by a man insulated upon cakes of
resin and afterward suspended by silken strings. M. Boze dis-
covered that capillary tubes discharging water by drops give a
continuous run when electrified. He also conveyed electricity by
a jet of water from one man to another, standing upon cakes of
resin, at a distance of six paces, and likewise employed the jet for
igniting alcohol as well as other liquids.
REFERENCES. — Alglave ct Boulard, 1882, p. 22, also Priestley, 1775,
upon " Miscellaneous Discoveries," likewise " Nouv. Biog. G6nerale "
(Hoefer), Vol. VI. p. 772; "La Grande Encycl.," Vol. VII. p. 454;
" Journal des S9avans," Vol. LXIII for 1718, p. 485; Phil. Trans, for
1745, Vol. XLIII. p. 419, and for 1749, Vol. XLVi. pf 189 ; also Hutton's
abridgments, Vol. IX. pp. 127, 681 ; and J. Martyn's abridgments,
VoL X. part ii. pp. 277, 329.
A.D. 1739. — Desaguliers (Jean Theophile), chaplain to his Grace
the Duke of Chandos, gives an account of his first experiments on
the phenomena of electricity at pp. 186, 193, 196, 198, 200, 209,
634> 637, 638 and 661 of Vol. XLI of the Phil. Trans, for 1739.
Some of these experiments were made on the I5th of April, 1738,
at H.R.H. the Prince of Wales' house at Cliefden.
He was the first to divide bodies into " electrics," or non-
conductors, and " non-electrics," or conductors. He ranked pure
air amongst his electrics (Tyndall, Lecture I) and stated that " cold
air in frosty weather, when vapours rise least of all, is preferable
for electrical purposes to warm air in summer, when the heat raises
the vapours " (Phil. Trans., John Martyn abridgment, Vol. VIII.
p. 437). It was Desaguliers who announced that he could render
bars of iron magnetic, either by striking them sharply against the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 167
ground while in a vertical position or by striking them with a
hammer when placed at right angles to the magnetic meridian.
His " Dissertation Concerning Electricity," London, 1742,
which won for him the grand prize of the Bordeaux Academy, is
said to be the second work on the subject published in the English
language, the first having been Boyle's " Mechanical Origin and
Production of Electricity/' mentioned at A.D. 1675.
Desaguliers was the second to receive the Copley medal, it
having been previously bestowed by the Royal Society only upon
Stephen Grey, who obtained it in 1731 and 1732 for his " New
Electrical Experiments." The list of recipients of this distinguished
honour, given by C. R. Weld at p. 385, Vol. I of the " History of
the Royal Society/' shows that Desaguliers received three Copley
medals; these were awarded him during the years 1734, 1736 and
1741, for his " Experiments in Natural Philosophy." John Canton
was given two of the medals, in 1751 and 1764, the only other
electrician similarly favoured being Michael Faraday, who received
them during the years 1832 and 1838, while Sir Humphry Davy
is credited with only one, conferred upon him in 1805.
" Can Britain . . .
Permit the weeping muse to tell
How poor neglected Desaguliers fell ?
How he, who taught two gracious kings to view,
All Boyle ennobled, and all Bacon knew,
Died in a cell, without a friend to save,
Without a guinea, and without a grave?"
Cawthorn, " Vanity of Human Enjoyments," V. 147-154.
In the year 1742, Desaguliers received the prize of the Academic
Roy ale de Bordeaux for a treatise on the electricity of bodies, which
latter was separately published at the time in a quarto volume of
twenty-eight pages. The same Academy had previously conferred
important prizes for dissertations, upon the nature of thunder and
lightning by Louis Antoine Lozeran du Fech in 1726, upon the
variations of the magnetic needle by Nicolas Sarrabat in 1727, and
also subsequently decreed similar awards, to Laurent Beraud for
an essay on magnets in 1748, to Denis Barberet for a treatise on
atmospherical electricity in 1750, and to Samuel Theodor Quellmalz
for a dissertation on medical electricity in 1753.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans., Vol. XL. p. 385; Vol. XL1I. pp. 14,
140; also the following abridgments: Hutton, Vol. VIII. pp. 246-
248, 340, 346, 350-358, 470-474, 479, 546, 584 ; John Marty n, Vol. VIII.
part ii. pp. 419, 422—444, 740. Very interesting reading is afforded by
M. Desaguliers through the observations he made on the magnets having
more poles than two. These will be found recorded in Phil. Trans.
for 1738, p. 383 and in Hutton's abridgments, Vol. VIII. p. 246;
Thomson, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," 1812, pp. 433, 434; " Gen. Biog. Diet.,"
Alex. Chalmers, London, 1811, Vol. XL pp. 489-493.
168 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1740. — Celsius (Anders), who filled the chair of astronomy
at Upsal, is first to point out the great utility of making simultaneous
observations over a large extent of territory and at widely different
points. He states (Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar for
1740, p. 44) that a simultaneity in certain extraordinary pertur-
bations, which had caused a horary influence on the course of the
magnetic needle at Upsal and at London, afforded proof " that the
cause of these disturbances is extended over considerable portions
of the earth's surface, and is not dependent upon accidental local
actions/'
In the following year (1741), Olav Hiorter, who was Celsius1
assistant, discovered and measured the influence of polar light on
magnetic variation. His observations were subsequently carried
on in conjunction with Celsius, and were improved upon by
Wargentin (A.D. 1750) and by Cassini (A.D. 1782-1791).
REFERENCES. — Walker, " Ter. and Cos. Magnetism," p. 116; also
Humboldt, " Cosmos," re " Magnetic Disturbances," and Vol. II. p. 438,
of Weld's " History of the Royal Society."
A.D. 1742. — Gordon (Andreas), a Scotch Benedictine monk
(1712-1757), Professor of Philosophy at Erfurt, abandons the use
of glass globes (Newton, at A.D. 1675 and Hauksbee, at A.D. 1705),
and is the first to employ a glass cylinder, the better to develop
electricity. His cylinder, eight inches long and four inches wide,
is mcde to turn by means of a bow with such rapidity that it attains
680 revolutions per minute.
Priestley says (" Discovery of Germans,0 Part I. period vii.)
that Gordon " increased the electric sparks to such a degree that
they were felt from a man's head to his foot, so that a person could
hardly take them without falling down with giddiness; and small
birds were killed by them. This he effected by conveying elec-
tricity, with iron wires, to the distance of 200 ells (about 250 yards)
from the place of excitation."
REFERENCES. — Dantzig Memoirs, Vol. II. pp. 358, 359, and Nollet,
" Recherches," etc., p. 172. See also Gordon's " Phenomena
Electricitatis Exposita," Erford, 1744 and 1746; " Philosophia," 1745;
" Tentamen . . . Electricitatis," 17451 " Versuche . . . einer Elec-
tricitat.," 1745-1746.
A.D. 1743. — Hausen (Christian Augustus), Professor of Mathe-
matics at Leipzig, publishes his " Novi profectus in historia electri-
citatis," and is the first to revive the use of the glass globe intro-
duced by Newton (A.D. 1675) and employed with great effect by
Hauksbee (A.D. 1705).
In Watson's " Experiences et observations sur I'electricite,"
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 169
is shown an electrical machine constructed by Hausen and differing
but slightly from the one alluded to herein at A.D. 1705 as made
for M. Wolfius. In this illustration a lady is pressing her hand
against the glass globe, which is being rotated rapidly, thus develop-
ing upon its surface the vitreous electricity, while the resinous elec-
tricity passes through her body to the earth. The young man who
is suspended and insulated by silken cords, represents the prime
conductor introduced by Prof. Boze (A.D. 1738). The vitreous
electricity passes from the surface of the glass globe, through his
feet and entire body, and is communicated by his hand to the young
girl, who stands upon a large section of resin, and is able to attract
small parcels of gold leaf by means of the electric fluid. Another
machine, taken from the same French work (originally published at
Paris in 1748), is said to have been at that time much in use through-
out Holland and principally at Amsterdam. The man rotates a
glass globe, against which the operator presses his hand, and the
electricity is conveyed through the metallic rod supported by silk-
covered stands and held by a third party, who is igniting spirits in
the manner indicated at the A.D. 1744 date.
REFERENCE. — Dantzig Memoirs, Vol. I. pp. 278, 279.
A.D. 1743. — Boerhaave — Boerhaaven — (Hermann), illustrious
physician, mathematician and natural philosopher (1668-1738),
who held the chairs of theoretical medicine, practical medicine,
botany and chemistry at the University of Leyden, F.R.S. and
member French Academy of Sciences, writes an Essay on the virtue
of Magnetical Cures, of which there were subsequently many editions
and translations in different languages.
One of his biographers calls him " the Galen, the Ibn Sina, the
Fernel of his age." Another remarks that he was, perhaps, the
greatest physician of modern times : " A man who, when we con-
template his genius, his erudition, the singular variety of his talents,
his unfeigned piety, his spotless character, and the impress which
he left not only on contemporaneous practice, but on that of suc-
ceeding .generations, stands forth as one of the brightest names
on the page of medical history, and may be quoted as an example
not only to physicians, but to mankind at large. No professor
was ever attended, in public as well as at private lectures, by so
great a number of students, from such distant and different parts,
for so many years successively ; none heard him without conceiving
a veneration for his person, at the same time that they expressed
their surprise at his prodigious attainments ; and it may be justly
170 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
affirmed, that none in so private a station ever attracted a more
universal esteem/'
REFERENCES. — " Biographica Philosophica," Benj. Martin, London,
1764, pp. 478-483; " Eloge de Boerhaave," by Maty, Leyde, 1747,
and by Fontenclle, 1763, T. VI; his life, written by Dr. Wm. Burton,
London, 1736; Van Swinden, " Rccueil," etc., La Haye, 1784, Vol. II.
p. 354, note; "La Grande Encyclopedic," Tome VII. p. 42; "Bio-
graphic Generate," Tome VI. pp. 352-357; "Biographic Universelle,"
Vol. IV. pp. 529-555; Ninth " Encycl. Britannica," Vol. III. p. 854;
" Histoire Philosophique de la Medecine," Etienne Tourtclle, Paris, An.
XII. (1807), Vol. II. pp. 404-446; " Bibl. Britan." (Authors), Rob.
Watt, Edinburgh, 1824, Vol. I. p. 127; " The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,"
1830, Vol. III. pp. 628-630 or the 1813 ed., Vol. III. pp. 612-614; G. A.
Pritzel, " Thesaurus Literature Botanicae," Lipsiae, 1851, p. 26.
A.D. 1744.— Ludolf— Leudolff— (Christian Friedrich), of Berlin,
first exhibits, January 23, the ignition of inflammable substances
by the electric spark. This he does in the presence of hundreds
of spectators, on the occasion of the opening of the Royal Academy
of Sciences by Frederick the Great of Prussia, when fire is set to
sulphuric ether through a spark from the sword of one of the court
cavaliers (see notes on Tyndall's second lecture, 1876, p. 80).
It was likewise at this period Ludolf the younger demonstrated
that the luminous barometer is made perfectly electrical by the
motion of the quicksilver, first attracting and then repelling bits of
paper, etc., suspended by the side of the tube, when it was enclosed
in another tube out of which the air was extracted (Dantzig Memoirs,
Vol. III. p. 495).
A.D. 1744-1745. — Waitz (Jacob Siegisnumd von), a German
electrician, writes three essays in Dutch and one in French, and is
given the prize of fifty ducats proposed by the Berlin Academy
of Sciences for the best dissertation on the subject of electricity.
In the following year he makes experiments, with Etienne Frai^ois
du Tour, to show the destruction of electricity by flame, and, later
on, with Prof. Georg Erhard Hamberger, he proves conclusively
that the motion of quicksilver in a glass vessel out of which the air
is extracted has the power of moving light bodies. Jean Nicolas
Sebastien Allamand subsequently found that it was immaterial
whether the vessel had air in it or not.
REFERENCES. — Tyndall's Notes on Lecture II, also Dantzig Memoirs,
Vol. II. pp. 380, 426, and M. du Tour's " Recherches sur les Differents
Mouvements de la Matiere Electriquc," Paris, 1760.
A.D. 1745.— Kratzenstein (Christian Gottlieb), Professor of
Medicine at Halle, author of " Versuch einei Erklarung," etc., and
of " Theoria Electricitatis," etc., is said to have first successfully
employed electricity in the relief of sprains, malformations, etc.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 171
He observed that a man's pulse, which had beat eighty in a second
before he was electrified, immediately after beat eighty-eight, and
was soon increased to ninety-six.
Kratzenstein is reported (Mary Somerville, " Physical Sciences,"
Section XVII.) to have made instruments which articulated many
letters, words and even sentences, and somewhat similar in con-
struction to those alluded to at A.D. 1620 (De Bergerac), and A.D,
1641 (John Wilkins), some of which may truly be said to strongly
suggest the modern phonograph.
Albertus Magnus constructed, after thirty years of experimen-
tation, a curious machine which sent forth distinct vocal sounds,
at which the very learned scholastic philosopher Saint Thomas
Aquinas (" Angel of the Schools ") was so much terrified that he
struck the contrivance with his stick and broke it. Bishop Wilkins
alludes to this machine as well as to a brazen head devised by Friar
Bacon, which could be made to utter certain words (" Journal des
Savants " for 1899, and J. S. Brewer, " F. Rog. Bacon," 1859,
p. xci; also, " How Fryer Bacon made a Brasen Head to Speake,"
at pp. 13-14 of the " Famous Historic of Fryer Bacon published at
London for Francis Groue ").
Incidentally, it may be mentioned that Wolfgang von Kempelen,
Aulic Counsellor to the Royal Chamber of the Domains of the
Emperor of Germany, after witnessing some magnetic games shown
to the Empress Maria Theresa at Vienna, constructed, during the
year 1778, a speaking machine which " gave sounds as of a child
three or four years of age, uttering distinct syllables and words "
(Wm. Whewell, " Hist, of the Inductive Sciences," Vol. II. chap. vi. ;
J. E. Montucla, " Hist, des Matliem," Vol. III. p. 813).
La Nature, Paris, May 6, 1905, pp. 353-354, illustrates the
speaking head of 1'Abbe Mical presented by him to the French
Academy of Sciences July 2, 1783, and alludes to those of Albertus
Magnus, Wolfgang von Kempelen, C. G. Kratzenstein, etc.
Two more curious productions, in pretty much the same line as
Bergerac's, can, with equal propriety, be inserted here.
The first is taken from the April number, 1632, of the Courier
Veritable, a little monthly publication in which novel fancies were
frequently aired : " Captain Vosterloch has returned from his
voyage to the southern lands, which he started on two years and a
half ago, by order of the States-General. He tells us, among other
things, that in passing through a strait below Magellan's, he landed
in a country where Nature has furnished men with a kind of sponge
which holds sounds and articulations as our sponges hold liquids.
So, when they wish to dispatch a message to a distance, they speak
to one of the sponges, ai:d then send it to their friends. They,
172 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
receiving the sponges, take them up gently and press out the words
that have been spoken into them, and learn by this admirable means
all that their correspondents desire them to know/7
The second is the production of one Thomas Ward, theological
poet, who was born in 1640 and died in 1704. In the second canto
of one of his poems occur these words :
" As Walchius could words imprison
In hollow canes so they, by reason,
Judgment and great dexterity,
Can bottle words as well as he ;
And can from place to place convey them,
Till, when they please, the reed shall say them ;
Will suddenly the same discharge,
And hail-shot syllables at large
Will fly intelligibly out
Into the ears of all about :
So that the auditors may gain
Their meaning from the breach of cane."
REFERENCES. — Priestley, " History," etc., 1775, p. 374, and Dantzig
Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 294.
A.D. 1745.— Grummert (Gottfried Hemrich), of Biala, Poland,
first observes the return of the electric light in vacuo. In order to
ascertain whether an exhausted tube would give light when it was
electrified, as well as when it was excited, he presented one eight
inches long and a third of an inch wide, to the electrified conductor,
and was surprised to find the light dart very vividly along the entire
length of the tube. He likewise observed that some time after the
tube had been presented to the conductor, and exposed to nothing
but the air, it gave light again without being brought to an electrified
body (see Dantzig Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 417).
A.D. 1745.— Dr. Miles (Rev. Henry), of Tooting, D.D. (1698-
1763) reads, March 7, before the English Royal Society a paper
indicating the possibility of kindling phosphorus by applying to
it an excited electric without the approach of a conducting body.
This gentleman's tube happening to be in excellent order upon this
occasion, he observed, and doubtless was the first to notice, pencils
of luminous rays, which he called coruscations, darting from the
tube without the aid of any conductor approaching it.
In a paper which Dr. Miles read before the same Society on the
25th of January, 1746, he gave an account of other equally interest-
ing experiments, one of which was the kindling of ordinary lamp
spirits with a piece of black sealing wax excited by dry flannel or
white and brown paper.
REFERENCES.— " Diet. Nat. Biog.," Sidney Lee, Vol. XXXVII.
p. 378; Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIII. pp. 290, 441; Vol. XLIV, pp. 27, 53,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 178
78, 158, and the following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. IX. pp. 107,
136* I91* J9^> 207, 213, 232; John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 272,
277» 317' 319, 322-323, 325.
A.D. 1745. — This period was to witness a discovery which,
according to Professor Tyndall, " throws all former ones in the shade"
and which Dr. Priestley calls " the most surprising yet made in the
whole business of electricity." This was the accumulation of the
electric power in a glass phial, called the Leyden jar after the name
of the place where the discovery was made. It was first announced
in a letter to Von Kleist, dean of the cathedral of Kamin — Cammin
— in Pomerania, dated the 4th of November, 1745, and addressed
to Dr. Lieberkiihn, who communicated it to the Berlin Academy.
The following is an extract : " When a nail or a piece of thick brass
wire is put into a small apothecary's phial and electrified, remark-
able effects follow; but the phial must be very dry or warm; I
commonly rub it over beforehand with a finger, on which I put
some pounded chalk. If a little mercury, or a few drops of spirit
of wine, be put into it, the experiment succeeds the better. As
soon as this phial and nail are removed from the electrifying glass,
or the prime conductor to which it has been exposed is taken away,
it throws out a pencil of flame so long that, with this burning machine
in my hand, I have taken above sixty steps in walking about my
room ; when it is electrified strongly I can take it into another room
and there fire spirits of wine with it. If while it is electrifying I
put my finger, or a piece of gold which I hold in my hand, to the
nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders."
It is said that Cunaeus, rich burgess of Leyden, accidentally
made the same discovery in January 1746. It appears that Pieter
Van Musschenbroek, the celebrated professor, while experimenting
with his colleagues, Cunaeus and Allamand, observed that excited
bodies soon lost their electricity in the open air, attributable to the
vapours and effluvia carried in the atmosphere, and he conceived
the idea that the electricity might be retained by surrounding the
excited bodies with others that did not conduct electricity. For
this purpose he chose water, the most readily procured non-electric,
and placed some in a glass bottle. No important results were ob-
tained until Cunaeus, who was holding the bottle, attempted to
withdraw the wire which connected with the conductor of a powerful
electric machine. He at once received a severe shock in his arms
and breast, as did also the others upon renewing the experiment.
In giving an account of it to the great scientist, Rene de Reaumur,
Musschenbroek remarked : " For the whole kingdom of France, I
would not take a second shock/' Allamand states that when he
himself took the shock " he lost the use of his breath for some
174 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
minutes, and then felt so intense a pain along his right arm that he
feared permanent injury from it."
In his " Cours Elementaire de Physique/' Musschenbroek de-
scribes one of the peculiar electrical machines then being constructed
by the well-known London instrument maker, George Adams, and
a cut of it can be seen at p. 353, Vol. I. of the translation made by
Sigaud de la Fond at Paris during 1769. Another of Adams'
machines is described and illustrated at p. 126 of the French trans-
lation of Cavallo's " Complete Treatise/' published at Paris in 1785.
The invention of the Leyden jar is claimed with equal pertinacity
for Kleist, Musschenbroek and Cunaeus. While it is necessarily
conceded that Von Kleist first published his discovery, it cannot be
denied that his explanation of it is so obscure as, for the time, to
have been of no practical use to others. It is stated by Priestley :
" Notwithstanding Mr. Kleist immediately communicated an account
of this famous experiment (which indeed it is evident he has but
imperfectly described) to Mr. Winckler, at Leipzig, Mr. Swiettiki,
of Denmark, Mr. Kruger, of Halle, and to the professors of the
Academy of Lignitz, as well as to Dr. Lieberkilhn, of Berlin, above
mentioned, they all returned him word that the experiment did not
succeed with them. Mr. Gralath, of Dantzig, was the first with
whom it answered ; but this was not till after several fruitless trials,
and after receiving further instructions from the inventor. The
Abbe Nollet had information of this discovery, and, in consequence
of it says, in a letter to Mr. Samuel Wolfe, of the Society of Dantzig,
dated March 9, 1746, that the experiment at Leyden was upon
principles similar to that made with a phial half full of water and a
nail dipped in it; and that this discovery would have been called
the Dantzig experiment if it had not happened to have got the name
of that of Leyden."
In the thirty-eighth volume of the Philosophical Transactions,
No. 432, p. 297, is given an abstract of a letter (dated Utrecht,
January 15, 1733, 0. S.), from Petrus Van Musschenbroek, M.D.,
F.R.S., to Dr. J. T. Desaguliers, concerning experiments made on
the Indian Magnetic Sand, chiefly gathered along the seashore in
Persia. After detailing his many observations, Van Musschenbroek
asks : " And, now, what can this sand be ? Is it an imperfect
magnet, or Subtile Powder of it, which, when it is grown up into a
greater lump, makes the vulgar Loadstones ? So I conjectured at
first ; but when I found by experience that common Loadstones,
exposed to the fire, according to some of the methods above-
mention 'd, did rather lose of their force than gain, I alter 'd my
opinion ; and now confess that I have not yet penetrated into the
knowledge of the nature of this matter."
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 175
REFERENCES. — Dalibard, " Histoire Abrcgee," p. 33; Dantzig
Memoirs, Vol. I. pp. 407, 409, 411 ; Johann Gottlob Kruger, " Dissert,
de Elect," Helmstadt, 1756 (Poggendorff, I. p. 1323); Priestley, 1777,
" The Hist, and Pres. State of Electricity," pp. 82-84 ; Opuscoli Scelti,
4to, xviii, 55 ; Pierre Massuet, " Essais," Leide, 1751 ; Musschenbroek's
" Epitome elementorum," etc., 1726, " Tentamina Experimentorum
Naturalium," 1731, and his " Disertatio Physica experimentalis de
Magnete," as well as his " Elementa Physical," 1734, and the " Intro-
ductio ad Philosophiam Naturalem," 1762, the last-named two works
being greatly amplified editions of the " Epitome." For Musschenbroek
— Musschenbroek — consult also Phil. Trans., Vol. XXXII. p. 370;
Vol. XXXVII. pp. 357, 408, also the following abridgments : Baddam,
1745, Vol. VIII. p. 42; Reid and Gray, Vol. VI. p. 161 (Musschenbroek
to Desaguliers) ; Hutton, Vol. VII. pp. 105, 647 (magnetic sand) ; Eamcs
and Marty n, Vol. VI. part ii. p. 255 ; John Martyn, Vol. VIII. p. 737
(magnetic sand). For this magnetic sand, consult also Mr. Butter-
field's article in Phil. Trans, for 1698, p. 336 and in the abridgments of
Hutton, Vol. IV. p. 310.
A.D. 1745.— Watson (William), M.D., F.R.S., an eminent English
scientist, bears " the most distinguished name in this period of the
history of electricity." His first letters, treating of this science,
are addressed to the Royal Society between March 28 and October
24, 1745, and, on the 6th of February and the 30th of October, 1746,
he communicated other similar papers to the same Society, all
which, like his subsequent treatises, are to be found in the
Philosophical Transactions.
Dr. Watson, like most scientists at the time, made numerous
experiments with the Leyden jar, and he was the first to observe
the flash of light attending its discharge. He says : " When the
phial is well electrified, and you apply your hand thereto, you see
the fire flash from the outside of the glass wherever you touch it,
and it crackles in your hand." It is to him that we owe the double
coating of the jar, as well as the plus and minus of electricity.
He also shows conclusively that glass globes and tubes do not
possess in themselves the electrical power, but only serve " as the
first movers or determiners of that power," and he also proves
that the electric fluid takes the shortest course, passing through
the substance of the best medium of connection and not along its
surface. This, he demonstrated by discharging a phial through
a wire covered with a mixture of wax and resin.
In order to ascertain the velocity of the electric fluid from the
Leyden phial and the distance at which it could be transmitted
(John Wood, at A.D. 1726), Watson directed a series of experiments
upon a very grand scale, with the assistance of Martin Folkes,
President of the Royal Society, Lord Charles Cavendish, Dr. Bevis,
Mr. Graham, Dr. Birch, Peter Daval and Messrs. Trembley, Ellicott,
Robins and Short. On the I4th and i8th of July, 1747, they
experimented upon a wire carrying the electricity from the Thames
176 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
bank at Lambeth to the opposite bank at Westminster, across
Westminster Bridge, and, on the 24th of July, at the New River,
Stoke Newington, they sent a shock through 800 feet of water and
2000 feet of land, as well as through 2800 feet of land and 8000
feet of water. Other experiments followed on the 28th of July
and the 5th of August, as well as on the i4th of August of the same
year, proving the instantaneous transmission of the fluid; while
a year later, August 5, 1748, additional observations were made,
through 12,276 feet of wire, at Shooter's Hill, showing again that
the time occupied in the passage of the electricity was " altogether
inappreciable." Regarding these experiments, Prof.Musschenbroek
wrote to Dr. Watson, " Magnificentissimis tuis experiment! s super asti
conatm omnium."
Watson's experiments were repeated, notably by Franklin,
across the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, in 1748 ; by Deluc, across the
Lake of Geneva, in 1749; and by Winckler, at Leipzig, in 1750.
It is said that Lemonnier (A,D. 1746) produced shocks at Paris
through 12,789 feet of wire and that Betancourt (A.D. 1795) dis-
charged electric jars through a distance of twenty-six miles.
To Dr. Watson is also due the first demonstration of the passage
of electricity through a vacuum. Noad tells iis that he caused
the spark from his conductor to pass in the form of coruscations of
a bright silver hue through an exhausted tube three feet in length,
and he discharged a jar through a vacuum interval of ten inches
in the form of "a mass of very bright embodied fire/' These
demonstrations were repeated and varied by Canton, Smeaton and
Wilson.
His experiments in firing gunpowder, hydrogen, etc., by the
electric spark, are detailed at p. 78 of Priestley's " History," etc.,
London, 1775.
Watson was rewarded with the Copley medal for his researches
in electricity, which brought him also honorary degrees from two
German universities. He was knighted in 1786, one year before
his death.
REFERENCES. — " Watson's Experiments and Observations on
Electricity," 1745, also his " Account of the Experiments made by some
gentlemen of the Royal Society," etc., 1748; Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIIJ.
p. 481 ; Vol. XLIV. pp. 41, 388, 695, 704; Vol. XLV. pp. 49-120, 491-
496; Vol. XLVI. p. 348; Vol. XLVII. pp. 202, 236, 362, 567; Vol.
XLVIII. p. 765 ; Vol. LI. p. 394 (lyncurium of the ancients) ; Vol. LIII.
p. 10 ; also the following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. IX. pp. 151, 195,
308, 368, 408, 410, 440, 553 ; Vol. X. pp. 12, 189, 197, 227, 233, 242, 303,
372-379, 525 ; Vol. XI. p. 419 (lyncurium of the ancients), 580, 660, 679 ;
Vol. XII. p. 127; John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 279-280, 290, 294,
329> 339» 347» 3^8, 4°7» 4IO> See likewise, Scientific American Supple-
ment of Oct. 5, 1889, No. 718, pp. n, 471, for an interesting engraving of
Dr. Watson's experiment made through the water of the Thames, as
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 177
well as for a detailed account of Lemonnier's experiment above referred
to. For Mr. A. Trembley, consult Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIV. p. 58, and
John Martyn's abridgments, Vol. X. part ii. p. 321.
A.D. 1746. — Lemonnier (Pierre Claude Charles), a distinguished
savant, who was member of the French Academy as adjunct
geometrician before he had attained his twenty-first year and became
foreign member of the English Royal Society three years later,
was the first scientist who drew electricity from the narrow domain
of the laboratory.
He confirmed the result previously obtained by Grey (A.D. 1720)
that electric attraction is not proportioned to the mass or quantity
of matter in bodies, but only to the extent of their surface, length
having greater effect than breadth (Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIV for
1746, p. 290; Snow Harris, "Treatise on Frict. Elect./' London,
1867, p. 239, and " Hist, de 1'Acad.," 1746). He found that an
anvil weighing two hundred pounds gives but an inconsiderable
spark, while the spark from a tin speaking-trumpet eight or nine
feet long, but weighing only ten pounds, is almost equal to the
shock of the Leyden phial. A solid ball of lead, four inches in
diameter, gives a spark of the same force as that obtained from
a thin piece of lead of like superficies bent in the form of a hoop.
He took a thin and long piece of lead, and noticed that when it
was electrified in its whole length it gave a very strong spark, but
a very small one when it was rolled into a lump (Ac. Par., 1746, M.
p. 369). It had likewise been shown by Le Roi and D'Arcy that
a hollow sphere accepted the same charge when empty as when
filled with mercury, which latter increased its weight sixtyfold;
all proving the influence of surface as distinguished from that of
mass (Tyndall, Notes on Lecture IV).
Lemonnier discovered that electricity is ever present in the
atmosphere, that it daily increases in quantity from sunrise till
about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, diminishing till the
fall of dew, when it once more increases for a while, and finally
diminishes again before midnight, when it becomes insensible.
He observed a continual diminution of electricity as the rain began
to fall, and he says : " When the wire was surrounded with drops
of rain, it was observed that only some of them were electrical,
which was remarkable by the conic figure they had; whilst the
others remained round as before. It was also perceived that the
electrical and non-electrical drops succeeded almost alternately;
this made us call to mind a very singular phenomenon which
happened some years before, to five peasants who were passing
through a cornfield, near Frankfort upon the Oder, during a thunder-
storm ; when the lightning killed the first the third and the fifth of
178 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
them, without injuring the second or the fourth " (Phil. Trans.,
Vol. XLVII. p. 550).
REFERENCES. — Le Monnicr, " Lois du Magnetismc," Paris, 1776-
1778; Phil. Trans., Vol. XUV. p. 247; Vol. XLVIII. part i. p. 203;
"Journal clcs S9avans," Vol. CX11 for 1737, p. 73; also Hutton's
abridgments, Vol. IX. pp. 275, 308, 368, 591 (biogr.) ; John Martyn's
abridgments, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 329-348;" " Philosophical Magazine/'
Vol. VI. for j8oo, p. 181, " Some Account of the Late P. C. Le Monnier,"
1715 1799; " Memoires de 1'Institut Nat. cles Sc. et des Arts," Hist.
An. IX. p. TOI ; AUmoires de I' A cad. Roy ale des Sciences, 1746, pp. 14-24,
447, 671-696; 1752, Tome I. pp. 9-17, Tome JI. 233-243, 346-362;
1770, p. 459; Bertholon, " Elcc. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I.
pp. 10-14; Harris, " Frict. Elec.," p. 239; Sc. American Supplement,
for Oct. 5, 1889, No. 718, pp. u, 471. See also reports of the experiments
of G. B/Beccaria, G. F. Gardini (" De inilcxu," etc., ss. 50, 51), Andrew
Crosse and others at " Bibl. Britan. Sc. et Arts," 1814, Vol. LVL p. 524.
A.D. 1746. — Bevis (John), English astronomer and Secretary of
the Royal Society, first suggested to Dr. Watson the external coating
of the Leydcn jar with tinfoil or sheet-lead, and was likewise the
first to observe that the force of the charge increases as larger jars
are employed, but not in proportion to the quantity of water they
contain. As water only played the part of a conductor, he rightly
thought that metal would do equally well, and lie therefore filled
three jars with leaden shot instead of with water. When the metallic
connection was made it was found that the discharge from three
jars was greater than that from two and the discharge from two
much greater than that from one. This showed that the seat of
the electric force is the surface of the metal and the glass, and proves
that the force of the charge is in proportion to the quantity of
coated surface.
Thus to Dr. Bevis belongs the credit of having constructed the
first electric battery, although the honour has been claimed by the
friends of Daniel Gralath (A.D. 1747).
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans., abridged, Vol. X. pp. 374, 377; Wilson,
" Treatise," London, 1752, Prop. XVII. p. 107.
A.D. 1746. — Le Cat (Claude Nicolas), a physician of Rouen,
observed, when suspending several pieces of leaf gold at his con-
ductor, that they hung at different distances according to their
sizes, the smallest pieces placing themselves nearest the conductor
and the largest farthest from it.
Le Cat (1700-1768) became celebrated for his surgical opera-
tions and succeeded in canying off all the first prizes offered by the
Royal Academy of Surgeons between the years 1734 and 1738
inclusively. Consult his different works named at p. 292 of Ronalds'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 179
"Catalogue"; " Histoire de 1'Electricite," pp. 84 and 85; " Bio-
graphie Generate," Vol. XXX. pp. 179-182.
A.D. 1746. — Maim bray (M.), of Edinburgh, electrified two
myrtle trees, during the entire month of October 1746, and found
that they put forth small branches and blossoms sooner than other
shrubs of the same kind which had not been electrified. This result
was confirmed by the Abbe Nollet, who tilled two pots with
vegetating seeds and found that the pot which he had constantly
electrified for fifteen consecutive days put forth earlier sprouts as
well as more numerous and longer shoots than did the other.
Like experiments were at the same time carried on with equal
success by M. Jallabert and M. Boze, as well as by the Abbe
Menon, Principal of the College of Bueil at Angers, France. The
last named also found that electricity increases the insensible
perspiration of animals. He chose cats, pigeons and chaffinches,
and observed after they were electrified, that one cat was sixty-five
or seventy grains lighter than the other, the pigeon from thirty-five
to thirty-eight grains, and the chaffinch had lost six or seven grains.
He also electrified a young person between the ages of twenty and
thirty, for five hours and found a loss in weight of several ounces.
With reference to the effect of electricity on different varieties
of growing plants, a paper in Boston not long ago published the
following :
" In the last few years some very interesting experiments in
gardening by electricity have been made by Prof. Selim Lemstrom,
of the University of Helsingfors. These have been carried out both
upon the potted plants in the hot-house and upon plants in the open
field, the insulated wires in the latter case being stretched upon
poles over the plot of ground, and provided with a point for each
square metre of area. The current has been supplied by Holtz
machines run from eight to eighteen hours daily, the positive pole
being connected with the network of wires and the negative with
a zinc plate buried in the ground. The electric influence was
scarcely perceptible in the growing plants, but was very marked
in the yield of many species, especially of barley and wheat, of which
the crop was increased by half in some cases. In the hot-house
the maturity of strawberries was greatly advanced. The results
have shown that plants may be divided into two groups : one, the
development of which is favoured by electricity, comprising wheat,
rye, barley, oats, red and white beets, parsnips, potatoes, celeriac,
beans, raspberries, strawberries and leeks; and the other, whose
development is more or less interfered with by electricity, including
180 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
peas, carrots, kohlrabi, rutabagas, turnips, white cabbages and
tobacco. The more fertile the soil, and consequently the more
vigorous the vegetation, the greater has been the excess of the crop
under electric influence. Prof. Lemstrom's experiments up to
1887 were carried on in Finland, but he has since repeated his work
in France, and demonstrated that the electric influence is the same in
any climate, though likely to be injurious under a scorching sun/1
REFERENCES. — Nollct, " Recherches sur TElectricit^," pp. 366,
382; Phil. Trans., abridged, Vol. X. p. 384; Electrical Review, London,
June 5, 1891, p. 707.
A.D. 1746.— Knight (Gowan or Gowin), F.R.S., an English
physician, is the first to make very powerful steel magnets. The
method, which he long succeeded in keeping secret, was described
after his death, in the Phil. Trans, for 1746-1747, Vol. XLIV. It
consists of placing two magnets in the same straight line, with
their opposite poles close to or very near each other, and in laying
under them the bar to be magnetized after having it tempered at
a cherry-red heat. The magnets are then drawn apart in opposite
directions along the bar, so that the south pole of one magnet
passes over the north polar half, and the north pole of the other
magnet passes over the south polar half of the bar.
This was how Dr. Knight made the bars of the two great magnets
of the Royal Society. Each magnet contained two hundred and
forty bars, fifteen inches long, one inch wide and half an inch thick.
Dr. Robison described, in 1800, the effect of pressing together the
dissimilar poles of the two magnets, and, thirty years later, Prof.
Faraday, upon placing a soft iron cylinder, one foot long and three-
quarters of an inch in diameter, across the dissimilar poles, found
that he required a force of one hundred pounds to break down the
attractive power.
Previously to Dr. Knight's discovery, the method of making
artificial magnets most in use was by simply rubbing the bar to be
magnetized upon one of the poles of a natural magnet in a plane at
right angles to the line joining its two poles.
Another secret of Dr. Knight was also, after his death, made
known to the Royal Society by its secretary, Mr. Benjamin Wilson.
It was the mode of making artificial paste magnets. He collected
a large quantity of iron filings, which he cleansed and made into
a fine powder under water and afterward dried and mixed, preferably
with linseed oil. This was baked into cakes, which were magnetized
by placing them between the ends of his magazine of artificial
magnets.
To Dr. Knight was given the first English patent in the Class of
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 181
Electricity and Magnetism. It bears date June 10, 1766, No. 850,
and is for the construction of " Compasses so as to prevent them
being affected by the motion of the ship," etc.
REFERENCES.— Phil. Trans., Vol. XLIII. pp. 161, 361; Vol. XLIV.
p. 656; Vol. XLIX. p. 51; Vol. LXVI. p. 591; C. R. Weld, " Hist, of
Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 511; Noad, " Manual," 1859, p. 593; Sturgeon,
" Sc. Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 249; also the abridgments by Hutton,
Vol. TX. pp. 71, 74, 122, 390 (Folkes), 653; Vol. X. pp. 64, 67; Vol.
XIV. pp. 117, 480; and by John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 678-698.
A.D. 1746. — Gravesande (Wilhelm Jacob), celebrated Dutch
mathematician and natural philosopher (1688-1742), whose family
name was Storen Van 'Sgravesande, is the author of " Elements de
physique demontres mathematiqucment. . . . ou introduction a la
philosophic Newtonienne," which was translated from the Latin
and published at Leyden in 1746.
At p. 87 of the second volume of the last-named work he gives
a description of an electrical machine constructed on the plan of
that of Hauksbee. It consisted merely of a crystal globe, which
was mounted upon a copper stand, and against which was pressed
the hand of the operator while it was made to revolve rapidly by
means of a large wheel.
Gravesande taught publicly on the Continent the philosophy
of Newton, and, by so doing, was one of the first to bring about a
revolution in the domain of physical sciences generally. His
original " Physices Elementa Mathematical as well as his " Philo-
sophise Newtonianae," etc., and " Introductio ad Philosophiam,"
etc., were respectively published at Leyden in 1720, 1723 and 1736.
REFERENCE. — Houzcau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen6rale," Vol. II.
p. 252.
A.D. 1746. — Nolle! (Jean Antoine), 'a distinguished French
philosopher (1700-1770), to whom was given the title of Abbe while
holding deacon's orders, is the first in France to make experiments
with the Leyden jar.
While in Paris he applied himself to electrical studies in company
with Charles Dufay (already noticed at A.D. 1733), and made such
ingenious experiments that Rene de Reaumur allowed him the free
use of his extensive apparatus and laboratory. During the month
of April 1746, he transmitted, in the presence of the French King,
an electrical shock from a small phial through a chain of one hundred
and eighty of the Royal Guards, and at the Carthusian Convent, not
long afterward, he sent a shock through a line of monks stretched
a distance of over a mile, causing them all to experience instantane-
ously the same sensation.
Nollet's work, " Essai sur 1'electricite des corps/' was originally
182 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
published at Paris in 1746. He was the first to observe that pointed
bodies electrified give out streams of light (the smallest points
displaying " brushes of electric light "), but that they do not exhibit
as powerful indications of electricity as are shown by blunt bodies.
He also found that glass and other non-conductors are more strongly
excited in air than in vacuo ; that the electric spark is more diffuse
and unbroken in vacuo ; and that an excited tube loses none of its
electricity by being placed in the focus of a concave mirror when the
sunlight is therein concentrated.
His experiments upon the evaporation of fluids by electricity,
as well as upon the electrification of capillary tubes full of water
(observed also by Bozo), and upon the electrification of plants and
animals, are detailed in his " Recherches," etc., pp. 327, 351, 354-
356, while his observations upon the electrical powers of different
kinds of glass are given in the sixth volume of the " Lecons de
Physique Experiment ale," issued in 1764.
As has been truly said, it is no easy matter to form an adequate
idea of Nollet's theory of electricity, which was opposed at the
time by almost all the eminent electrical philosophers of Europe.
He asserted that when an electric is excited, electricity flows to it
from all quarters, and when it is thus affluent, it drives light bodies
before it. Hence the reason why excited bodies attract. When
the electricity is effluent the light bodies are of course driven from
the electric, which in that condition appears to repel. He therefore
believed every electric to bo possessed of two different kinds of
pores, one for the emission of the electric matter, and the other for
its reception.
Nollet is the first one who published the close relationship
existing between lightning and the electric spark. This he did
during the year 1748, in the fourth volume of his " Lemons," already
alluded to and from which the following is extracted : " If any one
should undertake to prove, as a clear consequence of the phenomenon,
that thunder is in the hands of nature what electricity is in ours —
that those wonders which we dispose at our pleasure are only
imitations on a small scale of those grand effects which terrify us,
and that both depend on the same mechanical agents ... I
confess that this idea, well supported, would please me much. . . .
The universality of the electric matter, the readiness of its actions,
its instrumentality and its activity in giving fire to other bodies,
its property of striking bodies, externally and internally, even to
their smallest parts . . . begin to make me believe that one might,
by taking electricity for the model, form to one's self, in regard to
thunder and lightning, more perfect and more probable ideas than
hitherto proposed/'
1755' P- 293; 1761, p. 244; 1762, pp. 137, 270; 1764, pp. 408-409;
1766, p. 323; " Lecons," eighth edition, Vol. IV. p. 315, Phil. Trans.,
Vol. XLV. p. 187; Vol. XLVr. p. 368; Vol. XLVII. p. 553; also the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 183
For a memoir treating of the cause of thunder and lightning,
written by the Rev. Father de Lozeran de Fech, of Perpignan,
the Bordeaux Academy of Sciences had in 1726 awarded him its
annual prize ; and the same institution conferred a similar award,
in August 1750, upon M. Bergeret, a physician of Dijon, whose
memoir admitted the close analogy between lightning and electricity.
REFERENCES.— Ronalds' "Catalogue," pp. 369-371; Jean Morin,
" Replique," Paris, 1749 ; A. H. Paulian, " Conjectures," 1868 ; " Abreg<§
dcs transactions philosophiques," Vol. X. p. 336; " Mdmoires de mathe-
matiquc," etc , pour 1746, p. 22 ; " Journal des S9avans," Vol. CXVII.
for I73Q, pp. 111-115, and Vol. CXLII for 1747, pp. 248-265 ; " Medical
Electricity," by Dr. H. Lewis Jones, Philad., 1904, p. 2 ; " Me" moires dc
1'Acad. Royale des Sciences" pour 1745, p. 107; 1746, p. i; 1747,
pp. 24, 102, 149, 207; 1748, p. 164; 1749, p. 444; 1753, pp. 429, 475;
08-409;
Trans.,
. . . . . . . . . also
following abridgments : Hutton, Vol. X. pp. 20, 295, 372-379,
(Dr. Birch); Vol. XI. p. 580; John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 277-
333, 382 (Folkcs), 414. See the experiments of Eticnne Francois du
Tour, " Sur la manidre dont la flamme agit sur les corps elcctriqucs," in
a letter addressed by him to Nollet in 1745, and in " Mem. de Mathem.
et Phys.," Vol. II. p. 246, Paris, 1755; also Zantcdeschi and Faraday
on the " Magnetic Condition of Flame" (Faraday's " Expcr. Res.," Vol. 1 II.
pp. 490-493).
A.D. 1746.— Wilson (Benjamin) (1721-1788), Secretary to the
Royal Society, writes his " Essay toward an explication of the
phenomena of Electricity deduced from the ether of Sir Isaac
Newton." In the chapter of Priestley's " History " treating of
the Theories of Electricity, he says : " With some, and particularly
Mr. Wilson, the chief agent in all electrical operations is Sir Isaac
Newton's ether, which is more or less dense in all bodies in pro-
portion to the smallness of their pores, except that it is much denser
in sulphureous and unctuous bodies. To this ether are ascribed
the principal phenomena of attraction and repulsion, whereas the
light, the smell, and other sensible qualities of the electric fluid are
referred to the grosser particles of bodies, driven from them by
the forcible action of this ether. Many phenomena in electricity
are also attempted to be explained by means of a subtile medium,
at the surface of all bodies, which is the cause of the refraction and
reflection of the rays of light, and also resist the entrance and exit
of this ether. This medium, he says, extends to a small distance
from the body, and is of the same nature with what is called the
electric fluid.1 On the surface of conductors this medium is rare
1 Just here we may refer to the fact — for it is a fact — that the electrical
energy transmitted over a line, which may be many miles in length, really
does not travel by the wire connecting the two points. It travels in the
ether surrounding the wire. The wire itself is, in fact, the guiding core of the
disturbances in the ether which proceecj outward in all directions to unlimited
184 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
and easily admits the passage of the electric fluid, whereas on the
surface of electrics it is dense and resists it. This medium is rarefied
by heat, which converts non-conductors into conductors."
At pp. 71 and 88, 1746 edition, and at p. 88, Prop. XI. of the
1752 edition of this same " Essay," Wilson says that during the
year 1746 he discovered a method of giving the shock of the Leyden
jar to any particular part of the body without affecting any other
portion; that he increased the shock from the jar by plunging it
into water, thereby giving it a coating of water on the outside as
high as it was filled on the inside ; and that the accumulation of
electricity in the Leyden jar is always in proportion to the thinness
of the glass, the surface of the glass and that of the non-electrics
in contact with the inside and outside thereof.
.It was in this same year, 1746, that Wilson first observed the
lateral shock or return stroke, which was not, however, explained
until Lord Mahon, third Earl of Stanhope, published his " Principles
of Electricity," in 1779.
On the I3th of November, 1760, a paper of Mr. Wilson's was read
before the Royal Society, in which he detailed several of his in-
genious experiments on tjie plus and minus of electricity, and showed
that these can be produced at pleasure by carefully attending to
the form of bodies, their sudden or gradual removal and the degrees
of electrifying. He had previously noticed that when two electrics
are rubbed together, the body whose substance is hardest and
electric power strongest is always electrified positively and the other
negatively. Rubbing the tourmaline and amber together he pro-
duced a plus electricity on both sides of the stone and a minus
on the amber; but, rubbing the diamond and the tourmaline, both
sides of the tourmaline were electrified minus and the diamond plus.
When insulated silver and glass were rubbed, the silver became
minus and the glass plus.
He further observed that when directing a stream of air against
a tourmaline, a pane of glass or a piece of amber, these were electrified
plus on both sides. Prof. Faraday subsequently showed that no
electrical effect is produced in these cases unless the air is either damp
or holds dry powders in suspension, the electricity being produced
distances. The guiding core or conducting wire is needed to focalize or
direct the delivery of the energy. This curious conclusion of science, then,
that the power from the power-station wire travels in the space around the
wires led from the station, is one of the results of recent electrical studies,
just as with light those studies begun by Maxwell and Hertz have led to the
inevitable conclusion that the light of the candle, the light of a kerosene lamp,
and the light of a gas burner are all in essence electrical phenomena, as are all
forms of radiation in the ether (" Electricity During the Nineteenth
Century," Prof. Elihu Thomson, Washington, 1901).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 185
by the friction of particles of water in the one case and by the
particles of powder in the other. Sir David Brewster, who thus
mentions the latter fact, likewise singles out two more of Mr.
Wilson's observations, viz. that when a stick of sealing-wax is
broken across or when a dry, warm piece of wood is rent asunder,
one of the separated surfaces becomes vitreously and the other
resinously electrified.
REFERENCES. — DC La Rive, "Electricity," Vol. I. p. 203; Wilson,
" Treatise on Electricity " ; Wilson and Hoadley, " Observations on a
Series of Electrical Experiments "; Phil. Trans., Vol. XLVIII. p. 347;
Vol. XLIX. p. 682; Vol. LI. part i. pp. 83, 308, 331, part ii. p. 896;
Vol. LIII. pp. 436, etc.; Vol. LXVI1I. p. 999; Vol. LXIX. p. 51 ; also
Hutton's abridgments: Vol. X. p. 420; Vol. XL pp. 15, 396, 504;
Vol. XII. pp. 44, 147; Vol. XIII. p. 374; Vol. XIV. pp. 334, 337, 458,
480; "The Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish,"
Cambridge, 1879, No. 125; L. E. Kaemtz, " Lchrbuch dcr Meteor,"
Halle, 1832, Vol. II. p. 395.
A.D. 1746. — Ellicott (John), of Chester, suggests a method of
estimating the exact force of the electric charge contained in the
Leyden jar by its power to raise a weight in one scale of a balance
while the other scale is held over and attracted by the electrified
body. This was the principle upon which Mr. Gralath constructed
the electrometer shown in Dantzig Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 525.
With reference to the experiments of Boze (A.D. 1738) and of
Nollet (A.D. 1746) made with capillary tubes, he says that the
siphon, though electrified, will only deliver the water by drops if
the basin containing the water is also electrified. He explains
Nollet's observation, that the electric matter issues more sensibly
from the point at the extremity of the conductor, by saying that
the effluvia, in rushing from the globe along the conductor, as they
approach the point are brought nearer together, and therefore are
denser there, and if the light be owing to the density and velocity
of the effluvia it will be visible at the point and nowhere else.
Ellicott 's theory of electricity is founded upon the following data :
(i) electrical phenomena are produced by effluvia ; (2) these
effluvia repel each other ; (3) they are attracted by all other matter.
If the word fluid is substituted for effluvia, these data absolutely
agree with those adopted by ^Epinus and Cavendish, forming the
basis of the only satisfactory theory of electricity hitherto proposed.
REFERENCES. — Boulanger, " Traite de la Cause et des phenomdnes
de r&ectriciteV' Paris, 1750, p. 324; Phil. Trans, for 1746, Vol. XLIV.
p. 96, and for 1748, Vol. XLV. pp. 195-224, 313; also the abridgments
of John Martyn, Vol. X. part ii. pp. 324, 386, 389, 394 ; Hutton, Vol. IX.
P- 475-
A.D. 1747. — Pivati (Johannes Francisco), a Venetian physician,
relates in his " Lettere della elettricita medica," that if odorous
186 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
substances are confined in glass vessels and the latter excited, the
odours and other medical virtues will transpire through the glass,
infect the atmosphere of a conductor, and communicate the virtue
they may possess to all persons in contact therewith ; also, that those
substances held in the hands of persons electrified will communicate
their virtue to them so that medicines can thus be made to operate
without being taken in the usual manner.
This appears to have been likewise asserted especially by M.
Veratti, of Bologna, and by M. Bianchi, of Turin ; also by Prof.
Winckler, of Leipzig, who satisfied himself of the power of electricity
on sulphur, cinnamon, and on balsam of Peru even at a distance.
By the above-named means of applying the electric fluid Pivati
is reported to have effected cures of ordinary pains and aches, and
to have even relieved of gout the old Bishop Donadoni, of Sebcnico,
who had long been a sufferer, and who was at the time seventy-five
years qf age. This pretended transudation and its medical effects
could not, however, be verified, even with the directions asked of
and given by Prof. Winckler, when very careful and exhaustive
experiments were made, on the I2th of June, 1751, at the house of
Dr. Watson, in presence of the president and other officers as well
as friends of the Royal Society. Nor could Dr. Bianchini, Professor
of Medicine at Venice, succeed any better. At a later date, Franklin
asserted that it was impossible to combine the virtues of medicines
with the electric fluid.
REFERENCES. — Franklin's Letters, p. 82; Phil. Trans, for 1748,
Vol. XLV. pp. 262, 270; for 1750, Vol. XLVI. pp. 348, 368; for 1751,
Vol. XLV1I. p. 231; for 1753, Vol. XLVIII. pp. 399, 406, and Vol. X.
abridged, pp. 400-403.
A.D. 1747. — Louis (Antoine), eminent French surgeon (1723-
1792), publishes "Observations sur I'electricitcV' of which the first
issue appeared in 1747 and wherein he indicates the employment of
electricity in medical practice. This he did again in his " Recueils/'
upon a more pretentious scale, six years later, 1753.
REFERENCES. — N. F. J. Eloy, " Diet, de la Medecine," Mons, 1778,
Vol. III. p. 206; " Gen. Biog. Diet." of Alex. Chalmers, 1815, Vol. XX.
p. 419; licefer, " Nouv. Biog. G6n.," Vol. XXXI. p. 1033; Qu6rard,
"La France Litt£raire " ; "Biog. Univ.," de Michaud, Vol. XXV.
PP- 319-3^5.
A.D. 1747. — Gralath (Daniel) publishes in the Dantzig Memoirs
his " Geschichte der Electricitat."
He is the first to construct a Leyden phial with a long, narrow
neck, through which is passed an iron wire bearing a tin knob in
place of the iron nail theretofore used; and, with several of these
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 187
phials joined together in the form of a battery, he had, during the
previous year, transmitted a shock through a chain of twenty
persons. His observations are recorded in the above-named
Memoirs at pp. 175-304 and 506-534, Vol. I. ; pp. 355-460, Vol. II. ;
pp. 492-556, Vol. III. Gralath's " Electrische Bibliothek " is in
Vols. II. and III.
A.D. 1747. — The Swedish mathematician and philosopher,
Samuel Klingenstierna, and his pupil, M. Stroemer, were the first
who properly electrified by the rubber, and their experiments were
published in the Acts of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm
for the year 1747 (see Priestley's " History of Electricity,"
Part I. period viii. s. 3, wherein he alludes to Wilcke's " Herrn
Franklin's briefe," etc., p. 112).
A.D. 1748. — Morin (Jean), French physicist, publishes at
Chartres " Nouvelle dissertation sur 1'electricite des corps/' etc., in
which he details many of his experiments, and endeavours to give a
correct explanation of all the extraordinary electrical phenomena
hitherto observed. He is also the author of a " Reply to Mr.
Nollet upon Electricity," published in 1749 at Chartres and at
Paris, as well as of a treatise upon Universal Mechanism, which
latter, according to the Journal des Savants, contained more in-
formation upon Nature generally, and expressed in fewer words,
than was embraced in any previous work.
REFERENCES. — " Diet. Univ.," Vol. XI. p. 568; " Biog. G6nerale,"
Vol. XXXVI. p. 599.
A.D. 1749.— Stukeley (the Rev. William), M.D., is the first who
advanced that earthquakes arc probably caused by electricity.
This he did in a paper read before the Royal Society, March 22,
1749, having reference to the subterranean disturbances noticed
in London, February 8 and March 8 of the same year. In this
communication, as well as in a subsequent one read to the same
Society, December 6, 1750, bearing upon a similar disturbance,
observed throughout England during the previous month of
September, he explains why earthquakes are not the result of
subterraneous winds, fires, vapours, etc.
One of his strongest arguments is that no such vapours could
instantaneously have destroyed thirteen great cities as did the
earthquake which occurred in Asia Minor, A.D. 17, and which is
reckoned to have shaken a cone of earth three hundred miles
diameter in base and two hundred miles in the axis. This quantity
of earth, he says, " all the gunpowder which has ever been made
since the invention of it would not have been able to stir, much less
188 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
any vapours, which could be supposed to be generated so far below
the surface," and, he adds, " if the concussion depended upon a
subterraneous eruption the shock would precede the noise/'
He observes that the earth for months prior to the afore-named
disturbances " must have been in a state of electricity ready for that
particular vibration in which electrification exists"; that all the
vegetation had been " uncommonly forward . . . and electricity
is well known to quicken vegetation " ; that the aurora borealis
had been very frequent about the same time and had been twice
repeated just before the earthquake, " of such colours as had never
been seen before," there being, one evening, " a deep red aurora
borealis covering the cope of heaven very terrible to behold";
that the whole year had been " remarkable for fire-balls, thunder,
lightning and coruscations, almost throughout all England," all
which " are rightly judged to proceed from the electrical state of
the atmosphere " ; and, finally, that, a little before the earthquake,
" a large and black cloud suddenly covered the atmosphere, which
probably occasioned the shock by the discharge of a shower."
He adds that, according to Dr. Childrey, earthquakes are always
preceded by rain and sudden tempests of rain in times of great
drought.
Dr. Stephen Hales (1677-1761), who was Stukeley's classmate
at Bennct College, Cambridge, and later his chief assistant in the
study of the natural sciences, and who afterward became celebrated
for his physical investigations and discoveries, arrives at a like
conclusion. He thinks that " the electric appearances were only
occasioned by the great agitation which the electric fluid was put
into by the shock of so great a mass of the earth." The great
noise which attended the disturbance of March 8, 1749, he con-
jectured was " owing to the rushing or sudden expansion of the
electric fluid at the top of St. Martin's spire, where all the electric
effluvia, which ascended along the large body of the tower, being
strongly condensed, and accelerated at the point of the weather-
cock, as they rushed off made so much the louder expansive ex-
plosion." It may be added here that Dr. Hales is the one who, at
a previous date, had communicated to the Royal Society his ob-
servation of the fact that the electric spark proceeding from warm
iron is of a bright, light colour, while that from warm copper is
green, and the colour from a warm egg of a light yellow. In his
opinion, these experiments appeared to argue that some particles
of those different bodies are carried off in the electric flashes wherein
those different colours- are exhibited.
For Stephen Hales, consult the Phil. Trans., Vol. XLV. p. 409,
as well as the abridgments of Hutton, Vol. IX. p. 534, and for his
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 189
portrait see " Essays in Historical Chemistry/' by T. E. Thorpe,
London, 1894.
For Stukeley and for Stephen Hales : consult " General Bio-
graphical Dictionary/' Alex. Chalmers, London, 1814, Vol. XVII.
pp. 41-43.
REFERENCES. — Priestley, " History of Electricity," Part I. period
x. s. 12; Phil. Trans., abridged by John Martyn, Part II. of Vol.
X. pp. 406-526, 535, 540, 541, 551 ; Vol. XLIV-XLV, p. 409; Appendix
to the Phil. Trans, for 1750, Vol. XLVI ; Hale, ''Statical Essays," II.
p. 291 ; Thomson, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," 1812, p. 197.
A.D. 1749. — Jallabert (Jean Louis), Professor of Philosophy
and Mathematics at Geneva, is the author of " Experiences sur
I'electricite, avec quelques conjectures sur la cause de ses effets,"
of which a smaller edition had appeared at Geneva in 1748.
He confirms the result obtained by Dr. Watson (A.D. 1745) that
the electric fluid takes the shortest course by passing through the
substance of a conducting wire instead of along its surface. By
making his Leyden experiments with a jar in which the water is
frozen, he shows that ice is a conductor of electricity. He improves
upon Nolle t's experiments, and demonstrates conclusively that
plants which are electrified grow faster and have finer stems, etc.,
than those not electrified. He is the first to observe that a body
pointed at one end and round at the other produces different appear-
ances upon the same body, according as the pointed or the rounded
end is presented to it. The Dantzig Memoirs, Vol. II. p. 378, tell
us that Carolus Augustus Van Bergen, Professor of Medicine at
Frankfort on Oder, had previously noticed, " as a small step toward
discovering the effect of pointed bodies," that sparks taken from
a polished body are stronger than those from a rough one. With
the latter he found it difficult to fire spirits, but he could easily do it
with a polished conductor.
M. Jallabert is also known to have effected some medical cures
through the agency of the electric fluid, as related in the " Experi-
ences " above alluded to.
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Univ.," Vol. XX. p. 535 ; Bertholon, " Elec.
du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I. pp. 260, 292, 299, 334, 413, and Vol.
II. p. 291; Beccaria, "Dell' Elettricismo Naturale," etc., p. 125;
"Journal cles Scavans," Vol. CXLIX. for 1749, pp. 1-18, 441-461;
" Medical Electricity," by Dr. H. Lewis Jones, Philad. 1904, p. 2.
A.D. 1749. — Mines are fired by electricity (S. P. Thompson,
lecture delivered October 7, 1882, at the University College, Bristol).
A.D. 1749.— Through the important work entitled " Trait 6
sur rElectriciteY' Louis Elisabeth de la Vergne Tressan secures,
190 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
a year later, admission to both the French Academic des Sciences
and the English Royal Society. During 1786, three years after his
death, the above-named work was merged into a publication in
two volumes under the title of " Essai sur le fluide electrique con-
sider^ comme agent universel."
REFERENCES. — "Biographic G6n6rale," Vol. XLV. pp. 623-626;
Laroussc, " Dictionnaire Universel," Vol. XV. p. 474.
A.D. 1749. — Duhamel (Henri Louis, du Monceau) (1700-1782),
member of the French Royal Academy of Sciences, develops, in
conjunction with M. Antheaulme, the method introduced by
Gowin Knight (A.D. 1746) for making artificial magnets, which latter
process was found to be defective when applied to very large bars.
To Le Maire, however, is due (Mem. de I'Acad. de Paris, 1745 and
1750), the notable improvement which consists in magnetizing at
the same time two steel bars of any shape by placing them parallel
to each other and connecting their extremities, with pieces of soft
iron placed at right angles, in order to form a closed rectangular
parallelogram. Two strong magnets, or two bunches of small
magnetic bars, with their similar poles together, arc then applied to
the centre of one of the bars to be magnetized and are drawn away
from each other, practically as in Dr. Knight's method, while being
held at an inclination of about forty-five degrees. The operation is
repeated upon the other bar and continued alternately until sufficient
magnetism is imparted to both, it being borne in mind that before
the treatment is given to the second bar the poles must in each
instance be reversed, i. e. the pole which was to the right hand
should be turned to the left. The entire operation is to be repeated
upon the reverse side of both bars.
REFERENCES. — Harris, " Rudim. Magn.," I. and II. pp. 85 and 86;
P. Laroussc, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VI. p. 1363; " Biog. Generate," Vol.
XV. pp. 106-107; Condorcct, " Elogc cle Duhamel " ; I. M. Des Essarts,
" Sidcles litte"raires "; Georges Cuvier, " Hist, des Sc. Naturelles," Vol.
V; Thos. Thomson, " Hist of the Roy. Soc.," London, 1812, p. 45.
A.D. 1750-1753.— In M. Arago's " Historical Eloge of James
Watt," translated by James P. Muirhead and published in London
during the year 1839, ft *s said, at p. 6, that Watt constructed,
at about the period first mentioned herein, a small electrical (his
earliest) machine, the brilliant sparks from which became a subject
of much amusement and surprise to all the companions of the
poor invalid (" James Watt," by Andrew Carnegie, New York, 1905).
A.D. 1750.— Wargentin (Pierre Guillaume— Perh Vilhelm— )
(1717-1783), Secretary to the Swedish Academy of Sciences and a
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 191
distinguished astronomer, addresses, on the 2ist of February, a
letter to the Royal Society, of which a copy is to be found in Vol.
XLVII. p. 126 of the Phil. Trans. In this he gives his observations
of the result produced on the magnetic needle by the aurora borealis.
We have already seen (under the A.D. 1683 date), that the dis-
covery of the fact that magnets are affected by the polar lights
has been ascribed to Wargentin, and we have also learned (A.D.
1722) that he ascertained the diurnal changes of the magnetic needle
with more precision than had been done by George Graham.
REFERENCES. — Walker, "Magnetism," p. 116; American Journal
Science and Arts, 1841, Vol. XXX. p. 227; Celsius, A.D. 1740, and the
abridgments of Hutton, Vol. X. p. 165.
A.D. 1750. — Michell (John), an eminent English man of science,
Professor at Queens' College, Cambridge, publishes " A treatise
of Artificial Magnets, in which is shown an easy and expeditious
method of making them superior to the best natural ones."
The process introduced by this work is known as that of the
" double touch." This consists in first joining, at about a quarter
of an inch distance, two bundles of strongly magnetized bars, having
their opposite poles together, and in drawing these bars backward
and forward upon and along the entire length of the bars to be
magnetized, which latter have already been laid down end to end
and in a straight line. The operation is to be repeated upon each
side of the bars. The central bars of a series thus acquire at first a
higher degree of magnetism than do the outer ones, but by trans-
posing the latter and treating all alike the magnetic virtue is evenly
distributed. In this process the external bars act the same part as
do the pieces of soft iron employed in the Duhamel method.
At Chap. VI. p. 20 of the third volume of his " Rudimentary
Magnetism," Harris thus expresses himself : " Michell advanced
the idea that in all the experiments of Hauksbee, Dr. Brooke Taylor,
William Whiston and Musschenbroek, the force may really be in
the inverse duplicate ratio of the distances, proper allowance being
made for the disturbing changes in the magnetic forces so inseparable
from the nature of the experiment. He is hence led to conclude
that the true law of the force is identical with that of gravity,
although he does not set it down as certain."
REFERENCES. — Harris, " Rud. Mag./' I. and II. pp. 94-95; C. R.
Weld, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 512 ; Phil. Trans. t Vol. LI. pp. 390,
393, and Hutton's abridgment, Vol. XI. p. 418; Gaugain's observations
in " Sc. Am. Suppl.," No. 7, p. 99.
A.D. 1750. — Boulanger — not Boullang£re — (Nicholas Antoine)
(1722-1759), a well-known French writer, whose extensive studies
192 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
were interrupted by his death, in 1759, at the early age of thirty-
seven, gives, in this " Traite* de la cause et des phe*nome*nes de
rdectriciteV' accounts of many important observations made in
the electrical field.
His attention was carefully given to ascertaining the degrees
in which different substances are capable of being excited, and he
gives several lists of such, inferring therefrom that the most trans-
parent and the most brittle are always the most electric.
At pp. 64 and 124 of the above-named " Traite " he states that
electricity affects mineral waters much more sensibly than common
water; that black ribbons are more readily attracted than those
of other colours, next to the black being the brown and deep red;
and that, of two glass cylinders exactly alike, except that one is
transparent and the other slightly coloured, the transparent one
will be the more readily excited.
REFERENCES. — The " Traite"," notably at pp. 135 and 164; " Biog.
; Lc Bas, " Diet. Encycl. de la France " ; QueY
Chauclon et Dclandine, " Diet, historique.'1
G6neralc," Vol. VI. p. 939 ; Lc Bas, " Diet. Encycl. de la France " ; Qu6rard,
" La France Litteraire "; "" " ' "
A.D. 1751. — Adanson (Michael), a French naturalist of very
high reputation, who, before the age of nineteen, had actually
described four thousand species of the three kingdoms of nature,
introduces in his " History of Senegal " the silurus electricus, a large
species of eel originally brought from Surinam. Sir John Leslie
states that the silurus is furnished with a very peculiar and complex
nervous apparatus which has been fancifully likened to an electrical
battery, and that, from a healthy specimen exhibited in London,
vivid sparks were drawn in a darkened room. M. Broussonet
alludes to the silurus as Le TremUeur in the " Hist, de TAcad. Royale
des Sciences " for 1782, p. 692.
Adanson also called attention, in 1756, to the electrical powrers of
the malapterus electricus, but, according to the able naturalist,
James Wilson (" Ichthyology/' Encycl. Brit.), there is a much earlier
account of the fish extracted from the narrative of Barettis and
Oviedo dated 1554.
The Swedish scientist, Karl A. Rudolphi, pupil of Linnaeus,
called the princeps helminthologorum, has given a detailed description
as well as illustrations of the electric organs of the malapterus in
" Ueber den Zitter-wels," Abh. Berl. Acad. VII. . . . This fish,
which the Arabs call Raad or Raash (thunder), gives its discharge
chiefly when touched on the head, but is powerless when held by
the tail, the electrical organs in fact not reaching the caudal fin.
To Adanson has been attributed the authorship of an essay on
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 193
the " Electricity of the Tourmaline/' Paris, 1757, which bears
the name of the Duke de Noya Caraffa.
REFERENCES. — Sprcng, " Hist. R. Herb.," Vol. II; and " Adanson's
Biog.," Vol. II. " Encycl. Britannica," Rees' " Cycl." Supplement and in
" Bibl. Universelle," Vol. I; Chambers' " Encyl." for 1868, Vol. III.
p. 822; Cavallo, " Nat. Phil.," Philad., 1825, Vol. II. p. 237 ; Scientific
American Supplement, No. 457, pp. 7300, 7301 ; Rozier, Vol. XXVII.
p. 139, and W. Bryant in Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. p. 166, O. S.
A.D. 1752. — Franklin (Benjamin) (1706-1790), an able American
editor, philosopher and statesman, crowns his many experiments
with the brilliant discovery of the identity of electricity and lightning.
Humboldt says : " From this period the electric process passes
from the domain of speculative physics into that of cosmical con-
templation— from the recesses of the study to the freedom of nature "
(" Cosmos/' Vol. II. 1849, p. 727). Wall (A.D. 1708) had only
alluded to the resemblance of electricity to thunder and lightning ;
Grey (A.D. 1720) had conjectured their identity and implied that
they differed only in one degree, while Nollct (A.D. 1746) pointed
out a closer relationship than ever before adduced between lightning
and the electric spark ; but it was left for Franklin to prove the fact
with empirical certainty.
Franklin's attention was first directed to electrical studies in
1745, by a letter from Peter Collinson, Fellow of the Royal Society
of London, to the Literary Society of Philadelphia, and he first wrote
on the subject to that gentleman on the 28th of July, 1747. This
was followed by several other similar communications up to April
18, 1754, the whole of which comprise most of what subsequently
appeared under the title " New Experiments and Observations on
Electricity, made at Philadelphia, in America, by Benjamin Franklin,
LL.D. and F.R.S."
Franklin first entertained the idea that lightning was not likely
to be attracted by a pointed rod unless the latter was placed at a
great height, and he therefore waited for the erection of a tall spire
in Philadelphia which he intended to utilize for his observations,
but delay in its completion led him to use a kite pointed with- an
iron rod, not doubting that the electric fluid could, during a thunder-
storm, be drawn from it through a string.
The manner of constructing and employing the kite, and the
attending results, are thus given in a letter dated Oct. 19, 1752
(Letter XII, " Experiments and observations on Electricity ") :
" Make a small cross of two light strips of cedar, the arms so long
as to reach to the four corners of a large thin silk handkerchief when
extended. Tie the corners of the handkerchief to the extremities
of the cross, so you have the body of a kite which, being properly
o
194 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
accommodated with a tail, loop and string, will rise in the air like
those made of paper ; but, this being made of silk, is fitter to bear
the wet and wind of a thunder-gust without tearing. To the top
of the upright stick of the cross is to be fixed a very sharp-pointed
wire, rising a foot or more above the wood. In the end of the twine,
next the hand, is to be held a silk ribbon, and where the silk and
twine join a key may be fastened. This kite is to be raised when a
thunder-gust appears to be coming on, and the person who holds
the string must stand within a door or window, or under some cover,
so that the silk ribbon may not be wet, and care must be taken that
the twine does not touch the frame of the door or window. As
soon as any of the thunder clouds come over the kite, the pointed
wire will draw the electric fire from them, and the kite with all the
twine will be electrified, and the lose filaments of the twine will
stand out every way and be attracted by an approaching finger.
And when the rain has wetted the kite so that it can conduct the
electric fire freely, you will find it stream out plentifully from the
key on the approach of your knuckle. At this key, the phial (Leyden
jar) may be charged,, and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may
be kindled, and all the other electric experiments be performed
which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube,
and thereby the sameness of the electric matter with that of lightning
completely demonstrated."
It was during the month of June 1752, on the approach of a
storm, that he and his son walked out upon the Philadelphia
Commons and first raised the kite. At the outset no important
results were obtained, but as soon as the cord became wet by the
shower that followed, the electric sparks were easily drawn from
the key and enabled Franklin to charge and give shocks from a
Leyden jar.
Thus, says Sabine, was Benjamin Franklin successful in one of
the boldest experiments ever made by man upon the powers of
nature, and from that moment he became immortal.
He had already, in 1749, made public the following, which is
embodied in one of his letters to Mr. Collinson : " The electrical
spark is zigzag, and not straight ; so is lightning. Pointed bodies
attract electricity; lightning strikes mountains, trees, spires, masts
and chimneys. When different paths are offered to the escape of
electricity, it chooses the best conductor ; so does lightning. Elec-
tricity fires combustibles; so does lightning. Electricity fuses
metals; so does lightning. Lightning rends bad conductors when
it strikes them; so does electricity when rendered sufficiently
strong. Lightning reverses the poles of a magnet ; electricity has
the same effect."
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 195
Franklin had, likewise, published at about the same period the
plan for an experiment to ascertain from elevated structures whether
the clouds that contain lightning are electrified or not. He himself
had proposed to put the plan to execution ; but he was led to try
the kite experiment, and, meanwhile, his suggestions had been
successfully acted upon, in France, by M. Dalibard and de Lor,
as will be shown later on,
" The lightning, which doth cease to be, ere one can say, ' it lightens.1 "
— Shakespeare.
" First let me talk with this philosopher ; what is the cause of thunder ? "
— Shakespeare.
"... a way for the lightning of the thunder." — Job xxviii. 26, and
xxxviii. 25.
" It related not to the instances of the magneticalness of lightning." —
" Hist, of Roy. Soc.," by Thomas Birch, Vol. IV. p. 253.
When specifying the great points of coincidence existing between
the ordinary electric discharge and lightning, Franklin, as already
partly stated, had remarked that flashes of lightning are frequently
waving and crooked, of a zigzag or forked appearance, sometimes
diffused and sometimes coloured (" On the Nature of Thunder-
storms/' W. Snow Harris, London, 1843, p. 24; Priestley, " History
and Present State of Electricity," London, 1769, p. 166; " Encycl.
Metropol.," article " Electricity "; Biot, " Trait e de Physique/'
Vol. II). In treating of the subject of lightning flashes, Dr. L. D.
Gale (trans, of M. F. J. F. Duprez's paper on " Atmospheric Elec-
tricity/' taken from the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Brussels)
alludes to the attempts made by C. G. Helvig to determine the
velocity of the linear flashes (Gilbert's Annalen, Vol. LI. pp. 136
and 139, ss. 2, 10) which he estimated to be 40,000 to 50,000
feet in a second, and states that M. Weigsenborn, of Weimar
(Comptes Rendus, Vol. IX. p. 218), calculated the velocity of a flash
observed in 1839 to be more than two leagues, while M. Fra^ois
Arago (" Annuaire," etc., pour I'anne'e 1838, pp. 249, 255, 257, 459,
estimated the lengths of certain flashes to be 3*3, 3*6, 3*8 leagues.
The views of Messrs. Logan (Phil. Trans., 1735, Vol. XXXIX. p.
240), L. J. Gay-Lussac (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 1805, Vol. XXIX.
p. 105), H. W. Brandes (" Beitrage zur Witterungskunde," etc.,
1820, p. 353), C. H. Pfaff and L. E. Kaemtz (J. S. T. Gehler, " Diet,
de Phys./' Vol. I. p. 1001, and " Lehrbuch d. Meteor," Vol. II.
p. 430), Gabriel Lame (" Cours. de Phys. de 1'Ecole Polytech./'
Tome II. 2e partie, p. 82), Becquerel (Comptes Rendus, 1839, Tome
VIII. p. 216), Faraday (Philos. Magazine, 1841, Vol. XIX. p. 104),
Pouillet (" Elements de Phys. et de M6t<§or," Tome II. p. 808),
Parrot (J. S. T. Gehler, " Diet, de Phys,/' Vol. I. p. 999), are also
196 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
set forth in the above-named translation of M. Duprez's valuable
work.
Humboldt informs us that " the most important ancient notice
of the relations between lightning and conducting metals is that of
Ctesias, in his Indica, Cap. IV. p. 169. He possessed two iron swords,
presents from the King Artaxerxes Mnemon, and from his mother
Parysatis, which, when planted in the earth, averted clouds, hail
and strokes of lightning. He had himself seen the operation, for the
king had twice made the experiment before his eyes " (" Cosmos,"
Vol. II. N. 186). Ctesias was a man of great learning. He was a
contemporary of Xenophon, and lived for a number of years at
the Court of Artaxerxes Mnemon as private physician to the king.
Diodorus states that Ctesias was highly honoured at the Persian
court. An abridged edition of the Indica was printed by Stephens
in 1594 (" Hist. Roy. Soc.," C. R. Weld, London, 1848, Vol. II. p.
93; " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XIII. p. 536; "Biographic
G&ierale," Vol. XII. p. 568).
In imitation of Franklin, Doctor Lining, of Charleston, in South
Carolina, sent a kite into a thunder cloud, and by that means dissi-
pated the lightning (Philosophical Transactions for 1754, Vol.
XLVIII. p. 757).
The opinion entertained by Franklin regarding the nature of
electricity differs from that previously submitted by Dufay (A.D.
1733), in the manner shown by Noad at p. 6 of his Manual, London,
1859 edition.
What Dufay considered to be two distinct species of electricities,
vitreous and resinous, Franklin conceived to be two different states
of the same electricity, which he called positive and negative. This,
which constitutes the foundation of the present theory of electricity,
is usually called the Franklinian theory, but it can be said to belong
equally to Dr. Watson, for he had communicated it to the Royal
Society before Franklin's opinion on the subject was known in
England (Phil. Trans, for 1748, Vol. XLV. pp. 49, 491 ; Thomson,
" Hist. Roy. Soc.," p. 436). Noad, in paragraph 12, applies the
latter theory to the case of a charged Leyden jar, alluding to Frank-
lin's discovery of the location of electricity in the jar, where from is
drawn the conclusion that it is upon the glass that the electricity
is deposited, and that the conducting coatings serve " only, like the
armature of the loadstone, to unite the forces of the several parts
and bring them at once to any point desired " (see " (Euvres de
Franklin," trans, of Barbeu-Dubourg, Tome II. p. 16, 3° lettre).
Of his plus and minus theory, Franklin thus wrote to Mr. Collin-
son : " To electrise plus or minus no more needs to be known than
this, that the parts of the tube or sphere that are rubbed do, in the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 197
instant of the friction, attract the electrical fire, and therefore take
it from the thing rubbing ; the same parts, immediately as the fric-
tion upon them ceases, are disposed to give the fire they have
received to any body that has less."
In an appendix to his official report as U.S. Commissioner at
the Paris Universal Exposition of 1867, entitled " Franklin and
Electrical Semaphores," Professor Samuel F. B. Morse, LL.D.,
expressed himself as follows :
" It has frequently been asserted (on what authority I know
not) that the first idea of an electric semaphore originated with
Franklin. I have sought in vain in the publication of Franklin's
experiments and works for anything confirmatory of this assertion.
On mentioning the subject to my friend Professor Blake, he kindly
proposed examining the writings of Franklin in order to elicit the
truth. From him I have received the following :
" ' I consulted several works for the purpose of ascertaining,
if possible, the foundation for the statement that Franklin suggested
the idea of semaphores by static electricity. I have not yet found
any such suggestion, but I have noted that, following the experi-
ments by Dr. Watson and others, in England, to determine the velocity
of the electric discharge, and the time supposed to be required
for the electrical discharges across the Thames, by which spirits
were kindled, etc. (in 1747), Dr. Franklin (in 1748) made some similar
experiments upon the banks of the Schuylkill, and amused his friends
by sending a spark " from side to side through the river without
any other conductor than the water " (vide Priestley's " History
of Electricity "). This was in 1748, at the end of the year. In
1756 " J. A., Esq.," of New York (James Alexander), presented
to the Royal Society a proposition " to measure the time taken by
an electric spark in moving through any given space " by sending
the discharge or spark down the Susquehanna or Potomac, and round
by way of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, so that the " electric fire "
would have a circuit of some thousands of miles to go. All this was
upon the supposition or assumption that the electric fire would
choose a continuous water conductor rather than to return or pass
through the earth. Franklin presented a paper in reply, in which he
says " the proposed experiment (though well imagined and very
ingenious) of sending the spark round through a vast length of
space, etc. etc., would not afford the satisfaction desired, though
we could be sure that the motion of the electric fluid would be in
that tract, and not underground in the wet earth by the shortest
way " ' (' Franklin's Experiments on Electricity, and Letters and
Papers on Philosophical Subjects/ 4to, London, MDCCLXIX,
pp. 282, 283).
198 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Can it be possible that Franklin's experiment of firing spirits
and showing the spark and the effects of the electric discharge across
the river originated, or forms the foundation for, the statement
that he suggested the semaphoric use of electricity? "
After speaking of the experiments, to which allusion was made (at
Watson, A.D. 1745), Franklin writes : ". . . It is proposed to put an
end to them for this season, somewhat humorously, in a party of plea-
sure, on the banks of the Schuylkill. Spirits at the same time are to
be fired by a spark sent from side to side through the river without
any other conductor than the water — an experiment which we some
time since performed to the amazement of many. A turkey is to
be killed for our dinner by the electrical shock, and roasted by the
electrical jack, before a fire kindled by the electrified bottle, when
the healths of all the famous electricians in England, Holland,
France and Germany are to be drank in electrified bumpers under
the discharge of guns from the electrical battery/1
It was toward the close of the year 1750 that Franklin entertained
the practicability of a lightning conductor (see Winckler, A.D. 1733),
and, for this, he says, he was indebted to an experiment made by
his friend Mr. Thomas Hopkinson (vide Franklin's " Complete
Works," London, 1806, Vol. I. p. 172). In his " Poor Richard's
Almanac " for 1753, he refers to the lightning rod as security for
" habitations and other buildings from mischief by thunder and
lightning."
REFERENCES. — J. B. Lc Roy, " Lctiera al Rozier," etc., Milano, 1782 ;
" Rcc. dc M6m. de 1'Acad. des Sc." for 1770 and 1773; Jour, de Phys.,
1773, Vol. II; Memoirs of M. Beyer, Paris, 1806-1809, and Delaunay's
explanation of his theories at pp. 193-198 of his 1809 Manuel.
The many notable observations, experiments and discoveries
of Franklin are nowhere more ably reviewed than by his great
admirer Dr. Priestley, who devotes much space thereto in his justly
celebrated work on electricity.
At p. 92 of his " New Experiments," etc., London, 1774, Franklin
alludes to the failure of many European electricians in firing gun-
powder by the electric spark, and gives his own method by using a
battery of four large glass jars, while at p. 423 of the London edition
of his " Letters and Papers," etc., Franklin relates curious observa-
tions which are worth mentioning here. He says that he sent a
charge of electricitj7 " through a small glass tube that had borne it
well when empty, but when filled with water was shattered to pieces
and driven all about the room. Finding no part of the water on
the table, I suspected it to have been reduced to vapour. I was
confirmed in that suspicion afterward when I had filled a like piece
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 109
of tube with ink and laid it on a sheet of paper, whereon after the
explosion I could find neither any moisture nor any sully from the
ink. This experiment of the explosion of water, which I believe
was first made by that most ingenious electrician, Father Beccaria,
may account for what we sometimes see in a tree struck by lightning,
when part of it is reduced to fine splinters like a broom ; the sap vessels
being so many tubes containing a watery fluid, which, when reduced
to vapour, sends every tube lengthways. And, perhaps it is this
rarefaction of the fluids in animal bodies killed by lightning or
electricity, that by separating its fibres renders the flesh so tender
and apt so much sooner to putrefy. I think, too, that much of
the damage done by lightning to stone and brick walls may some-
times be owing to the explosion of water found during showers,
running or lodging in the joints or small cavities or cracks that
happen to be in the walls."
REFERENCES. — Majus — May — (Heinrich), " Disp. de fulmine " and
" Disp. de tonitru," Marp., 1673, as at Pogg., Annalen, Vol. II. p. 21 ;
Giuseppe Saverio Poli, " La formazione del Tuono," etc., 1772, and his
other works on the same subject which appeared during the years 1773,
1779 and 1787 ; Phil. Trans, for 1751, Vol. XLVII. pp. 202, 289, 362 ; W.
de Fonvielle, " Eclairs et Tonnerres " ; " Terrestrial Magn." for June 1903 ;
Jour, of the Franklin Institute for 1836, Vol. XVII., p. 183 ; M. le Docteur
Sestier, " De La Foudre " ; " Lightning- Rod Conference," Reports of
Delegates, by G. J. Symons, 1882 ; Chap. III. s. 3, vol. i. of Van Swinden's
" Recueil," etc., 1784; Lumitre Electrique, Tome XL. No. 23, p. 497;
Giovanni Cardan's work, Lyons, 1663 ; " Library of Literary Criticism,"
C. W. Moulton, Buffalo, 1901-1902, Vol. IV. pp. 79-106; " An Outline
of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity," by Thos. Thomson, London,
1830, pp. 347, 423, 432—433; "The Electrical Researches of the Hon.
Henry Cavendish," Cambridge, 1879, Nos. 350, note, 363; "Works of
Benj. Franklin," Jared Sparks, London, 1882 ; Phil. Trans., Vols. XLVII.
p. 565 ; XLIX. pp. 300, 305, ; L. p. 481 ; LI. p. 525 ; LII. 456 ; also Hutton's
abridgments, Vol. X. pp. 189, 212, 301, 629, 632; Vol. XL pp. 189, 435,
609; " Bibliothdque Bntannique," Geneve, 1796, Vol. LI. p. 393 (letter
to M. Marc Auguste Pictet) ; Stuber, " Continuation of the Life of Dr.
Franklin " ; " An Essay on the Nature of Heat, Light and Electricity "
(on the Franklinian hypothesis), by Chas. Carpenter Bompass, London,
1817, Chap. III. s. 3, p. 217; " List of Books written by or relating to
Franklin," by Paul L. Ford, 1889 ; L. Baldwin, " Mem. of Amer. Acad.,"
O. S. L part i. p. 257; Sturgeon's " Researches," p. 524 ; J. Bart. Beccari,
" De Artif. elect . . ." ; likewise all the references that are given at
pp. 26-27 of Ronalds' "Catalogue"; "Journal des Savants" for June
1817. PP- 348-356-
A.D. 1752. — Dalibard (Thomas Francois), French botanist and
amateur in physics, carries out very carefully the suggestions em-
bodied in Franklin's printed letters and constructs an atmospherical
conductor at Marly-la-Ville, about eighteen miles from Paris, where
Nollet likewise experimented. Dalibard's apparatus consisted of a
pointed iron rod, one inch in diameter and about forty feet long,
which was protected from the rain by a sentry box and attached to
three long wooden posts insulated by silken strings.
200 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
On the loth of May, 1752, during Dalibard's absence, an old
soldier by the name of Coimer, who was at the time employed as a
carpenter and who had been left in charge, on observing the approach
of a storm, hurried to the apparatus prepared to carry out the
instructions previously given him. It was not long before he suc-
ceeded in obtaining large sparks on presenting a phial to the rod,
and these sparks, which were all accompanied by a large snapping
noise, were likewise obtained by the curate of Marly, M. Raulet,
whom he had sent for and with whose aid Coiffier subsequently
succeeded in charging an electric jar. On the I3th of May, Dalibard
made, to the French Academy of Sciences, a report of the results
thus obtained by Coiffier, to whom, it may be said, properly belongs
the distinction of having been the first man who saw the electric spark
drawn from the atmosphere.
On the i8th of the same month of May, M. de Lor, of the French
University, drew similar sparks from a rod ninety-nine feet high at
his house in the Estrapade, at Paris, and the same phenomenon was
afterward exhibited to the French King. It is said that the con-
ductor afforded sparks even when the cloud had moved at least six
miles from the place of observation. Other experiments of a like
nature were made a few days later by Buffon at Montbar, and,
during the ensuing months of July and August, in the vicinity of
London, by Canton, who, it is said, succeeded in drawing atmo-
spheric electricity by means of a common fishing rod (Dissertation
Fifth, Eighth " Britannica," Vol. I).
An account of the Dalibard and de Lor experiments was trans-
mitted by the Abbe Mazeas, on the 2oth of May, to the Royal Society
of London.
Mazeas erected, in the upper section of his residence, a magazine
consisting of several insulated iron bars connected with the pointed
rod. The lightning was brought into the house by means of a pro-
jecting wooden pole, having at its extremity a glass tube filled with
resin which received a pointed iron rod twelve feet long. This
apparatus was, however, too much exposed to afford reliable observa-
tions, and Mazeas therefore arranged to make more accurate experi-
ments at the Chateau de Maintenon, during the months of June,
July and October 1753. The results he obtained were communi-
cated to the English Royal Society by Dr. Stephen Hales. The
letters of the Abbe Mazeas to the Rev. Stephen Hales, detailing
some of M. Le Monnier's experiments as well as observations made
by M. Ludolf at Berlin and transmitted by M. Euler, are to be found
at pp. 354-552, Vol. XLVII. Phil. Trans, for 1753. For Mazeas,
see also Phil. Trans., Vol. XLVII. p. 534, Vol. XLVIII. part i.
p. 377, and Button's abridgments, Vol. X. pp. 289, 434,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 201
Thomas Ronayne in Ireland, and Andrew Crosse * in England
(see " Account of an apparatus for ascertaining and collecting the
electricity of the atmosphere ") made use of long wires in horizontal
positions insulated by being attached to glass pillars, but Mazdas,
in his Maintenon experiments, attached the iron wire by a silken
cord to the top of a steeple ninety feet in height, whence it entered
an upper room of the castle, a total distance of 370 feet. With
this, Mazeas ascertained that electric effects are produced at all
hours of the day during clear, dry and particularly hot weather,
the presence of a thunderstorm not .being requisite for the pro-
duction of atmospheric electricity. In the driest summer nights
he could discover no signs of electricity in the air, but when the
sun reappeared the electricity accompanied it, to vanish again in
the evening about half an hour after sunset.
REFERENCES. — W. Sturgeon, " Lectures," London, 1842, pp. 182,
183; Phil. Trans., Vol. XLVIII. part i. pp. 370, 377, etc.; Dalibard's
" Franklin," Vol. IE. p. 109, etc.; " Me"m. de 1'Acad. des Sciences," for
May, 1762; Nollet, " Letters," Vol. I. p. 9; Franklin's Works, Vol. V.
p. 288; English Cyclopaedia, "Arts and Sciences," Vol. III. pp. 804-
805; " Letters of Thomas Ronayne, to Benjamin Franklin," at p. 137 of
Vol. LXII of Phil. Trans., likewise Ronayne both in Journal de Physique,
Tome VI, and in the Phil. Trans, for 1772, Vol. LII. pp. 137-140; also
Mutton's abridgments, Vol. XIII. p. 310; Geo. Adams, " Essay on Elect.,"
London, 1785, p. 259.
A.D. 1752. — Freke (John), surgeon to St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, London, gives, in the Second Part of " A Treatise . . .
of Fire," the third edition of his " Essay to Show the Cause of
Electricity," etc., originally published in 1746, while in the Third
Part of the same work he shows the " Mechanical Cause of Magnetism,
and why the compass varies in the manner it does."
He says (pp. 90-91) : " It had been impossible that this wonderful
Phenomenon of Electricity should ever have been discovered, if
there had not been such things as are non-elect ricable ; for, as fast as
this Fire had been driven on anything its next neighbour would
have carried it farther; but, when it was most wonderfully found,
that anything which was suspended on a silk cord (that being non-
electricable) was obliged to retain the Fire, which by Electrical
Force was driven on it; and when, moreover, it appeared, that
any person or thing, being placed on a cake of bees-wax (which is
also a non-electricable) could no more part with its Fire than when
suspended in [sic] a silk cord; I think it will become worthy of
inquiry, why they are not electricable." And, at p. 136, he adds :
1 Mr. Andrew Crosse (1784-1855) was a distinguished English scientist,
author of " Experiments in Voltaic Electricity," 1815, alluded to in Phil.
Magazine, Vol. XLVI. p. 421 and in Gilb. "Ann.," Bd. XLI. s. 60. See " Diet,
of Nat. Hog.," Vol. XIII. p. 223, and the many references thereto annexed.
202 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
11 1 think it a great pity that the word Electricity should ever have
been given to so wonderful a Phenomenon, which might properly be
considered as the first principle in nature. Perhaps the word
Vivacity might not have been an improper one ; but it is too late to
think of changing a name it has so long obtain'd." In the Third
Part, he explains that " by the Fire passing from and to the Sun,
it so pervades iron aptly placed, as to make it attractive and produce
the various operations of magnetism/'
REFERENCE. — "Gentleman's Magazine/' London, Vol. XVI for 1746,
PP- 52I> 557'
A.D. 1752. — In this year was published at Leipzig the " Biblia
Naturae," written by John Swammerdam, a celebrated Dutch
natural philosopher (1637-1682), all of whose works were translated
into English and published in folio during the year 1758.
In the second volume of the Biblia, he thus alludes to one of
many experiments made by him in 1678, before the Grand Duke
of Tuscany : " Let there be a cylindrical glass tube in the interior
of which is placed a muscle, whence proceeds a nerve that has been
enveloped in its course with a small silver wire, so as to give us the
power of raising it without pressing it too much or wounding it.
This wire is made to pass through a ring bored in the extremity of a
small copper support and soldered to a sort of piston or partition ;
but the little silver wire is so arranged that on passing between the
glass and the piston the nerve may be drawn by the hand and so
touch the copper. The muscle is immediately seen to contract/'
Through Swammerdam, the Germans lay claim to the origin of
what has been called galvanism. It certainly cannot be denied that
the above-described experiment closely resembles that which made
Galvani famous (A.D. 1786).
REFERENCES. — Swammerdam 's Biography, also Dissertation Fifth,
pp. 706-708; Cuvier, "Hist, des Sc. Naturelles/' Vol. II. pp. 427-433;
Schelhorn, " Amnenitates liter.," Vol. XIV; " Biblioth. Hulthemiana,"
Gand, 1836, Vol. II; Boerhaave, Preface to " Biblia Naturae."
A.D. 1752.— On the i6th of April, 1752, is read before the Royal
Society a letter written by John Smeaton, a very prominent English
engineer and inventor (1724-1792), to Mr. John Ellicot, giving an
account of the electrical experiments in vacuo made with his improved
air pump at the request of Mr. Wilson. This account, fully illus-
trated, appears in the Society's Vol. LXVII for the years 1751 and
1752, pp. 415-428.
He observes that, upon heating the middle of a large iron bar
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 208
to a great heat, the hot part can be as strongly electrified as the
cold parts on each side of it. He also finds that if anybody who is
insulated presses the flat part of his hand heavily against the globe,
while another person standing upon the floor does the same, in order
to excite it, the one who is insulated will hardly be electrified at all ;
but that, if he only lays his fingers lightly upon the globe, he will
be very strongly electrified.
the Engineers — Smeaton and Rennie " ; Flint's " Mudge Memoirs,"
Truro, 1883.
A.D. 1752-1753. — M. de Romas, Assessor to the Presideal of
Nerac, in France, repeats the experiment of Benjamin Franklin,
and succeeds finally in bringing from the clouds more electricity
than had before been taken by any apparatus. ,
He constructed a kite seven feet five inches high and three feet
wide, with a surface of eighteen square feet, and, having wound
fine copper wire around a strong cord through its entire length of
about eight hundred feet, he raised the kite to a height of five
hundred and fifty feet on the 7th of June, 1753. Sparks two inches
in length were at first drawn by a discharging rod, and, when the
kite was afterwards allowed to reach an elevation of six hundred and
fifty feet, he received many flashes one foot long, three inches wide
and three lines diameter, accompanied by a noise audible at as great
a distance as five hundred feet.
On the i6th of August, M. de Romas raised the kite with about
one thousand feet of string and obtained thirty beams of fire, nine
or ten feet long and about an inch thick, accompanied by a noise
similar to that of a pistol shot (" Encycl. Britannica," eighth
edition, Vol. VIII. p. 582). Three years later, August 26, 1756,
and also during the year 1757, De Romas obtained similar results
from numerous experiments. He finally apprehended much danger
from the raising of the kite and thereafter coiled the string upon a
small carriage, which he drew along by means of silken lines as the
cord was being unwound.
The researches of De Romas concerning the electricity of isolated
metallic bars are embraced in six letters addressed by him to the
Bordeaux Academy of Sciences between July 12, 1752, and June 14,
1753. It is reported that they have never been printed and that
they are kept, together with other manuscript matter of the same
physicist, in the private archives of the institution.
The experiments of De Romas upon isolated bars were first
repeated by Boze at Wittenberg, by Gordon at Erfurt, and by
204 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Lomonozow in Russia (Phil. Trans., Vol. XLVIIL part ii p. 272).
M, Veratti, of Bologna, obtained the electric spark in all weathers,
through a bar of iron resting in sulphur, and Th. Marin, of the same
city, by means of a long iron pole erected upon his dwelling, studied
the relationship of rain and atmospheric electricity (Musschenbroek,
" Cours de Physique," Vol. I. p. 397).
REFERENCES. — Journal des S$avans for October, 1753, p. 222;
" M6moire sur les moyens," etc., par De Romas, Bordeaux, 1776;
Sturgeon's " Annals," etc., Vol. V. p. 9; Harris, " Electricity," p. 176;
Priestley, "History," etc., 1775, pp. 326-329; " Me"moires de Math6-
matique," etc., Vol. II. p. 393, and Vol. IV. p. 514; "Etude sur les
travaux de De Romas," p. 491, by Prof. Mergey, of Bordeaux, which
latter work won a prize for its author in 1853 ; Becquerel, " Trait6
experimental," etc., 1834, Vol. I. pp. 42-43 ; likewise the results obtained
by Prof. Charles in " Traite" dc Physique Exp&rimentalc," etc., par Biot,
Paris, 1816, Vol. II. pp. 444, 446, and in Peltier's Introduction to his
" Observations et Recherches Expe*rimentales," etc., Paris, 1840, p. 7,
as well as Brisson's " Diet, de Phys.," Paris, 1801, Vol. II. p. 174, and
" Me"moires des Savants Etrangers," 1755, Vol. II. p. 406.
A.D. 1753.— M. Deslandes, member of the French Royal
Academy of Sciences, is the author of " Recueil de Differents traites
de Physique," the third volume of which contains his memoir on the
effects of thunder upon the mariner's compass. He alludes to the
observations made thereon by Dr. Lister of London (well known by
his " Historise Animalium Anglise," Lugd., 1678), as well as to many
experiments made by Musschenbroek and by others noted in the
Philosophical Transactions.
A.D. 1753. — Prof. George William Richmann (1711-1753),
native of Sweden and member of the Imperial Academy of St.
Petersburg, who had already constructed an apparatus for obtaining
atmospherical electricity according to Franklin's plans, was attending
a meeting of the Russian Academy of Science, on the 6th of August,
1753, when his ear caught the sound of a very heavy thunder clap.
He hastened away in company with his engraver, M. Sokolow, and
upon their arrival home they found the plummet of the electrometer
elevated four degrees from the perpendicular. Richmann stooped
toward the latter to ascertain the force of the electricity, and " as
he stood in that posture, a great white and bluish fire appeared
between the rod of the electrometer and his head. At the same
time a sort of steam or vapour arose, which entirely benumbed
the engraver and made him sink on the ground." Sokolow recovered,
but Richmann had met with instant death.
REFERENCES. — "Library of Useful Knowledge," London, 1829;
" Electricity," p. 59, also p. 33; " Lettre sur la mort de Richmann,"
par C. A. Rabiqueau, Pans, n. d. ; " Comment. Acad. Petrop.," XIV.
pp. 23, 301-302, also the " Novi Comment.," IV. pp. 25, 235 and 299;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 205
" Biog. G6n£rale," Vol. XLII. p. 258 ; " Gentleman's Magazine," London,
Vol. XXIII., 1753, p. 431 and Vol. XXV. for 1755, p. 3; Singer, " Elec-
tricity/' p. 217; Harris, " Electricity," p. 177; Phil. Trans. , Vol. XLVIII.
part ii. pp. 763-765, 772 ; also Vol. XLIX. part i. pp. 61, 67, and the
abridgments by Hutton, Vol. X. pp. 525, $74-577; " La physique &
la portee de tout le monde," par le P6re Pauhan, Vol. II. p. 357; " Hist,
de T Acad. des Sciences," pour 1753, p. 78; " Franklin in France," 1888,
Part. I. p. 5.
A.D. 1753. — Canton (John), an English savant (1718-1772),
announces his most important discovery that vitreous or resinous
electricity may be produced at will in the same tube. This he
proves on taking a tube, which had been roughened by grinding it
with thin sheet-lead and flour-of-emery mixed with water, and
which developed vitreous electricity when rubbed with dry oil silk,
and resinous or negative electricity when rubbed with new flannel.
Rough quartz will, it is said, show like results. He also took a
tube, of which only one-half had been made rough while the other
half was polished, and he demonstrated that the different electricities
are produced at a single stroke with the same rubber.
He likewise discovered that the exciting power of the rubber or
cushion of the electrical machine will be very greatly increased by
applying to it an amalgam of mercury and tin mixed with a little
chalk or whiting (see Winckler, at A.D. 1733, for the introduction
of the cushion).
His very remarkable experiments upon many descriptions of
tourmaline, reported to the Royal Society in December 1759, were
followed by many others detailed by Priestley, at pp. 298-301 of
his " History of Electricity," London, 1775, and Canton was the
first to discover the electrical properties of the topaz, which latter
were made known during the early part of the year 1760. (Consult
Wilhelm Hankel, " Uber die therm, eigen. des Topases," Leipzig,
1870.)
He was also the first to establish properly the fundamental
fact of electrification by induction, or, as he terms it, " relating
to bodies immerged in electric atmospheres," which afterward led
Wilcke (A.D. 1757) and ^Epinus (A.D. 1759) to the method of charging
a plate of air like a plate of glass, and to make the most perfect
imitation of the phenomena of thunder and lightning (George Adams,
"Essay on Electricity," London, 1799, pp. 351-356; Noad,
" Manual," Chapter I, and Priestley, " History," etc., s. 5). The
paper containing an account of Canton's experiments was read
before the Royal Society, December 6, 1753. The principle enounced
is that " the electric fluid, when there is a redundancy of it in any
body, repels the electric fluid in any other body when they are
brought within the sphere of each other's influence and drives it
206 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
into the remote parts of the body; or quite out of it, if there be any
outlet for that purpose. In other words, bodies immerged in electric
atmospheres always become possessed of the electricity contrary
to that of the body in whose atmosphere they are immerged/1
Canton is the first to show that the air of a room can be electrified
either positively or negatively, and can be made to retain the
electricity when received. He thus explains his method : " Take
a charged phial in one hand and a lighted candle insulated in the
other, and, going into any room, bring the wire of the phial very
near to the flame of the candle and hold it there about half a minute,
then carry the phial and candle out of the room and return with
the pith balls (suspended by fine linen threads) held out at arm's
Jength. The balls will begin to separate on entering the room and
will stand ant nch and a half or two inches apart when brought near
the middle of it."
The construction of artificial magnets by Canton, through the
combination of the Duhamel (A.D. 1749) and the Michell (A.D. 1750)
methods, as well as without the aid of natural loadstones or artificial
magnets, is detailed by Noad at Chapter XV of his " Manual,"
London, 1859.
REFERENCES.— Phil. Trans., Vol. XXXV. p. 137 (Berlinghicri, V. L.) ;
Vol. XXXVII. p. 294 (Marcel, A.); Vol. XLVIL p. 31; Vol. XLVIII
part i. pp. 350, 356, and Part II. pp. 780, 782 and 784, also Vol. XLIX.
part i. p. 300; Vol. LI. pp. 398, 403, and Vol. LII. part ii. pp. 457, 461 ;
and the abridgments of " "
pp. 421, 609; A.D. 172
Philos. and the Mechanical Arts," by Thos. Young, London, 1807, Vol.
and the abridgments of Hutton, Vol. X. pp. 131, 421, 532; Vol. XL
421, 609; A.D. 1722, and A.D. 1752; " A Course of Lectures on Nat.
I. p. 372 ; II. pp. 64, 243 ; " The Electrical Researches of Hon. Hy. Caven-
dish," 1879, Nos. 117, 205; Descriptions and Drawings of the various
electric friction machines can be seen in Priestley's " History," Plates
IV-VIII, and in Albrecht's " Geschichte d. Electricitat," 1885, pp. 20-30;
Ada Acad. Petr., L, 1778 ; " Gentleman's Magazine " for Sept. 1759. See
likewise the PhiL Trans, for Monday, January 21, 1666, p. 375, and
George Adams' " Essay on Electricity," etc., London, 1799, p. 579, for
method of making the artificial Bolonian stone or Canton's phosphorus.
A.D. 1753. — Beccaria (Giovanni Baptista) (1716-1781), a very
ingenious and industrious Italian electrician and astronomer, is
the author of several quite important works on electricity.
Father Beccaria, as he is sometimes called from having been a
member of the religious order of the Pious Schools, proved at the
time to be the most indefatigable follower of Franklin in the study
of atmospheric electricity. He was the first who recorded the
phenomena of thunderstorms, and his many observations thereon
are detailed throughout Part I. period x. and s. 10 of Priestley's
great work on electricity. Beccaria says that all clouds, whether
of thunder, rain, snow or hail, are formed by the electric fluid;
that the electric matter is continually darting from the clouds in
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 207
one place at the same time that it is discharged from the earth in
another; and that the clouds serve as conductors to convey the
electric fluid from those places of the earth which are overloaded
with it to those which are exhausted of it. Having shown that the
polarity of the magnetic needle is determined by the direction in
which the electric current has passed through it, he suggests taking
the polarity acquired by ferruginous bodies as a test for ascertaining
the kind of electricity with which the thunder cloud is charged.
He also shows that the meteor called a falling star is an electrical
appearance, explains the cause of the peculiar noise attending the
electric spark, and states that the passage of electricity is not instan-
taneous through the best conductors. He found a spark to occupy
at least half a second in passing through 500 feet of wire, and six
and a half seconds through a hempen cord of the same length,
although when the cord was dampened it passed through it in two
or three seconds.
He was the first to show the electric spark while in its passage
through water, and he observed that the water sank in the tubes
whenever a spark passed from one to the other as the air was repelled
by the electric fluid. He found the effect of the electric spark upon
water greater than the effect of common fire on gunpowder, and
says he does not doubt that, if a method could be found of managing
them equally well, a cannon charged with water would be more
effective (" dreadful ") than one charged with gunpowder.
He demonstrates that air, contiguous to an electrified body,
gradually acquires the same electricity; that the electricity of the
body is diminished by that of the air; that there is mutual
repulsion between air and the electric fluid, and that the latter, in
passing through any portion of air, creates a temporary vacuum.
The production of what he calls his new inventive phosphorus
and the method he employs for revivifying metals, are described,
respectively, at pp. 365 and 282 of his " Lettere deir elettricismo."
REFERENCES. — Beccaria, " Lettere," etc., Bologna, 1758, pp. 146,
etc., 193, 266, 268, 290, 310, 345; likewise his " Elettricismo Artinciale,"
Turin, 1753, pp. no, 114, 227; Phil. Trans, for 1760, Vol. LI. p. 514;
1762, p. 486; 1766, Vol. LVI. p. 105; 1767, Vol. LVII. p. 297; 1770,
Vol. LX. p. 277; 1771, p. 212, also Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XI.
p. 435 ; Vol. XII, pp. 291, 445 ; Vol. XIII. p. 50; Wartmann, " M6m. sur
les Etoiles filantes ; Humboldt, " Relation historique," Tome I ; Lardner,
" Lectures," Vol. I. pp. 429-444; Sturgeon's Annals, Vol. VI. pp. 415-
420, 425-431, and Vol. VIII. p. 180; Noad, "Manual," London, 1859,
§. 197; Louis Cotte, " Observation . . ." Paris, 1769 and 1772; " Mem.
e Paris " for the same years and Jour, de Phys. for 1783 ; Ant. Maria
Vassalli-Eandi, " Notizia sopra la vita . . , di Beccaria," 1816; Carlo
Barletti, " Nuove Sperienze . . ."Milano, 1771 ; " Biog. G£ne"rale," Vol. V.
pp. 77-78; "The Electrical Researches of Hon. Henry Cavendish,"
Cambridge, 1879, No. 136; Hale, " Franklin in France," Boston, 1888,
208 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Part I. p. 447; Humboldt, " Cosmos," London, 1859, Vol. I. pp. 113-
136, 202, 337; Vol. V. pp. 217-219, for the observations of Beccaria,
Rozier, Kepler, Benzenberg, Brandes, Bogulawski, Nicholson, Arago and
others on atmospheric electricity, aerolites, etc. See likewise Beccaria's
letters to Jean Claude Fromond, the Italian physicist (1703-1795),
relating his experiments tending to prove that electric motions do not
occur in vacua, also his letters to the Princess Giuseppina di Carignano
on the electricity of the moon, as well as to Jean Baptistc Le Roy and to
Jacopo Bartolommeo Beccari relative to experiments with his kite;
" Scelta di Opuscoli," of Amoretti, Campi, Fromond and Soave, Vols.
XIX. XXI. XXXII.; " Opuscoli Scelti," II. 378; III. 243, 284, 377;
V. 19.
A.D. 1753. — Bazin (Gilles August in), French physician and
naturalist, publishes, at Strasbourg, an illustrated treatise on
Magnetic Currents (" Description des Courants Magnetiques," etc.),
which also contains his observations upon the magnet, and a supple-
ment to which appears during the year 1754.
REFERENCES. — " La Grande Encyclop6die," Vol. V. p. 974; Michaud,
" Biog. Univ.," Vol. III. p. 353; Ninth " Britannica," Vol. XV. p. 242.
A.D. 1753. — C. M., i.e. Charles Morrison and not Charles
Marshall, of Greenock, Scotland, writes, from Renfrew, February i,
I753> to the Scots' Magazine, a letter entitled " An Expeditious
Method of Conveying Intelligence," wherein is first suggested a
practical manner of transmitting messages by frictional electricity.
A full copy of this letter appears at pp. 7-9 of Robert Sabine's
" Electric Telegraph," London, 1872, and at p. 9, 103, No. 570, of
the Scientific American Supplement for December 4, 1886, the last-
named also reproducing some correspondence establishing the
identity of Charles Morrison which was found in the papers of Sir
David Brewstcr.
In the article of Auguste Gu£rout, which appeared in La Lumiere
Electrique early in 1883, C. M. is alluded to as Charles Marshall.
This is likewise the case in Johnson's Encyclopaedia, 1878, Vol. IV.
p. 757. Fahie gives (" History of the Electric Telegraph," London,
1884, pp. 68-77) a frdl account of the many inquiries instituted to
establish the identity of C. M., which he admits to stand for Charles
Morrison, although, at p. 81 of the same work, is given a letter of
Sir Francis Ronalds alluding to Charles Marshall, of Renfrew. An
article in Cornhill Magazine, Vol. II fcr 1860, pp. 65-66, speaks of
an elderly Scotch lady who remembered a very clever man named
Charles Marshall, who could make " lichtnin' write an' speak " and
who could " licht a room wi' coal-reek " (coal-smoke).
In his remarks upon the afore-named letter, made during the
year 1859, Sir David Brewster says : " Here we have an electric
telegraph upward of a hundred years old, which at the present day
would convey intelligence expeditious!}', and we are constrained to
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 209
admit that C. M. was the inventor of the electric telegraph. . . .
Everything done since is only improvement."
REFERENCES. — Scots' Magaz., XV. p. 73 ; " Le Cosmos," Paris, Feb. 17,
1854; " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. XXXIX. p. 107; Alhenaum of Nov. 5,
1864.; Lesagc, at A.D. 1774; Th. Du Moncel, " Expose des applications
de 1 electricite," Paris, 1874, Vol. III. pp. i and 2.
A.D. 1754.— Diwisli (Prokop), Diviss — Divisch (Procopius), a
monk of Seuftenberg, Bohemia (1696-1765), erects, June 15, 1754, a
lightning protector upon the palace of the curator of Prenditz,
Moravia. The apparatus was composed of a pole surmounted by
an iron rod supporting twelve curved up branches and terminating
in the same number of metallic boxes filled with iron ore and closed
by a boxwood cover traversed by twenty-seven sharp iron points
which plunged at their base in the ore. All the system of wires
was united to the earth by a large chain. The enemies of Diwish,
jealous of his success at the court of Vienna, excited the peasants
of the locality against him, and, under the pretext that his lightning
rod was the cause of the great drought, they made him take down the
lightning rod which he had utilized for six years and then imprisoned
him. What is most curious is the form of this first lightning rod,
which is of multiple points, like the one M. Melseu afterward invented.
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 580, for Procopius Divisch's
" Erfand einen Wetter Ableitcr"; Scientific American, Sept. 10, 1887, p.
1 60; " Kronika Prace," by Pokorny, of Prague; " Historical Magazine,"
Feb. 1868, Art. XII. p. 93 ; " Prague News," for 1754, art. of Dr. Scrinci.
A.D. 1754.— ^Ammersin (Rev. Father Windelinus), of Lucerne,
Switzerland, announces in his " Brevis relatio de electricitate,"
etc., that wood properly dried till it becomes very brown is a non-
conductor of electricity. We have already mentioned the observa-
tion made by Benjamin Wilson (A.D. 1746) that, when a dry, warm
piece of wood is broken across, one of the pieces becomes vitreously
and the other resinously electrified.
Ammersin advises boiling the dried wood in linseed oil or covering
it with varnish to prevent the possible return of moisture, and he
states that wood thus treated seems to afford stronger appearances
of electricity than does even glass (Phil. Trans., Vol. LII. part i.
P- 342).
REFERENCES. — Ammersin, " Kurze Nachricht," etc., pub. at Basel,
1771, and translated the same year by Jallabert, who embodied it in his
" Versuche iiber die Elektricitat," etc.
A.D. 1754. — In his " Dissertations sur rincompatibilite* de
1'attraction," etc., Le Pere Gerdil, Professor of Philosophy in the
Royal University of Turin, speaks of agencies of which we shall
210 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
never know anything and of others with which we shall inductively
become acquainted, although we shall always ignore many of their
respective quantities, qualities and differences. He says that the
electric fluid explains the sympathy known to exist between amber
and straws — shown by the analogy observed between electricity and
magnetism to be the same as that existing between iron and the
loadstone.
A.D. 1754. — Mr. Strype produces the sixth and last edition of
the original " Survey of London/' by John Stow, which first appeared
during the year 1598.
In his account of Cornehill Ward, allusion is made to the " fair
new steeple " of the Church of Saint Michael th' Archangel, " begun
to be built in the year 1421," and, at p. 74, occurs the following :
" As I have oft heard my father report, upon St. James' night,
certain men in the loft next under the bells, ringing of a peal, a
tempest of lightning and thunder did arise, an ugly shapen sight
appeared to them, coming in at the South window and lighted on
the North, for fear whereof they all fell down and lay as dead for
the time, letting the bells ring and cease of their own accord ; when
the ringers came to themselves, they found certain stones of the
North window to be razed and scratched, as if they had been so
much butter, printed with a lion's claw; the same stojies were
fastened there again and so remain to this day."
In one of the notes to William T. Thorns' reprint of the above-
named " now perfectly invalyable " work, he says : " It is quite clear
from the tone in which Stow speaks of this ' ugly shapen sight '
and the marks ' printed with a lion's claw/ that he suspected this
instance of the power of the electric fluid to be nothing less than a
visitation from the foul fiend himself."
Speaking of St. Paul's Cathedral, Stow tells us that its pulpit cross
" was by tempest of lightning and thunder defaced," and that " on
Wednesday, the fourth of June (in the year 1561), betweene three,
four and five of the clock, in the after-noone, the steeple of Paule's
in London, being fired by lightning brast forth (as it seemed to the
beholders) two or three yards beneath the foote of the crosse, and
from thence burnt downe the speere to the stone worke and bels,
so terribly, that within the space of foure houres, the same steeple
with the roofes of the church . . . were consumed." Very curious
and interesting reading will be found in the " Burnynge of Paule
Church, London, in 1561, and the iiii day of June, by lyghtnynge at
three of the clocke . . ." by Wyllyam Seres, London, 1563; as well
as in his previous work on like subject, published in 1561. See
Report in " Archseologia," London, 1794, Vol. XI. pp. 72-86;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 211
likewise the entry at A.D. 1769, relative to another lightning stroke
in 1772.
Stow is perhaps best known by his " Annales, or a Generalle
Chronicle of England." In that portion of the latter work devoted
to " the life and raigne of Queene Elizabeth " he states (London
ed., 1631, p. 809) " that the knowledge and use of the sea compasse
or needle was neither familiar nor understood but few yeeres before "
the time of the navigators John Hawkins, Francis Drake, Martin
Frobisher and Thomas Candish, and he adds (at p. 810) " that the
honour of that invention, as touching the propertie of the Magneticall
needle in- pointing towards the Poles is attributed by (Flavius)
Blondus in his Italia Illmtrata (in the description of Campadia Felix)
and by the great writer Paulus Jovius in lib. xxv. of his History
in the end [sic], to the citizens of Amalfi. . . . The author's name
is no more particularly recorded, then [sic] to be one Flavio ... for
to him that honour is given by Francis Lopez, of Gomara, in his
West Indian History, lib. i. cap. 9, and by Peter Ciezius, in lib. ii.
cap. 9, of his Indian Story, and by Pandulph : Collenutius in his
History of Naples, who, three hundred yeeres since, namely in the
yeere of our Saviour 1305, discovered that propertie in the Magnes
and applied it to navigation " (see, for Flavius Blondus : George
Hakewill, " An apologie," etc., Oxford, 1635, lib. iii. s. 4, and
lib. v. p. 60; " Blondi Flavii Fortiriensis . . . Italia Illustrata,"
1531, folio; Flavius Blondus (Flavio Biondo), "Roma Ristaurata
et Italia Illustrata/' Vinezia, 1558, I2ino; Niceron, " Memoires . . .
des hommes illustres," Paris, 1731, Vol. XVI. pp. 274-281).
A contemporary of Flavius Blondus, by name Michael Angelus
Blondus (1497-1560), author of " De Ventis et Navigatione," pub-
lished at Venice in 1546, likewise alludes to the polarity of the needle,
and gives a curious illustration of a mariner's compass at Chap.
XXIV. p. 15, of the last-named work. (For M. A. Blondus, see
" La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. VI. p. 899.)
Stow makes reference (p. 810) to Dr. Gilbert's De Magnete,
to the " diuision of the plot or playne of the compasse into the
thirty-two points," considered by " Goropius in his lib. iii. De
Origin. Hispanicis, to have been the inuention of some Germane,"
and to the manner and " meanes saylers vsed to sayle, before they
atteined the knowledge of the compasse."
A.D. 1755. — Eeles — Eales (Henry), a prominent scientist of
Lismore, Ireland, communicates to the Royal Society, on the 25th of
April, 1755, a paper concerning the electrical property of steam and
exhalations of all kinds. Eeles' theory of the electricity of vapour
(" On Vesicles and Atmospheres of Electricity"), afterward devel-
212 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
oped by Sir John Herschel, is fully explained in the " Encycl. Brit."
article on " Meteorology " (par. 135, etc.), and is also alluded to at
p. 43 of Harris' " Electricity," as well as at p. 153, Vol. XLIX.
part i. of the Philosophical Transactions.
Mr. Eeles showed, that while the Leyden jar is being charged,
both the inside and the outside have the same kind of electricity
and that the negative electricity does not appear until the machine
has ceased turning. Eeles' hypothesis, extracted from his " Philo-
sophical Essays," and from the analysis of a course of lectures
delivered at Trinity College, Cambridge, by Mr. Atwood, is treated
of at length by George Adams in the fourth chapter of his " Essay
on Electricity," wherein pertinent allusion is also made to the
fact of Mr. Eeles having been purposely shut out of Priestley's
" History and Present State of Electricity."
REFERENCES. — Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XLVII. p. 524;
Phil. Mag. and Journal, Vol. XLIV. p. 401 (1814).
A.D. 1756.— Le Chevalier Jacques C. F. de la Perrierc de Roiffe
(not Reiffe') is the author of " Mechanismes de TElectricite et de
1'Univers," published at Paris, wherein he pretends to account for
all electrical phenomena.
At p. 12 of his Preface, he curiously states that as everybody
comprehends the distinction between elastic and non-elastic bodies,
likewise the existence, nature and diversity of the properties of
atmospheric fluids, with which all bodies are impregnated and by
which they are surrounded, also the various expansive modes of
activity to which they are subject, as well as their immiscibility as
regards the surrounding air, without which latter they could not,
however, subsist, he will in his new theory apply these principles to
the mechanisms of electricity and of the universe as affected by the
general laws and the invariable results attaching to shock and
motion.
A.D. 1756.— In the " Subtil Medium Proved," etc., of Mr. R.
Lovett, lay-clerk of the cathedral church at Worcester, England,
are shown numerous medical cures successfully made by electricity.
He asserts that the electric fluid is almost a specific in all cases of
violent pains, like obstinate headache, the toothache, sciatica, etc.,
but that it has not succeeded so well in rheumatic affections. He
states that electricity properly administered has never caused injury,
and he alludes to equally successful cures made by the Rev. John
Wesley and by Dr. Wetzel, of Upsal.
The well-known physician, Antonius de Haen, during several
years' experience, made many cures of paralysis, St. Vitus' dance,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 218
etc., by the agency of electricity, as related in his Ratio Medendi,
Vol. I. pp. 199, 200, 233, 234 and 389. Allusion has been made in
these pages to the employment of electricity for medical purposes by
Kratzenstein (A.D. 1745) and by Jallabert (A.D. 1749), and Priestley
named many others who have likewise used it successfully in their
practice.
REFERENCES. — " Subtil Medium Proved," etc., pp. 76, 101 and 112;
also his " Philosophical Essays," Worcester, 1761 and 1766, and his
" Electrical Philosopher," 1774; Wesley's " Desideratum, or Electricity
made Plain and Useful," p. 3 ; Joseph Veratti, " Observations . . . pour
gueVir les paralytiques. . . ."La Have, 1750.
A.D. 1757.— Dr. Darwin, of Lichfield, addresses to the Royal
Society of London a paper which is read May 5, 1757, and in which
he gives an account of experiments to prove that the electric atmo-
sphere does not displace air, and that all light, dry, animal and
vegetable substances, in particular, are slow to part with the elec-
tricity with which they have been charged (Phil. Trans., Vol. L.
part i. pp. 252 and 351).
A.D. 1757. — Euler (Leonard), a native of Switzerland, who
studied under the Bernoullis, and who succeeded Daniel Bernoulli
as Professor of Mathematics at St. Petersburg, was undoubtedly
one of the greatest analysts the world has ever produced (" Encycl.
Brit./' Fifth Dissertation of the eighth edition, Vol. I. p. 742).
He adopted the theory of Descartes that the magnetic fluid
moves from the equator to the poles, and he endeavoured to determine
mathematically the course of the magnetic needle over the earth's
surface. He announces that " the magnetic direction on the earth
follows always the small circle which passes through the given
place and the two magnetic poles of the earth/' or, as worded by
Sir David Brewster, that " the horizontal needle is a tangent to the
circle passing through the place of observation and through the two
points on the earth's surface where the dipping needle becomes
vertical or the horizontal needle loses its directive power/1
He entertained very peculiar ideas regarding the source of power
in the loadstone, the pores of which he imagined were filled with
valves admitting of the entrance of the current and preventing its
return. His notions on this subject are best given in his own words :
" Non-magnetic bodies are freely pervaded by the magnetic matter
in all directions; loadstones were pervaded by it in one direction
only . . . water, we know, contains in its pores particles of air ...
air, again, it is equally certain, contains in its pores a fluid incom-
parably more subtile, viz. czther, and which, on many occasions,
is separated from it, as in Electricity ; and now we see a still further
214 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
progression, and that ether contains a matter much more subtile
than itself — the magnetic matter which may, perhaps, contain
in its turn others still more subtile. . . . The loadstone, besides a
great many pores filled with ether, like all other bodies, contains
some still much more narrow into which the magnetic matter alone
can find admission. These pores are disposed in such a manner as
to have communication with each other, and constitute tubes or
canals through which the magnetic matter passes from the one
extremity to the other. Finally, this matter can be transmitted
through these tubes only in one direction, without the possibility of
returning in the opposite direction. ... As we see nothing that
impels the iron toward the loadstone, we say that the latter attracts
it. It cannot be doubted, however, that there .is a very subtile,
though invisible matter, which produces this effect by actually
impelling the iron towards the loadstone/'
REFERENCES. — " Journal des Savants " for March and April 1868 ;
Eulcr's " Letters," translated into English, 1802, Vol. I. p. 214, and
Vol. II. pp. 240, 242, 244; " Berlin Memoirs," for 1746, p. 117; 1757,
E. 175 ; 1766, p. 213 ; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 702 ; " Nova Act. Petropol."
)r 1779, Vol. Ill; " Pidces de Prix de 1'Acad. des Sc. de Paris," Vol. V.
Me'm. II and IX, this last-named publication containing likewise a
joint Memoir of D. Euler, J. Bernoulli and E. F. Dutour upon the
mariner's compass, which appeared in Paris during 1748; Whewell,
" History of the Inductive Sciences," 1859, Vol. I. pp. 225, 367, 370;
Vol. II. pp. 32, 40.
His son, Albert Eulcr, censured Halley's magnetical hypothesis,
and proposed, in 1766, a theory requiring the assumption of only
two poles, distinct, however, from those of the terrestrial axis.
A.D. 1757. — Dollond (John), who was at first a silk weaver at
Spitalfields, England, which occupation he abandoned in order to
give his exclusive attention to scientific experimental studies,
discovered the laws of the dispersion of light and constructed the
first achromatic telescope as well as several improved instruments
for magnetic observations. A full description of the most important
of these, accompanied by illustrations, can be found in the articles
of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " on magnetic instruments.
REFERENCES. — Kelly's " Life of John Dollond," London, 1808 ; Phil.
Mag., Vol. XVIII. p. 47; Thomas Thomson, "Hist, of Roy. Soc.,"
London, 1812, pp. 379-382 ; " Directions for using^e Electric Machine
made by P. and J. Dollond," London, 1761.
A.D. 1757. — Wilcke (Johann Karl), a very distinguished
scientist of Stockholm (1732-1796), introduces new phenomena re-
specting the production of electricity produced by melting electrical
substances, which he discovers in continuation of experiments begun
by Stephen Grey. He gives the name of spontaneous to the electricity
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 215
produced by the liquefaction of electrics, observing that the
electricity of melted sulphur does not appear until it commences
to cool and to contract, its maximum being reached at its point
of greatest contraction. Melted sealing wax, he says, becomes
negatively electrified when poured into glass, but, when poured
into sulphur, it is positively electrified, leaving the sulphur negative
(Sir Humphry Davy, " Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, p. 36
and notes).
While in Berlin, he and ^Spinus investigate the subject of electric
atmospheres, and they are led to the discovery that plates of air
can be charged in the same manner as plates of glass. (See Canton,
A.D. 1753.) This they did by suspending large wooden boards,
which were covered with tin and whose flat surfaces were held
parallel to and near each other. They found that upon electrifying
one of the boards positively the other was always negative, and that
with them could be given shocks like those produced by a Leyden
jar. They likened the state of the boards to the condition of the
clouds and the earth during a thunderstorm, the earth being in one
state and the clouds in the opposite, the body of air between them
answering the same purpose as the small plate of air between the
boards or the plate of glass between the two metallic coatings of the
Leyden jar.
In Wilcke's treatise, alluded to below, he defines the two elec-
tricities much more clearly than had previously been done. He
distinguishes three causes of excitation, viz. warming, liquefaction
and friction ; the spontaneous electricity already alluded to, he
further says, is the result of the apposition or mutual action of two
bodies, in consequence of which one of them is electrified positively
and the other negatively; communicated electricity, on the other
hand, is that which is superinduced upon the whole or part of a body,
electric or non-electric, without the body having been previously
heated, melted or rubbed, or without any mutual action between it
and any other body. This distinction is, in general, very obvious,
but Mr. Wilcke defines it throughout his work in a very clear manner,
citing cases wherein they are frequently confounded.
Wilcke and Anton Brugmans (A.D. 1778) first propounded the
theory of two magnetic fluids, which was afterward established by
Coulomb (A.D. 1785) and perfected by the great mathematician
Poisson (A.D. 1811). The hypothesis of the two fluids supposes that
a magnet contains minute invisible particles of iron, each of which
possesses by itself the properties of a separate magnet. It is
assumed that there are two distinct fluids — the austral and the boreal
— which reside in each particle of iron. These fluids are inert and
neutral when combined, as in ordinary iron, but when they are
210 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
decomposed the particles of the austral attract those of the boreal,
and vice versa, while they each repel one another.
REFERENCES. — Wilcke, " Disputatio inauguralis physica," etc.,
published Rostock, 1757, also his " Herrn Franklin's briefe von der
both the " Schwcdischen Akad. Abhandhmgen," etc. (also Neue Abhand.)
and the " Vetensk Acad. Handl." for 1758, 1759, 1761-1763, 1766-
1770, 1772, 1775, 1777, 1780, 1782, 1785, 1786, 1790; "The Electrical
Researches of lion. Hy. Cavendish," 1879, No. 134.
A.D. 1759. — Hartmann (Johann Friedrich), of Hanover, is the
author of three works on electricity, published in that city during
1759, 1764 and 1766, wherein he gives an account of several very
curious electrical experiments. One of the most interesting of these
demonstrates the progressive motion of the electrical discharge.
When he passes the shock through many small cannon balls, some-
times to the number of forty, placed upon small drinking goblets
close by one another, all the sparks are seen and all the cracklings
are heard at the same moment ; but when he substitutes eggs
(preferably ten or twelve) for the balls, the progress of the explosion
is visible, every two giving a flash and a report separately.
He remarks that upon one occasion, as he re-entered a room
which he had just before left, after making therein a number of
experiments, he observed a small flame following him as he walked
about swiftly while holding a lighted candle in his hand. The
flame vanished whenever he stopped to examine it, and he attributed
its appearance to the presence of sulphur thrown into the air by
continued violent electrification.
REFERENCES. — Hartmann, " Abhandlung von der vcrwandschaft,"
etc., Hanover, 1759, pp. 58, etc., and 135 ; also his " Electrische experi-
mcnte," etc., Hanover, 1766, and his " Anmcrkungen," etc., 1764, 410,
p. 38; Friedrich Saxtorph, " Elcktricitatslare," Vol. II; Hamburgisches
Magazin (also Neues Hamb. Mag.) for 1759, Vol. XXIV, and for 1761,
Vol. XXV; " Nov. Acta Acad. Nat. Curios," Vol. IV. ss. 76-82, 126;
" Gottingischcn gemein. Abhand.," von Jahr 1775.
A.D. 1759.— -Wesley (John), the founder of Methodism (1703-
1791) and the most eminent member of a very distinguished English
family, publishes " The Desideratum ; or Electricity made Plain and
Useful, by a Lover of Mankind and of Common-sense." In this, he
relates at great length the cures of numerous physical and moral
ailments, attributed to the employment of the electric fluid, under
such curious headings as " Electricity, the Soul of the Universe/'
" Electricity, the Greatest of all Remedies/' etc. (" The Library of
Literary Criticism/' C. W. Moulton, Buffalo, 1901-1902, Vol. IV.
pp. 110-129).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 217
A.D. 1759.— ^pinus (Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor) (1724-1802),
celebrated German natural philosopher, member of the Scientific
Academies of Berlin and St. Petersburg, publishes in the latter city
his most important work, " Tentamen Theorise Electricitatis et
Magnetismi," wherein he adopts, as did Wilcke, all the general
principles of Franklin's theory of positive and negative electricities.
Therein he also shows that the phenomena of electricity depend
mainly upon the tendency of the fluid to attain a state of equilibrium
by passing from bodies containing an excess to others which have
less than the natural quantity ; that the electric fluid existing in the
pores of all bodies moves without obstruction in non-electrics and
with much difficulty in electrics; that all bodies contain a fluid
whose particles mutually repel one another with forces decreasing
as the distance between them increases, and, according to the same
law, attract the particles of the bodies with which they are in
combination.
It has already been shown that, in conjunction with Wilcke, he
found the means of charging a plate of air. This experiment,
suggested by some of the observations made by Canton and Franklin,
led to what may be considered one of the greatest discoveries in the
science of electricity, for in this was first demonstrated the grand
principle of induction (see Grey at A.D. 1720), and the result led to
Volta's discovery of the electrophorus. Volta, also, was the first
to apply to an electrometer the apparatus invented by ££pinus for
condensing electricity.
iEpinus first discovers to its fullest the affinity existing between
electricity and magnetism, explaining nearly all the phenomena of
magnetism (" De Similitudine vis electricae et magneticae";
" Similitudinis effect uum vis magnet, et. elect. : novum specimen "
in the " Novi Comment. Acad. Petrop.," Vol. X. p. 296). He
improves upon the methods employed by both Duhamel and
Michell for the construction of artificial magnets in a different
line from that employed by John Canton, A.D. 1753. He lays the
bar to be magnetized upon the ends of the opposite poles of two
powerful field magnets, and places two bunches of magnetic bars
upon the middle of the bar, separating the bunches by a piece of
wood and keeping together the poles of each of the same name as
that of the powerful fixed magnet nearest to it. These two bunches
are then held at an inclination of 15 to 20 degrees, and are
drawn away from each other to the end of the bar which is to
be magnetized, so that each half of the bar receives the same
number of strokes. When the bar is very thick, the process should
be repeated upon its reverse, and in order to make the result more
effective, the united eneis of the bars should at the outset be
218 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
ground together, and pressure should be applied while the operation
is going on.
^Epinus was the first to discover the polarity of the tourmaline.
After M. Lechman acquainted him with its attractive power, he
made many experiments, of which he communicated the very
important results, during the year 1756, to the Academy of Sciences
and Belles-Lettres at Berlin. Up to this time but little was known
regarding the necessity of heat to excite the tourmaline. ^Epinus
found that he could electrify it to a high degree by placing the stone
in boiling water, and that it was necessary to heat it to between
99 i degrees and 212 degrees Fahrenheit to develop its attractive
powers. One of the extremities of the tourmaline terminated by the
six-sided pyramid then becomes charged with positive electricity,
while the other extremity is negative. When the stone is of con-
siderable size, flashes of light can be seen along its surface.
M. De Rome Delisle, in his " Essai de Cristallographie," Paris,
1772, p. 268, alludes to what has already been stated relative to
the necessity of heating the tourmaline (see J. G. S. at A.D. 1707,
and Lemery at A.D. 1717), and he gives an extract from the work
attributed to Adanson, as mentioned at A.D. 1751. Delisle 's
references embrace: "Act. Paris/' 1717, p. 9; "Act. Berolin,"
1756, p. 105; " Lettre du Due de Noya Caraffa a M. de Buffon,"
Paris, 1759; Ascendrecker, Aschentrecher, Aschenzicher (tire-cendre) ,
" Trip : Tourmaline, Vog. min." 191 ; " Act. Holmens," 1768, p. 7;
besides, at pp. 209, 233 and 245 he speaks of the electrical and phos-
phorescent properties of crystals, showing that the lapis lyncurius of
the ancients is the hyacinth or zircon of to-day (see B.C. 321), and
not, as many believe, either amber or belemnite (pierre de foudre, lapis
fulminaris), while the hyacinth of old was a purple stone which, if
now found, would be classed among the amethysts.
REFERENCES. — " Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic," Leipzig, 1875,
Vol. I. p. 129; ^Epinus, " Sermo Acad. de similitudine," etc., 1758, and
his " Recueil . . . sur la tourmaline," 1762; " Novi. Com. Petropol.,"
for 1761, 1764, 1768; " Acta Acad. Moguntinae," Vol. II. p. 255; Leit-
head, " Electricity," p. 289; Phil. Trans., Vol. LI. p. 394, and Vol. LVII.
part i. p. 315; " Encycl. Brit.," articles "Electricity" and "Mag-
netism " ; Bigeon's report in the " Annales de Ch. et de Phys.," 2e s6rie,
Tome XXXVIII. p. 150; Van Swinden, "Recueil," etc., La Haye,
1784, Vols. I and II passim; Becquerel in Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, Vol. XXXVI. p. 50; Thomson, "Hist. Roy. Soc.," 1812,
p. 184; "The Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish/'
~ .mbridgc, 1879, Nos. i, 134, 340 and 549
Thomson), " JEpinus atomized," in Phil. Mag. for March 1902, p. 257,
tiry
Cambridge, 1879, Nos. i, 134, 340 and 549; Lord Kelvin (Sir Win.
Thomson), " JEpinus atomized," in Phil. Mag. for Ma
etc., and in Journal de Physique for Sept. 1902, p. 605.
A.D. 1759. — Symmer (Robert) assails the theory announced by
Dufay (see Franklin, A.D. 1752), and shows, in a paper submitted
to the Royal Society, December 20, 1759, that all the electrical
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 219
phenomena are produced by two distinct but coexistent fluids not
independent of, but counteracting each other. He says that equal
quantities of these fluids are contained in all bodies while in their
natural condition ; that when a body is positively electrified it does
not hold a larger share of electric matter, but a larger portion of
one of the active powers, and when negatively electrified a larger
portion 6f the other, and not, as Franklin's theory supposes, an
actual deficiency of electric matter. Symmer's theory is perhaps
best explained in his own words, as follows : " It is my opinion that
there are two electric fluids (or emanations of two distinct electric
powers), essentially different from each other; that electricity does
not consist in the efflux and afflux of these fluids, but in the accumula-
tion of the one or the other in the body electrified ; or, in other words,
it consists in the possession of a larger portion of the one or of the
other power than is requisite to maintain an even balance within
the body, and lastly, that according as the one or the other power
prevails, the body is electrified in one or the other manner."
Very curious reading may be had by reference to the volumes
of the Philosophical Transactions named below, in which Symmer
details many experiments with pieces of silk, as well as with white
and coloured, new and newly cleansed silk and worsted stockings.
Therein he shows his ability to charge the Leyden jar with either
positive or negative electricity, according as he presents a black or
white stocking to the wire of the phial. These experiments, which
Symmer admits to have made for the express purpose of proving
the existence of two electricities, further illustrate the phenomenon
of electrical cohesion, although the latter is still better demonstrated
by means of panes of ordinary glass. He thus expresses himself :
" Upon these considerations, we may expect, from the experiment
in hand, the means of determining whether the distinction of
electricity into two different kinds is merely nominal, or if there is
an essential difference between them; for, after the glass plates
have been electrified in one position, so as to be incapable of receiving
any more electricity, if they be inverted, and in that new position
presented to the chain and wire, and the globe again be put in
motion, according as one or other of those opinions hold, correspond-
ing effects will follow/'
Symmer also proves his two distinct powers of electricity by
the experiment of passing the electric shock through a quire of
paper instead of through a single card (" Lib. Useful Knowledge,"
London, 1829, " Electricity," p. 44).
REFERENCES. — " Electricity in the Service of Man," R. Wormell,
London, 1900, p. xiv; Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LI. part i.
pp. 171, 340, 366, 373, etc., 389, and Vol. LVII. p. 458; also Mutton's
220 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
abridgments, Vol. XI. p. 405; Nollet, " Lettres," etc., Vol. III. p. 42;
" Encycl. Brit.," article "Electricity"; "Library of Useful Know-
ledge, London, 1829, " Electricity," Nos. 160 and 161.
A.D. 1760. — Mayer (Johann Tobias, Sen.) (1723-1762), one of
the most celebrated German astronomers, director of the observatory
at Gottingen, is the first to make known the law of the inverse square
resulting from actual experimental investigation. This he does in
a paper, " Inclination and Decimation of the Magnetic Needle, as
deduced from theory," read before the Royal Society at Gottingen,
wherein he states that the intensities of the magnetic attractions
and repulsions vary inversely as the squares of the distances from
the pole of a magnet. Consult " Magnetism," in the ninth edition
of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," for additional reference to the
above paper, also section 14 of the same work for an account of
Mayer's dipping needle as constructed by General Sabine.
REFERENCES. — Delambre's notice of the life of J. T. Mayer in the
"Biographic Universelle " ; Hutton's " Mathem. Diet."; Montucla,
" Histoire des Mathe*matiques " ; list of his works added to the 61oge
pronounced by Kacstner, Gottingen, 1762 ; " Abhandlungen von Galvani
und andern," Prague, 1793; Whewell, "History of the Inductive
Sciences," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 206, 221 ; Coulomb, " Memoires Acad.
Paris " for 1786 and 1787; " Royal Soc. Cat. of Sc. Papers," Vol. IV.
pp. 311—314; Lambert, " Reports of the Berlin Academy" for 1776.
Mayer (Johann Tobias, Jr.), 1752-1830, is the author of Memoirs
on the magnetic needle as well as upon many electrical experiments,
of which details may be found in the Journal der Physik of Friedrich
A. C. Gren and in the " Comment Soc. Gottingen recent."
A.D. 1760. — Delaval (E. H.) communicates between 1760 and
1764 several papers to the London Royal Society in reference to
experiments made for the purpose of ascertaining the conducting
powers of a body in different states. Therein, he shows that animal
and vegetable substances lose their conducting powers when reduced
to ashes, and that while metals are the best conductors, their oxides
are non-conductors. His experiments made with island (Iceland)
crystal (well known for its extraordinary property of double refrac-
tion), proved that it is affected by heat differently from other
substances named, since the temperature necessary to render them
electric makes the crystal non-electric. He had a piece of crystal
of which, he said, one part became non-electric when greatly heated,
while the other part, with the same or even a much greater heat,
remained perfectly electric. These experiments did not, however,
succeed with Sir Torbern Bergman, who repeated them with great
care and who found that island crystal was a conductor in all cases,
to whatever degree of heat it was exposed.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 221
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans., Vol. LI. part i. p. 83; Vol LII. part i.
PP- 353» etc., and part ii. p. 459; also Vol. LIII. part i. pp. 84-98; and
Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XI. pp. 334, 589; Vol. XII. p. 140; Thomas
Thomson, "Hist, of Roy. Soc.," p. 443; Thos. Young, "Course of
Lectures," 1807, Vol. II. p. 679, for notes on Dr. Wm. H. Wollaston's
paper concerning the double refraction of Iceland crystal.
A.D. 1760-1762.— Bergman— Bergmann—(Torbern Olof), cele-
brated Swedish astronomer, naturalist and chemist, writes several
letters to Mr. Wilson, which are read before the Royal Society,
Nov. 20, 1760, and March 18, 1762, wherein he alludes to the possi-
bility of electrifying plates of ice in the same manner as plates of
glass. In a subsequent letter he details experiments with silk
ribbons of different colours, almost as curious as those of which an
account has already been given (by Symmer at A.D. 1759), and from
which he concludes that there is a certain fixed order regarding
positive and negative electricity in which all bodies may be placed
while other circumstances remain unchanged.
REFERENCES. — Bergman's " Bemerkung . . . Islandischen Krys-
tales/' " Comment . . . electrica turmalini," " Elektrische Verstiche,"
etc., and his other works referred to in the Philosophical Transactions,
Vol. LI. p. 907; Vol. LIII. p. 97; Vol. LIV. p. 84; Vol. LVI. p. 236; also
Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XI. pp. 506, 705; Vol. XII. pp. 109, 343;
" Nova Acta Soc. Upsal.," " K. Schwedischen Akad. Abhand.," " Aus
dein Schwed. Magazine," Phil. Mag., IX. p. 193; " Eng. Cycl.,"
Vol. I. pp. 664-665; Gmelin's "Chemistry," Vol. 1. p. 320; Thomas
Thomson, " Hist, of the Royal Society," London, 1812, pp. 444, 475—
477-
A.D. 1761. — The many experiments made at this period by
Ebenezer Kinnersley, of Philadelphia, relative to the two contrary
electricities of glass and sulphur, are endorsed by his close friend
Benjamin Franklin in his Letters at pp. 99, 100 and 102-105. He
makes several curious observations on the elongation and fusion
of fine iron wires whenever a strong charge is passed through them
while in a state of tension, to which Dr. Watson makes special
reference in a paper read before the Royal Society. He believes that
lightning does not melt metal by a cold fusion, as Dr. Franklin and
himself had formerly supposed, and that when it passes, for instance,
through the blade of a sword, if the quantity is not very great, it
may heat the point so as to melt it, while the broadest and the
thickest part may not be sensibly warmer than before.
To ascertain the effects of electricity upon air, Kinnersley devised
an instrument which he called an electrical air thermometer, and
which is described at p. 626, Vol. VIII of the 1855 " Encyclopaedia
Britannica." With this he could show the sudden rarefaction which
air undergoes during the passage of the electric spark through it,
222 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
heat being produced without accompaniment of any chemical
change in the heated body.
Some other important observations made by Kinnersley, who,
besides being an intimate friend, was the original associate of Ben.
Franklin, are summed up as follows : A coated flask containing
boiling water cannot be charged, the electricity passing off with the
steam ; but when the water gets cold the flask may be charged as
usual. A person in a negative state of electricity standing upon an
electric, and holding up a long sharp needle out of doors in the dark,
observes light upon the point of it. No heat is produced by electri-
fying a thermometer, nor by passing shocks through large wire,
but small wire is heated red-hot, expanded and melted (Phil. Trans.
for 1763, Vol. LIII. p, 84; Thomson, " Hist. Roy, Soc.," p. 445).
In the New York " Electrical Review " of May 13, 1905, will be
found the following curious reference to the Boston Art Club exhibits
of President R. H. W. Dwight :
" Among these is an interesting broadside, which gives a sum-
mary of two lectures on electricity by Ebenezer Kinnersley delivered
in Faneuil Hall in September, 1751 — the first lectures probably ever
delivered on the then new subject of electricity. Kinnersley was
an Englishman, who was head master in English literature in the
College of Philadelphia, from 1753 to 1773, a student of science,
who made a number of discoveries in electricity and invented a
number of quaint electrical devices. He and Franklin were on
intimate terms, and were closely associated in their electrical experi-
ments. Kinnersley has been erroneously cited as an anticipator of
Oersted's discovery of the deflection of a magnetic needle by an
electric current. The former's experiment, however, was purely
electrostatic. In the summary of these two lectures, among other
things, it states that electricity ' is an extremely subtile fluid ; that
it doth not take up any perceptible time in passing through large
portions of space; that it is mixed with the substance of all- other
fluids and solids of our globe ; that our bodies at all times contain
enough of it to set a house on fire.1 "
The exhibits of President Dwight are :
" An artificial spider animated by the electric fire so as to act like
a live one ; a shower of sand which rises again as fast as it falls ;
a leaf of the most mighty of metals suspended in the air, as is said
of Mahomet's tomb; electrified money which scarce anybody will
take when offered to them; a curious machine, acting by means
of the electric fire, and playing a variety of tunes on eight musical
bells."
This broadside of 1751 appears to antedate any other similar
notice of electrical experiments.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 228
The " Electrical Review " of April 23, 1904, p. 621, had published
copy of an advertisement from the Massachusetts Gazette of March 7,
1765, giving notice of a course of lectures by David Mason, illustrated
by " entertaining experiments on electricity similar to those cited
in the broadside under date of 1751." The advertisement of 1765,
here referred to, appears at A.D. 1771.
REFERENCES. — Sturgeon's " Lectures," London, 1842, p. 169; " The
Electrical Researches of Hon. Henry Cavendish," 1879, Nos. 125, 137,
213; Phil. Trans., Vol. LIII. part i. pp. 84-87; Vol. LIV. p. 208;
Vol. LXIII, 1773, part i. p. 38; also the Hutton abridgments, Vol. XI.
p. 702, and Vol. XIII. p. 370; Berthc" "
1786, Vol. I. pp. 23, 33, 214, 217, 220.
p. 702, and Vol. XIII. p. 370; Bertholon, " Elec. du Corps Humain,"
1786, ~~ " ~
A.D. 1762. — Sulzer (Johann Georg), a Swiss philosopher,
member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in his " Theory of
Agreeable and Disagreeable Sensations " (" Theorie d. angenehmen
u. unangenehmen Empfindungen," Berlin, 1762), thus expresses
himself : " When two pieces of metal, one of lead and the other of
silver, are so joined together that their edges make one surface, a
certain sensation will be produced on applying it to the tongue, which
comes near to the taste of martial vitriol (vitriol of iron) ; whereas
each piece by itself betrays not the slightest trace of that taste "
(F. C. Bakewell, " Manual of Electricity/' London, 1857, Chap. III.
p. 28).
The passage in the edition " Nouvelle Theorie des Plaisirs,"
published in 1767, is thus given by Sabine, " Electric Telegraph,"
1872, p. 15 : " On taking two pieces of different metals — silver and
zinc — and placing one of them above and the other underneath his
tongue, he found that, so long as the metals did not make contact
with each other, he felt nothing; but that when the edges were
brought together over the tip of his tongue, the moment contact
took place and during the time it lasted, he experienced an itching
sensation and a taste resembling that of sulphate of iron. ..."
Sulzer does not appear to have been much surprised at the result,
thinking it " not improbable that, by the combination of the two
metals, a solution of either of them may have taken place, in con-
sequence of which the dissolved particles penetrate into the tongue ;
or we may conjecture that the combination of these metals occasions
a trembling motion in the respective particles, which, exciting the
nerves of the tongue, causes that peculiar sensation."
And thus, remarks Pepper, a prominent fact has slept in obscurity
from the time of Sulzer to the time of Galvani.
REFERENCES. — Izarn, "Manuel," Paris, 1804, p. 4; Sturgeon,
Annals, Vol. VIII. p. 363 ; also note at p. 491 of Ronalds' " Catalogue " ;
Mtm. de I'Acad. de Berlin, " Theorie Ge'ne'rale du Plaisir " ; also "Temple
224 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
du Bonheur," published at Bouillon (Pays Bas), 1769, Tome III. p. 124,
this last-named work being alluded to in the Journal des Debuts, 7 Vende-
miaire, au X; Edm. Hoppe, " Geschichte," 1884, p. 128 ; C. H. Wilkinson,
" Elements of Galvanism," Vol. I. p. 69, note; Albert's " Amer. Ann.
d. Artz," Vol. II. Bremen, 1802.
A.D. 1762. — Ledru Comus, French Professor of Natural
Philosophy, invents a mode of telegraphing which is described and
fully illustrated in Vol. I of Guyot's " Nouvelles Recreations
Physiques et Mathematiques," Paris, 1769; as well as at p. 278 of
" Memoires, Correspondance et Ouvrages Inedits de Diderot," Paris,
1821, in one of the letters to Mile. Voland dated July 28, 1762.
His apparatus consisted of two dials, each bearing upon it
twenty-five letters of the alphabet, which were moved by the agency
of magnets and of magnetized needles ; but Auguste GueYout con-
siders the contrivance to have been merely a speculative one, as
will be seen by his article, reproduced from " La Lumiere Electrique "
of March 3, 1883, in No. 384 of the " Scientific American Supple-
ment.1'
REFERENCES. — Journal de Physique for 1775, Vols. V and VI; for
1776, Vol. VII; and for 1778, Vol. I; " Scelta di Opuscoli," Milano,
1776.
A.D. 1765. — Cigna (Giovanni Francesco), native of Mondovi,
Italy, and nephew to the electrician Beccaria (A.D. 1753), became
secretary to the society of savants who gave birth to the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Turin, and whose Memoirs contain his
work, " De novis quibusdam experiments electricis," 1765.
At pp. 31-65 of the above Memoirs is given a full account of
Cigna's many curious observations made with silk ribbons placed
in various positions, and in contact with different surfaces, instead
of with the silk stockings employed by Symmer (A.D. 1759). He
thus supplies the main defect of Dufay's theory (A.D. 1733) by
proving that the two opposite electricities are produced simul-
taneously. On p. 47 of the same work will be found a report of
Cigna's experiment with ice to ascertain whether electric substances
contain more electric matter than other bodies.
REFERENCES. — Vol. III. p. 168 of Nollet's " Letters," for an
account of his observations upon the electric attraction and repulsion
between conducting substances immersed in oil; as well as Chap. II.
s. 3., vol. i. of Van Swinden's " Receuil," etc., published at La Haye,
1784. Should also be consulted : Cigna's " Memoirs on Electricity and
Magnetism" in the "Miscellanea . . . Taurinensia," and the several
communications made by him to Priestley, Lagrange and others in 1 775
concerning Volta's electrophorus ; likewise " Memorie istorische . . , di
Gianfrancesco Cigna de Antonmaria Vassalli Eandi," Torino, 1821.
A.D. 1766-1776.-— Lambert (Johann Heinrich), a profound
German mathematician, native of Upper Alsace, publishes in
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 225
Vol. XXII of the " Reports of the Berlin Academy " two beautiful
Memoirs upon the " Laws of Magnetic Force " and upon the " Cur-
vature of the Magnetic Current/' both of which, according to
Dr. Robison, would have done credit to Newton himself.
In the first Memoir, says Harris, the author endeavours to
determine two very important laws ; one relating to the change of
force as depending upon the obliquity of its application, the other
as referred to the distance. In the second Memoir the curves of
the magnetic current are investigated by the action of the directive
or polar force of a magnet upon a small needle. Lambert concludes
that the effect of each particle of the magnet on each particle of the
needle, and reciprocally, is as the absolute force or magnetic intensity
of the particles directly, and as the squares of the distances inversely.
Noad states (" Manual," London, 1859, p. 580) that Lambert's
deductions were confirmed twenty years later by Coulomb, through
the agency of his delicate torsion balance, and more recently (about
the year 1817) by Prof. Hanstcen, of Christiania.
Previous to the above-named date, in 1760, Lambert had pub-
lished, both at Leipzig and at Augsburg, his " Photometria, sive de
Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum et Umbrae/' the sequel to
a tract printed two years before, wherein he indicates the mode of
measuring the intensity of the light of various bodies. The cele-
brated mathematician and astronomer, Pierre Bouguer (1698-1758),
who had published, in 1729, his " Essai d'Optique," etc., which
was greatly enlarged in his " Traite," etc., brought out by La Caille
in 1760, may be considered the founder of this branch of the science
of optics, to which the name photometry has been given by English
writers. The photometer designed by Sir Benjamin Thompson,
Count Rum ford (entered at A.D. 1802), has been described in Phil.
Trans, for 1794, Vol. LXVII. His method is to cast two shadows
of a given object near each other on the same surface, the lights
being removed to such distances that the shadows appear equally
dark.
REFERENCES. — Sir John Leslie's " Fifth Dissertation " in the eighth
" Encycl. Brit." ; Count Rumford's photometer illustrated at Plate
XXVII. figs. 387, 388, vol. i. of Dr. Thomas Young's " Course of
Lectures," London, 1807; also Vol. II. pp. 282 and 351 of the same work,
concerning photometry generally ; Dredge and others, " Electric Illumina-
tion," etc. (chiefly compiled from London Engineering), Vol. II. pp. 101-
117; Brewster's " Edin. Jour, of Sc.," 1826, Vol. II. p. 321; Vol. III.
p. 104; Vol. V. p. 139, for William Ritchie's articles on the photometer
of Mr. Leslie, and relative to an improved instrument upon the principles
of Bo-uguer (Edin. Transactions, Vol. X. part, ii.) ; Lambert's biography
and the article " Magnetism " in the " Encycl. Brit." ; Harris, " Rudim.
Magn.," Part III. pp. 20, 33, 191-203.
It may be added that all the valuable manuscripts left by
Q
226 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Lambert were purchased by the Berlin Academy, and were after-
ward published by John Bernoulli, a grandson of the celebrated
John Bernoulli alluded to at A.D. 1700.
A.D. 1766. — Lullin (Amadous), in his " Dissertatio physica de
electricitate," Geneva, 1766, at p. 26, alludes to Beccaria's experi-
ments, saying that he produced much greater effects with the electric
spark by passing the latter through oil instead of water : oil being
a much worse conductor, the spark in it is larger. At p. 38 of the
same work he details the experiments made to prove the correctness
of Mollct's doctrine regarding the constant motion of electrical
atmospheres, and at p. 42 are given his experiments to show the
production of electricity in the clouds. With a long insulated pole
projecting from the mountain side he observed, among other effects,
that when small clouds of vapour produced by the sun's heat
touched only the end of the pole the latter was electrified, but that
it was not affected if the entire pole was covered by the vapour
(" Lib. Useful Knowledge/' " Electricity," Chap. XL Nos. 154, etc.).
Lullin, it is said, proposed a modification of Reusser's plan of
telegraphing, in manner stated at p. 69 of Reid's 1887 " Telegraph
in America/'
A.D. 1766. — L'Abbe Poncelet, a native of Verdun, France,
publishes at Paris " La Nature dans la formation du Tonnerre/' etc.,
wherein he indicates a method of protecting from lightning residences,
pavilions and other structures, by constructing them of resinous
woods and lining them with either silk or waxed cloths. He quaintly
remarks that as they thus present " on all sides resinous surfaces,
which never receive phlogiston by communication, the latter
(thunder and lightning), after having leaped lightly around the
pavilion and finding itself unable to attack it, will probably depart
in order to pursue its ravages elsewhere."
REFERENCES. — Scientific American Supplement, No. 66, p. 1053, for
a copy of the frontispiece of the above-named work ; also Figuier,
" Exposition et Histoire," etc., 1857, Vol. IV. pp. 234, 235.
A.D. 1767. — Bozolus (Joseph), an Italian Jesuit, Professor of
Natural Philosophy at Rome, is the first (and not Cavallo, A.D. 1775)
to suggest employing the active principle of the Leyden jar for the
transmission of intelligence.
His plan is to place underground two wires which are to be
brought at each station close enough to admit of the passage of a
spark. One of the wires is to be connected with the inner coating
and the other with the outer surface of a Leyden phial ; the sparks
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 227
observed at the opening between the wires being there made to
express any meaning according to a preconcerted code of signals.
REFERENCES. — Latin poem entitled " Mariani Parthenii Electrico-
rum," in six books, Roma, 1767, lib. i. p. 34 (describing the telegrafo
elettrico scintillante) ; also Saturday Review, August 21, 1858, p. 190, and
Cornhill Magazine for 1860, Vol. II. p. 66.
A.D. 1767. — Priestley (Joseph), the earliest historian of electrical
science, publishes, by advice of Benjamin Franklin, the first edition
of his great work, " The History and Present State of Electricity,"
of which there were four other separate enlarged issues, in 1769,
1775, 1775 and 1794. During the year 1766 he had been given the
degree of Doctor of Laws by the Edinburgh University and he had
also, at the instance of Franklin, Watson and others, been made a
member of the English Royal Society, which, a few years later,
bestowed upon him the Copley medal.
Speaking of the above-named work, Dr. Lardner says (" Lectures,
1859, Vol. I. p. 136) : "This philosopher did not contribute materially
to the advancement of the science by the development of any new
facts ; but in his ' History of Electricity ' he collected and arranged
much useful information respecting the progress of the science."
Nevertheless, to him is due the first employment of the conductor
supported by an insulating pillar, as described by Noad, who gives
an account of Priestley's electrical machine at Chap. IV of his
" Manual " ; and he is also the first to investigate upon an extensive
scale the chemical effects of ordinary electricity. The observations
of M. Warltire, a lecturer on natural philosophy, and Priestley's
own experiments in this line, made by passing the electric spark
through water tinged blue by litmus, also through olive oil, tur-
pentine, etc., as well as his researches more particularly upon the
gases and upon the influence of the electric fluid in expanding solid
bodies, are detailed at the " Electricity " chapter of the " Encycl.
Brit."
At pp. 660-665 of the fourth edition of his " History," Priestley
describes the experiments he made to illustrate what he called the
lateral force of electrical explosions ; that is, the tendency of the
fluid to diverge, as is the case with lightning when any material
obstruction lies in its path.
Perhaps the most important of all Dr. Priestley's electrical dis-
coveries (Thomson, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," p. 445) was that charcoal is
a conductor of electricity, and so good a conductor that it vies even
with the metals themselves. When the conducting power of char-
coal was tried by succeeding electricians, it was found to vary in the
most unaccountable manner, sometimes scarcely conducting at all,
228 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
sometimes imperfectly and sometimes remarkably well ; a diversity
naturally indicating some difference in the nature of the different
specimens of English charcoal (Priestley's "History," etc., Part VIIL
s. 3). Charcoal being examined by Mr. Kirinersley (at A.D. 1761),
was also by him observed to vary in its conducting power.
Oak, beech and maple charcoal he found to conduct satisfactorily ;
the charcoal from the pine would not conduct at all, while a line
drawn upon paper by a heavy black lead pencil conducted pretty
well (Phil. Trans., 1773, Vol. LXIII. p. 38).
REFERENCES. — Priestley's letter to Dr. Franklin (Phil. Trans.,
Vol. LXII. p. 360) concerning William Henley's new electrometer and
experiments; likewise the Phil. Trans., Vol. LVIII. p. 68; Vol. LIX.
S3- 57. 63 > Vol. LX. p. 192; Vol. LXII. p, 359; and the abridgments by
utton, Vol. Xli. pp. 510, 600, 603; Vol. XIII. p. 36; " Trans, of the
Amer. Phil. Soc.," O. S., Vol. VI. part i. p. 190, containing proceedings of
the Society on the death of Joseph Priestley; Wilkinson's " Elements
of Galvanism," etc., London, 1804, Vol. II. pp. 74-80; Noad's Lectures,
No. 4, Knight's edition, pp. 182, 183; " Library of Useful Knowledge,"
London, 1829, Chap. " Electricity," pp. 41 and 45 ; " Library of Literary
Criticism," C. W. Moulton, Buffalo, 1901-1902, Vol. IV. pp. 444-456;
" Essays, Reviews and Addresses " by James Martincau, London, 1890,
Vol. I. pp. 1-42; "Mem. dc 1'Institut " (Histoire), Tome VI. 1806,
p. 29 for Elogium; " Essays in Historical Chemistry," T. E. Thorpe,
London, 1894, pp. 28, no; " Science and Education," by Thos. Henry
Huxley, New York, 1894, pp. 1-37; "Scientific Correspondence of
Jos. Priestley," by H. C. Bolton, New York, 1902 ; Dr. Thos. H. Huxley,
" Science Culture," 1882, p. 102; Warltire, in Muirhead's translation of
Arago's " Eloge de James Watt," pp. 99, 100; also the appendix to the
last-named work, p. 157 and note.
A.D. 1767. — Lane (Thomas — Timothy), a medical practitioner
of London, introduces his discharging electrometer, which is now to
be found described and illustrated in nearly all works on electricity.
It consists of a bent glass arm, one end of which is attached to a
socket in the wire of the Leyden jar, while the other end holds a
horizontal sliding brass rod, or spring tube, which bears a ball at
each extremity. The rod is usually divided into inches and tenths,
indicating the force of the discharge which takes place when the
knob of the jar is placed in contact with the prime conductor of an
electrical machine, and the charge is strong enough to leap from one
to the other. In Mr. Lane's experiments the shocks were twice as
frequent when the interval between the balls was one twenty-fourth
of an inch as when twice as much : from which he concluded that
the quantity of electricity required for a discharge is in exact pro-
portion to the distance between the surfaces of the balls.
A combination of the Lane and other electrometers was made
by Mr. Cuthbertson, as shown at p. 528, Vol. II of Nicholson's
Journal of Natural Philosophy, and at p. 451, Vol. LVII of the
Philosophical Transactions.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 229
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans, for 1805; Hutton's abridgments,
Vol. XII: p. 475; Cavallo, " Elements . v ; Phil." 1825, Vol. II. p 197;
Harris, " Electricity," p. 103; (Monthly Magazine, December 1805, and
Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXIII. p. 253.
The Hutton abridgments contain, at p. 308, Vol. XV, the
description of a new electrometer by Abraham Brook.
A.D. 1768. — Ramsden (Jesse), a very capable English manu-
facturer of mechanical instruments, member of the Royal Society
and of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, is said to be the
first to construct an electrical machine wherein a plate of glass is
substituted for the glass globe of Newton and of Hauksbee and
for the glass cylinder of Gordon (at A.D. 1675, 1705 and 1742).
The same claim which has been made for Martin de Planta, Swiss
natural philosopher, appears to have no foundation. (See note at
p. 401 of Ronalds' " Catalogue.")
REFERENCES. — Journal des S^avans, November 1788, p. 744; Phil.
Trans., 1783; "Chambers' Encyclopaedia," 1868, Vol. III. p. 812;
Mme. Le Breton, " Hist, et app. de I'ElcctriciteY' Paris, 1884, pp. 61, 62.
A.D. 1768. — Molenier (Jacob), physician to the French King,
Louis XV, writes " Essai sur le Mecanisme de I'Electricite " for the
purpose of showing the utility of the application of the electric
fluid in medical practice. At p. 60 he explains the effects and results
when applications are made more particularly to the nerves, and
at pp. 65-67 he gives certificates of many of the cures he has effected
of gout, rheumatism, tumours, cancers, loss of blood, as well as of
pains and aches of various descriptions.
REFERENCES. — Jallabert (A. D. 1749); Lovett (A.D. 1756); Bertholon
(A.D. 1780-1781); Mauduyt (A.D. 1781); Van Swinden, " Recueil," etc.,
La Haye, 1784, Vol. II. pp. 122-129 for the experiments of Sauvages,
De La Croix, Joseph Elder von Herbert, H. Boissier and others; Thomas
Fowler, " Med. Soc. of London," Vol. Ill ; M. Tentzel, " Collection
Acade"mique," Tome XI; the works of L'Abbe* Sans, Paris, 1772-1778;
M. de Cazdles Masar's " Me*moires et Recueils," published 1780-1788,
and reproduced in Vols. II and III of the " Mdmoires de Toulouse";
Jacques H. D. Petetin, " Actes de la Soc. de Lyon," p. 230 ; M. Parting-
ton, Jour, de Phys., 1781, Vol. I; Dr. Andrew Duncan's "Medical
Cases," Edinburgh, 1784, pp. 135, 191, 235, 320; C. A. Gerhard, " Me"m.
de Berlin," 1772, p. 141 ; Jour, de Phys., 1783, Vol. II; J. B. Bohadsch,
" Dissertatio," etc., Prague, 1751; Phil. Trans, for 1752; Patrick
Brydone, Phil. Trans, for 17^7; Geo Wilkinson, of Sunderland, "An
account of good effects," etc., in Medical Facts, etc., 1792, Vol. III. p. 52 ;
M. Carmoy, " Observ. sur 1'El. Med.," Dijon, 1784; M. Cosnier, M.
Maloet, Jean Darcet, etc.; "Rapport," etc., 1783; Le Comus, "Dis-
sertatio," etc., 1761; Le Comus, " Osservaziom," etc., 1776 (Jour, de
Phys., 1775, Vols. V and VI ; 1776, Vol. VII ; 1778, Vol. I ; 1781, Vol. II) ;
Ledru, "Sur le traitement," etc., 1783; Le Dr. Boudet, " De TElec.
en Me*decine," conference faite a Vienne le 6 Octobre, 1883.
A.D. 1769. — Bancroft (Edward Nathaniel), a resident physician
of Guiana, openly expresses the belief that the shock of the torpedo
230 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
is of an electrical nature. He alludes (" Natural History of Guiana ")
also to the gymnotus electricus, which, he says, gives much stronger
strokes than the torpedo ; the shocks received from the larger animals
being almost invariably fatal.
The discharge of the gymnotus has been estimated to be equal
to that of a battery of Leyden jars of three thousand five hundred
square inches, fully charged. At a later date, the American physi-
cians, Garden and Williamson, showed that as the fluid discharged
by that fish affects the same parts that are affected by the electric
fluid ; as it excites sensations perfectly similar ; as it kills and stuns
animals in the same manner ; as it is conveyed by the same bodies
that carry the electric fluid and refuses to be conveyed by others
that refuse to take the fluid, it must be the electric fluid itself, and
the shock given by the eel must be the electric shock.
Humboldt, speaking of the results obtained by M. Samuel
Fahlberg, of Sweden, says : " This philosopher has seen an electric
spark, as Walsh and Ingen-housz had done before him at London,
by placing the gymnotus in the air and interrupting the conducting
chain by two gold leaves pasted upon glass and a line distant from
each other " (Edinburgh Journal, Vol. II. p. 249) . Faraday, who gives
this extract at paragraph 358 of his " Experimental Researches,"
says he could not, however, find any record of such an observation
by either Walsh or Ingen-housz and does not know where to refer
to that by Fahlberg. (See the note accompanying aforenamed
extract,)
REFERENCES. — Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XI; Phil.
Trans, for 1775, pp. 94, 102 (letter of Alexander Garden, M.D.), 105,
395; " Acad. Berlin," 1770, 1786; fifteenth series Faraday's " Exper,
Researches," read December 6, 1838; Wheldon's " Catalogue," No. 74,
1870; Sir David Brewster's " Edin. Jour, of Science," 1826, Vol. I.
p. 96, for the observations of Dr. Robert Knox ; G. W. Schilling : at
Ing
Vol.
ling's atre de morbo n Europa pen£ ignoto," 1770;
ology " in the " Encycl. Brit.," 1859, Vol. XVII. p. 671; Aristotle
(B.C. 341), Scribonius (A.D. 50), Richer (A.D. 1671), Redi (A.D. 1678),
Kaempfer (A.D. 1702), Adanson (A.D. 1751); Sc. Am. Suppl., No. 24,
P- 375 (for M. Rouget's observations on the gymnotus) and No. 457,
p. 7300; M. Bajon, " Descrizione di un pesce," etc., Milano, 1775 (Phil.
Trans., 1773, p. 481); M. Vanderlot's work on the Surinam eel, alluded
to at p. 88 of " Voyage Zoologique," by Humboldt, who published in
Paris, during 1806 and also during 1819 special works on the gymnotus
and upon electrical fishes generally.
A.D. 1769. — Cuthbertson (John), English philosophical instru-
ment maker, issues the first edition of his interesting work on
electricity and galvanism.
He is the inventor of the balance electrometer t employed for
regulating the amount of a charge to be sent through any substance,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 231
as well as of an electrical condenser and of an apparatus for oxidating
metals, all of which are respectively described at pp. 593, 614 and
620, Vol. VIII. of the 1855 " Encycl. Brit."
At the end of Part VI of his " Practical Electricity and Galvan-
ism," Cuthbertson gives the conclusions he reached from his numerous
experiments with wire. These, as well as Mr. George Adams' own
observations (" Essay," etc., 1799, p. 285), proved that the quantity
of electricity necessary to disperse a given portion of wire will be
the same, even though the charged surface be greatly varied; and
that equal quantities of electricity in the form of a charge will
cause equal lengths of the same steel wire to explode, whether the
jar made use of be of greater or less capacity (Nicholson's Journal,
Vol. II. p. 217).
During his many experiments Cuthbertson made the very
extraordinary discovery that a battery of fifteen jars and containing
17 square feet of coated glass, which, on a very dry day in March
1796 could only be made to ignite from 18 to 20 inches of iron wire
of TBTT part of an inch in diameter, took a charge which ignited
60 inches when he breathed into each jar through a glass tube
(Noad, "Manual," p. 122; also Cuthbertson, " Prac. Elec. and
Magnetism," 1807, pp. 187, 188).
REFERENCES. — Cuthbertson's communication to the " Emporium of
Arts," Vol. II. p. 193, regarding his experiments on John Wingfield's
" New Method of Increasing the Charging Capacity of Coated Electric
Jars "; Cuthbertson's " Electrictty," Parts VIII, IX and XI; Cuthbert-
son's letter addressed to Nicholson's Journal, Vol. II. p. 526, also Phil.
Mag., Vol. II. p. 251. for electrometers; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXXIX.
1808, p. 97; Vol. XLVII. 1811, p. 233; Cuthbertson's several works
published at Amsterdam and Leipzig, 1769-1797, and alluded to in
Phil. Mag., more particularly at Vols. XVIII. p. 358; XIX. p. 83 ;
XXIV. p. 170; XXXVI. p. 259, as well as at p. 313, Vol. XII. of J B.
Van Mons' Journal de Chimie ; Nicholson's Journal, Vols. II. p. 525 ;
VIII. pp. 97, 205, and the New Series, Vol. II. p. 281 ; Gilbert's Annalen,
Vol. III. p. i ; " Bibl. Brit. Sc. et Arts," Geneve, 1808, Vol. XXXIX.
p. 118; Noad's "Manual," p. 118; Van Marum (A.D. 1785); Harris,
"Electricity," p. 103, and his "Factional Electricity," p. 76; C. H.
Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism," etc., London, 1804, Vol. II.
pp. 242, 266-268; Phil. Trans., 1782, for A. Brook's electrometer, which
apparatus is described in the latter's work published, under the head of
" Miscellaneous Experiments," at Norwich, 1789, as well as in the
" Electricity " article of the " Encycl. Britannica."
A.D. 1769.— St. Paul's Cathedral, London, is first provided with
lightning conductors. Dr. Tyndall, who mentions this fact (Notes
of Lecture VI, March 11, 1875) likewise states that Wilson, who
entertained a preference for blunt conductors as against the views
of Franklin, Cavendish and Watson, so influenced King George III
that the pointed conductors on Buckingham House were, during
the year 1777, changed for others ending in round balls.
232 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
In 1772, St. Paul's Cathedral was struck by lightning, which
" heated to redness a portion of one of its conductors consisting of
a bar of iron nearly four inches broad and about half an inch thick."
In 1764, the lightning had struck St. Bride's Church, London, and
" bent and broke asunder an iron bar two and a half inches broad
and half an inch thick " (Sturgeon, " Sc. Researches/' Bury, 1850,
p. 360; Phil. Trans, for 1764 and 1762).
The Rev. James Pilkington, Bishop of Durham, published in
London a detailed account of the partial destruction of St. Paul's
Church by lightning, June 4, 1561, which is also to be found at
pp. 53-55 of Strype's " Life of Grindall," published in London, 1710,
and of which an abstract appears under the A.D. 1754 date.
REFERENCES. — Sturgeon's Annals, Vol. X. pp. 127-131; also, Biog-
raphy of John Canton in " Encycl. Britannica ; Sir John Pringle, at
A.D. 1777; Hutton's abridgments of the Phil. Trans., Vol. XII. pp. 620-
624.
A.D. 1769. — Mallet (Frederick) member of the Royal Society
of Upsal and of the Stockholm Academy of Sciences, acting upon
the observations of Anders Celsius (at A.D. 1740), is the first to make
an attempt to determine the intensity of magnetism simultaneously
at distant points. He ascertains that the number of oscillations
in equal times at Ponoi, China (latitude, 67 degrees 4 minutes north ;
longitude, 41 degrees east) are the same as at St. Petersburg, Russia
(59 degrees 56 minutes north latitude; 30 degrees 19 minutes east
longitude).
REFERENCES. — Walker, "Magnetism," Chap. VI; " Novi Comnien.
Acad. Sc. Petropol.," Vol. XIV for 1769, part ii. p. 33; Le Monnier,
" Lois du Magnetisme," etc., 1776, p. 50; " Biog. Univ.," Vol. XXVI.
p. 258.
A.D. 1770.— The well-known work of Jas. Ferguson, F.R.S.,
which first appeared under the title of " Introduction or Lectures
on Electricity/' now becomes still more popular under the head of
" Lectures on Select Subjects/' etc. (Consult likewise his " Lectures
on Electricity/1 corrected by C. F. Partington, with appendix,
London, 1825.)
In his first lecture he says that the most remarkable properties
of the loadstone are : (i) it attracts iron and steel only ; (2) it
constantly turns one of its sides to the north and the other to the
south, when suspended to a thread that does not twist ; (3) it com-
municates all its properties to a piece of steel when rubbed upon
it without losing any itself. He cites the experiments of Dr. Hel-
sham, according to whom, says he, the attraction of the loadstone
decreases as the square of the distance increases. He also treats
of electrical attraction generally, and reports in the sixth lecture
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 233
having " heard that lightning, striking upon the mariner's compass,
will sometimes turn it round and often make it stand the contrary
way, or with the north pole towards the south.1'
A.D. 1770.— Hell— Hehl—Heyl—H6U (Maximilian), Hungarian
scientist (1720-1792), member of the Order of Jesuits and Professor
of Astronomy at Vienna, who had great faith in the influence of
the loadstone, invented a singular arrangement of steel plates to which
he afterward attributed the cure " with extraordinary success " of
many diseases, as well as of a severe attack of rheumatism from
which he himself had long suffered.
He communicated his discovery to Friedrich Anton Mesmer,
.who was so strongly impressed by Hell's observations that he
immediately procured every conceivable description of magnet, with
which he made many experiments that led to his introduction of
animal magnetism, or rather mesmerism.
He is the author of many works, the most important being
" Element a Algebrae Joannis Crivelii magis illustrata et no vis demon-
strationibus et problematibus aucta," Vienna, 1745; " Observ.
Astronomicae," 1768, and " Aurorae Boreales Theoria nova/' 1776.
REFERENCES. — Bcckmann, Bohn, 1846, Vol. I. p. 44; Practical
Mechanic, Glasgow, 1843, Vol. II. p. 71 ; Van Swinden, " Recueil," etc.,
La Haye, 1784, Vol. II. pp. 303, 304, etc. ; J. Lamont, " Handbuch," etc.,
p. 436; M. V. Burq, " Me"tallo the"rapie," Paris, 1853 ; " Biog. Ge'ne'rale,"
Vol. XXIII. pp. 836-839; Schlichtegroll, " Nckrol.," 1792, Vol. I.
pp. 282-303; " Journal des Scavans," for July 1771, p. 499; Meusel,
" Gelehrtes Teutschl"; Jer. de la Lande, " Bibliogr. Astronomique,"
Paris, 1803, pp. 721-722.
A.D. 1771. — Morveau (Baron Louis, Bernard Guyton de), a
very prominent French chemist and scientist, publishes at Dijon
his " Reflexions sur la boussole a double aiguille," and, later on,
communicates to the Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXI. p. 70, and Vol.
LXIII. p. 113, very valuable papers treating on the influence of
galvanic electricity upon minerals, which are read before the French
Institute.
REFERENCES. — Thomson, " Hist, of Chemistry," Vol. II. 1831; the
translation of Morveau 's letter to Gu6naud de Montbe'liard in Scelta
d' Opuscoli, Vol. XXXIII. p. §o; Berthollet, " Discours," etc., 1816;
"Biog. Univ.," Tome XVIII. pp. 296-298; "Journal des Savants"
for Jan. 1860; " Roy. Soc. Cat. of Sc. Papers," Vol. III. pp. 99-102;
Vol. VI. pp. 679-680; " Biog. Univ. et Portative," etc., 1834, Vol. III.
p. 701; Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXI. pp. 70-82; Sir Humphry Davy,
" Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, p. 51.
A.D. 1771. — In a very interesting article published by the
Gazette at Salem (Mass.), August 9, 1889, on the occasion of the
234 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
formal opening of the new station of the Electric Lighting Company,
the connection of that city with the progress of electricity was
traced in the following manner :
" In 1771 Col. David Mason, a prominent figure among the patriots
at Leslie's Retreat, gave a course of lectures on ' Electricity ' at
his house near North Bridge. The Rev. John Prince, LL.D.,
minister of the First Church from 1779 to 1836, was especially inter-
ested in electricity, and is said to have made the first electrical
machine in Salem, if not in the country. Col. Francis Peabody,
assisted by Jonathan Webb, the apothecary, was much interested
in the subject, and, in 1829, gave a series of lectures, illustrated with
a machine made by himself, which had a glass plate wheel imported
from Germany at a reported cost of $1500.
" Dr. Charles Grafton Page, another native of Salem, invented
the first electric motor in which solenoids were used, and as early
as 1850 constructed a motor which developed over 10 h.p. The
next year he made a trial trip with his electro-magnetic locomotive
over the Baltimore and Washington Railroad. Prof. Moses Gerrish
Farmer lived in Pearl Street between the years 1850 and 1870, and,
as far back as 1859, illuminated the house with divided electric
lights — probably the first time that any house in the world was lighted
by electricity. In 1847 Prof. Farmer had constructed and exhibited
in public an electro-magnetic locomotive drawing a car holding two
passengers, on a track one foot and a half wide.
" Many of Prof. Alexander Graham Bell's early experiments
were conducted in Salem, and the first lecture on the telephone in
this country, if not in the world, was delivered by him before the
Essex Institute in Lyceum Hall, February 12, 1877. The late
Prof. Osbun, teacher of chemistry and physics at the Normal School
in Salem, was also an electrical expert. He exhibited the first arc
lights in Salem, and was the inventor of the storage battery system
from which lights were exhibited."
The advertisement of March 7, 1765, previously alluded to
herein at Kinnersley, A.D. 1761, is as follows :
" A COURSE OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE
newly discovered Electrical Fire, to be accompanied with methodical
LECTURES on the Nature and Properties of that wonderful Element
will be exhibited by DAVID MASON, at his House opposite Mr.
Thomas Jackson; Distiller, near Sudbury-Street. — To consist of
two Lectures, at one Pistareen each Lecture.— The first Lectures
to be on Monday and Thursday, and the Second on Tuesday and
Friday Evenings every week, Weather permitting.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 235
" OF ELECTRICITY IN GENERAL
"That the Electric Fire is a real Element,— That our
Bodies at all Times contain enough of it to set an House
on Fire, — That this Fire will live in Water, — A Representation
of the seven Planets, shewing a probable Cause of their keep-
ing their due Distances from each other, and the Sun in the
Centre, — The Salute repulsed by the Ladies' Fire, or Fire darting
from a Lady's Lips, so that she may defy any Person to salute her, —
A Battery of Eleven Guns discharged by the Electric Spark, after
it has passed through eight Feet of Water, — Several Experiments
shewing that the Electric Fire and Lightning are the same, and that
Points will draw off the Fire so as to prevent the Stroke, — With
a number of other entertaining Experiments, too many to be inserted
in an Advertisement.
" TICKETS to be had either at his House above or at his Shop in
Queen-Street."
Another advertisement, which appeared in the Salem Gazette
of Tuesday, January i, 1771, is thus worded : " To-morrow evening
(if the Air be dry) will be exhibited A Course of Experiments in
that instructive and entertaining branch of Natural Philosophy
called Electricity; to be accompanied with Methodical Lectures
on the nature and properties of the wonderful element ; by David
Mason, at his dwelling-house near the North-Bridge. The course
to consist of two lectures, at a pistareen each lecture/'
A.D. 1771.— Milly (Nicolas Christiern de Thy, Comte de) French
chemist, constructs compass needles of an alloy of gold and ferru-
ginous sand. These needles answered well their purpose, as did
also the brass needle owned by Christian Huyghens (alluded to at
A.D. 1706), a fact which received the confirmation of Messrs. Du
Lacque, Le Chevalier d'Angos and M. Arderon, while the latter,
further ascertained that he could impart a feeble though distinct
magnetic force to a brass bar either by striking it or by means of
the " double touch."
REFERENCES. — The Comte de Milly 's " Memoire sur la reduction des
chaux metalliques par le feu clectrique," read before the Paris Academy
May 20, 1774, brought about many controversial articles, notably from.
Sigaud de la Fond, Felice Fontana, Jean M. Cadet, Jean Darcet, G. F.
Rouelle and Le Dru le Comus; " Biog. Univ.," Vol. XXVIII. p. 312;
Journal de Physique, Tome XIII. p. 393 ; Philosophical Transactions,
Vol. L. p. 774; Duhamcl, "Hist. Acad. Reg. Paris," p. 184; Journal
des S^avans, Paris edition of December 1772, and Amsterdam edition of
January 1773.
A.D. 1772. — Mesmer (Friedrich Anton), an Austrian physician,
who, upon taking his diploma at Vienna in 1766, had published a
236 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
thesis " On the Influence of the Planets upon the Human Body/'
begins his investigations as to the power of the magnet with the
steel plates of Father Hell. The results proved so favourable that
Hell was induced to publish an account of them, but he incurred
the displeasure of his friend by attributing the cures merely to the
form of the plates.
Mesmer subsequently arrived at the conclusion that the magnet
was incapable, by itself, of so acting upon the nerves as to produce
the results obtained and that another principle was necessarily
involved ; he did not, however, give an explanation of it, and managed
to keep his process a secret for quite a while. He had observed
that nearly all substances can be magnetized by the touch, and in
due time he announced his abandonment of the use of the magnet
and of electricity in his production of what became known as
mesmerism,
In 1779 he published his " Memoire sur la decouverte du mag-
ne*tisme animal," in which he says : " I had maintained that the
heavenly spheres possessed a direct power on all of the constituent
principles of animated bodies, particularly on the nervous system,
by the agency of an all-penetrating fluid. I determined this action
by the intension and the remission of the properties of matter and
organized bodies, such as gravity, cohesion, elasticity, irritability
and electricity. I supported this doctrine by various examples
of periodical revolutions ; and I named that property of the animal
matter which renders it susceptible to the action of celestial and
earthly bodies, animal magnetism. A further "consideration of the
subject led me to the conviction that there does exist in nature a
universal principle, which, independently of ourselves, performs
all that we vaguely attribute to nature or to art/'
The whole theory and practice of mesmerism was, however,
openly rejected by one of Mesmer's most capable pupils, Claude
Louis Berthollet (A.D. 1803), a verY distinguished French chemical
philosopher, founder of the " Socie'te' Chimique d'Arcueil," and
who, in conjunction with Lavoisier (A.D. 1781), Guyton de Morveau
(A.D. 1771), and Fourcroy (A.D. 1801), planned the new philosophical
nomenclature which has since proved of such service to chemical
science ("La Grande EncycL," Tome VI. p. 449; " Biog. Univer-
selle," Tome IV. pp. 141-149).
Mesmer gave all his manuscripts to Dr. Wolf art, of Berlin, who
published in 1814, " Mesmerism ... as the general curative of
mankind.11 And it was one of Mesmer's students, le Marquis de
Puys£gur, who discovered magnetic somnambulism, an entirely new
phenomenon in animal magnetism. (See the article " Somnam-
bulism " in the " Encyl. Britannica," as well as the numerous works
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 237
therein quoted, relating to the above-named subjects, notably Mes-
mer's own " Precis historique des faits relatifs au magnetisme
animal, jusques en Avril 1781.")
REFERENCES. — " Bulletin de 1'Acad. de M£d./' Paris, 1837, Tome I.
p. 343, etc., and Tome II. p. 370; Blavatsky, " Isis Unveiled," Vol. I-
p. 172, etc.; " L' Academic des Sciences," par Ernest Maindron, Paris,
1888, pp. 57-63; Richard Harte, " Hypnotism and the Doctors," Vols.
I and II, New York, 1903 (from Mesiner to De Puyse"gur, Dupotet,
Deleuze, Charcot, etc.); Robert Blakey, " History of the Philosophy of
Mind," London, 1850, Vol. IV. pp. 570-582, 639—645; the report of Dr.
Franklin and other Commissioners . . . against mesmerism, translated
by Dr. William Bache, London, 1785 ; J. C. Schaffer, " Abhandlung,"
etc., and " Krafte," etc. (1776), " Fcrnere," etc. (1777), also " Journal
Encyclop^dique '•' for March 1777; Van Swinden, " Rccueil," etc., La
Haye, 1784, Vol. II. pp. 373-446; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvan-
ism," etc., Chapter XVIII; Champignon, "Etudes Physiques," etc.,
Paris, 1843; " Archives du Magn. Animal," published by M. Le Baron
d'H6nin de Cuvillers, Paris, 1820-1823 ; " Report on Animal Magnetism "
made by Charles Poyen Saint Sauveur, 1836; Dupotet's " Manuel," etc.,
Paris, 1868; Male's " Franklin in France/' 1888, Part II. chap. v. allud-
ing to an interesting manuscript of T. Auguste Thouret now in the
collection of the American Philosophical Society.
A.D. 1772.-— Henley (William T.), F.R.S., invents the quadrant
electrometer, an apparatus with which the quantity of electricity
accumulated in a jar or battery can be measured through the amount
of repulsion produced by the fluid upon a pith ball suspended from
the centre of a graduated arc. It is generally attached to the
prime conductor to measure the state of action of the electrical
machine.
He is also the inventor of the universal discharger, for directing
the charge of jars or batteries (Edw. Whitaker Gray — 1748-1807 —
" Observations on manner glass is charged and discharged by the
electric fluid " in Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XVI. p. 407).
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1774, Henley and Nairne
give an account of many curious experiments proving the superiority
of points over balls as conductors. The same is shown by William
Swift in the Phil. Trans., Vol. LXVIII. p. 155. (For Wm. Swift
consult, besides, the Phil. Trans., Vol. LXIX. p. 454, and Hutton's
abridgments, Vol. XIV. pp. 314, 571.) Henley also states that the
vapour of water is a conductor of electricity ; that when the flame
of a candle is introduced into the circuit and a Leyden jar is dis-
charged through it, the flame always inclines toward the negative
side ; and he proves that electricity cannot effect a passage through
glass (Phil. Trans., Vol. LXVIII. p. 1049). He likewise makes a
number of experiments to determine the relative conducting power
of the different metals according to the quantity of a wire, each of
a given size, melted by equal electrical shocks passed through them,
and finds the metals to hold the order following as conductors :
238 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
gold, brass, copper silvered, silver, iron. It was also shown by
Nairne that copper conducts better than iron, in the Phil. Trans.
for 1780, Vol. LXX. p. 334.
REFERENCES. — Harris, " Rud. Electricity," 1853, p. 93, and his
" Factional Electricity/' 1867, p. 23 ; " The Electrical Researches of
the Hon. Hy. Cavendish," Cambridge, 1879, Nos. 559, 568, 569, 580;
Thos. Young, " Nat. Phil." passim', Phil. Trans., Vol. LXIV. pp. 133,
389; Vol. LXVI. p. 513; Vol. LXVII. pp. i, 85; also Hutton's abridg-
ments, Vol. XIII. pp. 323 (new electrometer), 512, 551, 659; Vol. XIV.
pp. 90, 97, 130, 473 ; Transactions of the Humane Society, Vol. I. p. 63 ;
Ronayne and Henley, " Account of Some Observations ..." London,
1772 (Phil. Trans., p. 137).
A.D. 1772.— Cavendish (Henry), F.R.S., eldest son of Lord
Charles Cavendish, and a prominent English scientist, sometime
called " The Newton of Chemistry " (" the most severe and cautious
of all philosophers " — Farrar, 284), commences investigating the
phenomena of electricity, the results of which study were duly
communicated to the Philosophical Transactions. His papers
embrace twenty-seven mathematical propositions upon the action
of the electric fluid, and contain the first distinct statement of the
difference between common and animal electricity.
Cavendish made many very important experiments upon the
relative conducting power of different substances. He found that a
solution of one part of salt in one part of water conducts a hundred
times better, and that a saturated solution of sea-salt conducts
seven hundred and twenty times better than fresh water, also
that electricity experiences as much resistance in passing through
a column of water one inch long as it does in passing through an
iron wire of the same diameter four hundred million inches long,
whence he concludes that rain or distilled water conducts four
hundred million times less than iron wire.
He decomposed atmospheric air by means of the electric spark,
and he successfully demonstrated the formation of nitric acid by
exploding a combination of seven measures of oxygen with three
of nitrogen. The latter he did on the 6th of December, 1787, with
the assistance of Mr. George Gilpin, in presence of the English Royal
Society. (For George Gilpin, consult " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXXVI,
1807, p. 3; Phil. Trans, for 1806.)
He improved upon Priestley's experiments after studying
thoroughly the power of electricity as a chemical agent. In one of
his experiments he fired as many as five hundred thousand measures
of hydrogen with about two and a half times that quantity of atmo-
spheric air, and having by this means obtained 135 grains of pure
water, he was led to the conclusion which Mr. Watt had previously
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 239
maintained, that water is composed of two gases, viz. oxygen and
hydrogen.
He explains why no spark is given by the electrical fishes : the
latter may contain sufficient electricity to give a shock without being
able to make it traverse the space of air necessary for the production
of a spark, as the distance through which the spark flies is inversely
(or rather in a greater proportion) as the square root of the number
of jars in operation.
For an account of his experiments anticipating Faraday's
discovery of the specific inductive capacity of various substances,
see Chap. XT. pp. 69-142 of Gordon's " Physical Treatise," etc.,
London, 1883. See, likewise, J. Clerk Maxwell's " Electrical
Researches," etc., Cambridge, 1879, pp. liii-lvi, as well as refer-
ences therein made, more particularly at articles Nos. 355-366,
376 ; also the notes 27, 29 as per Index at pp. 450 and 453 ; Phil.
Trans., Vol. CLXVII (1877), p. 599; Sparks' edition of Franklin's
" Works," Vol. V. p. 201.
REFERENCES. — Dr. G. Wilson's " Life and Works of Hon. Henry
Cavendish," London, 1851; Sturgeon's Annals, Vol. VI. pp. 137, 173,
etc.; Noad, " Manual," etc., pp. 14, 161 ; Harris, " Electricity," pp. 136,
140; Harris, " Frictional Electricity," pp. 23 and 45; Whewell, " Hist,
of the Ind. Sciences," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 203-206, 273-275, 278; C. R.
Weld, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," for Lord Charles Cavendish, Vol. II. pp. 171,
176-185, 221 ; T. E. Thorpe, " Essays in Historical Chemistry," London,
1894, pp. 70, no; Thomas Thomson, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," London, 1812,
pp. 456, 457, 471 ; Sir William Thomson's " Works," 1872, pp. 34, 235 ;
Phil. Trans, for 1776, Vol. LXVI. p. 196; Thos, Young, "Lectures,"
1807, Vol. I. pp. 658, 664, 751, and Vol. II. p. 418.
A.D. 1773.— Walsh (John), F.R.S., demonstrates the correctness
of Dr. Bancroft's opinion that the shock of the torpedo is of an
electrical nature, resembling the discharge from a Leyden jar. In
the letter announcing the fact, which he addressed to Franklin,
then in London, he says : " He, who predicted and showed that
electricity wings the formidable bolt of the atmosphere, will hear
with attention that in the deep it speeds a humbler bolt, silent and
invisible ; he, who analyzed the electric phial, will hear with pleasure
that its laws prevail in animated phials ; he, who by reason became
an electrician, will hear with reverence of an instructive electrician
gifted at its birth with a wonderful apparatus, and with skill to
use it."
Mr. Walsh's experiments were made off Leghorn, in company
with Dr. Drummond, as stated in Phil. Traps., 1775, p. I, and were
confirmed by Johan Ingen-housz as well as by the Italian naturalist,
Lazaro Spallanzani (at A.D. 1780). The last named found the torpedo
shocks strongest when it lay upon glass, and that when the animal
was dying the shocks were not given at intervals, but resembled a
240 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
continual battery of small shocks : three hundred and sixteen of
them have been felt in seven minutes.
REFERENCES. — Leithead, "Electricity," p. 135; Gray, "Elements
of Natural Philosophy," 1850, p. 323; " Electrical Researches of Lord
Cavendish," 1879, pp. xxxv, xxxvi and 395-437; Fifth Dissertation
of " Encycl. Britannica," 8th ed. p. 738; Phil. Trans, for 1773, 1774, 1775
and 1776; also Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XIIT. p. 469; "Chambers'
Ency.," 1868, Vol. III. p. 821; "People's Cyclopaedia," 1883, Vol. I.
p. 628; Kaempfer (A.D. 1702); Sc. American Supplement, No. 457, pp.
73°°> 73° r I " Lettera dell' Abate Spallanzani al Signore Marchese
Lucchesini," Feb. 23, 1783, inserted in the Gothaische Gelehrte Zeilungen
for 1783, p. 409. See also the experiments of Dr. Ingram, of Kaempfer
and of Borelli, described in Van Swinden's " Rccueil," etc., La Haye,
1784, Vol. II; Wilkinson's "Galvanism," 1804, Vol. I. pp. 318, 324;
G. W. Schilling, " Diatribe de morbo," etc., 1770, and Friedrich von
Halm in the preface to Schilling's " De Lepra," etc., 1778, as well as
at pp. 436-442, Vol. I and at note, p. 160, Vol. II of Van Swinden's
" Recueil," already noted; J. B. Leroy and M. Saignette " Sur. 1'elcct.
de la Torpille," etc. (Jour, de Phys., 1774, Vol. IV and for 1776, Vol.
VIII) ; " Annales du Musee d'Hist. Nat.," p. 392 ; R. A. F. De Rdaumur,
"Mem. de 1'acad. des Sc. dc Paris" for 1714; C. Alibert, " Eloges,"
etc., Paris, 1806.
A.D. 1773. — Odier (Louis), a well-known Swiss physician, thus
addresses a lady upon the subject of an electric telegraph : " I shall
amuse you, perhaps, in telling you that I have in my head certain
experiments, by which to enter into conversation with the Emperor
of Mogol or of China, the English, the French, or any other people
of Europe, in a way that, without inconveniencing yourself, you may
intercommunicate all that you wish, at a distance of four or five
thousand leagues in less than half an hour ! Will that suffice you
for glory? There is nothing more real. Whatever be the course
of those experiments, they must necessarily lead to some grand
discovery; but I have not the courage to undertake them this
winter. What gave me the idea was a word which I heard spoken
casually the other day, at Sir John Pringle's table, where I had
the pleasure of dining with Franklin, Priestley and other great
geniuses."
REFERENCES. — Necrology of Prof. Odier in " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. IV.
N. S., 1817, pp. 317-328; see also allusion to Odier at Schwenter (A.D.
1600), and in the report of Bristol meeting of the British Association,
August 25, 1875; also Chambers' "Papers for the People," 1851, EL
Com., p. 6; Bertholon, " Elec. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I. p. 357.
A.D. 1773. — Hunter (John), a native of Scotland, " by common
consent of all his successors, the greatest man that ever practiced
surgery," gives at p. 481 of the Phil. Trans, for 1773 his observations
on the anatomical structure of the raia torpedo.
The electricity of the animal, he found, is generated by organs
on each side of the cranium and gills, somewhat resembling a galvanic
pile, and consisting wholly of perpendicular columns reaching from
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 241
the upper to the under surface of the body. Dr. Walsh gave him
for examination a fish about eight inches long, two inches thick and
twelve inches broad, and Hunter found in each electrical organ as
many as 470 columns ; but in a very large fish, four and a half feet
long and weighing 73 pounds, he counted as many as 1182 in each
organ.
He remarks that there is no part of any animal with which he is
acquainted, however strong and constant its natural action, which
has so great a proportion of nerves ; and he concludes that, if it be
probable these nerves are not necessary for the purposes of sensation
or action, they are subservient to the formation, collection or
management of the electric fluid.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Trans, for 1773, p. 461; for 1775, p. 465 (gym-
notus electricus) ; for 1776, p. 196; the Phil. Trans., Vol. LXIII. p. 481,
(torpedo) ; Vol.~ LXV. p. 395 (gymnotus) ; and Hutton's abridgments,
Vol. XIII. pp. 478, 666; also John Davy's account in Phil. Trans, for
1832, p. 259; " Am. Trans.," Vol. II. p. 166; Nicholson's Journal, Vol. I.
p. 355; Journal de Physique, Vol. XLIX. p. 69; Becquerel et Brachet,
Comptes Rendus, III. p. 135 ; Carlo Matteucci, " Recherches," Geneve,
1837; Delle Chiage, on the organs of the torpedo; Geo. Adams, " Essay
on Electricity," etc., 1785, p. 315; D. J. N. Lud. Roger, "Specimen
Physiologicum," etc., Gottingae, 1760 ; Dr. Buniva's experiments recorded
in " Journal de Litter. Medicale," Tome II. p. 112; Leithead, "Elec-
tricity," Chap. XII; Sclent. Am. Suppl., No. 457, pp. 7300-7302. See
also the account of his having been the first to observe the galvanic
sensation of light in the experiment on the eyes, published in " Opuscoli
Scelti," Vol. XXII, p. 364.
A.D. 1774. — At p. 16 of the third volume of Dr. Wm. Hooper's
" Rational Recreations/' etc., there is given a fine illustration of
the electrical machine made by Dr. Priestley, and mention is made
of the fact that, since the publication of the latter 's " History and
Present State of Electricity," he contrived, to be placed on the top
of his house, a windmill by which the machine could be occasionally
turned.
Much of the remainder of the volume is given to all kinds of
experiments in the line of electricity and magnetism.
A.D. 1774. — Lesage (Georges Louis, Jr.), a Frenchman living
at Geneva, Switzerland, makes in that city the first real attempt
to avail of frictional electricity for the transmission of signals between
two distant points (see C. M., or Charles Morrison, at A.D. 1753).
His apparatus consists of twenty-four metallic wires insulated from
each other and communicating with separate electrometers formed
of small balls of elder held by threads and each marked with different
letters of the alphabet. Whenever the electric current was trans-
mitted, the balls indicated the desired letter.
Lesage was not, however, satisfied with a telegraph upon so
R
242 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
small a scale as to be utilized only in one building, and on the 22nd
of June 1782 lie addressed a letter to M. Pierre PreVost, at Geneva,
on the subject of "a ready and swift method of correspondence
between two distant places by means of electricity." This, he says,
had occurred to him thirty or thirty-five years before, and had been
" then reduced to a simple system, far more practicable than the
form with which the new inventor has endowed it." He employed
a subterranean tube of glazed earthenware, divided at every fathom's
length by partitions with twenty-four separate openings intended
to hold apart that number of wires, the extremities of the wires
being " arranged horizontally, like the keys of a harpsichord, each
wire having suspended above it a letter of the alphabet, while
immediately underneath, upon a table, are pieces of gold leaf, or
other bodies that can be as easily attracted, and are at the same time
easily visible." Upon touching the end of any wire with an excited
glass tube, its other extremity would cause the little gold leaf to
play under a certain letter, which would form part of the intended
message.
Georges Louis Lesage (sen.) wrote a work on " Meteors," etc.,
published at Geneva in 1730, and alluded to in Poggendorff, Vol. I.
P-
REFERENCES. — Abb6 Moigno, " TraiteV' etc , and cd. Part II. chap. i.
p. 59; Ed. Ilighton, "The Electric Telegraph." 1852, p. 38; Journal
des S$avanst September 1782, p. 637; Pierre Prevost, ''Notice," etc.,
1805, pp. 176-177.
A.D. 1774.— Wales (William), English mathematician and the
astronomer of Captain Cook during the expeditions of 1772, 1773
and 1774, is the first to make scientific observations relative to the
local attraction of a ship upon mariners' compasses. While on his
way from England to the Cape and during his passage through
the English Channel he found differences of as much as 19 degrees
to 25 degrees in the azimuth compass.
REFERENCES. — Sturmy, at A.D. 1684; also Wales and Bayly's
" Observations on Cook's Voyages," p. 49.
A.D. 1775.— Gallitzin (Dmitri Alexewitsch Fiirst, Prince de),
an able Russian diplomat and scientist, carries on at the Hague,
between the 4th of June, 1775, and the commencement of the year
1778, a series of experiments upon atmospherical electricity, the
results of which he communicates to the St. Petersburg Academy
of Sciences in a Memoir entitled " Observations sur TElectricite
naturelle par le moyen d'un cerf- volant." Therein he states that
the presence of electricity was always noticeable whenever he raised
his kite, whether in the night or in the daytime, as well as during
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 243
hot, dry, or damp weather, and he ascertained that electricity is
generally positive during calm weather and more frequently negative
when the weather is stormy.
He also observed during an extensive course of experiments
upon animals that hens' eggs hatch sooner when they are electrified,
thus confirming the previous observations of Koeslin and Senebier,
and he gives an account of the effects of battery shocks upon various
species. He cites the case of a hen which had sustained the shock
of sixty'-four jars and appeared dead, but which revived, and lived
thirty-two days ; and he gives the report of the dissection made by
M. Munichs, as well as the very curious observations upon it noted
at the time by M. Camper.
REFERENCE. — Bertholon, " Elec. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I.
pp. 13-14, 66, and Vol. II. p. 48, etc.; " Anc. Mem. de 1'acad. Beige,"
Vol. III. p. 3, showing preference for the pointed form of electrical
conductors; " Mercure de France," 1774, p. 147; " Biog. Univ.," Tome
XV. p. 425; "Mem. de 1'Acad. . . . de Bruxelles," Vol. III. p. 14;
Journal de Physique, Vols. XXI and XXII for 1782 and 1783 ; " Opuscoli
Scelti," Vol. II. p. 305.
A.D. 1775. — Lorimer (Dr. John), " a gentleman of great know-
ledge on magnetics " (1732-1795), describes his combined dipping
and variation needle for determining the dip at sea, which he calls
universal magnetic needle or observation compass in a letter to Sir
John Pringle, Bart., copied in Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LXV.
p. 79. This apparatus is also to be found described in Lorimer's
" Essay on Magnetism," etc., 1795, as well as at p. 168 of Cavallo's
" Treatise on Magnetism " published in 1787; and, at p. 333 of the
latter work, the Doctor endeavours to explain the causes of the
variation of the magnetic needle.
REFERENCES. — For Lorimer, consult Hutton's abridgments, Vol.
XIII. p. 593, and, for dipping needles, refer to the same volume of
Hutton, p. 613, wherein especial mention is made of those of Thomas
Hutchins. The dipping needle of Robert Were Fox is described in the
" Annals of Electricity," as well as at p. 411, Vol. II. of " Abstract of
Papers of Roy. Soc.," and the two dipping needles of Edward Nairne
are described in Phil. Trans, for 1772, p. 496. Capt. Henry Foster
made a report on changes of magnetic intensity ... in dipping and
horizontal needles, to be found in Phil. Trans, for 1828, p. 303 (Abstracts
Sc. Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 290-296, 344).
A.D. 1775. — Cavallo (Tiberius), a distinguished Italian natural
philosopher, publishes in London " Extraordinary Electricity of
the Atmosphere at Islington/' which volume was reprinted by
Sturgeon, and contains his many experiments and important
observations upon the line indicated by Franklin. This work was
followed in 1777, 1782, 1787, 1795, 1802 by his " Complete Treatise
on Electricity/' etc.; by his " Essay on the Theory and Practice
244 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of Medical Electricity" (London, 1780, 1781; Leipzig, 1782, 1785;
Naples, 1784) ; and during 1787 was also published in London the
first edition of his " Treatise on Magnetism/' a supplement to which
appeared eight years later.
He had made many very remarkable observations during the
year 1787 on the phenomena of electricity in glass tubes containing
mercury, and he had particularly experimented with various sub-
stances floating upon mercury in order to test their magnetism.
Before the year 1795 he contrived what he called a multiplier
of electricity, a good illustration of which is to be found, more par-
ticularly, opposite p. 270, Vol. II. of his " Elements/' etc., published
at Philadelphia in 1825. ^ consisted of two brass plates insulated
upon glass pillars, and of a third plate which could be insulated or
uninsulated at will, and which, turning on a pivot, or rather a mov-
able arm, could be made to successively convey electricity from one
plate to the other until the desired quantity was accumulated. (For
the multiplier, see Jean Darnel Colladon in " Bibl. Britan./' Vol.
XXIX, N.S. for 1825, p. 316.)
Cavallo also invented a small electroscope and a condenser of
electricity. The latter consisted of an insulated tin plate between
the sides of a wooden frame lined with gilt paper, one edge of the
plate being connected with the body containing the electricity, and
the condensation making itself observable at the opposite edge by
the electroscope.
In the fourth edition of his " Treatise on Electricity " (1795),
which, like the previous editions, was freely translated into other
languages, will be found at pp. 285-296 of the third volume mention
of the possibility of transmitting intelligence by combinations of
sparks and pauses. For his experiments he made use of brass wires
250 English feet in length, and his electric alarm was based upon
either the explosion of a mixture of hydrogen and of oxygen, or
of gunpowder, phosphorus, phosphuretted hydrogen, etc., fired by
the Leyden phial (vide Bozolus at A.D. 1767). It is in Vol. I.
p. 358 of the aforenamed fourth edition that Cavallo explains the
mode of action of the charged Leyden jar. His concluding words
deserve reproduction : " Which shows that one side of a charged
electric may contain a greater quantity of electricity than that
which is sufficient to balance the contrary electricity of the opposite
side. This redundant electricity should be carefully considered in
performing experiments of a delicate nature . ' ' The same is expressed
in other words in the 1825 American edition of his " Natural Philo-
sophy/' Chap. IV. Therein he asserts that glass is impervious
to the electric fluid, saying ; " If the additional electric fluid pene-
trates a certain way into the substance of the glass, it follows that
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 24,5
a plate may be given so thin as to be permeable to the electric fluid,
and, of course, incapable of a charge ; yet glass balls blown exceed-
ingly thin, viz. about the six-hundredth part of an inch thick,
when coated, etc., were found capable of holding a charge." (Con-
sult Cavendish's experiments which produced this remarkable
discovery, in Phil. Trans., Vols. LXXV and LXXVIII.)
An electrical machine used by Cavallo in 1777 had a glass cylinder
rotated by means of a cord passing around the neck and the wheel,
also a cushion (amalgamated with two parts of mercury, one of
tinfoil, some powdered chalk and grease) holding a silk flap and
freely moving along a groove, and provided with a prime conductor
resting on glass legs and with collecting points.
REFERENCES. — Sturgeon, " Lectures," London, 1842, p. 12 ; Young's
" Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. I. pp. 682, 686, 694, 714; Nicholson's
Journal, 1797, Vol. I. p. 394; Du Moncel, " Expose/' Vol. Ill; Aikin's
"General Biography," Vol. X; Phil. Transactions, 1776, Vol. LXV1.
p. 407; 1777, Vol. LXVII. pp. 48, 388; 1780, Vol. LXX. p. 15; 1786,
p. 62 ; 1787, p. 6; 1788, pp. i and 255, and 1793, p. 10 (Volta's letters) ;
'hap. III. s. i. for Cavallo's " Observations on the Magnetism
Metals," etc.
A.D. 1775. — Bolten (Joach. Fred.), a German physician, is
the author of " Nachricht von einem mit dem Kunstlichen magneten
gemachten Versuchein einer Nerven-Krankheit " (Hamburg, 1775),
the title of which is here given in full, as the work is not usually
found recorded in publications and is considered to be of excessive
rarity.
Contrary to the accepted belief of many at the time, Bolten
asserts that the application of magnetic plates for the cure of nervous
and other affections is not only useless, but has, in many instances,
been shown to greatly increase pain. This is proven by M. Fonseca
in his Journal, which forms part of the above-named work; by
Andry and Thouret (" Obs. et Rech sur. . . . TAimant. ..." No.
8, pp. 599, 661), and by J. David Reuss (" Repertorium," Vol. XII.
p. 18), as well as by observations recorded in another very scarce
work, translated into Dutch during 1775 by the celebrated physicist,
J. R. Deimann, under the title of " Geneeskundige Proefneeming
met den door Koast gemaakten Magneet, door den Heere T. C.
Unzer."
REFERENCES. — Magnetical cures by different processes are treated of
more particularly by Goclenius R., Jr., " Tract, de Mag. Curatione ..."
Marp., 1609; J. Robertus, " Curationis Magneticae . . ." Luxemb.,
1621, Colonise, 1622; Charlton, " A Ternary of Paradoxes . . ."London,
1650; G. Mascuelli, " De Medicina Magnetica," Franckfort, 1613, trans-
lated by W. Maxwell (Maxvellus), 1679-1687; Tentzelius, " Medicina
Diastatica . . ." 1653; A. Van Leuwenhoeck (Phil. Trans., Vol. XIX
246 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
for 1695-1697, as shown below) ; J. N. Tetens, " Schreiben . . . Magnet-
curen," Biitzow and Wismar, 1775; Jacques de Harsu, " Receuil des
Effets . . ." Geneva, 1783; W. Pigram, " Successful Application . . .*'
(Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXII. p. 154); Kloerich, F. W., " Versuche . . ."
(" Getting. Anzeigen," 1765), " Von dem Medicin . . ." Gdttingen,
1766; M. Mouzin, " De 1'emploi . . . Maladies," Paris, 1843. See
likewise A.D. 450, and Hell at A.D. 1770.
For Anthony Van Leuwenhoeck, consult the Phil. Trans, for 1695-1697,
Vol. XIX. No. 227, p. 512; Vol. XXXII. p. 72; also the abridgments
of Reid and Gray, Vol. VI. p. 170, and of Eames and Martyn, Vol. VI.
part. ii. pp. 277-278.
A.D. 1775. — Volta (Alessandro), an Italian natural philosopher
and Professor at the University of Pavia, who had already, in 1769,
addressed to Beccaria a Latin dissertation, " De Vi Attractiva ignis
electrici," etc., makes known his invention of the clectrophorus, a
sort of perpetual reservoir of electricity. This consists of two
circular metallic plates having between them a round disc of resin,
which is excited by being struck a number of times with either a
silk kerchief or pieces of dry warm fur or flannel. During 1782 he
discovered what he called an electrical condenser, wherein the disc
of resin is replaced by a plate of marble or of varnished wood. With
this he is reported (Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LXXII) to
have ascertained the existence of negative electricity in the vapour of
water, in the smoke of burning coals, and in the gas produced by a
solution of iron in weak sulphuric acid. An account of the above
named and of other discoveries, as well as of various experiments,
appears in letters addressed by him to Prof. Don Bassiano Carminati,
of the Pavia Medical University, April 3, 1792, and to Tiberius
Cavallo, Sept. 13, and Oct. 25, 1792, as shown in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, which institution gave him its
gold Copley medal.
Volta 's crowning effort lies in the discovery of the development
of electricity in metallic bodies and in the production of the justly
famous pile which bears his name. The latter consisted of an equal
number of zinc and copper discs separated by circular plates of
cloth, paper or pasteboard soaked in salt-water or dilute acid, all
being suitably connected to develop a large quantity of the electric
fluid. Thus, says Dr. Dickerson in his address at Princeton College,
Volta gave to the world that new manifestation of electricity called
Galvanism. In that form this subtle agent is far more manageable
than in the form of static electricity; and by the use of galvanic
batteries a current of low tension, but of enormously greater power,
can be maintained with little difficulty; whereas static electricity
is like lightning, and readily leaps and escapes on the surfaces on
which it is confined.
" It was Volta who removed our doubtful knowledge. Such
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 247
knowledge is the early morning light of every advancing science,
and is essential to its development ; but the man who is engaged in
dispelling that which is deceptive in it, and revealing more clearly
that which is true, is as useful in his place and as necessary to the
general progress of science as he who first broke through the intel-
lectual darkness and opened a path into knowledge before unknown "
(Faraday's " Researches ").
The last -mentioned discovery, though made in 1796, was first
announced only on the 20th of March, 1800, in a letter written from
Como to Sir Joseph Banks, by whom it was communicated to the
Royal Society. It was publicly read June 26, 1800 (Phil. Trans.
for 1800, Part II. p. 408).
At pp. 428-429 of " La Revue Scientifique," Paris, April 8, 1905,
will be found a review of J. Bosscha's work entitled " La corre-
spondance de A. Volta et de M. Van Marum," published at Leyden.
Bosscha calls especial attention to letters numbered XIII and XIV,
dated respectively August 30 and October n, 1792, wherein Volta
describes his construction of the apparatus which, as already stated,
was not made known until March 20, 1800. M. Bosscha's work is
also referred to in the " Journal des Savants " for August 1905.
Volta, at about the same period, constructed an electrical battery,
which has been named La Couronne de T asses (the crown of cups),
and which consisted of a number of cups arranged in a circle, each
cup containing a saline liquid and supporting against its edges a
strip of zinc and one of silver. As the upper part of each zinc strip
was connected by a wire with a strip of silver in the adjoining
cup, the silver strip of the first cup and the zinc strip of the last cup
formed the poles of the battery. It is said that twenty such com-
binations decomposed water, and that thirty gave a distinct shock.
On the 1 6th, i8th and 20th of November 1800 (Brumaire an.
IX), Volta, who had obtained permission of the Italian Government
to go to Paris with his colleague Prof. Brugnatelli, delivered lectures
and experimented before the French National Institute (Sue,
" Histoire du Galvanisme," Vol. II. p. 267). As a member of the
latter body, Bonaparte, the First Consul, who had attended the
second lecture and witnessed the electro-chemical decomposition
of water, proposed that a gold medal be stuck to commemorate
Volt a 's discovery, and that a commission be formed to repeat all
of Volta 's experiments upon a large scale. The commission embraced
such prominent men as Laplace, Coulombf Halle', Monge, Fourcroy,
Vauquelin, Pelletan, Charles, Brisson, Sabathler, Guyton De Morveau
and Biot. Biot, the chairman of the commission, made a report
December n, 1800, which appears in Vol. V of the Memoires de
I'lnstitut National de France, a§ wejl as in the Annales $e Chimie^
248 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Vol. XLI. p. 3. In addition to the gold medal, Volta received from
Bonaparte the sum of six thousand francs and the cross of the Legion
of Honour.
To Volta has been attributed the fact of having, as early as
1777, entertained the idea of an electric telegraph, although nothing
more appears to be on record in relation to the matter. Fahie
quotes a letter of Sir Francis Ronalds, alluding to an autograph
manuscript, dated Como, April 15, 1777, and gives its translation
by Cesar Cantu, wherein Volta states that he does not doubt the
possibility of exploding his electrical pistol at Milan, through wires
supported by posts, whenever he discharges a powerful Leyden jar
at Como.
REFERENCES, — Arago, " Eloge Historique de Volta " and " Notices
Biographiqucs," Tome I. p. 234 (" Raccolta Pratica di Scienze," etc.
for March and April 1835); London Times of January 26, 1860; the
eulogies pronounced by Giorn. Fogliani at Como and by G. Zuccala
at Bergamo, the year of Volta's death, 1827 ; P. Sue, " Histoire du Galvan-
isme," Tome II. p. 267; Journal de Leipzig, Tome XXXIV; Scelta d' Opu-
scoli, Vols. VIII. p. 127; IX. p. 91 ; X. p. 87; XII. p. 94; XIV. p. 84;
XXVIII. p. 43; XXXIV. p. 65; Opuscoli Scelti, Vols. I. pp. 273, 289;
VII. pp. 128, 145; XV. pp. 213, 425; XXI. p. 373; " Mem. deli' I. R.
Istit. Reg. L. V.," Vol. I. p. 24; "Mem. dell' Istit. Nazion. Ital.,"
Vol. I. p. 125 ; " Memor. Soc. Ital.," Vols. II., pp. 662, 900; V. p. 551 ;
" Bibl. Fisica d'Europa " for 1788 ; " Giornale Fis.-Med.," Vols. I. p. 66 ;
II. pp. 122, 146, 241, 287; III. p. 35; IV. p. 192; V. p. 63; " Giornale
dell' Ital. Lettera," etc., Vol. VIII. p. 249 ; L. V. Brugnatelli, " Annali di
Chimica," etc., Vols. II. p. 161 ; III. p. 36 ; V. p. 132 ; XI. p. 84 ; XIII.
p. 226; XIV. pp. 3, 40; XVI. pp. 3, 27, 42; XVIII. pp. 3, 7; XIX. p.
38; XXI. pp. 79, 100, 163; XXII. pp. 223-249 (Aless. Volta and Pietro
Configliachi) ; Aless. Volta and Angelo Bellani, " Sulla formazione," etc.,
Milano, 1824; F. A, C. Gren, Neues Journal der Physik, Vols. Ill and
IV for 1796 and 1797; Rozier, Observ., Vols. VII, XXII and XXIII for
1776, 1873; J. B. Van Mons, Journal de Chimie, No. 2, pp. 129, 167;
Seclillot, " Receuil Per. de la Soc. de Me"d. de Paris/' IX. pp. 97, 231 ;
Journal de Phys., Vols. XXIII. p. 98; XLVIII. p. 336; LI. p. 334;
LXIX. p. 343; Annales de Chimie, Vols. XXX. p, 276; XLIV. p. 396;
Nicholson's Journal, Vol. XV. p. 3; Phil. Tr. for 1778, 1782 ancf 1793;
" Soc. Philom.," An. IX. p. 48, An. X. p. 74; " Bibl. Brit.," Vol. XIX.
p. 274; Le Correspondant for August, 1867, p. 1059, and Les Mondes,
Achille Cazin, " Traite" the'orique et pratique des piles e*lectriques/
Paris, 1881 ; " Me*moiresde Tlnstitut " (Hist.) An. XII. p. 195; Andrew
Crosse, " Experiments in Voltaic Electricity," London, 1815 (Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XLVI. p. 421, and Gilbert's " Annalen," Bd. s. 60) ; " Lettere sulla
Meteorol.," 1783 ; Theod. A. Von Heller, in Gilb. " Annal.," Vols. IV and
VI, 1800 ; and Gren's Neues Journ., 1795, 1797 ; " L'Arc Voltaique," by M.
Paul Janet, in " Revue Gene* rale dcs Sciences," May 15, 1902, pp. 416-
422; "L* Academic des Sciences," par Ernest Maindron, Paris, 1888,
pp.245-25i;''PhilosophicalMagazinQ,"Vol.IV.pp.59,i63,3o6;Vol.XIII.
pp. 187-190 (re prize founded by Napoleon) ; Vol. XXI. p. 289 (electro-
phorus) ; Vol. XXVIII. p. 182 (theory of Pierre Hyacinthe Azais), and
j>. 297 (Paul Erman on " Voltaic Phenomena") ; Thomson, " Hist, of Chem-
istry," Vol. II. pp. 251-252; " Diet, de Gehler/' Vols. III. p. 665; VI.
pp. 475, 484; Thomas Thomson, "Hist, of the Royal Soc.," London,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 249
1812, p. 451; Young's " Lectures," Vol. I. pp. 674, 677, 678, 683; see
likewise the " Theory of the Action of the Galvanic Pile," as given by
Dr. Wm. Henry at s. 5 Vol. I. of his " Elements of Experimental
Chemistry," London, 1823; also Nicholson's Journal for Henry's essay
in Vol. XXXV. p. 259; M. De Luc's papers in Vol. XXXII. p. 271, and
Vol. XXXVI. p. 97 ; Mr. Singer on the " Electric Column " in Vol. XXXVI.
p. 373; Dr. Bostock's essay in Thomson's "Annals/1 Vol. III. p. 32; Sir
H. Davy's chapter on " Electrical Attraction and Repulsion," in his " Ele-
ments of Chem. Philos.," p. 125 ; the first volume of Gay-Lussac and
Thenard's " Recherches " ; Johann Mayer, " Abhandlungen . . . Galvani,
Valli, Carminati u. Volta," etc., Prague, 1793 ; Lehrbuch der Meteor., von
L. F. Kaemtz, Halle, 1832, Vol. II. pp. 398, 400, 418; M. DetienneetM.
Rouland in Jour, de Phys., Vol. VII. for 1776; J. N. Halle, " Exposition
Abre"gee," etc. (" Bull, des Sc. de la Soc. Philom.," An. X. No. 58) ; C. B.
De*sormes' very extended observations recorded in the An. de Ch., Vol.
XXXVII. p. 284; Volta's letter to Prof. F. A. C. Gren in 1794, and
Wilkinson, " El. of Galv.," Vol. II. pp. 314-325 ; J. F. Ackerman (" Salz.
Mediechirurg," 1792, p. 287) ; Cadet (An. de Ch., Vol. XXXVII. p. 68) ;
letter written by Volta to M. Dolomieu (" Bull, de la Socie'te' Philom.,"
No. 55, p. 48); Friedlander's "Experiments" (Jour, de Phys., Pluvoise,
An. IX. p. 101) ; Paul Erman (Jour, de Phys., Thermidor, An. IX. p. 121) ;
Gilbert's "Annalen," VIII, X, XI, XIV); Jour, de Phys., Tome L1II
P- 3°9 » Jour, de Medecine, Nivose, An. IX. p. 351 ; P. C. Abilgaard, " Ten-
tamina Electrica "; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism," etc.,
London, 1804, 2 vols. passim ; A. W. Von Hauch's Memoir read before
the Copenhagen Acad. of Sc. (Sue, " Hist, du Galv.," 1802, Vol. II.
p. 255) ; Alexander Nicolaus Schercr's Journal, 3ist book; " Abstracts of
Papers of Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 27 ; also Hutton's abridgments of the Phil.
Trans. Vol. XV. p. 263; Vol. XVII. p. 285; Vol. XVIII. pp. 744, 798;
Phil. Magazine, Vol. IV. pp. 59, 163, 306; " Bibliothdque Britanniquc,"
Geneve, 1796, Vol. XV. an. viii. p. 3; Vol. XIX for 1802, pp. 270, 274,
3391 Vol. XVI, N.S. for 1821, pp. 270-309; account of the immense
electrophorus constructed for the Empress of Russia, in Vol. L of " Acta
Petropolitana " for 1777, pp. 154, etc. In the Philosophical Transactions
for 1778, pp. 1027, 1049, will be found Ingen-housz's paper relating to the
then recent invention of Volta's electrophorus and to Mr. Henley's experi-
ments. It is said that at about this time (i 778), John Jacob Mumenthaler,
Swiss mechanic, constructed very effective electrophori and electric
machines out of a very peculiar kind of paper. M. F. Vilette also made
a paper electrophorus which is alluded to by J. A. Nollet (" Experiments,
Letters," Vol. III. pp. 209, etc.). Consult, besides, Carlo Barletti,
•* Lettera al Volta . . ." Milano, 1776; W. L. Krafft, " Tentatem
theoricC . . ." Petropol, 1778; J. C. Schaffer, " Abbild. Beschr. d. elek.
. . ." Regensberg, 1778; Georg Pickel, " Experimenta physico-medica
. . ." Viceburgi, 1778-1788; J. A. Klindworth, " Kurze Beschr. . . ."
Gotha, 1781-1785; (Lichtenbcrg's " Magazin," L 35-45;) wliile for
Klindworth, M. Obert and M. Minkelcr, see the " Goth. Mag.," L ii.
p. 35 ; V. iii. pp. 96, no; E. G. Robertson, " Sur 1'electrophore resineux
et papirace*," Paris, 1790; (Journal de Physique, Vol. XXXVII;) M.
Robert on the electrophorus (Rozier, XXXVII. p. 183) ; S. Woods, " Essay
on the phenomena . . ." London, 1805; (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXL p. 289;)
M. Eynard's " M6m. sur 1'electrophore," Lyon, 1804; John Phillips,
" On a modification of the electrophorus," London, 1833 (Phil. Mag.,
s. 3, Vol. II) ; G. Zamboni, " Sulla teoria . . ." Verona, 1844
(" Mem. Soc. Ital.," Vol. XXIII) ; F. A. Petrina, " Neue theorie d. elect.
. . ." Prag., 1846.
A.D. 1776. — Borda (Jean Charles), French mathematician and
r, improves upon the work of Mallet (at A.D. 1769), and
250 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
is the first to establish accurately the knowledge of the third and
most important element of terrestrial magnetism, viz. its intensity.
To him is exclusively due the correct determination of the differ-
ence of the intensity at different points of the earth's surface by
measuring the vibrations of a vertical needle in the magnetic meridian.
This he determined during his expedition to the Canary Islands, and
his observations were first confirmed through additional experiments
which the companion of the unfortunate La Perouse, Paul de
Lammanon, made during the years 1785-1787, and which were by
him communicated from Macao to the Secretary of the French
Academy.
REFERENCES. — Borda's biography in the " Eng. CydL," and in the
eighth " Britannica " ; Walker, "Magnetism/' p. 182; Humboldt
on magnetic poles and magnetic intensity, embracing the observations
of Admiral de Rossel, and " Cosmos," Vol. V 1859, pp. 58, 61-64, 87-
100; also Vol. I. pp. 185-187, notes, for the history of the discovery
of the law that the intensity of the force increases with the latitude ;
Norman (A.D. 1576).
A.D. 1777. — Lichtenberg (Gcorg Christoph), Professor of
Experimental Philosophy at the University of Gottingen, reveals
the condition of electrified surfaces by dusting them with powder.
The figures, which bear his name, are produced by tracing any
desired lines upon a cake of resin with the knob of a Leyden jar
and by dusting upon the cake a well-triturated mixture of sulphur
and of red lead. These substances having been brought by friction
into opposite electrical conditions, the sulphur collects upon the
positive and the lead upon the negative portions of the cake :
positive electricity producing an appearance resembling feathers,
and negative electricity an arrangement more like stars.
REFERENCES. — Harris, " Frict. Elect.," p. 89; eighth "Britannica,"
Vol. VIII. p. 606; E. Reitlinger, " Sibven Abh. . . ." (Wien Acad.) ;
illustrations in Sc. Am. SuppL, No. 207, p. 3297; Noad, "Manual/'
p. 132 ; Erxleben's " Physikalische Bibliotek," s. 514 ; L. F. F. Crell, Chem-
ische Annalen for 1786; " Gottingisches Magazin," J i., S ii., pp. 216-220 ;
Lichtenberg's " Math. u. Phys. Schriften," etc., Vol. I. p. 478. See also
Dr. Young's " Lectures on Nat. Phil.," London, 1807, Vol. II. pp. 119,
419 for additional references, and p. 426 for Lichtenberg's " Table of
Excitation."
A.D. 1777. — Pringle (Sir John), a man of great scientific attain-
ments— who was physician to the Duke of Cumberland as well as to
the Queen's household, became a baronet in 1766, and afterward
received many distinguished honours from foreign learned bodies —
resigns the Presidency of the English. Royal Society, which he had
held since the year 1772. In this, as will be seen at a later date, he
was succeeded by Sir Joseph Banks (at A.D. 1820), who continued
in the office a period of over forty-two years, The cause which,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 251
led to his resignation is best given in the following extract from his
biography in the English Cyclopedia :
" During the year 1777 a dispute arose among the members of
the Royal Society relative to the form which should be given to
electrical conductors so as to render them most efficacious in pro-
tecting buildings from the destructive effects of lightning. Franklin
had previously recommended the use of points, and the propriety
of this recommendation had been acknowledged and sanctioned
by the Society at large. But, after the breaking out of the American
Revolution, Franklin was no longer regarded by many of the mem-
bers in any other light than an enemy of England, and, as such,
it appears to have been repugnant to their feelings to act otherwise
than in disparagement of his scientific discoveries. Among this
number was their patron George III, who, according to a story cur-
rent at the time, and of the substantial truth of which there is no
doubt, on its being proposed to substitute knobs instead of points,
requested that Sir John Pringle would likewise advocate their
introduction. The latter hinted that the laws and operations of
nature could not be reversed at royal pleasure ; whereupon it was
intimated to him that a President of the Royal Society entertaining
such an opinion ought to resign, and he resigned accordingly."
In Benjamin Franklin's letter to Dr. Ingen-housz, dated Passy,
Oct. 14, 1777, occurs the following : " The King's changing his
pointed conductors for blunt ones is therefore a matter of small
importance to me. If I had a wish about it, it would be that he
had rejected them altogether as ineffectual." It was shortly after
the occurrence above alluded to that the following epigram was
written by a friend of Dr. Franklin :
" While you Great George, for knowledge hunt,
And sharp conductors change for blunt.
The nation's out of joint :
Franklin a wiser course pursues,
And all your thunder useless views,
By keeping to the point."
Thomson informs us (" Hist. Roy. Soc." pp. 446-447) that the
Board of Ordnance having consulted the Royal Society about the
best mode of securing the powder magazine, at Purfleet, from the
effects of lightning, the Society appointed Mr. Cavendish, Dr.
Watson, Dr. Franklin, Mr. Robertson and Mr. Wilson a committee
to examine the building and report upon it. These gentlemen went
accordingly, and the first four recommended the erecting of pointed
conductors in particular parts of the building, as a means which
they thought would afford complete security. Mr. Wilson dissented
from the other gentlemen, being of the opinion that the conductors
ought not to be pointed but blunt, because pointed conductors solicit
252 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
and draw down the lightning which might otherwise pass by. He
published a long paper on the subject, assigning a great variety of
reasons for his preference (Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LXIII.
p. 49). It was this dissent of Mr. Wilson which produced between
the electricians of the Royal Society a controversy respecting
the comparative merits of pointed and blunt conductors, which
continued a number of years, and a variety of papers in support
of which made their appearance in the Philosophical Transactions.
The controversy, in fact, engaged almost the exclusive attention
of the writers on electricity for several successive volumes of that
work.
REFERENCES. — William Henley, " Experiments . . . pointed and
blunted rods . . ." in Phil. Trans, for 1774, p. 133; P. D. Vicgeron,
" Memoirc sur la force des pointcs . . ." ; Edward Nairne, "Experi-
ments . . . advantage of elevated pointed conductors," in Phil. Trans.
for 1778, p. 823; Lord Mahon, "Principles . . . superior advantages
of high and pointed conductors," London, 1779; Hale's " Franklin in
France," 1880, Part I. p. 91, and Part II. pp. 254-256, 279, for some
of his other correspondence with Dr. Ingen-housz; likewise Part JL,
pp. ix, 273, 441-451, regarding the first publication of copies of letters
written by Franklin to Sir Joseph Banks, which " for some curious reason,"
Mr. Hale remarks, were not publicly read and were never included in the
Philosophical Transactions, as Franklin intended they should be. Consult
also Thomas Hopkinson on " The Effects of Points," etc., in Franklin's
"New Experiments," etc., London, 1754; Tilloch's Philosophical
Magazine for 1820; Hutton's abridgments, Vol.'XTJI. p. 382; "Memoir
of Sir J. Pringle " in Weld's " Hist, of Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 58-67, 102 ;
Jared Sparks' edition of Franklin's " Works," and Sir John Pringlc's dis-
course delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society, Nov.
30, 1774, a translation of the last named appearing at p. 15, Vol. XV of
the " Scelta d' Opuscoli." J. Clerk Maxwell, " ElectricarResearches of
the Hon. Henry Cavendish/' 1879, pp. 52-54.
A.D. 1778. — Martin (Benjamin), English artist and mathe-
matician, who had already written an " Essay on Electricity "
and a prominent supplement thereto (1746-1748), publishes an
enlarged edition in three volumes of his " Philosophia Britannica,"
originally produced in 1759. At Vol. I. p. 47 of the last-named work,
he states that his experiments indicate a magnetic force inversely
as the square roots of the cubes of the distances. Noad, treating
of the laws of magnetic force, says (" Electricity/' p. 579) that
Martin and Tobias Mayer both came to the conclusion that the
true law of the magnetic force is identical with that of gravitation,
and that, in the previous experiments of Hauksbee and others,
proper allowance had not been made for the disturbing changes
in the magnetic forces so inseparable from the nature of the
experiments.
His first Lecture explains all the phenomena of electricity and
magnetism, the appendix thereto detailing numerous experiments
of Mr. John Canton, and giving many additional facts concerning
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 253
the manufacture of artificial magnets. From his preface the follow-
ing extracts will, doubtless, prove interesting : " We are arrived
at great dexterity since Sir Isaac Newton's time ; for we can now
almost prove the existence of this aether by the phenomena of elec-
tricity; and then we find it very easy to prove that electricity is
nothing but this very aether condensed and made to shine. But I
believe, when we inquire into the nature and properties of this
aether and electricity, we shall find them so very different and dissimi-
lar, that we cannot easily conceive how they should thus mutually
prove each other. ... I see no cause to believe that the matter of
electricity is anything like the idea we ought to have of the spiritus
suUilissimus of Sir Isaac. . . . The smell also of electrical fire is so
very much like that of phosphorus, that we may be easily induced to
believe a great part of the composition of both is the same."
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Britan.," 1857, Vol. XIV. p. 320; Antoinc
Rivoire (Riviere), " Traite" sur les aimants ..." Paris, 1752; Nicolaus
von Fuss, "Observations . . . aimants ..." Petersburg, 1778; Le
Noble, " Aimants artinciels . . ." Paris, 1772, and " Rapport . . .
aimants," 1783 (M6m. de Paris); Wens, " Act. Hill," Vol. II. p. 264;
C. G. Sjoesten (Gilbert, Annalen der Physlk, Vol. XVII. p. 325) ; Rozier,
IX. p. 454.
A.D. 1778. — Toaldo (Giuseppe) Abbe, celebrated Italian physi-
cist, who had in 1762 been made Professor at the Padua University
and was the first one to introduce the lightning rod in the Venetian
States, makes known the merits of the last-named invention through
his " Dei conduttori per preservare gli edifizj," etc., which work
embraces most of his previous treatises on -metallic conductors as
well as the translation of H. B. de Saussure's " Exposition abreg£e,"
etc., Geneva, 1771, and of M. Barbier de Tinan's " Considerations
sur les conducteurs en general."
The above was followed by many highly interesting memoirs
containing valuable meteorological observations, notably those in
continuation of the work of J. Poleni, made close up to the time of
Toaldo's sudden death at Padua, Dec. u, 1798. His complete
works, covering the period 1773-1798, were published in Venice
through M. Tiato, with the assistance of Vincenzo Chiminello, during
the year 1802.
REFERENCES. — In addition to the last-named publication (entitled
" Completa Raccolta d* Opuscoli," etc.), " Mem. della Soc. Ital.," Vol.
VIII. pt. i. p. 29 (" Elogio ... da A. Fabbroni," 1799) ; note at
Beccaria, p. 42 of Ronalds' "Catalogue "; Larousse, " Diet. Universel,"
Vol. XV. p. 251 ; " Biographic G6n6rale," Vol. XLV. p. 450 ; " Biografia
degli Italiani Illustri," etc., by E. A. Tipaldo, Vol. VIII ; ft Padua Accad.
Saggi," Vol. III. p. cv; " Opusc. Scelti," Vol. VI. p. 265 ; Vol. VII. p. 35 ;
" Nuovo Giornale Enciclopedico di Vicenza " for 1784; Antonio Maria
Lorgna, " Lettera . . . parafulmini," 1778; G. Marzari (Vol. II.
p. 73, of " Treviso Athenaeum"); Fonda " Sopra la maniera . . ."
254 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
Roma, 1770; G. Marzari e G. Toaldo, " Memoria Dcscrizione . . ."
25 Aprile, 1786; Barbier de Tinan, " M6moire sur la manure d'armer,"
etc., Strasbourg, 1780; F. Maggiotto's letter to Toaldo upon a new elec-
trical machine; Sestier et Meliu, " De la foudre," etc., Paris, 1866.
Vincenzo Cliiminello, nephew of Giuseppe Toaldo, whom he
succeeded at the Padua Observatory and who continued the Giornale
Astro-meteor ologico after his uncle's death, is the author of works
on the magnetic needle, on lightning conductors, etc., which are
treated of in the columns of the Mem. Soc. Ital., Vols. VII and IX;
the Giornale Astro-met, for 1801, 1804, 1806, as well as in the Saggi
. . . dell' Accad. di Padova, Nuova Scelta d' Opuscoli, and Opuscoli
Scelti suite scienze e suite arti.
REFERENCES. — Chiminello's biography, Giorn. deir Ital. Letlera, etc.,
Serie II. tome xvii. p. 164, and in " Atti della Soc. Ital.," Modena,
1819.
A.D. 1778. — Dupuis (Charles Frangois), eminent French writer
who, at the age of twenty-four, became Professor of Rhetoric at the
College of Lisieux, constructs a telegraph upon the plan suggested
by Amontons (at A.D. 1704). By means of this apparatus he ex-
changed correspondence with his friend M. Fortin, then residing at
Bagneux, until the commencement of the Revolution, when he
deemed it prudent to lay it permanently aside (Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1855, Vol. VIII. p. 263).
A.D. 1778. — Brugmans — Brugman (Anton), who was Professor
of Philosophy at the University of Francker between 1755 and 1766,
publishes his " Magnetismus, seu de amnitatibus magneticis."
He is, besides, the author of several works upon magnetic matter
and the magnetic influence, which appeared 1765-1784 and are
alluded to by Poggendorff (" Biog.-Liter. Hand./' Vol. I. p. 316),
as well as in the " Vaderlandsche Letter " for 1775 and 1776, and
at p. 34, Vol. I of Van Swinden's " Recueil de Memoires . . ."
La Haye, 1784.
It was in this same year, 1778, that Sebald Justin Brugmans —
Brugman — son of Anton Brugmans, a distinguished physician,
naturalist and author who was the successor of Van Swinden at
the Francker University, and became Professor of Botany at Leyden,
discovered that cobalt is attracted while bismuth and antimony
are repelled by the single pole of a magnet, thus laying the foundation
of the science of dia-magnetism.
Humboldt remarks : " Brugmans, and, after him, Coulomb,
who was endowed with higher mathematical powers, entered pro-
foundly into the nature of terrestrial magnetism. Their ingenious
physical experiments embraced the magnetic attraction of all matter,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 255
the local distribution of force in a magnetic rod of a given form, and
the law of its action at a distance. In order to obtain accurate results
the vibrations of a horizontal needle suspended by a thread, as well
as deflections by a torsion balance, were in turn employed."
REFERENCES. — " Biographic Generate," Vol. VII. p. 582 ; Larousse,
"Diet. Univ.," Vol. II, p. 1334; "Catalogue Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.,"
Vol. I. p. 672; W.H.Wollaslon," Magnetism of . . , Cobalt and Nickel"
(Edin. Phil. Jour., Vol. X. p. 183); Kohl on pure cobalt (L. F. F.
Crell's " Neusten Ent.," Vol. VII. p. 39) ; Tyndall, " Researches on Dia-
Magnetism," London, 1870, pp. i, 90, etc.; Appleton's Encyclopaedia,
1870, Vol. IV. p. 10; Hnmboldt's "Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. p. 61 ;
Augustin Roux, " Experiences nouvelles ..." (Journal de Midecine,
for November 1773). Consult also, for Sebald J. Brugmans, " Biog.
G£ne"rale," Vol. VII. p. 582 ; Bory de Saint Vincent, in the " Annales
Generates de Sciences Physiques," Vol. II.
A.D. 1779. — Lord Mahon, afterward third Earl of Stanhope,
an Englishman of great ingenuity and fertility in invention and a
pupil of Lesage of Geneva (at A.D. 1774), publishes his " Principles
of Electricity," in which he explains the effects of the return stroke or
lateral shock of an electrical discharge which was first observed by
Benjamin Wilson (at A.D. 1746).
He imagined that when a large cloud is charged with electricity
it displaces much of that fluid from the neighbouring stratum of air,
and that when the cloud is discharged the electric matter returns
into that portion of the atmosphere whence it had previously been
taken. According to Lord Cavendish, the theory developed in the
above-named work is that " A positively electrified body surrounded
by air will deposit upon all the particles of that air, which shall
come successively into contact with it, a proportional part of its
superabundant electricity. By which means, the air surrounding
the body will also become positively electrified; that is to say, it
will form round that positive body an electrical atmosphere, which
will likewise be positive. . . . That the Density of all such atmo-
spheres decreases when the distance from the charged body is
increased."
Tyndall says (Notes on Lecture VII) that Lord Mahon fused
metals and produced strong physiological effects by the return
stroke.
In 1781, the English scientist, John Turberville Needham (1713-
1781), published at Brussels his French translation of Lord Mahon 's
work under the title of " Principes de TElectricit^.'1 Needham
was the first of the Catholic clergy elected to a fellowship of the
English Royal Society, to whose Transactions be made several con-
tributions. His numerous works include " A letter from Paris
concerning some new electrical experiments made there," London,
1746, also a volume of researches upon the investigations of Spallan-
256 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
zani. The list of his communications to the Phil. Trans, and to the
" Mem. de 1'Acad. de Bruxelles " will be found in Watt's " Biblio-
theca Britannica " and in Namur's " Bibl. Acad. Beige " (" Diet.
Nat. Biog.," Vol. XL. p. 157; Phil. Trans., 1746, p. 247, and Mutton's
abridgments, Vol. IX. p. 263).
REFERENCES. — " Electrical Researches " of Lord Cavendish, pp. xlvi-
xlvii Phil. Trans, for 1787, Vol. LXXVil. p. 130; Dr. Thomas
Young, " Course of Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. I. p. 664 ; Dr. Thomas
Thomson, " History of the Royal Society," London, 1812, p. 449;
Sturgeon, " Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 398.
A.D. 1779. — Ingen-housz (Johan), distinguished English physi-
cian and natural philosopher, native of Breda, publishes, Phil.
Trans., p. 661, an account of the electrical apparatus which is by
many believed to have led to the invention of the plate electrical,
machine, although the same claim has been made in behalf of Jesse
Ramsden (at A.D. 1768). Dr. Priestley states that Ingen-housz
and Ramsden invented it independently of one another. He
describes a circular plate of glass nine inches in diameter turning
vertically and rubbing against four cushions, each an inch and a half
long and placed at the opposite ends of the vertical diameter. The
conductor is a brass tube bearing two horizontal branches extending
to within about half an inch of the extremity of the glass, so that
each branch takes off the electricity excited by two of the cushions
(Dr. Thomas Young, " Course of Lectures," Vol. II. p. 432).
The plate machine of Dr. Ingen-housz is illustrated at p. 16 of
" Electricity " in the " Library of Useful Knowledge." For other
plate machines see, more particularly, Dr. Young's " Course of
Lectures," Vol. II. p. 431 ; Phil. Trans. 1769, p. 659 ; Geo. K. Winter's
apparatus with ring conductor and peculiar-shaped rubbers, as well
as the great machine at the Royal Polytechnic, and that of Mr. Snow
Harris, illustrated and described in Vol. III. p. 787, " Eng. Ency. —
Arts and Sciences," and at pp. 223, 224 of J. H. Pepper's " Cyclo-
paedic Science," London, 1869; " Allg. deutsche Biblioth.," B.
XXIV. Anh. 4, Abth., p. 549, 1760 (Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 465),
relative to the machines of Martin Planta, Ingen-housz and Ramsden ;
Reiser's plate machine (Lichtenberg and Voigt's " Magazin fiir
das Neueste aus der Physik," Vol. VII. St. 3, p. 73) ; Ferdinando
Elice, " Saggio sull' Elettricita," Genoa, 1824 (for two electricities) ;
J. J. Metzger's machine (Elice, " Saggio," second edition, p. 55) ;
Marchese C. Ridolfi, for a description of Novelluccis' plate electrical
machine ("Bibl. Italiana," Vol. LXIII. p. 268; " Antologia di
Firenze," for August 1824, P- *59); Robert Hare, ''Description
of an Electrical Plate Machine," London, 1823 (Phil. Mag., Vol.
LXII. p. 8). See, besides, the machines of Bertholon (rubber in
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 257
motion) in Lichtenberg and Voigt's " Magazin," Vol. I. p. 92 and
Rozier XVI. p. 74 ; of Brilhac (Rozier, XV. p. 377) ; of Saint Julien
(Rozier, XXXIII. p. 367) ; of Van Marum (Rozier, XXXVIII. p. 447).
Dr. Ingen-housz also constructed a small magnet, of several
laminae of magnetised steel firmly pressed together, capable of sus-
taining one hundred and fifty times its own weight, and he found that
pastes into the composition of which the powder of the natural
magnet entered were much superior to those made with the powder
of iron ; the natural magnet, he observed, having more coercitive
force than iron.
REFERENCES. — Journal de Physique for February 1786, and for
May 1788, containing the letters of Dr. Ingen-housz, which show that
the vegetation of plants is in no sensible degree either promoted or re-
XXXII. p. 321 ; "XXXlV."p. 436; XXXV "p. 81 ; Journal de Physique,
Vol. XXXV for 1789. See also, Journal de Physique, XLV (II), 458;
Rozier, XXVIII. p. 81 ; M. Nuneberg, " Osservazioni . . ." Milano,
1776 (" Sccltad' Opuscoli," XVII. p. 113) ; Pictro Moscati, " Lettcra . . ."
Milano, 1781 (" Opus Scelti," IV. p. 410); H. B. dc Saussure (Journal
de Physique, Vol. XXV for 1784); G. da San Martino, " Memoria. . ."
Vicenza, 1785; M. Schwenkenhardt, " Von dem Einfluss . . ." (Rozier,
XXVII. p. 462 ; Journal de Physique for 1786, Vol. I) ; A. M. Vassalli-
Eandi in the " Mem. del la Soc. Agr. di Torino," Vol. I for 1786, par-
ticularly regarding the experiments of Ingen-housz and Schwenken-
hardt; also in the " Giornale Sc. d' una Soc. Fil. di Torino," Vol. Ill ; N.
Rouland, " Klcc. appiiqu6e aux veg^taux " (Journal de Physique, 1789—
1790) ; Ingen-housz, Rouland, Dormoy, Bcrtholonand Derozieres (Rozier,
XXXV. pp. 3, 161, 401; XXXVI11. pp. 351, 427, and in Journal de
Physique. Vois. XXXII, XXXV, XXXVIII) ; M. Carmoy, on the effects of
electricity upon vegetation, in Rozier, XXXIII. p. 339 ; Jour, de Physique
1788, Vol. XXXI1T; M. Felmrier, " Me*moire sur quelques propriet^s
. . ."; G. R. Trevhanus, " Einfluss . . ." Kiel, 1800 (Gilbert's Anna!en,
Vol. VII for 1801 and " Nordischcs Arch. f. Nat. u. Arzneiw.," ist Band,
2tes Stiick) ; C. G. Rafii (" Mag. Encyclop£dique," No. 19, Ventose An.
X. p. 370), Paris, 1802; J. P. Gasc, " M6moire sur I'influence . . ."
Pans, 1823; E. Solly, " On the influence . . ." London, 1845 (" Journ.
of the Hortic. Society," Vol. I. part ii.) ; E. Romershausen, " Galv. El.
. . . Vegetation," Marburg, 1851 ; M. Menon, " Influence de I'61ectricit6
sur la vegetation," and his letters to R. A. F. de Reaumur. Consult
likewise J. Browning's letter to H. Baker, Dec. n, 1746 (Phil. Trans.
for 1747, Vol. XLIV. p. 373) ; G. Wallerius, " Versuch . . ." Hamb. and
Leipzig, 1754; (" K. Schwed. Akad. Abh.," XVI. p. 257; also " Vetensk
Acad. Handl.," 1754;) L. F. Kamtz (Kaemtz), " Uber d. Elek . . ."
Nurnberg, 1829; (Schweigger's Journal f. Chemie u. Physik> Vol. LVI;)
Bartolomeo Zanon, " Intorno un punto . . ." Belluno, 1840; Francesco
Zantedeschi "Dell influsso . . /' Venezia, 1843; ("Mem. dell Instit.
Veneto," I. p. 269;) E. F. Wartmann, "Note sur les courants . . ."
Geneve, 1850; (" Bibl. Univ. de Geneve," for Dec. 1850;) T. Pine,
"Connection between Electricity and Vegetation/' London, 1840;
(" Annals of Electricity," Vol. IV. p. 421.) For the effects of galvanism
on plants, see Giulio in "Bibl. Ital.," Vol. I. p. 28; also E. J. Schmuck
" On the Action of Galvanic Electricity on the Mimosa Pudica," and M.
Rinklake, as well as Johann W. Ritter, " Elektrische versuche an der
Mimosa Pudica." For an account of M. P. Poggioli's observations on
the influence of the magnetic rays on vegetation, and the reply of F,
s
258 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Orioli thereto, see vol. I of the " Nuova collezione d' opuscoli scientific!
. . ." Bologna, 1817. Dr. Thomas Young's " Course of Lectures," Vol.
II. pp. 432-433 ; N. K. Molitor's " John Ingen-housz. Anfangsgrunde
. . . 1781; Geo. Adams, "Lectures on Nat. and Exp. Philosophy,"
London, 1799, Vol. I. pp. 512-515; John Senebier, " Exp6riences," etc.,
ist and 2nd Memoirs, Geneve and Paris, 1788 ; Becquerel in the Comptes
Rendus for November 1850, also Tome XXXI. p. 633 ; M. Buff (Phil.
Mag. N. S. Vol. VII. p. 122); Priestley's " History . . ." 1775, p. 487;
Walsh at A.D. 1773; Cavallo's " Exper. Philosophy," 1803, Vol. III.
p. 357; Pouillet (Poggendorff's Annalen, Vol. XI. p. 430); Reiss, in
PoggendorfTs Annalen, Vol. LXXIX. p. 288; G. F. Gardini, " De
inflvxu . . ." s. 7, p. 10 ; Philosophical Transactions for 1775, 1778,
p. 1022 ; 1779, p. 537; Journal de Physique, Vol. XVI for 1780; " Erxle-
ben's phys. bibliothek," s. 530 ; papers relative to the effects of electricity
upon vegetation alluded to in " Le Moniteur Scientifiquc," more particu-
larly at pp. 904, 907, 1026, Vol. XX for 1878, and at p. 23, Vol. XXI
for 1879.
A.D. 1780. — Spallanzani (Lazaro), celebrated Italian naturalist,
to whom the French Republic vainly offered the Professorship of
Natural History at the Paris Jar din des Plantes, and who has been
already particularly alluded to in connection with John Walsh, at
A.D. 1773, writes a second treatise upon the operations of Charles
Bonnet, of Geneva, as regards the effects of electricity upon nerves
and muscles. He is also the author of works upon electrical fishes
as well as upon meteors, etc., which will be found detailed in Vol. VII
of the " Biographic Medicale," as well as at Vol. XLIII. p. 246,
of the " Biographic Universe lie."
REFERENCES. — Alibert's Eloge in Vol. Ill of the " M6m. de la Soc.
Medicale d'Emulation " ; " Catal. Roy. Soc. Sc. Papers," Vol. V. p. 767;
" Opus. Scelti," Vols. VII. pp. 340, 361 ; VIII. p. 3 ; XIV. pp. 145, 296;
Brugnatelli, " Ann. di chimica " for 1793 and 1795 ; " Mem. Soc. Ital.,"
Vols. II. p. ii ; IV. p. 476.
A.D. 1780-1781.— Bertholon de Saint Lazare (Pierre), French
physician and Professor of Natural Philosophy, and a great friend
of Dr. Franklin, publishes at Paris his " Electricite du Corps
Humain . . /' in which he relates more particularly his general
observations upon atmospheric electricity as affecting the human
body while in a healthy state and while in a diseased condition. He
likewise treats of the effects of electricity upon animals, and details
very interesting experiments upon the torpedo, which latter, he
remarks, establishes the closest possible resemblance to the Leyden
phial.
He is also the author of " Electricite des Vegetaux " (1783), as
well as of " Electricite des M£teores " (1787), and of a volume
entitled " Electricite des Metaux." J. C. Poggendorff says (" Biog.-
Lit. Handw. . . ." Vol. II. p. 102) that J. Ferd. Meidinger (1726-
1777) had previously written concerning the action of electric fire
upon metals and minerals. Johann Jacob Hemmer published, at
Mannheim in 1780, " Sur 1'Electricite des Metaux " (" Ob. sur la
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 259
Physique/' July 1780, p. 50), and A. A. De La Rive wrote in 1853
" De 1'Elect. DeVeloppe"e . . ." (" Bibl. Univ.," Vol. LIX).
REFERENCES. — Young's "Course of Lectures," Vol. II. p. 431;
Ingen-housz at A.D. 1779; Journal de Physique, Vol. XXXV; "Bio-
graphic Universelle," Vol. IV. p. 149; " Biographic Gendrale," Vol. V.
p. 722 ; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 618; " La Grande Encyclo-
pedic," Vol. VI. p. 450. See also Bertholon's " Nouvelles Preuves . . /'
pp. 18-19; Arago, "Notices Scientifiques," Vol. I. pp. 338-340, 386;
" Mercure de France," 1782, No. 52, p. 188; Abb6 d'Everlange de
Wittry, " Mem. sur 1'Elec. . . . dans les vegetaux et le corps humain,"
read June 24, 1 773 — " Anc.Mem. del'Acad. Beige," Vol. I. p. 181 ; Vassalli-
Eandi, " Esarne della Elett. delle Meteore del Berthoion," Torino, 1787;
account of the experiments to ascertain the effects of electricity on
vegetation, made in France during the summer of 1878 by MM. Gran-
dcau, Celi and Leclerc; and a curious publication, "Les Animaux
et les Metaux deviennent ils Electriques par communication," by
L. Bcraud (Berault), alluded to in Poggendorff, Vol. 1. p. 146.
A.D. 1780-1783.— Prof. Samuel Williams, at Cambridge,
Mass., makes the earliest known observations of the magnetic dip
in the United States, and publishes them in the " Memoirs of the
American Academy of Arts," Vol. I. pp. 62, 68. According to this
authority, the dip in 1783 was 69° 41'. The next dip observations
are those made during Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains
in 1819.
REFERENCES. — " American Journal of Science," Vol. XLI1I. pp. 93,
94; " Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.," O. S., Vol. 111. p. 115.
A.D. 1780-1794.— Le Pere Amyot (Amiot), learned French
Jesuit, who was sent in 1751 as a missionary to Pekin, where he
resided till his decease in 1794, writes, on the 26th of July 1780,
and also on the 20th of October 1782 that, as a result of a great
number of observations, he finds no change in the variation of the
magnetic needle, i. e. that " the point which indicates the north
declines westerly from 2 to 2\ degrees, rarely more than 4^ degrees,
and never less than 2 degrees."
REFERENCES. — " Memoires concernant I'histoire," etc., Saillant et
Nyon, Vol. X. p. 142; Davis, " The Chinese," Vol. III. p. 13.
A.D. 1781. — The so-called compass plant (Silphium lancinatum)
is first introduced from America into Europe by M. Thouin and
blooms for the first time in the Botanic Gardens of Upsala, Sweden.
In the " Scientific American " of February 26, 1881, reference is
made to the interesting account of this plant given by Sir J. D.
Hooker in Curtis' " Botanical Magazine/' as well as to the following
extract from Prof. Asa Gray's report concerning it : " The first
announcement of the tendency of the leaves of the compass plant
to direct their edges to the north and south was made by General
(then Lieutenant) Alvord, of the U.S. Army, during the year 1842,
and again in 1844, in communications to the American Association
260 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
for the Advancement of Science. . . . The lines in " Evangeline "
(familiar to many readers) :
" Look at this delicate plant that lifts its head from the meadow,
See how its leaves all point to the north as true as the magnet;
It is the compass plant that the finger of God has suspended,
Here on its fragile stalk, to direct the traveller's journey,
Over the sealike, pathless, limitless waste of the desert "
were inspired through a personal communication made by General
Alvord to the poet Longfellow.
In this connection, the following article, headed " A Wonderful
Magnetic Plant/' translated from La Nature by the London Court
Journal, will prove interesting : " There has been discovered in the
forests of India a strange plant (Philotacea electrica) which possesses
to a very high degree astonishing magnetic power. The hand
which breaks a leaf from it receives immediately a shock equal to
that which is produced by the conductor of an induction coil.
At a distance of six metres a magnetic needle is affected by it, and
it will be quite deranged if brought near. The energy of this singular
influence varies with the hours of the day. All powerful about
two o'clock in the afternoon, it is absolutely annulled during the
night. At times of storm its intensity augments to striking pro-
portions. While it rains the plant seems to succumb : it bends its
head during a thunder-shower and remains without force or virtue
even if one should shelter it with an umbrella. No shock is felt
at that time in breaking the leaves, and the needle is unaffected by
it. One never by any chance sees a bird or insect alight on this
electric plant ; an instinct seems to warn them that in so doing they
would find sudden death. It is also important to remark that
where it grows none of the magnetic metals are found, neither
iron, nor cobalt, nor nickel — an undeniable proof that the electric
force belongs exclusively to the plant. Light and heat, phos-
phorescence, magnetism, electricity, how many mysteries and
botanical problems does this wondrous Indian plant conceal within
its leaf and flower ! "
The results of some interesting researches on plant-electricity
have been reported by A. D. Waller, who finds that whenever a
plant is wounded, a positive electric current is established between
the wounded part and the intact parts. This may start with an
electromotive force of 0*1 volt, but it afterward diminishes. He
writes further :
" Actual wounding is not necessary to obtain this manifestation ;
an electropositive current is set up when there is mechanical ex-
citation, but it is much weaker (o'02 volt). And light acts like
mechanical excitation with certain plants, such as the leaves of the
iris, of tobacco, of the begonia, etc. From the illuminated to the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 261
darkened part flows a positive electric current that may be as strong
as 0-02 volt. A similar reaction in the petals is not always observed.
There is a certain correlation between the vigour of a plant and the
electric reaction. The more vigorous the plant is, the stronger the
current. Plants grown from fresh seeds give a more powerful
current than those from old seeds. A bean a year old gave a
current of 0*0170 volt ; one five years old, a current of 0*0014; and
the reaction is inversely and regularly proportional to the age of the
seed from which the plant springs. There is observed in vegetable
tissues, subjected to an excitation of the same intensity at regular
intervals, the characteristic changes of reaction that are present in
animal tissues — fatigue, recuperation, etc. Temperature plays a
part in all these phenomena ; below — 4° to — 6° C. [+ ° to + 25° F.]
and above 40° C. [108° F.] there is no reaction."
A.D. 1781. — Lavoisier (Antoine Laurent), an eminent French
natural philosopher, the chief founder of modern chemistry as well
as of the prevailing system of chemical nomenclature which ended
in the expulsion of the phlogistic theory, demonstrates by experi-
menjs made in conjunction with Volt a and Laplace that electricity
is developed when solid or fluid bodies pass into the gaseous state.
Sir David Brewster says that the bodies to be evaporated or dis-
solved were placed upon an insulating stand and were made to
communicate by a chain or wire with a Cavallo electrometer, or
with Volta's condenser, when it was suspected that the electricity
increased gradually. When sulphuric acid, diluted with three
parts of water, was poured upon iron filings, inflammable air was
disengaged with a brisk effervescence ; and, at the end of a few
minutes, the condenser was so highly charged as to yield a strong
spark of negative electricity. Similar results were obtained when
charcoal was burnt on a chafing dish, or when fixed air or nitrous
gas was generated from powdered chalk by means of the sulphuric
and nitrous acids.
The phlogistic theory alluded to above, which was so named by
George Ernest Stahl in 1697 after Johann Joachim Beccher (1635-
1682) had pointed out its principle in 1669, had for its most energetic
defender the editor of the Journal de Physique, M. J. C. De La
Metherie, who is entered at A.D. 1785, and it was in order to offset
the influence which this gave him that the antiphlogistians estab-
lished the Annales de Chimie, so frequently mentioned in these
pages.1
1 " The first sound theory of chemistry was denominated the anti-
phlogistic, in contradistinction to that of phlogiston, or the principle of in-
flammability, which was first proposed by Beccher (born at Spires in Germany
in the year 1635) and then improved by Stahl, a native of Anspach, in honour
262 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — George Adams' " Lectures on Nat. and Exp. Philo-
sophy," London, 1799, Vol. I. pp. 575-587, wherein Lavoisier's system
is confuted by the German chemist Wieglib, whose views are endorsed
by Mr. Green, while for Stahl and Beccher, refer to Sir H. Davy,
" Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, p. 102, note, to " Biog. Ge"n./'
Vol. V. pp. 85-87; " Meyer's Konvers. Lexikon," Vol. II. p. 654, and
to Thomson's " Plist. of Roy. Soc./' London, 1812, p. 467. See also
J. M. G. Beseke, " Ueber elementarfeuer . . ." Leipzig, 1786; G. A.
Kohlreif, " Sollte die elektricitat . . ." Weimar, 1787; Lavoisier and
Laplace, in the " Mem. de 1'Acad. Roy. des Sciences " for 1781, p. 292 ;
Lavoisier's " Opuscules . . ." 1774, and his " Rapport . . . mag.
animal./' Paris, 1784; Dr. Thomas Thomson, "Hist. Roy. Soc./'
pp. 479-486; HerschePs "Nat. Phil./' concerning the third age of
chemistry; Gre"goire, "Diet, d'hist./' etc., p. 1171; Miller's "Hist.
Phil. Illus.," London, 1849, Vol. IV. pp. 332-333, notes. Chap. IV of the
" History of Chemistry," Ernst Van Meyer, tr. by George McGowan,
London, 1898, entitled " History of the Period of the Phlogiston Theory
from Boyle to Lavoisier," will prove interesting. " La chimie constitute
par Lavoisier," Jacob Volhard, in " Le Moniteur Scientinque," du Dr.
Quesneville, Vol. XIV for 1872, pp. 50-71; " Nouveau Larousse," Vol.
V. p. 608 ; " La Revolution chimique," M. Berthelot, Paris, 1890 ; " Essays
in Historical Chemistry," T. E. Thorpe, London, 1894, PP- 87, no;
" Journal des Savants " for Nov. 1859 and Feb. 1890; " Lives of Men
of Letters and Science," by Henry, Lord Brougham, Philadelphia, 1846,
pp. 140-166.
A.D. 1781. — Acliard (Franz Carl), able chemist and experimental
philosopher, born in Prussia but of French extraction, communi-
cates to the " Mem. de Berlin " a report of many very interesting
experiments made by him, which are reviewed by Prince Dmitri
Alexewitsch Fiirst Gallitzin, in Vol. XXII of the Journal de
Physique.
He had previously published essays upon the electricity of ice
and the electricity developed on the surface of bodies, as well as
upon terrestrial magnetism, the electrophorus, etc. He made
many notable investigations to prove that fermentation is checked
by electricity and that putrefaction is hastened both in electrified
meats and in animals killed by the electric shock.
One of his experiments illustrating galvanic irritation so greatly
interested Humboldt that the latter repeated it with different
animals, not doubting but small birds might in many cases be brought
back to life when they fall into a state somewhat resembling death.
On one occasion, he took a linnet about to expire and, having
established the necessary communication, perceived, the moment
the contact took place, that the linnet opened its eyes, stood erect
upon its feet and fluttered its wings ; it breathed, he says, during
six or eight minutes and then expired tranquilly.
of whom it has been commonly denominated the Stahlian theory. The differ-
ence between the two theories is briefly this, that according to the earlier
a body is conceived to be deprived in combustion of a component principle,
whereas according to the later a component part of the atmosphere is conceived
to be combined with it" (Dr. Geo. Miller, from Thomson's " History of
Chemistry," London, 1830, Vol. I. pp. 246, 250, and Vol. II. pp. 99-100).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 263
It was a namesake of Achard who invented the electro-magnetic
brake which will be found described and illustrated in articles from
the London Engineer and Engineering, reproduced through the
Scientific American Supplements, No. in, p. 1760, and No. 312,
p. 4974.
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, " Biog.-Lit. Hand. . . ." Vol. I. p. 7;
"Biographic Generate," Vol. I. p. 176; "Cat. Roy. Soc. Sc. Papers,"
Vol. 1. p. 9; " Opus. Scelt.," Vols. III. p. 313; V. p. 351; VI. p. 199;
Reuss, Repertorium, Vol. IV. p. 351; Dr. G. Gregory, "Economy of
Nature," London, 1804, Vol. I. p. 317; Van Swinden, " Recueil . . ."
La Haye, 1784, Vol. I. p. 24; " Biographic Universelle," Vol. I. p. 114;
"Journal Lit. de Berlin," for 1776; Cavallo, London, 1777, p. 403;
"Mem. de Berlin" for 1776-1780, 1786, 1790-1791; Sturgeon, "Lec-
tures," London, 1842, p. 12; Geo. Adams, " Essay on Electricity," etc.,
London, 1785, pp. 214-220, 277; " Gott. Mag.," Vol. II. ii. 139; Rozier,
VIII. p. 364; XV. p. 117; XIX. p. 417; XXII. p. 245; XXIII. p. 282;
XXV. p. 429; XXVI. p. 378; Phil. Mag., Vol. III. p. 51.
A.D. 1781.— Kirwan (Richard), LL.D., F.R.S., an Irish chemical
philosopher of great eminence, who became President of the Dublin
Society and of the Royal Irish Academy, receives from the English
Royal Society its gold Copley medal for the many valuable scientific
papers communicated by him to the latter body. These papers
embrace his " Thoughts on Magnetism/' wherein he treats at length
of attraction, repulsion, polarity, etc., as shown in the review given
at PP- 346-353 of the eighth volume of Sturgeon's " Annals of
Electricity," etc.
It is said that Kirwan first suggested the notion of molecular
magnets, but, according to Dr. J. G. M'Kendrick, it was not till
a definite form was given thereto by Weber that it acquired any
importance.
REFERENCES. — Transactions Royal Irish Academy, Vol. VI; Ninth
" Encycl. Britannica," Vol. XV. p. 276 ; Phil Mag., Vol. XXXIV. p. 247 ;
Thomson, " Hist, of the Roy. Soc.," p. 483; " Bibl. Britan.," An. VII.
vol. xii. p. 105.
A.D. 1781. — Mauduyt (Antoine Rene) (1731-1815), Professor at
the College de France, publishes several observations from which he
concludes that the application of electricity is favourable in cases of
paralysis. He was in the habit of placing the patient upon an
insulated stool, in communication with the conductor of an electrical
machine. De La Rive, who mentions the fact (" Electricity/'
Chap. III. pp. 586, 587), observes that the effect, if any, could
only proceed from the escape of electricity into the air.
REFERENCES. — Bertholon, Elec. du Corps. Humain, 1786, Vol. I.
pp. 275-276, 302, 439, 447, etc., and Vol. II. pp. 7 and 296; " Me"moire
sur les differentes manieres d'administrer r&ectriciteV' etc., Paris, 1784;
" Recueil sur Telectricite medicale," etc., containing articles by G. F.
Bianchini, De Lassone, Deshais (see Sauvages), Dufay, Jallabert, Pivati,
264 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Quellmalz, Veratti, Zetzell, etc. ; K. G. Kuhn's works published at Leipzig,
1783-1797; E. Ducretet in " Le Cosmos," Paris, Oct. 3, 1891, pp. 269-
272 ; P. Sue, ain6, " Hist, du Galvan," Paris, An. X-XIII, 1802, Vol. I.
p. 40; and Vol. II. p. 382; " Grande Encyclop.," Vol. XXIII. p. 415.
A.D. 1781-1783. — Don Gauthey— Gauthier or Gualtier — a
monk of the Order of Citeaux, improved upon the invention of Dupuis
(at A.D. 1778) and constructed a telegraph, which he submitted at
the Academic des Sciences to Dr. Franklin as well as to Condorcet
and De Milly, by whom it was recommended to the French Govern-
ment. In his prospectus, published during 1783, he relates that
he has discovered a new mode of rapid transmission enabling him
to convey intelligence and sound, by means of water pipes, a distance
of fifty leagues in fifty minutes. Ternant, who states this at pp. 33
and 34 of Le TeUgraphe, Paris, 1881, adds that, as no action was
taken at the time upon the prospectus, it doubtless still lies in the
archives of the Academy.
REFERENCES. — Laurencin, Le T&ttgraphe, p. 9; Eng. Cycl., " Arts
and Sciences," Vol. VIII. p. 65; " Penny Cycl.," 1842, Vol. IV. p. 146.
A.D. 1782. — Nairne (Edward), an English mathematical instru-
ment maker, publishes papers on electricity describing his in-
ventiorj of a cylinder machine which is illustrated and described at
p. 15 of the chapter on " Electricity " in " Library of Useful Know-
ledge," 1829. In this, as has been truly said, are seen all the
essential parts of the frictional apparatus now in use.
This machine, according to Cuthbertson, was originally con-
structed in 1774, and was far more powerful than any before made.
Nairne also constructed the largest battery known up to that time.
It contained 50 square feet of coated surface, and it could be given
so high a charge as to ignite 45 inches of iron wire Tii7 of an inch
diameter, which up to that period was the greatest length of
wire ever ignited. Nairne, while improving upon some of Priestley's
experiments, found that a piece of hard drawn iron wire, ten inches
long and one-hundredth of an inch diameter, after receiving
successively the discharge of 26 feet of coated glass (nine jars),
was shortened three -fortieths of an inch by such discharge. Dr.
Priestley had previously observed that a chain 28 inches long was
shortened one quarter of an inch after having had transmitted
through it a charge of 64 square feet of coated glass, and Brooke
Taylor found that by passing a charge of nine bottles of 16 feet of
coated surface nine times in succession through a steel wire 12
inches long and one one-hundredth of an inch diameter, the wire was
shortened one and one-half inches, or one-eighth its entire length.
To Nairne was granted the third English patent in the Class of
Electricity and Magnetism, the first having been issued to Gowin
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 265
Knight in 1766 (see A,D. 1746) and the second to Gabriel Wright,
June 25, 1779, for "a new constructed azimuth and amplitude
compass." Knight subsequently covered other similar inventions,
July 5, 1791, and Jan. 19, 1796. Nairne's patent bears date
Feb. 5, 1782, No. 1318, and is for what he calls " The Insulated
Medical Electrical Machine/' the conductors of which are so arranged
as to readily give either shocks or sparks. He says that " by means
of the conductors and jointed tubes, the human body can be in any
part affected with either kind of electricity in any convenient
manner."
REFERENCES. — Philosophical Transactions for 1772, 1774, 1778, 1780,
1783, Vol. LX1V. p. 79; Vol. LXVIII. p. 823; Vol. LXX. p. 334;
also Mutton's abridgments, Vol. XIII. pp. 360 (dipping needle), 498 ;
Vol. XIV. pp. 427-446, 688; Vol. XV. p. 388; " General Biog. Diet.,"
London, 1833, by John Gorton, Vol. I. (n. p.); Cuthbertson, " Practical
Electricity/' London, 1807, pp. 165-168; article " Electricity," in the
" Encycl. Britannica " ; " Description of ... Nairne's . . . Machine,"
London, 1783 and 1787; Caullet de Veaumorel, "Description de la
machine electrique negative et positive de Mr. Nairne," Paris, 1784;
Delaunay's " Manuel," etc., Paris, 1809, pp. 7, 12-14.
A.D. 1782-1783.— Linguet (Simon, Nicolas, Henri), French
advocate (1736-1794), who was an associate of Mallet du Pan in the
preparation of the Annales Politiques and who was later on com-
mitted to the Bastille in consequence of a visit which he imprudently
made to Paris, writes a letter to the French Ministry proposing
a novel method of transmitting messages of any length or descrip-
tion by means of some kind of a telegraph, " nearly as rapidly as
the imagination can conceive them/' He adds, " I am persuaded
that in time it will become the most useful instrument of commerce
for all correspondence of that kind; just as electricity will be the
most powerful agent of medicine ; and as the fire-pump will be the
principle of all mechanic processes which require, or are to com-
municate, great force."
To Linguet has been attributed the authorship of the anonymous
letter which appeared in the Journal de Paris of May 30, 1782, and
in Lc Mercure de France of June 8, 1782, wherein it is proposed to
employ twenty-four pairs of gilt wires, placed underground in
separate wooden tubes filled with resin and bearing a knob at each
extremity. Between each pair of knobs was to be placed a letter
of the alphabet, which would become discernible whenever the
electric spark was passed through the wire by means of the Leyden
phial.
REFERENCES. — Tcrnant, Le Ttlegraphe, Paris, 1881, p. n; Linguet,
" M£m. manuscrit . . . signaux par la lumidre," Paris, 1782; all about
the " Mercure de France," in " Bulletin du Bibliophile " No. 7 of July
15, 1902 ; " Biog. Diet.," Alex Chalmers, 1815, Vol. XX. p. 290; " Nouv.
Biog. Gen." (Hcefer), Paris, 1860, Vol. XXXI. p. 279; " Biog. Univ."
(Michaud), Vol. XXIV. p. 565.
266 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1782-1791. — Cassini (Jean Jacques Dominique, Comte de),
son of Cassini de Thury, eminent astronomer, makes the very
important announcement that, besides the secular variation of
the decimation, the magnetic needle is subject to an annual periodical
fluctuation depending on the position of the sun in reference to the
equinoctial and solstitial points.
Cassini's discovery is contained in a Memoir consisting of two
parts, the first part being a letter addressed to L'Abbe Rosier and
published by him in the Journal de Physique, while the second part,
composed at request of the Academie des Sciences, is that which
specially treats of the annual variation in declination.
Besides the last named, we have thus far learned of the secular
variation discovered by Gellibrand (Hellibrand) in 1635, as well
as of the diurnal and horary variations, first accurately observed
by George Graham during the year 1722, and we have likewise been
informed of the earliest observations of the dip or inclination, made
independently by both Georg Hartmann (A.D. 1543-1544) and by
Robert Norman (A.D. 1576), as well as of the determination of the
intensity of the inclination by J. C. Borda (at A.D. 1776). For
accounts of the secular and annual, as well as of the diurnal and
horary variations of the dip, the reader should consult the First
Section of Humboldt's " Cosmos " treating of telluric phenomena
and some of the very numerous references therein given.
Speaking of the influence of the sun's position upon the mani-
festation of the magnetic force of the earth, Humboldt remarks
that the most distinct intimation of this relation was afforded by
the discovery of horary variations, although it had been obscurely
perceived by Kepler, who surmised that all the axes of the planets
were magnetically directed toward one portion of the universe. He
says that the sun may be a magnetic body, and that on that account
the force which impels the planets may be centred in the sun
(Kepler, in " Stella Martis," pp. 32-34 — compare with it his treatise,
" Mysterium Cosmogr./' cap. 20, p. 71). He further observes that
the horary variations of the declination, which, although dependent
upon true time are apparently governed by the sun as long as it
remains above the horizon, diminish in angular value with the
magnetic latitude of place. Near the equator, for instance, in the
island of Rawak, they scarcely amount to three or four minutes,
whilst the variations are from thirteen to fourteen minutes in the
middle of Europe. As in the whole northern hemisphere the north
point of the needle moves from east to west on an average from
8J in the morning until ij at midday, in the southern hemisphere
the same north point moves from west to east (Arago, Annuaire,
1836, p. 284, and 1840, pp. 330-358). Attention has been drawn,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 267
with much justice, to the fact that there must be- a region of the
earth, between the terrestrial and the magnetic equator, where no
horary deviations in the declination are to be observed. This fourth
curve (in contradistinction to the isodynamic, isoclinic and isogonic
lines, or those respectively of equal force, equal inclination and equal
declination), which might be called the curve of no motion, or rather
the line of no variation of horary declination, has not yet been dis-
covered. No point has hitherto been found at which the needle
does not exhibit a horary motion, and, since the erection of magnetic
stations, the important and very unexpected fact has been evolved
that there are places in the southern magnetic hemisphere at which
the horary variations of the dipping needle alternately participate
in the phenomena (types) of the hemispheres.
Humboldt also alludes, in the article on " Magnetic Variation," to
his recognition of the " four motions of the needle, constituting, as
it were, four periods of magnetic ebbing and flowing, analogous to
the barometrical periods," which will be found recorded in Han-
steen's " Magnetismus der Erde," 1819, s. 459, and he likewise
refers to the long-disregarded nocturnal alterations of variation, for
which he calls attention to Faraday " On the Night Episode,"
ss. 3012-3024. (See also, Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik, Bd.
XV. s. 330, and Bd. XIX. s. 373.)
The Phil. Trans, for 1738, p. 395, contain the description of a
new compass for ascertaining the variation " with greater ease and
exactness than any ever yet contrived for that purpose." This was
devised by Capt. Christopher Middleton, whose many interesting
observations are to be found in the same volume of the Phil. Trans.,
p. 310, as well as in the volumes for 1726, p. 73; 1731-1732, 1733-
I734> P- I27>* I742» P- I57> and in John Martyn's abridgment,
Vol. VIII. part i. p. 374. Reference should also be made to the
volumes for 1754 (p. 875) and 1757 (p. 329), giving the reports of
W. Mountaine and J. Dodson upon the magnetic chart and tables
of 50,000 observations, likewise to the volume for 1766 containing
the report of W. Mountaine on Robert Douglass' observation, as
well as for the record of investigations of the variation made by
David Ross on board the ship " Montagu " during the years
1760-1762.
REFERENCES. — Sabine, " On the Annual and Diurnal Variations,"
in Vol. II of " Observations made ... at Toronto," pp. xvii-xx, also
his Memoir " On the Annual Variation of the Magnetic Needle at Different
Periods of the Day," in Phil. Trans, for 1851, Part II. p. 635, as well as
the Introduction to his " Observations ... at Hobart Town," Vol. I.
pp. xxxiv-xxxvi, and his Report to the British Association at Liverpool,
1854, p. ii — Phil. Trans, for 1857, Art. i, pp. 6, 7 — relative to the lunar
diurnal magnetic variation. See likewise C. Wolf, " Histoire de I'ob-
servatoire depuis sa fondation a 1793"; Houzeau et Lancaster,
268 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 102; " Me*m. de Paris," Vol.
Vol. VII. pp. 503, 530 ; Walker, " Ter. and Cos. Magn.," Chap. Ill ; Mme.
~ n, " His ' ~
" Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 102; " Me*m. de Paris," Vol. II. p. 74, and
Vol. VII. pp. 503, 530 ; Walker, " Ter. and Cos. Magn.," Chap. Ill ; Mme.
J. Le Breton, " Histoire et Applic.," etc., Paris, 1884, p. 17; Robison,
" Mech. Phil.," Vol. IV. p. 356 ; Thos. Young, " Nat. Phil,," 1845, p. 583.
CASSINI FAMILY
This celebrated family, to which allusion was made under A.D.
1700, deserves here additional notice.
Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625-1712), the first and greatest
of the name, succeeded Buenaventura Cavalie'ri in the astronomical
chair of the Bologna University in 1650, and remained there until
given the directorship of the Paris Royal Observatory upon its
completion in 1670. Partly with the assistance of his learned
nephew, James Philip Maraldi, Cassini made many important dis-
coveries, among which may be signalled the finding of the first,
second, third and fifth satellites of Saturn, as well as the dual
character of that planet's ring, the determination of the rotation
of Jupiter, Mars and Venus, and the laws of the moon's axial rotation.
(See Thomson, " Hist, of the Roy. Soc.," p. 331; " Anc. Mem. de
Paris," I, VIII, X; Thos. Morrell, " Elem. of the Hist, of Phil,
and Sc.," London, 1827, pp. 377-379.)
Jacques (James) Cassini (1677-1756), the only son of the
preceding, became director of the Paris Observatory upon the death
of his father, made many very important astronomical observations,
and wrote several treatises upon electricity, etc. In one of his
works, " De la Grandeur et de la Figure de la Terre," Paris, 1720,
he gives an account of the continuation of the measurement of
Picard's arc of the meridian from Paris northward, begun by
Domenico Cassini and La Hire in 1680, and recommenced by
Domenico and Jacques Cassini in 1700. (See " Mem. de Paris/'
Vol. VII. pp. 455, 456, 508, 572 ; and for years 1705, pp. 8, 80 ;
1708, pp. 173, 292; 1729, Hist. I., Mem. 321.)
Cesar Francois Cassini de Thury (1714-1784), son of Jacques,
whom he in turn succeeded at the Observatory, was, as above stated,
the father of Jean Dominique Cassini (1747-1845). He made
numerous researches while in the Director's Chair, his most remark-
able work being the large triangulation of France published in
1744, under the title of " La M&idienne," etc. (See " Hist, de
1'Acad. des Sciences de Paris " pour 1752, p. 10.)
A.D. 1783. — Robespierre (Franc,ois-Maximilien- Joseph-Isidore
de), who afterward became leader of the famous French Jacobin
Club, and was at the time practising law in his native town of Arras,
distinguishes himself by successfully defending the cause of the Sieur
de Vissery de Boisvale, a landed proprietor of that place, who had
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 269
erected a lightning conductor on his house, " much to the scandal of
the discreet citizens " of the locality — " Deistical philosophy; away
with it ! " (Eighth " Britannica," Vol. XIX. p. 233).
Mr. de Bo is vale's case was an appeal from a judgment delivered
by the sheriff of Saint-Omer, ordering the destruction of the lightning
conductor, and its printed report bears the following epigraph :
" L'usage appuye sur les temps
Et les prdjuges indociles.
Ne se retire cm 'a pas lents
Devant les verites utiles."
Jean Paul Marat, docteur en medecine et medecin des Gardes de
corps de M. le Comte d'Artois, who, like Robespierre, was a
member of the French National Convention as well as a declared
enemy of the Girondins, and who was killed by Charlotte Corday,
July 13, 1793, made many electrical experiments. These greatly
interested Benjamin Franklin, who used to visit him (Ninth " Encycl.
Brit.," Vol. XV. p. 526). He was the author of many electrical
works during the years 1779-1784, notably " De*couvertes sur le
feu, Telectricite et la lumiere," " Recherches Physiques/1 and a
memoir on medical electricity (" (Euvres de Marat/' Paris, 1788;
A. Bougeart, " Marat, Tami du peuple/' 1864; F. Chevremont,
" Jean Paul Marat," 1881).
REFERENCES. — Ronalds' " Catalogue," p. 434; LaLumibre Electrique
for Sept. 5, 1891; the Electrician, London, Sept. n, 1891.
A.D. 1783. — Wilkinson (C. H.), Scotch physician, publishes at
Edinburgh his " Tentamen Philosophico-medicum de Electricitate,"
which is followed, during 1798 and 1799, by other works upon
electricity, wherein he cites a number of marvellous cures of inter-
mittent fevers similar to those made by Cavallo, also of amaurosis
(goutte sereine) and of quinsy (squinancie) like those performed by
Lovet, Becket and Mauduyt.
During the year 1804 appeared the first edition, in two volumes,
of his " Elements of Galvanism in Theory and Practice/' containing
a very comprehensive review of the discovery from the time of
Galvani's early experiments. In this last-named work, however,
he shows that incipient amaurosis and the completely formed gutta
serena have not yielded to his own treatment by galvanic influence
as had been the case with Dr. C. J. C. Grapengieser, who published
many accounts of surprising cures (Grapengieser, " Versuche den
Galvanismus . . /' Berlin, 1801 and 1802, or Brewer and Dela-
roche, " Essai . . ." Paris, 1802). The whole of Chap. XXXVI is
devoted to the application of galvanism to medicine, whereto allusion
had already been made in the first chapter of the same work.
270 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Wilkinson refers also to the electricity of the torpedo, and to the
observations made thereon by Hippocrates, Plato, Theophrastus,
Pliny and ^Elian, also by Belon, Rondelet, Salviana and Gesner,
as well as by Musschenbroek, Redi, Reaumur, Walsh, Hunter,
Spallanzani, 'Sgravesande, Steno, Borelli, Galvani and others.
Much space is likewise given to the observations recorded on animal
electricity, notably by Fontana, De La Metherie, Berlinghieri,
Vassali-Eandi, Humboldt, Pfaff, Lehot, Halle", Aldini, and to the
experiments of Valli as they were repeated before the French
Academy of Sciences and before the Royal Society of Medicine of
Paris, in presence of M. Mauduyt. When treating of the powers
of galvanism as a chemical agent, reference is made to the decom-
position of water, thus first effected in 1795 by Creve, the discoverer
of metallic irritation, and to the operations of Nicholson and Carlisle,
Dr. Henry, Cruikshanks, Haldane, Henry Moyes, Richter, Gibbes, etc.
REFERENCES. — J. J. Hemmer, " Commcntat Palatinae," VI, Phys.,
p. 47; Bertholon, " Elec. du Corps Humain," 1786, Vol. I. pp. 314, 330,
483, and Vol. II. p. 299; " Bibl. Britan.," 1808, Vol. XXXVI11. p. 270
(Phil. Mag., No. 105); Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXXVIII. p. 247;
Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIX. p. 243, and Vol. XLIX. p. 299; F. Buzzi,
" Osscrvazione . . . amaurosi . . . elcttricita," Milano, 1783 (" Opus.
Scelti," Vol. VI. p. 359); Nicholson's Journal, Vol. VIII. pp. i, 70, 206;
also Vol. X. pp. 30-32, for letter relative to certain erroneous observa-
tions of Mr. Wilkinson respecting galvanism, by Mr. Ra. Thicknesse,
who also wrote in Vol. IX. pp. 120-122, explaining the production of the
electric fluid by the galvanic pile.
A.D. 1783. — Saussure (Horace -Benedict de), Professor of Physics
at the University of Geneva and founder of the Society for the
Advancement of the Arts in the same city, is the inventor of an
electrometer designed to ascertain the electrical state of the atmo-
sphere, which will be found described in Vol. VIII. p. 619 oi the
1855 " Encycl. Britannica,"
He observed that electricity is strongest in the open air, that it
is weak in streets, under trees, etc., and that during the summer
and winter, by night as well as by day, when the atmosphere is free
from clouds, the electricity of the air is always positive. In contra-
distinction, Mr. T. Ronayne found in Ireland that the electricity
of the atmosphere is positive in winter when the air is clear, but that
it diminishes in frosty or foggy weather and that he could detect
no electricity in the air during summer except on the approach of
fogs, when the electricity proved to be positive. During the year
1785, M. de Saussure observed at Geneva that, during the winter,
the intensity of atmospherical electricity attained its first maximum
at 9 a.m., diminishing from that hour until it reached its mini-
mum at 6 p.m., after which it began to increase until attaining its
second maximum at 8 p.m., diminishing gradually thereafter till
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 271
it recorded its second minimum at 6 a.m. During the summer he
found the electricity increasing from sunrise till between 3 and
4 p.m., when it would reach its maximum; after that it appeared
to diminish till the dew fell, when it again became stronger, but
was scarcely sensible during the night.
Sir David Brewster informs us in his able article on " Electricity "
in the " Britannica " that De Saussure made a number of elaborate
experiments on the electricity of evaporation and combustion. He
observed at first that the electricity was sometimes positive and
sometimes negative when water was evaporated from a heated
crucible, but in his subsequent trials he found it to be always positive
in an iron and in a copper crucible. In a silver, also in a porcelain
crucible, the electricity was negative and the evaporation of both
alcohol and of ether in a silver crucible also gave negative electricity.
M. de Saussure made many fruitless attempts to obtain electricity
from combustion, and he likewise failed in his efforts to procure
it from evaporation without ebullition.
To De Saussure is often erroneously attributed the authorship
of Lullin's " Disscrtatio physica de electricitate," alluded to at
A.D. 1766.
REFERENCES. — De Saussurc's " Disscrtatio de Igne," " Exposition
abrege"e," etc. (translated by Giuseppe Toaldo, in both his " Delia
maniera," etc., and " Dei conduttori," etc., Venezia, 1772 and 1778),
" Voyage dans les Alpes," all published at Geneva, 1759, 1771, 17 79,
also the important 1786 Neuchatel edition of the last-named work, more
particularly at pp. 194, 197, 203, 205, 206, 211, 212, 216, 218, 219, 228,
252, 254 of Vol. II, and at pp. 197, 257 of Vol. IV; likewise his Memoirs
relative to the electricity of the atmosphere, of vegetables, of micro-
scopic animals, etc., etc., alluded to in Journal de Physique for 1773,
1784, 1788; in Journal de Paris for 1784, 1785; in Vol. 1 of Lazaro
Spallanzani's "Opuscoli di fisica," etc., for 1776; in Vol. Ill of the
" Opuscoli Scelti di Milano," and in the Philosophical Transactions.
See also Jean Senebier, " Me*moire historique," etc., Geneve, 1801 ;
Louis Cotte in his " Trait6," etc., " M6moires," etc., " Observation,"
etc., Paris, 1762, 1769, 1772; in the " M6moires de Paris," Ann6e 1769,
"Hist., "p. 19; Anne"e 1772, "Hist., "p. 16, and in the Journal de Physique
for 1783, Vol. XXIII; the experiments of MM. Becquerel and Brachet
in Becquerel's " Trait6 d'El. et de Magn.," Paris, 1836, Vol. IV. p, no;
Theodor ^Egidius von Heller, " Beobach d. Atmosphar. Elektricitat."
(F. A. C. Gren, " Neues Journal der Physik for 1797, Vol. IV) ; Faujas
de St. Fond, " Description," etc., Vol. II. p. 271, as per George Adams'
" Essay on Electricity," London, 1799, p. 419; Noad, " Manual," etc.,
London, 1859, p. 16; Poggendorfl, Vol. II. p. 755; Rozier, XXXI.
pp. 317, 374; XXXIV. p. 161 ; articles " Meteorology and Electricity "
in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica"; Thomas Young, "Course of
Lectures," etc., London, 1807, Vol. II. pp. 447, 466-471.
A.D. 1784. — Swinden (Jan Hendrik Van) (1746-1823), who had
been made Professor in the University of Franequer at the early
age of twenty (1767), and was at this time occupying the Chair of
Natural Philosophy and Mathematics at Amsterdam, publishes in
272 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
three volumes, at La Haye, his " Recueil de Memoires sur 1'Analogie
de TElectricite et du Magne'tisme/' etc. (" De Analogia . . ." in
Vol. II of the " Neue Abhandl. der Baierischen Akad. Phil.").
The latter contains all the essays sent to the Electoral Academy of
Bavaria on the subject — " Is There a Real and Physical Analogy
Between Electric and Magnetic Forces ; and, if Such Analogy Exist,
in What Manner Do These Forces Act Upon the Animal Body? "
Van Swinden 's essay, which gained him one of the prizes, shows
that, in his opinion, the similarity between electricity and magnetism
amounts merely to an apparent resemblance, and does not constitute
a real physical analogy. He infers from this that these two powers
are essentially different and distinct from one another, but the
contrary opinion was maintained by Profs. Steiglehuer and Hubner,
who contended that so close an analogy as that exhibited by these
two classes of phenomena indicated the effects of a single agent,
varied only in consequence of a diversity of circumstances.
The eminent professor, Gerard Moll, of Utrecht, has communi-
cated to the Edinburgh Journal of Science (1826, Vol. I. part ii.
pp. 197-208) a biographical notice of Van Swinden, wherein he gives
a list of the hitter's principal works and there speaks of one of his
best-known productions in following manner : " The Positioncs
Physicce (Opusc. Scelti, X. 7), as far as they are published (Hardero-
vici, 1786, Vol. I and Vol. II. part i.), are allowed to rank among
the best elements of natural philosophy, and have been found
by actual experience to belong to the best sources from which the
young student could draw his information on those parts of natural
philosophy, and its general principles, as are contained in the first
volume and part of the second, which is all that was published.
The work itself is on a most extensive plan; and the multifarious
avocations which crowded on Van Swinden in Amsterdam delayed
the publications, and made him afterward abandon all thoughts of
completing a work which would have done the greatest honour to
its author, and which even now, unfinished as it is, is celebrated as
an excellent specimen of sound reasoning and profound learning."
Van Swinden was the first President of the Royal Institute of
the Netherlands. He entered with ardour into all the new dis-
coveries of his day and kept up an extensive correspondence with
many of the leading scientific characters of the time, notably with
the Swiss philosopher, Charles Bonnet (whose " Contemplations de
la Nature " he annotated extensively) ; with Dr. Matthew Maty (who
became secretary of the Royal Society upon the resignation of
Dr. Birch in 1765, and who was appointed, by the king, principal
librarian of the British Museum upon the death of Dr. Gowin
Knight, 1772) ; with the eminent French physician, Michel-Augustin
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 273
Thouret, Dean of the Paris " Faculte* de Medecine "; as well as
with Delambre, Euler, De Saussure, and many others who have
been named elsewhere in this " Bibliographical History."
The following is further extracted from Prof. Moll's interesting
paper : " Mr. Biot, in his treatise on Natural Philosophy (Tome III.
p. 143) asserts that we are indebted to Cassini IV. (see Jean Domini-
que, Comte de Cassini, at A.D. 1782-1791) for much of what we know
even about the diurnal variation of the needle. This, I think, is
not fair. We do not mean to undervalue Mr. Cassini's observations,
but it is unquestionable that long before the. publication of that
philosopher's work, Mr. Van Swinden had observed and published
(' Recherches sur les aiguilles aimantees et leurs variations ' —
Memoires presentes a TAcad&nie des Sciences de Paris, Tome VIII —
prize essay 1777) that which Mr. Biot less accurately is pleased to
ascribe to his countryman. In this respect, however, Mr. Van
Swinden was treated with more justice by other eminent philo-
sophers, such as Hatiy, Halley and Burkhardt." (Consult also the
" Acta Acad. Petrop." for 1780, Part I. Hist. p. 10.)
In the aforenamed very meritorious work, " Rccueil de Memoires,"
etc., crowned by the Bavarian Academy, Van Swinden has treated
fully of the then current theories relative to electrical and magnet ical
phenomena, reviewing the entire field of their application. In so
doing he has necessarily made numerous references to discoverers
and experimenters of all countries, the names of many of which
appear in the present compilation, and while it is, of course, useless
here to quote these anew, it has been thought best, for a record, to
specify such as are infrequently met with, and which appear in many
of his most important articles, even at the risk of being accused of
diffuseness or prolixity. They are as follows :
REFERENCES. — John T. Ncedham (Vol. IV, Mem. Brussels Acad.
for 1783) ; Phil. Trans., 1746, p. 247; J. G. Lehmann (" Abhandlung von
Phosph." ; "Von Magnet Theilen im Sande," " Novi Com. Acad.
Petrop./' Vol. XII. p. 368, etc.); M. De La Cepede, " Essai sur 1'El.
nat et artif."; C. E. Gellert (" Com. Acad. Petrop.," Vol. XIII. p. 382,
Exp. 15, 16); J. F. Henckel, " Pyritologia," etc.; J. E. Von Herbert,
" Theor. Phaen. Elect.," cap. 4, prop. 8; C. F. M. D6chales, " Mundus
Mathematicus," lib. i, Quartus Exper. Ordo., exp. 16, Tome II. p. 488,
ed. 2, etc. ; M. Marcel's Dissertation on powdered magnets, which appears
in the Dutch " Uitgezogte Verhandelingen," Vol. I. p. 261, etc.; Jean
M. Cadet (" Nova Acta. Physico. Med. Acad. Natur. Curios.," Tome
III) ; Abbe* Giraud-Soulavie (" Comment. . . . CEuvres de Mr.
Hamilton," note 4, p. 303) ; J. B. Le Roy (" M£m. de 1'Acad. de Paris,"
for 1753, p. 447; for 1772, p. 499; Jour, de Phys., Vol. II); Rudolph
Richard (" Magazin d. Hamb.," IV. p. 681) ; Gilles A. Bazin, " Descnp.
des Cour, Mag.," Plates 14, 16-18; J. F. Gross, " Elektrische Pausen,"
Leipzig, 1776; Jour, de Phys., Vol. X. p. 235; Niccold Bammacaro,
"Tentamen de vi Electrica," etc., s. 6; Samuel Colepress (Phil. Trans.,
1667, No. 27, Vol. I. p. 502) ; E. F. Du Tour, " Discours sur 1'aimant,"
T
274 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
s. 27; " Recueil des Prix dc 1'Acad. de Paris," Tome V. m6m. ii. p. 49;
" M6m. Math, et Phys."; Mr. Calendrin, at Van Swinden's, Vol. I.
pp. 233, etc.; M. Blondeau (" M6m. de 1'Acad. de Marine," Brest.,
Tome* I. s. 46, pp. 401-431, 438);). A. Braun, " Observations," etc.;
" Novi. Comment. Acad. Pctrop.," Vol. VII. pp. 388, 407 ; M. Antheaulme
(" Mem. sur les aimants artif." (prize essay), 1760, " Mem. de 1'Acad.
Roy.," 1761, p. 21 1 ; Van Swinden, 1784, Vol. 11. pp. 95, 170); J. N.
Rcichenberger, " Directorium magneticum magneticis," etc., and " Hy-
drotica," as at Van Swinden, 1784, Vol. II. pp. 272-273 ; Geo. C. Schmidt,
"Bcschr., eincr Klektrisir Masch.," etc., 1778; M. De la Folie (Jour, de
Phys., 1774, Vol. III. p. 9) ; Colestin Steiglehner, " Obs. phaenom. elect.,"
" Ueber die Annal der Elek. und des Magn." ; Lorenz Hubncr, " Abh. u. d.
Ann.il. u. mag. Kraft"; Jos. Thad. Klinkosch, " Schreiben," etc.,
" Bcschreib. d. Volta . . . Elektrophors." Reference should also be made
to Noad, "Manual," etc., p. 641 ; Encycl. Brit., 1857, Vol. XIV. p. 6;
" Messagcr des Sciences et des Arts," Gand, 1823, pp. 185-201, detailing
all of Van Swinden's works ; Antoine Thillaye's treatise presented to the
Ecole de M6dccine le 15 Flore"al, An. XI; Butct (" Bull, des Sc. de la
Soc. Philom.," No. 43, Vend&niaire, An. IX).
A.D. 1784. — Cotugno (Domenico), Professor of Anatomy at
Naples, thus addresses Le Chevalier G. Vivenzio under date October
2, 1784 : " The observation which I mentioned some days ago, when
we were discoursing together of the electrical animals, upon which
I said I believed the mouse to be one of that number, is the following :
Toward the latter end of March, I was sitting with a table before me
and observing something to move about my foot, which drew my
attention. Looking toward the floor I saw a small domestic mouse,
which, as its coat indicated, must have been very young. As the
little animal could not move very quick, I easily laid hold of it by
the skin of the back and turned it upside down ; then with a small
knife that laid by me, I intended to dissect it. When I first made
the incision into the epigastric region, the mouse was situated be-
tween the thumb and finger of my left hand, and its tail was got
between the last two fingers. I had hardly cut through part of the
skin of that region, when the mouse vibrated its tail between the
fingers, and was so violently agitated against the third finger that,
to my great astonishment, I felt a shock through my left arm as
far as the neck, attended with an internal tremor, a painful sensation
in the muscles of the arm, and such giddiness of the head, that,
being affrighted, I dropped the mouse. The stupor of the arm
lasted upward of a quarter of an hour, nor could I afterwards think
of the incident without emotion. I had no idea that such an animal
was electrical; but in this I had the positive proof of experience."
(See G. Vivenzio, " Teoria e pratica della elettricita med." . . .
Napoli, 1784.)
Cotugno 's observations attracted much attention throughout
Italy and gave rise to many experiments, notably by Vassalli, who,
however, merely concluded from them that the animal's body could
retain accumulated electricity in some unaccountable manner.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 275
REFERENCES. — Essai sur Vhistoire, etc., J. B. Biot, p. 9; Journal de
Physique. XLI. p. 57 ; M two ires Recrtatifs, etc., par Robertson, Paris,
1840, Vol. I. p. 233; Cavallo, Electricity, London, 1795, Vol. III. p. 6;
Izarn, Manuel, Paris, 1804, p. 4 ; Journal Encycloptdique de Bologne, 1786,
No. 8; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 417; Sue, aine " Hist, du Galv.," Vol. I.
pp. 1-2.
A.D. 1785. — Coulomb (Charles Augustin de), the founder of
electro-statics and of the school of experimental physics in France,
invents the torsion balance, with which he discovers the true law
of electric and magnetic attractions and repulsions. Some have
asserted that Lord Stanhope had previously established the law
with regard to electricity, but it has not been seriously questioned
that its extension to magnetism belongs exclusively to Coulomb.
Johann Lamont (" Handbuch . . ." p. 427) gives the credit of the
latter discovery to Giovannantonio Delia Bella, of Padua, who is
mentioned by Poggendorff (" Biog.-Liter. Handworterbuch," Vol. I.
p. 139) as the author of several works on electricity and magnetism,
but the claim does not appear to be established upon any satisfactory
foundation.
With his torsion balance, or rather electrometer, Coulomb meas-
ured the force by the amount of twist it gave to a long silken thread
carrying a horizontal needle, constructed, preferably, of a filament
of gum-lac or of straw covered with sealing-wax. From his experi-
ments he concluded : That the attractive force of two small globes,
one electrified positively and the other negatively, is in the inverse
ratio of the squares of the distances of their centres, and that the
repulsive force of two small globes, charged either with positive
or negative electricity, is inversely as the squares of the distances
of the centres of the globes (" M£m. de 1'Acad. Roy. des Sciences,"
1784, 1785).
In one of his three memoirs to the French Academy during
1785, he states that a balance used by him was so delicate that each
degree of the circle of torsion expressed a force of only one
hundred-thousandth of an English grain, that another, suspended
by a single fibre of silk four inches long, made a complete revolution
with a force of one seventy-thousandth of a grain, and turned to
the extent of a right angle when a stick of sealing-wax, which had
been rubbed, was presented to it at the distance of a yard. It is
said that a similar electrometer has been constructed in which the
movement of one degree recorded a force not exceeding twenty-one
million six-hundred-thousandths of a grain.
The many valuable experiments made by Coulomb on the
dissipation of electricity and upon the distribution of electricity
upon the surfaces of bodies are fully recorded in the able article of
Sir David Brewster in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" (F. C. Achard,
276 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" M&n. de Berlin/' 1780, p. 47) ; M. Vernier, " De la dist. . . .
conducteurs," Paris, 1824; J- L. F. Bertrand, " Programme d'une
these . . ." Paris, 1839; D. Bourdonnay, " Sur la dist. . . .
conducteurs," Paris, 1840 ; Ed. A. Roche in " Montp, Acad. Sect.
Sciences/' Vol. II. p. 115).
He discovered that shellac is the most perfect of all insulators,
also that a thread of gum-lac insulates ten times better than a dry
silken thread of the same length and diameter : and he established
the law that the densities of electricity insulated by different lengths
of fine cylindrical fibres, such as those of gum-lac, hair, silk, etc.,
vary as the square root of the lengths of the fibre.
Besides the communications above alluded to, Coulomb sent to
the French Academy, during the years 1786, 1787, 1788 and 1789,
many papers upon Electricity and Magnetism, and, up to within
two years of his death (1806), he made many notable experiments,
especially in magnetism, of which full accounts are given^in several
of the Memoires noted at foot. The theory of the two magnetic
fluids appeared in his 1789 paper. It is also in this same paper that
Coulomb describes his improved method of making artificial magnets
by employing compound magnets as first made use of by Gowin
Knight and as explained at A.D. 1746. Still further improvements
in these were brought about more particularly by the young Flemish
scientist, Etienne Jean Van Geuns (1767-1795), by Jean Baptiste
Biot (see A.D. 1803), and by the Rev. Dr. Scoresby during the
year 1836.
Coulomb found that a steel wire is, by twisting, rendered capable
of being nine times more strongly magnetized; that the magnetic
power dwells on the surface of iron bodies and is independent of
their mass ; that the directive force of a magnetized bar reached its
maximum when tempered to a bright cherry-red heat at 900 degrees,
and that every substance is susceptible of magnetism to a degree of
actual measurement. This last important research was communi-
cated by him to the French Institute during the year 1802. His
experiments proved that a grain of iron could communicate sensible
magnetism to twenty pounds' weight of another substance, and that
when even beeswax had incorporated with it a portion of iron filings
equal only to the one hundred-and-thirty-thousandth part of its
weight it was yet sensibly affected by the magnet.
According to Dr. Thomas Young, Coulomb's improvements in
the theory of electricity may be considered as having immediately
prepared the way for the elegant inventions of Volta and for the
still more marvellous discoveries of Davy. Dr. Young gives reports
of some of Coulomb's experiments at p. 439, Vol. II of his " Course
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 277
of Lectures/' London, 1807 (" Journal of the Royal Institution/'
Vol. I. p. 134; " Decade Philosophique," No. 21).
REFERENCES. — " Me"m. de 1'Acad. Royale des Sciences," Paris, 1784,
" Me* moires de Coulomb," Vol. I of the " Collection de Me" moires relatifs
a la Physique," Paris, 1884; " Cat. of Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. III.
p. 73 ; " Abstracts of Papers of Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. p. 402 ; " Bull, de la
Soc. Philom.," Nos. 3, 31, 61, 63, and for 1795, 1802 ; Journal de Physique,
Vols. XLV (II), pp. 235, 448 ; LIV. pp. 240, 267, 454 ; LV. p. 450 (for
Carradori's report) ; Ch. N. A. De Haldat du Lys (" M6m. de Nancy "
for 1841); Phil. Magazine, Vols. XI. p. 183; XII. p. 278; XIII. p. 401;
XV. p. 186; Rozier, XXVII. p. 116; XLIIL p. 247; Gilbert, XI. pp. 254,
367 ; XII. p. 194 ; Dr. Young, " Course of Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. I.
pp. 682, 685, 686 ; " Royal Society Cat. of Sc. Papers," Vol. II. p. 73 ; Eighth
" Britannica," Vol. XIV. pp. 37-38; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1859,
Vol. V. p. 61 ; SchafTner, "Manual," 1859, p. 56; Biot's article in the
" Biographic Universelle " and Biot's " Traite dc Physique," Paris, 1816,
Vols. II, III; Dr. Thomas Thomson, "Outline of the Sciences," etc.,
London, 1830, pp. 350, 351, 379-422; Harris, " Rudim. Magn.," Parts I,
II. p. 56. See also description of the electrometer of Colardeau and the
electro-micrometer of Delaunay, in the latter's " Manuel," etc., Paris,
1809, pp. 66, 76-80, and Plate V. fig. 61, as well as Libes' " Diet, de
Phys.," Vol. I. p. 406.
A.D. 1785. — The Canon Gottoin de Coma, friend of Alessandro
Volta, observes that an iron wire about thirty feet in length will
give a sound under certain conditions of the atmosphere when
stretched in the open air. The circumstances that accompany, as
well as those that favour the production of the phenomenon, says
Prescott, demonstrate that it must be attributed to the transmission
of atmospheric electricity. This transmission does not occur in a
continuous manner, like that of a current, but is observable by a
series of discharges.
REFERENCES. — Knight's Mechanical Dictionary, 1876, Vol. III.
p. 2515; Prcscott's "The Speaking Telephone," etc., 1879, p. 122; EncyL
Britannica, 1860, Vol. XXL p. 631.
A.D. 1785. — Marum (Martin Van), a Dutch electrician who had
in 1776 taken the degree of M.D. at the Academy of Groningen,
constructs for the Teylerian Society at Haarlem, with the assistance
of John Cuthbertson, an electrical machine said to be the most
powerful theretofore made. According to Cavallo (Nat. Phil.,
1825, Vol. II. p. 194) it consisted of two circular plates of French
glass, each sixty-five inches in diameter, parallel with each other on
a common axis, and about seven and a half inches apart. Each
plate was excited by four rubbers, the prime conductor being divided
into two branches which entered between the plates and, by means
of points, collected the electric fluid from their inner surfaces only.
In Van Marum 's machine, the positive and negative electricity
278 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
could only be obtained in succession, but Dr. Hare, of the University
of Pennsylvania, remedied this by causing the plates to revolve
horizontally. It is said the machine was so powerful that bodies
at a distance of forty feet were sensibly affected ; a single spark from
it melted a leaf of gold and fired various kinds of combustibles ; a
thread became attracted at the distance of thirty-eight feet, and a
pointed wire was tipped with a star of light at a distance of twenty-
eight feet from the conductor.
Descriptions of his machines are given by Dr. Van Marum in
letters to the Chevalier Marsiglio Landriani and to Dr. Ingen-housz,
both printed in Haarlem during 1789 and 1791. The first quarto
volume of Nicholson's Journal also contains a reference thereto and
gives (p. 83) the extract from a letter read June 24, 1773 (Phil.
Trans. , Vol. LXIII. pp. 333-339), addressed to Dr. Franklin, F.R.S.,
by John Merwin Nooth, M.D., who describes improvements by which
machines are rendered effective in all kinds of weather. Nooth was
the inventor of the silk flap, of which mention was made in the
description of Cavallo's machine (under A.D. 1775).
Van Marum also constructed a powerful battery, the metallic
coatings of which were equal to 225 square feet, enabling him to give
polarity to steel bars nine inches long, nearly half an inch wide and
one-twelfth of an inch thick, as well as to sever a piece of boxwood
four inches diameter and four inches long, and to melt three hundred
inches of iron wire one hundred-and-fiftieth of an inch in diameter,
or ten inches of one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. It is said
that, during these experiments, the report was so loud as to stun
the ears, and the flash so bright as to dazzle the sight.
Dr. Van Marum likewise made experiments upon the electricity
developed during the melting and cooling of resinous bodies, which
are detailed in the article " Electricity," 8th Edit. " Encyclopaedia
Britannica," Vol. VIII. p. 565, and also upon the effects of electricity
on animals and vegetables, which are given at pp. 49-51 of the
article " Electricity " in the " Library of Useful Knowledge/' as
well as in the 1855 Edit. " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Vol. VIII.
pp. 602, 603.
In 1785 again Van Marum discovered that electric sparks, on
passing through oxygen gas, gave rise to a peculiar sulphurous or
electrical odour, which Cavallo called " electrified air/' and the
presence of which Dr. John Davy, brother of Sir Humphry Davy,
found the means of detecting.
During the month of October 1801 Volt a wrote a letter to Van
Marum asking him to make, in concert with Prof. C. H. Pfaff, of
Kiel, several experiments on the electricity of the pile with the
very powerful apparatus of the Teylerian Society. The extended
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 279
researches of these two scientists are embodied in the Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XII. p. 161, as well as in the " Lettre a Volta," etc., published
at Haarlem during 1802, and are likewise treated of in a very com-
plete manner throughout Chaps. XVI and XXXII of Wilkinson's
well-known work on galvanism. Their united observations confirm
the doctrine of Volta as to the identity of the current of the fluid
put in motion by the voltaic pile and that to which an impulsion is
given by an electrical machine. Thus is answered the question
asked during May 1801 by the Haarlem Society of Sciences, viz.
" Can the voltaic pile be explained in a satisfactory manner by the
known laws and properties of electricity ; or is it necessary to con-
clude the existence of a particular fluid, distinct from the one which
is denominated electrical? " They also demonstrated that the
current put in motion by the voltaic pile has an enormous celerity
" which surpasses all that the imagination can conceive." With a
pile of one hundred and ten pairs of very large copper and zinc
plates, they made experiments on the fusion of iron wires and
ascertained the causes of the more considerable effects of large
piles in the fusion and oxidation of metals, proving, among other
facts, as Biot and Cuvier had already done, that a part of the oxygen
is absorbed whether the operation be carried on in the open air or
in vacuo (Biot and Cuvier, Soc. Philomathique, An. IX. p. 40;
Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXXIX. p. 247).
Another of Van Marmn's experiments is related in a letter to M.
Berthollet. wherein he says :"...! have succeeded in the decom-
position of water, by means of the current of the electrical machine,
provided with a plate of thirty-one inches diameter, constructed by
me on a new plan (see the Journal de Physique for June, 1795). . • •
I took a thermometrical tube, of the kind employed in making the
most sensitive thermometers of Crawford and Hunter, for which
purpose I had procured several of these tubes some time before in
London. Its diameter interiorly was not more than the one-hun-
dredth part of an inch ; and I introduced into it an iron wire of the
diameter of about the three-hundredth part of an inch, to the depth
of about twelve inches. I now closed the end of my thermometrical
tube with sealing wax in such a way that the extremity of the iron
wire should scarcely project, and I placed the tube itself, by means
of a cork, within a larger tube containing water. The rest of the
apparatus was arranged in the customary manner. By directing
the powerful current of the above-mentioned machine to this
apparatus, the copper ball belonging to which, placed on the ther-
mometrical tube, was at the distance of about three or four lines
from the conductor, I succeeded in decomposing the water with a
promptitude nearly equal to that which results from a voltaic pile
280 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of a hundred pairs of metallic plates." This method of decomposing
water is a very tedious one, and is in fact the result of an interrupted
explosion, while the process of Dr. Wollaston (alluded to at A.D. 1801)
is tranquil and progressive.
REFERENCES. — " Biogr. Univ.," Vol. XLII. p. 600; J. G. Heinze,
" Ncue clekt. vcrsuche . . ." Oldenberg, 1777; Tries' claim to Van
Marum's machine in Rozier, XL. p. 116; Prieur's extract in A nnales de
Chimie, Vol. XXV. p. 312; " Verhand. Genootsch. Rott.," VI for 1781
and VIII for 1787; Journal de Physique, XXXI, 1787; XXXIII, 1788
(Marum en Troostwyk) ; XXXIV, 1789; XXXVIII, 1791; XL, 1792;
" Journal du Galvanisme," XI, Cahier, p. 187; "Journal des Savants "
for August 1905 ; " Revue Scientifique, " Paris, April 8, 1905, pp. 428-429 ;
Nicholson's Journal for March 1799, Vol. II. p. 527; Harris, "Elec-
tricity," pp. 62, 90, 171; Cuthbertson, " Practical Electricity," London,
1807, pp. 166, 172, 197, 225; Cavallo, " Electricity," 4th ed., Vol. II.
p. 273; " Lib. of Useful Knowledge," "Electricity," p. 45; Wilkinson,
Elements of Galvanism," etc., London, 1804, Vol. II. pp. 106-128, 384 ;
" Teyler's Tweede Genootschap "; Gilbert, Annalen, I. pp. 239, 256; X.
p. 121; Rozier, XXVII. pp. 148-155; XXXI. p. 343; XXXIV. p. 274;
XXXVIII. pp. 109, 447; XL. p. 270; " Opus. Scelti," IX. p. 41; XIV.
p. 2IO.
A.D. 1785.— Sigaud de la Fond, Professor at the College d'Har-
court in Paris, publishes in the latter city his " Precis historique et
experimental des phenomenes electriques," wherein he states having,
as far back as 1756, made use of a circular plate machine provided
with cushions and similar in shape to that which many claim to have
originated with Ingen-housz and with Ramsden. (See A.D. 1779
and A.D. 1768.)
Sigaud de la Fond is also the author of " Description d'un
Cabinet de Physique " (1784), " Cours de Physique/' etc. (1786),
"Examen.," etc. (1803) and of several treatises on medical electricity.
REFERENCES. — "Journal de Physique," Vol. II. 1773; Figuier,
" Exposition et Histoire," Paris, 1857, pp. 50, 74-76, 178; Poggendorff,
Vol. II. p. 927.
A.D. 1785. — In the " Nachricht von einer neuen Elektrisir-
maschine des Herrn Walkiers von Saint Amand," the last named
gives a description of the electrical machine presented by him in
1784 to the Belgian Academy of Sciences.
It is also described and outlined in Delaunay's " Manuel " named
below, but, although very powerful in its effects, cannot be made
readily available in consequence of its huge dimensions. M.
Caullet de Veaumorel suggested the feasibility of changing the
cylinders from a horizontal to a vertical position.
REFERENCES. — " Lichtenberg's Mag.," Vol. III. i st. p. 118 ; Delaunay,
" Manuel," etc., 1809, pp. 14—16.
A.D. 1785. — Adams (George), mathematical instrument maker to
his Majesty, writes an enlarged edition of his " Essay on Electricity/1
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 281
etc., which first appeared the year previous and wherein, as its full
title indicates, he endeavours to explain the theory and practice
of that science and the mode of applying it to medical purposes.
He illustrates many experiments and gives an Essay on Magnetism,
in the treatment of which latter he acknowledges the valuable aid
of Dr. J. Lorimer.
The fifth and last edition of the " Essay/' which was issued by
William Jones in 1799, four years after Adams' death, contains a
communication on the subject of Medical Electricity by John Birch,
the author of " Delia Forza dell' Elettricita," etc., Napoli, 1778.
At p. 86 of the 1799 " Essay/' etc., Adams relates that, while
M. Loammi Baldwin (" Memoirs of Amer. Acad./' Vol. I. p. 257)
held the cord of his kite during the approach of a thunderstorm,
he " observed himself to be surrounded by a rare medium of fire,
which, as the cloud rose nearer the zenith, and the kite rose higher,
continued to extend itself with some gentle faint flashes." At pp.
137, 186 and 222, he alludes to " A. Brook's Miscellaneous Experi-
ments and Remarks on Electricity," etc., as well as to the Rev.
John Lyon's " Experiments and Observations of Electricity/' and
refers to the " Journal of Natural Philosophy " (Vol. II. p. 438) for
Nicholson's experiments on the plus and minus of electricity.
A.D. 1785. — La Metherie (Jean Claude de), French physicist
naturalist, becomes sole editor of the " Journal de Physique, de
chimie et d'histoire naturelle/' and publishes in Paris his " Essai
Analytique," etc., wherein amongst other observations he asserts
that the electric spark results from the combination of oxygen with
hydrogen.
He considers that all bodies exist in an electrical or magnetical
condition, that we are only a temporary aggregation of molecules of
matter governed in different ways by nature's laws, and that excita-
bility is produced by galvanic action resulting from the superposition
of nervous and muscular fibres.
He is also the author of very interesting treatises on animal
electricity communicated to the Journal de Physique (Vol. XLII.
pp. 252, 255, 292), and of which an account is given in Sue's
" Histoire du Galvanisme," Paris, 1802, Vol. I. pp. 64-68. The
last-named work also gives, at p. 80, an account of the letter on
" Galvanism " sent to M. De La Metherie by M. Leopold Vacca-
Berlinghieri (Journal de Physique, Vol. XLI. p. 314).
REFERENCES. — " Biographic G6ndrale," Vol. XXIX. p. 209; Rozier,
XLI. p. 437; Delaunay, " Manuel," etc., 1809, p. 15, also Delaunay's letter
in Phil. Mag* Vol. XXVII. p. 260; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of
Galvanism," London, 1804, Vol. I. p. 62; Vol. II. p. 9; " Opus, Scelti,"
' 373 » Journal de Physique et Chimie (of which La Me'the'rie remained
282 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
editor up to the time of his death, during 1817), Vols. LIII, LIV,
Pluviose, An. XI. p. 161 ; also p. 157 for letter sent him by Giuseppe
Izarn; Ann. di Chim. di Brugnatelli, Vol. XIX. p. 156; Aubert, " Elek-
trometische Flasche," Paris, 1789.
A.D. 1785. — According to Prof. Tyndall, George Cadogan
Morgan sought to produce the electric spark in the interior of solid
bodies. He inserted two wires into wood and caused the spark to
pass between them ; the wood was illuminated with blood-red light
or with yellow light according as the depth at which the spark was
produced proved greater or less. The spark shown within an ivory
ball, an orange, an apple, or under the thumb, illuminates these
bodies throughout. A lemon is especially suited to this experiment,
flashing forth, at every spark, as a spheroid of very brilliant golden
light, and a row of eggs is also brilliantly illuminated throughout,
at the passage of every spark from a Leyden jar. Morgan likewise
made several experiments to ascertain the influence of electricity
on the animal functions. These are alluded to at p. 602, Vol. VIII
of the 1855 " Britannica," and at p. 49 of "Electricity" in the
" Library of Useful Knowledge/'
This George Cadogan Morgan (1754-1798) was an English phy-
sician and also a Professor of Natural Philosophy at Hackney, in an
establishment founded by his uncle, Dr. Price. His " Lectures on
Electricity " appeared in Norwich during the year 1794. In the
second volume he describes (pp. 225-236) " the form, noise, colours
and devastation of the electric flash," and treats (pp. 383-397) of
the " relation of the electric fluid to vegetation," alluding more
particularly to the experiments of Maimbray, Nollet, Achard,
Duvernier, Ingen-housz, Van Breda, Dr. Carrnoy and the Abbe
d'Ormoy. He likewise gives an account of the northern lights,
as well as descriptions of Bennet's movable doubler and electro-
scope, and of Lane's electrometer.
REFERENCES. — Morgan's biography in Larousse, " Diet. Universel,"
Tome XI. p. 562, and in " Biog. Generale," Tome XXXVI. p. 570;
"Bibl. Britan." An. VII. vol. ii. pp. 129, 223, and Vol. XII. p. 3.
A.D. 1786. — Rittenhouse (David), an American physicist and
astronomer who afterward became F.R.S. and succeeded Dr.
Franklin as President of the Am. Philos. Soc., publishes his theory
of magnetism in a letter to John Page at Williamsburg, which is
reproduced at folio 178 of Vol. II, old series, of the Transactions of
the above-named Society.
" Were we called upon/' says Renwick, " to assign him a rank
among the philosophers whom America has produced, we should
place him, in point of scientific merit, a,s second to Franklin alone.'1-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 283
REFERENCES. — "Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.," Vol. II, O.S., pp. 173, 175,
for Page and Rittenhouse, and Vol. III. for Rittenhouse and Jones, as
well as Rittenhouse and Hopkinson, upon "Meteors and Lightning."
A.D. 1786. — Galvani (Aloysio or Luigi), an Italian physician,
who, at the age of twenty-five, was Professor of Anatomy at the
University of Bologna, is led to the discovery of that important
branch of electricity which bears his name. The manuscript giving
the result of his experiments upon the Electricity of Metals is dated
Sept. 20, 1786.
From papers in the " Bolognese Transactions," noted below,
it would appear that he had, even before the year 1780, made many
observations on the muscular contraction oi frogs by electrical
agency. Upon one occasion his wife happened to be holding a
scalpel against the dissected legs and parts of the spine of a frog,
which lay in close proximity to the conductor of an electrical machine
recently charged by one of Galvani's pupils. She noticed that
whenever the dissecting knife touched the muscles they were violently
convulsed, and, upon communicating the fact to her husband, he
repeated and extended the experiment and found it necessary to pass
the electric fluid through a metallic substance in order to develop
the result originally observed. At first the frogs had been hung upon
a copper hook fastened to an iron railing, but he afterward substi-
tuted an arc composed of both metals and with which he could
readily produce the same results as were obtainable with an electrical
machine.
Galvani also made experiments to ascertain the effect of atmo-
spheric electricity upon the nerves of frogs. He connected the latter
with rods leading to lightning conductors erected upon the roof of
his house, attaching also ground wires to the legs of the animals,
and found that the same convulsions appeared whenever lightning
was seen and likewise when heavy storm clouds passed over the
house.
The results of his many interesting observations were first made
public in the celebrated work entitled " Aloysii Galvani de viribus
electric itatis in motu musculari. Commentarius : cum Aldini
dissertatione et notis," which appeared during 1791-1792. Therein,
he expresses the belief that the bodies of animals possess a peculiar
kind of electricity by which motion is communicated through both
nerve and muscle, positive electricity going to the nerve, while
negative electricity goes to the muscle, and that the muscles represent
the exterior and the nerves the interior of the Leyden jar, the dis-
charge being similarly produced by the metal which communicates
with both.
Galvani's singular experiments naturally attracted everywhere
284 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the attention of philosophers, by whom they were repeated and
varied, but by none were they more assiduously prosecuted than by
Volta, who was then a Professor at the Pavia University, and who,
as already indicated, was led by them to the discovery of the voltaic
pile and of voltaic or galvanic electricity.
The announcement of Galvani's observations was made in
Germany, notably by J. F. Ackermann (" Medicinisch-chirurgische
Zeitung "), by M. Er (" Physiologische Darstellung der Lebens-
krafte "), by M. Smuck (" Beitrage zur weiteren Kenntniss," etc.),
and by F. A. C. Gren (" Journal der Physik," Vols. VI, VII and
VIII), while experiments were continued upon an extensive scale
by the Italians F. Fontana, Carlo Francesco Bellinger!, M. Giulio
and F. Rossi, as well as by Samuel T. Von Sommering, by Wilhelm
Behrends and by Karl Friedrich Kielmayer (Kielmaier), Professor of
Medicine at the Tubingen University (Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 1253).
For the curious galvanic experiments of the celebrated French
physician Larrey, and of Stark, Richerand, Dupuytren and Dumas,
see " Bulletin des Sciences de la Societe Philomathique," 1793,
Nos. 23, 24, and " Principes de Physiologic/' Vol. II. p. 312.
REFERENCES. — C. Alibert, " Eloges Historiques dc Galvani, Spallan-
zani, Roussel et Bichat ..." Paris and Bologna, 1802-1806 (" Me"m.
de la Soc. d'Emul. de Paris," Vol. IV; S. Gherardi, " Rapporto sui
Manoscrotti," Bologna, 1840, p. 19) ; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 839; Thomas
Thomson, " History of the Royal Society," London, 1812, pp. 450, etc. ;
Thomas Young, " Course of Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II ; " Bologncse
Transactions " for papers dated April 9, 1772, April 22, 1773 and Jan.
20, 1774; Sabine, " El. Tel.," 1872, pp. 16-18; Knight's " Mech. Diet./'
Vol. II. pp. 936, 937, for extract from report of Nat. Inst. of France,
July 4, 1798; " Johnson's Encyclop.," 1877, Vol. I. p. 1510; Bakewell's
" Electricity," p. 26; " Encyclop. Britannica," 1855, Vol. VIII. p. 530,
and Vol. XXI. pp. 609, etc. ; Fahie's " History," etc., 1884, pp. 180-185 ;
Phil. Trans., 1793; Miller, " History Philos. Illustrated," London, 1849,
Vol. IV. p. 333; Thomson, " Hist, of Chemistry," Vol. II. pp. 251, 252;
Mattcucci, " Traite des phdnomencs, " etc., Part I. p. 7; the Address of
M. Gavarret made in 1848 before the Paris Medical Faculty; J. C. I. A.
Crevc's treatise on Galvanism (" Jour, de la Soc. de Mcd.," Vol. XVIII.
p. 216) ; " Mem. de la Soc. Me"d. d'Emul.," Vol. I. p. 236) ; Biot et Cuvier
(Ann. de Ch.t Vol. XXXIX. p. 247); A. Richerand (" Me"m. de la Soc.
MeU d'Em." Vol. III. p. 311); " Opus. Scelt.," Vol. XV. p. 113 ; " Giornale
Fis. Med.," Vol. II. pp. 115, 131 (letter of B. Carminati) ; Marsiglio
Landriani, " Lettera," etc., 1776; Lettre d'un ami au Comte Prosper
Albo (" Bibl. de Turin," 1792, Vol. I. p. 261 ; Jour, de Phys., Tome XLl.
P- 57) I " Comment Bonon. Scient.," Vol. VII. p. 363 ; account of
the experiments made by MM. Cortambert and Gaillard, reported in
" Me"m. de la Soc. M6d. d'Em.," Vol. I. pp. 232, 235 ; G. Klein's " Dissert,
de M6tal," etc., Maintz, 1794; Ostwald's Klassiker, No. 52, p. 4 ; C. H.
Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism," etc., London, '1804, 2 Vols.
passim ; Wm. C. Wells, " Obs. on the Influence/' etc. (Phil. Trans.,
1795, Pt. XL p. 246) ; E. G. Robertson (An. de Ch., 1801, Vol. XXXVII.
LI32; Jour, de Paris, 10, 15 and 17 Fructidor de 1'An. VIII); Paul
uis Simon, " Beschreibung neuengalvanisch," etc., " Resultate," etc.,
and "Versuche," etc., all published in 1801 (L. W. Gilbert's Annalen,
1801, Book V, An. de Chimie, No. 121, p. 106) ; L.W.Gilbert's Book VI of the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 285
Annalen, containing the " Memoirs on Galvanism," by J. L. Boeckmann,
L. A. von Arnim, Paul Erman, M. Gruner and C. H. Pfaff; C. Dupuytren,
" Faits Particuliers," etc., 1801; J. B. Trommsdorff, " Exper. Galv.,"
1801 ; M. Rouppe's letter of Aug. 28, 1801, in Van Mons' Jour, de Ch.t
Vol. I. pp. 106, 108; M. Bichat (Sue, " Hist, du Galv.," II. p. 216);
A. M. Vassalli-Eandi (Jour, de Phys., Frimaire, An. X. p. 476) ; C. F.
Hellwag and M. Jacobi fils, " Erfahrungen," etc., 1802 ; M. le Comte de
Pusckin's experiments on Galvanism, made Sept. and Dec. 1801, with a
colonne tournante (Sue, "Hist, du Galv.," Vol. II. pp. 257, 258); Al.
Volta, in Jour, de Leipzig, and in " Comment . . . Med. gestis," 1792;
Johann Mayer, " Abh. . . . Galvani, Valli, Carminati u. Volta ..."
Prag, 1793); Junoblowiskiana Society ("Comment . . . Med. gestis,"
1793) I " Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography," Wm. McKenzie
London, n. d., Vol. II. p. 546; M. Cortambert (" Mem . . . Soc. . . .
d'Emul.," I. p. 232); M. Payss6 (" Jour, de la Soc. dcs Pharm.," first
year, p. 100) ; Geo. Couvier (Jour, de Physique, Vol. VII. p. 318; " Mem.
des Soc. Sav. et Lit.," Vol. I. p. 132), 1801 ; C. Mathieu (" Rec. de la
Soc. d'Agr. . . . d' Autun," An. X. p. 21), 1802; Ponton d'Am£court,
" Expos6 du Galvanisme," Paris, 1803 ; Joseph Weber's works, published
in 1802-1803, 1815, 1816, and those of J. K. F. Hauff, Marburg and
Leipzig, 1803, 1804; M. Curtet (Jour, de Van Mons., No. VI. p. 272;
Jour, de Physique, An. XL p. 54), 1803 ; William Meade (" On the origin
and progress of Galvanism"), Dublin, 1805; J. C. Reil (Jour, de Van
Mons., No. IV. p. 104; Sue, " Hist, du Galv.," Vol. IV. p. 26); J. A.
Heidmann (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXVIII. p. 97), 1807; Sir Richard Phillips,
" Electricity and Galvanism explained . . ." (Phil. Mag., Vol. LVI.
p. 195), London, 1820; B. G. Sage, " Recherches . . . Galvanisme";
Leopold Nobili, " Sur le courant. . . ." Geneve, 1827.
A.D. 1786. — Hemmer (J. J.), celebrated physician and secretary
of the Meteor. Society of Mannheim, gives, in the " Transactions of
the Electoral Society," an account of what have been pronounced
the most complete series of experiments ever made upon the elec-
tricity of the human body. They absolutely show that the human
subject possesses no species of electrical organs which are under the
regulation of the will. Of his many observations, the following are
worth recording : He found that the electricity of the body is
common to all ages and sexes ; that its intensity and character often
vary in the same body (in 2422 experiments, it was 1252 times
positive, 771 times negative and 399 times imperceptible) ; that the
electricity of the body is naturally positive, it being always so when
subject to no violent exertion, and that when the body is subjected
to sudden or violent motion the electricity becomes negative, the
case also when the body experiences either cold or extreme
lassitude.
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Brit.," Vol. VIII, 1855, p. 571 ; "Rheinische
Beitragen zur Gelehrsamkeit " for 1781, Fifth Book, pp. 428-466; Van
Swinden, " Recueil," etc., La Haye, 1784, Vols. I and II passim ;
" Observ. sur la Phys.," July, 1780; Phil. Mag., 1799, Vol. V. pp. i, 140;
" Comment. Acad. Theod.-Palat.," Vols. IV, V and VI of Phys. ; " M6m.
de 1'Acad. de Mannheim," Vol. IV; " Pfalzbayr. Beitrage " for 1782.
A.D. 1787. — Lomond — Lomont — (Claude Jean-Baptiste), a
very capable French machinist, and " one who has a genius for inven-
286 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
lion," is the first to introduce a successful electric telegraph consisting
of but one wire. Of this the following account appears under date
Oct. 16, 1787, in Arthur Young's " Voyage Agronomique en France "
(" Travels "), fourth edition, Vol. I. p. 79 : " You write two or three
words on a paper ; he takes it with him into an adjoining room and
turns a machine in a cylinder case, on the top of which is an electro-
meter having a pretty little ball of pith of a quill suspended by a
silk thread ; a brass wire connects it to a similar cylinder and electro-
meter in a distant apartment, and his wife, on observing the move-
ments of the corresponding ball, writes the words which it indicates.
From this it appears that he (Lomond) has made an alphabet of
motions. As the length of the brass wire makes no difference in
the effect, you could correspond with it at a great distance, as, for
example, with a besieged city or for objects of much more impor-
tance. Whatever be the use that shall be made of it, the discovery
is an admirable one/'
REFERENCES. — Ed. Highton, " Elec. Tel.," 1852, p. 38; Sabine,
" Elec. Tel.," pp. lo-n ; Shaffner, "Manual," pp. 132, 133; Vail's
" History," etc., p. 121 ; " Appleton's Encycl.," 1871, Vol. XV. p. 335.
A.D. 1787. — Brard (Cyprien Prosper), French mineralogist,
first observes that some crystals of axinite (consisting mainly of
silica, alumina, lime and peroxide of iron) become electric by
heat.
REFERENCES. — Gmelin, article " Elecricity," etc., Vol. I. p. 319;
Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 1205 ; Thomas, " Diet, of Biog.,"
Vol. I. p. 429; " Enc. Brit.," 8th ed., Vol. VIII. p. 530; Brard, " Manuel
du Mineralogiste," etc., Bordeaux Academy of Sciences Report for
1829, p. 39, and for 1838, p. 84 — the latter containing M. Hatchett's
observations on one of M. Brard's meteorolites.
A.D. 1787.— Haiiy (Le Pere Rene Just), native of Picardie
and member of the Acad6mie Royale des Sciences, publishes an
abridgment of the doctrines of ^pinus (at A.D. 1759) under the
title of " Exposition raisonnee de la Th6orie de TElectricite et du
Magnetisme." He was doubtless the first to observe that in all
minerals the pyro-electric state has an important connection with
the want of symmetry of the crystals, and no proof of the extent
to which he directed his investigations in that line can more readily
be had than by consulting general " Encyclopaedia " articles relative
to the pyro-electricity of boracite (borate of magnesia), of prehnite
(silica, alumina and lime), of mesotype (hydrated silicate of alumina
and of lime or of soda), of sphene (silica, titanic acid and lime),
calamine (silicate of zinc) and of Siberian topaz.
At pp. 480, 481 of his " Outline of the Sciences/' etc., London,
1830, Dr. Thomas Thomson states :
" There is a hill of sulphate of lime, called Kalkberg, situated near
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 287
Lunebourg, in the duchy of Brunswick, in which small cubic crystals
are found. These cubes are white, have a specific gravity of 2*566,
and are composed of two atoms of boracic acid combined with one
atom of magnesia. They are distinguished among mineralogists
by the name of boracite. If we examine the cubic crystals of boracite,
we shall find that only four of the solid angles are complete, consti-
tuting alternate angles placed at the extremity of two opposite
diagonals at the upper and lower surface of the cube. The other
four solid angles are replaced by small equilateral triangles. When
the boracite is heated all the perfect solid angles become charged
with negative electricity, while all the angles replaced by equilateral
triangles become charged with positive electricity. So that the bora-
cite has eight poles : four positive and four negative. Those are
obviously the extremities of four diagonals connecting the solid
angles with each other. One extremity of each of these diagonals
is charged with positive and the other extremity with negative
electricity. In general, the electricity of boracite is not so strong
as that of the tourmaline." This curious law of the excitability of
the boracite and of its eight poles was discovered by Haiiy in 1791
(Haiiy's " Mineralogie," 260, second edition).
Axinite, mesotype, and the silicate of zinc are also minerals
which become electric when heated, and which, like the tourmaline,
exhibit two opposite poles, the one positive, the other negative. It
is not every crystal of axinite and mesotype which possesses this
property, but such only as are unsymmetrical, that is to say, such
as have extremities of different shapes. No doubt this remark
applies also to the silicate of zinc ; though as the crystals of that
mineral are usually acicular it is not so easy to determine by
observation the degree of symmetry which they may possess.
The topaz, prehnite, and the titaniferous mineral called sphene
are also capable of being excited by heat, and have two opposite
poles like those already mentioned.
Haiiy also made the most extensive and accurate observations
known upon the development of electricity in minerals by friction.
Detailed lists of the different classes of minerals, as well as the
conclusions arrived at through various experiments, are given in
the " Encyclopedia Britannica," Vol. VIII, 1855, pp. 538, 539,
while at pp. 529 and 558 of the same work are to be found accounts
of his observations on the electricity of the tourmaline, as well as a
description of the different electroscopes employed in his many
experiments,
REFERENCES. — Priestley, " History of Electricity," 1767, pp. 314-
326; Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 319; Noad, " Manual," pp. 27-31 ;
also article " Electricity " in " Library Useful Knowledge," pp. 3,
288 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
54, 56; M. Lister, "Collection Acade"mique," Tome VI; " Socie'te*
Philomathique," An. V. p. 34; An. XII. p. 191; " Me"m. du Museum
d'Hist. Nat.," Vol. Ill ; " Mem. de Flnstitut," An. IV. tome i., " Sciences
Math, et Phys." p. 49; "Mem. dc rAcade"mie," 1785, Mem. p. 206;
Philosophical Magazine, Vols. XX. p. 120; XXXVIII. p. 81 ; Thomas
Thomson, " Hist, of the Roy. Soc.," London, 1812, pp. 180, etc. ; Young's
" Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II ; Haiiy, " Traite" Elementaire de Phy-
sique," Chap VII, " Magnetism " ; Experiments of J. L. Trem6ry (author
of " Observations sur les Aimants Elliptiqucs," recorded in Journal des
Mines, Vol. VI for 1797, also in Jour, de Phys., Vols. XLVIII and
LIV) and of M. De Nelis, some of whose observations are given in the
Phil. Mag., Vol. XLVIII. p. 127, and in the Jour, de Phys., Vols. LXI.
p. 45; LXII. p. 150; LXIII. p. 147; LXIV. p. 130; LXVI. pp. 336, 456,
as shown and illustrated at pp. 153-162 of Delaunay's " Manuel," etc.,
of 1809; " Stances de 1'Acad. de Bordeaux " for 1835, giving M. Vallot's
report on the difference existing between the chalcedony and the tour-
maline. Regarding the latter, consult S. Rinmann (" K. Schwed. Akad.
Abh.," XXVIII. pp. 46, 114); C. Rammelsberg, " Die Zuzam . . . und
P'eldspaths " ; Mr. Magellan's edition of Cronstedt's Mineralogy for
Steigliz's tourmaline ; Cesare G. Pozzi, on the tourmaline ; H. Von Meyer
(" Archiv. . . . Ges. Natural," XIV. 3, p. 342); M. Lechman (Berlin
Academy Reports); Carl Von Linn6 (Linnaeus), "Flora Zeylanica,"
Stockholm, 1747; M. Leymerie (Toulouse Acad. Reports); Brewster,
"Journal" I. p. 208; J. K. Wilcke (" Vetensk. Akad. Handl.," 1766
and 1768); Jos. Muller, " Schreiben . . . Tourmaline," Wien, 1773;
F. J. Muller von Reichenstein, " Nachr. ... an Born," Wien, 1778;
H. B. de Saussure (" Jour, de Paris "), 1784; Louis Delaunay's letter on
the tourmaline, 1782; D. G. Fischer's works, published at Mosk, 1813,
1818; J. D. Forbes (" Edin. Trans.," Vol. XIII), 1834.
A.D. 1787. — Charles (Jacques Alexandra Cesar), a singularly
able French physicist and experimentalist, who became the Secretary
of the Academic des Sciences, relates many of his electrical experi-
ments in the thirtieth volume of the Journal de Physique.
He was one of the first to study and develop the theories of
Franklin, who, in company with Volta, frequently attended the
brilliant lectures which Charles was enabled to give in what was
then considered the most complete philosophical laboratory of
Europe. In many of his experiments on atmospherical electricity,
Charles has been known to produce thousands of sparks, beams or
flashes, which exceeded 12 feet in length and which made reports
similar to those of fire-arms. The French Academy endorsed the
opinion given the Minister of War by Charles to the effect that " a
conductor will effectually protect a circular space whose radius is
twice the length of the rod."
Charles invented the megascope and was the first to make an
ascension in a hydrogen balloon, which he did in company with M.
Robert on the ist of December (not on the 2nd of August) 1783,
ten days after the first trip made by Pilatre de Rozier and Comte
d'Arlandes in a Montgolfidre from the Paris Bois de Boulogne.
REFERENCES. — " Biographic Gen&rale," Vol. IX. pp. 929-933 ; La-
rousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. HI. p, 1020; Journal de Physique for 1791,
p. 63; " M6moires de 1'Acad. des Sciences " for 1828; George Adams,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 289
" Lectures on Nat. and Exp. Philosophy," London, 1799, Vol. III.
pp. 462-464; Edin. EncycL, 1813, article " Aeronautics," Vol. T. p. 160,
" Franklin in France," 1888, Part II. pp. 256, 270, 276-280; M. Veau
Delaunay, Introduction to his " Manuel," etc., Paris, 1809, pp. 19, 25
and 61-63 ; also pp. 23, 68, 92, 96, 122, 176 and 214.
A.D. 1787. — Mann (Theodore Augustin), Abbe, Flemish writer
and antiquary, becomes perpetual secretary of the Brussels Academy
of Sciences ten years after leaving the Nieuport Monastery (1777),
and is charged with the duty of making meteorological observations,
which are regularly transmitted to the Mannheim Academy officials,
who receive similar reports regularly from different parts of Europe
and publish them under the title of " Ephemerides Meteorologiques."
His many investigations made with electrical machines are
embraced in the last-named publication and are also alluded to in
his " Marees Aeriennes/' etc., which appeared in Brussels during
the year 1792.
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Generate," Tome XXXIII. p. 231 ; Larousse,
" Diet. Universe!," Tome X. p. 1085 ; Phil. Mag., Vol. IV. p. 337 ; " Comm.
Ac. Thcod. Pal.," 1790, Vol. VI. p. 82.
A.D. 1787.— Bennct (Rev. Abraham), F.R.S., first describes in
the Philosophical Transactions for this year, pp. 26-32, the gold-
leaf electroscope which bears his name and which is considered
the most sensitive and the most important of all known instruments
for detecting the presence of electricity. It consists of a glass
cylinder which is covered with a projecting brass cap, made flat
in order to receive upon it whatever article or substance is to be
electrified, and having an opening for the insertion of wires and of a
metallic point to collect the electricity of the atmosphere. The
interior of the cap holds a tube which carries two strips of gold leaf
in lieu of the customary wires or threads, and upon two opposite
sides of the interior of the cylinder are pasted two pieces of tin-
foil directly facing the gold-leaf strips. The cap is turned around
until the strips hang parallel to the pieces of tinfoil, so that any
electricity present will cause the strips to diverge and make them
strike the tinfoil, which will carry the electricity through the
support of the cylinder to the ground.
This electroscope, says Wilkinson, possesses great sensibility,
and through the movable coatings introduced by Mr. Pepys, very
small portions of electricity are discernible. Another very excellent
electroscope is formed with either extremely fine silver thread, pre-
pared after the manner of Mr. Read, or with the minutest thread
found in a bundle of very fine flax, having a little isinglass glue
applied gently over it with the finger and thumb.
Of the numerous observations made by Bennet, the following
interesting extract relative to the phenomenon of evaporation is
290 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
taken from the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1787. " If
a metal cup with a red hot coal in it be placed upon the cap of a
gold leaf electroscope, a spoonful of water thrown in electrifies the
cup resinously ; and if a bent wire be placed in the cup with a piece
of paper fastened to it to increase its surface, the vitreous electricity
of the ascending column of vapour may be seen by introducing the
paper into it. The experiments on the evaporation of water may
be tried with more ease and certainty of success by heating the
small end of a tobacco pipe and pouring water into the head, which,
running down to the heated part, is suddenly expanded, and will
show its electricity when projected upon the cap of the electrometer
more sensibly than any other way that I have tried. If the pipe
be fixed in a cloven stick and placed in the cup of one electrometer
while the steam is projected upon another, it produces both elec-
tricities at once."
Some of Mr. Bennet's experiments with the electroscope on the
electricity of sifted powders, upon the electricity of the atmosphere,
etc., are recorded at pp. 564 and 566 of the " Britannica," Vol.
VIII, and at p. 56 of " Library of Useful Knowledge/'
Mr. Bennet also invented the electrical doubter, designed to
increase small quantities of electricity by continually doubling
them until visible in sparks or until the common electrometer
indicates their presence and quality (Phil. Trans, for 1787, p. 288).
It consists of three plates of brass, illustrated and explained at
Fig* 9> P- 20> Vol. I of Prescott's " Electricity and the Electric
Telegraph," 1885 edition, wherein it is stated that in forty seconds
the electricity can thus, by continual duplication, be augmented
five hundred thousand times. (See, for doublers, C. B. De'sormes
and J. N. P. Hachette, in Annales de Chimie, Vol. XLIX for 1804;
J. Read (Phil. Trans, for 1794, p. 266) ; Sir Francis Ronalds (Edin.
" Phil. Journal," Vol. IX. pp. 323-325).)
At p. 105 of his " Rudim. Magnetism," Snow Harris mentions
the fact that, in some of his experiments, Mr. Bennet employed a
magnetic needle suspended by filaments of a spider's web as a
magnetometer. In this connection, it may be said that, in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1792, the assertion is made that a
fine and weakly magnetic steel wire suspended from a spider's
thread of three inches in length will admit of being twisted around
eighteen thousand times and yet continue to point accurately in
the meridian, so little is the thread sensible of torsion (Young's
" Course of Lectures," 1807, Vol. II. p. 445). The use of the spider's
line had, during the year 1775, been recommended as a substitute
for wires by Gregorio Fontana, who, it is said, obtained threads
as fine as the eight-thousandth part of a line. In a lecture delivered
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 291
at Boston, Mass., during the year 1884, Prof. Wood alluded to
spiders' threads estimated to be one two-millionths of a hair in
thickness.
REFERENCES. — Bennet, " New Experiments on Electricity," etc.,
Derby, 1789, and " A New Suspension of the Magnetic Needle," etc.,
London, 1792; Introduction to " Electrical Researches," by Lord Henry
Cavendish; Sc. Am. Supplement, No. 647, pp. 10, 327; Noad, " Manual,
p. 27; Cavallo, " Nat. Phil.," 1825, Vol. II. pp. 199, 216; Phil. Trans.,
Vol. LXXVII. pp. 26-31, 32-34, 288-296; also the abridgments by
Hutton, Vol. XVI. pp. 173, 176, 282 and Vol. XVII. p. 142 ; Sc. American,
Vol. LI. p. 19; Annales de Chimie, Vol. XLIX. p. 45; Ezekiel Walker,
Phil Mag. for 1813, Vol. XLI. p. 415 and Vol. XLII. pp. 161, 215,
217, 371, 476, 485; also Vol. XL1II. p. 364.
A.D. 1788. — Barth&emy (Jean Jacques), who, after completing
his studies in a French seminary of Jesuits, succeeded Gros de Boze
as keeper of the king's cabinet of medals, publishes in four volumes,
at Paris, the first edition of his " Voyage du Jeune Aria char sis."
In this well-known work, begun by him in 1757, and translated
into English under the title " Travels of Anacharsis the Younger
in Greece/7 Barthelemy alludes to the possibility of telegraphing
by means of clocks (pendules, not horloges), having hands similarly
magnetized in conjunction with artificial magnets. These were
" presumed to be so far improved that they could convey their
directive power to a distance, thus, by the sympathetic movements
of the hands or needles in connection with a dial alphabet, com-
munications between distant friends could be carried on."
Writing to Mme. du Deffand in 1772, he observes :
" It is said that with two timepieces the hands of which are
magnetic, it is enough to move one of these hands to make the
other take the same direction, so that by causing one to strike
twelve the other will strike the same hour. Let us suppose that
artificial magnets were improved to the point that their virtue
could communicate itself from here to Paris ; you have one of these
timepieces, we another of them ; instead of hours we find the letters
of the alphabet on the dial. Every day at a certain hour we turn
the hand, and M. Wiard [Mme. du Deffand's secretary] puts to-
gether the letters and reads. . . . This idea pleases me immensely.
It would soon be corrupted by applying it to spying in armies and
in politics, but it would be very agreeable in commerce and in
friendship."
REFERENCES. — " Correspondance ine"dite de Mad. Du Deffand," Vol.
II. p. 99; letter of J. MacGregor in Journal Society of Arts, May 20,
1859, pp. 472, 473-
A.D. 1789. — Adriaan Paets Van Troostwyk and Jean Rodolphe
Deimann, Dutch chemists, associated for the purpose of scientific
research, complete the experiments of Lord Cavendish and announce,
292 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
in the Journal de Physique, their discovery of the decomposition of
water through the electric spark, which latter is conveyed by means
of very fine gold wires. As is now well known, water is by this
means resolved into its two elements of oxygen and hydrogen, both
of which assume their gaseous form.
The electric machine they employed was a very powerful double-
plate one, of the Teylerian mode of construction, causing the Leyden
jar to discharge itself twenty-five times in fifteen revolutions.
REFERENCES. — " Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. Exp. Rotterdam," Tome
VIII; Journal de Physique, Vol. XXXIII; Noad, "Manual," p. 161 ;
" Encyl. Brit.," Vol. VIII, 1855, pp. 530, 565; " Biog. Univcrselle,"
Vol. X. p. 282 ; De La Rive, " Electricity," Vol. II. p. 443 ; Wm. Henry,
" Elements of Experimental Chemistry," London, 1823, Vol. I. pp. 251,
252; Delaunay's "Manuel," etc., 1809, pp. 180-183; " Verhandl. van
hct Gcnootsch te Rotterdam" ("Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. Exp. de
Rotterdam") Vol. VIII; Poggenclorff, Vol. I. p. 1555; Dove, p. 243;
G. Carradori (Brugnatclli's Annali di chimica, Vol. I. p. i) ; John
Cuthbertson, " Beschreibung eincr Elekt. . . ." Leipzig, 1790.
A.D. 1790. — Reveroni — Saint-Cyr (Jacques Antoine, Baron de),
French Colonel and author, best known by his very interesting work,
" Mecanismes de la Guerre," proposes an electric telegraph for
the purpose of announcing the drawings of lottery numbers ; no
satisfactory information as to its construction, however, appears
obtainable.
REFERENCES. — Fahie, " History," etc., London, 1884, p. 96; Etenaud,
" La Telegraphic Electrique," 1872, Vol. 1. p. 27; Sc. Am. Supp., No.
384, pp. 6, 126.
A.D. 1790. — Mr. Downie, master of his Majesty's ship " Glory,"
makes a report on local attraction wherein he observes " that in all
latitudes, at any distance from the magnetic equator, the upper
ends of iron bolts acquire an opposite polarity to that of the latitude,'1
an observation, Harris remarks, which accords with Marcel's
experiment (at A.D. 1702).
" I am convinced," says Mr. Downie, " that the quantity and
vicinity of irqn, in most ships, has an effect in attracting the needle ;
for it is found by experience that the needle will not always point
in the same direction when placed in different parts of a ship ; also,
it is very easily found that two ships, steering the same course by
their respective compasses, will not go exactly parallel to each
other ; yet when their compasses are on board the same ship they
will agree exactly."
REFERENCES. — William Walker, " The Magnetism of Ships," London,
1853, p. 20; J. Farrar, " Elements," p. 376; Harris, " Rudim. Magn.,"
1852, Part III. p. 161.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 293
A.D. 1790. — Tralles (Johann Georg), a German scientist, is the
first to make known the negative electricity of cascades. This he
communicates through his " Uber d. Elektricitat d. Staubbachs,"
published at Leipzig.
In the Report on Atmospheric Electricity of Francis J. F. Duprez,
translated from the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Brussels by
Dr. L. D. Gale, we read that one day while in the Alps, opposite
the cascade of Staubbach, near Lauterbrunnen, Tralles " pre-
sented his atmospheric electrometer, not armed with the metallic
wire, to the fine spray which resulted from the dispersion of the
water. He immediately obtained very distinct signs of negative
electricity. The same effect was exhibited at the cascade of
Reichenbach. Volta, a short time after, verified the correctness
of this observation, not only above the great cascades, but also
wherever a fall of water existed, however small, provided the
intervention of the wind caused the dispersion of the drops. The
electricity always appeared to him, as it did to Tralles, negative.
Schiibler repeated the same experiments in his journey to the
Alps in 1813. He observed farther, that this negative electricity
was very strong, since it became perceptible at a distance of 300
feet from the cascade of Reichenbach; and at a distance of 100
feet his electrometer indicated 400 and even 500 degrees. . . .
Tralles attributed it at first to the friction of the minute drops of
water against the air ; but soon after he thought, with Volta, that
the cause was to be found in the evaporation which the same minute
drops experience in falling. ..."
The Italian physicist, Giuseppe Belli, who published at Milan,
during 1836, " Sulla Elettricita negativa delle cascate," entertains
an opinion contrary to that advanced by M. Becquerel, and believes
" that the electrical phenomenon of the water of cascades is owing
to the development of electricity by the induction which the positive
electricity of the atmosphere exercises on the water. The water,
he says, is by induction in the negative state, when the atmosphere
is, as it is ordinarily, charged with positive electricity. At the
moment when this water divides into thousands of minute drops,
it cannot fail to carry the electricity with which the electrical
induction of the atmosphere has impregnated it to all bodies which
it meets."
REFERENCES. — " GEuvres cle Volta," Vol. II. p. 239; Franz Samuel
Wilde, "Experiences sur r<Hectricit6 dcs cascades" (" Memoir es de
Laxisanne," Vol. Ill, " Histoirc," p. 13, 1790) ; " Bibliographie Univer-
selle," N. S., 1836, Vol. VI. p. 148'; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl.
Chemie, Vol. XXVIII for 1808; F. A. C. Gren's Journal der Physik,
294 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Vol. I. for 1790; Humboldt, "Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 344,
and the reference to Gay-Lussac in Ann. de chimie el de physique, Vol.
VIII. p. 167.
A.D. 1790. — Eandi (Giuseppe Antonio Francesco Geronimo), an
able physicist, native of Saluces (1735-1799), reads, May 10,
before the Academy of Sciences of Turin, a Memoir upon Electricity
in vacuo which is printed in the Collections of that Institution. He
studied for the priesthood and entered the Normal College of Turin,
where he followed protracted courses of literature under Bartoli
and of natural philosophy under Beccaria, becoming the assistant
of the latter, whom he finally replaced from 1776 to 1781. He
afterward became Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College
of Fine Arts, where he gave particular attention to electrical studies,
and published several papers on that science, as well as upon natural
philosophy generally.
He bequeathed all his possessions to his nephew Vassalli, upon
condition of the lattcr's taking the name of Eandi.
Besides the above, he wrote : " Memorie istorische," etc., or
" Historical Memoir upon the Studies of Father Beccaria," Turin,
*7&3> which is dedicated to Count Balbi and gives the new theories
of electricity, also an " Essay upon the Errors of Several Physicists
in Regard to Electricity," Turin, 1788.
REFERENCES. — " Notice sur la vie. . . . d' Eandi par Vassalli-
Kandi," Turin, 1804 ; " Biographic Gcnerale," Vol. XV. p. 589; Larousse,
" Diet. Universcl," Vol. VII. p. 5 ; the Turin Academy Memoirs for the
years 1802-1804; Eandi e Vassalli-Eandi, " Physicae Expcrimcntalis,"
etc., Turin, 1793-1794.
A.D. 1790. — Vassalli-Eandi (Antonio Maria), Italian savant
(1761-1825), nephew of G. A. F. G. Eandi, who was, like his uncle,
a pupil of Beccaria, publishes his views concerning the electricity
of bodies and regarding other investigations, as well as a report
upon experiments relative to the electricity of water and of ice,
which appear respectively in L. V. Brugnatelli's Annali di Chimica,
Vol. I. p. 53, in the " Bibl. Fis. d'Europa," Vol. XVII. p. 144, and
in the third volume of " Mem. della Soc. Italiana."
He was one of the most prolific of Italian writers, his more
important essays, which number 160, being written in Italian,
Latin and French, and covering almost every leading branch of
physical science. One of his biographers tells us, // a embrasse,
pour ainsi dire, V ensemble des connaissances humaines, and that he
is one of whom his country may justly be proud.
In his investigations concerning aerolites, which appeared in
1786 (" Memoria . . . sopra . . . bolidi in generale "), he explains
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 295
the movements of those bodies much more satisfactorily than had
previously been done by any scientist. Essays published by him
duiing the same year, as well as in 1789 and 1791, treat of the
effect of electricity upon vegetables ; then follow his papers relative
to Bertholon's " Electricite des Met£ores," to Haiiy's theories and
to the meteorological observations of Senebier, De Saussure, Toaldo
and Monge, up to 1792, when Vassalli was made Professor of Natural
Philosophy at the Turin University. He had also in the meantime
carefully looked into the scientific knowledge possessed by the
ancients, and was led to believe, as shown in his " Conghietture
sopra 1'arte," etc., that they had the means of attracting and
directing thunder and lightning. The latter fact has been alluded
to in this " Bibliographical History/' under the B.C. 600 entry.
(See J. Bouillet, " De 1'etat des connaissances," etc., Saint Etienne,
1862.)
He was after this made perpetual secretary of the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Turin, then became Director of the Museum of Natural
History, as well as of the Observatory situated in the last-named
city, which position he held at the time of his death.
His other essays treat more particularly of animal electricity,
the electricity of fishes, the effects of electricity upon recently
decapitated bodies, the application of electricity and of galvanism
to medicine, and cover very extended observations on meteorology.
He was the editor of both the " Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
of Turin, from 1792 to 1809," and of the " Annals of the Turin
Observatory, from 1809 to 1818 " (Larousse, " Dictionnairc Uni-
verscl," Vol. XV. p. 801) ; was likewise editor of the " Bibliotheque
Italienne," in conjunction with Giulio Gioberti and Francesco
Rossi, and is said to have devised an electrometer superior to
that of Volta.
REFERENCES.— Vassalli-Eandi, Giulio (or Julio) c Rossi, " Rapport
pr6sente," etc., Turin, 1802, or " Transunto del Rapporto," etc.,
Milano, 1803 (" Opusc. Scelti," Vol. XXII. p. 51), translated into
English, London, 1803 (Phil. Mag., Vol. XV. p. 38); also Vassalli-
Eandi, F. Rossi et V. Michelotti, " Precis de nouvclles experiences
galvaniques," Turin, 1809 (" Mem. de Turin," Annees, 1805-1808,
p. 160). See likewise, S. Berrutti, " Elogio," etc., 1839; " Saggio sulla
vita . . . Vassalli-Eandi," Torino, 1825; " Notizie biografiche . . . Vas-
salli Eandi " (" Mem. di Torino," Vol. XXX. p. 19); " Elogio, scritto
dal Berrutti " (" Mem. of the Ital. Soc.," Vol. XXII. p. liv) ; Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XV. p. 319; Journal de Physique, An. VII. p. 336 and Vols. XLIX,
L; "Ital. Soc. Mem.," Vols. VIII. p. 516; X. p. 802; XIII. p. 85;
XVII. p. 230; XIX. p. 347; "Memoiresde Turin," Vols. X-XIII ;
" Mem. dell1 Acad. di Torino," Vols. VI, X, XXII, XXIV, XXVI,
XXVII, XXIX; " Mem. della Soc. Agrar. di Torino," Vol. I ; " Opuscoli
Scelti," Vols. XIX. pp. 215, etc. ; XXII. p. 76; " Nuova Scelta d* Opus-
coli," Vol. I. p. 167; " Opuscoli Scelti di Milano," quarto, Vol. XIV;
"Mem. Soc. Ital.," Vols. IV. p. 263; X. p. 733; " Biblioteca Oltra-
montana "; Brugnatelli's Annali di Chimica ; " Giornale Scientifico . . .
296 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
di Torino," Vols. I, III; " Giornale Fis. Med.," Vol. II. p. no; " Bib-
lioteca Italiana " — " Bibliotheque Italienne," Vols. I. p. 128; II. p. 25;
" Recucil peYiodique . . . de Se"dillot," Vol. II. p. 266.
A.D. 1790-1800. — Morozzo — Morotius — (Carlo Luigi, Comte de),
Italian savant, who studied mathematics under Lagrange, and was
President of the Turin Academy of Sciences, publishes numerous
scientific memoirs in French through the reports of the last-named
institution, in one of which he is said to have described an experiment
suggesting the electro-magnet.
REFERENCES. — Biography in Larousse, " Dictionnairc Universel,"
Tome XL p. 577, and in the " Biographic Generalc," Tome XXXVI.
p. 643.
A.D. 1791. — Leslie (Sir John), an able English scientist (April
1766-Nov. 1832), who, upon the death of Prof. John Playfair,
was called to the Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh, writes a very interesting paper entitled " Observations
on Electric Theories," which is read the following year at the
meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and is published at the
latter place during 1824.
According to Carnevale Antonio Arclla, " Storia deir Elettricita,"
Alessandria, 1839, Vol. I. p. 130, Sir John Leslie is the author of
quite an interesting treatise on the inefficacy of lightning conductors,
and the " English Cyclopaedia " (Biography), Vol. III. p. 866, gives
a list of many of the numerous contributions he made to the leading
publications of his day, more particularly in the " Edinburgh Philos.
Transactions," the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," the " Edinburgh
Review," and " Nicholson's Philos. Journal." The reviewer adds,
what will surprise many readers, that, although some papers by
Sir John Leslie treating of physical subjects were also read before
the Royal Society of London, none were ever printed in their
" Philos. Transactions.''
Professor John Playfair above alluded to (1748-1819), became,
during 1785, Joint Professor of Mathematics with Dr. Adam Ferguson
in the University of Edinburgh and, in 1805, exchanged this for
the Professorship of Natural Philosophy in the same university.
REFERENCES. — Macvey Napier, " Memoir of Sir John Leslie," 1838,
which appeared in seventh edition of " Kncycl. Britan.," Vol. XIII;
" Engl. Cycl." (Biography) ; Rose, " New Gen. Biogr." ; Hcefer, " Nouv.
Biogr. Gen.," Paris, 1862, Vol. XXX. pp. 949-^52 (giving full account
of his works) ; " Encycl. Britan.," ninth edition, Edinburgh, 1882,
Vol. XIV. pp. 476-477, Sidney Lee, " Diet. Nat. Biogr.," Vol. XXXIII.
B3. 105-107 and Vol. XLVIII. pp. 413-414; Pierre Larousse, "Grand
ict. Univ.," Vol. X. pp. 406-407; "Caledonian Mercury," article of
Prof. Napier summarized in the " Gentleman's Magazine " for 1833,
Vol. I. pp. 85-86. Consult also A.D. 1751 at Adanson; " Dove," p. 256;
Philosophical Magazine, Vols. XL and XLII.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 297
A.D. 1791. — At p. 353, Chap. Ill of the first volume of Gmelin's
" Handbook of Chemistry/' it is stated that during 1791 James
Keir (Kier) first showed, by immersing iron in a solution of nitrate
of silver or fuming nitric acid, that many metals can be made to
pass from their ordinary active state into a passive or electro-negative
state and lose either wholly or in part their tendency to decompose
acids and metallic oxides.
At pp. 167-170, Sixth Memoir, of Wm. Sturgeon's " Scientific
Researches " (Bury, 1850), treating of the application of electro-
chemistry to the dissolution of simple metals in fluids, reference
is made to the long line of investigations carried on by both Bergman
and Keir, the last named having demonstrated that iron " acquires
that altered state by the action of nitric acid which Sir John Herschel
met with in his experiments, and has called prepared state, and
that Schonbein and others call the peculiar or the inactive state "
(Noad's " Manual of Electricity," London, 1859, p. 534). The
iron which is active in nitric acid was called by Keir " fresh iron/'
while that which became inactive he designated as " altered iron "
(Sturgeon's " Annals of Electricity," Vol. V. p. 439).
Some remarkable phenomena in the display of which but one
individual piece of metal is used, as first shown by Keir, remain,
Sturgeon says, " without even an attempt at explanation by any
of the philosophers under whose notice they have appeared." Sir
John Herschel pronounces them as of an " extraordinary character " ;
Prof. Andrews, after giving some very satisfactory explanations
of several phenomena, acknowledges that he " can offer no explana-
tion of most of the particular facts which have been described,"
and Professor Schoenbein " has not made public any conclusive
explanation of them whatever " (Phil. Mag. for October 1837,
p. 333, and for April 1838, p. 311).
This same James Keir, called by Watt " a mighty chemist "
(1735-1820), has strangely by some been confounded with Robert
Kerr, also a Scotchman, who was an able scientific writer and lived
at about the same period (1755-1813). Kerr made valuable trans-
lations from Lavoisier and Linnaeus which, during 1805, won for
him a fellowship in the Edinburgh Royal Society. (Consult Sidney
Lee, " Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," London, 1892, Vol. XXI. p. 64, also
the references therein given ; and the article " Faraday " in the
" Encycl. Britan.," ninth edition, Edinburgh, 1879, Vol. IX. p. 30.)
REFERENCES. — Mrs. Amelia Moillet, " Sketch of the Life of James
Keir," 1859; Sidney Lee, "Diet, of Nat. Biog.," London, 1892, Vol.
XXX. pp. 313-314; Annales de Chimie for October 1837; Phil. Trans.
for 1790, p. 353, as well as Hutton's abridgment of the same, Vol. XVI.
p. 694; Sturgeon's "Annals of Electricity,'1 Vol. V. p. 427; Gmelin's
Chemistry, pp. 367, 370. *
298 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1791. — Shaw (George), English naturalist, who became a
Fellow of the Royal Society during the year 1789, communicates
to the latter body a paper on the Scolopendm electrica and Scolo-
pendra subterranea (" Linn. Soc. Trans.," I. pp. 103-111). This
was afterward translated into Italian and appeared in Vol. IX.
p. 26, of Brugnatelli's Annali di Chimica. Mr. James Wilson,
F.R.S.E., in his " Encycl. Brit." article on Myriapoda, alludes to
the Scolopendra electrica as figured by Frisch and described by
Geoffroy in his " Histoire des Insectes," Vol. II. p. 676, n. 5. Shaw
also treats of the Trichiurus Indicm, which Sir David Brewster
believes to be the same as the trichiurus electricm, known to inhabit
the Indian Seas and to have the power of giving electric shocks.
Five years before the above date (1786), the Phil. Trans, con-
tained (p. 382) the description of the tetraodon electricus, which
Lieutenant William Paterson discovered in the cavities of the coral
rocks of one of the Canary Islands and which he found to possess
the properties of other electrical fishes. (See Mutton's abridgments,
Vol. XVI. p. 134.)
REFERENCES. — " Biographic Generate," Vol. XLI1I. p. 922 ; " Gentle-
man's Magazine," Vol. LXXXIII; Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 918; " Cat.
Royal Society Sc. Papers," Vol. V. p. 674; Dr. Thomas Young, " Course
of Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II. p. 436, for the Trichiurus Indicus . . .
Having thus far called attention to the most important varieties
of the electrical fishes, notably at the articles Adanson (A.D. 1751),
Bancroft (A.D. 1769), Walsh, also Hunter (A.D. 1773), the following
original list of additional references will prove interesting :
Raia Torpedo. — Stephani Lorcnzini, " Osservazioni . . ." Firenze,
1678; R. A. F. de Reaumur, " Des Effets . . ." Paris, 1714; Temple-
man, in " Nouvelliste," 1759 ; Ingen-housz (Phil. Trans., 1775) ; Cavendish
(Phil. Trans., 1776, Vol. LXI. p. 584, Vol. LXVI. p. 196, also Button's
abridgments, Vol. II. p. 485; Vol. XIII. p. 223; Vol. XIV. p. 23);
F. Soavc ("Scelta di Opuscoli," Vol. XV), Milano, 1776; J. A. Garn,
" De Torpcdine . . ." Witteb., 1778; R. M. de Termeyer (Raccolta
Fcrr. cli Op. Sc. . . . Vol. VIII), Venice, 1781; L. Spallanzani (" Goth.
Mag.," V. i. 41; " Opusc. Scelti," VI. 73), Milano, 1783; Girardi and
Waller (" Mem. Soc. Ital.," III. 553), Verona, 1786; W. Bryant (" Tr.
Amer. Phil. Soc.," II. 166, O. S.), Philad., 1786; J. W. Linck, " De
Raja Torpedine," Lips., 1788; Vassalli-Eandi (Journal de Physique,
Vol. XLIX. p. 69); Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (" Annal. du Mus.," An.
XL Vol. L, No. 5, and Phil. Mag., Vol. XV. p. 126), 1803; J. F. M.
Offers, " Die Gattung Torpedo ..." Berlin, 1831 ; Linari-Santi in
" Bibl. Univ.," Ser. II., Geneva, 1837-1838, and in " Bibl. Ital.," Vol.
XCII. p. 258, Milan, 1839; C. Matteucci, " Recherches . . ." Geneve,
1837 ("Royal Soc. Catalogue of Sc. Papers," Vol. IV. pp. 285-293);
also Delle Chiaje, " On the Organs . . . and P. Savi, " Etudes ..."
Paris, 1844; G. Pianciani (" Mem. Soc. Ital.," XXII. 7); F. Zantedeschi
(" Bull. Acad. Brux.," VIII. 1841) ; A. Fusinieri ("Ann. del Reg. Lomb.-
Veneto," VIII. 239), Padova, 1838; A. F. J. C. Mayer, " Spicilegium
. . ." Bonnae, 1843; L. Calamai, "Osservazioni . . ." 1845; C. Robin,
* "Recherches . . ." Paris, 1847; Kriinitz, "Abhandl.," XVII; Nicholson's
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 299
Journal, Vol. I. p. 355 ; Rozier, IV. p. 205 ; " Acad. Brux.," in ; " Phil.
Hist, and Mem. of the Roy. Acad. of Sc. Paris," 1742, Vol. V. pp. 58-
73; John Ewing, at A.D. 1795; D,r. Godef. Will. Schilling (in original
Latin, also the French translation), " Biblioth. Britannique," Vol. XL.
pp. 263-272; Dr. Jan Ingen-housz in Phil. Tr. Vol. LXV. p. i; Vol.
LXVIII. pp. 1022, 1027; Vol. LXIX. pp. 537, 661 ; also Hutton's abridg-
ments, Vol. XIII. p. 575; Vol. XIV. pp. 462, 463, 589, 598; " Journal
des Scavans," Vol. LXXVIII. for January-April, 1726, p. 58; "The
System of Natural History, written by M. De. Buffon," Edinburgh,
1800, Vol. II. pp. 24-25.
M. R. A. F. De Reaumur, mentioned above, has communicated the
results of his investigations relative to the torpedo in " Me"m. de Paris "
for 1714, following it up more particularly with another article in the
issue for year 1723 on magnetization, which is also alluded to in " Journal
des Scavans," Vol. LXXXII. for 1727, p. 4.
Silurus Electricus. — Ranzi, on the discovery of the discharge of this
animal; P. Forskal " Beobachtungen . . ." 1775; F. Pacini, " Sopra
1' Organo . . ." Bologna, 1846; Abd-Allatif, Relation de 1'Egypte,
p. 167, quoted at p. 250 ; Note XI. vol. i. of Libri's " Hist, des Math6m." ;
C. Maspero, " The Dawn of Civilization, "New York, 1894, p. 36, wherein
it is said that the silurus was the ndrd of the ancient Egyptians, as
described by Isidore Geoff roy de St. Hilaire in his " Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons du Nil."
Gymnotus Electricus. — T. Richer, " Observations . . ." Paris, 1679
("Hist, et M£m. de 1'Acad. Roy. des Sciences," Vols. I. p. 116; VII.
i. pt. 2, p. 92) ; " Edinburgh Review," Vol. XVI. pp. 249—250 ; John Ewing
at A.D. 1795 ; P. Sue, aine " Histoire du Galvanisme," Paris, An. X, 1802,
Vol. II. pp. 94-97; A. Van Berkel, " Reise nach Rio . . ." Memming,
1789, for the observations made in 1680-1689; J. B. Duhamel (" Hist.
Acad. Sc.," 168); J. N. Allamand, "On the Surinam Eel ... by
S'Gravesande," Haarlem, 1757; Gronov-Gronovius (" Acta Helveti-
ca . . ." IV. 26, Basle, 1760; Phil. Trans., Vol. LXV. part i. p. 94,
1 02, and part. ii. p. 395) ; P. V. Musschenbroek (" Hist, et Merns. de
TAcad. des Sc.," 1760); G. W. Schilling, "Diatribe de Morbo . . ."
1770, treating of the torpedo as well as of the magnetism of the Gym-
notus (which latter was observed by him in 1764, and is alluded to
besides by Jan Ingen-housz in his " Nouv. Expcr.," Paris, 1785) ; " Mem.
of Berlin Acad. of Sc.," Bonnefoy, " De 1'app. de l'61ect . . ." 1782-
1783, p. 48; Ferdinando Elice, " Saggio sull' Elettricita," p. 26; H.
Williamson, Alexander Garden and John Hunter in the Phil. Trans.
for 1775, p. 94, 102, 105, 395, and in Hutton's abridgments, Vol. XIII.
pp. 597-600; R. M. de Tcrmeyer (" Opus. Scclti," IV. 324, for 1781);
H. C. Flagg (" Trans. Amcr. Phil. Soc.," O. S., Vol. II. p. 170); Samuel
Fahlberg, " Beskrifning ofver elektriska alen Gymnotus elcctricus,"
Stockholm, 1801 ; (See Fahlberg at A.D. 1769, and in " Vet Acad. Nyr.
Handl."; Gilbert, Annalen, XIV. p. 416) ; Humboldt, " Observations . . .
anguille elect . . ." Paris, 1806; " Versuche . . . elec. fische," Jena,
1806; also in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XI for 1819,
and at p. 256 of the " Harmonies of Nature," by Dr. G. Hartwig, London,
1866, will be found a picture showing mode of capture of the Electric
Eel; F. S. Guisan, " De Gymnoto . . ." Tubingen, 1819, Carl Palm-
steclt (" Skand. Naturf. motets Forhand," 1842); H. Letheby ("Pro-
ceedings London El. Soc.," Aug. 16, 1842, and June 17, 1843); M.
Vanderlot's work, alluded to by Humboldt at p. 88 of his " Voyage
. . ."; F. Steindachner, "Die Gymnotidie . . . Wien, 1868.
Consult likewise, for reputed magnetic powers of the echeneis, or
sucking-fish, Gaudentius Merula, " Memorabilium," 1556, p. 209;
Fracastorio, " De Sympathia," lib. i, cap. 8; W. Charleton, " Phy-
siologia," 1654, p. 375; Cornelius Gemma, " De Naturae Divinis," 1575,
lib. i, cap. 7, p. 123; and, for electrical fishes generally, Rozier,
Intr., II. p. 432; Bloch, " Naturgeschichte . . ." Berlin, 1786; A. De
300 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
la Rive, " Traite" de I'61ectricit6," Paris, 1858, Vol. III. pp. 61-82;
Rozier, Vol. XXVII. pp. 139-143; " Works of Michael de Montaigne,"
by W. Hazlitt, New York, 1872, Vol. II. pp. 158-159; R. J. Haiiy,
" Trait6 de Physique," p. 41 ; Geoff roy Saint-Hilare (Journal de Phy-
sique, JLVI. 242; Phil. Mag. XV. 126-136, 261; " B. Soc. Phil." N. 70;
Gilbert, Annalen, XIV. 397; "Ann. du Mus." for 1803); M. Schultzc,
" Zur Kentniss . . . elect . . . fische," Halle, 1858 and 1859; Jobert
(dc Lamballe) " Des Appareils . . ." Paris, 1858; W. Kcferstein and
L>. Kupffer (Henle u. Pfeuffer's " Zeitschr. f. rat. Med. Newe Fplgc,"
III. 1858) and Keferstein's " Beitrag . . . elekt. fische," Gottingen,
1859; " Annual of Sc. Discovery " for 1863, giving, at pp. 115-116, the
views of Sir John Herschel, of Charles Robin and of M. Moreau on the
electrical organs of fishes.
A.D. 1792. — Berlinghieri (Francesco Vacca, and not Vacca
Leopold nor Andrea Vacca), Italian surgeon and anatomical writer,
communicates to M. De La Metherie the result of the extensive
experiments made by him in concert with M. Pignotti and his
brother. After describing his investigations with frogs, he remarks
that the same movements and contractions can be produced on
animals with hot blood, but that the latter require a peculiar
process. He says that after having dissected the crural or any
other considerable nerve, and cut it at a certain height to separate
it from its superior part, it should have a piece of tinfoil wrapped
around its summit, and the communication should be made in the
usual way by touching the coating with one of the extremities of
the exciting arc and the muscles in which the nerve is distributed
with the other extremity.
Many other investigations of Berlinghieri were, later on, com-
municated to the Societe Philomathique, by whom they were suc-
cessfully renewed, and, during the year 1810, a translation of his
paper on the method of imparting magnetism to a bar of iron
without a magnet appeared at p. 157, Vol. XXXV. of the Philo-
sophical Magazine.
REFERENCES. — Rozier, XL. p. 133, and XLI. p. 314 ; " Giorn. di Med.
Prac. di Brcra," IX. pp. 171-298; L. B. Phillips, "Diet, of Biog. Kef./1
1871, p. 137; Tipaldo, "Biografia . . ." 1834.
A.D. 1792. — Lalande (Joseph Jerome le Francais de), a distin-
guished scientist, and, doubtless, the best known of all French
astronomers, who had previously communicated (1761) observations
on the loadstone to the " Memoires de Paris," and had likewise
written upon meteoric displays (1771), addresses to the Journal des
Sgavans of Nov. 1792 a treatise entitled " Une Notice sur la de-
couverte du Galvanisme," justifying his claim to being the first
introducer of galvanism into France, which he had before made
through the columns of the Journal de Paris of the 17 Pluviose,
An. VII.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 301
REFERENCES. — Lalande, " Abrege de 1' Astronomic," pp. 101, etc.;
" Biog. G6n6rale," Vol. XXVIII. p. 948; " Biog. Universelle," Vol.
XXII. pp. 603-613; Ninth " Enc. Britannica," Vol. XIV. p. 225;
P. Sue, aind, "Hist, clu Galv.," Paris, An. X (1802), Vol. I. p. i.
A.D. 1792. — Chappe (Claude), a French mechanician (1763-
1805), introduces the semaphore, which he at first called a tachygraphe,
from two Greek words meaning to write fast, but to which M. Miot,
chief of one of the divisions of the War Department, gave the name
of telegraph during the year 1793. Chappe had not long before
devised a contrivance somewhat like that alluded to by Barthelemy
(A.D. 1788), but it was not apparently brought into use.
His semaphore consisted of a vertical wooden pillar 15 feet or
1 6 feet high, bearing a transverse beam n feet or 12 feet long,
which turned upon its centre and held at each extremity pivoted
arms so \vorked by cords or levers as to admit of 256 distinct
signals. The semaphores were placed upon high towers, about four
miles apart, on level ground, and even as much as ten miles apart
upon intervening elevations. This system of signals was presented
by Chappe to the Assemblee Legislative, and was originally erected
during the month of August 1794 upon stations between Paris
and Lille (Lisle), a distance of about 148 miles. One of the first
sentences conveyed between the two places by the Committee of
Public Safety consumed 13 minutes and 40 seconds, but it was not
long before dispatches could be conveyed in two minutes' time,
and it was through Chappe's apparatus that the news of the re-
capture of the city of Conde* was conveyed to the Assembly shortly
after the entry of the troops of the Republic.
It is not now believed that Claude Chappe was acquainted with
the devices of either Robert Hooke (at A.D. 1684) or of Guillaume
Amontons (at A.D. 1704), as was at the time claimed by many of
his jealous contemporaries. No doubt exists that he is justly en-
titled to the credit of having, with the assistance of other members
of his family, developed an entirely new system of signals as well
as the mechanism by which they were operated. The histories of
telegraphy written by I. U. J. Chappe (Paris, 1824 ; Le Mans, 1840)
review Claude Chappe's investigations and the difficulties he en-
countered, besides making reference to the false magnetic telegraphs
of A. T. Paracelsus (A.D. 1490-1541), William Maxwell (A.D. 1679),
and F. Santanelli (" Philosophise reconditse . . ." Coloniae, 1723)
alluded to in the " Diet ion naire des Sciences Medicales."
Claude Chappe's uncle, L'Abbe Jean Chappe d'Auteroche
(1722-1769), French astronomer, who succeeded N. L. dc la Caille
at the Paris Observatory as assistant to Cassini de Thury and
edited a translation of the works of Dr. Halley, is the author of
several memoirs upon the declination and inclination and upon
302 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
lightning, meteors, etc., alluded to in J. B. J. Delambre's " Hist,
de 1'Astron. au i8e siecle," in J. C. Poggendorffs " Biog.-Liter.
Hand./' Vol. I. p. 420, and in the " Me"m. de Paris," 1767, Mtm.
P- 344-
REFERENCES. — English Encyl., '* Arts and Sciences," Vol. VIII. p.
65; " Johnson's Encyl.," Vol. IV. p. 757; " Penny Ency.," Vol. XXIV.
p. 146; Shaffner, " Manual," pp. 27, 45 and 48; " Le Cosmos," Paris,
Feb. 4, 1905, p. 128; Nicholson's " Journ. of Nat. Phil.," Vol. VIII.
p. 164, note; Sc. American Supplement, No. 475, p. 7579; " Emporium
of Arts and Sciences," Vol. I. p. 292 ; Rozier, XXXIV. p. 370, and XL.
p. 329; " Bull, dcs Sc. de la Societe" Philomathique," March 1793, No. 21,
for an account of the experiments of Galvani and of Valli repeated for
the Society by C. Chappe, M. Robillard and A. F. de Silvestre.
A.D. 1792. — Valli (Eusebius), Italian physician of Pisa, corre-
sponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin, pub-
lishes his " Experiments on Animal Electricity," the results of
which were communicated to the French Academy of Sciences and
found to be of such great importance that a committee composed
of Messrs. Le Roy, Vicq d'Azyr, Coulomb and Fourcroy, was
directed to repeat them. The most important were repeated in
Fourcroy *s laboratory on the I2th of July 1792.
Valli was the first to demonstrate that when an arc of two
metals, plumber's lead and silver, is employed upon an animal,
the most violent contractions are produced while the lead is applied
to the nerves and the silver to the muscles. He also showed that
of all metals, zinc, when applied to the nerves, has the most remark-
able power of exciting contractions ; and he found that when a
frog had lost its sensibility to the passage of a current, it regained
it by repose.
These experiments were also repeated before the French Royal
Society of Medicine. M. Mauduyt, who was present, deduced
from the results obtained by Valli that the metals were charged
with a different quantity of the electric fluid, in so much that when
they were brought in contact with each other a discharge ensued.
And, secondly, that the animal body, by which the electric fluid
is rendered perceptible, is a more delicate electrometer than any one
heretofore discovered.
Many new and very interesting investigations were afterward
made by Valli upon different animals, the results of which were
given to the public through the columns of the Journal de Physique
as shown below. These embrace thirteen experiments upon animals
rendered insensible by means of opium and powdered tobacco,
showing electricity to be independent of their vitality, as well as
others to show that the electric fluid is necessary to man and animals.
He fully established the identity of the nervous and the electric
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 808
fluids, and proved that the convulsions took place by merely bring-
ing the muscles themselves into contact with the nerves, without
the intervention of any metal whatever. In answer to the inquiry
of M. Vicq d'Azyr, member of the late French Academy of Sciences,
he supported by nineteen experiments the assertion that however
the blood vessels may be, as they assuredly are, conductors of
electricity, the nerves alone prove capable of exciting muscular
movements in consequence of the mode in which they are disposed.
REFERENCES. — Brugnatelli, Annali di Chimica, Vol. VII. pp. 40,
213, 228 (and pp. 138, 159, 186, 208 for Caldani) ; also the " Giornalc
Fis. Med. di Brugnatelli," Vol. I. p. 264; Sue, " Histoire du Galvanisme, "
Paris, An. X-i8o2, Vol. I. p. 45; " Societ6 Philomathique," Vol. I.
pp. 27, 31, 43; Journal de Physique, Vol. XLI. pp. 66, 72, 185, 189,
193, 197, 200, 435; Vol. XLIl. pp. 74, 238, the last named containing
the " Lettrc sur l'Electricit6 Animale " (" De animalis electricae theorize
. . ." Mutinac, 1792) sent by Valli to MM. De La Metheric and Desgen-
ettes; Report of MM. Chappe, Robillard and Silvcstre on Valli's and
Galvani's experiments (" Soc. Phil." for March 1793, No. 21); Report
of Messrs. Le Roy, Vicq d'Azyr and Coulomb in " Medecine eclairec
par les Sciences Physiques," Tome IV. p. 66; " Epitome of Electricity
and Magnetism," Philad., 1809, p. 133; " Vcrsuche . . . animal, elec-
tricitat " of Karl Friedrich Kielmayer (Kielmaier) of the Tubingen
University (Poggcndorff, Vol. 1. p. 1253; F. A. C. Gren, Journal der
Physik, Vol. VIII for 1794); Flonano Caldani's works, 1792-1795, and
those of Leopoldo Marc-Antonio Caldani, 1757-1823; Junoblowiskiana
Society, 1793-1795-
A.D. 1793. — Fontana (Felice), distinguished Italian experimental
philosopher and physiologist, gives in his " Lettere sopra T Elettri-
cita Animale," the result of further extensive investigations carried
on by him to ascertain more especially all the features of galvanic
irritability and the peculiar actions of the several organs in cases
of death by electricity. Some of his previous observations in the
same line had already been made known through his " Di Moti
dell' Iride," 1765, and " Richerche filosofiche," 1775, all which led
to an active correspondence in after years with the Italian Giochino
Carradori, as will be seen by consulting the volumes of Luigi
Valentino Brugnatelli 's well-known " Giornale Fisico-Medico "
(Cuvier, in " Biog. Univ.," Vol. XV. p. 8, par. 1816; "Giornale
Fisico-Medico," Vol. IV. p. 116).
Fontana (Gregorio), younger brother of Felice Fontana, likewise
an able natural philosopher, succeeded the celebrated Ruggiero
Giuseppe Boscovich in the Chair of Higher Mathematics at the
University of Padua, and is the author of " Disquisitiones physico-
mathematicae/' Papiae, 1780, as well as of many papers in the
" Mem. della Soc. It. delle Scienze," wherein he gives detailed
accounts of many very interesting electrical observations. Mention
of Gregorio Fontana's name has already been made under Bennet,
A.D. 1787.
304 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I. part i.
p. 334, and, for R. G. Boscovich, " The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,"
1830, Vol. III. pp. 744-749.
A.D. 1793. — Aldini (Giovanni), nephew of Luigi Galvani and
one of the most active members of the National Institute of Italy,
who succeeded his former instructor, M. Canterzani, in the Chair of
Physics at the Bologna University, established in the last-named
Institution a scientific society whose open object was to combat
all of Volt a 's works and which became very hostile to the organ-
ization already formed in the University of Pa via by Felice Fontana,
Bassiano Carminati and Gioachino Carradori against the followers
of Galvani. Similar societies espousing the cause of Volta were
subsequently organized in England, at the suggestion of Cavallo
and others, and during five years, the scientists of Europe were
divided between the two discoverers, without, however, any material
benefit accruing therefrom to either faction.
Aldini proved to be an indefatigable investigator, as shown by
the numerous Memoirs sent by him to the publications named below,
up to the month of October 1802, when he experimented before
the Galvani Society of Paris. An account of these experiments is
given in his " Essai theorique," etc., where, among other results,
attention is called to the curious fact that contractions can be
excited in a prepared frog by holding it in the hand and plunging
its nerves into the interior of a wound made in the muscle of a living
animal (Figuier, " Exposition," etc., Vol. IV. p. 308). His interest-
ing investigations of the artificial piles of muscle and brain, first
made by M. La Grave and shown to the French Galvani Society,
are alluded to in Nicholson's Journal, Vol. X. p. 30, in the Journal
de Physique, An. XI. pp. 140, 159, 233, 472, and in Sturgeon's
" Scientific Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 195.
Nearly all of Aldini's experiments were successfully repeated in
London at Mr. Wilson's Anatomical Theatre, where Mr. Cuthbertson
assisted Prof. Aldini in arranging the apparatus, and where a
student, by the name of Hutchins, furnished the anatomical prep-
arations, but the demonstration, of all others, which attracted
most attention was doubtless the one made in London on the I7th
:>f January 1803. The murderer Forster had just been executed
md, after his body lay for one hour exposed in the cold at Newgate,
it was handed over to Mr. Koate, President of the London College
)f Surgeons, who, with Aldini, made upon it numerous important •
)bservations to ascertain the precise effects of galvanism with a
/oltaic column of one hundred and twenty copper and zinc couples.
The extraordinary results obtained, which cannot properly be enu-
nerated here, are to be found in the " Essai Theorique," etc.,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 305
already alluded to. They led Aldini to believe he could, by the
galvanic agency, bring back those in whom life was not totally
extinct, such as in cases of the recently drowned or asphyxiated.
(Consult M. Bonnejoy's method of proving death by ... Farad-
ization, Paris, 1866, and Georgio Anselmo, " Effets du Galvanisme
. . ." Turin, 1803; S. T. Sommering, "On the application of
Galvanism to ascertain the reality of death," Ludwig scripter
nevrolog., III. 23; Ure, " Exper. on the body of a criminal . . ."
"Journal of Sc. and Arts'/' No. XII; Phil. Mag., Vol. LIII. p. 56;
Jean Janin de Combe Blanche, " Sur les causes/' etc., Paris, 1773
(hanging) ; C. W. Hufeland, 1783, for the app. of Elec. in cases of
asphyxia ; T. Kerner, for the app. of Galv. and Magn. as restoratives,
Cannstadt, 1858; Win. Henley, for electricity as a stimulant . . .
drowned or ... suffocated, " Trans, of the Humane Society,"
Vol. I. p. 63.)
Another of Aldini 's curious experiments was the production of
very powerful muscular contractions upon the heads of oxen and
other animals recently decapitated, by introducing into one of the
ears a wire connecting with one of the battery poles and into the
nostrils or tongue a wire communicating with the other pole. Thus
were the eyes made repeatedly to open and roll in their orbits
while the ears would shake, the tongue move and the nostrils
dilate very perceptibly (De la Rive, " A Treatise on Electricity,"
1856, Vol. II. p. 489, and 1858, Vol. III. p. 588; Pepper, " Voltaic
Electricity," 1869, pp. 287, 288). In the experiments which Aldini
made during 1804 upon corpses, the body became violently agitated
and even raised itself as if about to walk, the arms alternately rose
and fell and the forearm was made to hold a weight of several
pounds, while the fists clenched and beat violently the table upon
which the body lay. Natural respiration was also artificially re-
established and, through pressure exerted against the ribs, a lighted
candle placed before the mouth was several times extinguished.
tor the experiments of the eminent French physiologist and
anatomist Marie Francois Xavier Bichat, of Vassalli-Eandi, Giulio,
Rossi, Nysten, Halle, Mezzini, Klein, Bonnet, Pajot-Laforest,
Dudoyon, Berlinghieri, Font ana, Petit-Radel, Alizeau, Lamartilliere,
Guillotin, Nauche and others upon animals and men recently
decapitated, see Bichat 's " Recherches Physiologiques sur la vie et
la mort," Paris, 1805 ; Francesco Rossi's " Rapport des experiences/'
etc., Turin, 1803; P. H. Nysten's " Nouvelles Experiences Gal-
vaniques," etc., Paris, 1811, and also the latter 's " Experiences
faites . . . le 14 Brumaire, An. XI." (Consult likewise, J. R. P.
Bardenot, " Les Recherches . . . refuses," Paris, 1824, and, for
an account of Bichat consult F. R. Buisson, " Precis historique . . /'
x
306 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Paris, 1802 ; Larousse, Vol. II. pp. 703, 704 ; " Biog. Univ./' Vol.
XL pp. 2-19.)
In Aldini's "Account of Galvanism," printed for Cuthell and
Martin, London, 1803, it is said (p. 218) that, on the 27th of Feb-
ruary 1803, he transmitted current through a battery of eighty
silver and zinc plates from the West Mole of Calais harbour to Fort
Rouge, by means of a wire supported on the masts of boats, and
made it return through two hundred feet of intervening water.
REFERENCES. — J. B. Van Mons' treatise on animal electricity in
Tome III of the sixth year of the " Magasin Encyclop6dique " ; Fowler,
in " Bibl. Britannica," May 1796; Giulio e Rossi (" Gior. Fis. Mcd- di
Brugnatelli," 1793, Vol.. I. p. 82); P. Sue, ain6, " Hist, du Gal vanisme,"
Paris, An. X, 1802, Vol. I. pp. 31, 67, 73; Vol. II. p. 268; Brugnatelli,
Annali di Chimica, Vols. XIII. p. 135; XIV. p. 174; XIX. pp. 29, 158;
" Opuscoli Scelti," Vols. XVII. p. 231 ; XIX. p. 217; XX. p. 73; XXI.
p. 41 2; " Mem. Soc. Ital.," Vol. XIV. p. 239; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 27;
"Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXII. 1803, pp. 249-266; " Galvanische und
elcktrische . . . Korpern," 4to, Frankfort, 1804; " Bull, des Sc. de la
Soc. Philoin.," No. 68; J. C. Carpue, "Bibl. Britannica," Nos. 207,
208, p. 373 ; Phil. Mag., Vols. XIV. pp. 88, 191, 288, 364 ; XV. pp. 40, 93 ;
Cassius Larcher, M. Daubancourt et M. Zanetti, aine (Ann, de Chimie,
Vol. XLV. p. 195) ; also Larcher, Daubancourt et M. de Saintiot (Precis
succinct, etc., Paris, 1803); W. Sturgeon, " Scientific Researches," Bury,
1850, p. 194 : M. Kilian, " Versuche iibcr restitution . . ." Giessen,
1857; Gilbert, IV. 246; J. Tourdes ("Decade Philos." No. 3, An. X.
p. 118); Francesco Rossi ("Bibl. Ital.," Vol. I. p. 106; Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XVIII. p. 131; and in the " Memoires de Turin"); J. J. Sue,
" Recherches Physiol.," etc., 1803, p. 77; Vassalli-Eandi (" Exp6riences
sur les decapit6s . . ." Turin, 1802 and " Recueil . . . de S6dillot,"
Vol. II. p. 266) ; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism, "etc., London,
1804, 2 Vols. passim; Report of MM. Chappe, Robillard and Silvestre
(" Bull, des Sciences de la Soc. Philom.," No. 21 for March 1793; also
Jour. dePhys., Vol. XLII. p. 289) ; M. Paysse(" Jour. dclaSoc.de Pharm.,"
first year, p. 100) ; Dr. Crichton (" Rec. Period, dc Litt. Med. Etrangdre,"
Tome II. p. 342); J. Louis Gauthier, " Dissertatio," etc., Hales, 1793
(" Com. de Leipzig," Tome XXXVI. p. 473) ; Gardiner's " Observ. on the
animal ceconomy " ; Humboldt (" Soc. Philom.," Vol. I. p. 92); Alex.
Monro's " Experiments," etc., Edin., 1793, 1794 (" Trans. Edin.
Roy. Soc.," Vol. Ill); Felice Fontana, " Lettere . . ." 1793; Joseph
Izarn, " Manuel du Galvanisme," Paris, An. XII, 1804, pp. 97, 138, 141,
160, 163, 285 ; Louis Figuier, " Exposition et Histoire," Vol. IV.
pp. 307-308, 358, 360-363, 365, 366, 370, 371.
A.D. 1793. — Fowler (Richard), a very ingenious physician, of
Salisbury, makes known in Edinburgh his " Experiments and
Observations relative to the influence lately discovered by Galvani
and commonly called Animal Electricity," of which a very complete
review is made by Dr. G. Gregory at pp. 374-381, Vol. I of his
" Economy of Nature," etc., third edition, published in London
during the year 1804.
Dr. Fowler observed that the contractions in a frog are excited
by making the metals touch under water even at the distance of
an inch from the divided spine of the animal. He succeeded in
causing the heart to contract, but could not produce the same
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 807
effect upon the stomach and intestines. He also found, as did
Prof. John Robison, of Edinburgh, at the same period, that the
senses of touch and smell are unaffected by the metals, but that
when these are applied to the eye, or, what is better, when they
are thrust up between the teeth and the lips, and then made to
touch, a flash of light is rendered visible. This is the case also
when the metals are placed between the gums and the upper and
lower lips, as proven by the experiments of Dr. Rutherford and of
Mr. George Hunter, of York. Fowler likewise observed that all
pure metals prove excellent conductors of the galvanic influence
and that living vegetables afford it a ready passage, but that stones
and oils seem to be possessed of no conducting power whatsoever.
In conjunction with Mr. Alexander Munro, Fowler published
a work on animal electricity (translated into German under the
title of " Abhandlung ueber thierische elekt.," etc.), while, in the
" Bibliotheca Britannica " for May 1796, mention will be found of
the observations of Dr. Fowler respecting the muscular irritability
excited by electricity, as well as on the reproduction of the nervous
substance, on the action of poisons, on the phenomena of muscular
contraction, etc. etc.
REFERENCES. — " Essays and Observations," etc., Edinburgh, 1793,
in Library of the Royal Institution ; Gilbert Blane's paper read to the
English Royal Society, of which an extract can be found in Bacher's
"Medical Journal," Vol. XC. p. 127; Figuier, " Exp. et Hist, des
Princip. Dec.," Vol. IV. p. 309; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of Gal-
vanism," London, 1804, Chap. VI. et passim ; eighth " Encyc. Brit.,"
Vol. XXI. p. 634.
A.D. 1793.— Dalton (John), LL.D., F.R.S. (1766-1844), a very
able English natural philosopher and the illustrious author of the
" Atomic Theory of Chemistry and of the Constitution of Mixed
Gases," gives in his earliest separate publication, " Meteorological
Observations and Essays," the result of many experiments upon
the electricity of the atmosphere, made by him at Kendal and at
Keswick during the seven years ending May 1793.
He proved, as Sir David Brewster expresses it, that the aurora
exercises an irregular action on the magnetic needle, that the
luminous beams of the aurora borealis are parallel to the dipping
needle; that the rainbow-like arches cross the magnetic meridian
at right angles ; that the broad arch of the horizontal light is bisected
by the magnetic meridian; and that the boundary of a limited
aurora is half the circumference of a great circle crossing the mag-
netic meridian at right angles, the beams perpendicular to the
horizon being only those on the magnetic meridian.
In the eighth " Encyclopaedia Britannica " (Vol. IV. p. 246),
treating of the height of polar lights, reference is made to the
308 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
extraordinary aurora borealis observed by Dalton on the sgth of
March 1826, and of which a description is given in a paper read
before the Royal Society, April 17, 1828 (Phil. Mag. or Annals,
Vol. IV. p. 418; Philosophical Transactions for 1828, Part II;
James Hoy in Phil. Mag., Vol. LI. p. 423; J. Farquharson in Phil.
Trans, for 1839, p. 267). This aurora was seen in places one hundred
and seventy miles apart and covered an area of 7000 to 8000 square
miles. In Vol. XIV of the same Encyclopaedia will be found
(p. 15), an account of another aurora observed at Kendal, February
12, 1793, while at p. 12 are given Dalton's views as to the connection
between the heat and magnetism of the earth, and, at p. 66, his
conclusions as to the cause of the aurora and its magnetic influence.
REFERENCES. — " Memoirs of Dalton's Life," by Dr. W. C. Henry,
London, 1854; " Life and Discoveries of Dalton," in British Quarterly
Review, No. i ; Pharmaceutical Journal, London, October 1841 ; Thom-
son's " History of Chemistry," Vol. II; Young's " Course of Lectures,"
London, 1807, Vol. I. pp. 706-709, 753, and Vol. II. pp. 466-470; Noad,
"Manual," etc., London, 1859, pp. 226, 269, 534; article, "Aurora
Borealis," immediately following A.D. 1683; Sir H. Davy, " Bakerian
Lectu res," London, 1840, pp. 322, 323, 328-330; " Diet, of Nat. Biog.,"
Vol. XIII. pp. 428-434, as well as the numerous references therein cited.
Consult also, for theories, investigations, observations, records, etc.,
of the Aurora Borealis: Georg. Kruger, 1700; J. J. Scheuchzer, 1710-
1712, 1728-1730; L. Fcuillec, 1719; J. L. Rost, 1721; J. C. Spidberg,
1724; W. Derham, 1728, 1729-1730; F. C. Mayer — Meyer, 1726; J. F.
Weidlcr, 1729, 1730, 1735 ; J. Lulolfs, 1731 ; M. Kelsch, 1734 ; F.M. Zanotli,
1737, 1738; also Zanotti and P. Matteucci, 1739; B. Zendrini, J. Poleni,
F. M. Scrra, E. Sguario and D. Revillas in 1738; G. Bianchi, 1738 and
1740; J. M. Serantoni, 1740; G. C. Cilano de Maternus, 1743; S. von
Trienwald, 1744; G. Guadagni, 1744; J. F. Ramus, 1745; C. Nocetus,
1747; P. Matteucci, 1747; Jno. Huxham, 1749-1750; G. W. Krafft,
1750; P. Kahm — Kalm, 1752; G. Reyger, 1756; A. Hellant, 1756, 1777;
Jos. Stepling, 1761; H. Hamilton, 1767, 1777; M. A. Pictet, 1769;
J. E. Silberschlag, 1770; C. E. Mirus, 1770; J. E. B. Wiedcburg, 1771;
Max. Hell, 1776; Mr. Hall, J. H. Helmuth, 1777; E. H. de Ratte, W..L.
Krafft, 1778; J. E. Helfenzrieder, 1778; G. S. Poli, 1778-1779; Mar-
corelle and Darguier, 1782; L. Cottc, 1783; J. A. Cramer, 1785; D.
Galizi, in A. Calogera's "Nuova Raccolta . . ." Vol. XXXIX. p. 64;
J. L. Boeckmann, in " Mem. de Berlin " for the year 1780; H. Ussher,
1788; G. Savioli, 1789, 1790; J. J. Hemmer, 1790; P. A. Bondoli, 1790,
1792, 1802; A. Prieto, 1794; J. D. Reuss's works published in Got-
tingen; Jacppo Penada, 1807-1808; M. Le Prince, Nouvelle The'orie
. . ."; W. Dobbie, 1820, 1823; Col. Gustavson, in Phil. Mag. for 1821,
p. 312; M. Dutertre, 1822; J. L. Spath, 1822; Chr. Hansteen, 1827,
1855; L. F. Kaemtz, 1828, 1831; G. W. Muncke, 1828; J. Farquharson,
1829; D. Angelstrom, Rob. Hare, 1836; Ant. Colla, 1836, 1837; L.
Pacinotti, 1837; G. F. Parrot, 1838; J. H. Lefroy, 1850, 1852; Don
M. Rico-y-Sinobas, 1853; A. A. de La Rive, 1854; A. Boue (Katalog),
1856, 1857; C. J. H. E. Braun, 1858; E. Matzenauer, 1861 ; F. Dobelli,
1867; F. Denza, 1869.
A.D. 1793-1797.— Robison (John), a very distinguished English
natural philosopher, completes what are without question the most
important of all his scientific publications. These are to be found
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 309
throughout the eighteen volumes and two supplements to the third
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," where they cover such subjects as
Physics, Electricity, Magnetism, Thunder, Variation, etc. etc.
Taken together, " they exhibited/' according to Dr. Thomas Young,
" a more complete view of the modern improvements of physical
science than had previously been in the possession of the British
public."
It was after his retirement from the navy that Ro bison devoted
himself to scientific studies, becoming the successor of Dr. Black
in the lectureship of chemistry at the University of Glasgow during
1766, and accepting, seven years later (1773), the Professorship of
Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh, where he taught all branches of
physics and of the higher mathematics. In 1783 he was made
Secretary of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, received the
degree of Doctor of Laws, 1798-1799, and was elected foreign
member of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1800.
Of him, Mr. James Watt wrote, Feb. 7, 1805 : " He was a man of
the clearest head and the most science of anybody I have known "
(Arago's " Eloge of Jas. Watt/' London, 1839, p. 81).
It was while acting as midshipman under Admiral Saunders
that Robison himself observed the effect of the aurora borealis on
the compass, which had been remarked by Hiorter, Wargentin, and
Mairan several years before, but which was not then generally
known. The aurora borealis, he afterwards wrote, " is observed
in Europe to disturb the needle exceedingly, sometimes drawing
it several degrees from its position. It is always observed to
increase its rate of deviation from the meridian ; that is an aurora
borealis makes the needle point more westerly. This disturbance
sometimes amounts to six or seven degrees, and is generally ob-
served to be greatest when the aurora borealis is most remarkable.
. . . Van Swinden says he seldom or never failed to observe aurora
boreales immediately after any anomalous motion of the needle,
and concluded that there had been one at the time, though he
could not see it. ... This should farther incite us to observe the
circumstance formerly mentioned, viz., that the South end of the
dipping needle points to that part of the heavens where the rays
of the aurora borealis appear to converge. . . ."
The experiments of J. H. Lambert (at A.D. 1766-1776) upon the
laws of magnetic action were carefully repeated by Robison, who,
in 1769 or 1770, tried various methods and made numerous investi-
gations from which he deduced that the force is inversely as the
square of the distance. When he observed, however, some years
afterward, that ^Epinus had in 1777 conceived the force to vary
inversely as the simple distance, he carefully again repeated the
310 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
experiments and added others made with the same magnet and
with the same needle placed at one side of the magnet instead of
above it. By this simple arrangement the result was still more
satisfactory, and the inverse law of the square of the distance was
well established.
Throughout his numerous investigations, Prof. Ro bison found
that when a good magnet was struck for three-quarters of an hour,
and allowed in the meantime to ring, its efficacy was destroyed,
although the same operation had little effect when the ringing was
impeded ; so that the continued exertion of the cohesive and re-
pulsive powers appears to favour the transmission of the magnetic
ns well as of the electric fluid. The internal agitation, produced
in bending a magnetic wire around a cylinder, also destroys its
polarity, and, it is said, the operation on a file has the same effect.
M. Cavallo found that brass becomes generally much more capable
of being attracted when it has been hammered, even between two
flints ; and that this property is again diminished by fire : in this
case, Dr. Thomas Young remarks, it may be conjectured that ham-
mering increases the conducting power of the iron contained in the
brass, and thus renders it more susceptible of magnetic action.
Of his other very important observations in the same line it
would be difficult to select the most interesting, and it may suffice
to call attention merely to such as are noted throughout Prof.
Alfred M. Mayer's valuable contributions on " The Magnet, Mag-
netism," etc., in Johnson's " New Universal Encyclopaedia," as well
as in his " Practical Experiments in Magnetism," etc., published
through the columns of the Scientific American Supplement.
Prof. Ro bison's electrical investigations are scarcely less
interesting. In the theories advanced by ^pinus and Cavendish
it was shown that the action of the electrical fluid diminished with
the distance, while M. Coulomb proved, by a series of elaborate
experiments, that it varied like gravity in the inverse ratio of the
square of the distance. Robison had previously determined that
in the mutual repulsion of two similarly electrified spheres the
law was slightly in excess of the inverse duplicate ratio of the
distance, while in the attraction of oppositely electrified spheres the
deviation from that ratio was in defect ; and he therefore arrived
at the same conclusion formed by Lord Stanhope, that the law of
electrical attraction is similar to that of gravity.
At the close of Richard Fowler's " Experiments and Observa-
tions," etc., Edinburgh, 1793, is a letter from Prof. Robison, wherein
he gives the following results of many curious investigations, mostly
m'ade upon himself, to ascertain the effects of the galvanic influence.
He found the latter influence well defined on applying one of two
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 311
metallic substances to a wound which he had accidentally received ;
discovered by their tastes the solders in gold and silver trinkets ;
and showed that the galvanic sensation can be felt when the metallic
substances are placed at a distance from each other. He proved
the last-named fact by placing a piece of zinc between one of the
cheeks and the gums, and a piece of silver on the opposite side within
the other cheek. He next introduced a zinc rod between the piece
of zinc and the cheek on the one side, and a silver rod between the
silver and the cheek on the other, and when he afterward carefully
brought into contact the extremities of the rods outside the mouth
a flash appeared and a powerful sensation was noticeable in the
gums. He experienced the same sensation when he again separated
the rods and brought them to a short distance from each other, but
he could perceive no galvanic effect when he placed the rods (or
wires) in such manner that the silver rod should touch the zinc or
the zinc rod touch the piece of silver. He also ascribed to galvanic
effect the well-known fact that the drinking of porter out of a
pewter pot produces a more brisk sensation than when it is taken
out of a glass vessel. In this instance, he says there is a combination
of one metal and of two dissimilar fluids. In the act of drinking,
one side of the pewter pot is exposed to the saliva and the humidity
of the mouth, while the other metallic side is in contact with the
porter. In completing the circuit, in the act of drinking, a brisk
and lively sensation arises, which imparts an agreeable relish to
the •liquid. He likewise observed that the conducting power of
silk thread depends greatly on its colour, or rather on the nature
of its dye. When of a brilliant white, or a black, its conducting
power is the greatest ; while either a high golden yellow or a nut-
brown renders it the best insulator. Human hair, when completely
freed from everything that water could wash out of it, and then
dried by lime and coated with lac, was equal to silk.
Robison's last publication was made in 1804, one year before
his death, and constituted the first part of a series which was to
appear under the head of " Elements of Mechanical Philosophy. "
This portion, together with some MSS. intended for the second part,
and his principal articles contributed to the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica," were collected in 1822 by Sir David Brewster, and
published with notes in 4 vols. under the title of " System of
Mechanical Philosophy."
REFERENCES. — Play fair in " Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh," Vol. VII. p. 495 ; Stark's " Biographia Scotica " ;
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XIII. pp. 386-394 (Biogr. Memoir) ;
Aikin's "General Biography," London, 1813, Vol. VIII; Dr. Gleig
in Anti- Jacobin Magazine for 1802, Vol. XI; Chalmer's " Biographical
Dictionary," London, 1816, Vol. XXV; Dr. Thomas Young, " Course
pf Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II, pp. 438, 444,
312 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1793.— Prof. Georg. Fred. Hildebrandt of Erlangen (1764-
1816), makes important observations relative to the influence of
form and of substance upon the electric spark. He finds, among
other results, that an obtuse cone with an angle of fifty-two degrees
gives a much more luminous spark than one with an angle of only
thirty-six degrees; that the greatest sparks are given by conical
pieces of regulus of antimony and the least by tempered steel;
also, that when the spark is white by taking it with a metallic body,
it will, under the same circumstances, be violet if taken with the
finger; that if the spark is taken with ice or water, or a green plant,
its light will be red, and, if it is taken with an imperfect conductor,
such as wood, the light will be emitted in faint red streams.
REFERENCES. — Biography in fifth ed. of " Lehrbuch der Physiologic
des Mens. Koerpers," Erlangen, 1817; " Encyl. Britannica," Vol. VIII,
1855, pp. 544, 545; " Biog. G£n6rale," Vol. XXIV. pp. 671-672; Ersch
und Gruber, " Allgem. Encyklopaedie."
A.D. 1794. — Read (John), mathematical instrument maker, at
the Quadrant, in Kingsbridge, Hyde Park, gives, in his " Summary
View of the Spontaneous Electricity of the Earth and Atmosphere/1
the result of a very elaborate series of observations, which he con-
tinued almost hourly between the years 1791 and 1792. Of 987
trials, he found that 664 gave indications of positive electricity, and
out of 404 trials made during twelve months, the air was positively
electrical in 241, negatively in 156, and insensible in only seven
observations. He also found the vapour near the ground, in^the
act of condensing into dew, always highly electric.
He made many observations upon the electricity of vegetable
bodies, which were afterward developed by M. Pouillet, and it was
also Mr. Read who introduced a new hand-exploring instrument as
well as an improved fixed thunder rod for collecting atmospherical
electricity. These are described at p. 608 of the eighth volume of
the 1855 " Encyclopaedia Britannica/'
According to Mr. Wilkinson (" Elements of Galvanism/' etc.,
London, 1804, Vol. II. p. 344), Mr. Read was the first to apply the
apparatus called the condenser to the electroscope in order that it
should evince small intensities of electricity. He says : " The
very minute portion of the fluid given out by the single contact
of two different metals, does not produce any disturbance of the
gold leaves; but when several minute portions are accumulated,
a separation of the leaves takes place. The electroscope, in its
simple state, will be as much charged the first time as if the contact
had been made a thousand times, and cannot therefore acquire a
greater quantity of the fluid than suffices to place it in equilibria
with the metallic plates. This portion being inadequate to the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 313
production of any divergency of the leaves, Mr. Read applied the
principle of the electrical doubler to the above instrument, by
which means he was enabled to charge an intervening plate of air.
By thus accumulating every minute portion of the fluid imparted
through the metallic plate, and by apparently condensing and
increasing its intensity, he ultimately succeeded in producing marked
signs of disturbance/'
REFERENCES. — Philosophical Transactions for 1791, p. 185; for
den
II. p. 226; Young's " Course of Lectures," Vol. I. p. 714; Ed. Peart,
" On Electric Atmospheres . . ." Gainsboro', 1793 ; " Eng. Ency.," "Arts
and Sciences," Vol. III. p. 805 ; Thomas Thomson, " Outline of the
Sciences," 1830, p. 446; Journal de Physique for 1794, Vol. XLV. p. 468.
A.D. 1794.— Chladni (Ernst Florens Friedrich), founder of the
theory of acoustics, publishes " The Iron Mass of Pallas," etc.
(" Ueber den Ursprung der von Pallas . . ."), giving a list of
recorded cases of the fall of meteorites or aerolites and all the
important accounts of such that he was able to collect. As Prof.
Alexander Herschel informs us, in his lecture, delivered (1867)
before the British Association at Dundee, Chladni conceived that
a class of cosmical bodies exists in all parts of the solar system,
each forming by itself a peculiar concourse of atoms, and that the
earth from time to time encounters them, moving with a velocity
as great as its own, and doubtless in orbits of very various eccentricity
around the sun. Prof. Muirhead says that through their exceeding
great velocity, which is increased by the attraction of the earth
and the violent friction of the atmosphere, a strong electricity and
heat must necessarily be excited, by which means they are reduced
to a flaming and melted condition, and great quantities of vapour
and different kinds of gases are thus disengaged, which distend the
liquid mass to a monstrous size, until, by still further expansion
of these elastic fluids, they must at length explode (Chladni's
hypothesis in " Enc. Brit./' article " Meteorolite ").
Humboldt gives (" Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 104, note)
the following upon the same subject, taken from Biot's " Traite
d'Astronomie Physique," third edition, 1841, Vol. I. pp. 149, 177,
238, 312 : " My lamented friend Poisson endeavoured in a singular
manner to solve the difficulty attending an assumption of the
spontaneous ignition of meteoric stones at an elevation where the
density of the atmosphere is almost null. These are his words :
' It is difficult to attribute, as is usually done, the incandescence of
aerolites to friction against the molecules of the atmosphere, at an
elevation above the earth where the density of the air is almost
314 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
null. May we not suppose that the electric fluid, in a neutral
condition, forms a kind of atmosphere, expending far beyond the
mass of our own atmosphere, yet subject to .terrestrial attraction,
although physically imponderable, and consequently following our
globe in its motion ? ' According to his hypothesis, the bodies of
which we have been speaking would, on entering this imponderable
atmosphere, decompose the neutral fluid by their unequal action
on the two electricities, and they would thus be heated, and in a
state of incandescence, by becoming electrified " (Poisson, " Rech.
sur la Probabilite des Jugements," 1837, p. 6).
The theories advanced by Chladni were confirmed four years
later by Brandes and Benzenberg at Gottingen, and, during the
month of April 1809, he inserted a " Catalogue of Meteors " in the
" Bulletin de la Socie'te' Philomathique," which was followed by a
paper on " Fiery Meteors " published at Vienna during 1819.
In his " Traite d'Acoustique," Chladni treats of the line of
experiments to which he was led, as well by the discovery of Lichten-
berg's electrical figures (see A.D. 1777, and Tyndall, " Sound,"
Lecture IV), an account of which latter appeared in the " Memoires
de la Societ^ Royale de Gottingen," as through the suggestions made
him by Lichtenberg himself during the year 1792 relative to the
origin of meteors. The results of Chladni 's researches concerning
the last named appeared in a Memoir published at Leipzig during
1794, translated by M. Eugene Coquebert Mombret for Vol. V of
the Journal des Mines.
It may here be properly added that, in one of the editions of his
" Lectures on Sound/' Prof. Tyndall gives a portrait of Chladni and
quotes a letter received from Prof. Weber wherein he says : "I
knew Chladni personally. From my youth up he was my leader
and model as a man of science, and I cannot too thankfully acknow-
ledge the influence which his stimulating encouragement during the
last years of his life had upon my own scientific labours."
Secchi (Angelo) in " Cat. Sc. Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vols. V, VIII; " Bull.
Meteor, dell Osservat.," 1862, 1866, 1867; Humboldt's "Cosmos,"
London, 1849, Vol. I. p. 104 (M. Schreibcr), pp. 113, 114 (M. Capocci), also
pp. 105, 108, no, 121, and the entire " Review of Natural Phenomena,"
with all the important references and notes thereunto attached. See like-
wise Peter Simon Pallas (Phil. Trans, for 1776 and "Act. Acad. Petrop.,"
I for 1778) ; Chladni's " Uber . . . elektricitat einer Katze," Jena, 1797;
J. Acton and Capel Lofft, in Phil. Mag., Vol. LI. pp. 109, 203 ; A Seguin,
Phil. Mag., Vol. XLIV. p. 212 ; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G<§n.," Vol.
II. pp. 714, 762, for 6toiles, filantes et meteorites; F. B. Albinus, " Speci-
men," etc., 1740; Voigt's " Magaz.," I, 1797; Sehweigger's Journal,
XLIII, 1825; H. Atkinson, "On Hypotheses," etc. (Phil. Mag., Vol.
LIV. p. 336); Karstner, ArcMven, Vol. IV; F. C. Von Petersdorff in
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 315
" Great Divide "; Pierre Prevost and others in Poggendorff's Annalen,
Vols. II, VI and VII; Arago, " Annuaire pour 1826 "; " The fall of
Meteorites in Ancient and Modern Times " (" Sc. Progress," Vol. II.
N.S., pp. 349-370: numerous references given by Prof. H. A. Miers;
" A Century of the Study of Meteorites," by Dr. Oliver C. Farrington in
" Pop. Sc. Monthly," Feb. 1901, or the Report of Smiths. Instit. for 1901,
pp. 193-197; Phil. Mag., Vol. IV. p. 332; " Cat. Sc. Papers . . . Roy.
Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 916-918; D. Avelloni " Lettera," etc., Venezia, 1760;
Martin H. Klaproth's different memoirs published at Berlin 1795-1809;
Joseph Izarn, " Lithologie Atmosphe'rique " ; J. Murray (Phil. Mag.,
Vol. LIV. p. 39) ; beside Chladni's works in conjunction with Karl F.
Anton von Schreibcrs, Wien, 1819 and 1820, and with Messrs. Steininger
and Naeggerath, London, 1827 (Schweigger's Journal, N.R., XVI. 385,
and Phil. Mag., Vol. II. p. 41, also Vol. IV. p. 332). For a very interest-
ing account, see " A description of the great Meteor which was seen on
the 6th of March 1715-1716, sent in a letter ... to R. Danuye . . ."
London, 1723 (Phil. Trans, for 1720-1721, Vol. XXXI), by Roger
Cotes (1682-1716), of whom Sir Isaac Newton entertained so high an
opinion as to frequently remark : " // Mr. Cotes had lived, we had known
something" (" Biographia Philosophica," pp. 512-516; English Encycl.,
" Biography," Vol. II. p. 401). Other exceedingly interesting accounts
of aerolites are to be found, more particularly in Frederic Petit's works,
published at Toulouse, in Bigot de Morogue's " Catalogue," London, 1814,
and in the Phil Mag., Vols., XVII, XX, XXVIII, XXXII, XXXVI,
XLIII. XLVI, XLVIII, L, LIII, LIV, LVI-LIX, LXII. While
treating of this subject, it may be well to add here that up to the year
1887 diamonds were not known to exist in meteorites. In a very re-
markable paper by Prof. A. E. Foote, read before the Geological section
of the Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., at its meeting in Washington, he described
having, during the month of June 1891, explored Crater Mountain
(Cafion Diablo), 185 miles north of Tucson, Ariz., where he found some
extraordinary specimens. The extreme hardness of one of these attracted
particular attention, and upon carefully examining it he discovered in
some of the cavities many small black diamonds as well as a white
diamond one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter. This is said to be the
most extensive find of the kind yet made.
A.D. 1794. — Mr. J. Churchman publishes his improved " Mag-
netic Atlas or Variation Charts of the whole terraqueous globe,"
etc., which Sir John Leslie subsequently pronounced the most
accurate and complete hitherto made. The charts preceding it
worthy of note were those of Dr. Halley (see A.D. 1683), of Mountaine
and Dodson, in 1744 and in 1756, of Wilcke, in 1772, and of Lambert,
in 1779. In his charts, Churchman refers variation lines to two
poles, one of which he places, for the year 1800, in lat. 58° N. and
long. 134° W. of Greenwich, while the other pole is in lat. 58° S.
and long. 165° E. of Greenwich. He supposes the northern pole
to revolve in 1096 years and the southern one in 2289 years (" Ency.
Brit.," 1857, Vol. XIV. p. 49).
REFERENCES. — Churchman's letters to Cassini, Phila., 1788, and
his " Explanation of the Magn. Atlas ..." 1790; Harris, " Rudim.
Mag.," Part III. p. 101 ; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. II. 1796, p. 325 (atlas);
Becquerel, " Traite* d'Electr. et de Magn.," Paris, 1856, III. p. 140.
A.D, 1794. — M. Reusser Reiser, of Geneva, addresses a letter
316 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
to the " Magazin fur das Neueste aus der Physik " of Johann Heinrich
Voigt (Vol. IX. part i. p. 183), describing the construction of " a new
species of electric letter post " (" Schreiben an den herausgeber ")
in the following words : "... on an ordinary table is fixed, in
an upright position, a square board, to which a glass plate is fastened.
On this plate are glued little squares of tinfoil, cut after the fashion
of luminous panes, and each standing for a letter of the alphabet.
From one side of these little squares extend long wires, enclosed in
glass tubes, which go underground to the place whither the despatch
is to be transmitted. The distant ends are there connected to tinfoil
strips, similar ... to the first, 'and, like them, each marked by a
letter of the alphabet ; the free ends of all the strips are connected
to one return wire, which goes to the transmitting table. If, now,
one touches the outer coating of a Leyden jar with the return wire,
and connects the inner coating with the free end of that piece of
tinfoil which corresponds to the letter required to be indicated,
sparks will be produced, as well at the near as at the distant tinfoil,
and the correspondent there watching will write down the
letter. . . ."
Reusser also suggested calling the attention of the correspondent
by firing an electrical pistol through the spark; to him, therefore,
belongs the credit of having first clearly indicated the use of a special
call for the telegraph.
REFERENCES. — Vail's " History," p. 121; Voigt's " Magazin
1791 ; Comptes Rendus, Tome Vli for 1838, p. 80.
A.D. 1794. — Prof. Boeckmann improves upon Reusser's idea,
and does away with the thirty-six plates and the seventy-two wires
which the latter is believed to have employed. As Dr. Schellen
expresses it, he used " the sparks passing at the distant station,
employing only two wires, through which first one and then, after
certain intervals, more sparks are combinedly grouped " in a way to
indicate particular letters. Like Reusser, he made use of the pistol
as a call signal.
REFERENCES. — Zctzschc, " Geschichte der Elektrischcn Telegraphic,'1'
p. 32; Boeckmann, " Versuch tiber Telegraphic und Telegraphen,"
Carlsruhe, 1794, p. 17; " El. Magn. Teleg.," 1850, p. 46; Gren's Journal
der Physik, Vol. I for 1790; " Neue Abhandl. der Bairischen Akad.
Philos.," Vol. III.
A.D. 1794.— Edge worth (Richard Lovell), an able English
mechanical philosopher, better known as the father and literary
associate of Maria Edgeworth, introduces his tellograph (contraction
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 317
of the word telelograph) , " a machine describing words at a distance,"
which originated in a wager relative to the prompt transmission of
racing news from Newmarket to London. It consisted merely of
four pointers, in the form of wedges or isosceles triangles, placed
upon four portable vertical posts and the different positions of which
were arranged to represent letters and numbers.
Edgeworth claimed to have made experiments, as early as 1767,
with an ordinary windmill, the arms and sails of which were arranged
in different positions to indicate the several letters of the alphabet.
REFERENCES. — Edgeworth's Letter to Lord Charlemont on the
Tellograph, also his " Essay on the Art of Conveying Secret and Swift
Intelligence," Dublin, 1797, republished in Vol. VI of the Trans, of the
Royal Irish Academy ; " Appleton's Encycl./' 1871, Vol. XV. p. 334.
A.D. 1795. — Lord George Murray, of England, submits to the
Admiralty his six-shutter telegraph, an improvement upon Chappe's
original plan. Each of the six octagonal shutters was made to turn
inside of two frames at different angles upon its own axis, thus
affording sixty-three separate and distinct signals. By its means,
information was transmitted from London to Dover in seven
minutes, and it answered nearly all the requirements of the Admiralty
up to the year 1816, when it was superseded by the semaphore of
Rear Admiral Popham. Murray's method was, however, useless
during foggy weather, when relays of horses had to be employed for
conveying the hews.
REFERENCES. — English Encyclopaedia, " Arts and Sciences," Vol.
VIII. p. 66; Tomlinson's " Telegraph"; Turnbull, EL Mag. Tel., 1853,
p. 18; " Penny Ency.," Vol. XXIV. p. 147.
A.D. 1795. — Salvd (Don Francisco), a distinguished Spanish
physician, reads a memoir, before the Academy of Sciences of
Barcelona, from which the following is extracted : " . . . with
twenty-two letters, and even with only eighteen, we can express
with sufficient precision every word in the language, and, thus with
forty-four wires from Mataro to Barcelona, twenty-two men there,
each to take hold of a pair of wires, and twenty-two charged Leyden
jars here, we could speak with Mataro, each man there representing
a letter of the alphabet and giving notice when he felt the shock. . . .
It is not necessary to keep twenty-two men at Mataro nor twenty-
two Leyden jars at Barcelona, if we fix the ends of each pair of the
wires in such a way that one or two men may be able to discriminate
the signals. In this way six or eight jars at each end would suffice
for intercommunication, for Mataro can as easily speak with
Barcelona as Barcelona with Mataro ... or the wires can be
rolled together in one strong cable . . . laid in subterranean tubes,
318 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
which, for greater insulation, should be covered with one or two
coats of resin."
He is said to have approved of the use of luminous panes as
indicated by Reusser ; to have also suggested, as early as December
16, 1795, the idea of a submarine telegraphic cable carrying several
conductors, and to have proposed, at the same period, the laying
of a cable between Barcelona and Palma in the island of
Majorca.
In 1798, Salva constructed a single wire telegraphic line between
Madrid and Aranjuez, a distance of twenty-six miles, through which
the signals were transmitted in the shape of sparks from Leyden
jars. This is the line which is credited to Augustin de Betancourt,
a French engineer, by Alexander Von Humboldt, in a note at p. 14
of Gauss and Weber's Resultate, etc., for the year 1837.
On the i4th of May 1800, and on the 22nd of February 1804,
Salva communicated to the Academy of Sciences at Barcelona two
papers on galvanism applied to electricity, wherein he shows that
a cheaper motive power is produced by the electricity of a number
of frogs, and proposes a telegraphic apparatus in conjunction with
the voltaic column which is illustrated and described at pp. 224
and 225 of Fahie's " History of Telegraphy." From the latter the
following is taken : " This illustrious Spanish physician (Salva)
was therefore the first person who attempted to apply electricity
dynamically for the purpose of telegraphing. It is, says Saavedra,
not without reason, I must confess, notwithstanding my cosmo-
politan opinions on scientific questions, that the Catalans hold Salva
to be the inventor of electric telegraphy. With documents as authentic
as those which I have seen with my own eyes in the very hand
writing of this distinguished professor (which documents are at this
present moment to be found in the library of the Academy of
Sciences of Barcelona) it is impossible for any author to henceforth
deny, even if others did precede Salva in telegraphic experiments
with static electricity, that no one preceded him in the application
of the docile electrodynamic fluid to distant communications."
REFERENCES. — Comptes Rendus, stance, 1838; Memorial of Joseph
Henry, 1880, p. 224 ; Ed. Highton, the El. Tel.t 1852, pp. 38 and 43 ;
" Appleton's Encyclopaedia," 1871, Vol. XV. p. 335; De Bow's Review,
Vol. XXV. p. 551; Voigt's Magazin, etc., Vol. XI. part iv. p. 61 ;
Sc. Am. Supp., No. 547, p. 8735, and No. 384, p. 6127; Biography in
Saavedra's Revista, etc., for 1876; Noad's Manual, pp. 747 and 748;
Shaffner, Manual, p. 135 ; Turnbull, El. Mag. Tel.t 1853, pp. 21, 22, 220;
Du Moncel, Expose, Vol. Ill; "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," London,
1830, Vol. VIII. p. 535; " Gazette de Madrid" of November 25, 1796;
" Memoires de 1'Institut," Vol. Ill and " Bulletin de la Soc. Philom.,"
An. VI for the new telegraph of MM. Br6guet and Betancourt, and for
the Report made thereon by MM. Lagrange, Laplace and others.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 819
A.D. 1795.— Ewing (John), D.D., Provost of the University of
Pennsylvania and one of the founders of the American Philosophical
Society, makes a compilation of his course of lectures on natural
experimental philosophy, which is subsequently revised for the
press by Prof. Robert Patterson.
He devotes much attention to atmospheric electricity, detailing
the Franklinian theory, and, besides reporting upon the hypotheses
advanced by Henry Eales (at A.D. 1755), as well as treating of the
attraction of magnetism, he gives a very interesting account of
experiments with the torpedo and the gymnotus electricus. He says
that Mr. Walsh found the torpedo " possessed of the power of shock-
ing only in two parts of its body, directly opposite to each other
and near to the head. A spot on the back and another on the belly
opposite to the former being of a different colour led him to make
the experiment, and he found that the electrical virtue was confined
to these, and that any other part of the fish might be handled,
without receiving a shock, while it was out of the water. Either of
these places separately might be handled without the shock being
received until a communication between them was formed. This
makes it appear probable that the same may also be the case with
the Guiana eel. One of these spots must therefore be always in
the positive and the other in the negative state ; or, rather, they
are both generally in the natural state, until, by an effort of the
fish's will, they are suddenly put into different states, as we fre-
quently found that the hand might be in the* water, which formed
the communication, without receiving any shock. This cannot be
the case with the Leyden bottle when charged, which suddenly
discharges itself upon forming the communication. Whether there
be any electric atmosphere round these spots in the torpedo we
cannot tell, as we had no opportunity of examining this matter in
the eel, nor have we heard whether Mr. Walsh made any experiments
for ascertaining this."
ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The investigations of John Ewing concerning atmospheric
electricity were in reality quite extensive. He not only repeated
the experiments of Franklin, but he examined thoroughly those
of other scientists in the same channel, especially the investigations
of Henry Eeles, which will be found detailed in the latter 's " Trinity
College Lectures " as well as in his " Philosophical Essays/' London,
1771.
For a very interesting historical review of theories as to the
origin of atmospherical electricity, it would be well to consult
320
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
Date
Name
Experiments
References
i75i
Franklin
Effects of lightning
Phil. Trans., xlvii. p. 289
i75i
Mazeas
Kite experiments independently
Phil. Trans., 1751-1753
of Franklin
1752
Nollet
Theory of Electricity
Recher. sur les causes,
1749-1754
Lettres sur 1'elect., 1753,
1760, 1767, 1770
1752
Watson
Electricity of clouds
Phil. Trans., 1751, 1752
1752
De Lor and
Iron pole 99 ft. high, mounted
Letter of Abb6 Mazeas,
Button
on a cake of resin 2 ft. sq., 3
dated St. Germain,
in. high, Estrapade, May 18,
May 20, 1742
1752
D'Alibard
1752
Sparks from thunder clouds,
Mem. 1'Acad., r. des
40 ft. pole in garden at Marly,
also wooden pole 30 ft. high,
Sci., May 13, 1762
Hist. Abregee, 1776
at Hotel de Noailles
1752
Le Monnicr
Observations of air charge
Mem. de Paris, 1752,
PP. 8. 233
1752
De Romas
Observations of air charge;
Mem. Sav. Etrangers,
kite experiments
1752, and Mem. de
Math., 1755, 1763
1752
Mylius, Ch.
Observations of air charge
" Nachrichten," Berlin,
1752
1752
Kinncrsley
Observations of air charge
Franklin's Letters, Phil.
Trans., 1763. *773
1752
Ludolf and
Observations of air charge
Letter to Watson
Mylius
1753
Richman
Electrical gnomon
Phil. Trans., 1753
1753
Canton
Electricity of clouds
Franklin's letters and
Phil. Trans., 1753
1753
Beccaria,
Systematic observations with
Lett, dell' Elet. Bologna,
1753
C.B.
Wilson
an electroscope
Experiments
Phil. Trans., 1753, p. 347
1754
Lining
Kite experiments
Letter to Chas. Pinckney
1755
Le Roy
Experiments
M6m, de Paris, 1755
1756
Van Mus-
Kite experiments
Intro, ad Phil. Nat.,
schenbroek
1762
1759
Hartmann
Origin of electricity
Verbesseter . . . Blitzes
(Hatnb. Mag. vol. xxiv.
1769
Cotte
Memoirs on meteorology
Journ. Phys.,xxiii., 1783
Mem. Paris, 1769-1772
1772
Ronayne
Fog observations
Phil. Trans., 1772, p. 137
1772
Henley
Quadrant electrometer
Phil. Trans., 1772-1774
1775
Cavallo
Fogs, snow, clouds and rain;
Treatise on Elect., 1777
kite experiments
1784
De Saussure
Observations
" Voyages dans les
Alpes," Geneva, 1779-
1796
1786-7
Mann
Daily observations with an
Ephemer. Meteorol. of
electrical machine, timing
the Mannheim Society,
the revolutions to produce a
1786-1792
given spark with a record of
the weather
1788
Volta
tfew electroscope
Lettere Sulla Meteor,
1788-1790
1788
1791
Crosse
Read
experiments with collectors
insulation and conductors
Gilb. Ann., Bd. 41, s. 60
Phil. Trans., 1791 and
Summary, 1793
1792
Von Heller
Observations
Gren, " Neues Journ. der
Phys,," vol. ii. 1795
and vol. iv. 1797
1792
Schubler
Observations with weather rod
J. de Phys., Ixxxiii. 184
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 321
M. A. B. Chauveau's article in " Ciel et Terre," Bruxelles, March i,
1903, and also Humboldt's " Cosmos/' London, 1849, Vol. I.
pp. 342-346. • In the last-named work are cited: Arago, "Annuaire,"
1838, pp. 246, 249-266, 268-279, 388-391 ; Becquerel, " Traite* de
rElectricite*," Vol. IV. p. 107; De la Rive, " Essai Historique,"
p. 140; Duprez, " Sur 1'electricite de Fair/' Bruxelles, 1844, pp. 56-
61; Gay-Lussac, "Ann. de Ch. et de Phys./' Vol. VIII. p. 167;
Peltierin, " Ann. de Chimie," Vol. LXV. p. 330, also in " Comptes
Rendus," Vol. XII. p. 307; Pouillet, "Ann. de Chimie," Vol.
XXXV. p. 405.
An attractive table, which we are permitted to rearrange and
reproduce here, giving a resume of references to some of the most
noted experiments of the chief investigators from the time of
Franklin to the end of the eighteenth century, was made up by
Mr. Alex. McAdie and first appeared in the " Amer. Meteor. Journal."
Mr. McAdie says that, a detailed history of most of Franklin's
ro-labourers will be found in the accounts given by Exner,1 Hoppe,2
Mendonhall,3 Elster and Geitel 4 as well as by himself,5 and that
in making up this table he has passed over Peter Collinson, of London,
who introduced to the notice of the Royal Society the experiments
of Franklin, and the three less-known workers — J. H. Winkler, who
wrote in 1746 on the electrical origin of the weather lights ; Maffei,
1747; and Barberet, 1750.
A.D. 1795. — The telegraphs of the Rev. J. Gamble, Chaplain
to the Duke of York, consisted either of five boards placed one
above the other or of arms pivoted at the top of a post upon one
axis and capable of producing as many signals as there are permu-
tations in the number five, all of the combinations being possible at
equal angles of forty-five degrees. His doubts as to the practica-
bility of employing electricity " as the vehicle of information " are
fully expressed at p. 73 of his " Essay on the Different Modes of
Communicating by Signal," etc., London, 1797.
1 Ucber die Ursache und die Gcsetze der atmospharischen Elcktricitat.
Von Prof. Franz Exner. Repertorium der Physik. Band XXII. Heft 7.
2 Ueber Atmospharischen und Ge witter Elektricitat. Meteor. Zeits.
I, 2, 3 and 4, 1885.
3 Memoir of National Academy of Sciences.
4 (a) Report of Chicago Meteorological Congress. Part II. August
1893. (b) Zusammenstellung der Ergebnisse neuerer der Arbeiten iiber
atmospharische Elektricitat. Von J. Elster und H. Geitel. Wissen. Beilage
zum Jahresbericht des Herzoglichcn Gymnasiums zu Wolfenbuttel, 1897.
6 (a) Observations of Atmospheric Electricity. American Meteorological
Journal, 1887. (b) Terrestrial Magnetism. December 1897.
Consult Sir Wm. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), " Reprint of Papers on
Electrostatics and Magnetism," London, 1884, second edition, pp. 192-239,
Chapter (Article) XVI, " Atmospheric Electricity."
y
822 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — J. Gamble, " Observations on Telegraphic Experi-
ments," etc.; Article "Telegraph" in Tomlinson's " Encyl. of Useful
Arts"; "Penny Ency.," Vol. XXIV. pp. 147 and 148; "English
Cyclopedia," " Arts and Sciences," Vol. Vlll. p. 66.
A.D. 1795. — Garnet (John), proposes a telegraph consisting of
only one bar moving about the centre of a circle, upon which latter
the letters and figures are inscribed. On placing corresponding
divisions, by means of wires, before the object glass of the telescope
the coincidence of the two radii or of the arm would point out the
letter intended to be repeated. As this plan proved impracticable
for long distances, it did not come into general use (" Emporium of
Arts and Sciences/' Phila., 1812, Vol. I. p. 293).
A.D. 1795. — Wells (Charles William), a physician, native of
South Carolina but practising in England and a F.R.S., publishes
in the Phil. Trans, a paper on the influence which incites the
muscles of animals to contract in Galvani's experiments. Therein
he was the first to demonstrate that voltaic action is produced
through charcoal combined with another substance of different
conducting power, and this he did by causing noticeable convulsions
in a frog through the combination of charcoal and zinc. (See " Ency.
Met.," Vol. IV. pp. 220, 221, for the experiments of both Dr. Wells
and Dr. Fowler.) Fahie states that Davy subsequently constructed
a pile which consisted of a series of eight glasses containing well-
burned charcoal and zinc, using a red sulphate of iron solution as
the liquid conductor. It is said this series gave sensible shocks
and rapidly decomposed water and that, compared with an equal
and similar series of silver and zinc, its effects were much stronger.
(See Priestley's discovery of the electrical conductibility of charcoal
at A.D. 1767, and the description of Davy's charcoal battery in
" Jour. Roy. Inst," and Nicholson's Journal, N. S., Vol. I. p. 144.)
His biographer, in the " Eng. Cyclop.," says (Vol. VI. pp. 631-
632) that his last work and the one upon which his reputation as
a philosopher must rest, is his " Essay upon Dew," published in
1814 (" Journal des Savants " for Sept. 1817), whilst J. F. W,
Herschel remarks at p. 122 of his " Prel. Disc . . . Nat. Phil./'
1855 : " We have purposely selected this theory of dew, first
developed by the late Dr. Wells, as one of the most beautiful speci-
mens we can call to mind of inductive experimental inquiry lying
within a moderate compass. ..."
REFERENCES. — Wells' biography in the " English Cyclopaedia,"
Vol. VI. p. 631; Phil. Trans, for 1795, p. 246; Button's abridgments
of the Phil. Trans., Vol. XVII. p. 548; Fahie 's " History," etc., pp. 201
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 323
and 202; "Aristotle on Dew" (Poggendorff, Geschichte der Phys., 1879,
p. 42) ; Luke Howard, " On the Modification of Clouds ..." London,
1803; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism," etc., London, 1804,
Vol. I. pp. 162-165 and Vol. II. p. 329.
A.D. 1796.— Gregory (George), D.D., F.R.S., Vicar of Westham,
a miscellaneous writer of Scotch origin, for many years editor of
the " New Annual Register," is the author of " Economy of Nature,"
etc., of which the second and third editions, considerably enlarged,
appeared respectively in 1798 and 1804.
In the first volume of the last-named edition (Book I. chap. vi.
pp. 35-54) he treats of natural and artificial magnets and of magnetic
powers and theories of magnetism, while the whole of Book IV.
(chaps, i.-viii. pp. 299-386) is devoted to the history of and dis-
coveries relative to electricity, its principles and theories, as well
as to electrical apparatus and electrical phenomena and to galvanism
or animal electricity.
Gregory is also the author of " Popular Lectures on Experi-
mental Philosophy, Astronomy and Chemistry; Intended Chiefly
for the Use of Students and Young Persons," 2 vols., 12 mo, published
in London 1808-1809, one year after Gregory's death.
It was the perusal of the latter work which led Joseph Henry to
embrace a scientific career, just as the reading of " Mrs. Marcet's
Conversations on Chemistry " had induced Michael Faraday to
enter the field in which he afterward became so highly distinguished.
Prof. Asa Gray, in his Biographical Memoir of Henry, says that
Gregory's work alluded to is an unpretending volume but a sensible
one, and that it begins by asking three or four questions, such as
these : " You throw a stone, or shoot an arrow into the air ; why
does it not go forward in the line or direction that you give it?
Why does it stop at a certain distance and then return to you ? . . .
On the contrary, why does flame or smoke always mount upward,
though no force is used to send them in that direction ? And why
should not the flame of a candle drop toward the floor when you
reverse it, or hold it downward, instead of turning up and ascending
into the air ? ... Again, you look into a clear well of water and see
your own face and figure as if painted there ? Why is this ? You
are told that it is done by reflection of light. But what is reflection
of light ? " As Prof. Gray remarks, young Henry's mind was aroused
by these apt questions, and allured by the explanations. He now
took in a sense of what knowledge was. The door to knowledge
opened to him, that door which it thence became the passion of his
life to open wider. The above-named volume is preserved in
Prof. Henry's library, and bears upon a fly-leaf the following entry :
" This book, although by no means a profound work, has, under
824 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Providence, exerted a remarkable influence upon my life. It
accidentally fell into my hands when I was about sixteen years old,
and was the first work I ever read with attention. It opened to me
a new world of thought and enjoyment ; invested things before
almost unnoticed with the highest interest ; fixed my mind on the
study of nature, and caused me to resolve at the time of reading it,
that I would immediately commence to devote my life to the
acquisition of knowledge. J. H." (See Prof. A. M. Mayer,
" Eulogy of Joseph Henry/1 Salem, 1880, pp. 29-30 ; " Smithsonian
Report," 1878, pp. 145, 146.)
REFERENCES. — Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. LXVII. p. 415; Beloe's
" Sexag.," II. 128; " Living Authors " (1798), I. p. 225.
A.D. 1797. — Bressy (Joseph), French physician and able
chemist, remarks, in his " Essai sur Telectricit6 de Teaii," that the
electric fluid is composed of three beams (rayons, i. e. rays, gleams, or
sparks), vitreous, resinous and vital ; that three principal agents exist
in nature, viz. the air, isolating body; the water, conducting body,
and movement, determining action; that vapours resolve them-
selves into clouds merely because friction enables the electric fluid
to seize upon the aqueous molecules, and that, in water, the hydrogen
is maintained in the form of gas by the electric fluid, while the
oxygen becomes gaseous under influence of the caloric.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 1236; Delaunay,
" Manuel," etc., 1809, pp. 15, 16.
A.D. 1797. — Trem&y (Jean Louis), a French mining engineer,
communicates his observations on elliptic magnets through Bulletin
No. 6 of the " Soci£t£ Philomathique " as well as through the sixth
volume of the Journal des Mines.
His observations on conductors of electricity and on the emission
of the electric fluid appear at p. 168 Vol. XLVIII of the Jour, de
Phys.t and in " Bull, de la Soc. Philom.," No. 19, while his views in
opposition to the two-fluid theory are to be found in Bulletin No. 63
of the last-named publication as well as in Jour, de Phys., Vol. LIV.
P- 357-
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 1131; John Farrar, " Elem.
of Elec.," etc., p. 120.
A.D. 1797. — Pearson (George), English physician and chemist,
communicates to the Royal Society a very interesting paper entitled,
" Experiments and Observations made with the view of ascertaining
.the nature of the gas produced by passing electric discharges through
water ; with a description of the apparatus for these experiments.''
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 825
An abstract of the above appears in the Phil. Trans, for 1797,
and a full transcript of it is to be found in Nicholson's Journal,
4to, Vol. I. pp. 241-248, 299-305, and 349~355-
As Mr. Wilkinson has it, " Dr. Pearson supposes the decom-
position of water by electricity to be effected by the interposition
of the dense electric fire, between the constituent elements of the
water, which he places beyond the sphere of attraction for each
other, each ultimate particle of oxygen and hydrogen uniting with
a determinate quantity of the electric fire to bestow on them their
gaseous form. Hence the doctor supposes that the electric fire,
after effecting the disunion, assumes the state of caloric.
" On the reproduction of water by the passage of an electric
spark through a proportionate quantity of oxygen and hydrogen
gases, Dr. Pearson ingeniously conjectures that by the influence of
the electric flame the ultimate particles of these gases, the nearest
to the flame, are driven from it in all directions, so as to be brought
within the sphere of each other's attractions. In one of these cases
Dr. Pearson supposes that the caloric destroys the attraction, which
in the other instance it occasions.
" It is with diffidence that I take on me to controvert the opinions
of this very respectable physician ; but I presume that the whole of
the phenomena of the synthesis and analysis of water are more
readily to be explained on the principles I have laid down than by
the adoption of the mysterious terms of attraction and repulsion.
By the operation of galvanism, water is more rapidly decomposed
than by common electricity. In this operation there is no evolution
of dense electrical fire, but merely a current of a small intensity
of electricity acting permanently and incessantly. To reproduce
water, a flame must be generated sufficient to kindle the contiguous
portion of the hydrogen gas, then the next portion, and so on, the
combustion being preserved by the presence of the oxygen gas. As
these processes proceed with immense rapidity as soon as the gases
are intermixed, so as to appear like one sudden explosion, the
caloric of each of them being thus disengaged, their bases unite and
constitute water."
Dr. Pearson also made many interesting experiments to ascertain
the effect of the application of galvanic electricity for the treatment
of diseases, and Noad, who describes one of his successful operations,
also details (" Manual," pp. 343-349) the observations of many
others in the same line, notably those of Drs. Apjohn, Majendie,
Grapengieser and of Wilson Philip, Petrequin, Pravaz, Prevost
and Dumas (Jour, de Physiol., Tome III. p. 207), as well as of
Sarlandi£re and Dr. Golding Bird, besides giving the very important
conclusions arrived at by Stefano Marianini.
326 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — " Some Account of George Pearson," M.D., F.R.S.
(Phil. Mag., Vol. XV for 1803, p. 274); letter of Humboldt to M.
Lodcr (" Bibl. Germ./' Vol. IV, Messidor, An. VIII. p. 301); William
Van Barneveld, " Med. Elektricitat," Leipzig, 1787; C. H. Wilkinson,
" Elements of Galvanism," London, 1804, 2 vols. passim ; Paragraph
No. 328 of Faraday's " Experimental Researches," J. N. Halle, " Journal
de M6decine de Corvisart," etc., Tome I, Nivose, An. IX. p. 351;
" Annales de l'EJectricit6 M6dicale " passim ; H. Baker (Phil Trans.,
Vol. XLV. p. 270); "Jour, de la Soc. Philom.," Messidor, An. IX;
J. F. N. Jadelot, " Experiences," etc., 1799; M. Butet (" Bull, des Sc.
de la Soc. Philom.," No. 43, Vend&niairc, An. IX); M. Oppermanno,
" Diss. Phys. Mcd." (see J. G. Krunitz " Vcrzeichnis," etc.); Andrieux,
" M6moire , . . maladies," Paris, 1824; Lebouycr-Desmortiers (Sue,
" Hist, du Galv.," Vol. II. p. 420, and Jour de Phys., Prairial, An. IX,
1801, p. 467) ; C. J. C. Grapengieser, " Versuche den Galvanismus," etc.,
Berlin, 1801 and 1802; the works of J. Althaus, published in London
and Berlin in 1859-1870; C. A. Struve's works, published in Hanover
and Breslau, 1797-1805; F. L. Augustin's works, published in Berlin,
1801-1803; Karl Friedrich Kielmeycr (Kielmaier), works published at
Tubingen (Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 1253); Einhoff (Gilbert, XII. p. 230);
Francesco Rossi's treatises on the application of galvanism, published
in 1809; Gilb. "Ann.," Vol. XII. p. 450; Jour, de Phys., Vol. LII.
pp. 391 and 467; Cuthbertson's letter in Phil Mag., Vol. XVIII. p. 358;
J. G. Angladc, " Essai sur le Galvanisme," etc. (Sue, " Hist, du Galv.," Vol.
111. p. 73) ; Jacques Nauche, in Phil. Mag., Vol. XV. p. 368, as well
as in Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 256, and throughout the " Journal du
Galvanisme."
A.D. 1797. — In No. CCXXII of the Rcichsanzeiger , a German
publication, it is said that a certain person having an artificial
magnet suspended from the wall of his study with a piece of iron
adhering to it, remarked, for several years, that the flies in the
room, though they frequently placed themselves on other iron
articles, never settled upon the artificial magnet.
REFERENCES. — Cavallo, " Experimental Philosophy," 1803, Vol. III.
p. 560, or the 1825 Philad. ed., Vol. II. p. 286.
A.D. 1797-1798.— Reinhold (Johann Christoph Leopold), while
Bachelor of Medicine in Magdeburg, tendered for his theses, on
the i6th of December 1797 and on the nth of March 1798, two
Latin dissertations on galvanism, one of which was offered con-
currently with J. William Schlegel, then a medical student.
Numerous extracts from both the above very important papers,
which treat extensively of galvanic experiments upon animals,
vegetables, metals, etc., will be found at pp. 123-195, Vol. I of
Sue's " Histoire du Galvanisme," Paris, 1802. Both dissertations
review galvanism from its origin and make mention of many works
which had not up to that time appeared in print.
In the first volume of his " Elements of Galvanism," London,
1804, Mr. C. H. Wilkinson devotes the entire Chap. VIII (pp. 188-
260) to Reinhold's able review of galvanism, wherein are first cited
Gardiner (author of " Observations on the Animal Economy "),
Lughi, Klugel and Gardini as " anterior to the discovery of the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 327
doctrine of animal electricity/' Then follow accounts of their
writings, as well as of those of Galvani and of Volt a, " the Prince
of Italian naturalists/' after which due mention is made, in their
proper order, of the observations of Aldini, Valli, Fontana, Berling-
hieri, Monro, Fowler, Corradori, Robison, Cavallo, Wells, Havgk,
Colsmann, Creve, Hermestsedt, Klein, Pfaff, Ackermann, Humboldt
(letters to Blumenbach, Crell, Pictet and M. de Mons), Eschen-
meyer, Achard, Grapengieser, Gren, Michaelis, Caldani, Schmuck,
Mezzini, Behrends, Giulio, Ludwig, Webster, Vasco, Hebenstreit
and others.
The subject of the eighth and last section of Reinhold's Disser-
tations, as Wilkinson expresses it, consists of the exposition of the
hypotheses of different authors on the galvanic fluid. These hypo-
theses he brings into two classes, as they relate to the seat which
is assigned to the cause of the phenomena. The first of these classes
belongs to the animal which is to be galvanized, and the second to
the substance applied to its body, or to the arc. As the galvanic
phenomena are ascribed by several physiologists to electricity,
Reinhold makes a new division, relatively to the opinion of those
who assert that the galvanic and electric fluids are the same, and
of those who are persuaded that the former differs from the latter.
Under the first head or division he ranges Galvani, Aldini, Valli,
Carradori, Volta, in the early time of the discovery ; then Schmuck,
Voigt, and Hufeland; while under the second come Fowler and
Humboldt. Of the latter division he makes subdivisions, in the
first of which he comprehends Volta, Pfaff, Wells, Yelin and Monro,
the second embracing Crevc and Fabbroni. The other authors, not
having openly avowed their opinion, he passes over in silence.
Reinhold is likewise the author of " Versuche um die eigentliche,"
etc. (Gilb. "Annal.," X, 1802, pp. 301-355), " Untersuchungen
iiber die natur./' etc. (Gilb. " Annal./' X, 1802, pp. 450-481, and
XII, 1803, pp. 34-48) ; " Galvanisch-elektrische Versuche," etc.
(Gilb. " Annal./' XI, 1802, pp. 375-387) ; " Geschichte des Galvan-
ismus," Leipzig, 1803; " Versuch einer skizzirten," etc. (Reil.
" Archiv.," VIII, 1807-1808, pp. 305-354) ; " Ueber Davy's
Versuche " (Gilb. "Annal.," XXVIII, 1808, pp. 484-485).
REFERENCES. — Schlegel, " DC Galvanisrno " ; Figuier, " Exp. et
Hist, des Principales Decouvertes," Vol. IV. pp. 310, 433; J. W. Hitter,
" Beweis ... in dem Thierrcich . . ." Weimar, 1796; G. R. Trcvi-
ranus, " Einfluss . . . thier, Reizbarkeit," Leipzig, 1801, and Gilbert's
" Annalen," Vol. VIII for the latter year.
A.D. 1798. — Perkins (Benjamin D.), is given an English patent
for a process enabling him to cure aches, pains and diseases in the
human body by drawing electrified metals over the parts affected.
His metallic tractors, originally introduced from America and
328 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
consisting of an alloy of different metals, awakened much curiosity
both in England and on the Continent, and were successfully used
by Dr. Haygarth and others, as related in the article " Som-
nambulism," of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica."
In the Repert. II. ii. 179, it is said that one of the tractors was
made of zinc, copper and gold, and the other of iron, platina and
silver. M. V. Burq, in his " Metallo-the'rapie,1' makes a review of
the successful cures of nervous complaints effected by metallic
applications.
REFERENCES. — Jour, de Phys., Vol. XLIX. p. 232 ; Mr. Lang-
worthy, " View of the Perkinian Electricity," 1798; T. G. Fessenden,
" Poetical petition against . . . the Pcrkinistic Institution ..."
London, 1803; B. D. Perkins, " The Influence of Metallic Tractors on
the Human Body . . ." London, 1798-1799; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol.
XXI, 1802, pp. 49-89 ; " Recherches sur le Perkinisme/1 etc. (" Annales.
dc la Soc. de Med. de Montpellier," Vol. XXIX. p. 274) ; " Sur les trac-
teurs de Perkins " (" M6m. dcs Soc. Savantes et Lit.," Vol. II. p. 237) ;
P. Sue, aine, " Hist, du Galv.," IV. p. 286 and " Hist du Perkinisme,"
Paris, 1805; J. D. Reuss, " De re electrica," Vol. XII. p. 20; J.
Krziwaneck, " De electricitate . . .," Prag., 1839.
A.D. 1798. — In a long letter written to Thomas Jefferson,
President of the American Philosophical Society, and read before
the latter body on the 4th of May 1798, the Rev. James Madison,
then President of William and Mary College, details several experi-
ments made by him to ascertain the effect of a magnet upon the
Torricellian vacuum, and to explain the phenomena exhibited by
magnets in proximity to iron filings.
He says : " Many ingenious men have supposed that the arrange-
ment of the filings clearly indicated the passage of a magnetic fluid
or effluvia in curved lines from one pole to another of a different
denomination," but that the experiments which he relates prove
the attractive force of the magnets, at either pole, to be the real
cause of the phenomena which the filings exhibit, and that the
action of the magnet upon the filings, when they approach within
a certain distance, renders them magnetic. In every magnet, says
he, there is at least one line, called the equator, from which, in
the direction of both poles, the attractive power increases so that
the filings will " incline toward them, forming angles which appear
to be such as the resolution of two forces, one lateral and the other
polar, would necessarily produce."
Thomas Jefferson, above named, succeeded Benjamin Franklin
as United States Minister Plenipotentiary to Paris, 1784-1789,
became Vice -President of the United States in 1796, and was sworn
in as the successor of John Adams to the Presidency on the 4th of
March 1801. The Rev. James Madison, D.D., second cousin of the
fourth President of the United States bearing the same name,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 829
became President of William and Mary College in 1777, and was
consecrated first Bishop of Virginia by the Archbishop of Canterbury
in Lambeth Palace, Sept. 19, 1790."
REFERENCES. — " Transactions of the Am. Phil. Soc.," Vol. IV for
1799, O.S. No. 39, pp. 323-328.
A.D. 1798. — Monge (Caspar), Comte de Peluse, a very able
French scientist, called " the inventor of descriptive geometry,"
and from whom, it is said, that science received greater accessions
than had before been given it since the days of Euclid and Archi-
medes, erects a telegraph upon the " Palais des Tuileries " in Paris.
Of this, however, no reliable details are on record.
He also makes many experiments on the effects of optics and
electricity, and, likewise, many useful observations on the pro-
duction of water by inflammable air, independently of those carried
on by Lord Cavendish.
REFERENCES. — Biography in Charles Dupin's " Essai Historique,"
etc., and in " English Cycl.," Vol. IV. pp. 296, 297; Memoir at p. 175
of Vol. LV, Phil. Mag. for 1820; G. Monge, " Sur 1'effet des
etincelles . . ." Paris, 1786, and " Precis des lemons," Paris, 1805; Set.
Am. Supp., No. 621, p. 9916, and the note at foot of p. 701 of "Fifth
Dissert.," eighth ed. of "Encyclopaedia Britannica," Vol. I; as well as
" M6m. de 1'Acad. des Sciences/' 1786.
A.D. 1798. — Berton (Henri Montan), a prominent French com-
poser and Professor of Harmony at the Paris " Conservatoire de
Musique," also a member of the " Academic des Beaux- Arts,"
devises a novel electric telegraph which is merely alluded to, under
the heading of " Note historique sur le telegraphe electrique," at
p, 80 of the seventh volume of the Comptes Rcndus for July 1838, as
well as in Julia Fontenellc's " Manuel de Tdectricite."
A.D. 1799. — Fabbroni — Fabroni — (Giovanni Valentino M.),
Professor of Chemistry at Florence, communicates to the Journal de
Physique (gth series, Tome VI, Cahier de Brumaire, An. VIII),
an amplification of his able memoir, " Sur Faction chimique," etc.
(" Dell' azione chimica . . ."), which was first presented by him
during 1792 to the Florentine Academy and duly analyzed by
Brugnatelli in his " Giornale physico-medico." Therein is made
the first known suggestion as to the chemical origin of voltaic
electricity, inquiring whether the phenomenon of galvanism is not
solely due to chemical affinities of which electricity may be one of
the concomitant effects, and also ascribing the violent convulsions
in a frog to a chemical change which is produced by the contact of
one of the metals with some liquid matter on the animal's body,
the latter decomposing and allowing its oxygen to combine with the
metal.
330 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — " Elogio ... A. Lombard! " (" Mem. Soc. Ital.,"
Vol. XX); Cornhill Magazine, Vol. II for 1860, p. 68; " Biog. Univ.,"
Vol. XIII. p. 311; " Encycl. Met./' "Galvanism," Vol. IV. p. 215;
Journal de Physique, Vol. XLIX. p. 348; "Chambers' Ency.," 1868,
Vol. IV. p. 593 ; " Mem. Soc. Ital.," Vol. XX. pp. i and 26; P. Sue, aine,
" Histoire du Galvanisme," Paris, An. X-i8o2, Vol. I. pp. 229-232 ;
Phil. Mag., Vol. V. p. 270; Nicholson's Journal, quarto, Vol. IV. p. 120 ;
Sir Humphry Davy, " Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, p. 49;
Young's " Lectures," Vol. I. p. 752 ; W. Sturgeon, " Scientific Researches,"
Bury, 1850, p. 156; " Giornale di fisica " for 1810; "Giornale dell'
Ital. Lettera . . ." IX. p. 97; " Atti della Reg. Soc. Economica di
Firenze," XX. p. 26 ; Brugnatclli, Annah di chimica, II. p. 316 and XXI.
p. 277; C. Henri Boissier, " M6moire sur la de"comp. de 1'eau, etc.,"
Paris, 1801 (Journal de Physique, Prairial, An. IX).
A.D. 1799. — Jadelot (J. F. N.), French physician, translates
Humboldt 's work on " Galvanism," wherein he reviews the investiga-
tions of the great German scientist and treats of the application of
the Galvanic fluid in medical practice. The observations of a friend
of Humboldt, Dr. C. J. C. Grapengieser, are especially detailed and
a complete account is given of all the noted physicians who have
recorded experiments in the same line.
REFERENCES. — For the medical applications of Galvanism : Journal
de Physique, Vol. LII. pp. 391, 467; Gilbert's " Annalen," XL 354,
488 and XII. 230, 450; " An. of Sc. Disc." for 1865, p. 123; Larrey,
1793» 1840; L. Dcsmortiers, 1801 ; Legravc, 180^; F. J. Double, 1803;
J. Nauche, 1803 ; " Galv. Soc." (Phil. Mag., Vol. XV. p. 281) ; Laverine,
180} ; Mongiardini and Lando, 1803; F. Rossi, 1803-1827; J. Schaub,
1802-1805; B. Burkharclt, 1802 ; M. Butct, 1801 ; J. Le Roy d'Ktiollc,
" Sur 1'cmploi du Galv. . . ." ; P. L. Geiger, 1802-1803 ; J. D. Reuss in
" De Re Electrica "; M. Buccio, 1812; La Beaunie, 1820-1848; P. A.
Castbcrg (Sue, "Hist, du Galv.," IV. 264); Fabrd-Palaprat and La
Beaume, 1828; Rafn's " Nyt. Bibl.," IV; C. C. Person, 1830-1853;
S. G. Marianini, 1841; C. Usiglio, 1844; F. Ilollick, 1847; G. Stambio,
1847; Du Frcsnel, 1847; H. de Lacy, 1849; M. Recamier, J. Masse,
1851; R. M. Lawrancc, Robt. Barnes, and Crimotel de Tolloy, 1853;
M. Middcldorpf, 1854; R. Remak, 1856, 1860, 1865; J. Seller, 1860;
V. Von Bruns, 1870.
A.D. 1799. — Humboldt (Friedrich Hcinrich Alexander, Baron
Von) (1769-1859), native of Berlin, is the author of " Cosmos "
so frequently alluded to in these pages, and, in the words of one of
his biographers, " will be remembered in future times as perhaps, all
in all, the greatest descriptive naturalist of his age, the man whose
observations have been most numerous and of the widest range,
and the creator of several new branches of natural sciences."
The French translation of his work on " Galvanism " (" Experiences
sur le Galvanisme . . . traduit de Tallemand par J. F. N. Jadelot ")
appeared in Paris during the year 1799, before which date, Noad
remarks, no one had applied the galvanic arc, as he did, to so many
animals in various parts of their bodies. Among other results, he
discovered the action of the electric current upon the pulsation of
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 831
the heart, the secretions from wounds, etc., and he proved upon
himself that its action was not limited to the sole instants of the
commencement and end of its passage.
In the first volume of his very interesting work on " Galvanism "
(pp. 166-174, 261-310, 407-434) Wilkinson reviews the above-named
publication which M. Vassalli-Eandi, in 1799, pronounced " the
most complete that has hitherto appeared." The following sectional
extracts are mainly taken from Mr. Wilkinson's book, Chap. IX.
part ii. Humboldt's first experiments were made with the aid of
M. Venturi, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Modena, and they
were followed quite assiduously for a while, but it was not until he
learned of the important observations made by Fowler, Hunter and
Pfaff on animal electricity and irritability, that he was spurred on to
still further extended investigations, which were carried on more
particularly in presence of Jurine, Pictet, Scarpa, Tralles and Volta.
Humboldt's work is divided into ten sections, as follows :
Sect. I treats of the relation between galvanic irritation and
incitability.
Sect. II deals with the galvanic irritation produced without a
coating, or metallic or charcoal substances (repeating the investiga-
tions of M. Cotugno, which led to the experiments of Vassalli
during 1789).
Sect. Ill treats of the excitement produced by a simple metallic
substance, or by homogeneous metallic parts (detailing the experi-
ments of Aldini, Galvani, Berlinghieri, Lind, Pfaff and Volta).
Sect. IV discourses on heterogeneous metals. During his experi-
ments in this line, which were aided by his elder brother, chance led
him to a very interesting discovery. He found that the coatings
of the nerve and muscle being homogeneous, the contractions may
be produced when the degree of excitability is extremely feeble,
provided the coatings of this nature are united by exciting sub-
stances, among which there is a heterogeneous one, having one of
its surfaces covered by a fluid in a state of vapour. This observation,
which was originally made at the commencement of 1796, surprised
Humboldt so much that he instantly communicated it to Sommer-
ing, Blumenbach, Hertz and Goethe. He had not as yet found
recorded in the published works on galvanism any experiment the
result of which had the smallest analogy with his discovery; and
it was not until after the publication of the works of Pfaff on animal
electricity that he became acquainted with any one similar to his
own. There were, however, some differences, as he proves by
several passages cited from the above author.
Sect. V relates to the classification of active substances into
exciters and conductors of the galvanic fluid.
332 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Sect. VI treats of experiments on the comparative effects of
animal and vegetable substances employed in the galvanic chain.
Sect. VII describes, in a tabular form, the conducting substances,
and those by which the galvanic fluid is insulated. In the employ-
ment of very long conductors, it was not possible for Humboldt to
remark any interval between the instant when the muscle contracts
and the moment the contact of the conductor takes place, the
muscle and nerve being from two hundred to three hundred feet
distant from each other. This announces a celerity of twelve hundred
feet per second. The effect would be the same, should the con-
ductors even be from ten thousand to twenty thousand feet in
length. Thus Haller, in his physiology, ascribes to the nervous
fluid a swiftness sufficient to enable it to run over a space of nine
thousand feet a second. The calculation of Sauvages is carried to
thirty-two thousand four hundred feet in the same space of time ;
and what is still infinitely more surprising, its celerity is estimated
by the author of the essays on the mechanism of the muscles at
five hundred and seventy-six millions of feet (upward of one hundred
thousand miles) in the above space of a second of time. It ought
here to be noticed that the great differences in these calculations
arise from the different kinds of experiments on which they are
founded.
Sect. VIII proves that the nerve which is intended to excite con-
tractions in a muscle should be organically united with it, and it
deals with the effects of galvanism upon vegetables, aquatic worms,
insects and fishes.
Sect. IX describes the effects of galvanism upon amphibious
animals, referring to the observations of Nollet, Rosel, Haller,
Spallanzani, P. Michaelis and Herembstads.
Sect. X treats of the all-important effects of galvanism upon
man, and makes allusion to the experiments of Hunter, Pfaff, Fowler,
Munro, Robison, Hecker, Carradori, Achard, Grapengieser,
Schmuck, Ludwig, Creve, Webster and Volta. In speaking of the
observations made by the last named upon the tongue, he observes
that some idea of them had been given thirty years before, in
Sulzer's work entitled " The New Theory of Pleasures," published
in 1767; and that if, at the above period, the consideration of
the superficial situation of the nerves of the tongue had led to the
artificial discovery of a nerve, the important discovery of metallic
irritation would have been made in the time of Haller, Franklin,
Trembley, Camper, and Buffon. How great a progress would not
this revelation have made if the above philosophers had transmitted
to us, thirty years ago, the theory and experiments which we leave
to our successors ?
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 838
Volt a having singled out the differences, in point of savour, which
result from galvanic experiments on the tongue according to the
nature and disposition of the coatings, Humboldt repeated these
experiments and added to them several of his own, with a nearly
similar result. His different trials, however, having failed to produce
any contraction of the tongue, appear to have established the truth
of the ancient assertion of Galen, confirmed by Scarpa, namely,
that the nerve with which the tongue is supplied by the third
branch of the fifth pair is exclusively devoted to the sense of tasting,
and that the ninth pair are exclusively destined for the motion of
the tongue. This has been evidently proved by the galvanic
experiments on the nerve in question.
The termination, in the pituitous membrane, of the nerves
belonging to the organ of smelling, which originate in the first pair
and in the first two branches of the fifth, together with the observa-
tion of the innumerable phenomena of sympathy between the
organs of sight and those of smell and taste, had led to a pre-
sumption that, by galvanizing the nostrils, the smell would be
affected. This supposition has not, however, been confirmed by
any experiment.
The eleventh chapter of Wilkinson's work contains the analysis
of the report drawn up by Mr. J. N. Halle in behalf of the com-
mission appointed by the French National Institute. This com-
mission, which was organized to look into (examiner et verifier) the
different galvanic experiments which had been made and to ascertain
their effects and results, was composed of such distinguished French
physiologists as Coulomb, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Charles, Sabathicr,
Halle, Pelletan and Guyton de Morveau, who were afterward joined
by both Humboldt and the celebrated Prof. Venturi, of Modena.
Humboldt 's observations respecting the application of galvanism
to medicine are embodied in his well-known letter to M. Loder,
inserted in "La Biblioth£que Germanique," Vol. IV, Messidor,
An. VIII. p. 301, and are likewise detailed by Wilkinson (Chap. XIII)
where references are made, more particularly, to the experiments
of Hufeland, Behrends, Creve, Hymly, Pfaff and Anschell.
Between the years 1799 and 1804 Von Humboldt made observa-
tions upon the magnetic intensity of the earth, of which an account
will be found in Vol. XV of the Annalen der Physik. These were
made upon the American Continent during the course of his well-
known journey, the equal of which latter, says Petersen, has not
been seen since the days when Alexander the Great fitted out an
extensive scientific expedition for Aristotle.
Humboldt's observations in the same line were continued for
many years, notably between 1805 and 1806, in company with
884 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Gay-Lussac during a tour which they made together through France,
Switzerland, Italy and Germany, as related in the first volume of the
Mtmoires de la Sociiti d'Arcueil.
Some idea can be formed of the extent of Humboldt's share in
the magnetical labours of the first half of the century by perusing
the last chapters of his " Cosmos " and the third volume of his
" Relation Historique." At p. 615 of the last-named work, he himself
says : " The observations on the variation of terrestrial magnetism,
to which I have devoted myself for thirty-two years, by means
of instruments which admit of comparison with one another, in
America, Europe and Asia, embrace an area extending over 188
degrees of longitude from the frontier of Chinese Dzoungarie to
the West of the South Sea, bathing the coasts of Mexico and Peru,
and reaching from 60 degrees North latitude to 12 degrees South
latitude. I regard the discovery of the law of the decrement of
magnetic force from the pole to the equator as the most important
result of my American voyage."
Humboldt was the first who made especial observations of those
irregular perturbations to which he applied the name of " magnetic-
storms," and the effects of which he originally observed at Berlin
in 1806. These are treated of in his " Cosmos," London, 1858,
Vol. V. pp. 135, etc., wherein he states that, when the ordinary
horary movement of the needle is interrupted by a magnetic storm,
the perturbation manifests itself often simultaneously, in the
strictest sense of the word, over land and sea, covering hundreds
and thousands of miles, or propagates itself gradually, in short
intervals of time, in every direction over the earth's surface. In
this same work (" Cosmos," Sabine's translation, Vol. I. p. 180),
he contributes a graphic description of the concurrent and successive
phases of a complete aurora borealis, reference to which is made
by Noad (" Manual," etc., pp. 228, 229, 235), who, likewise, gives
(pp. 612-615) an account of the establishment of magnetic stations
at different points, for simultaneous observations, upon a plan
originally laid out by Humboldt,
As early as 1806, this great naturalist had published at Erfurt
his " Inquiry Concerning Electrical Fishes." While at Naples
with Gay-Lussac, during the previous year, they had examined the
properties of the torpedo, and had observed more particularly that
the animal must be irritated previous to the shock, preceding which
latter a convulsive movement of the pectoral fins is noticeable, and
that electrical action is prevented by the least injury done to the
brain of the fish ; also, that a person accustomed to electrical
discharges could with difficulty support the shock of a vigorous
torpedo only fourteen inches long; that the discharge can be felt
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 885
with a single finger placed upon the electrical organs, and that an
insulated person will not receive the shock if the fish is touched
with a key or other conducting body (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXII.
p. 356; Annales de Chimie, No. 166; " Encycl. Brit.," 1855,
Vol. VIII. p. 573). Humboldt's account of the mode of capturing
gymnoti is detailed at pp. 575, 576 of the last-named work, as well
as at pp. 472-474 of Noad's " Manual of Electricity," London, 1859.
At request of the King of Prussia, Humboldt returned from
Paris to his native city in 1827, and it was during the winter of
1827-1828 that he began in Berlin his lectures on " Cosmos, or
Physical Universe." This is the title of his chief work, which
has universally been recognized one of the greatest productions
ever published, and one which Ritter pronounced as being the
culminating point both in the history of science and in the annals
of civilization.
REFERENCES. — Klenke, " Alex. Von. Humboldt, ein biographisches
Denkmal," 1851 : " Alex. Von. Humboldt . . . von Wittwer," Leipzig,
1 86 1 ; " Life of Alex. Von Humboldt," translated by J, and C.
Lassell, 2 Vols., London, 1873; "Meyer's Konvcrsations-Lexikon,"
Leipzig und Wien, 1895, Vol. iX. pp. 44-47; Delambre's eulogium on
Humboldt will be found at p. 15, Vol. XV of " Edinburgh Review " ; Gren's
" Neues Journal der Physik," Vol. IV; Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXII;
An. Chim. et Physique, Vol. XI; Poggendorff's " Annalen," Vols. XV,
XXXVII; " Societ6 Philomathique," Tome I. p. gz\ " Opus. Scelti,"
XXL p. 126; Knight's " Mech. Diet.," Vol. II. p. 1874; Phil. Mag.,
. , . , . . . ., . .
pp. 462-467; Vol. VI. p. 692; Vol. VII. pp. 1035-1036; Sc. Am. Supp.,
No. 457, pp. 7301, 7302; Noad, "Manual," pp. 425, 528, 529, 612;
Vol. VI (1800), pp. 246, 250; " Cat. of Sc. Papers of Roy. Soc.," Vol. III.
; Vol.
, 7302; Noad, "Manual," pp.
Harris, " Rudim. Magn.," Part III. p. 103; Walker, " Ter. and Cos.
Magn.," 1866, p. 8 1 ; Humboldt, " Aphorism! ex doctrina . . ." 1793;
"Voyage, etc., dans les annees, 1799-1804"; "Report of Seventh
Meeting of British Association," Vol. VI, London, 1838, pp. I, 5 and 7,
and the remainder of Major Sabine's able article upon " Magnetic
Intensity," in the same volume; " Report of the Meeting of the French
Academy of Sciences " of May 21, 1849, for extract of a letter from Emile
H. Du Bois-Reymond, sent by Humboldt, and treating of the Electricity
of the Human Frame (" L'Institut," Mai 23, 1849); S. H. Christie and
Sir G. B. Airy, " Report upon a Letter . . ." London, 1836; C. H.
Pfaff, "Mem. sur les exper. de Humboldt . , ." 1799; Houzeau et
Lancaster, " Bibl. G&i.," Vol. II. pp. 168, 1580-1581.
A.D. 1800. — William Nicholson, editor of the journal bearing
his name, as well as an able chemist, and Sir Anthony (then Mr.)
Carlisle, an English surgeon, while carrying on a series of chemical
experiments, discover that, by means of the voltaic pile, water is
decomposed into its constituents of oxygen and hydrogen. Their pile
consisted of seventeen silver half-crown pieces alternated with equal
discs of copper and cloth soaked in a weak solution of ordinary salt,
and, having used a little water to make good the contact of the
conducting wire with a plate to which the electricity was to be
transmitted, Carlisle observed that gas was being set free in the
886 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
water, while Nicholson recognized the odour of hydrogen proceeding
from it. The better to observe this result they afterward (May 2,
1800) employed a small glass tube, which, after being filled with
water, was stopped at both ends with corks through which passed
two brass wires extending a little distance into the water. When
platinum wires were used, gas bubbles appeared from both wires,
and the two gases, hydrogen from the negative and oxygen from the
positive end, were found to be nearly in the proportion to constitute
water. (See account of above in Pepper's " Electricity," p. 312,
as well as at pp. 193 and 194 of Fahie's " History of Telegraphy to
1837," and at pp. 339 and 340 of Vol. I of Lardner's " Lectures.")
During the year 1781 William Nicholson had published the first
edition of " An Introduction to Natural Philosophy. " In the
second section of the third book of the latter work he treats of
magnetism, the methods of communicating it, and the variation of
the compass. The loadstone, he says, " is a ponderous ore of iron,
usually of a dirty black colour and hard enough to emit sparks with
steel. It is found in most parts of the world, and possesses a natural
magnetism acquired most probably from its situation or position
with respect to the earth." In the third section of the same third
book he discourses upon electrical matter, electrical jars, electrical
instruments, and devotes much space to the explanation of experi-
ments and facts touching natural and atmospheric electricity, balls
of fire, of the ignis fatuus, or will-with-the-wisp, of waterspouts, earth-
quakes, etc., alluding to most of the then well-known observations
thereon recorded by different scientists.
To Nicholson is 'due the invention of a revolving doubler,
an improvement upon that of Abraham Bennet, which is described
and illustrated in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," as well as in
No. 647, p. 10327, of the Sci. Am. Supplement (Read at A.D. 1794,
also Phil. Trans., Vol. LXXVIII. p. i, for M. Cavallo's remarks
upon the defects in Bennet 's doubler).
The above-named discovery of Nicholson and Carlisle, which,
Mr. Davy says (Phil. Trans, for 1826, p. 386) was the true origin
of all that had been previously done in electro-chemical science,
together with Hisinger and Berzelius' decomposition of salts, and
the successful decomposition of ammonia, nitric acid, etc., made by
the distinguished English chemical philosopher, Dr. William Henry
(Nicholson's Journal, Vol. IV. pp. 30, 209, 223 and 245;
" Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," Vol. IV. pp. 221 and 611 ; Hutton's
abridgment of Phil. Trans., Vol. X. pp. 505, 599), as well as Davy's
decomposition of the earths and alkalies, creates at the commence-
ment of another century, as we have already observed, an entirely
new epoch in the history of chemistry.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 337
REFERENCES. — Nicholson's letter to the Royal Society, read June 5,
1788, entitled " A description of an instrument which, by the turning
of a winch, produces the two states of electricity without friction or
communication with the earth " (influence or induction machine !) ;
Nicholson's Journal, 1800, Vol. IV. p. 179; Despretz, " Physique,"
1827, p. 432 ; Mechanics' Magazine, Nov. 9, 1839 ; biography in " English
Cyclopedia," Vol. II. p. 82; Tomlinson, "Cyclopedia of Arts," etc.,
1862, vol. I. p. 566; " Memoir of Joseph Henry," 1880, p. 78; Highton,
" The Electric Telegraph," p. 28; Noad, " Manual," p. 353; " Encycl.
Brit.," 1855, Vol. XXI. p. 628; Phil. Trans., Vol. LXX1X. p. 265;
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. VII. p. 337, and XLV. p. 396 ; C. H. Wilkin-
son, " Elements of Galvanism," 1804, Vol. II. pp. 21, 22, 46, 68, 375,
etc.; " Bibl. Brit.," Vol. XIX. p. 274; "Sciences et Arts," Part I.
p. 274, and Part II. p. 339, for Volta's answer to Nicholson. For various
treatises on, and methods of, effecting the decomposition of water, consult
Adam W. Von. Hauch (Mons' Jour, de Chimie, Vol. I. p. 109) ; G.
Carradori (Journal de Physique, An. XII. p. 20, " Nuova Seel. d'Op.,"
quarto, Vol. 1. p. 29, Paris and Milan, 1804); VV. Wilson (Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XXII. p. 260); Cioni e Petrini (Brugnatelli's An. di Chim.,
Vol. II. p. 322, 1805) ; M. Van Marum's letter to Nauche (Jour, du Galvan.,
Eleventh Book, p. 187; Gilb. Ann., XI. p. 220); J. C. I. A. Creve, as
at Ronalds' " Catalogue," p. 119; " Bibl. Britan.," An. VIII. vol. xv.
p. 23 and An. IX. vol. xvi. p. 23; J. C. Cuthbertson (Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XXIV. p. 170, 1806) ; Jos. Mollet's Memoirs published at Aix and
Lyons, 1821, 1823, as well as in the Reports of the Lyons Academy, 1823,
1825, and in the Comptes Rendus for 1823; Mr. Leeson (Sturgeon's
Annals, Vol. IV. p. 238, 1839; Robert Hare, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., N.S.,
Vol. VI. p. 339 ; L. Palmieri and P. Linari-Santi, " Telluro-Elettricismo,"
1844 ; M. Merget's theses, read before the Paris Academy, Aug. 30, 1849 ;
A. Connel, Phil. Mag., 4th Ser., for June 1854, p: 426) ; Dr. Edward Ash,
" On the action of Metals . . . upon water," in letter to Humboldt,
April 10, 1796.
A.D. 1800.— Grout (Jonathan, Jr.), of Belchertown, Mass.,
takes out, October 24, the first telegraph patent in the United States.
It was for a contrivance which he operated between Martha's
Vineyard and Boston, about ninety miles' distance, from hilltop to
hilltop, and which was sighted by telescopes (" Telegraph in
America," J. D. Reid, 1887, p. 5; also " Growth of Industrial Art/'
Washington, 1888, p. 55).
A.D. 1800.— Cruikshanks (William), of Woolwich, England,
confirms Nicholson and Carlisle's experiments, and, in his further
prosecution of them, employs a pile consisting of from forty to a
hundred pairs of zinc and silver plates, as well as a tube holding
silver terminals or electrodes, in place of the platinum electrodes,
which they were first to make use of.
He discovers that hydrogen is always evolved from the silver or
copper end of the voltaic pile and oxygen from the other; that,
under like circumstances, metals can be " completely revived "
from their solutions ; that pure oxygen is freed when a wire of non-
oxidable metal, like gold, is connected with the zinc plate, and that
fluids that contain no oxygen cannot transmit the voltaic current,
z
338 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
These results were verified by Lieut. Col. Henry Haldane, whose
many observations upon the series of metals best suited to the
production of voltaic electricity and their respective powers in
connection therewith are related at pp. 242 and 313, Vol. IV of
Nicholson s Journal for Sept. and Oct. 1800.
Cruikshanks was also the first to discover, in 1800, that when
passing the electric current through water tinged with lithmus, the
wire connected with the zinc end of the pile imparted a red tinge to
the fluid contiguous to it, and that by using water coloured with
Brazil wood, the wire connected with the silver end of the pile
produced a deeper shade of colour in the surrounding fluid, whence
it appeared that an acid was formed in the former case, and an
alkali in the latter. Fahie, who thus mentions the fact, justly
remarks that upon this discovery are dependent the electro-chemical
telegraphs proposed by Bake well, Caselli, Bonelli, D'Arlincourt,
Sawyer and others.
Cruikshanks is the inventor of the galvanic trough, an improve-
ment upon the voltaic pile, made by soldering together rectangular
plates of zinc and copper, and so arranging them horizontally, in a
box of baked wood coated with an insulating substance, as to allow
of open spaces which can be filled with a solution of salt and water
or with diluted acid, to take the place of the wet plates of cloth,
paper or pasteboard. Cruikshanks' plan was adopted in the con-
struction of the powerful battery of 600 pairs, which Napoleon
Bonaparte presented to the Ecole Polytechnique and upon which
Gay-Lussac and Thenard made their important experiments during
the year 1808. As Noad remarks, it is a very convenient form when
sulphate of copper is used, for Dr. Fyfe has shown (Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XL p. 145) that this exciting agent increases the electro-
chemical intensity of the electric current as compared with that
evolved by dilute sulphuric acid in the proportion of 72 to 16.
Both the above and Volta's form of battery were much improved
upon by Dr. William Babington (1756-1833), who united the pairs
of zinc and copper plates by soldering them at one point, and by
attaching them to a strip of wood in such a manner as to allow of
the entire line being immersed at will into an earthenware or wooden
trough having a corresponding number of cells or partitions. The
extraordinarily strong voltaic battery, constructed in 1808 for the
Royal Institution of London, by Mr. East wick under the direction
of Sir Humphry Davy and of John George Children, was built upon
this plan. It consisted of 200 separate parts, each part being
composed of ten double plates, in all 2000 double plates of zinc and
copper with a total surface of 128,000 square inches, and the charge
which William H. Pepys was accustomed to give it consisted of a
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 889
mixture of 1168 parts of water, 108 parts nitrous acid, and 25 parts
sulphuric acid.
REFERENCES. — Wilkinson, " Elements of Galvanism," 1804, Vol. II.
pp. 52-63, 96-99; Pepper, "Electricity," 1809, pp. 313-315; Noad,
"Manual," pp. 263, 26 f; Tomlinson, "Cyclopaedia of Arts," Vol. I.
p. 566; Napier, "Electro-Metallurgy," 1853, pp. 27, 28; Nicholson's
Journal, Vol. IV. pp. 187, 254, 261 and 511 ; Sturgeon's Annals, Vol. IX.
p. 309 ; Cruikshanks, " Some Experiments and Observations on Galvanic
Electricity," July 1800; also "Additional Remarks on Galvanic Elec-
tricity," September 1800.
A.D. 1801. — Davy (Humphry), a very eminent English chemical
philosopher, whose early studies had been greatly influenced both
by Dr. John Tonkin, of Penzance, and by Gregory Watt, son of
the celebrated inventor, James Watt, as well as by Mr. Davies Giddy
Gilbert, who brought him to the notice of the English Royal Institu-
tion, delivers before the latter body, on the 25th of April 1801,
his first lecture, wherein he traces the history of galvanism, and
describes the different methods of " accumulating "it.
His first communication to the Royal Society was made in June
of the same year, and is entitled, " An Account of Some Galvanic
Combinations Formed by the Arrangement of Single Metallic Plates
and Fluids, Analogous to the New Galvanic Apparatus of Volta."
As his able biographer, Prof. T. James Stewart Traill, M.D., of Edin-
burgh, remarks, this paper is the first of that series of electro-chemical
investigations which have immortalized his name. In all hitherto
constructed piles, the series had consisted of not less than two metals,
or of one plate of metal, another of charcoal, and some interposed
fluid. He showed in this paper that the usual galvanic phenomena
might be energetically exhibited by a single metallic plate and two
strata of different fluids, or that a battery might be constructed of
one metal and two fluids, provided one of the fluids was capable of
causing oxidation on one of the surfaces of the metal (" Bakerian
Lectures," London, 1840, pp. 32, etc., and Phil. Trans., Vol. XCI.
p. 297).
On the 20th of November 1806 was read before the Royal
Society Davy's first .Bakerian lecture, " On Some Chemical Agencies
of Electricity." This essay was universally regarded as one of the
most valuable contributions thus far made to chemistry, and
obtained for Davy the prize founded by Napoleon when First Consul,
to be awarded by the French Institute, " a celui, qui par ses experi-
ences et ses decouvertes, fera faire a Telectricite' et au galvanisme
un pas comparable a celui qu'ont fait faire a ces sciences Franklin
et Volta " (" Bakerian Lectures," 1840, p. 56, and notes at p. 349,
Vol. I of Dr. Lardner's " Lectures," etc., 1859).
Of the French Institute Davy became a member in 1817.
340 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Regarding the above-named important paper, given in full at pp. i-
56, of the volume of " Bakerian Lectures/' already referred to, Davy
says (Phil. Trans, for 1826, p. 389) : " Referring to my experi-
ments of 1800, 1801 and 1802, and to a number of new facts, which
showed that inflammable substances and oxygen, alkalies and acids,
and oxidable and noble metals, were in electrical relations of positive
and negative, I drew the conclusion that the combinations and de-
compositions by electricity were referable to the law of electrical attrac-
tions and repulsions" and advanced the hypothesis " that chemical
and electrical attractions were produced by the same cause, acting in
the one case on particles ; in the other on masses ; . . . and that the
same property, under different modifications, was the cause of all
the phenomena exhibited by different voltaic combinations " (Vol. I.
pp. 678-684 of Dr. Thomas Young's " Course of Lectures," London,
1807, on " Electricity in Motion," also Dr. Henry M. Noad's
" Manual," London, 1859, pp. 362-365).
The second Bakerian lecture, " On some new phenomena of
chemical changes produced by electricity, particularly the decom-
position of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances
which constitute their bases ; and on the general nature of alkaline
bodies," was read Nov. 19, 1807. In this he gives an account of
the most brilliant of all his discoveries (made during the previous
month), proving that the so-called fixed alkalies are merely com-
binations of oxygen with metals. It has been stated by Dr. John
Ayr ton Paris that since the days of Newton no such happy and
successful instance of philosophical induction has ever been afforded
as that by which Davy reached the above-named results (Phil.
Trans, for 1808, Vol. XCVIII. pp. 1-44). Davy's observations were
fully confirmed by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Berzelius and Pontin
(Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXXII. p. 193; Vol. LXXV. pp. 256-291 ;
BibL Brit, for June 1809, p. 122). Although Davy was less success-
ful in his attempt to decompose the proper earths, he proved that
they consist of bases united to oxygen. It was reserved for
Friedrich Wohler, Berzelius and Bussy to exhibit the bases by them-
selves, and to show that all, excepting silica, are metallic, and
capable of uniting with iron.
It is said that the original soo-plate batteries of the Royal
Institution were so worn in the course of Davy's experiments as to
be almost unserviceable, and that he suggested to the managers the
propriety of starting a subscription for the purchase of a large
galvanic battery. This being acted upon during the month of July
1808, he was placed in possession of the battery already alluded to
in the Cruikshanks article (A.D. 1800), and which was the most
powerful constructed up to that tune. " With this battery Davy
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 341
did not reach any new results of importance ; but he was enabled
to demonstrate the galvanic phenomena upon a more brilliant
scale. Nor was the increased power necessary to carry on success-
fully the experiments on the decomposition of the alkalies and the
earths as was apparently believed by many of those historians of
science. . . . who attributed the author's brilliant success in
electro-chemical research to his supposed extraordinary means, the
enormous voltaic batteries of the Royal Institution." In this
connection, the terse notes appearing at foot of pp. 62, 63, 106, 107
of the 1840 edition of the " Bakerian Lectures " will prove interesting
reading.
It was with the afore-named galvanic combination that Davy
openly made — in 1809-1810, and not in 1813, as has been frequently
stated — the first display of the continuous electric arc (John
Davy, " Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy/' p. 446).
" When the cells of this battery were filled with sixty parts of
water mixed with one part of nitric acid and one part of sulphuric
acid," he says, " they afforded a series of brilliant and impressive
effects. When pieces of charcoal about an inch long and one-sixth
of an inch in diameter were brought near each other (within the
thirtieth or fortieth part of an inch), a bright spark was produced,
and more than half the volume of the charcoal became ignited to
whiteness, and by withdrawing the points from each other a con-
stant discharge took place through the heated air, in a space equal
at least to four inches, producing a most brilliant ascending arch
of light, broad and conical in form in the middle. When any sub-
stance was introduced into this arch, it instantly became ignited;
platina melted as readily in it as wax in the flame of a common
candle ; quartz, the sapphire, magnesia, lime, all entered into
fusion ; fragments of diamond, and points of charcoal and plum-
bago, rapidly disappeared, and seemed to evaporate in it, even when
the connection was made in a receiver exhausted by the air pump ;
but there was no evidence of their having previously undergone
fusion " (" Elements of Chemical Philosophy," 1812, p. 154).
Dr. Paris says that Davy had already produced the spark upon
a small scale as far back as 1800 (Nicholson's Journal, Vol. Ill,
quarto, p. 150), and we learn, through an article published upon the
early experiments with the electric light, the names of others who
had likewise noticed the arc at about the same period, while Quetelet
informs us that M. Curtet is reported to have observed the light
between carbon points during the year 1802 (Curtet 's letter to
J. B. Van Mons in the latter's Journal de Chimie, No. VI. p. 272,
and in Journal de Physique, An. XI. p. 54). The article referred to
is as follows :
342 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Dr. S. P. Thompson has given the following interesting details
in regard to this subject : In looking over an old volume of the
Journal de Paris, I found, under date of the Twenty-second Ven-
tose, An. X (March 12, 1802), this passage, which evidently refers to
an exhibition of the electric arc : ' Citizen (E. G.) Robertson, the
inventor of the phantasmagoria (magic lantern), is at present per-
forming some interesting experiments that must doubtless advance
our knowledge concerning galvanism. He has just mounted metal-
lic piles to the number of 2500 zinc plates and as many of rosette
copper. We shall forthwith speak of his results, as well as of a
new experiment that he performed yesterday with two glowing
carbons. The first having been placed at the base of a column of
120 zinc and silver elements, and the second communicating with
the apex of the pile, they gave at the moment they were united a
brilliant spark of an extreme whiteness that was seen by the entire
society. Citizen Robertson will repeat the experiment on the 25th/ "
The date generally given for this discovery by Humphry Davy is
1809, but earlier accounts of his experiments are found in Cuthbert-
son's " Electricity " (1807), and in several other works.
In the Phil. Mag., Vol. IX. p. 219, under date of Feb. i, 1801,
in a memoir by Dr. H. Moyes, of Edinburgh, relative to experiments
made with the pile, we find the following passage : " When the
column in question had reached the height of its power, its sparks
were seen by daylight, even when they were made to jump with a
piece of carbon held in the hand." In the same volume of the Phil.
Mag., and immediately following Dr. Moyes' letter to Dr. Garth-
shore, on experiments with the voltaic pile, will be found an account
of similar investigations made in Germany, and communicated by
Dr. Frulander, of Berlin.
In the " Journal of the Royal Institution " (1802), Vol. I. p. 106,
Davy describes a few experiments made with the pile, and says :
" When instead of metals, pieces of well-calcined carbon were em-
ployed, the spark was still larger and of a clear white." On p. 214
he describes and figures an apparatus for taking the galvano-electric
spark into fluid and aeriform substances. This apparatus consisted
of a glass tube open at the top, and having at the side another tube
through which passed a wire that terminated in a carbon. Another
wire, likewise terminating in carbon, traversed the bottom, and
was cemented in a vertical position.
But all these observations are subsequent to a letter printed in
" Nicholson's Journal " for October 1800, p. 150, entitled " Addi-
tional experiments on Galvanic Electricity in a letter to Mr. Nichol-
son." The letter is dated Dowry Square, Hot wells, Sept. 22, 1800,
and is signed by Humphry Davy, who at this epoch was assistant
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 343
to Dr. Beddoes at the Philosophical (Pneumatic) Institution of
Bristol. It begins thus :
" Sir : The first experimenters in animal electricity remarked the
property that well calcined carbon has of conducting ordinary gal-
vanic action. I have found that this substance possesses the same
properties as metallic bodies for the production of the spark when
it is used for establishing a communication between the extremities
of Signor Volta's pile.
Among the papers read by Davy before the Royal Society
between June 30, 1808, and Feb. 13, 1814, are the following :
" Electro-chemical researches on the decomposition of the earths,
with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths,
and on the amalgam procured from ammonia " ; "An account of some
new analytical researches on the nature of certain bodies," etc., and
the Bakerian lecture " On some new electro-chemical researches,
on various objects, particularly the metallic bodies from the alkalies
and earths, and on some combinations of hydrogen"; "Elements
of chemical philosophy, detailing experiments on electricity in
vegetation."
In alluding to the important subjects covered by him during
the above-named period, Ids brother and biographer, John Davy,
M.D., F.R.S., says : " I shall not attempt an analysis of these
papers ; I shall give merely a sketch of the most important facts
and discoveries which they contain, referring the chemical reader
to the original for full satisfaction. After the extraction of metallic
bases from the fixed alkalies, analogies of the strongest kind in-
dicated that the alkaline earths are similarly constituted; and he
succeeded in proving this in a satisfactory manner. But, owing to
various circumstances of peculiar properties, he was not able on his
first attempts to obtain the metals of those earths in a tolerably
pure and insulated state for the purpose of examination. On his
return to the laboratory after his illness, this was one of the first
undertakings. He accomplished it to a certain extent by uniting
a process of Messrs. Berzelius and Pontin, who were then engaged
in the same enquiry, with one of his own. By negatively electrifying
the earths, slightly moistened, and mixed with red oxide of mercury,
in contact with a globule of mercury, he obtained amalgams of
their metallic bases ; and, by distillation, with peculiar precautions,
he expelled the greater part of the mercury. Even now, in con-
sequence of the very minute quantities of the bases which he pro-
cured, and their very powerful attraction for oxygen, he was only
able to ascertain a few of their properties in a hasty manner. They
were of silvery lustre, solid at ordinary temperatures, fixed at a red
heat, and heavier than water, At a high temperature they
844 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
abstracted oxygen from the glass, and, at ordinary temperatures,
from the atmosphere and water, the latter of which in consequence
they decomposed. The names he proposed for them, and by which
they have since been called, were barium, strontium, calcium and
magnium, which latter he afterwards altered to magnesium. . . ."
The reviewer of Davy, in the columns of the " Chemical News,"
writing in 1879, states that his papers on numerous subjects flowed
into the Royal Society's archives in an uninterrupted stream, and
it may be said, without exaggeration, that his work, especially
during the six years from 1806 to 1812, did more for chemistry than
the 60 which followed them.
Between the last-named dates, Davy was asked by the Dublin
Society to give a course of lectures on electro-chemical science,
which he delivered Nov. 8-29, 1810. Trinity College afterward
conferred on him the degree of LL.D., and he was knighted by the
Prince Regent one day before resigning from the Royal Institution,
wherein he gave his farewell address on April 9, 1812.
In 1813, accompanied by his bride and Mr. Faraday (his " assis-
tant in experiments and in writing "), Davy made his first trip to
the Continent, where he met Ampere, Humboldt, Gay-Lussac,
Vauquelin, Cuvier, Laplace and other distinguished scientists, and
where he carried on many experiments, of which the results were
duly communicated to the Royal Society, as were also the observa-
tions made by him up to the time of the completion of his second
trip in 1820.
Besides the Rumford medal conferred on him in 1816, he received
a baronetcy two years later, and was given, in 1827, the medal of
the Royal Society, the presidential chair of which he occupied for
seven consecutive years.
One of the four memoirs produced by Davy in 1818-1829 treats
of electromagnetism. In 1820, Davy, Arago and Seebeck in-
dependently discovered the magnetizing power of the electric
current on steel and iron needles or filings. In Davy's experiments,
it is said, the filings adhered to the wire connecting the poles of a
voltaic apparatus, consisting of a hundred pairs of plates of four
inches, in such considerable quantities as to form a mass around it
ten or twelve times the thickness of the wire (Phil. Trans, for 1821,
p. 9; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XV. p. 93).
Davy was actively engaged during 1821-1822 in experiments on
electromagnetism and on electricity in vacuo, reaching the con-
clusion, in the last-named channel, that electric light as well as
electrical attractions and repulsions are observable in the most
perfect vacuum obtainable. This is readily demonstrated with
either the apparatus employed by Tyndall in his Lecture VIII,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 345
" On the analogies of light, heat and sound," or with the apparatus
used by Davy and illustrated at Plate CCXXIII of the " Encyclo-
paedia Britannica," eighth edition. From the numerous experi-
ments and observations recorded in the last-named work the follow-
ing are extracted :
" A spark capable of passing through only half an inch in common
air will pass through six inches of the Torricellian vacuum. . . .
When the minutest quantity of rare air was introduced into the
mercurial vacuum, the colour of the electric light changed from
bright green to sea green, and by increasing the quantity, to blue
and purple. At a low temperature the vacuum became a much
better conductor. A vacuum above fused tin exhibited nearly the
same phenomena. At temperatures below zero the light was
yellow and of the palest phosphorescent kind, just visible in. great
darkness, and not increased by heat. When the vacuum was
formed by pure olive oil and by chloride of antimony, the electric
light through the vapour of the chloride was more brilliant than that
through the vapour of the oil ; and in the last it was more brilliant
than in the vapour of mercury at common temperatures. The
light was of a pure white with the chloride, and of a red inclining
to purple in the oil. ... In carbonic acid gas the light of the spark
is white and brilliant, and in hydrogen gas it is red and faint. When
the sparks arc made to pass through balls of wood or ivory they are
of a crimson colour. They are yellow when taken over powdered
charcoal, green over the surface of silvered leather, and purple from
imperfect conductors."
Davy's Bakerian lecture for 1826 was entitled " On the relation
of electrical and chemical changes." Two years previous to its
reading he had communicated to the English Government his
discovery of what he erroneously considered a remedy against the
rapid deterioration of copper sheathing for ships. His plan con-
sisted in altering the electrical condition of the copper by adding
plates of zinc or iron (called " protectors "), but the bottoms of the
vessels became so foul through the deposition of calcareous matter
and the adhesion of large balani and lepades, etc., to the copper,
that the attempt had to be abandoned (A. Bobierre, " The"se . . .
pour doubler les navires," Nantes, 1858). It was in the same year
(1824) that Davy made an important journey through Sweden,
Norway, Denmark, Holstein, and Hanover, during which he met
Oersted, Berzelius, Gauss, Olbers, Schumacher and other savants.
His last communication to the Royal Society, " Remarks on
the Electricity of the Torpedo," was sent from Rome in 1828, one
year before his death, and embodies the result of many observations
made while on the Continent, more especially during the years
346 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
1814-1815. The investigations in this line which, owing to con-
tinued ill health, he was unable to carry on, were completed by his
brother, Dr. John Davy, who established the following points of
difference between the phenomena of the torpedo and those of other
kinds of electricity :
" Compared with voltaic electricity, its effect on the multiplier
is feeble : its power of decomposing water and metallic solutions is
inconsiderable; but its power of giving a shock is great, and so
also is its power of magnetizing iron. Compared with common
electricity, it has a power of affecting the multiplier, which, under
ordinary circumstances, common electricity does not exhibit ; its
chemical effects are more distinct ; its power of magnetizing iron
and giving a shock appears very similar; its power of passing
through air is infinitely less as is also (if it possess it at all) the power
of producing heat and light."
Davy likewise made noteworthy observations concerning the
pyro-electricity of the tourmaline, confirming previous investiga-
tions in the same line, and asserting that " when the stone is of
considerable size, flashes of light may be seen along its surface "
(" Elements of Chemical Philosophy," Vol. I. p. 130), a curious fact
which Sir David Brewster says he does not believe has ever been
verified by any subsequent observer.
It is not within the scope of this " Bibliographical History " to
describe Davy's other notable papers relative to the miner's safety
lamp, etc., but reference should be made here to his first scientific
memoir, " On heat, light and the combination of light " (Sir H.
Davy's works, Vol. II) of which copious extracts are given by
Prof. John Tyndall in the appendix to his third lecture on " Heat
considered as a mode of motion."
As regards the caloric theory, which had deservedly been
engaging the attention of so many scientists, it is, however, thought
best to quote here from Deschanel's article on thermo-dynamics :
11 Strange to say, this .theory survived the many exposures of its
weakness and the, if possible, still more conclusive experiment of
Sir Humphry Davy, who showed that two pieces of ice, when rubbed
together, were converted into water, a change which involves not
the evolution but the absorption of latent heat, and which cannot
be explained by diminution of thermal capacity, since the specific
heat of water is much greater than that of ice. Davy, like Rumford,
maintained that heat consisted in motion, and the same view was
maintained by Dr. Thomas Young; but the doctrine of caloric
nevertheless continued to be generally adopted until about the year
1840, since which time the experiments of Joule, the eloquent
advocacy of Meyer, ajuj the mathematical deductions, of Thomson,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 347
Rankine and Clausius, have completely established the mechanical
theory of heat, and built up an accurate science of thermo-
dynamics."
REFERENCES. — " The Life of Sir H. Davy," by John Ayrton Paris,
M.D., 1831, and by T. E. Thorpe, New York, 1896, also his life by Dr.
John^Davy, F.R.S., 1836; and his biography and articles " Chemistry "
and " Voltaic Electricity " in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " ; " Works
of Sir Humphry Davy," edited by John Davy, 1839-1840; "The
Fragmentary Remains ... of Sir H. Davy," 1858; "Die. Tech. et
Prat. d'Electricitd " de Mr. Geo. Durant, Paris, 1887-1889; W. T.
Brande, " Manual of Chemistry," London, 1848, Vol. I. pp. xciii-cv,
213-224; C. H. Wilkinson, "Elements of Galvanism," London, 1804,
Vol. II. pp. 80-86, and Chap. XXVII; Thomas Thomson, " History of
the Royal Society," London, 1812, pp. 454-455; " Galvanism," in Dr.
Lardner's Lectures; Noad's "Lectures on Chemistry," pp. 32-33;
Bakewell's " Elec. Sc.," pp. 33-35; Daniel Davis, "Manual of Mag-
netism," 1846-1852; Thomson, "History of Chemistry," Vol. II.
pp. 260-261; " Elcm. of Exp. Chcm.," Wm. Henry, London, 1823,
Vol. I. p. 192; " Elements of Chemical Philosophy," p. 155; Thomas
Thomson, M.D., London, 1830; " Outline of the Sciences of Heat and
Electricity," pp. 467, et. seq., 491-495, 533 ; De la Rive's " Treatise
on Electricity . . ." Vol. II. pp. 282-283; "Encyclopedia Metropoli-
tana," Vol. IV (Galv.), pp. 176, 178, 222, and (Elec. Mag.) pp. 9 and 10;
Gay-Lussac and The'nard, Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXII. p. 88, 1809; Jacquin,
Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXVI. p. 73, 1810; M. Donovan, Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XXII. pp. 227, 245, 1811; M. Yatman, "A Letter . . ." and
Davy's "Enquiries . . ." London, 1811, 1814; W. Henry, "On Sir
H. Davy and Dr. Wollaston," London, 1830; Contessi G. Lelandri,
" Ann. Reg. Lomb., Veneto," n, 78, 1832, and F. I. Roux, " Conservation
des plaques . . ." Paris, 1866; Nicholson's Journal, 4to, Vol. IV.
PP- 275» 337 and 394 ; and 8vo., Vol. I. p. 144, Vol. III. p. 135 ; Dredge,
" Electric Illumination," Vol. I. pp. 24, 25, 30; Phil. Mag.t Vol. VII.
p. 347, for experiments of Dr. Henry Moycs, also Vol. XL pp. 302, 326;
XXVIII. pp. 3, 104, 220; XXIX. p. 372; XXXI. p. 3; XXXII. pp. i,
18-22, 101, 146, 193; XXXIII. p. 479; XXXV. p. 401; XXXVI.
" Scientific Researches," Bury, 1850, pp. 14-16, 23; Annales de Chimie,
Vol. XV. p. 113; " Socie"t£ Philomathique," An. X. p. in ; Becquefel,
Paris, 1850, Vol. I. pp. xi and 33 note ; " Nuova Scelta d'Opusc." Vol. II.
pp. 190, 282; " Beitrage zur Erweiterung," etc., Berlin, 1820; " Ele-
mente d. Chemischen," etc., Berlin, 1814; "Royal Society Catalogue
of Scientific Papers," London, 1868, Vol. II. pp. 171-175; " Biographic
Ge'ne'rale," Vol. XIII. p. 264 ; " Engineering, ' London, Vol. LII. p. 759 ;
" Abstracts of Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," London, 1832-1833, Vol. I.
" Edin. Phil. Journ.," Vol. X. p. 185.
Of the afore-named references in the Phil. Magazine, Vol. XXXI,
that at p. 3 relates to Davy's new Eudiometer acting by the electric
spark exactly in the same manner as that of II Marchese de Brez6,
described in the " Opuscoli,"
348 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1801. — Flinders (Matthew), a very able navigator and cap-
tain in the English merchant service, sails in the bark " Investigator "
for the purpose of circumnavigating and exploring New Holland.
During this memorable voyage he carefully observed the cause of
errors in the variation of the magnetic needle as depending on the
direction in azimuth of the ship's head, having often noticed, as a
writer in the English Quarterly Review expresses it (Vol. CXVIII.
p. 343), that the direction of the compass needle frequently wandered
from that which the known variation due to the geographical position
of the ship assigned to it. To correct those disturbances he sug-
gested placing aft of the compass a vertical bar of soft iron, whose
upper end, having like magnetism as the imaginary mass in the
ship's head, would, in acting on the opposite pole of the compass
needle, rectify its disturbances.
Flinders had, during the year 1795, made observations in the
same line as those recorded by the astronomer Bayly, who had sailed
with Captain Cook during his last two voyages, but it was not until'
his return from the unfortunate first voyage above alluded to that
he properly recorded his investigations for the benefit of navigators.
REFERENCES. — " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 1856, Vol. X. p. 295,
and article " Australia," Vol. IV. pp. 253, 254; " English Cyclopaedia "
(Biography), Vol. II. pp. 933-935 ; Sci. Am. Supp., No. 534, p. 8526;
William Walker, " The Magnetism of Ships," London, 1833, pp. 21-23;
"Abstracts of Papers of the Phil. Trans., 1800-1830," p. 187; Phil.
Trans, for 1805 ; John Farrar, " Elem. of Elect.," 1826, p. 381 ; " Cat.
Sc. Papers Royal Soc.," Vol. I. p. 187.
A.D. 1801. — Gautherot (Nicholas), able French chemist (1753-
1803), discovers that when a current has passed through two plates
or wires of the same metal in dilute sulphuric acid, a secondary,
reverse or polarization current is obtainable after disconnecting the
battery. This was the first step in the storage of electricity and
an account is given of it in the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXIV.
pp. 185-186, which contains a report of the proceedings before the
Galvani Society of Paris. Gautherot says that the results he
obtained should become " the source or basis of several other
experiments, and concur more than any other to the discovery of
the theory of this new branch of physics/'
In this same year Gautherot observed the power of adhesion of
the two wires in contact with the upper and lower ends of the pile,
a report upon which appears at p. 209, Vol. XXXIX of the Annales
de Chimie, while a full account of his observations on the subject
forms the substance of a separate work printed in London during the
year 1828.
The French physicist, C. J. Lehot, makes allusion to the last-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 349
named discovery in the following words, at p. 4 of his pamphlet
entitled " Observations sur le Galvanisme et le Magn^tisme " :
" It has long been known that the two wires which terminate a
pile attract one another, and, after contact, adhere like two magnets.
This attraction between the two wires, one of which receives, and
the other loses, the galvanic fluid, differs essentially from electrical
attraction, as Ritter observed, since it is not followed by a repulsion
after contact, but continues as long as the chain is closed."
J. J. Fahie, who also quotes this passage, says :
" The discovery in question seems to have been made inde-
pendently, and at about the same time by Gautherot (Philosophical
l^agazine or Annals for 1828, Vol. IV. p. 458), by P. S. Laplace,
and by J. B. Biot (Journal de Physique et de Chimie, for- 1801, Vol.
LIII. p. 266). The latter made the further very acute observation
that, if the wires are attached to plates of metal, and these plates
approached by their edges, they will attract one another ; while if
approached by their faces no action whatever takes place. For
other interesting experiments of this kind see * Nicholson's Journal '
for 1804, Vol. VII. p. 304."
Previous to the aforesaid discoveries, on the I2th Brumaire,
An. IX (Nov. 1800), Gautherot had published his refutation of
Volta's contact theory, through the Paris " Societ£ Philotechnique,"
and it is to be found recorded at p. 471, Vol. I of the " Memoires
des Societes Savantes et Litteraires de la Republique Fran^aise."
Later on he devoted so much attention to galvanic researches that
Messrs. A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N. Vauquelin made a special
report upon the five important memoirs containing the results of
his many observations to the French Institute on the 2ist Fructidor.
The first memoir gives the whole theory and practice of the
various kinds of conductors, and describes an apparatus devised by
Gautherot to ascertain the conducting powrers of different natural,
solid, liquid and even gaseous bodies (Izarn, " Manuel du Galvan-
isme/' 1804, pp. 56-60). He enters into full details as to the effects
of the voltaic pile in many experiments made upon himself, and
draws consequences which apparently disprove the identity of the
electric and the galvanic fluids.
The second memoir treats of the galvanic properties of charcoal,
and shows that it is a less perfect conductor than are metallic
substances.
In the third memoir he makes known his discovery that charcoal
and zinc form a galvanic apparatus which will produce shocks, the
decomposition of water, etc. He observes " that in the decomposi-
tion of water, charcoal decomposes that fluid in the same way with
non-oxydable metals ; or, in other words, that when two pieces of
350 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
charcoal are employed for this purpose, one of them disengages the
hydrogen gas, and the other the oxygen . . . when the portions
of charcoal touch each other in the water, its decomposition is not
stopped on that account, as happens when metallic substances are
brought in contact under the same circumstances. Indeed, if to
bring more immediately together, one of the pieces of charcoal be
cut in a furcated shape, this does not become an obstacle to the
decomposition of the water."
The fourth memoir treats further of different kinds of con-
ductors, and of various methods of constructing galvanic columns.
In the fifth and last memoir, Gautherot relates his important
discovery that an effective galvanic apparatus can be made without
metals. He constructed one of forty layers of charcoal and plumT-
bago, which communicated a strong and pungent taste, accompanied
by the galvanic flash of light, and which finally produced the de-
composition of water, the charcoal side disengaging the hydrogen
gas (Izarn, " Manuel du Galvanisme," 1804, p. 177).
During the month of March 1803, he read before the " Institut
National " a memoir entitled " Recherches," etc. (researches upon
the causes which develop electricity in the galvanic apparatus).
This appeared in the Journal de Physique, Vol. LVI. p. 429.
REFERENCES. — " Biographie G6ne"rale," Vol. XIX. p. 694; Larousse,
" Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. p. 1089; Izarn, Giuseppe (Joseph) " Manuel
du Galvanisme," Paris, An. XII. 1804, s. 6, pp. 95, 250-254 : M£m. des
Soc. Savantes, etc., Vol. I. pp. 164, 168; P. Sue, ain£, " Hist, du Gal-
vanisme," Paris, An. X, 1802, Vol. II. pp. 191, 196-203, 213, 214, 316;
Alglave et Boulard, Lumi&re Electnque, Paris, 1882, p. 219; Poggendorff,
Vol. I. p. 857; " Extrait d'unc lettre de Brugnatelli," etc., Bruxelles,
1802 (Van Mons, Journal de Chimie, Vol. II. p. 216).
A.D. 1801. — Robertson (Etienne Gaspard), a very capable
French experimentalist and one of the founders of the Paris Galvani
Society, who has already been alluded to in the article relating to
Sir Humphry Davy, writes a memoir, " Experiences nouvelles sur
le fluide galvanique," which was read before the Institute on the
nth Fructidor, An. VIII, and which appeared in the Annales de
Chimie (Vol. XXXVII. p. 132), as well as in the " Me'moires Re'cre'-
atifs, Scientifiques," etc., published in Paris during 1840, three
years after Robertson's death.
Robertson states that as he was delivering a lecture on the Qth
Vende*maire, An. IX, during which he alluded to differences which
he found to exist between the galvanic and electric fluids, he was
interrupted by Prof. Brugnatelli, who stated that Volta, who was
then present, desired an opportunity to correct the wrong impressions
the lecturer laboured under. Volta called upon him early the day
following and brought a live frog as well as apparatus, with which
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 851
they experimented quite extensively, and the results of which
brought Robertson completely over to the views of the Italian
scientist. Volta frequently repeated his visits, which led to the
development of a lasting friendship between the two. They visited
together all the prominent scientific bodies, such as 1'Ecolc de
Medecine, 1'Ecole Poly technique, etc., but found to their great
astonishment that Robertson was. the only one in Paris who had as
yet given the new discovery any serious attention. At pp. 250-253,
Vol. I of his " Memoires," etc., will be found a full account of the
above as well as of the very indifferent reception first given them by
the celebrated Prof. Charles.
Robertson adds (p. 256 of last-named work) that he was asked
by Volta to witness the latter 's notable experiments made before
the members of the National Institute of France, Nov. 16, 18, 20,
1800, and already alluded to herein at A.D. 1775. The sessions of
that body were being held at the time in the Palais du Louvre, and
the excitement caused by the meetings was so great that all the
approaches were guarded by soldiery. After Prof. Volta had
explained his theory and alluded to the identity of electricity and
galvanism, he announced that Robertson had first illustrated the
fact, and he asked him to repeat his original experiment, which the
latter did after the necessary hydrogen gas had been procured from
the neighbouring cabinet of Prof. Charles.
Robertson is also the author of several other interesting memoirs
on the electrophorus, the improved " couronne de tasses " and
" acide galvanique " which can be found in Vol. XXXVII of the
Journal de Physique and in the Journal de Paris for the year 1800
(" Recueil des Actes de la Soc. de Lyon," Tome II. p. 370).
A.D. 1801.— Gerboin (A. C.), Professor at the Medical School
of Strasbourg, is the first to report upon the peculiar agitation of
mercury when the voltaic current passes through it.
He states, in his " Recherches experiment ales sur un nouveau
mode de Faction electrique " (Strasbourg, 1808), that his many
researches were instigated by the observation he had made during
the winter of 1798, while in company with some friends watching a
child play with a hollow wooden ball. The Italian physicist,
Abbate Fortis (1740-1803), who wrote several works on natural
philosophy, but who is best known by his " Viaggio di Dalmazia,"
had already announced that a pyritical cube suspended by a thread
held between the thumb and index would immediately, without any
movement of the fingers, assume a circular motion upon being
approached by another body. The " Morgenblatt " of Tubingen
and the French " Archives Litteraires " render in 1807 a very
352 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
complete account of Ritter's researches upon the Fortis pendulum,
and N. Meissas states, at pp. 181-187 of his " Nouveaux Elements
de Physique/' Paris, 1838, that he repeated the experiment of
Ritter and of his friend Gerboin and observed many very curious
results. These he embodied in a communication during the month
of April 1829 to Ampere, who looked into Meissas' work in company
with M. Becquerel, also a member of the French Institute.
In his experiments, Gerboin employed a tube bent in U form,
filled half full of mercury, which later was covered with a stratum
of water, and he placed therein the wires connecting with a pile.
The surface of the mercury beneath the negative pole was slightly
oxidized, but the surface under the positive point moved so violently
as to cause small bodies placed within to be thrown outward upon
the surface of the tube. These bodies moved in a contrary direction,
i. e. from the circumference toward the interior, if the positive pole
was made to touch the liquid metal.
REFERENCES. — Observations of M. Erman, of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences, upon M. Gerboin's experiments related in the Annales de
Chimie, Tome LXXVII. p. 32. Also, Annales de Chimie, Tome XLI.
pp. 196, 197, M&m. des Soc. Sav. et Lit., Vol. II. p. 199; Dr. Gore, " El.
Metal," 1877, p. 3 ; De la Rive, " Treatise on Electricity," 1856, Vol. II.
p- 433 i Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 487.
A.D. 1801. — Trommsdorff (Johann Bartholomaus), German
chemist and pharmacist, who became Professor of Physics and
Chemistry in the University of Erfurt, discovers that by employing
large plates in galvanic batteries he can produce the combustion
of fine wires and of thin leaves of metal.
After having obtained very strong shocks and large sparks, and
effected the decomposition of water, etc., with his first pile consisting
of 180 discs of copper, zinc ar;d wet cardboard, he experimented
with very thin leaves of the following metals, and found them to
burn as follows : Gold, with a bright white light ; silver, with a blue
light ; yellow copper, with a reddish blue light ; red copper, with an
emerald blue flame ; zinc, with a bluish white flame ; tin, with a
reddish white light, etc. When oxidizing the noble or perfect
metals, gold, silver, platinum, in hollow glass spheres, he found them
to melt so thoroughly as to completely line the sides of the latter.
Trommsdorff afterward constructed a much larger pile of nearly
600 discs, not doubting that with a larger apparatus he could con-
sume very thick plates. It was while carrying on subsequent
experiments that MM. Fourcroy, Vauquelin and Th6nard ascertained
the fact that metals were more effectively deflagrated by piles with
large plates than by piles having a great many plates of smaller
surfaces.
AINU MAliJNttTlSJW. 853
In a letter dated Erfurt, March 16, 1801, Trommsdorff alludes
to the galvanic decomposition of water spoken of at p. 98 of the
" Archives du Nord pour la Physique et la M&Iecine," published at
Copenhagen, and expresses doubts as to the correctness of the
conclusions therein pointed out by Pfaff and Ritter.
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Metrop." (Galvanism), Vol. IV.
" Roy. Soc. Sci. ~ - - -
1136, 1137;
js. — "Encycl. Metrop." (Galvanism), Vol. IV. p. 221;
ci. Papers," Vol. VI. pp. 45-52; Poggendorff, Vol. II.
[7; C. H. Wilkinson, " Elem. of Galv.," London, 1804,
Journal ae uairme, vol. i. p. 41 ; .barousse, " Diet. Univ., Vol. XV. p. 535.
His pile is described at pp. 253-254, Vol. II of " Hist, du Galvanisme," P.
Sue, ain6, Paris, An. X, 1802, with references to Von Creil's "Chemische
Annalen," 1801, 4th Book, p. 237, and Van Mons' " Journal de Chimie,-'
Vol. I. p. 41.
A.D. 1801. — Libes (Antoine), Professor of Natural Philosophy
at the College de Beziers and at the Paris Ecole Normale and Lycee
Charlemagne, publishes in three volumes, at Paris, his " Traite
£l£mentaire de Physique," which had been preceded by his " Th£orie
de l'£lectricit£," etc., and was followed by a valuable " Dictionnaire
de Physique " in 1806 (C. F. V. Delaunay, " Manuel/' etc., Paris,
1809).
In his "Traite," Prof. Libes dispels the previous generally
accepted belief as to the production of electricity by pressure.
Experiments made by ^Epinus and by Haiiy had shown that such
minerals as developed positive electricity by friction likewise
exhibited the same electricity by pressure, and that those furnishing
resinous or negative electricity by pressure developed the same
electricity by friction.
It is known that varnished silk (taffetas gommi} acquires resinous
electricity by ordinary friction, but Libes found the means of causing
it to develop vitreous or positive electricity. This is shown when a
metallic disc insulated by a glass handle is pressed upon the silk;
the latter will acquire positive electricity while the disc will develop
resinous or negative electricity. If, on the contrary, the disc is
rubbed or rolled upon the silk so as to produce friction, the silk
acquires resinous electricity and the disc vitreous or positive elec-
tricity. If a glass plate is substituted for the disc, the silk again
acquires vitreous electricity and the glass resinous electricity, that
is to say, they both develop contrary electricities to that furnished
through ordinary rubbing.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. X. p. 475 ; Poggendorff,
Vol. I. pp. 1449, 1450; Volpicelli, " Sul cognito fenomenp. . . ."
Roma, 1859; Hauy, " Trait6 E16mentaire de Physique," Paris, 1806,
Vol. I. pp. 371, 372 ; A. C. Becquerel, " Experiences . . . par la pre "-
sion," Paris, 1823; " Catal. of Sci. Papers of Roy. Soc.,11 Vol. IV. p. 5;
AA
354 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Thos. Thomson, " An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity,"
London and Edinburgh, 1830, p. 482; Dove, p. 229; " Encycl. Brit.,'1
Vol. VIII, 1855, p. 563; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XXII.
p. 5; Phil. Mag., Vol. LXII. pp. 204, 263.
A.D. 1801. — Fourcroy (Antoine Francois de), an eminent
French chemist, physician and author, who succeeded Macquer in
the professorship at the Jar din du Roi, for which Lavoisier was like-
wise a candidate, publishes (Vol. XXXIX. p. 103, of the Annales de
Chimie) the result of galvanic experiments which he made in con-
junction with Louis Nicholas Vauquelin (1763-1829), and also
with Baron Louis Jacques Th6nard (1777-1857), who, in turn,
became the successor of Fourcroy as Professor of Chemistry at the
Ecole Polytechnique. They thought that by using many discs
they could increase the force of the current and also decompose
water more rapidly, but found this was not the case, and that with
an enlarged pile the combustion of metallic wires was more rapid
and brilliant, thus proving that the degree of combustion is relative
to the surface of the plates (" Encyclopaedia Britannica," 1855,
Vol. XXI. p. 626).
The grand experiment made conjointly by Fourcroy, Vauquelin
and Seguin on the composition of water from its constituent gases
was commenced May 13, 1790, and continued by them without
intermission until its completion, nine days later. " The gases
were fixed in a close vessel by means of electricity, and produced
a nearly equal weight of water " (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., N. S.,
Vol. VI. p. 339, giving description of apparatus for the decom-
position and recomposition of water).
Fourcroy was also one of the savants appointed in 1798 by the
Academy of Sciences of Paris to examine and report upon the
experiments of Galvani. The committee was composed of Guyton
de Morveau, Coulomb, Vauquelin, Sabathier, Pelletan, Charles,
Fourcroy and Halle, the last named being charged with the verifica-
tion of all the then recent discoveries, which were repeated with the
assistance of Humboldt, who went to Paris especially for the purpose.
The official report fully endorsed the praiseworthy line of researches
prosecuted by both Galvani and Humboldt, and the entire series
of experiments was at once repeated by many leading physicists
throughout Germany.
On June 19, 1803, one of Antoine Fourcroy's most interesting
memoirs, treating of meteoric stones, was read by C. Fourcroy before
the French Institute.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag., Vol. XVI. p. 299; Noad's "Lectures,"
pp. 183, 184; Ure, " Diet, of Chem." ; also the interesting biography
embracing a list of his very numerous works and treatises, at pp. 846-
849, Vol. IX of 1855 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," See likewise,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 355
"Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers," Vol. II. pp. 677-682;
Thomas Thomson, "History of Royal Society," p. 454; Wilkinson's
" Elements of Galvanism . . ." 1804, Vol. II. pp. 113, 145, 151, 152, 208,
359; Fahie's " History of Electric Telegraphy, p. 194 ; Izarn, " Manuel
du Galv.," 1804, s. 4, p. 167; " Journal des Savants " for Jan. 1860;
P. Sue, aine", " Hist, du Galvanisme," Paris, 1802, Vol. II. pp. 159-160,
241, 264. For Louis N. Vauquelin, consult " Cat. Sc. Papers of Roy.
Soc.," Vol. VI. pp. 114-128, 761 ; also " Me*m. des Soc. Savantes et Litt.,"
Vol. I. p. 204.
A.D. 1801. — Lehot (C. J.), French physicist, sends a curious
and lengthy memoir, regarding the circulation of a very subtile
fluid in the galvanic chain, to the Institut National, before which
body it is read on the 26 Frimaire, An. IX.
To the analyzation of the above-named memoir, Wilkinson
devotes more than half the tenth chapter of his " Elements of
Galvanism/' calling attention to a very singular result from numerous
experiments which is worthy of special mention. It is the possi-
bility of actually distinguishing one metal from another without
seeing or feeling either of them, and he says that by his arrangement
of the chain, M. Lehot was able to recognize a portion of zinc
from a piece of silver, at the extremity of metallic threads seveial
yards in length.
Lehot 's contributions to the science of animal electricity are
too numerous to be given here. Noad summarizes them in the
translation from pp. 17, 18 of C. Matteucci's " Traite" des pheno-
m&nes . . ." Paris, 1844.
He ascertained that in a recently killed animal contractions are
excited by the electric current in whatever direction it may be
applied, but, when the vitality of the animal has become diminished,
if the current is sent in the direction of the ramifications of the
nerves, contractions are produced only at the commencement of the
current; the reverse takes place when the current is directed
contrary to the ramifications of the nerves ; i. e. in this case the
contractions only take place when the current ceases. After study-
ing the sensation excited by the current on the organs of taste,
Lehot concluded that the current which traverses a nerve in the
direction of its ramifications excites a sensation when it ceases to
pass, though this influence is only exerted at the commencement
of its passage when the nerve is traversed in a direction contrary
to its ramifications. The later experiments of Carlo Francesco
Bellingeri and Stefano Giovanni Marianini entirely confirm those
.of Lehot.
REFERENCES. — Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXXVIII. p. 42 ; Journal
de Physique, An. IX, Pluviose, LII. 135; Gilbert, Annalen, IX. 188;
P. Sue, aine", " Hist, du Galvanisme/' Vol. II. pp. 123, 124, 129, 132,
141, 142 ; " Encyclopedia Me tropolitana," Vol. IV (" Electro-Magnetism,"
p. 8).
856 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1801.— Wollaston (William Hyde), celebrated English
chemist and natural philosopher, an associate of Sir Humphry
Davy, who had taken the degree of Mr.D., and joined the Royal
Society in 1793, but soon abandoned the practice of medicine to
devote himself exclusively to scientific researches, is the first to
demonstrate the identity of galvanism and frictional electricity,
through a paper read before the above-named society in June 1801.
The latter communication shows that he succeeded in decompos-
ing water as rapidly by means of mere sparks from frictional
electricity as through the agency of the voltaic pile, and in a more
tranquil and progressive manner than can be assured through
shocks from large and powerful apparatus. He concluded that the
decomposition must depend upon duly proportioning the strength
of the charge to the quantity of water, and that the quantity
exposed to its action at the surface of communication depends on
the extent of that surface. He observes :
" Having procured a small wire of fine gold, and given to it as
fine a point as I could, I inserted it into a capillary glass tube, and
after having heated the tube so as to make it adhere to the point
and cover it at every part, I gradually ground it down till, with a
pocket lens, I could discern that the point of gold was disclosed.
I coated several wires in this manner, and found that when sparks
from a conductor were made to pass through water by means of
a point so guarded, a spark passing to the distance of J- of an inch
would decompose water, when the point did not exceed T^ of an
inch in diameter. With another point, which I estimated at TTW»
a succession of sparks ^V of an inch in length afforded a current
of small bubbles of air. With a still finer filament of gold, the
mere current of electricity, without any perceptible sparks, evolved
gas from water."
In his Bakerian lecture of Nov. 20, 1806, Sir Humphry Davy
relates experiments made after the manner contrived by Wollaston,
showing that the principle of action is the same in common as in
voltaic electricity. Dr. Robert Hare, in a paper read before the
Academy of Natural Sciences, " On the Objections to the Theories
Severally of Franklin, Dufay and Ampere/' etc., says that, instead
of proving the identity of galvanism with frictional electricity, the
above-named experiments show that in one characteristic at least
there is a discordancy, but that at the same time they possibly
" indicate that ethereal may give rise to ethereo-ponderable un-
dulations. " Noad remarks that in these ingenious experiments
true electro-chemical decomposition was not effected; that is,
" the law which regulates the transference and the final place of
the evolved bodies had no influence/' The water was decomposed
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 857
at both poles independently of each other, and the oxygen and
hydrogen gases evolved at the wires are the elements of the water
before existing Mn those places. Faraday observes:
" That the poles, or rather points, have no mutual decomposing
dependence, may be shown by substituting a wire or the finger for
one of them, a change which does not at all interfere with the other,
though it stops all action at the charged pole. This fact may be
observed by turning the machine for some time ; for though bubbles
will rise from the point left unaltered in quantity sufficient to cover
entirely the wire used for the other communication, if they could
be applied to it, yet not a single bubble will appear on that
wire."
Wollaston communicated a paper to the Royal Society (Phil.
Trans., Vol. XCI. p. 427) showing that the oxidation of the metal
is the primary cause of the electrical phenomena obtained in the
voltaic pile. The oxidating power is finely shown by his eighth
experiment, which he thus describes :
" Having coloured a card with a strong infusion of litmus, I
passed a current of electric sparks along it, by means of two fine gold
points, touching it at the distance of an inch from each other.
The effect, as in other cases, depending on the smallness of the
quantity of water, was most discernible when the card was nearly
dry. In this state a very few turns of the machine were sufficient
to occasion a redness at the positive wire, very manifest to the naked
eye. The negative wire, being afterward placed on the same spot,
soon restored it to its original blue colour."
He verified in 1802 the laws of double refraction in Iceland spar
announced by Huyghens, and wrote a treatise thereon which was
read before the Royal Society on the 24th of June, and which
contains additional evidence deduced from Dr. Wollaston 's superior
mode of investigation.
He is said to have been the first to propose forming the spectrum
by using a very narrow pencil of daylight instead of sunlight, and
to have first made an accurate examination of the electric light.
In his communication to the Philosophical Transactions for 1802
he says :
" When the object viewed is a blue line of electric light, I have
found the spectrum to be separated into several images; but the
phenomena are somewhat different from the preceding (viz. the
spectrum of the blue portion of the flame of a candle). It is, how-
ever, needless to describe minutely appearances which vary accord-
ing to the brilliancy of the light, and which I cannot undertake to
explain/'
During the year 1815, Wollaston made a great improvement in
358 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
the construction of voltaic batteries. Having observed that the
power of a battery is much increased with a corresponding economy
in zinc plates, when both zinc surfaces are opposed to a surface
of copper, he devised what he called an elementary galvanic battery.
Each couple of the latter is made up only of a plate of copper doubled
up around a zinc plate from which it is kept apart by strips of cork
or wood, and the connecting strips of metal are attached to a wooden
rod which is lowered or elevated when the battery is in or out of
action. He found that a properly mounted plate of zinc, one inch
square, was more than sufficient to ignite a wire of platina WOTT °f
an inch in diameter, even when the acid is very diluted (fifty parts
of water to one of sulphuric acid).
He was a very careful workman, and in order to adapt his appara-
tus to the popular uses, he generally endeavoured to construct
them upon the most reduced scale (dans des proportions tres exigues).
He produced platinum wire so extremely fine as to be almost
imperceptible to the naked eye. It was estimated that 30,000 pieces
of this wire, placed side by side in contact, would not cover more
than an inch ; that it would take 150 pieces of this wire bound
together to form a thread as thick as a filament of raw silk, and
that a mile of this wire would not weigh more than a grain. It
may be well to add here that the wire made with John Wennstrom's
sapphire plates, for delicate electrical apparatus, is so fine that
thirty-six miles of it, properly insulated for Government use in
torpedo experiments, measures only about five inches in length
by three in diameter when wound upon a spool. The fibre used
as carbon filaments in the incandescent lamps is scraped to an even
thinness by being drawn through sapphire plates from ^-jfo- to
ToVff °f an mch m diameter.
The smallest battery that Wollaston formed of the above-
described construction consisted of a thimble without its top,
flattened until its opposite sides were about two-tenths of an inch
asunder. The bottom part was then nearly one inch wide and the
top about three-tenths, and as its length did not exceed nine-tenths
of an inch, the plate of zinc to be inserted was less than three-
fourths of an inch square (Annals of Philosophy, Vol. VI. p. 210).
We are also indebted to Dr. Wollaston for the first idea of the
possibility of producing electromagnetic rotations. Prof. Schweigger
opposed the action of revolving magnetism upon the ground that
if it were true, a magnet might be made to revolve around the
uniting wire, but Faraday found experimentally not only that
a magnet could be made to revolve round the uniting wire, but
that a movable uniting wire might be made to revolve around
a magnet. (See Faraday's " Experimental Researches," Vol. II.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 859
pp. 159-162 for " Historical Statement Respecting Electromagnetic
Rotation. ")
Wollaston was made secretary of the Ro}^! Society in 1806,
became its president in 1820 after the death of Sir Joseph Banks,
and contributed in all thirty-eight memoirs to the Philosophical
Transactions of that Institution.
His death occurred Dec. 22, 1828, and during the following
February Dr. Fitton, President of the Geological Society, concluded
his annual address with the following encomium :
" It would be difficult to name a man who so well combined the
qualities of an English gentleman and a philosopher, or whose life
better deserves the eulogium given by the first of our orators to
one of our most distinguished public characters ; for it was marked
by a constant wish and endeavour to be useful to mankind/'
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. V. p. 444. See also
" The Roll Call of the Royal College of Physicians of London," by
William Mimk, M.D., Vol. II; Edin. Phil. Jour., Vol. X. p. 183;
Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 424; De la Rive, " Treatise on Elec-
tricity,5' pp. 444, 445 ; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXIII. p. 488; LXIII. p. 15;
James Napier, " Manual of Electro-Metallurgy," 4th Am. ed., pp. 492,
518; Desbordeaux, in Comptes Rendus, Vol. XIX. p. 273; Le Moniteur,
No. 40 for 1806; Sue, aine, " Galvanisme," Vol. II. pp. 193-195, 199,
202; Joseph Izarn, "Manuel du Galvanisme," p. 137; Poggendorff,
Vol. II. p. 1362; "Encycl. Metrop.," Vol. IV (Galvanism), pp. 180,
181, 216, 222; Nicholson's Journal, Vol. V. p. 333; Thos. Young,
"Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II. p. 679; W. Sturgeon, "Scientific
Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 29 ; Quarterly Journal of Science for January
1821; British Quarterly Review for August 1846; " Biog. Generate,"
Tome XLVI. p. 822 ; Highton's " Electric Telegraph," p. 14; Larousse,
"Diet. Universel," Tome XV. p. 1370; "Cat. Sc. Papers . . . Roy.
Soc.," Vol. I. p. 61; Vol. II. pp. 136, 199; " Bibl. Britan.," 1801, Vol.
XVIII. p. 274; 1810, Vol. XL"*
Vol. L, N.S., 1816, p. 119.
XVIII. p. 274; 1810, Vol. XLIII. p. 347 (Phil. Mag., June 1809);
A.D. 1802. — Walker (Adam), English writer and inventor of
several very ingenious mathematical instruments, publishes in
London his enlarged edition of " A System of Familiar Philosophy/'
two volumes, 8vo, in which he devotes ss. 5-9 of Lecture II.
vol. i. to magnetism, and all of Lectures VII and VIII of the second
volume to electricity.
We are informed, through his preface, that " the identity of
fire, light, heat, caloric, phlogiston and electricity, or rather their
being but modifications of one and the same principle, as well as
their being the grand agents in the order of nature ... are the
leading problems of the work/' In another part he tells us :
" If electricity, light and fire be but modifications of one and
the same principle . . , and they have their origin or foundation
in the sun, it is natural to suppose, in issuing from that luminary,
they proceed from him first in their purest state, or in the character
360 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of electricity ; that joining the particles of our atmosphere, electricity
becomes light, and uniting with the grosser earth, fire . . . that
this fire shall be culinary when called forth from the earth by ordinary
combustion, and electric when called forth by friction. Thus have
I exhibited this wonderful agent in most of the lights in which it
has yet been seen; and flatter myself the reader's deductions
from these appearances will be similar to my own, viz. that electricity
emanates in a perfect state from the sun and fixed stars ; that its
particles repel each other and fill all space; that they have an
affinity to the earth and planets, but an aifinity that cannot easily
be gratified, because the surrounding atmospheres are in part non-
conductors, being already saturated, and, of course, repellent of
the electric fluid " (Lecture VIII. p. 72).
In the section devoted to " Miscellaneous Observations/' he
remarks that the magnetic power may almost be said to be created
by friction, rather than communicated by it ; for a magnet acquires
strength by giving magnetism to iron ; so that, if all the magnets
in the world were lost, magnetism might be revived by rubbing the
end of one steel bar against the side of another.
Section V, treating of " Magnetic Attraction," concludes as
follows : " How far these observations and experiments go to
establish the doctrine of a magnetic effluvium flowing through the
earth, or from one end of a magnet to the other, must be left to
the reader's judgment and opinion. We are apt to laugh at the
subtil matter of Descartes and the aether of Euler, as occult qualities,
which modern philosophy will not admit into its creed, but this
effluvium is a subtil matter, an aether, equally as inexplicable and
as equally out of the reach of our five senses to scrutinize; how-
ever, if we may venture to guess at causes by effects, and to compare
analogies with what we can see, feel, etc,, I think we have infinite
data in favour of an electro-magnetic fluid, superior to any proof
that can be brought of aether being the cause of gravity, light,
vision, etc."
John Read's letter to the author concerning the electrophorm
appears at pp. 47-49 of the second volume (Poggendorff, Vol. II.
pp. 1248-1249).
A.D. 1802. — Alexandre (Jean), who is said to have been the
natural son of Jean. Jacques Rousseau, and to have studied for
the medical profession, operates his secret telegraph (t&legraphe
intime) at Poitiers, and afterwards addresses M. Chaptal, Ministre
de I'lnte'rieur, asking for financial aid in order that he may be en-
abled to go to Paris and submit his invention to the French Govern-
ment. This request being refused on account of Alexandra's
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 361
unwillingness to divulge his secret, he next obtained an audience
of M. Cochon, Prefect of Vienne, before whom he demonstrated
his invention so successfully that the latter was induced to make a
report of it to M. Chaptal, advising him to invite Alexandre to
Paris at the expense of the State. A second refusal, however,
followed, and Alexandre went to Tours, where he there also failed
to obtain the desired assistance, after giving successful exhibitions
of his telegraph before the Prefect of Indre-et-Loire, General
Rommereul, as well as before the Mayor and the city officials.
The substance of Prefect Cochon 's communication is to be
found translated at pp. 111-113 of Fahie's " History of Electric
Telegraphy," which latter also contains a full translation of the
report addressed, 10 Fructidor, An. X by the celebrated French
astronomer, J. B. J. Delambre, to the First Consul, suggesting
for the inventor's representative, M. Beauvais, an interview which
Bonaparte, however, refused to grant.
Alexandre died, 1832-1833, without having revealed his secret
to any one but M. Beauvais. It is stated by Fahie that in the
English Chronicle of June 19-22, 1802, appears a brief account of
the above-named exhibition given at Tours, concluding as follows :
" The art or mechanism by which this is effected is unknown, but
the inventor says that he can extend it to the distance of four or
five leagues, even though a river should be interposed." A copy
of the above-named newspaper, doubtless unique, was in Latimer
Clark's library.
REFERENCES. — " Annales T&egraphiques, " March-April, 1859,
pp. 188-199, for M. Edouard Gerspach's Memoir; " Sci. Am. Suppl.,"
No. 384, for a translation of M. Auguste Gu6roult's article in "La
Lumiere Electrique " ; M. Cezanne, " Le Cable Transatlantique,"
Paris, 1867, p. 32; M. Berio, " Ephemerides of the Lecture Society,"
Genoa, 1872, p. 645.
A.D. 1802. — Sue (Pierre, ain6), a very able French physician,
publishes, at Paris, " His to ire du Galvanisme et analyse des
diff brents ouvrages publics sur cette d£couverte . . ." which is
considered by scientists one of the most important works on the
subject.
REFERENCES. — "Biographic G£n6rale," Vol. XLIV. pp. 618-619;
Larousse, " Dictionnaire Universel," Vol. XIV. p. 1200; Wilkinson,
" Elem. of Galv.," 1804, Vol. I. p. 182.
A.D. 1802. — Brugnatelli (Luigi Valentino), who, after being
a pupil, became the close friend and subsequently the colleague of
Volta at the Pa via University, is the first to obtain, by means of the
voltaic pile, a decidedly practical result in electro-plating. He
gilded two large silver medals on bringing them in communication,
by means of the steel wire, with the negative pole of a voltaic pile,
362 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
and by keeping them one after the other immersed in ammoniurets
of gold newly prepared and well saturated (Phil. Mag. for 1805).
He also electro-deposited bright metallic silver upon platinum,
and observed that when the current entered the liquid by means
of a pole of copper or zinc, those metals were dissolved and then
deposited upon the negative pole. Spon tells us (" Dictionary of
Engineering," London, 1874, Vol. II. p. 1378) that the solutions
employed by Brugnatelli were alkaline ; they consisted of am-
moniurets of gold, silver or platina, that is, the product obtained
by treating the chlorides of gold and platina or the azotate of silver,
by ammonia. There is much obscurity in the descriptions of
Brugnatelli, but according to the Journal de Physique et Chimie
of Van Mons, the most expeditious method of reducing, by means
of the battery, dissolved metallic oxides, is to make use of their
ammoniurets by placing the ends of two conducting wires of platina
into ammoniuret of mercury. The wire of the negative pole speedily
becomes covered with small particles of this metal. MM. Barral,
Chevalier and Henri tried to reproduce Brugnatelli's operation by
following his descriptions, but with very imperfect results, the
nature of the dissolvent employed by the learned Italian not being
known.
At p. 136, Vol. XVIII of his Annali di Chimica, etc., Brugnatelli
publishes a memoir entitled " Chemical Observations on the Electric
Acid." He says :
" Naturalists have hitherto merely abandoned one erroneous
hypothesis for another, in considering the nature of the electric
fluid. Some have regarded it as identical with heat ; while others
have been led to consider it as a modified caloric. The disciples
of Stahl ascribed it to the nature of their phlogistic or, at least,
supposed it to be a fluid abundantly provided with that principle.
Henley conjectured it to be phlogistic, when in a state of repose,
and fire, when in a state of activity. Among the moderns, several
have been found who have declared it to be an acid; but their
opinion has been combated by Gardini, who, by means of several
ingenious observations, has endeavoured to demonstrate that it is
composed of caloric and hydrogen."
In the earlier experiments on the decomposition of even chemi-
cally pure water by the voltaic column, the presence of an acid
was always apparent at the pole evolving oxygen, while alkaline
matter appeared at the other (Nicholson's Journal, quarto,
Vol. IV. p. 183).
Mr. William Cruikshanks supposed the former to be the nitrous
acid resulting from a combination of the oxygen at the positive
pole with the azote of the air held in solution by the water, while
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 363
the alkali, he said, proceeded from the combination of the same
principle with the hydrogen evolved at the negative pole (Nichol-
son's Journal, quarto, Vol. IV. p. 261). Mr. C. B. Desormes after-
ward endeavoured to show that the products were ammonia and
muriatic acids (Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXXVII. p. 233).
Brugnatelli's experiments with the couronne de tasses, however,
led him to consider it to be an acid sui generis produced by the
combination of one of the constituents of water with positive
electricity. He classed it as oxi-electric, and of all the metals, gold
and platina alone appeared to him not to be sensibly affected by
this electric acid.
REFERENCES. — For Brugnatelli's record of other experiments and
observations and for his Memoirs upon different piles, upon animal
electricity, upon the identity of the electric and galvanic fluids, etc. etc.,
see his " Principes," etc., 1803, and " Grundsatze des Elektricitat," etc.,
1812, his Annali di Chimica, Vols. VII. p. 239; XIX. pp. 77, 153, 274,
277, 280-281 ; XXI. pp. 3, 143, etc., 239; XXII. pp. i, etc., 77-92, 257,
301 ; the Giornale di Chimica, Fis. e Storia Nat. of L. and G. Brugnatelli,
G. Brunacci and P. Configliachi, Vol. I. pp. 147-163, 337-353;' IX.
p. 145; XL p. 130, and the " Commentarii Medici," edited by L. Brug-
natelli and L. V. Brera ; also Brugnatelli's Giornale Fisico-Medico,
etc., and its continuation, Avanzamenti della Medicina e Fisica, the
first named containing (Vol. I. p. 280), a repetition of Galvani's experi-
ments, made by Volta, Rezia and Brugnatelli; G. Bianconi, " Intorno
..." and " Cenni intorno . . . Galvanoplastica " (Nuovi Annali della
Scienze Naturali) ; the " Biblioteca Italiana," of which his son Gaspare
Brugnatelli was an editor, in conjunction with Breislak, Configliachi,
Carlini, Cotena, Acerbi, Brunacci, Fantonelli, Fumagelli, Ferrario,
Giordiani, Gironi and Monti; G. A. Giobert, " Gior. Fis. Med.," 1188;
Du Pre", "Ann. di Chimica," IX. 156; P. Mascagni, " Lettera . . ."
for Brugnatelli's notes; A. Cossa, " Notizie . . . elettro-chimica,"
1858; J. Napier, " Man. of El. Met.," 4th ed., pp. 491, 492 ; J. B. Van
Mons' Journal de Chimie, Vols. I. pp. i, 24, 101, 216, 325; II. pp. 106,
216; IV. p. 143; X. p. 114; XVI. p. 132; also Vol. LXXVI; Giornale
di Fis. Chim., Vol. I. pp. 4-32, 28, 139-147, 164-166, 338; " Effemeridi
Chim. Mediche di Milano," 1807, Sem. I. p. 57; A. F. Gehlen's Journal
fiir die Chemie, Vol. I. pp. 54-88; VI. pp. 116-124; VIII. pp. 319-359 ;
L. W. Gilbert, Annalen der Physik, Vols. VIII. pp. 284-299; XVI.
pp. 89-94; XXIII. pp. 177-219; Philosophical Magazine, Vols. XXI.
p. 187; XXV. pp. 57-66, 130-142; LIII. p. 321; Dr. Thos. Thomson's
Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XII. p. 228; Alfred Sinee's " Elements of
Electro-Metallurgy," History, pp. xxv-xxvi; Journal de Pharmacie,
Vol. III. pp. 425, 426; J. Nauche, Journal du Galvanisme, etc., Vol. II.
pp. 55-60 ; P. Sue, aine*, " Histoire du Galvanisme," An. X, 1802, Vol. I.
p. 305; II. pp. 263, 316, 320, 328; Annales de Chimie, Feb, 1818; for
Brugnatelli, " Biblioth. Britan.," Vol. XXXI., 1806, pp. 43, 122, 223
(pile ve'ge'tale).
A.D. 1802. — Jager (Karl Christoph Friedrich van), a well-known
physicist of Wurtemberg and professor at Stuttgart, confirms by
mathematical analysis the theory of electrical distribution and
equilibrium, as will be seen by his papers in Gilbert's Annalen der
Physik, Vols. XII. pp. 123, 127; XIII. pp. 399-433; XXIII.
pp. 59-84, and LII. pp. 81-108.
364 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
The views of Jager were fully endorsed by Berzelius, who, like
Scholz and Reinhold, endeavoured to extend them, and who says
that we are indebted to the German physicist for actually the
most complete elucidation of the theory of the voltaic pile.
In Vol. XLIX of Gilbert's Annalen for 1815, pp. 47-66, will be
found Jager's observations and experiments on Zamboni's column
as well as the papers of Zamboni and Deluc on dry piles.
Dr. Thomson says that since Dr. Jager found that, when the
temperature was raised to 104 degrees, or as high as 140 degrees,
the pile begins again to act as well as ever, we must conclude from
this that dry paper, while cold, is a non-conductor of electricity,
but that it becomes again a conductor when heated up to 104
degrees or 140 degrees.
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 1186, 1187; "Catalogue
of Scientific Papers of the Royal Society/1" Vol. III. p. 525 ; Jager on
the tourmaline in Gilbert's Annalen for 1817, Vol. LV. pp. 369, 416, and
Jager, Bohnenberger and Zamboni in the Annalen for 1819, Vol. LXIL
pp. 227-246; Figuier, "Expos, et Histoire/' 1857, Vol. IV. p. 433;
Davy, " Bakcrian Lectures," 1840, pp. 44-56, on the " Agencies of
Electricity."
A.D. 1802. — Gale (T.), an American physician, publishes at
Troy " Electricity or Ethereal Fire . . . considered naturally,
astronomically and medically, and comprehending both the theory
and practice of medical electricity/' etc. Among other things,
he describes at pp. 27, 28, various experiments made with his
galvanometer ; explains at pp. 46-64 how the Newtonian principles
are erroneous ; and shows at p. 264 how to extract lightning from
the clouds; while at pp. 272, etc., are given directions for using
electricity both as a sure preventive and cure of diseases.
A.D. 1802.— Gibbes (George Smith), M.D., of Bath, reads before
the Royal Society a paper on the Phenomena of Galvanism thus
noticed by Dr. Young at pp. 672, 673, Vol. II. of his " Course of
Lectures," London, 1707 :
" Dr. Gibbes begins with reciting some experiments on the
oxidation produced during the union of tinfoil with mercury, first
in the air and then under water. He assumes a different opinion
From that of Dr. Wollaston, respecting the origination of electricity
n chemical changes, and maintains on the contrary that the elec-
;rical changes are to be considered as preceding and favouring the
:hemical. He imagines that the simple contact of various sub-
itances produces changes of electrical equilibrium, and that the
iction of acids is effectual in promoting these changes, by bringing
heir surfaces into contact. Dr. Gibbes observes upon Dr.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 365
Wollaston's experiment of immersing zinc and silver in an acid
solution, that if they are placed in two separate portions of the
fluid, and the parts not immersed are brought into contact there
is no emission of gas from the silver ; but that it is copiously pro-
duced when the contact takes place in the same fluid. He proceeds
to relate some experiments which seem to show a difference between
galvanism and electricity, particularly that galvanism does not
appear to be attracted by metallic points. He also states an
experiment in which a piece of paper is placed on tinfoil, and rubbed
with elastic gum, and although the tinfoil is not insulated, sparks
are produced on raising the paper. Dr. Gibbes concludes with
some arguments against the doctrine of the decomposition of water ;
and advances as a probable opinion, that oxygen and hydrogen gas
are composed of water as a basis, united with two other elements,
which, combined, form heat."
As remarked by Wilkinson (" Elements of Galvanism/' London,
1804, Vol. II. pp. 385, 386), Dr. Gibbes' hypothesis as to the com-
position of water having been deduced from Richter's experiments,
and these latter proving erroneous, the ingenious superstructure
which the doctor has erected must necessarily fall to the ground.
A.D. 1802. — Romagnosi (Gian Domenico Gregorio Giuseppe),
Italian jurist of Salsomaggiore, near Piacenza, who had devoted
much time to scientific investigation, and was about taking the
law professorship at the Parma University, communicates, Aug. 3,
1802, to the Gazetta di Trento, his important paper entitled
" Articulo sul Galvanismo." Of the latter, a translation, made from
the reprint at p. 8 of Gilb. Govi's " Romagnosi e T Elettro-magnet-
ismo," appears at pp. 259, 260 of Fahie's " History of Electric
Telegraphy."
To Romagnosi has by many been given the credit of having
discovered the directive influence of the galvanic current upon a
magnetic needle. This claim has of late years been again made for
him, notably by Dr. Donato Tommasi, of Paris (Cosmos, les Mondes
of June 30, 1883), while Dr. J. Hamel endeavoured to prove (pp. 37-
39 of " Historical Account . . . Galv. and Mag. Elec. . . ." re-
printed by W. F. Cooke for the Society of Arts, London, 1859) that
Oersted was aware of Romagnosi's experiments at the time he
published the discovery of electro-magnetism. This is what
Dr. Hamel says :
" I cannot forego stating my belief that Oersted knew of
Romagnosi's discovery announced in 1802, which was eighteen
years before the publication of his own observations. It was
mentioned in the book of Giovanni Aldini (the nephew of Galvani)
866 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
. . . Oersted was in Paris 1802 and 1803, and it appears from the
book of Aldini, that at the time he finished it Oersted was still in
communication with him; for he says at the end (p. 376) he had
not been able to add the information received from Oersted, Doctor
of the University at Copenhagen, about the galvanic labours of
scientific men in that country. ... It deserves to be remembered,
that from Aldini's book (" Essai the*orique et experimental sur le
galvanisme," etc., Paris, 1804, qto. p. 191, or Vol. I. of the 8vo ed.,
pp. 339-340) it was known that the chemist, Giuseppe Mojon (Joseph
Mojon, in the French), at Genoa, had before 1804 observed in
unmagnetized needles exposed to the galvanic current ' a sort of
polarity.' Joseph Izarn repeats this also in his ' Manuel du Gal-
vanisme ' (Paris, An xii., 1804, sec. Hi. p. 120, or 1805, sec. ix.),
which book was one of those that by order were to be placed in the
library of every lyce*e of France."
Robert Sabine remarks (" The Electric Telegraph/' 8vo, 1867,
p. 22 ; " History of the Electric Telegraph," in Weale's Rudimentary
Treatises, 1869, pp. 23, 24; " History and Progress of the Electric
Telegraph," 3rd ed., 1872, p. 23) :
" The discovery of the power of a galvanic current to deflect
a magnetic needle, as well as to polarize an unmagnetized one, were
known to, and described as early as 1804, by Prof. Izarn. . . . The
paragraph which especially refers to this subject is headed * Ap-
pareil pour reconnaitre Faction du galvanisme/ sur la polarite
d'une aiguille aimantee.' After explaining the way to prepare
the apparatus, which consists simply in putting a freely suspended
magnetic needle parallel and close to a straight metallic conductor
through which a galvanic current is circulating, he described the
effects in the following words : ' According to the observations
of Romagnosi, a physicist of Trent, a magnetized needle which is
submitted to a galvanic current undergoes (eprouve) a declination;
and according to those of J. Mojon, a learned chemist of Genoa,
unmagnetized needles acquire by this means a sort of magnetic
polarity.' To Romagnosi, physicist of Trent, therefore, and not,
as is generally believed, to Oersted, physicist at Copenhagen (who
observed, in 1820, the phenomenon of the deflection of a magnet
needle by a voltaic current), is due the credit of having made this
important discovery."
On the other hand, Gilb. Govi, who gives in his afore-named
work a good illustration of Romagnosi's experiment, explains that
it resembles in no way the experiment of Oersted, there being no
magnetic action of the column on the magnetic needle, which latter
is in fact repelled by the mere electricity of the pile. Ronalds
states that Romagnosi's experiment, much like that made by
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 867
Schweigger (A. F. Gehlen's Journal fur die Chimie und Physik,
1808, pp. 206-208), was a modification if not a repetition of the one
which Thomas Milner performed with static electricity (T. Milner's
" Experiments and Observations in Electricity/' London, 1783,
P- 35) » wherein a magnetic needle forms the electrometer since
improved upon by J. C. A. Peltier,
To the ordinary mind, a conclusive proof that Romagnosi had
no part in the discovery of electromagnetism would seem to be,
as Fahie rightly observes, the fact that he himself never claimed
any, although he lived until 1835, fifteen years after the announce-
ment made by the Danish philosopher. Fahie calls attention, for
some experiments in the same line, to J. B. Van Mons' Journal de
Chimie, Bruxelles, January 1803, p. 52, and to Nicholson's Journal
of Nat. Phil., Vol. VII. p. 304, as well as to the 1746 and 1763
Phil. Trans, for investigations made by B. Robins and Ebenezer
Kinnersley, and he likewise alludes to others recorded in the Amer.
Polytechnic Review for 1831, and in the Quarterly Journal of Science
and the Arts for 1826, to all of which, he says, as little real attention
should be given as can properly be attached to the observations of
Aldini and of Izarn previously referred to.
REFERENCES. — " Notizia di G. D. Romagnosi, stesa da Cesare Cantu,"
Milan, 1835; " Nuova Scclta d' Opuscoli," Vol. I. p. 201; Gazetta di
Roveredo for 1802, No. 65; " Atti della Reale Accad. delle Scienze di
Torino," Vol. IV, April 7, 1869; J. C. Poggendorff, Vol. II. pp. 681,
682; S.I. Prime's" Life of Morse," 1875^.264; Phil. Mag., Vol. LVIII.
P- 43 >' Journal Soc. of Arts, April 23, 1858, p. 356, and July 29, 1859,
pp. 605, 606; Bibl. Ital., Vol. XCVIII. p. 60; Gilbert, Annalen, 1821,
Vol. LXVIII. p. 208; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XIII. p. 1318;
" Biographic G6ne"rale," Vol. XLII. pp. 574, 575, the last named re-
marking that the discovery alluded to in the works of Aldini and Izarn
passed unnoticed till Oersted caused its value to be fully appreciated.
A.D. 1802. — Parrot (George Friedrich), Russian physician and
professor at Dorpat, is, of all the European savants, the one who
developed most extensively the chemical theory of the voltaic
pile. The superior manner in which all his observations were
carried on have led many to consider him justly entitled to the
credit of being the founder of the theory (Figuier, " Exposition
et Histoire/' etc., Paris, 1857, Vol. IV. chapitre viii. pp. 426-429).
He commenced his experiments in 1801, and first recorded them
in a memoir which was crowned the same year by the Batavi
Scientific Society of Haarlem. His other papers on the same subject
followed in rapid succession, mainly through L, W. Gilbert's Annalen
der Physik, under such heads as : " Sketch of a New Theory of
Galvanic Electricity, and Concerning the Decomposition of Water/1
etc. (" Combination of Induction and Chemical Action/' Gilb.,
Vol. XII. p. 49, Seypfer, p. 200), " How to Measure Electricity/'
868 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
" Relative to the Electrometer/1 " The Effects of the Condenser/'
and " The Theory of Volta Concerning Galvanic Electricity/' all
of which appeared in Vol. LXI. of the Annalen. These papers
were alluded to in his letter to the editors of the Annales de Chimie
et de Physique (An. Ch. et Phys., Vol. XLIL p. 45), and were after-
ward greatly amplified in his " Treatise on Natural Philosophy/'
Parrot started with the determination to demolish completely
the theories of Volta and to thoroughly instruct him anew (instruire
de toutes pieces le proces du physicien de Pavie], and it must be
admitted that the many important facts enounced by Parrot were
such as would have ordinarily created a disturbing influence, but
they became known after Volta's views had been thoroughly
espoused by many German and French scientists and consequently
attracted comparatively little attention.
At p. 466, Vol. II of Dr. Thomas Young's " Course of Lectures/'
London, 1807, reference is made to a paper in Gilbert's Annalen
der Physik (X. p. n, also XIII. p. 244), concerning Parrot's theory
of evaporation, with mention of the fact that the same paper contains
a proposal for inoculating the clouds with thunder and lightning,
by projecting bombs to a sufficient height.
Parrot also devised a scheme for telegraphing, which is de-
scribed in the Mem. A cad. PetropoL, ser. vi. Vol. I for 1838, and
is alluded to in the Report on Telegraphs for the United States,
made at request of the Hon. Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the
Treasury, by the Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin
Institute. The proposed telegraph, as worded in the Report,
" consists of a single arm or indicator, which should be about nine
feet long and one foot wide, with a cross-piece at one end, about
three feet long and one wide; the whole being movable about an
axis at its centre. . . . The movements may be communicated
with ease and certainty, either by an endless chain passing over a
wheel on the axis, and a wheel in the building ; or by a cog-wheel
on the axis, and an endless screw on a vertical bar. For night
signals, three lamps are used, one swinging beyond the end of the
arm, the other two beyond the ends of the cross-piece."
REFERENCES. — Gilbert's Annalen, Vols. XXI for 1805, LV for
1817, LX for 1819; J. H. Voigt's Magazin, Vol. IV; Grinders " Russ.
Jahrb. 1 Chem. u. Pharm.," XI, 1810; L. Turnbull, " Elec. Mag. Tel.,"
p. 19; " Naturwiss. Abhandl. aus Dorpat./' I, 1823; " Roy. Soc. Cat.
part
Naturk, I."
A.D. 1802-1806.— Berzelius (Baron Jons Jacob Freiherr von),
M.D., one of the greatest of modern chemists, native of East
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 369
Gothland, Sweden, publishes his " De Electricitatis ..." or
" Physical Researches on the Effect of Galvanism upon Organized
Bodies," which established his reputation as an experimental
philosopher and procured for him the appointment of Assistant
Professor of Medicine, Botany and Chemical Pharmacy at Stockholm.
Of the very great number of scientific papers which he communi-
cated to learned Societies, that entitled " An Essay on the Division
of Salts through Galvanism " deserves especial mention, for in it,
he lays down the electro-chemical theory, the honour of being the
original propounder of which is by many claimed for Sir Humphry
Davy.
In conjunction with Gottlieb Gahn, with W. Hisinger, of
Elfstorps Bruk, and with the Swedish physician, Magnus Martin de
Pontin, Berzelius made many very extensive observations and
published numerous treatises, the most important of which are
embraced in the papers named at foot (Sir Humphry Davy,
" Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, more particularly at pp. 13,
20, lOQ, III, 122-123).
As has been before observed, the brilliant investigations of
Berzelius and Hisinger, together with those of Nicholson and
Carlisle, of Dr. William Henry and of Sir Humphry Davy, actually
created a new epoch in the history of chemistry. Prof. Wm. B.
Rogers better expressed the fact in his address of Jan. 16, 1879, when
saying that " through the labours mainly of Berzelius and of Davy,
the great generalization of electro-positive and electro-negative
substances was established, and with it the fruitful theory of the
electro-chemical exposition of compound bodies." Such of the
experiments of Berzelius as were repeated by Sir Humphry Davy
before the English Royal Institution, are embodied in Davy's
paper (partly alluded to above in " Bakerian Lectures ") which was
read before the Royal Society, June 30, 1808, According to
J. F. W. Herschel, Berzelius and Hisinger ascertained it as a general
law, that in all of the chemical decompositions which they effected,
the acids and oxygen become transferred to, and accumulated
around, the positive pole, and hydrogen, alkaline earths and metals
around the negative pole of a voltaic circuit ; being transferred in
an invisible, and, as it were, a latent or torpid state, by the action
of the electric current, through considerable spaces, and even
through large quantities of water or other liquid, again to reappear
with all their properties at their appropriate resting-places.
Berzelius discovered selenium while examining certain substances
found in the acid manufactured at Gripsholm, Sweden. He in-
cludes selenium among the metals ; but as it is a non-conductor of
electricity, also a most imperfect conductor of heat, and as, in other
BB
370 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
respects, it bears much analogy to sulphur, it is generally placed
among the non-metallic combustibles (Brande, " Manual of
Chemistry/' London, 1848, Vol. I. p. 435; Berzelius, " Lehrbuch
der Chemie," " TraiteV' etc., Paris, 1846, Vol. II. p. 184; " Annales
de Chiinie et de Physique/' Vol. IX. p. 160 ; " Annals of Philosophy/'
Vol. XIII. p. 401 and Vol. VIII, N.S. p. 104). The important role
which the high electrical resistance of selenium has in its early days
been made to play by Mr. Willoughby Smith, Dr. Werner Siemens
and others, is alluded to at pp. 791-794 of Vol. IV supplement to
" Ure's Diet, of Arts/' etc., London, 1878.
For full accounts of Berzelius' numerous contributions to
science, attention is called to the following :
REFERENCES. — " Royal Society Catal. of Sc. Papers," Vol. I. pp. 330-
341 ; " Gedachtnissrede auf Berzelius . . ." Berlin, 1851 ; G. For-
chammer, " J. J. Berzelius," 1849; Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 172-175;
" Afhandl. i Fisik. . . ." ; Jos. Thomas, " Diet, of Biography," 1870,
Vol. I. p. 341; " Report Smiths. Inst." for 1862, p. 380; " Vetensk.
Acad. Handl."; "La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. VI. p. 478. See
likewise, " Journal Frankl. Inst.," 3rd Ser., Vol XVI. pp. 343-348 ;
Faraday's " Experim. Researches," Arts., 746, 870, 960, and Vol. II.
pp. 226-228; Gahn at p. 226 of Becquerel's "Elements d'El. Ch.,"
Paris, 1843; "Annalen der Physik," Vol. XXVII. r^p. 270, 311, 316,
and Vol. XXXVI. p. 260; Gehlen's " Journal fur die Chem. und Phys.,"
Vol. I. p. 115 and Vol. III. p. 177; John Black, "An Attempt . . .
Electro-Chem. Theory," London, 1814; Gmelin's "Chemistry," Vol. I.
pp. 400, 457-458, 461—462 ; " Encycl. Metrop." (Galvanism), Vol. IV.
pp. 221—222; " Sc. Am. Suppl.," No. 284, p. 4523, for report of Helm-
holtz's Faraday Lecture of April 5, 1881, taken from the " Chemical
News " ; Sturgeon's " Annals, Vol. VII. pp. 300-303 ; Vol. VIII. p. 80;
Whewell, " History of the Inductive Sciences," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 304,
347-348; Thos. Thomson, " An Outline of the Sciences . . ." London,
1830, Chap. XIV. p. 532; Berzelius and Wohler on Volcanoes, in
PoggendorfFs " Annalen," Bd. I. s. 221, and Bd. XL s. 146; " Journal
des Savants " for June 1892, pp. 375-385 ; J. Berzelius and F. Wohler,
Leipzig, 1901 ; " Svenskt Biografiskt Handlexikon," Herm. Hofberg,
Stockholm, pp. 88-89; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. LI, 1812, pp. 174-183
("Nicholsons Journal," July 1812) for John Gough's remarks on the
hygrometer of Berzelius (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXIII. p. 177); " Annales
de Chimie," Vol. LI. pp. 167, 171; Vol. LXXXVI for 1813, p. 146;
Vol. LXXXVII. pp. 286, etc.; also Vol. LXXIII. pp. 198, 200-201, the
last named giving an account of the ammoniacal amalgam which
Berzelius and Pontin were the first to explain.
A.D. 1802. — Thompson (Sir Benjamin), Count Rumford, an
eminent scientist, native of Woburn in Massachusetts, Knt., F.R.S.,
one of the founders of the English Royal Institution, publishes his
" Philosophical Memoirs . . . being a collection of ... Experi-
mental Investigations ... of Natural Philosophy/'
Though more properly identified with important observations
and researches on heat, the question of the nature of which,
Dr. Edward L. Youmans says, he was the first to take out of the
domain of metaphysics, where it had stood since the days of Aristotle,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 371
he has given accounts of some highly important experiments regard-
ing the relative intensities and the chemical properties of light, heat
and electricity, which can be seen at pp. 273, etc., Vol. LXXVI.
part ii. of the Phil. Trans, for 1786. Heat spreads in every direction,
whilst the electrical fluid may be arrested in its progress by certain
bodies, which have on that account been called non-conductors,
but he shows that the Torricellian vacuum affords, on the contrary,
a ready passage to the electrical fluid while being a bad conductor
of heat.
At p. 30 of George E. Ellis' " Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson,"
published in Boston (no date), is reproduced Rumford's " Account
of what expense I have been at toward getting an electrical machine "
during 1771, and at pp. 481-488, Vol. I, also pp. 350, 351, Vol. Ill
of the " Complete Works of Count Rumford," published by the
American Academy of Sciences, allusion is made to the galvanic
influence in the construction of utensils.
REFERENCES. — Sir W. Thomson, " Mathematical and Physical
Papers," London, 1890, Vol. III. pp. 123, 124; Phil. Mag., Vol. IX
for 1801, p. 315 ; Silliman's American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIII.
p. 21 ; " Biog. Universelle," Tome XXXVII. p. 81 ; " Journal des
Savants," for Dec. 1881 and Jan. 1882 ; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. LVL, 1814,
pp. 398-401 (necrology).
A.D. 1802. — Pepys (William Haseldine, Sr.), son of an English
manufacturer of surgical instruments, who became F.R.S. and was
one of the founders of the Askesian Society, as well as of both the
London Institution and of the London Geological Society, con-
structs, during the month of February 1802, the strongest pile
hitherto known. It consists of sixty pairs of zinc and copper plates,
each six feet square, held in two large troughs filled with thirty-two
pounds of water containing two pounds of azotic, or nitric, acid.
It is said that with this battery he succeeded in melting iron
wires ranging in diameter from one two-hundreth to one-tenth of
an inch, the combustion developing an extremely bright light,
while platinum wires, one thirty-second of an inch in diameter,
turned to white heat and melted in globules at the point of contact.
Charcoal was permanently ignited a length of nearly two inches and
the galvanic action was strong enough to light it after passing
through a circuit of sixteen persons holding one another by the
hand. Gold leaf displayed a bright white light, accompanied with
smoke ; silver leaf gave an intense green light without sparks, but
with still more smoke ; while sheets of lead burned actively, with
accompaniment of very red sparks mixed with the flame (Figuier,
" Exposition," etc., Paris, 1857, Vol. IV. p. 347).
Later on, another batterv was constructed bv him for the
872 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
London Institution. This consisted of 400 pairs of plates five
inches square, and of 40 pairs one foot square. With it, Davy
ignited cotton, sulphur, resin, oil and ether, melted a platinum wire,
burned several inches of an iron wire one three-hundredth of an
inch in diameter, and boiled easily such liquids as oil and water,
even decomposing and transforming them into gases. It was
during the year 1808 that Pepys finished the enormous battery of
2000 double plates already alluded to under the Cruikshanks
(A.D. 1800) and the Davy (A.D. 1801) articles, and which is to be
found described at p. no of the " Elements of Chemical Philosophy."
One year before that (1807) Pepys constructed a new form of
eudiometer, of which a description was given before the Royal
Society on the 4th of June, as shown at p. 270 Vol. I of the " Ab-
stracts of Papers," etc., of that Institution, as well as in the 1807
volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
Of the many ingenious experiments by which Pepys distinguished
himself, scarcely none attracted more attention than those which
are referred to in the last-named Transactions for 1866, pp. 339-439.
It is only since 1815, when he employed the electric current to heat
iron wire and diamond dust together, whereby he obtained steel,
that the direct carburization of iron by the diamond has been
clearly established. Prior to this date, during 1798, Clouet had
melted a little crucible of iron weighing 57*8 grammes containing
a diamond weighing 0*907 gramme, and produced a fused mass of
steel. Guyton de Morveau reported upon Clouet 's experiment in
the Annales de Chimie for 1799 (Vol. XXXI. p. 328) and his in-
vestigations were repeated by many scientists, notably by Mar-
gueritte, as recently as 1865. The latter's observations, which were
communicated to the Annales de Chimie et de Physique (Tome VI),
showed that, although carburization can be effected by simple
contact of carbon and iron in a gaseous atmosphere, it is neverthe-
less true that in the ordinary process of cementation the carbonic
oxide gas plays an important part, which had until then been
overlooked (Translation of Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S.
For Mr. Children's investigations in the same line, see the Phil.
Trans, for 1815, p. 370, also A.D. 1809).
Sir Humphry Davy employed in his experiments on the decom-
position and composition of the fixed alkalies two mercurial gaso-
meters of Pepys' design, described in No. 14 of the Phil. Trans, for
1807, in conjunction with the same apparatus used by Messrs.
Allen and Pepys for the combustion of the diamond (" Bakerian
Lectures/1 London, 1840, pp. 84 and 93).
During the year 1822 Pepys constructed for electromagnetic
experiments a very large spiral galvanic battery, which was put
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 373
together for the London Institution on the plan of the one first
built by Dr. Robert Hare, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Pennsylvania. Pepys called it a calorimotor, by reason of its re-
markable power of producing heat, and it is well illustrated in the 8th
Edit. " Encyclopaedia Britannica " article on " Voltaic Electricity/'
It consisted only of two metallic sheets, copper and zinc, fifty to
sixty feet long by two feet wide, coiled around a cylinder of wood
and prevented from coming together by three ropes of horse-hair,
the whole being suspended over a tub of acid so that, by a pulley
or otherwise, it could be immersed or taken up. As stated in Vol. V
of the Trans, of the Amer. Phil. Soc., this battery required nearly
fifty-five gallons of fluid, and the solution used contained about
one-fortieth of strong nitrous acid.
When, as Noad observes, it is stated that a piece of platinum
wire may be heated to redness by a pair of plates only four inches
long and two broad, the calorific power of such an arrangement as
the above may be imagined to have been immense. The energy of
the simple circle depends on the size of the plates, the intensity of
the chemical action on the oxidizable metal, the rapidity of its
oxidation, and the speedy removal of the oxide. Pouillet is said
to have constructed one of these batteries with twelve couples for
the Paris Faculte des Sciences, and found it very powerful in
producing large quantities of electricity with low tension. The
best liquid for this battery was water with one-fortieth in volume of
sulphuric acid and one-sixtieth of nitric acid. With the above-
described battery of Mr. Pepys, Sir Humphry Davy performed a
remarkable experiment which is to be found described in the
Phil. Trans, for 1823. A similar apparatus was produced independ-
ently, at about the same time, by Dr. Seebeck, of Berlin.
Another of Pepys' inventions is the substitution, for the tinfoil
coatings within the glass of Bennet's electroscope, of two plates,
forming an acute angle, which, by means of a regulating screw, can
be adjusted to any required distance from the gold leaves. The
angular part is secured to the bottom ; the open part perpendicularly
upward. By this mode of approximating the coatings to the gold
leaves, the resistance being diminished, a weaker intensity of
electricity suffices for their disturbance.
REFERENCES. — Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. I for 1816; Phil,
Mag., Vol. XXI. p. 241; XLI. p. 15; Becquerel, Vol. I. p. 34. Mr.
William H. Pepys, Jr., published descriptions of the newly invented
galvanometer and of the large galvanic apparatus in the Phil. Mag.,
Vol. X., June 1801, p. 38, and Vol. XV for 1803, p. 94; "Cat. Sc.
Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. p. 192; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XVIII, 1801,
p. 343, and Vol. XXII, 1803, p. 297.
A.D, 1803,— Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (Etienne), a very eminent
374 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
French naturalist, once the pupil of Haiiy, whose life he was the
means of saving during the massacre of September 1792, is the
first to give a thoroughly complete description of the electrical
organs and functions of the raia torpedo, of the gymnotus electricus,
of the silurus electricus, and of other similar species of fishes. His
work on the subject, entitled " Sur 1'anatomie compar£e," etc., is
alluded to in Vol. I. An. xi. No. 5 of the " Annales du Museum,"
whence it is translated for the fifteenth volume of the Phil. Mag.
His analyzation of the fluid in the cells of the torpedo showed
it to consist of albumen and gelatine ; and he discovered some organs
analogous to those of the torpedo in different species of the same
genus raia, which, strange to say, do not appear possessed of any
electrical power.
The electrical organs of the silurus electricus he found to be much
less complicated than those of other electrical fishes. They lie
immediately below the skin and stretch all around the body of
the animal. Their substance, he says, is a reticulated mass, the
meshes of which are plainly visible, and these cells are filled, like
those of other electrical fishes, with an albuminous gelatinous
matter. The nerves distributed over the electrical organs proceed
from the brain, and the two nerves of the eighth pair have a direc-
tion and nature peculiar to this species. (Consult C. Matteucci,
" Traite des Phenomenes . . ." Paris, 1844, Chaps. VI and VII.
pp. 301-327-)
In his great work on Egypt (PL XII, 2) Geoffroy gives the figure
of a malaptems electricus (see Adanson, A.D. 1751) which is opened
to show the viscera, but, by a singular inaccuracy, says Mr. James
Wilson, the fish is represented as scaly, whereas there are no scales
whatever upon this fish, and no fish known to possess electric powers
has either scales or spines. The torpedo, the gymnotus and the
malapterus have all naked skins. The tetraodon electricus (see
Shaw at A.D. 1791) is also destitute of spines on the skin, although
all its congeners have skins as bristly as those of a hedgehog.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (Isidore), son of Etienne, was also a
distinguished naturalist. He became Assistant Professor of Zoology
to his father in 1829, likewise his assistant at the Faculty des
Sciences in 1837, and, when Etienne became blind, during the year
1841, he succeeded to the Professorship of Zoology at the Museum
of Natural History. He is the author of " The Life, Works and
Theories (Vie, Travaux et Doctrine) of Etienne Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire/' Paris, 1847.
REFERENCES. — Gilbert's Annalen, XIV. p. 397; Bulletin Soc. Phil.,
No. 70; Geo. Wilson's " Life of Cavendish," London, 1851, p. 469,
alluding to the later experiments on electrical fishes made by Faraday
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 875
(1838), Dr. James Stark, of Edinburgh (1844), Prof. Goodsir (1845), and
Dr. C. Robin (1846). Consult also, Journal de Physique, Vol. LVI.
p. 242, and the complete list of Geoffrey's works in Callisen's " Medicin-
isches-Schriftsteller Lexicon " ; " Memoir of M. Isidore G. Saint Hilaire,"
by M. De Quatrefages, in " Report of Smithsonian Institution " for
1872, pp. 384-394; "Journal des Savants" for May-Aug., 1864;
" Roy. Soc. Cat. of Sc. Papers," Vol. II. pp. 824-832; Vol. VI. p. 669;
Vol. VII. p. 757.
A.D. 1803. — Carpue (J. C. S.), English scientist, relates, in his
" Introduction to Electricity and Galvanism/' published in London,
some noteworthy experiments on the curative action of common
electricity.
He repeated many of the investigations of Giovanni Aldini,
and, in the presence of Dr. Pearson and other medical gentlemen,
experimented upon the body of Michael Carney, immediately
after his execution for murder. Carpue 's main object was to
ascertain whether galvanism, applied at once to the nerves, could
excite action in the internal parts, and especially in the respiratory
organs. He first made an opening into the windpipe and, after
introducing about three pints of oxygen into the lungs, he applied
conductors to the phrenic nerve as well as to other parts of the
body, the lungs being at the same time occasionally inflated, but
no action could be excited in the diaphragm. The application of
conductors to the inside of the nostrils and elsewhere, however,
excited very considerable contractions in the right auricle more
than three hours after death, the ventricles being, as in Aldini's
experiments, perfectly motionless.
REFERENCES. — " Galvanic Experiments Made by Carpue on the
Body of Michael Carney," etc., London, 1804 (Phil. Mag., Vol. XVIII.
p. 90) ; the " Encyclopedia Metropolitana," article " Galvanism,"
Vol. IV. pp. 105, 106, also the " Introduction," etc., above named for
descriptions of Mr. Cuthbertson's plate electrical machine and of
Mr. Read's condenser.
A.D. 1803.— Hachette (Jean Nicholas Pierre), a prot6ge of
Monge, who became professor at the Paris Ecole Polytechnique,
where he had among his pupils Poisson, Arago and Fresnel, presents
to the Institut National the dry pile which was the result of the
many experiments he had carried on in conjunction with Charles
Bernard Desormes, who was then known as a prominent French
scientist and manufacturer of chemical products.
Their idea was to establish the development of electricity by
simple contact, and they sought to obtain a substance which
would satisfactorily replace the wet discs, and not be affected by
the metals, as had been all the liquids hitherto employed (H. Boissier,
" M&noire," etc., Paris, 1801). After numerous investigations
they adopted a compound consisting of common starch and either
376 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
salts, varnishes or gums, with which they made the necessary
discs. These discs were dried and placed alternately between the
copper and zinc couples, but were afterward found to be too easily
affected by moisture to prove very effective (D. Tommasi, " Trait6
des Piles Electriques," Paris, 1889, p. 529).
In the columns of the Annales de Chimie, named below, will be
found detailed the numerous experiments with the galvanic pile
carried on individually and collectively by Hachette, Desonnes
and other scientists; those of Hachette and Thenard upon the
ignition of metallic wires claiming especial notice. Prof. John
Farrar (" Elem. of Elec. Magn./' etc., Cambridge, 1826, p. 167)
calls attention to the latter and in the Phil. Mag. for 1821 will be
found an account of the researches of the above-named scientists
made during the year 1805, to establish more properly the analogy
between galvanism and magnetism. Hachette and Desormes
endeavoured to ascertain the direction which would be taken by
a voltaic pile, whose poles were not joined, when freely suspended
horizontally. Their pile, as Fahie gives it, was composed of 1480
thin plates of copper tinned with zinc, of the diameter of a five-franc
piece, and was placed upon a boat floating on the water of a large
vat ; but it assumed no determinate direction, although a magnetized
steel bar, of a weight nearly equal to that of the pile, and likewise
placed upon the boat, would turn, after some oscillations, into the
magnetic meridian.
REFERENCES. — Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXXVII. pp. 284-321;
XLIV. pp. 267-284; XLVII (Blot's Observations), p. 13; XLIX.
pp. 45-54, and XLV for 1808. See also, the Annales for 1834, as well
as Vol. XLII. p. 125, for experiments of MM. Desormes and Clement on
the fixed alkalies; Journal de Physique of Sept. 1820, for the paper of
Hachette and Ampdre on the electromagnetic experiments of Oersted
and Ampdre; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. II for May 1816,
pp. 76-79, and V. p. 191; Phil Mag., Vol. LVII. p. 43; L. W. Gilbert,
Annalen der Physik, Vols. IX. pp. 18-39; XVII. pp. 414-427; Journal
de I'Ecole Poly technique, Vol. IV for 1802; XI. p. 284; Leithead,
" Electricity," p. 252; Bull, de la Soc. Philomathique, No. 83; P. Sue,
aine, "Hist, du Galv.," Paris, An. X, 1802, Vol. II. pp. 160, 167, 188,
345 (Hachette et Thenard), and p. 371 ; Joseph Izarn, " Manuel du
Galvanisme," An. XII, 1804,5.4^.179; Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 562,
985; Larousse, "Diet. Universel," Vol. VI. p. 576; "Royal Society
Catalogue of Scientific Papers," Vol. III. pp. 106-109.
A.D. 1803.— Biot (Jean Baptiste), who, in 1800, at the age of
twenty-six, was made Professor of Natural Philosophy at the " College
de France/' and afterward ranked among the first astronomers and
mathematicians, gives an account of his journey to Aigle, in the
Department of 1'Orne, whither he was sent by the Government to
examine and report upon a very extraordinary shower of meteorites.
The facts obtained by him were communicated to the Institute
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 877
on the 29th Messidor, An. XI, and also appeared at the time in the
Paris Journal des Debats (Phil. Mag., Vol. XVI. p. 299).
On the 23rd of August of the year following (1804) Biot accom-
panied Gay-Lussac in the latter's first memorable balloon ascent.
This aeronautic voyage, sanctioned by the French Government
mainly through the efforts of Berthollet and Laplace, was the first
of the kind undertaken solely for a scientific object.
Besides numerous barometers and electrometers, Biot and Gay-
Lussac carried with them two compasses, a dipping needle and other
instruments. For the examination of the electricity of different
strata of the atmosphere, they had several metallic wires from
60 to 300 feet in length, also a small electro phor us feebly charged,
while for galvanic experiments they added some discs of copper and
zinc, together with a supply of frogs, insects and birds. An account
of the exceedingly important results obtained by those scientists
at different elevations, of which the highest reached exceeded four
miles, was read before the National Institute, Aug. 27, 1804. It
was also published in London during the latter year, and alluded
to at p. 371, Vol. XIX of the Philosophical Magazine. Mary Somer-
ville remarks (" Connection of the Physical Sciences/' 1846, p. 334)
that according to the observations of Biot and Gay-Lussac, the
magnetic action is not confined to the surface of the earth, but
extends into space. The moon has become highly magnetic by
induction, in consequence of her proximity to the earth, and because
her greatest diameter always points toward it. Her influence on
terrestrial magnetism is now ascertained; the magnetism of the
hemisphere that is turned toward the earth attracts the pole of our
needles that is turned toward the south and increases the magnetism
of our hemisphere ; and as the magnetic, like the gravitating force,
extends through space, the induction of the sun, moon and planets
must occasion perpetual variations in the intensity of terrestrial
magnetism, by the continual changes in their relative positions.
In 1805 Biot published an investigation of the laws which should
govern the dip and intensity, in the hypothesis of a magnet situated
at the centre of the earth, having its poles infinitely close to each
other and directed to opposite points on the surface of the globe
and, as justly adds Major Edward Sabine (Report Seventh Meeting
Brit. Asso.), it is a well-known consequence of this hypothesis that
the lines of equal dip and equal intensity on the earth's surface
should everywhere be parallel to each other. The phenomena of
electricity had been brought within the pale of mixed mathematics
by C. A. Coulomb (A.D. 1785), whose considerations mainly attached
to the distribution of electricity upon the surface of spheres, and
[us jnyestigatjong were at once diligently pursued by the French
378 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
scientists, Biot, Laplace and Poisson. Laplace, who undertook to
investigate the distribution of electricity upon the surface of ellip-
soids of revolution, showed that the thickness of the coating of the
fluid at the pole was to its thickness at the equator as the equatorial
is to the polar diameter, or, what is the same thing, that the repulsive
force of the fluid, or its tension at the pole, is to that at the equator
as the polar is to the equatorial axis. Biot extended this investi-
gation to all spheroids differing little from a sphere, whatever may
be the irregularity of their figure, and his solution of the problem
will be found in No. 51 of the Bulletin des Sciences. He also deter-
mined, analytically, that the losses of electricity form a geometrical
progression when the two surfaces of a jar or plate of coated glass
are discharged by successive contacts, and he found that the same
law regulated the discharge when a series of jars or plates are placed
in communication with each other (Whewell, " History of the
Inductive Sciences/' Vol. II. pp. 208, 223; Noad's " Manual," p. 15;
Eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII. p. 531. For Biot's experiments,
touching upon electrical attraction and demonstrating practically
the distribution of electricity upon the surface of a conductor, see
the last-named volume of the " Britannica," pp. 552, 556, and
Noad, p. 56).
In conjunction with Frederick Cuvier, Mr. Biot investigated the
connection of chemical charge with the production of electricity.
Like Mr. W. H. Pepys, they examined the effect produced by the
pile on the atmosphere in which it is located. Mr. Pepys placed
the pile in an atmosphere of oxygen, and found that in the course
of a night 200 cubic inches of the gas had been absorbed, but that
in an atmosphere of azote the pile ceased to act. Biot and Cuvier
likewise observed the quantity of oxygen absorbed, and inferred
from their experiments that " although, strictly speaking, the
evolution of electricity in the pile was produced by oxidation, the
share which this had in producing the effects of the instrument
bore no comparison with that which was due to the contact of the
metals, the extremity of the series being in communication with
the ground." Their investigation was attended by the discovery
that as long as any oxygen remained to be absorbed, the chemical
and physiological effects of the apparatus still continued, but with
decreasing intensity; so that if the conducting wires attached to
the two poles are made to return from under the receiver in tubes
of glass they may be used to decompose water and communicate
shocks to the organs. All these effects, however, cease when the
surrounding oxygen is exhausted (Annales de Chimie, Vol. XXXIX.
p. 242 ; Soc. Philomathique, An, IX. p. 40 ; Sue, " Histoire du Galv.,"
Vol. II. p. 161),
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 379
In the second volume of Blot's " Traite de Physique " will be
found recorded his many observations on the nature and origin
of the electric light, extracts from which are given by Sir David
Brewster in the electricity article of the " Britannica." Biot re-
marks that the light which is observed during an electric explosion
was for a long time considered by philosophers as a modification
of the electric principle itself, which they supposed to be the quality
of becoming luminous at a certain degree of accumulation (John
Farrar, " Elem. of Elec., Mag. and EL Mag.," 1826, p. 118). Brewster
adds that this eminent French writer, however, considered the
opinion as erroneous, and he has devoted a whole chapter to prove
that electricity has the same origin as the light disengaged from
air by mechanical pressure, " and that it is purely the effect of the
compression produced on the air by the explosion of electricity."
In order to establish this theory, Mr. Biot has stated, on the authority
of several experiments, " that the intensity of electric light depends
always on the ratio which exists between the quantity of electricity
transmitted and the resistance of the medium " ; and he has shown,
by an experiment with Kinnersley's thermometer, " that at each
spark the air of the cylinder, driven by the repulsive force, presses
on the surface of mercury, which rises suddenly in the small tube,
and falls back again immediately after the explosion." He adds :
" This indication proves the separation produced between the
particles of the mass of air where the electricity passes; and from
what we know of its extreme velocity it is certain that the particles
exposed immediately to its shock ought in the first moment to
sustain individually all the effect of the compression. They ought,
then, from this cause alone to disengage light, as when they are
subjected to any other mechanical pressure. Thus one part at
least of the electric light is necessarily due to this cause ; and this
being the case, there is no experiment which can lead us to conjecture
that it is not all due to this cause."
REFERENCES. — " Encycl. Brit.," 1857, Vol. XIV. pp. 7, 63, and
Journal de Physique, Vol. LIX. p. 450. For Mr. Blot's observations on
the magnetism of metals and minerals, and on the distribution of magnet-
ism in artificial magnets, as well as for his improvement upon Coulomb's
method of constructing the latter, see the last-named volume of the
" Britannica," pp. 23, 26, 71, and Noad's " Manual of Electricity,"
London, 1859, pp. 528, 535, while, for Biot's very ingenious theory relative
to the aurora, see Lardner and Walker's " Manual of Elec. Mag. and
Meteor.," London, 1844, Vol. II. p. 235, and Noad, pp. 232, 233. The
. observations concerning the laws regulating the intensity of electro-
magnetic phenomena, made by MM. Biot and Savary, are alluded to
by Noad at pp. 644, 645, in the " Encycl. Metropol." (Elec. Magn.),
Vol. IV. p. 427; and Whewell's " History of the Inductive Sciences,"
1859, Vol. II. pp. 245-249; " Scientific papers of the Royal Society,"
Vol. I. pp. 374-386; Biot's " Traite de Phys. Exp. et Math.," Vol. II.
p. 457; Journal de Physique, Vol. LIX. pp. 315, 318; Wilkinson's " Elem.
380 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of Galv.," Vol. II. pp. 38, 123, 154, 361, Chap. XVI ; Humboldt's " Cosmos,"
treating of Aerolites, of the Zodiacal Light and of the figure of the earth ;
Noad, "Manual," p. 530; Eighth " Ency. Brit.," Vol. VIII. p. 580;
Sir H. Davy, " Bakerian Lectures," London, 1840, p. 3, alluding to Biot
and The'nard in No. 40 of the Moniteur for 1806; " Encycl. Metropol.,"
Vol. IV. (Electro-Magn.), p. 7; Harris " Rudim. Magn.," Part III,
London, 1852, pp. 116, 117; Gautherot at A.D. 1801 ; Figuier, "Ex-
position," etc., Paris, 1857, Vol. iv. p. 429; " Lib. of Useful Knowl."
(Electricity), p. 64 and (Magnetism), p. 89; "Soc. Philomath.," An.
IX. p. 45; An. XI. pp. 120, 129; Becquerel's " Traite," 1856, Vol. III.
p. ii ; Phil. Mag., Vols. XVI. p. 224 ; XXI. p. 362 ; " Mem. de 1'Institut "
for 1802, Vol. V; " Annales des Mines " for 1820, relative to the experi-
ments on electro-magnetism made by Oersted, Arago, Ampere and Biot;
Phil. Mag., Vol. XXII. pp. 248, 249, for the magnetical observations
made by Biot and Arago; Comptes Rendus for 1839, i Sem., VIII, No. 7,
p. 233, for the observations of Biot and Becquerel on the nature of the
radiation emanating from the electric spark ; " Chemical News," London,
1868, Vol. XVI for John Tyndall's lecture on some experiments of
Faraday, Biot and Savary ; " Atti dell' Accad. dei Nuovi Lincei, Ann.,"
XV. Sess., IV. del 2 Marzo 1862, for the biography of J. B. Biot, who
died Feb. 2, 1862, within two months of the completion of his eighty-
eighth year. " Journal des Savants " for June and July 1820, April 1821,
and for Feb.-Mar.-April 1846.
J. B. Blot's son, Edward Constant Biot (1803-1850), is the author
of the extended catalogue of shooting stars and other meteors
observed in China during twenty-four centuries, which was pre-
sented to the French Academy during 1841, and a supplement to
which was published at Paris in 1848 (A cad. des Sciences, Savants
Etr angers, Tome X).
A.D. 1803-1805. — Acting upon the discovery of Gautherot, the
Bavarian philosopher Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776-1810) is the
first to construct an electrical accumulator.
Ritter 's " ardency of research and originality of invention " had,
as far back as 1796, shown itself in the numerous very able
scientific papers relating to Electricity, Galvanism and Magnetism
which he had communicated mainly through L. W. Gilbert's Annalen
dcr Physik, J. H. .Voigt's Mag. fur Naturkunde and A. F. Gehlen's
Journal fur die Chcmie; all which obtained recognition in several
foreign publications. These papers secured for him membership in
the Munich Academy during the year 1805.
From Prof. H. W. Dove's discourse before the Society for Scientific
Lectures, of Berlin, the following is extracted :
" As the (then considered) essential portions of a galvanic
circuit were two metals and a fluid, innumerable combinations were
possible, from which the most suitable had to be chosen. 'This
gigantic task was undertaken by Ritter, an inhabitant of a village
near Leignitz,k who almost sacrificed his senses to the investigation.
He discovered the peculiar pile which bears his name, and opened
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 381
that wonderful circle of actions and reactions which, through the
subsequent discoveries of Oersted, Faraday, Seebeck and Peltier,
drew with ever-tightening band the isolated forces of nature into
an organic whole. But he died early, as Gun the r did before him,
exhausted by restless labour, sorrow and disordered living/'
Hitter's charging or secondary pile consists of but one metal,
the discs of which are separated by circular pieces of cloth, flannel
or cardboard, moistened in a liquid which cannot chemically affect
the metal. When the extremities are put in communication with
the poles of an ordinary voltaic pile it becomes electrified and can
be substituted for the latter; and it will retain the charge, so that
for a time there can be obtained from it sparks, shocks, as well as
the decomposition of water.
The writer of the article at p. 268 of the April 1802 Monthly
Magazine, making reference to an artificial magnet discovered at
Vienna (Bake well, " Elec. Science/' p. 40), no doubt alludes to the
above-named charging or secondary pile, in the construction of
which Ritter made many modifications. At first he arranged
32 copper and card discs in three series, two of which series con-
tained 16 copper discs while the intermediate series consisted of
32 card discs. He then placed them so that the discs alternated,
employing but 31 discs of copper, and he also used 64 as well as
128 copper discs alternating with similar ones of cardboard. In
each case he compared the chemical action through the decom-
position of water as well as the physiological effect or shock and the
physical property or electrical tension. The results obtained are
given in his many papers alluded to below.
Independently of the English scientists he discovered the property
possessed by the voltaic pile of decomposing water as well as saline
compounds, and of collecting oxygen and acids at the positive pole
while hydrogen and the bases collect at the negative pole. He
conceived that he had procured oxygen from water without hydrogen,
by making sulphuric acid the medium of the communication at the
negative surface, but, as Davy says, in this case sulphur is deposited,
while the oxygen from the acid and the hydrogen from the water
are respectively repelled, and the new combination produced.
A correspondent in Alex. Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine (Vol.
XXIII for 1805-1806, pp. 51-54 — Extracts from a letter of M.
Christ. Bernoulli abridged from Van Mons' Journal, Vol. VI) thus
alludes to some of Ritter 's experiments communicated in May
1805 to the Munich Royal Society :
" I have seen him galvanize a louis d'or. He places it between
two pieces of pasteboard thoroughly wetted, and keeps it six or
eight minutes hi the circuit of the pile. Thus it becomes charged,
382 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
though not immediately in contact with the conducting wires. If
applied to the recently bared crural nerves of a frog the usual
contractions ensue. I put a louis d'or thus galvanized into my
pocket, and Ritter told me, some minutes after, that I might dis-
cover it from the rest by trying them in succession upon the frog.
I made the trial, and actually distinguished, among several othefs,
one in which only the exciting quality was evident. The charge is
retained in proportion to the time that the coin has been in the
circuit of the pile. Thus, of three different coins, which Ritter
charged in my presence, none lost its charge under five minutes.
A metal thus retaining the galvanic charge, though touched by the
hand and other metals, shows that this communication of galvanic
virtue has more affinity with magnetism than with electricity, and
assigns to the galvanic fluid an intermediate rank between the two.
Ritter can, in the way I have just described, charge at once any
number of pieces. It is only necessary that the two extreme pieces
of the number communicate with the pile through the intervention
of wet pasteboards. It is with metallic discs charged in this manner
and placed upon one another, with pieces of wet pasteboard alter-
nately interposed, that he constructs his charging pile, which ought,
in remembrance of its inventor, to be called the Ritterian pile.
The construction of this pile shows that each metal galvanized in
this way acquires polarity, as the needle does when touched with
a magnet."
The same correspondent alludes to experiments made with
Ritter's battery of 100 pairs of metallic plates, the latter having
their edges turned up so as " to prevent the liquid pressed out from
flowing away " (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIII. p. 51), but he says he was
unable to see either Ritter's great battery of 2000 pieces, or the one
of 50 pieces, each 36 inches square, the action of which is said to
have continued very perceptibly for a fortnight. He writes as
follows :
" After showing me his experiments on the different contracti-
bility of various muscles (" Beitrage zur nahern Kenntniss," etc.,
Jena, 1802, B. II) Ritter made me observe that the piece of gold
galvanized by communication with the pile exerts at once the
action of two metals, or of one voltaic couple, and that the face
which in the voltaic circuit was next the negative pole became
positive, and the face toward the positive pole negative. Having
discovered a way to galvanize metals, as iron is rendered magnetic,
and having found that the galvanized metals always exhibit two
poles as the magnetized needle does, Ritter suspended a galvanized
gold needle on a pivot, and perceived that it had a certain dip and
variation, or deflection, and that the angle of deviation was always
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 383
the same in all his experiments. It differed, however, from that
of the magnetic needle, and it was the positive pole that always
dipped/1
It can truly be said that the nearest approach to a solution of
the question as to the analogy between electric and magnetic forces,
which had remained unsettled since the time of Van Swinden (see
A.D. 1784), was given by Ritter, who announced " that a needle
composed of silver and zinc arranged itself in the magnetic meridian
and was slightly attracted and repelled by the poles of a magnet ;
that by placing a gold coin in the voltaic circuit, he had succeeded
in giving to it positive and negative electric poles ; that the polarity
so communicated was retained by the gold after it had been in
contact with other metals, and appeared therefore to partake of
the nature of magnetism ; that a gold needle under similar circum-
stances acquired still more decided magnetic properties; that a
metallic wire, after being exposed to the voltaic current, took a direc-
tion N.E. and S.W." Dr. Roget gives these same extracts in his
article on " Electro-Magnetism/' and justly remarks that Ritter's
speculations were of too crude a nature to throw any distinct light
on the true connection between magnetism and electricity, nor was
much notice taken of Ritter's announcements, owing to the vague
manner in which they were made. No satisfactory results were
in fact obtained until Oersted (at A.D. 1820) made his famous dis-
covery which forms the basis of the science of electro-magnetism.
REFERENCES. — The " Encyclopaedia Britannica " article relating to
the influence of magnetism on chemical action, for an account of Ritter's
other experiments; also Faraday's " Experimental Researches," No.
1033; Ritter's " Physisch. Chem. Abhand.," etc., 3 vols., Leipzig, 1806;
Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 652; Tyndall's notes on Electric Polarization;
Donovan's " Essay on the Origin, Progress and Present State of Gal-
vanism," Dublin, 1816; "Soci6t6Philomathique," An. IV. p. 181 ; An. IX.
p. 39; An. XI. pp. 128, 197; An. XII. p. 145; Bull. Soc. Phil., Nos. 53,
76, 79; Nuova Scelta d'Opus., Vol. I. pp. 201, 334; BibL Brit,, XXXI;
" Reichsanzeiger," 1802, Bd. I, No. 66, and Bd. II, No. 194 ; also F. L.
Augus tin's " Versuch einer geschichte . . ." 1803, p. 75 ; Gilbert's
Annalen, II, VI, VII, VIII, IX, XIII, XV, XVI; Voigt's Magazin, Vol.
n- P- 356 » Gehlen's Journal, Vol. Ill for 1804, and Vol. VI for 1806;
" Denkschr. d. Munch.," 1808 and 1814; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIII. chap,
ix. pp. 54, 55 (for experiments from Van Mons' Journal, No. 17), Vols.
XXIV. p. 186; XXV. p. 368; LVIII. p. 43; L. F. F. Crell, " Chemische
Annalen" for 1801 ; Nicholson's Journal, Vols. IV. p. 511; VI. p. 223;
VII. p. 288, VIII. pp. 176, 184; " Gottling's Almanach" for 1801;
Leithead, " Electricity," p. 255 ; " Encycl. Metropolitana," article
"Galvanism," Vol. IV. p. 206; "Biographic Ge'ne'rale," Vol. XLII.
p. 322; Larousse, "Diet. Universel," Vol. XIII. p. 1234; Pierre Sue,
ainl, " Histoire du Galvanisme," Paris, An. X, 1802, Vol. I. pp. 226,
266; Vol. II. pp. 112-119, 156; Joseph Izarn, " Manuel du Galvanisme,"
Paris, An. XII, 1804, pp. 84-87, 249, 255-261 ; Brugnatelli, "Nptizie . . .
neir anno 1804," Pavia, 1805, p. 16, also his Annali di chimica, Vol.
XXII. p. i ; Journal de Physique, Vol. LVII. pp. 345, 406; Annales de
Chimie, Vols. XLI. p. 208; LXIV. pp. 64-80; Jour, de Chim. de Van
384 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
Mons, No. 14, p. 212, for the experiments of Van Marum and Oersted,
made with Hitter's apparatus; Sturgeon's "Scientific Researches,"
Bury, 1850, pp. 7, 8, and Prof. Millin's " Magazin Encyclope\lique " ;
" Allgemeinc Deutsche Biographic," Leipzig, 1875, Vol. XXVIII. pp.
675-678; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXXI. 1806, p. 97, Vol. XXV. 1807,
pp. 364-386 (Lettre de M. le Dr. Uhouvenel).
A.D. 1803. — Basse (Frederic Henri), of Hamel, makes one of
the earliest trials of the transmission of galvanism through water
and soil, the results of which appear in his work, " Galvanische
Versuche," etc., published at Leipzig the year following.
Along the frozen water of the ditch or moat surrounding the
town of Hamel he suspended, on fir posts, 500 feet of wire, at a
height of six feet above the surface of the ice, then making two holes
in the ice and dipping into them the ends of the wire, in the circuit
of which were included a galvanic battery and a suitable electro-
scope, he found the current circulating freely. Similar experiments
were made in the Weser; afterwards, with two wells, 21 feet deep
and 200 feet apart ; and, lastly, across a meadow 3000 to 4000 feet
wide. Whenever the ground was dry it was only necessary to wet
it in order to feel a shock sent through an insulated wire from the
distant battery. Erman, of Berlin, in 1803, and Sommering, of
Munich, in 1811, performed like experiments, the one in the water
of the Havel, near Potsdam, and the other along the river Isar.
Fahie, from whom we take the above, alludes to Gilbert's Annalcn
der Physik, Vol XIV. pp. 26 and 385, as well as to Hamel's " Historical
Account," p. 17, of Cooke's reprint, and adds that Fechner, of Leip-
zig, after referring to Basse's and Erman 's experiments in his
" Lehrbuch des Galvanismus," p. 268, goes on to explain the con-
ductibility of the earth in accordance with Ohm's law. As he
immediately after alludes to the proposals for electric telegraphs,
he has sometimes been credited with the knowledge of the fact
that the earth could be used to complete the circuit in such cases.
This, however, is not so, as we learn from a letter which Fechner
addressed to Prof. Zetzsche, on the igth of February 1872.
REFERENCES. — Zetzsche 's " Geschichte der ElektrischenTelegraphie,"
p. 19. See Dr. Turnbull's Lectures in the Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute, Vol. XXI. pp. 273-274; " Scientific Papers of the Royal Society,"
Vol. I. p. 203.
A.D. 1803. — Thillaye-Platel (Antoine), French savant, who was
afterward appointed pharmacist in the Paris Hotel-Dieu, gives out
as the result of numerous investigations a great many useful precepts
on the medical application of electricity and galvanism, which will
be found in his thesis presented to the Paris Ecole de M£decine
on the 15th Floreal, An. XL These precepts, De la Rive says
(" Treatise on Elect./' translated by C. V. Walker, London, 1858,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 885
Vol. III. pp. 587, 588), are followed to this day and are extremely
simple, requiring only the use of metallic brushes held by an insulated
handle and put into communication with the conductor of the
machine ; and directing the application of electricity in its mildest
form as well as its gradual increase to as much as the invalid is able
to support, besides allowing of the concurrent employment of other
means acting in the same direction, such as frictions, blisters, etc.
Antoine Thillaye-Platel's uncle, Jean Baptiste Jacques Thillaye
(1752-1822), French physician and Professor of Anatomy at Rouen
and in Paris, published " Elements de 1'Elect. et du Ga.lv.," Paris,
1816-1817, ten years after the death of his nephew (Poggendorff,
Vol. II. p. 1094; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. XV. p. 131).
De la Rive alludes to cures effected by several specialists and
particularly to Father R. B. Fabre-Palaprat's translation made in
1828 of La Beaume's English work on the medical efficacy of elec-
tricity and galvanism, originally published in 1820-1826. The
latter, he says, is preceded by a preface wherein the translator
rivals the author on the wonderful effects of the electric fluid as a
sovereign remedy for nearly all maladies.
REFERENCES. — For M. Thillaye's experiments with M. Butet on
galvanic electricity, made at the Paris Kcole de MeVIecine, see the Bulletin
des Sciences de la Soc, Philom., No. 43, Vende'miaire An. IX, also Vol. IX.
p. 231, of the " Rccueil Periodique de la Soc. Libre de Me"decine du
Louvre." Consult likewise, Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 1094; "Royal
Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers," Vol. V. p. 954 ; De la Rive's
"Treatise," Vol. III. pp. 587, 588 ; P. Sue, ain6, " HistoireduGaivanisme,"
Vol. III. p. 14. Some of the other authors who have treated of the
same subject are : F. Zwingcr, 1697-1707; W. B. Nebel, 1719; Opper-
manno, 1746; E. Sguario, 1746; G. C. Pivati, 1747-1750; G. Veratti,
1748-1750, O. de Villeneuve, 1748; L. Jallabert, 1748-1750; G. F.
Bianchini, 1749; Mellarde, of Turin, 1749; Palma, 1749; F. Sauvages
de la Croix, 1749-1760; J. B. Bohadsch, 1751; O. M. Pagani, 1751;
S. T. Quellmaz, 1753; A. von Hallcr, 1753-1757; Linne" (Linnaeus), 1754;
P. Paulsohn, 1754; E. F. Runeberg, 1757; P. Brydone, 1757; Lower,
1760; De Lassone, 1763; Wm. Watson, 1763; G. F. Hjotberg, 1765;
J. G. Teske, 1765; 1*. A. Marrherr, 1766; Gardane, 1768-1778; J. G.
Krunitz, 1769; R. Symcs, 1771 ; Sigaud de la Fond, 1771 ; C. A. Gerhard,
1772; Abbe Sans, 1772-1778; J. Janin de Combe Blanche, 1773; J. B.
Becket, 1773; Marrigues a Montfort L'Amaury, 1773; G. F. Gardini,
1774; J. G. Schaffer, 1776; Mauduyt, 1776-1786; De Thouri, 1777;
A. A. Senft, 1778; Masars de Caz6ies, 1780-1788; P. F. Nicolas, 1782;
Bonnefoy, 1782; Niccolas, 1783; K. G. Kuhn, 1783, 1797; C. W. Hufe-
land, 1783; Cosnier, Maloet, Darcet, etc., 1783; J. P. Marat, 1784; G.
Vivenzio, 1 784 ; Carmoy, 1784-1785 ; G. Piccinelli, 1785 ; L. E. de Tressan,
" Essai . . ." 1786, p. 233, etc. ; Krunitz-Kirtz, 1787; Porna and Arnaud,
1787; F. Lowndes, 1787-1791; J. H. D. Petetin, 1787, 1808; G. Pickel,
1788; Van Troostwijk and Krayenhoff, 1788; R. W. D. Thorp, 1790;
G. Wilkinson, 1792; C. H. Pfaff, 1793; G. Klein, 1794; M. Imhof, 1796;
C. H. Wilkinson, 1799; C. A. Struve, 1802; Maurice, 1810; J. Morgan,
1815; Le Blanc, 1819; P. A. Pascalis, 1819; J. Price, 1821 ; K. Sundelin,
1822 ; Girardin, 1823 ; Ch. Bew, 1824 ; Sarlandi£re, 1825 ; S. G. Marianini,
1833; F. Puccinotti, 1834; Fran9ois Magendie, 1836, 18^7; Gourdon,
1838; C. Matteucci, Piria, etc., 1838, 1858; Breton Fibres, 1844;
CC
386 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
B. Mojon, Jr., 1845; J. E. Riadore, 1845; A. Restelii, 1846; Budge,
1846 ; F. Hollick, 1847 ; R. Froriep, 1850 ; C. V. Rauch, 1851 ; H. Valerius,
1852 ; Burci, 1852 ; Marie-Davy, 1852-1853 ; W. Gull, 1852 ; C. Becken-
steiner, 1852-1870; F. Charming, 1852; F. F. Videt, 1853; R. M. Law-
ranee, 1853-1858; G. M. Cavalleri, 1854, 1857; Briand, 1854; M. Kierski,
1854; P. Zetzeli, 1856; Ad. Becquerel, 1856-1860; E. Pfluger, 1856,
1858; Pulvermacher, 1856; P. C. Pinson, 1857; H. Ziemssen, 1857-1806;
Philipeaux, 1857; J. Dropsy, 1857; M. Meyer, 1857-1869; Nivelet, 1860-
1863; A. Tripier, 1861 ; J. Rpsenthal, 1862; Desparquets, 1862; M. P.
Ppggioli (Me'moire In & I'lnstitut, Oct. 31, 1853; " Annual of Scientific
Disc.," 1865, p. 327); G. Niamias, " Delia elettr. . . . medicina," 1851
(" An. of Sci. Disc.," 1865, p. 327); A. C. Garrat, 1866; H. Lobb, 1867;
Aug. Beer, 1868; H. M. Collis (" An. of Sci. Dis.," 1869, p. 175) ; Toutain,
1870; J. R. Reynolds, 1872; Onimus and Legros, 1872; as well as Jobert
de Lamballe, Richter and Erdmon, T. Guitard, J. J. Hemmer, H. van
Holsbeek, T. Percival, J. D. Reuss and Mr. Ware (in Kuhn, Hist. II.
p. 183).
A.D. 1803. — Berthollet (Claude Louis de), very eminent French
scientist, who was the first of the leading chemists to openly endorse
the antiphlogistic doctrine propounded by Lavoisier (A.D. 1781),
and who with Laplace founded the well-known scientific Socie'te
d'Arcueil, admits in his " Essai de Statique Chimique " the analogy
existing between caloric and the electric fluid. He believes that
the latter during the oxidation of metals does not give out much
heat, but causes only a dilatation of bodies which separates their
molecules, and he also believes that electricity aids metallic oxidation
by lessening cohesion (Delaunay, "Manuel de 1'Electricite," p. 16).
When Berthollet and Charles passed heavy electrical charges
through platinum wire, they observed that the latter acquired a
temperature about equal to that of boiling water, and therefore
not sufficient to fuse the wire. If the metal is one easily oxidized,
the separation of the molecules causes them to unite with the oxygen
of the air, and it is therefore the oxidation itself which produces
the consequent high degree of heat.
REFERENCES. — " Essai de Statique," Vol. I. pp, 209 and 263. See also
" Biographic Ge*n6rale," Vol. V. p. 716; Young's " Lectures/' London,
1807, Vol. II. p. 423, and Nicholson's Journal, -Vol. VIII. p. 80; Larousse,
"Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 617; "Sci. Papers of Roy. Soc.," Vol. I.
pp. 321—323 ; Sir II. Davy, " Bakerian Lectures," London 1840, pp. 41, 94,
regarding more particularly Berthollet 's elaborate experiments on the
decomposition of ammonia by electricity alluded to in M£m. de I'Acad.,
1782, p. 324, also Delaunay, " Manuel," pp. 17, 150.
A.D. 1804. — Jacotot (Pierre), Professor of Astronomy at the
Lyceum of Dijon, states, at p. 223, Vol. I of his " Elements de
Physique Experiment ale/1 that Wlik, teacher of natural philosophy
at Stockholm, invented the electrophorus during the year 1762.
Jacotot, of course, refers to Johannes Carolus Wilcke (see A.D. 1757)
who, during the month of August 1762, constructed a resinous
apparatus to which he gave the name of perpetual electrophorus
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 387
(Scripta Academiae Suec., 1762). Books V, VI and VII of the same
volume treat respectively of Electricity, Galvanism and Magnetism.
REFERENCES. — With regard to the perpetual electrophorus, see L.
S. Jacquet de Malzet " Lettre d'un Abb6 de Vienne . . ." Vienna, 1775,
translated into German by " A. H." (A. Hildebrand), Wien, 1776; also
C. Cuyper's " Expos6 d'une m^thode ..." La Haye, 1778; and, for
other improvements, Marsiglio Landriani, Scelta d'Opuscoli, I2mo, XIX.
P- 73 ; J- F. Klinkosch, Mem. de I'Acad. de Prague, III. p. 218. Consult
J. C. Poggendorff, " Biog.-Litter. Hand. . . ." Vol. I. pp. i, 182, and
• Larousse, " Dictionnaire Universel," Vol. IX. p. 868.
A.D. 1804.— Hatchett (Charles), F.R.S. and foreign member of
the Paris Academy, communicates through a paper entitled " An
Analysis of the Magnetical Pyrites . . /'his conclusions that iron
must be combined with a large portion of either carbon, phosphorus
or sulphur in order to acquire the property of receiving permanent
magnetic virtue, there being, however, a limit beyond which an
excess of either of the above-named substances renders the com-
pound wholly incapable of exhibiting the magnetic energy. In this
connection, the interesting observations of Messrs. Seebeck, Chenevix
and Dr. Matt. Young on anti-magnetic bodies, in Vol. XIV. p. 27,
of the eighth " Encyclopaedia Britannica," will repay perusal.
Three years before, on the 26th of November 1801, Mr. Hatchett
had communicated to the Royal Society an interesting paper on
columbium, a new metallic substance found in an ore from the
State of Massachusetts.
REFERENCES. — " Abstracts of the papers ... of the Phil. Trans."
Vol. I. p. 155; also the Phil. Trans, for 1804, p. 315; Phil. Mag., Vol.
XXI. pp. 133 and 213; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 1031; " Cat. Sc. Papers
Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 155.
A.D. 1804. — M. Dyckhoff publishes in Nicholson's Journal,
Vol. VII. pp. 303 and 305, " Experiments on the activity of a gal-
vanic pile in which thin strata of air are substituted instead of
the wet bodies." His description of what has by many been called
the first practical dry pile is as follows :
" I constructed a pile with discs of copper and zinc, and little
bits of thin green glass about the size of a lentil, three of which I
placed triangularly in the intervals that separated the metallic
plates. Thus between each pair of metals I had a thin stratum of
air instead of a wet substance. A pile of ten pairs tried by the
condenser affected the electrometer as powerfully as a common
(voltaic) pile of five pairs/'
It was in the year following, 1805, that Wilhelm Behrends, of
Frankfort, constructed his dry pile consisting of eighty pairs of
discs of copper, zinc and gilt paper (De la Rive, " Treatise on
Electricity," Vol. II. p. 852).
888 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
The investigations of Mar&haux, De Luc, Zamboni and others
in the same line will appear in due course.
REFERENCES. — Young's " Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II. p. 430,
and Nicholson's Journal, Vol. VII. pp. 303 and 305, Becquerel, Paris,
1851, p. 34; Sturgeon's "Lectures on Galvanism," p. 73; Sturgeon's
Annals of Electricity, Vol. VIII. pp. 378, etc. ; Journal de Chimie de Van
Mons, No. u, p. 190, and also No. 12, p. 300, for Bouvier de Jodoigne's
experiments; Catalogue Scientific Papers of the Royal Society," Vol.
II. p. 432; Gilbert, XIX. pp. 355-360, and Wilkinson's denial of the
effectiveness of DyckhofFs pile, in Nicholson's Journal, Vol. VIII. p. i.
A.D. 1804. — Gay-Lussac (Joseph Louis), one of the most promi-
nent of modern scientists, who was for a time assistant to Berthollet,
makes, in Paris, two ascents in a balloon, at heights varying between
12,000 and 23,623 feet, for the purpose of carrying out extensive
observations upon terrestrial magnetism. The latter are recorded
at length in the Journal de Physique, Vol. LIX, and are alluded to
in the articles " Aeronautics " and " Meteorology " of the " Encycl.
Brit.," likewise at Biot, A.D. 1803, and in paragraphs 2961 and 2962
of Faraday's " Experimental Researches in Electricity," while at
p. 193, Vol. XXI of the Phil. Mag. will be found the account of a
very interesting aerial voyage made during January of the same year
(1804) by M. Sacharof, of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
In conjunction with Louis Jacques Thenard (alluded to at Four-
croy, A.D. 1801), Gay-Lussac communicates to the Annales de
Chimie for 1810 (Vol. LXXIII. p. 197, etc.), a paper relative to their
" preparation of an ammoniacal amalgam through the agency of
the voltaic pile " which had been read at the " Institut National "
during the month of September 1809, and which is also alluded to
at pp. 250, etc., of the Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXXVIII for 1811.
Their united " physico-chemical researches on the voltaic pile ..."
are reviewed at pp. 243, etc., of the last-named volume and are like-
wise alluded to at p. 36 of Vol. LXXIX for the same year. The
largest of the many piles they employed in their several experiments
consisted of 600 pairs with a square surface of 1800 feet (Figuier,
"Exposition et Histoire . . ." 1857, Vol. IV. pp. 387 and 433;
Journal des Mines, Vol. XXX. pp. 5-56; Schweigger's Journal,
Vol. II. pp. 409-423).
At pp. 76, etc., of the second volume of the Annales de Chimie
et de Physique for the month of May 1816, are to be found the
observations of Gay-Lussac on dry voltaic piles, especially upon
those of Desormes et Hachette, De Luc and Zamboni. He remarks
that the last named does not appear to have so constructed his pile
as to enable the oscillations of the needle to indicate an exact
measure of time (Schweigger's Journal fur Chemie, Vol. XV. pp. 113,
130-132), but that the so-called electric clocks of M. Ramis, of
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 389
Munich, and of M. Streizig, of Verona, readily pointed the hours,
minutes and seconds (Schweigger's Journal, Vol. XIII. p. 379;
Ronalds' " Catalogue " for notices of his own as well as of the clocks
of Ramis and of Streizig).
The investigations of Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, relative to
the magnetic intensity and dip or inclination, throughout France,
Germany, Switzerland and Italy, will be found recorded in the
first volume of Mem. d'Arcueil, 1807, while at p. 284, Vol. X, and
at pp. 305-309 of the Annales de Chimie are observations of Gay-
Lussac and Arago, and at p. 509 of the fourth volume of Figuier's
" Exposition et Histoire," etc., Paris, 1857, appears an extended
account of the special report upon lightning rods, which Gay-Lussac
was authorized by the Natural Philosophy Division of the French
Academy of Sciences to prepare during the year 1823, and the
outcome of which appears in the Comptes Rendus des Seances . . .
Vol. XXXIX. p. 1142.
REFERENCES. — Faraday's " Experimental Researches," 1839, Vol.
I. p. 217, note, as well as paragraph No. 741 " Recherches Physico-
chimiques," p. 12, and J. Farrar's " Elem. of Elec. Mag.," 1826, pp. 150-
152 ; while for Gay-Lussac and The'nard 's repetition of Sir Humphry
Davy's experiments on the decomposition of the alkalies, see Phil.
Mag., Vol. XXXII. p. 88 ; " Instruction surles parat . . ." for Gay-Lussac,
Fresncl, Lefevre, Gineau and others, Paris, 1824, and for Gay-Lussac
and Pouillet, Paris, 1855. Other reports on lightning rods not hitherto
specially mentioned are: J. Langenbucher, 1783; Beyer, 1806-1809;
P. Beltrami, 1823; Bourges, at Bordeaux, 1837; Boudin, 1855, and J.
Bushee, Amer. Assoc., 1868. The observations of The'nard and Dulong
are recorded at paragraphs 609, 612, 636, 637 of Faraday's " Experi-
mental Researches," as well as at Vols, XXIII. p. 440; XXIV. pp. 380,
383 and 386 of the Annales de Chimie, and those of Thenard, Fourcroy,
and Vauquelin will be found in the Mem. des Soc. Sav. et Lit., Vol. 1.
p. 204. See " Royal Society Catalogue of Sc. Papers," Vol. II. pp. 8oo~
807; Vol. V. pp. 944-948; Vol. VI. p. 666; Vol. VII. p. 748; Vol. VIII.
p. 1072 ; " Discours cle M. Becquerel . . ." Inst. Nat. Acad. des Sciences ;
Phil. Mag., Vols. XX. p. 83; XXI. p. 220; Sci. Am. Supp., p. 11794;
Edin. Magazine, Vol. V. p. 471 ; Annales de Chimie et Physique for 1818,
Vol. VIII. pp. 68, 161, 163; the eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII.
PP- 532> 539* 573 to* Gay-Lussac's additional experiments; the ninth
" Britannica," Vol. X. pp. 122, etc. ; also Report Brit. Asso., London, 1838,
pp. 7-8, for the magnetic observations of Gay-Lussac and Humboldt
on the European Continent, likewise Sir Humphry Davy " Bakerian
Lectures," London, 1840, pp. 134-137; Humboldt, at A.D. 1799, and
Cruikshanks, at A.D. 1800. For a description of the Volta eudiometer
invented by Gay-Lussac, see Ann. de Ch. et Phys., Vol. IV. p. 188, also
Dr. Hare in Silliman's Journal, Vol. II. p. 312, and for the " Memoir of
Louis Jacques The'nard," by M. Flourens, see the " Report of the Smith-
sonian Institution " for 1862, pp. 372-383; " Journal des Savants " for
Dec. 1850; Meyer's " Konversations-Lexikon " Leipzig und Wien, 1894,
Vol. VII. pp. 140-141 ; " Diet. G6ne*ral de Biog. et d'Histoire," Paris,
2nd ed., pp. 1218-1219.
A.D. 1805. — Mr. Joseph Davis submits to the London Society
of Arts an improvement upon the telegraph of Lord George Murray
890 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
(A.D. 1795), consisting of the addition of a seventh shutter, which,
instead of being poised on a horizontal axis, is made to slide up and
down in grooves in the centre of the framework; so that it may
either range with the six shutters or, if not required at all, may
descend into a space provided for it in the roof of the Observatory.
By this simple device the power of the apparatus is quadrupled, it
being made capable of indicating in all 252 changes.
The night signals are given by a coloured lamp mounted in the
centre of the seventh or sliding shutter and by six white lights
fastened to the outside of the frame, to produce, through their dis-
play or concealment by slides, the same signals as, under ordinary
circumstances, are given by the opening and closing of the shutters.
A.D. 1805. — Grotthus — Grothuss — (Theodor — more properly
Christian Johann Dietrich, Baron von) makes known his theory of
electro-chemical decompositions, through the " Memoire," etc.,
published in I2mo at Rome, and of which an English translation
appeared in London during 1806.
As Lardner and Fahie have it, Grotthus' theory was the most
plausible of the many proposed at this early period of experimental
inquiry to explain chemical decomposition by the voltaic apparatus.
The above-named " M&noire ..." which appeared in the Phil.
Mag. for 1806, Vol. XXV. pp. 330-334, is analyzed by both of these
writers (Lardner, " Electricity, Mag. and Meteor./' Vol. I. pp. 135-
137, or "Popular Lectures," 1851, Vol. I. pp. 348, 349; Fahie,
" Hist, of Elec. Teleg.," pp. 210, 211), but it may be briefly stated
in the words of Sir David Brewster as follows :
" Grotthus (Annales de Chimie for 1806, Vol. LVIII. p. 61)
regards the pile as an electric magnet with attracting and repelling
poles, the one attracting hydrogen and repelling oxygen, and the
other attracting oxygen and repelling hydrogen. The force exerted
upon each molecule of the body is supposed to be inversely as
its distance from the poles, and a succession of decompositions and
recompositions is supposed to exist among the intervening molecules/1
In this connection it will be well to add here, by way of contrast,
and again according to Sir David Brewster, the views held by other
experimentalists of the same period. Sir Humphry Davy adopts
the idea of attractions at the poles, diminishing to the middle or
neutral points, and he thinks a succession of decompositions and
recompositions probable. Messrs. Riffault and Chompr6 regard
the negative current as collecting and carrying the acids on to the
positive pole, and the positive current as doing the same, with
the bases toward the negative pole. Biot attributes the effects to
the opposite electrical states of the decomposing substances in the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 391
vicinity of the two poles. M. De la Rive considers the portions
decomposed to be those contiguous to both poles, the current from
the positive pole combining with the hydrogen or the bases which
are there present, and leaving the oxygen or acids at liberty, but
carrying the substances in union with it across to the negative pole,
where it is separated from them, entering the conducting metal,
and leaving on its surface the hydrogen or its bases. Faraday
regards the poles as exercising no specific action, but merely as
surfaces or doors by which the electricity enters into or passes
out of the substance undergoing decomposition. He supposes that
" the effects are due to a modification of the electric current and
the chemical affinity of the particles through or by which that
current is passing, giving them the power of acting more forcibly
in one direction than in another, and consequently making them
travel by a series of successive decompositions and recompositions
in opposite directions, and finally causing their repulsion or exclusion
at the boundaries of the body under decomposition in the direction
of the current, and that, in larger or smaller quantities, according
as the current is more or less powerful."
In 1810 Grotthus published his " Uber d. elektricitat . . .
wassers entwickelt," one of his curious observations being the fact
that when water is rapidly frozen in a Leyden jar, the outside coating,
not being insulated, receives a weak electrical discharge, the inside
being positive and the outside negative, and when the ice is rapidly
thawed, the inside is negative and the outside positive.
REFERENCES — Faraday's " Experimental Researches," articles 481,
5, 489, 492, 507, etc.; also PhiL Mag., Vols. XXIV. p. 183, and
XXVIII. pp. 35 and 59 ; Joseph Izarn, " Manuel du Galvanisme," pp. 280-
485, 489, 492, 507, etc.; also PhiL Mag., Vols. XXIV. p. 183, and
XXVIII. pp. 35 and 59 ; Joseph Izarn, " Manuel du Galvanisme," pp. 280-
284 for M. Riffault and N. M. Chompre'; Whewell, " History of the
Inductive Sciences/' Vol. II. p. 304; Noad, "Manual," pp. 364, 365;
William R. Grove, " On Grotthus' Theory . . ." London, 1845; J. S. C.
Schweigger's/owrna/, Vols. Ill, IV, IX, XXVIII and XXXI ; A. F. Gehlen's
Journal for 1808; L. W. Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, Vol. LXVII;
Ostwald, " Elektrochemie," 1896, pp. 309-316; A. N. Scherer's Allgem.
ndrdliche AnnaL d. Chemie, Vol. IV; Annales de Chimie, Vol. LXIII;
Phil. Mag., Vol. LIX. p. 67; J. C. PoggendorfT, " Biog. Literarisches,"
etc., Vol. I. pp. 959, 960 ; " Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers/'
Vol. III. pp. 29-31.
Grotthus' theory was extended by Rudolf Clausius, and the
latter's theory in turn gave way to that of Svante Arrhe'mus.
Clausius maintained that the exchanges were going on continuously,
although no current was flowing ; while the assumption of Arrhenius
was that in every electrolyte, a certain number of molecules break
up into ions and that all electrolytes contain some of these free ions.
This is the much controverted dissociation theory (Dr. Henry S.
Carhart's Presidential Address).
392 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
The " Encycl. Amer.," New York, 1903, Vol. II says that the
establishment of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, which is
due to the noted Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhe*nius, supplies a
reasonable explanation of many chemical phenomena otherwise
insoluble, and correlates various facts between which no connec-
tion was previously discovered. Two important publications by
Arrhe'nius are " Sur la conductibilite galvanique des electrolytes "
(1884), and a treatise in German on electro-chemistry (1902). (See
" Le Moniteur Scientifique," Avril 1904, pp. 241-243.)
Rudolf Clausius, German scientist (1822-1888), " one of the
most celebrated mathematical physicists of the nineteenth century,"
communicated in 1850 to the Berlin Academy of Sciences the paper
wherein he announced the second law of thermo-dynamics, that
" heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body." The
honour of establishing the science of thermo-dynamics upon a scien-
tific basis he thus shares with Rankine and Thomson (" Encycl.
Amer.," Vol. V. n.p. ; "New Inter. Encycl.," New York, 1902,
Vol. IV. p. 711. For biography, consult Riecke, " Rudolf Clausius,"
Gottingen, 1889; " Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon," Leipzig, 1894,
Vol. IV. p. 213).
A.D. 1805.— Alexander Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
XXI. p. 279, has a letter addressed by W. Peel to the editor, under
date Cambridge, April 23, 1805, relative to the " Production of
Muriate of Soda by the Galvanic Decomposition of Water." This
is followed by a communication dated Pisa, May 9, 1805, from
Dr. Francis G. Pacchiani, Professor of Philosophy at the Pisa
University (Rees' Encyclopedia, " Galvanism," p. 15), to Lawrence
Pignotti, Historiographer to the King, entitled " Formation of
Muriatic Acid by Galvanism," as well as by two letters, one from
W. Peel, dated Cambridge, June 4, 1805, on " The Production of
Muriates by the Galvanic Decomposition of Water," and the other
from Dr. Wm. Henry, dated Manchester, July, 23, 1805, relative to
the above-named processes and to the latter's own experiments in
the same direction.
REFERENCES.— Phil. Mag., Vol. XXII. pp. 153, 179, 188; XXIII.
p. 257; XXIV. p. 183; XXVII. p. 82; XXVIII. p. 306; Sir Humphry
Davy's allusion to above, as well as his earlier experiments communicated
to Dr. Beddoes, Sir James Hail, Mr. Clayneld and others, in " Bakerian
Lectures," London, 1840, pp. 2, 3 ; Sylvester, at A.D. 1806, and Donovan,
at A.D. 1812 ; Lardner's " Lectures on Science and Art," Vol. I. p. 350;
Faraday's "Experimental Researches," No. 314; J. F. Macaire, Ann.
Ch. et Phys., XVII. 1821 ; Marni " Sulla formazione . . ." ; G. B. Polcastro,
" Giorm. Ital. Letter del Dal Rio," X. p. 182, 1805; Cioni and Petrini,
Phil. Mag., XXIV. 167, 1806; The Paris Galvani Society, Phil. Mag.,
XXIV. p. 172, and Ann. de Ch., Vol. LVI, 1806; A. B. Hortentz, Phil.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 893
Mag., Vol. XXIV. p. 91, 1806; Leop. de Buch, Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIV.
p. 244, 1806; Veau Delaunay, Phil. Mag., XXVII. p. 260, 1807; G. Inno-
centi, Nuova Scelta d' Opuscoli, II. p. 96, 1807; P. Alemanni, Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XXVII. p. 339, 1807; C. H. Pfaff, Phil. Mag., XXVII. p. 338, and
XXIX. p. 19; Ann. de Chim., Vols. LX. p. 314; LXII. p. 23, 1807-8;
Wm. Henry, Phil. Mag., Vols. XXII. p. 183; XL. p. 337, 1805-1812;
F. G. Pacchiani, in Nuova Scelta d' Opuscoli, I. p. 277; Brugnatcili,
An. di Chimica, Vol. XXII. pp. 125, 134 and 144; Edin. Med. and Surg.
Journal, of July i, 1805; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIV. p. 176, for his letter
to Fabbroni. For Dr. Wm. Henry, consult " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XV,
An. VIII. pp. 35, 293; Phil. Mag., Vols. VII for 1830, p. 228; XXII.
p. 183; XXXII/p. 277, and XL. p. 337; Phil. Trans J Part II for 1808.
A.D. 1806.— On Oct. 16, Mr. Wm. Skrimshire, Jr., addresses
from Wisbech a letter to Mr. Cuthbertson on the absorption of
electric light by different bodies.
In this letter, which is given in full at pp. 281-283 °* tne fifteenth
volume of Nicholson's Journal, he says he was led to his experiments
by the well-known fact that when the electric current is passed
through a lump of sugar it makes the latter appear luminous. He
tried many calcareous species, chalk, Kelton stone, the phosphate,
nitrate, sulphates of lime, etc. etc., and he details some of the
results obtained, the most interesting being that given by the
sulphuret of lime, commonly called Canton's phosphorus, which,
he says, is, by the electric explosion, rendered the most luminous
of all the substances tried.
A.D. 1806. — Heidmann (J. A.), physician at Vienna, publishes
his " Thcorie der Galvanischen Electricitat . . ." or " Theory of
Galvanic Electricity deduced from Actual Experimentation "
(London, 1807). This had been preceded by other important
electrical reviews at Vienna during the years 1799, 1803 and 1804.
As stated by Guyton de Morveau, Heidmann has given us in
the above the complete history of galvanic electricity — including
the experiments and observations of Aldini, Arnim, Biot, Boeckman,
Carminati, Cavallo, Creve, Davy, Fontana, Fowler, Gilbert, Haldane,
Halle, Helebrandt, Humboldt, Nicholson, Pepys, Pfaff, Reil,
Reinhold, Ritter, Valli, Vassalli-Eandi, etc. etc. — together with
the description of the construction and the relation of all parts of
the galvanic pile, which is called by him a galvanic battery. Heid-
mann also gives an account of his many interesting experiments
with frogs placed in different liquids as well as with the galvanic
chain, and he reviews all the known phenomena presented by the
voltaic pile.
REFERENCES. — " Annales de Chimie," Vol. LXI. p. 70; Phil. Mag.,
Vol. XXVIII. p. 97.
A.D. 1806. — Dr. Joseph Baronio of Milan constructs a gal-
394 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
vanic pile composed exclusively of vegetable substances. He
makes his discs, two inches in diameter, of beet roots (bietola rosso)
and of walnut wood (legno di noce), the latter having been freed from
all of its resinous substance by treatment in a solution of vinegar
and cream of tartar. Through this pile, he produced convulsions
in a frog by excitation with a leaf of coMearia (spoon wort or scurvy-
grass).
REFERENCES. — "Annales de Chimie," Vol. LVII. pp. 64-67; Vol.
LXII. p. 212; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIII. p. 283; " Nota di Brugnatelli
sopra una pila di sostanze vegetabili," Pavia, 1805 (" Am. di Chim. di
Brugnatelli," Vol. XXII. p. 301); Volta, in Giorn. Fis. Med.t Vol. II.
p. 122.
A.D. 1806. — Sylvester (Charles), the author of the articles on
" Galvanism and Voltaism " in Rees' " Encyclopaedia," announces that
he obtains muriatic acid from pure water by passing through it the
galvanic current. Mr. Wollaston, however, asserts this cannot be
done unless the current traverses some vegetable or animal substance
containing that acid.
His first paper on the subject appeared in Nicholson's Journal,
1806, Vol. XIV. pp. 94-98; in Gehlen's Journ. der Chemie, Vol. II
for 1806, pp. 152-153, and in Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, Vol.
XXV. pp. 107-112, 454-457. The paper following is entitled " Repe-
tition of the Experiment in which Acids and Alkalies are Produced
in Pure Water by Galvanism (no animal or vegetable matter, nor
oxidable metal being present)/'
REFERENCES. — Nicholson's Journal, Vol. XV. pp. 50-52 ; Vol. XXIII.
pp. 258-260; Gehlen's Journal, Vol. II, 1806, pp. 155-158. For his
other papers, consult Nicholson's Journal, Vol. IX. p. 179; Vol. X.
pp. 166-167; Vol. XIX. pp. 156-157; Vol. XXVI. pp. 72-75 ; Gilbert's
Annalen, Vol. XXIII. pp. 441-447; " Roy. Soc. Catal. of Sc. Papers,"
Vol. V. pp. 900-901 ; Sturgeon's Scientific Researches, Bury, 1850, p. 153 ;
Sir Humphry Davy's lecture " On some chemical agencies of electricity,"
read Nov. 20, 1806; Annales de Chimie, Vol. LX. p. 314; Vol. LXI.
pp. 330-331 ; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXXIII, 1806, p. 324.
A.D. 1806. — Mar6chaux (Peter Ludwig), correspondent of the
French Galvani Society at Wesel, is the first to construct an effec-
tive dry pile containing paper discs. He makes known through
M. Riffault (Annales de Chimie, Vol. LVII for January 1806, p. 61),
that water is not essential to the production of galvanic effects,
and his experiments are repeated for the Chemical Society by
M. Veau Delaunay, as shown in Journal de Physique, Messidor,
An. XIV.
This " Mare*chausian Pile/' or colonne pendule, as it was originally
denominated, consists of pairs of oven-dried cardboard, pasteboard,
or blotting-paper, and of copper discs all pierced in such manner
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 395
as to be suspended by three silken cords which hold them fast in
position. Sturgeon remarks (" Researches/' pp. 199 and 239)
that in this dry column the electric pulsations are, in consequence
of the very great number of interrupting papers, less frequent than
in either the processes of Volta or in that of Seebeck, notwithstand-
ing which the instrument produces slow pulsatory currents.
REFERENCES. — W. Sturgeon's " Annals of Electricity," Vol. I. p. 256,
note; Vol. VIII. pp. 379, 484; PhiL Mag., Vol. XXIV. p. 183; Poggen-
dorff, Vol. II. p. 46; " Roy. Soc. Cat. of Sci. Papers," Vol. IV. p. 236;
Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, Vols. X.-XXVII passim, also Vol. XV.
p. 98 and Vol. XVI. p. 115 giving a description of the Mar^chaux electro-
micrometer (screw and silver leaf), likewise Vol. XXII, containing an
account of the observations made by M. Paul Erman.
A.D. 1807. — Young (Thomas), M.D., a very celebrated English
scientist, " eminent alike in almost every department of human
learning," who was the associate of Davy at the Royal Institution,
and who became the successor of Volta as Foreign Associate of the
French Academy of Sciences, publishes his very elaborate " Course
of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts/' upon
which he was assiduously engaged for five years, and a new edition
of which was issued (with additional references and notes) by the
Rev. P. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S., during the year 1845.
The above-named work comprises the sixty lectures which
Dr. Young delivered during his connection with the Royal Institu-
tion and includes also his optical and other memoirs, as well as a
very extended classified catalogue of publications in every leading
department of science. His biographer in the " English Encyclo-
paedia " remarks that Young's lectures embody a complete system
of natural and mechanical philosophy, drawn from original sources,
and are distinguished not only by extent of learning and accuracy
of statement, but by the beauty and originality of the theoretical
principles. One of these is the principle of interferences in the
undulatory theory of light. " This discovery alone," says Sir John
Herschel, " would have sufficed to have placed its author in the
highest rank of scientific immortality, were even his other almost
innumerable claims to such a distinction disregarded." The first
reception, however, of Dr. Young's investigations of light was very
unfavourable. The novel theory of undulation especially was
attacked in the Edinburgh Review, and Dr. Young wrote a pamphlet
in reply, of which it is said but one copy was sold, but it is
now generally received in place of the molecular or emanatory
theory.
His review and treatment of the field of electrical and magnetic
phenomena, as may be imagined from the foregoing, is very
396 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
extensive, and as no justice could be done it by making there-
from such extracts as would suitably come within the scope
of the present " Bibliographical History," only an extract from
the lecture treating of " Aqueous and Igneous Meteors " will here
be given.
Speaking of the aurora borealis, he says " that it is doubtful
if its light may not be of an electrical nature. The phenomenon is
certainly connected with the general cause .of magnetism. The
primitive beams of light are supposed to be at an elevation of at
least 50 or 100 miles above the earth, and everywhere in a direc-
tion parallel to that of the dipping needle ; but perhaps, although
the substance is magnetical, the illumination, which renders it
visible, may still be derived from the passage of electricity, at too
great a distance to be discovered by any other test. ... It is
certainly in some measure a magnetical phenomenon; and if iron
were the only substance capable of exhibiting magnetic effects, it
would follow that some ferruginous particles must exist in the
upper regions of the atmosphere. The light usually attending this
magnetical meteor may possibly be derived from electricity, which
may be the immediate cause of a change in the distribution of the
magnetic fluid contained in the ferruginous vapours that are imagined
to float in the air."
The assumption of ferruginous particles or vapouis, remarks
Prof. Robert Jameson, of the Edinburgh University, seems, however,
purely gratuitous and imaginary; and as iron is not the only sub-
stance or matter capable of exhibiting magnetic effects, light itself
being susceptible of polarization, the above hypothesis is, therefore,
untenable even on the ground upon which it has been rested by its
author. But it is, nevertheless, certain that the cause of this
luminous meteor is intimately connected with magnetism and
electricity; or, rather, as the magnetic is variously modified and
effected by the electric power, with the phenomena of electro-
magnetism.
REFERENCES. — Young's Catalogue for " Aurora Borealis " and
" Terrestrial Magnetism " (" Lectures," London, 1807, Vol. II. pp. 440-
443, 488-490), "Journal Roy. Inst.," Vol. I; Dr. George Peacock's
" Life of Thomas Young "; also " Miscellaneous Works of T. Young,"
London, 1855; " Memoirs of the Life of Thos. Young," London, 1831;
also Vol. XIII of John Leitch's " Hieroglyphical Essays and Corre-
spondence," all of which contain every contribution made by the scientist
to the Phil. Trans., as well as many other important articles communi-
cated by him to other scientific publications of his time; " Eloge His-
torique de Dr. Thomas Young," par M. Arago, in M6m. de I'Acad. Roy.
des Sc., etc., Tome XIII. p. 57; Quarterly Review for April 1814 ; Tyndall,
" Heat as a Mode of Motion," 1873, pp. 267, 268; Annales de Chimie,
Feb. 1815 ; Whewell, " History of the Inductive Sciences," 1859, Vol. II.
pp. 92, 9<5, 106, 111-118.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 397
A.D. 1808.— Pasley (Charles William), F.R.S., D.C.L., K.C.B.,
who was at the time aide-de-camp to Sir John Moore, became
Major-General in 1841 and Lieutenant-General in 1851, gives at
pp. 205, 292, Vol. XXIX, and at p. 339, Vol. XXXV of Tilloch's
Philosophical Magazine, a description of the original and improved
methods of constructing his " polygrammatic telegraph."
The apparatus, as first devised by him between the years 1804 and
1807, consists of four posts, each bearing a pair of pivoted arms,
which latter can be flaced at different angles to indicate all desired
numerals and letters. After he had seen the French semaphore
during 1809 he improved his telegraph, employing but one post,
upon which were three pairs of pivoted arms representing hundreds,
tens and units.
In i §23 Pasley (then a Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers)
issued a pamphlet entitled " Description of the Universal Telegraph
for Day and Night Signals," wherein he announces the abandon-
ment of the polygrammatic principle. For day service he employs
an upright post with two movable arms attached to the top on a
pivot. Each arm is capable of assuming seven different positions,
besides the quiescent position called the stop, in which the arms
are turned down and concealed by the post. To prevent signals
being seen in reverse, another arm, called an indicator, is added to
one side of the post. For night signals he places a central lamp
at the top of the post, as well as a lamp at the end of each arm,
and suspends a fourth lamp, as an indicator, upon a light crane
projecting horizontally beyond the range of both movable arms.
Motion to the arms was communicated by means of an endless chain
passing over two pulleys. Up to this time the semaphores employed
by the Admiralty had been constructed without provision being
made for the display of night signals.
Pasley was the first to apply the heating power of the galvanic
battery to a useful practical purpose. While engaged on the
River Thames he was written to by Mr. Palmer (Alfred Smee,
" Electro-Metallurgy," p. 297), who advised him to employ the
galvanic battery instead of the long fuse then in common use,
and as soon as he was made acquainted with the method of
operating he at once adopted it and applied it effectively, during
the year 1839, t° *ne removal of the sunken hull of the " Royal
George," at Spithead.
REFERENCES. — Sturgeon's " Scientific Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 174 ;
Knight's " Mech. Diet.," Vol. I. p. 784; also "Documents relatifs &
i'emploi de 1' Electricity," etc., Paris, 1841, taken from the United Service
Journal and the " Militaire Spectateur Hollandais." Consult likewise,
" Trans, of the Society . . . Arts," Vol. XXXIX, London, 1821, for
398 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Peter Barlow, XL. pp. 76-100, and for Lieut. Nicolas Harris Nicolas,
XL. p. 104; also Vol. XLII, London, 1824, for Mr. A. Westcott,
pp. 165-166. A patented telegraph by James Boaz is alluded to in
Vol. XII. pp. 84-87 of the Phil. Magazine.
Following close upon Pasley's original telegraphic contrivance
were several other methods of conveying intelligence at a distance,
introduced at this period, worthy of mention here.
The Chevalier A. N. Edelcrantz, Swedish savant, sent to the
London Society of Arts a model of his apparatus, which is to be found
minutely described in Vol. XXVI. pp. 20, 184-189, of the Trans-
actions of that institution. A description of his earlier contrivances
for the same purpose had already been published at Stockholm
in the year 1796, and after being translated into French had been
noticed in William Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy for
1803. The one he finally adopted in 1808 consisted of ten boards
placed in three vertical ranks, the central one having four boards
and the side ranks three boards each. By this arrangement 1024
signals could be clearly shown, and it was possible, by observing
the order in which the boards were exhibited, to make as many as
4,037,912 changes. He subsequently advised attaching lamps to
the boards for night service. His system of working the boards,
though very complicated, could be controlled by only one person,
while the English method required several men to hold the shutters
during heavy weather. As it was, his method is said to have been
in constant use for fully twelve years prior to 1808 on both sides of
the Baltic, and to have likewise served to transmit signals between
Sweden and England.
Mr. Henry Ward, who had observed the difficulty with which
the telegraph was worked at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, contrived
the apparatus described in Vol. XXVI. pp. 20, 207-209 of the
London Journal of the Society of Arts. The grooved wheels which
are fixed upon the axis of the shutters to receive the ropes by which
they are turned have the grooved portion of the rim formed in two
segments, which are so attached to the periphery of the wheels
by steel springs that they fly off and remain a little distance off
when there is no strain upon the ropes, although so soon as a rope
is pulled its pressure forces the segments into close contact with
the solid rim of the wheel. In the segments are two notches, which,
when the shutters are in either of their required positions, engage
with a fixed catch so soon as the strain on the ropes is relaxed, and
thus hold the shutters steady without any aid from the attendant.
The pulling of a rope by drawing the segments close to the wheel
releases the catch, and consequently enables the attendant to
return any shutter to its original position.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 399
Lieutenant-Colonel John Macdonald, F.R.S., who was already
favourably known by two Reports on the Diurnal Variation of the
Magnetic Needle observed at Fort Marlborough, Sumatra, and at
St. Helena (Philosophical Transactions for 1796, p. 340, and for 1798,
p. 397, also " Eighth EncycL Brit./' Vol. XIV. p. 54), publishes
(1808-1817) two treatises upon his " Terrestrial Telegraph/' accom-
panied by an extensive " Telegraphic Dictionary/' His contrivance
consists of thirteen boards or shutters arranged, like those of Edel-
crantz, into three vertical ranks representing hundreds, tens and
units. Twelve of the boards are capable of producing 4095 distinct
combinations, and the thirteenth or auxiliary board, which is mounted
over the centre of the apparatus, doubles that number. A flag or
vane is added to the hundred side to distinguish it in whatever
direction it may be viewed, and a ball sliding upon the staff which
supports it affords the means of again doubling the number, so that,
on the whole, 16,380 distinct signals can be obtained. He sub-
sequently adopted a modification of the contrivance introduced by
Pasley in 1809, and also described a sort of a "Symbolic Telegraph,"
in which symbols like those of Dr. Hooke, but representing numerals
instead of alphabetical characters, were dropped into open spaces
denoting hundreds, tens and units. He further suggested a useful
flag telegraph for the navy and devised several schemes for night
telegraphs both for land and sea, one of which latter consists of
three sets of four lights each, with an additional or director light
to each set, affording the same extensive powers as his large board
or shutter telegraph (Phil. Mag., Vols. LVII. pp. 88-93, and LVIII.
pp. 99-103).
Major Charles Le Hardy communicates in 1808 to the London
Society of Arts, Vol. XXVI. pp. 20, 180-183, a novel contrivance
consisting of a large framework with nine radiating bars, represent-
ing the numerals from i to 9, and four sets of other bars inter-
secting them so as to form four concentric polygons, which latter
express units, tens, hundreds and thousands; thousands being
shown by the innermost polygon. Attached to the centre of the
apparatus are four slender arms, carrying four square boards, the
lengths of these arms being such that the board of one may, during
the revolution of the arm, traverse the polygon which represents
thousands, that of another the polygon representing hundreds, etc.
By the addition of two other boards at the upper corners, one of
which denotes 10,000 and the other 20,000, or, when displayed
together, 30,000, the total range of the telegraph is from i to 39,999
(Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXXIII. p. 343).
In the twenty-seventh volume of the Transactions of the London
Society of Arts will be found the telegraphic devices of Knight
400 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Spencer and of Lieutenant James Spratt (pp. 20, 163-169), while
the thirty-third volume contains (at pp. 23, 118-121) a description
of the contrivance of Alexander Law, intended for service on both
sea and land. These, it may be said, are the only additional tele-
graphic methods worthy of note introduced up to the time when
the English Admiralty adopted the system proposed by Sir Home
Popham in 1816. The " anthropo-telegraph " of Knight Spencer,
though laid before the Society of Arts in 1808, had been used as
early as 1805. It consisted merely of two circular discs of wicker
work, painted white with a black circle in the centre, to be held
in different positions with respect to each other. The device of
Lieutenant Spratt was more simple still, for it consisted only in
holding a kerchief in various positions ; yet, simple as it was, it served
as a means of communication between vessels before the battle of
Trafalgar, and it was also successfully used to converse between
Spithead and the ramparts at Portsmouth, etc.
REFERENCES.— For Mr. Knight Spencer's other papers, see the
Philosophical Magazine, Vols. XXXVI. p. 321, and XL. p. 206, and, for
different methods of telegraphing, see Mr. Macdonald's " Treatise,"
published in 1817, as well as, more particularly, Vols. XXVI, XXXIV,
XXXV, XXXVI of the Transactions of the Society of Arts ; likewise
Rohde's " Systeme complet de Signaux ..." published 1835.
A.D. 1808.— CaUender— Calendar (Elisha), of Boston, Mass.,
obtains, on Oct. 3, 1808, for his lightning rod, an American patent,
which latter is the first one in the line of electricity issued by the
United States.
REFERENCES. — H. L. Ellsworth's " Digest of Patents," Washington,
1840, p. 234; Edmund Burke, " A List of Patents," Washington, 1847,
p. 185; " List of United States Patents," Washington, 1872, p. 67.
A.D. 1808.— Bucholz (Christoph— Christian— Friedrich), dis-
tinguished German chemist, receives his diploma as a physician at
Rinteln, prior to graduating at the Erfurt University, and publishes
" Ueber die Chimischen . . . metallen," giving a description of
the chain bearing his name. The latter was the result of experi-
ments made by him to prove that the electricity in the pile results
from the oxidation of one of the metals and also to establish a
comparison between the quantity of electricity obtained and the
amount of oxygen absorbed by the one metal.
REFERENCES. — " Biographic Universelle," Bruxelles, 1843-1847, Vol.
III. p. 227; A. F. Gehlen, Jour, fur Chem. und Phys., Vol. V; L. Figuier,
" Exp. et Hist.," Paris, 1857, Vol. IV. p. 426; " La Grande Encyclo-
pedic," Vol. VIII. p. 315, and also the letter of J. B. Van Mons to
Bucholz, Brussels, 1810.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 401
A.D. 1808. — Amoretti (Carlo), Italian naturalist, who was
allowed (1772) to withdraw from the order of St. Augustine that
he might devote himself exclusively to scientific researches, gives, in
his " Delia rabdomanzia ossia elettrometria," a complete history of
the divining rod, and treats also therein of animal magnetism, etc.
His investigations of the electric polarity of precious stones show,
among other results, that the diamond, the garnet and the amethyst
are — E, while the sapphire is + E.
REFERENCES. — For a further account of the Virgula Divina, or divin-
ing rod (baguette divinatoire) , see the " Gentleman's Magazine " for 1751,
Vol. XXI ; also the notes at foot of pp. 91-106 of Baron Karl Von Reichen-
bach's " Physico-Physiologicae Researches," translated by Dr. John
Ashburner, London, 1851. In the latter, reference is made to Pierre
Le Lorrain de Vallemont's " La Physique Occulte," etc. (1693), to a
work written by Count J. de Tristan, to the " Me'moire," etc., of Tardy
de Montravel (1781) and to Pierre Thouvenel's " Me"moires," etc., the
last named bearing the Paris-London imprint of 1781-1784, and attempt-
ing to show relations existing between the rod and electricity and
magnetism. Allusion is likewise made in the aforenamed work to the
translation by Dr. Hutton (1803) of Jean Etienne Montucla's (1778)
improvement of Jacques Ozanam's " Recreations Mathematiques et
Physiques," originally built upon Leurechon's " Recreations Mathe-
matiques," and first published in Paris during the year 1724. For
Reichenbach, see " Le Cosmos," Nos. 703-705 for July 16, 23 and 30,
1898; " Cat. Sc. Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 139-140; Vol. VIII. pp. 720,
721. Besides the above, reference should be had to the lecture of Prof.
Rossiter W. Raymond before the Philadelphia Electrical Exhibition
of 1884, and to the article in Paris Cosmos of Jan. 3, 1891, which alludes
to the works of P. Lebrun (1702), Albert Fortis (1802), Dr. Charpignon
(1848), Abbe Chevalier (1853), and M. E. Chevreul " De la baguette . . ."
(1854). Consult also, Eusebe Salverte, " The Philosophy of Magic.,"
Vol. II. chap. xi. speaking of Pryce's " Mineralogia Cornubiensis " (1778) ;
Theod. Kirchmaier, " De Virgula divinatrice," 1678; F. Soave, (Opus.
Scelti, III. p. 253), 1 780; F.M.Stella (Opus.Scelti, XIII. p. 427), 1790; G. B.
San Martino (Opus. Scelti, XVII. p. 243), 1794; L. Sementini, " Pensieri
e Spcrimenti . . ." 1811 ; A. M. Vassalli-Eandi (Opus. Scelti, XIX. pp. 215,
etc.); Kiesser, Archiv., Vol. IV. p. 62; at Vol. I. p. 265, of Blavatsky's
" Isis Unveiled "; " Biographic Generate," Vol. II. pp. 290, 291 ; " Roy.
Soc. Catal. of Sc. Papers," Vol. I. p. 58.
A.D. 180S. — Lebouvier-Desmortiers (Urbain Rene* Thomas),
French writer, who had called attention to the danger attending
the bodily application of the galvanic fluid, through the Journal
de Physique of 1801 (p. 467), transmits another Memoire to the same
publication upon an improved electrical (briquet) tinder box.
The cylinder, which had previously been made of copper, he
constructed of glass as illustrated by Delaunay at Plate IX. fig. 105,
of his " Manuel," etc., Paris, 1809. With the new contrivance he
was enabled to exert considerable force upon the piston, and it
was generally necessary to push the latter suddenly in order to so
compress the air as to light the (amadou) spunk attached to the
.lower portion of the cylinder.
DD
402 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — See his " Examen des principaux systdmes ..."
Paris, 1813; J.C. Poggendorff, Biogr. Liter. Hand . . . Vol. I. p. 1399;
Larousse, Diet. Univ., Vol. X. p. 290; Journal de Medecine, Vol. XXVI.
pp.
re*lectricite de pression " (Journal de Physique, 1777," Vol. IX).
A.D. 1809.— Krafft (Wolfgang Ludwig), Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St.
Petersburg is the author of " Uber ein hypothet ..." wherein is
given the result of his investigations of the phenomena of terrestrial
magnetism.
Comparing Biot's examination of the dip observations previously
made by Humboldt, Krafft simplified the former's conclusions,
showing that if we measure the latitude from the magnetic equator,
the tangent of the dip is double the tangent of such latitude, or,
as he expresses it : " If we suppose a circle circumscribed about the
earth, having the two extremities of the magnetic axis for its poles,
and if we consider this circle as a magnetic equator, the tangent
of the dip of the needle, in any magnetic latitude, will be equal to
double the tangent of this latitude."
Krafft gave a complete theory of the electrophorus in the first
part of the 1778 " Acta Acad. Petrop.," which latter also contains his
experiments with Canton's phosphorus and his observations on the
aurora of February 6-17 of the same year. The results of many
of his other investigations are to be found in Part XI of the work
mentioned as well as in Vols. XV, XVII and XIX of the " Novi
Commentarii Academiae Petropolitanae."
A.D. 1809. — Pinkerton (John), gives in his " Voyages and
Travels/' published at London (Vol. IV. pp. 1-76) a reprint of the
rare volume entitled " Account of Paris at the close of the Seven-
teenth Century," by Martin Lister, M.D., wherein are detailed
several surprisingly interesting experiments made by Mr. Butterfield
with his wonderful collection of loadstones. It is therein stated
that one of these loadstones, when unshod, weighed less than a dram
and would suspend a dram and a half, but when shod would attract
144 drams of iron, whilst another of the loadstones, weighing 65
grains, attracted 14 ounces, or 140 times its own weight; another
would work through a wall eighteen inches in thickness, etc. etc.
A.D. 1809.— Children (John George), an English scientist to
whom reference has already been made, more particularly under
Cruikshanks, A.D. 1800, communicates to the Philosophical Trans-
actions, " An account of some experiments performed with a -view
to ascertain the most advantageous method of constructing a
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 403
voltaic apparatus for the purposes of chemical research." This
paper appears also in Vol. XXXIV of the Philosophical Magazine,
Four years later (1813) he publishes a description of his magni-
ficent galvanic battery, the largest ever constructed on the plan
suggested by Dr. Wollaston. This consisted of twenty pairs of
copper and zinc plates, each six feet long and two feet eight inches
wide, the united capacities of the cells being 945 gallons. With
this battery he confirmed Davy's observation that " intensity
increases with the number (of plates) and the quantity of the elec-
tricity with the extent of surface/' It is reported that, when in
full action, the battery rendered a platinum wire five feet six inches
long and TVV of an inch in diameter red-hot throughout so as
to be visible in full daylight ; that eight feet six inches of platinum
wire TW of an inch in diameter were easily heated red; that a
bar of platinum one-sixth of an inch square and two and a quarter
inches long was heated red-hot and fused at the end; and that
a round bar of the same metal, AW °f an inch m diameter and
two and a half inches long, was heated bright red throughout.
The result of many other investigations which he also made in
1813 and during 1815 showed that metallic wires (eight inches long
and 3ij of an inch diameter) became red-hot in the following
order: platinum, iron, copper, gold, zinc, silver; and he deduced
that their conducting power was in the inverse order, silver conducting
best and platinum least. Tin and lead fused immediately at the
point of contact, and the oxides of tungsten, uranium, cerium,
titanium, indium and molybdenum were also fused. An opening
made with a saw across an iron wire having been filled with diamond
powder, the diamond was liquefied and the contiguous iron became
steel. (See the Pepys entry at A.D. 1802.)
REFERENCES. — For Children's other experiments, consult " Phil.
Mag./' Vol. XLII. p. 144; Vol. XLVI. pp. 409-415; Phil. Trans, for
1815, pp. 368-370, also Dr. Wm. Henry's " Elem. of Exper. Chem.,"
London, 1823, Vol. I. pp. 168-174; Dr. Thomas Thomson, " Outline of
the Sciences," London, 1830, pp. 524-526; Louis Figuier, " Expos, et
Hist . . ." Paris, 1857, Vol. IV. pp. 389-390; Becquerel, Vol. I. p. 52;
" Encycl. Metrop.," Vol. IV. pp. 179, 222 ; Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I.
p. 424; " Cat. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 317; Vol. II. p. 26;
" Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XLIII, 1810, p. 67 and Vol. I of the N.S. for
1816, p. 109.
A.D. 1809-1810. — Oken (Lorenz) — originally Lorenz Ockenfuss
— celebrated German naturalist, while occupying the post of Extra-
ordinary Professor of Medicine at the University of Jena, publishes
the great work " Lehrbuch der Natur philosophic/' which was
translated into English by Dr. A. Tulk and published in London,
during 1847, by ^e Royal Society, under the title of " Elements of
Physico-Philosophy . ' '
404 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
This work, says his biographer in the " English Cyclopaedia "
(Vol. IV. p. 557), takes the widest possible view of natural science :
it is interesting as a document in the history of a great mental
movement and contains the germs of those principles which are
now regarded as the secure generalization of well-observed facts.
From the epitome of the work given in the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica," the following is extracted : " Polarity is the first
force which appears in the world. . . . Galvanism is the principle
of life . . . the vital force . . . the galvanic process is one with
the vital process. . . . There is no other vital force than the galvanic
polarity."
According to Dr. Richard Owen, Lorenz Oken contends that
organism is galvanism residing in a thoroughly homogeneous mass.
A galvanic pile, pounded into atoms, must become alive. In this
manner, nature brings forth organic bodies. The basis of electricity
is the air ; of magnetism, metal ; of chemism (the name he gives to
the influence that produces chemical combination), salts. The
basis of galvanism, in like manner, is the organic mass. Accord-
ingly, whatever is organic is galvanic ; whatever is alive is galvanic.
Life, organism, galvanism, are one. Life is the vital process ; the
vital process is an organic or galvanic process. Galvanism is
the basis of all the processes of the organic world, . . . God did not
make man out of nothing, but took an elemental body then existing,
an earth-clod or carbon, moulded it into form, thus making use of
water, and breathed into it life, viz. air, whereby galvanism or the
vital process arose. . . . Organization is produced by the co-operat-
ing process of light and heat. The ether imparts the substance,
the heat the form, the light the life. . . . The life of an inorganic
body is a threefold action of the three terrestrial elements, in which
three processes galvanism consists. The nutrient process is mag-
netic, present and entire in every part of the body, and wheresoever
it is withdrawn there is death. . . . These three processes constitute
the galvanic process. Thus the galvanic circle is complete, and
motion is the manipulation of galvanism. The process of motion
is synonymous with the galvanic process — this is the vital
process.
REFERENCES. — The extended biography of Lorenz Oken, embracing
a list of his chief works and original essays at pp. 498-503, Vol. XVI
of the Eighth " Encycl. Britan."; Dr. William Whewell's " Histo
History of
, , . , de
par F. L. M. Maupied, Paris, 1847, Vol. II. pp. 466-514.
the Inductive Sciences," 1859, Vol. II. p. 477; "Hist, des Sciences,"
II.
A.D. 1809.— Luc (Jean Andr<§ de), celebrated natural philo-
sopher of Swiss extraction (though from 1773 until his death in
1817, a resident of England, where he became reader to Queen
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 405
Charlotte, the consort of George III), transmits to the Royal Society
a long paper treating of the separation of the chemical from the
electrical effects of the pile, with a description of the electric column
and aerial electroscope.
In this communication, says Dr. Young, he advanced opinions
so little in unison with the latest discoveries of the day, especially
with those of the President of the Royal Society, that the Council
probably thought it would be either encouraging error or leading
to controversy to admit them into the Philosophical Transactions.
He had, indeed, on other occasions shown somewhat too much
scepticism in the rejection of new facts ; and he had never been
convinced even of Mr. Cavendish's all-important discovery of the
composition of water.
The paper was afterwards published in Nicholson's Journal
(Vol. XXVI), and the dry column described in it was constructed
by various experimental philosophers. It exhibited a continual
vibrating motion, made sensible by the sound of a little bell, which
was struck by the pendulum at each alternation ; and during many
months the vibration was more or less rapid, according to circum-
stances affecting the column.
This dry column consists of discs of Dutch gilt paper, alternated
with similar discs of laminated zinc, so arranged that the order of
succession will be maintained throughout. When sufficiently dry
these are piled upon each other, the gilt side of the paper being in
contact with the zinc, and all are pressed together in a glass tube
by a brass cap and screw connected at each end with a metallic
wire. The column presented by De Luc to the Royal Society con-
sisted of 300 discs of zinc and of 300 discs of gilt paper. It is said
that with a larger column, the vibration of a brass ball suspended
between two bells was so continued as to maintain a perpetual
ringing for over two years ; that with an apparatus comprising
20,000 groups of silver, zinc and double discs of writing paper, sparks
have been obtained, while a Leyden jar was charged in ten minutes
with sufficient electricity to produce shocks and to fuse an inch of
platinum wire 7TrVir of an inch in diameter ; and that a similar pile,
in the Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford, rang ten small bells con-
tinuously for over forty years.
In Vols. XXXV, XXXVI and XXXVII of the " Phil. Mag./1
and in Vols. XXVII and XXVIII of "Nicholson's Journal,"
Andre* de Luc shows how the dry column can be used for determining
the insulating qualities and conducting power of bodies, it having
been also employed as are aerial electroscopes to indicate the electrical
changes taking place in the atmosphere. The other volumes of the
publications named below contain additional papers upon
406 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
electricity, galvanism, etc., while at p. 392, Vol. L of the Phil.
Mag. will be found an account of De Luc's life and principal works,
the latter being likewise mentioned in Vol. XXV of the " Biographic
Universelle."
REFERENCES. — B. M. Forster, " Description . . . elec. col. . . . De
. . ' ExpSrien
les piles seches "; Bibl. Brit. Sci. et Arts, Vol. XLVII, 1811, pp. 3, 113,
213, 313; Vol. XLIX, 1812, pp. 88-92 (Necrology of J. A. De Luc),
Vol. L, 1812, p. 351 ("Nicholson's Journal," No. 126), also the " Bibl.
Britan." for 1812, Vol. L. pp. 279-290 (Nicholson's Journal, April 1812),
for J. D. Maycock's reply to De Luc's objections concerning voltaic
plates (" Phil. Mag.," Vol. XLVIII. pp. 165, 255) ; Gmelin's " Chemistry,"
Vol. I. pp. 424-427; G. J. Singers "Elements of Electricity" and
William Sturgeon's Annals of Electricity, passim, as well as his " Re-
searches," Bury, 1850, pp. 147, 199, 261 ; DC la Rive's " Treatise on
Electricity," Vol. II. p. 852; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. II.
pp. 79-82 for May 1816; Gilbert's Annalen, Vol. XLIX; also Vols.
VII, 1801, to Vol. LXXIV, 1821, for various articles upon the dry pile,
etc.; G. Schiibler, "Uber De Luc's Elektr. saiile . . ." 1813; Gco.
Wilson's" Life of Cavendish," London, 1851, p. 66, etc.; "Nicholson's
Journal," Vols. XXI, XXII, XXXII, XXXIII, XXXV; Phil. Mag.,
Vols. XLII, XLV, the last named containing, at pp. 359—363, Mr. G. J.
Singer's paper on " The Electric Column considered as ... first mover
for Mechanical Purposes," while at pp. 466, 467 is the communication
of Mr. Francis Ronalds on De Luc's electric column. The latter is also
specially referred to in Vols. XLIII. pp. 241, 363 ; XLVI. p. n ; XLVII.
pp. 47, 48; XLVIII. pp. 165, 255; LVII. pp. 446, 447; while at p. 55
of Vol. XLIX is a paper relative to a " combination of the electric
column, the thermometer, barometer and hygrometer in one instrument,
for electro-atmospherical researches."
A.D. 1809. — Sommering (Samuel Thomas von), German
anatomist and physiologist, first employs voltaic, or contact,
electricity for the transmission of telegraphic signals.
Both his original and perfected working instruments were con-
structed between July 9 and August 6, 1809 (Journal Franklin
Institute, 1859, Vols. XXXVII and XXXVIII; Journal Society
of Arts, Vol. VII. p. 235). The complete apparatus consists of thirty-
five gold rods placed into glass tubes starting from a reservoir of
acidulated water and connecting with thirty-five silk-covered wires,
which are run into thirty-five apertures of copper (corresponding with
twenty-five letters and ten figures) upon a wooden stand into each
opening of which the wires of the voltaic pile can be inserted. When
the latter are connected, the bubbles rising through the decom-
position of the water are made to enter the lettered glass receivers
through which the messages can be deciphered. On August 8,
1809, he was able to transmit intelligence a distance of 1000 feet,
and twenty days later he presented his apparatus to the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences (Fahie, " Hist, of Electric Telegraphy,"
p, 228).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 407
Sommering's telegraph was carried by Dominique Jean Larrey,
chief surgeon of the French armies, to Paris, where it was delivered
by him to the French Academy of Sciences, Dec. 5, 1809, and
Dr. Hamel states that Biot, Carnot, Charles and Monge were ap-
pointed by that body to report upon the new invention (Journal
of the Franklin Institute for 1859, Vol. XXXVIII. p. 398). In 1810
and 1811, Sommering reduced the number of wires in his apparatus
to twenty-seven. These brass or copper wires were first insulated
with a covering of gum lac and then with silk thread, after which
they were united into a thread-covered cable 1000 feet in length.
The cable was in turn covered with heated gum lac or with a ribbon
plunged in a solution of the same substance. The Russian Count
Jeroslas Potocki took the new instrument to Vienna and sub-
mitted it, July i, 1911, to the Emperor Francis I, while another
model of the apparatus was sent to William Sommering, then at
Geneva, where it was shown to De la Rive, Auguste Pictet and
other scientists. During March 1812 this instrument carried
intelligence 10,000 feet, or ten times the distance previously
reached.
REFERENCES. — Dr. Hamel, Cooke's reprint, pp. 7, 8. See Sommer-
ing's own description of this, the first electro-chemical telegraph, in
" Der Elektrische," etc., published by his son William at Frankfort,
, ,
1863, or the translations at p. 751 of Noad's " Manual," London, 1859,
and at pp. 230-234 of Fahie's " Hist, of Elec. Tel.," London, 1884;
Dr. Hamel, in Jour. Soc. of Arts, for 1859, p. 453, or the reprint of W. F.
Cooke in 1859, Vol. VII. pp. 595-599 and 605-610; Du Moncel, " Ex-
pose," etc., Vol. Ill ; Comptes Rendus, Tome VII for 1838, p. 81 ; " De
Bow's Review," Vol. XXV. p. 551; Highton's "Elec. Tel.," p. 39;
Harris, " Galvanism," p. 35; Sturgeon's Ann. of Elec., Vol. Ill, March
l839. PP- 447-448; "Turnbull, Electric Magn. Tel." " Denkschr.
Munch. Akad. ..." for 1809 and 1810, alluding to his first experi-
mental instrument made in 1807; Schweigger, Journal, II. pp. 217,
240 of Vol. XX for 1817; PoggendorfFs Annalen, Vol. CVII. pp. 644-647 ;
" Smithsonian Report " for 1878, pp. 269—271 ; Journal of the Franklin
Institute for 1851, Vol. XXI. pp. 330-332; Prime's "Life of Prof.
Morse," 1875, pp. 263-275; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XLIX, 1812, p. 19;
" Xrait6 de t61. sous-marine," E. Wunschendorff, Paris, 1888.
A.D. 1810. — Prechtl (Johann Joseph), German mathematician
and chemist, director of the School of Arts and Navigation in Trieste,
also professor in the Vienna Polytechnic Institute, is the author of
several very interesting articles on electricity, magnetism, etc.,
which appeared in Gilbert's Ann. der Physik from Vol. XXXV
for 1810, to Vol. LXVIII for 1821, as well as in Gehlen's Jour.
fur Chemie, Physik und Miner alogie, Vols. V-VII. According to
Figuier ("Expos, et Hist. . . ." 1857, Vol. IV. p. 433) we owe to
Prof. Prechtl a still more lucid explanation of the theory of electric
distribution and equilibrium in the voltaic pile than was conveyed
even by the learned Prof. Jager (A.D, 1802).
408 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Of the many separate treatises which he wrote up to 1836,
and which are contained in the numerous publications cited below,
the most important, by far, is doubtless that treating of the funda-
mental state of the magnetic phenomena of the electrical connecting
wire and on the transverse electrical charge (" Uber d. transversal-
magnetismus . . .") which is to be found in Schweigger's Journal
fiir die Chemie und Physik, Vol. XXXVI. pp. 399-410, and in Dr.
Thomas Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, N.S., Article I. vol. iv.
pp. 1-6 for July 1822. Alluding to the last named, Mr. Sturgeon
says (" Scientific Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 29) that an attempt
is made by M. Prechtl to explain the manner in which the con-
necting wire acts upon the needle, but that his diagrams and his
mode of reasoning are too complex to be entered into the
" Researches."
REFERENCES. — Poggendorffs " Biogra ph. -Liter. . . ." Vol. II.
pp. 28-104; XLIV, 1813, pp. 108-111; LXVII, 1821, pp. 81-108, 221,
222, 259-276; LXVIII, 1821, pp. 104-106, 187-206; LXXVI, 1824,
pp. 217-228; Brugnatelli's " Giornale," Vol. Ill, 1810, pp. 477-486;
Kastner, "Archiv. Natur.," II. 1824, pp. 151-167; Wien
vastner, "Archiv. Natur.," II, 1824, pp. 151-167; Wien, " Jahrb.
Pol. Inst.," Vol. XIV, 1829, pp. 144-160, and PC
der Physik und Chemie , Vol. XV, 1829, pp. 223-238.
A.D. 1810. — The compiler of this " Bibliographical History "
will doubtless be pardoned for introducing here an additional mode
of " communicating intelligence " promptly at great distances.
Reference is made to the first germ of pneumatic telegraphy
sown by the English engineer, George Medhurst, during the
year 1810.
The London Telegraphic Journal, which gives an extract from
the specification of Medhurst fs patent " for a new method of con-
veying letters and goods with great certainty and rapidity by air/'
states that the process took practical form only in 1854, when
Latimer Clark laid down a one-and-a-half-inch lead pipe between
the Electric Telegraph Company's central station, Lothbury, and
the London Stock Exchange. The system was extended in 1858
to Mincing Lane, and, two years later, Varley introduced the use
of compressed air, so that messages were drawn one way by a
vacuum, and propelled in the opposite direction by a prenum,
instead of employing a vacuum both ways, as Latimer Clark had
previously done. During the year 1865 the system, then consider-
ably modified, was introduced into Paris, and it was also made use
of, at about the same time, by the Mes$rs, Siemens, who employed
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 409
it between the Bourse and the telegraph station in the city of
Berlin.
A.D. 1810. — Jacopi (Joseph), Italian physician, anatomist and
physiologist (1774-1813), pupil of the famous Scarpa, makes known
through his " Elementi di Fisiologia e Notomia comparata " (" El£-
ments de Physiologic et d'Anatomie compared "), the results of
his very extended investigations of the electrical organs of the
torpedo.
To him is due the first clear description of the electrical lobes
situated in the torpedo's brain and of its relation to the eighth pair
of nerves distributed throughout the hexagonal columns, which
latter received also from him a very extended notice in the above-
named work. The fifth ramification of nerves was first observed
by Carus, and the most valuable investigation relative to the fourth
and last important group of nerves directly connected with the
electrical organs was made by the celebrated Italian professor, Carlo
Matteucci.
REFERENCES. — Laroussc, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 867; C.
Matteucci, " Traite* dcs Phe'nomdnes Elect ro-Phys.," Paris, 1844,
pp. 283-318; Geoffrey St. Hilaire at A.D. 1803.
Another author, Delle Chiaje, likewise gave a description of the
rhomboidal sinus-shaped protuberance which he calls lobo paglianno
(straw-coloured lobe), and which he considers as formed of one mass
but docs not admit its important connection with the electrical organs.
A.D. 1811. — Poisson (Simeon Denis), a very able French
scientist, communicates to the " Institut des Mathe'matiques et
Physiques " and publishes at Paris under the caption " Traite de
Mecanique," his analytical observations of the electric phenomena
which, it has been truly said, actually establish a new branch of,
and is the best elementary work extant upon, mathematical physics.
One of his biographers remarks that Poisson's object was " to leave
no branch of physics unexplored by aid of the new and powerful
methods of investigation which a school, yet more modern than
that of Lagrange and Laplace, had added to the pure mathematics."
As shown, notably by Sir David Brewster in his able article on
" Electricity " in the eighth " Encycl. Brit." (Vol. VIII. p. 531), and
by Noad, in his " Manual " (London, 1859, pp. 15, 16) :
" Poisson adopted as the basis of his investigations the theory
of two fluids, proposed by Symmer and Dufay, with such modifi-
cations and additions as were suggested by the researches of
Coulomb. He deduced theorems for determining the distribution
of the electric fluid on the surfaces of two conducting spheres, when
they are placed in contact or at any given distance, the truth of
which had been established experimentally by Cgujomb before the
410 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
theorems themselves had been investigated. On bodies of
elongated forms, or those which have edges, corners or points, it is
shown as a consequence of the theory of two fluids that the electric
fluid accumulates in greater depths about the edges, corners or
points than in other places. Its expansive force, being therefore
greater at such parts than elsewhere, exceeds the atmospheric
pressure and escapes, while at other points of the surface it is
retained/ '
In the latter connection Mary Somerville remarks :
" There can hardly be a doubt but that all the phenomena of
magnetism, like those of electricity, may be explained on the hypo-
thesis of one ethereal fluid, which is condensed or redundant in
the positive pole, and deficient in the negative; a theory that
accords best with the simplicity and general nature of the laws of
creation ; nevertheless, Poisson has adopted the hypothesis of two
extremely rare fluids, pervading all the particles of iron, and in-
capable of leaving them. Whether the particles of these fluids are
coincident with the molecules of the iron, or that they only fill the
interstices between them, is unknown and immaterial. But it is
certain that the sum of all the magnetic molecules, added to the
sum of all the spaces between them, whether occupied by matter or
not, must be equal to the whole volume of the magnetic body. . . .
M. Poisson has proved that the result of the action of all the mag-
netic elements of a magnetized body is a force equivalent to the
action of a very thin stratum covering the whole surface of a body,
and consisting of the two fluids — the austral and the boreal, occupy-
ing different parts of it; in other words, the attractions and
repulsions externally exerted by a magnet are exactly the same as
if they proceeded from a very thin stratum of each fluid occupying
the surface only, both fluids being in equal quantities, and so
distributed that their total action upon all the points in the interior
of the body is equal to nothing. Since the resulting force is the
difference of the two polarities, its intensity must be greatly inferior
to that of either " ( J. C. Wilcke at A.D. 1757, " Conn, of the Phys.
Sci.," 1846, s. 30 pp. 308, 309).
The " Memoires de 1'Institut " for 1811 contain Poisson 's very
able papers showing the manner in which electricity is distributed
on the surfaces of bodies of various figures and the thickness of the
stratum of electricity existing throughout these bodies. Mrs.
Somerville further observes of work already cited (s. 28) :
" Although the distribution of the electric fluid has employed
the eminent analytical talents of M. Poisson and M. Ivory, and
though many of their computed phenomena have been confirmed
by observation, yet recent experiments show that the subject is
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 411
still involved in much difficulty* Electricity is entirely confined
to the surface of bodies ; or, if it does penetrate their substance, the
depth is inappreciable ; so that the quantity bodies are capable of
receiving does not follow the proportion of their bulk, but depends
principally upon the form and extent of surface over which it is
spread ; thus the exterior may be positively or negatively electric,
while the interior is in a state of perfect neutrality/' (Consult
J. Farrar, " Elem. of Elect. Magn. and Electro-Magn.," 1826,
PP- 50-56.)
In his treatment of the theories of magnetism, Brewster alludes
again to the masterly investigations of Poisson, who, says he, appears
to Jiave been " the first to conceive the idea of absolute magnetic
measurement/1 In a short but luminous article at the end of the
" Connaissance des Temps " for 1828, he describes the method for
obtaining the value of H in absolute measure. His first and
second " Memoire sur la Theorie du Magnetisme " appeared during
1824-1825, at pp. 247, 488, Vol. V of the Transactions of the Paris
Royal Academy, and were closely followed (Vol. VI. p. 441) by his
Memoir on the theory of Magnetism in motion. Translations of
these will be found at pp. 336-358, 373, Vol. I and pp. 328-330,
Vol. V of the Edin. Jour, of Sci. and at pp. 334, 335 of John
Farrar's " Elem. of Elect. Magn. and Electro-Mag.," all published
during the year 1826.
Poisson's theoretical prediction of magne-crystallic action is
thus alluded to by Dr. John Tyndall in his " Researches on
Diamagnetism," etc., London, 1870, pp. 13 and 66, 67 :
" In March 1851, Professor William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) drew
attention to an exceedingly remarkable instance of theoretic fore-
sight on the part of Poisson, with reference to the possibility of
magne-crystallic action.
" Poisson," says Sir William, " in his mathematical theory of
magnetic induction founded on the hypothesis of magnetic fluids
(moving within the infinitely small magnetic elements), of which
he assumes magnetizable matter to be constituted, does not over-
look the possibility of those magnetic elements being non -spherical
and symmetrically arranged in crystalline matter, and he remarks
that a finite spherical portion of such a substance would, when in
the neighbourhood of a magnet, act differently according to the
different positions into which it might be turned with its centre
tube fixed. But (such a circumstance not having yet been observed),
he excludes the consideration of the structure which would lead to
it from his researches, and confines himself in his theory of magnetic
induction to the case of matter consisting either of spherical magnetic
elements or of non-symmetrically disposed elements of any forms.
412 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Now, however, when a recent discovery of Plucker's has established
the very circumstance, the observation of which was wanting to
induce Poissori to enter upon a full treatment of the subject, the
importance of working out a magnetical theory of magnetic induction
is obvious.
" Sir William Thomson then proceeds to make the necessary
' extension of Poisson's Mathematical Theory of Magnetic Induc-
tion/ and he publishes a striking quotation from the ' Memoires de
1'Institut,' 1821-1822, Paris, 1826."
REFERENCES. — Biography in "English Encycl.," Vol. IV. p. 899;
Phil. Mag. for 1851 ; Roy. Soc. Catal. of Sci. Papers, Vol. IV. pp. 964-
1824; " Le Globe," No. 87; Harris, "Magnetism," p, 131; Whewell,
" Hist, of the Inductive Sciences," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 43, 208, 209, 222,
223; Sir William Thomson's works, 1872; Thomas Thomson, "An
Outline," etc., 1830, p. 351 ; Mkm. de VAcad. des Sci. for 1824-1826,
1838; Soc. Philom. for 1803, 1824-1826; Humboldt's "Cosmos,"
London, 1849, Vol. I. pp. 104, 105, 130, 165-169; N. Bowditch, " Of a
mistake which exists in the calculation of M. Poisson relative to the
distribution of the electric matter upon the surfaces of two globes, in
Vol. XII of the "M<§m. . . . Sc. Math. . . . de France"; Mem.
Amer. Acad., O.S., Vol. IV. part i. p. 307; Houzeau et Lancaster,
" Bibl. G6n.," Vol. II. p. 228. Mention is made of Poisson's principal
writings, in Vol. XL pp. 179-191 of M. Max Marie's " Hist, des Sciences
Mathe"m.," Paris, 1888, but the complete list will be found in Vol. II of
the works of Arago.
A.D. 1811. — Schweigger (Johann Salomo Christoph), a chemist
of Halle (1779-1857), inserts at p. 240, Vol. II of his Journal fur
die Chemie und Physik, the memoir of Sommering, relative to his
electro-chemical telegraph, as well as an appendix thereto, wherein
he points out the difficulties likely to attend the employment of so
many different wires. He suggests the use of but two wires, and
of two piles of unequal power. With these, all desired characters
could be transmitted, through a preconcerted code regarding the
meaning of such letters and figures as would be represented by the
weaker or the stronger pile, in conjunction with the duration of the
gas evolutions or the space of time separating them. He also
suggested, for an alarum, the use of a pistol, by connecting a battery
to the pile, in lieu of liberating an alarm by means of accumulated
gas as Sommering had done.
Two months after Oersted's great discovery, which was an-
nounced in July 1820, Schweigger read at Halle (September 16,
1820) and communicated to the German Literary Gazette (No. 296
for November 1820), a paper relative to an important improvement
made in his galvano magnetic indicator. The latter, which had been
described at pp. 206-208 of Gehlen's (1808) Journal fur Chemie,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
was merely an electroscope, employed to indicate the attraction
and repulsion of ordinary frictional electricity in lieu of a Coulomb
balance, the improved apparatus being the result of his discovery
that, by coiling an insulated wire several times around a magnetic
needle, the deflecting power of the voltaic current increases with
the number of turns (Kuhn, " Ang. Elek.-Lehre," p. 514).
Alluding to Schweigger's multiplier, the Abbe* Moigno says :
" A conducting wire twisted upon itself and forming one hundred
turns will, when traversed by the same current, produce an effect
one hundred times greater than a wire with a single turn : provided
always that the electric fluid pass through circumvolutions of the
wire without passing laterally from one contour to another "
(Cornhill Magazine, Vol. II for 1860, pp. 61, 64).
It was, however, shown by Dr. Seebeck that the power of
multiplication does not increase with the number of windings in
the uniting wire, for the resistance to transmission naturally in-
creases with the length of the wire, thus diminishing its conducting
power.
To his new instrument Schweigger gave the name of electro-
magnetic multiplier (multiplicator] or galvanometer multiplier, and
it has become the most important for indicating and measuring the
strength of the galvanic current.
Prof. W. B. Rogers says that Schweigger's apparatus as im-
proved by Nobili (Ital. Soc. Mem., Vol. XX. p. 173) became indis-
pensable in the measurement of current electricity, and that through
the later improvements given it by Sir William Thomson (also by
Du Bois Reymond), it has been made one of the most perfect and
delicate of all known means of measuring force. Schweigger's
multipliers with improvements made thereon by Oersted and Nobili
are illustrated at p. 642, Vol. XXI of the eighth " Ency. Britannica,"
where reference is made to drawings on a large scale shown at
Plate 522, article " Thermo-Electricity," of the " Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia."
According to a footnote, p. 273 of " Report Smithsonian Inst."
for 1878, Schweigger's multiplier is alluded to in the " Additions
to Oersted's Electromagnetic Experiments," a memoir read at the
Naturforschende Gesellschaft at Halle, September 16 and November
4, 1820. An abstract of this paper was published in the Allgemeine
Liter atur-Zeitung of Halle (4to), November 1820, No. 296, Vol. III.
col. 621-624, whilst the full memoir appeared in the Journal fur
Chemie und Physik, 1821, Vol. XXXI. pp. 1-17; and " Additional
Remarks . . ."by Dr. Schweigger, in the same volume, pp. 35-41.
It is further stated in the aforementioned note that :
" A galvanometer of somewhat different form, having a vertical
414 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
helix and employing an unmagnetized needle, was very shortly
afterward independently devised by Johann Christian Poggendorff,
of Berlin ; and as he preceded Schweigger in publishing an account
of it, he is sometimes regarded as the original inventor. Schweigger
designated his device an ' Electromagnetic Multiplicator ' ; Poggen-
dorff designated his arrangement a ' Galvano-magnetic Conden-
sator.' Prof. Oersted remarks : ' Immediately after the discovery
of electromagnetism, M. Schweigger, professor at Halle, invented
an apparatus admirably adapted for exhibiting by means of the
magnetic needle the feeblest electric currents. . . . M. Poggendorff,
a distinguished young savant, of Berlin, constructed an electro-
magnetic multiplier very shortly after M. Schweigger, with which
he made some striking experiments. M. Poggendorffs work
having been cited in a book on electromagnetism by the celebrated
M. Erman (published immediately after the discovery of these
phenomena), became known to several philosophers before that of
M. Schweigger ' (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1823, Vol. XXII.
PP- 358-36o).
" The researches of Schweigger and Bart leave us little or no
doubt that the ancients were well acquainted with the mutual
attraction of iron and the lodestone, as well as with the positive and
negative properties of electricity, by whatever name they may have
called it. The reciprocal magnetic relations to the planetary orbs,
which are all magnets, was with them an accepted fact, and aerolites
were not only called by them magnetic stones, but used in the
Mysteries for purposes to which we now apply the magnet."
REFERENCES. — " Isis Unveiled," Vol. I. pp. 281, 282. See also
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1816, Vol. II. pp. 84, 86; Thos. Thom-
son, " An Outline of the Sciences ..." London, 1830, Chap. XV.
p. 564; " Encycl. Brit.," seventh edition, " Voltaic Electricity," p. 687;
Polytechnisches Centralblatt ; Sc. Am. Supp., No. 404; Sturgeon's Scien-
tific Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 19 ; L. F. Kaemtz, Phil Mag., Vol. LXII.
p. 441 ; Poggendorff, Vol. II. pp. 873-875; Du Moncel, " Expos6 . . ."
Vol. Ill; Whewcll's " Hist, of Ind. Sci.," Vol. II. p. 251; " Abhandl.
d. Naturf. Gesellsch. zu Halle" for 1853-1856; Schweigger's Journal
fur Chemie und Physik, Vol. II. part iv. pp. 424-434; Vol. X for 1814
and Vol. XXXVIII for 1823; "Cat. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. V.
PP- 589-592; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XVI, N.S., 1821, p. 197; Larousse,
Vol. XIV. pp. 386-387. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, July 1821,
Vol. V. p. 113. For Seebeck, see Phil. Mag., Vol. LXI, 1823, p. 146.
For Poggendorff, see " Cat. Sc. Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vol. IV. pp. 952-956;
Vol. VIII. pp. 638-640; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XVIII, N.S., 1821, p. 195 ;
Pogg-» "Annalen," Vol. CLX (biography).
In the editorship of Schweigger's Journal, which followed
Gehlen's Journal, Mr. J. S. C. Schweigger was assisted, from 1828,
by Franz W. Schweigger-Seidel, who was the author of " Lit d.
Math. Natur.," published in 1828. (For the joint magnetic work of
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 415
J. S. C. Schweigger and Wilhelm Pfaff, see Jour. /. Ch. u. Ph.,
Band X. heft i. for 1814.)
A.D. 1811. — Monsieur Dessaignes is first to establish a relation
between electricity and phosphorescence, as is shown in the extract
published in London from the Memoir which he had presented two
years before to the French Institute, The general view he takes
is that phosphorescence is produced by a particular fluid, which is
set in motion by light, by heat, by electricity, as well as by friction,
and that it is dissipated by overheating or by too long exposure
to light.
It is asserted by Fahie (" Hist, of El. Tel./' pp. xiv, 297) that
it was Dessaignes and not Seebeck who first discovered thermo-
electricity. " Dessaignes," he says, " showed us how difference
of temperature or heat could produce electricity/' This was in
1815, or six years before Seebeck, who is always credited with the
observation (Bostock's " History of Galvanism," London, 1818,
p. 10 1). Many observations bearing on thermo-electricity had been
made even long before Dessaignes. ... In 1759 ^Epinus called atten-
tion to the same phenomena, and pointed out that electricity of
opposite kinds was developed at opposite ends of the crystal (tour-
maline). In 1760 Canton observed the same properties in the
topaz; and between 1789 and 1791 Haiiy showed the thermo-
electric properties of various other substances, as mesotype, prehnite,
Iceland spar, and boracite.
REFERENCES. — Priestley's " History of Electricity/1 1767, pp. 314-
326. For Dessaignes' other observations, see J. Farrar, " Elem. of
Elec., Mag. and Electro-Mag.," 1826, p. 125, and Phil. Mag., Vol. XLIV.
p. 313. See also Phil. Mag., Vol. XXXVIII. p. 3; Journal des Mines,
Vol. XXVII. p. 213; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 563; " Cat. Sci. Pap. Roy.
Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 272, 273; Chap. III. s. 3 of the " Electricity article
of the " Ency. Britannica."
A.D. 1811. — The idea of placing a lightning conductor through
the body of a ship is first suggested by Mr. Benjamin Cook, of
Birmingham, and is carried out by Mr. William Snow Harris,
of Plymouth. Mr. William Sturgeon, who mentions the fact
("Lectures of Electricity/' London, 1842, p. 208),' adds that Mr.
Harris "has formed the conductors into strips of copper, which
are inserted in grooves in the after side of the masts from top to
bottom and through the keelson to the sea. In one of the smaller
men-of-war Mr. Harris carried his mizzen conductor through the
powder magazine ! ! ! The evils attending these conductors arise
principally from lateral explosions and electromagnetic influence/1
REFERENCES. — For Wm. Sturgeon, consult Phil. Mag., Vol. XI, 1832,
PP- *95» 270, 324; " Cat. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc./' Vol. V. pp. 876-878,
Vol. VI. p. 758 and Vol. VIII. p. 1042.
416 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1811-1812.— Schiibler (Gustav), Professor, of Tubingen,
is the first to present a connected series of observations upon the
electricity of the air, which were made at Stuttgart, during all
kinds of weather and at regular daily intervals, between May 1811
and June 1812. Other observations previously carried on by
Schiibler, during 1805 and subsequent years, at Ellvanguen and
Stuttgart are detailed at pp. 579, 580, Vol. VIII — and are also alluded
to in article " Meteorology " — of the eighth " Britannica."
While De Lor was the first to observe, in 1752, the existence
of electricity in the atmosphere, even when no lightning is visible,
Schiibler made the earliest known report upon the daily periodicity
of the intensity of the electricity. The annual periodicity had been
previously demonstrated by G. B. Beccaria, who published at
Turin two able treatises on the subject during 1769 and 1775.
The origin of atmospheric electricity was, by Lavoisier, Laplace
and Sir H. Davy, attributed in great part to the constant com-
bustion taking place upon the earth's surface. Volta and Saussure
believed it to arise from the process of evaporation, while Pouillet
pointed out the influence of the processes of vegetation; Reich,
however, showed that as neither developed electricity they could
not produce it in the atmosphere. Peltier advanced the theory
that mere evaporation without chemical action is not enough, and
the experiments of Faraday and Armstrong showed that evapora-
tion without friction is likewise insufficient. These theories are
treated of in " Gaea-Natur und Leben," Koln and Leipzig, 1873,
p. 322, and in Lardner's " Popular Lectures," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 149-
160. The last named gives tables of many observations, and reports,
among other matters, that the series of observations on the diurnal
changes of atmospheric electricity which Schiibler made, in 1811-
1812, were repeated and confirmed at Paris in 1830 by M. Arago.
During the month of March 1811 Schiibler found that the mean
time of the morning maximum was eight hours thirty minutes, and
M. Arago ascertained the mean time for the same month to be
eight hours forty-eight minutes.
REFERENCES. — Edin. Jour, of Sci., new series, Vol. Ill; Biblio.
Univers., Vol. XLII ; Annales de Ch. et de Ph. for 1816, Vol. II. p. 85;
" Jahrbuch der Ch. und Ph.," 1829; Gilbert's Annalen, Vols. XXXIX,
XLlX, LI; Schweigger's Journal, Vols. II. p. 377; III. p. 133; VIII.
pp. 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29; IX. pp. 348, 350, 351; XV. p. 130; XIX.
pp. i and ir ; XXV. p. 249; XXXI. p. 39; Jour, de Phys.. Vol. LXXV.
&I77; Vol. LXXXIII. p. 184; " Lehrbuch der Meteor," L. F. Kaemtz,
alle, 1832, Vol. I. p. 337; Vol. II. pp. 411, 414; " Annual of Sc. Disc."
for 1862, pp. 99-103; L. Palmieri in Lum. Elec., Paris, Oct. 31, 1891,
pp. 209-212; "Sci. Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vol. V. pp. 559-562 ; Vol. VI.
P- 7551 " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. II, N.S. for 1816 pp. 93-113 (atmosph.
electricity); PoggendorfT, Vol. II. p. 853; Report on Atmospheric
Electricity by F. J. F. Duprez, 1858, Part III. chap. ii. pp. 363-368;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 417
Foggo, p. 124, Vol. IV of Edin. Jour. Sci.i J. J. Hemmer's observa-
tions at Mannheim from 1783 to 1787, Lehrbuch, etc., Vol. II. p. 418,
and the recorded investigations of De Luc, Girtannier, Mayer, Monge,
Pouillet, Becquerel, De Tressan, Arago, De Saussure, Delezenne, Helwig
and Kaemtz.
A.D. 1811. — In the first volume of his " Cosmos " (London,
1849, Vol. I. pp. 240-241) Humboldt speaks of islands of eruption,
or marine volcanoes, which can properly be classed among electrical
phenomena, and alludes to the one observed on the I3th of June
1811 by Captain Tillard (Tilland), and to which he gave the name
" Sabrina."
This volcano, which had previously appeared June n, 1638
and^December 31, 1719, off the island of St. Michael, in the Azores,
is thus described in the Philosophical Transactions :
" Imagine/' says Captain Tillard, " an immense body of smoke
rising from the sea, the surface of which was marked by the silver
rippling of the waves occasioned by the slight and steady breezes
incidental to those climates in summer. In a quiescent state, it
had the appearance of a circular cloud, revolving on the water like
a horizontal wheel, in various and irregular involutions, expanding
itself gradually on the lee side, when suddenly a column of the
blackest cinders, ashes, and stones, would shoot up in the form of
a spire, rapidly succeeded by others, each acquiring greater velocity
and breaking into various branches resembling a group of pines ;
these again forming themselves into festoons of white feathery
smoke. During these bursts, the most vivid flashes of lightning
continually issued from the densest portion of the volcano, and
the columns rolled off in large masses of fleecy clouds, gradually
expanding themselves before the wind, in a direction nearly hori-
zontal, and drawing up a quantity of water spouts, which formed
a striking addition to the scene. In less than an hour, a peak was
visible, and, in three hours from the time of our arrival, the volcano
then being four hours old, a crater was formed twenty feet high,
and from four to five hundred feet in diameter. The eruptions
were attended by a noise like the firing of cannon and musketry
mixed ; as also with shocks of earthquakes sufficient to throw down
a large part of the cliff on which we stood/' (See description of the
sudden appearance of the Island of St. Michael, etc., in Lectures by
Dr. Webster, Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy at Harvard
College, Boston, 1822.)
A.D. 1811-1818.— Ure (Andrew), M.D., F.R.S., the first astro-
nomer appointed to the Glasgow Observatory and the author of a
Dictionary of Chemistry (the undisputed standard until the appear-
ance of a similar work by Henry Watts), makes known the result
££
418 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of his electrical experiments in the same line as those made by
Aldini (A.D. 1793) upon the body of a recently executed criminal.
Noad, who gives a greatly detailed account of the investigations, at
pp. 338-341 of his " Manual," remarks that they " serve to convey
a tolerably accurate idea of the wonderful physiological effects of
the electrical agent, and will be impressive from their conveying
the most terrific expressions of human passion and human agony/1
Dr. Ure is the inventor of an improved eudiometer, for deton-
ating or exploding gases by means of an electric shock or spark,
which is fully described and illustrated in the " Electricity " article
of the " Britannica."
REFERENCES. — De la Rive, ." Treatise on Electricity," Vol. II.
pp. 489-490, also " Encycl. Metropol.," Vol. IV (Galv.), p. 197.
Another report of Ure's experiments appears at pp. 634, 635 of the
" Encycl. Brit.," article on " Voltaic Electricity," also in No. 12 of the
Journal Sci. and Arts, and at p. 56, Vol. LIII of the Philosophical
Magazine.
A.D. 1812.— Through the New York Columbian, of July 1812,
Mr. Christopher Colles informs the public that the operation of his
new telegraphs " will be shown from the top of the Custom House
on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays from four to six o'clock in
the afternoon/'
In an explanatory pamphlet, he states that " eighty-four letters
can be exhibited by this machine in five minutes, to the distance of
one telegraphic station averaged at ten miles, and by the same
proportion a distance of 2600 miles in fifteen minutes, twenty-eight
seconds/'
James D. Reid, who mentions this fact at p. 5 of his " Telegraph
in America," says that the above was nothing but the already well-
known European semaphore or visual signal, and that Colles worked
his " machine " between New York and Sandy Hook for several
years.
A.D. 1812. — On April i and 15, May 13 and June 17, Mr.
M. Donovan, secretary of the Kirwanian Society of Dublin, reads
before the latter body a long communication " On the Inadequacy
of the Hypothesis at Present Received to Account for (explain)
the Phenomena of Electricity/' which was afterward ably criticized
by J. A. de Luc, as will be seen by reference to the Philosophical
Magazine, Vols. XLV. pp. 97, 200, 329-332, and XLVI. pp. 13, 14.
In his treatment of Eeles' hypothesis (see A.D. 1755) Donovan
gives some attention to the designed suppression by Priestley of
Eeles' valuable papers from the Philosophical Transactions.
The above communication was followed by still more valuable
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 410
and much longer ones, read by Mr. Donovan before the same society,
February 22, March 8, and March 22, 1815, entitled " On the
Origin, Progress and Present State of Galvanism . . . and In-
adequacy of the Hypotheses to Explain Its Phenomena . . ."
a modified form of which obtained for its author the prize of the
Irish Royal Society.
The sketch of the history of galvanism is divided into three
periods. The first treats of the discoveries attaching to muscular
contraction, and alludes to the observations of Sulzer, Galvani,
Fabbroni, Humboldt, Pfaff, Fontana, Valli, Monro, Vassalli-Eandi,
Fowler, Smuck, MarsigH, Grapengieser, Giulio, Rossi, Aldini and
Wells. The second period reviews the gradual development of
the* physical and chemical power of combined galvanic arrange-
ments, beginning with Nicholson and Carlisle, and refers to the
many conclusions reached by Cruikshanks, Henry, Haldane, Ritter,
Robertson, Brugnatelli, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Thenard, Lehot,
Trommsdorff, Simon, "Helwige (Major Helvig), Twast, Bourguet,
Erman, Grapengieser, Wollaston, Davy, Pfaff, Van Marum, Biot,
Cuvier, Desormes, Bostock, Cuthbertson, Aldini, Lagrave, Jordan,
Ritter and Wilkinson. The third period commences with the well-
known generalizations of the chemical effects of galvanism made
by Hisinger and Berzelius; their experiments on the invisible
transfer of elements at a distance, and the explanation given by
Grotthus of the invisible transfer of the elements of water. Follow-
ing this, Donovan alludes to the announced decomposition of
muriatic acid by W. Peel, Francis Pacchiani, and others, as well
as the discovery of the source of mistakes in the Galvani Society
investigations by Pfaff, Biot, Th&iard and Davy; after which
reference is made to the special observations of Sylvester, Grotthus,
Wilson, Erman, Davy, Pontin, Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Children,
De Luc, Singer, Murray and Maycock.
On the 5th of April 1815, Donovan reviewed the hypotheses of
Volta and Fabbroni, as well as of the British philosophers Wollaston,
Bostock and Davy, and, on the igth of the same month, he read
an additional paper on the inadequacy of the galvanic hypothesis,
having previously (Dec. 28, 1814, and Jan. n, 1815) presented
to the Kirwanian Society a communication relative to a new theory
of Galvanism.
REFERENCES.— Phil. Mag., Vols. XXXIX. p. 396; XLIV. pp. 334,
401 ; XLV. pp. 154, 222, 308, 381 ; XLVI. p. 401 ; XLVII. pp. 167,
204 ; also Vol. XxXVII. pp. 227, 245, on Mr. Davy's erroneous hypo-
thesis of electro-chemical affinity, and Vols. XXII and XXIII of the
Trans. Royal Irish Academy for Mr. Donovan's papers relating to im-
provements in the construction of galvanometers, on galvanometric
deflections, etc. etc.
420 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1812. — Zamboni (Giuseppe), Italian physicist, Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Verona Lyceum, makes known, through
his " Delia- pita eletlrica a secco " an improved method of con-
structing dry piles. He dispenses entirely with the zinc plates of
De Luc and employs only discs of paper having one side tinned
and the other coated with a thin layer of black oxide of manganese
pulverized in a mixture of flour and milk (" Note historique sur les
piles s£ches/' Annales de Chimie et d& Physique, Vol. XI. p. 190).
His pile terminates in metallic plates, compressing the paper
discs by means of silk ligatures, and the column is insulated by
giving it a coating of either sulphur or shellac. In this apparatus
the tinned surface is the positive element, the negative being the
oxide of manganese, which replaces M. De Luc's Dutch gilt paper.
In the later forms of Zamboni 's pile the discs were formed of gilt
and silvered paper pasted back to back. William Sturgeon re-
marks (" Scientific Researches," Bury, 1850, p. 200) that the
Zamboni piles are those which have been the most securely pro-
tected against the action of the ambient air and which alone have
maintained their original electrical intensity.
REFERENCES. — Larousse," Diet. Univ.," Vol. XV. p. 1452 ; K. F. Anton
Von Schreibcrs in Gilbert's Annalen, LV ; Placidus Hcinrich (Schweigger's
Journal, XV) ; Gustav Schiibler, " Uber Zamboni's Trockne Saule,"
1815-1816; G. F. Parrot (Gilbert's Annalen, LV) ; K. C. F. Jager in
Gilbert's Annalen, Vol. XLIX for 1815, pp. 47-66 ; De la Rive, " Treatise
on Electricity," Vol. II. p. 852; A. M. Ampere, Ann. de Chimie et de
Phys., XXIX; John Farrar, " Elem. of Electricity," etc., 1826, p. 179;
Zamboni and Ambrogio Fusinieri, Ann. . . . Reg. Lomb., Veneto, Vols.
IV. pp. 128, 132; VI. pp. 31, 142, 143, 293; G. Resti-Ferrari, " Elettro-
scopio . . . del Zamboni"; Ann. . . . Reg., Lomb., Ven., Vols. II.
p. 229; III. p. 290; " Verona Poligrafo " lor 1831, p. 87; Mem. Soc.
Ital., Vols. XXI, XXIII; Mem. deW Istit. Veneto, Vol. II. pp. 239,
251 ; G. A, Majocchi, Annali di Fisica, Vol. VIII, p. 14; " Comm. dell'
Ateneo di Brescia/' 1832, p. 38; Sturgeon's " Researches," Bury, 1850,
pp. 147, 199, etc., for observations of A. de la Rive and Francis Watkins ;
Phil. Mag., Vol. XLV. pp. 67, 261; Ann. Ch. et Phys. for May 1816,
Vol. II. pp. 76, etc., 82-87, and Bibl. Britan.t Vol. LVII. p. 225; also
Mag., Vol. XLV. pp. 67, 261; Ann. Ch. et Phys. for May 1816,
. ,.. II. pp. 76, etc., 82-87, and Bibl. Britan.t Vol. LVII. p. 225; also
Vol. LVIII, p. in .of the O.S., Vol. II, N.S. for 1816, p. 21 as well as Vol.
XL. p. 190; " Bibl. Univ.," Bruxelles, 1831, Vol. XLVII. p. 183 (horlog<
electrique); " Edin. New Phil. Journal," 1829, Vol. XXI. p. 357
XL. p. 190; " Bibl. Univ.," Bruxelles, 1831, Vol. XLVII. p. 183 (horloge
Slectrique); " Edin. New Phil. Journal," 1829, Vol. XXI. p. 357.
See likewise the references at Hachette (A.D. 1803), Dyckhoff (A.D. 1804),
Mare"chaux (A.D. 1806), De Luc (A.D. 1809); the illustration and descrip-
tion of M. Palmieri's dry pile in Sci. Am. Supp., Nos. 512, 519, and the
accounts of investigations made more particularly by MM. Beetz,
Belgrade, Burstyn, Crosse, Du Bois Reymond, De la Rive, D'Arsonval
Desruelles, Edelmann, Faraday, Gassiot, Gassner, Germain, Roul,
Gu6rin, Haussman, Keiser, Schiibler, Minotto, Pollak, Riess, Schmidt,
Trouve*, Wagner, Watkins and Wolf.
A.D. 1812.— Schilling (Pawel Lwowitch), Baron (of Kannstadt),
attache* to the Russian Embassy in Munich, and who had been
two years before associated with S. T. Von Sommering (Kuhn,
p. 836), devises what he calls his " sub-aqueous galvanic conduct ing
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 421
cord " — a copper wire insulated with a thin coating of india-
rubber and varnish. This was laid both underground and under
the sea, and, it is asserted that, by means of an arrangement of
charcoal points, he was enabled to explode powder mines across
the Neva, near St. Petersburg, as well as also across the Seine,
during the occupation of Paris by the allied armies.
REFERENCES. — Hamel, "Bull. Acad. Petersb.," II and IV; also
Wm, F. Cooke's reprint, 1859, pp. 20-22; Fahie's " History," p, 309.
From the moment Schilling first saw the telegraph of Sommering
(Aug. 13, 1810) he made many experiments (Prime's " Life of
Morse/' p. 277) with the view of introducing it into Russia and
finally took a model of it to St. Petersburg during the year 1812
(" Sc. Am. Suppl.," No. 405). Hamel states (at p. 41 of Cooke's
reprint) that one of his contrivances was exhibited to the Emperor
Alexander as early as 1825. Of this, Dr. E. N. Dickerson, in his
Henry Memorial Address before Princeton College, gives the date
as 1824. Be that as it may, it was only after his return from China
in 1832 (two years after Sommering's death) that, following Ampere's
suggestion as to the availment of Oersted's discovery, he submitted
the apparatus which established for him the credit of having invented
the electromagnetic telegraph.
Many authors have erroneously described Schilling's apparatus
as consisting of a number of platinum wires insulated and bound
together with a silken cord which put in motion thirty-six magnetic
needles placed vertically in the centre of the multiplier by means
of a species of key connecting with a galvanic pile. This account
appeared at p. 43 of the " Journal des Travaux de 1'Acad. de 1'In-
dustrie Fran£aise " for March 1839. The fact is that he employed
but one magnetic needle and multiplier, with two leading wires, as
proposed by Fechner, and was enabled by means of a combination
of the deflections of the needle to the right and left to give all neces-
sary signals for a complete correspondence by changing the poles
of the battery at the ends of the wires. His call signal was given by
a bell in connection with a clockwork, released by the deflection of a
magnet.
telcgr_ __, _. _. _ . ^
Vol. IX. p/in; Fahie's " History," pp. 310-313; " Sc. Am. SuppL,
No. 405, p. 6467.
From the account of the telegraphic collection at the 1873
Exposition, published by Dr. Edward Zetzsche in the " Austellung-
blatte " of the Vienna " Neue Freie Presse," the following is ex-
tracted : " Even after Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, had observed
422 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the deviation of a magnetic needle under the influence of the current,
neither the proposition of Ampere, at Paris, in 1820 (of employing
thirty needles and sixty wires) nor that of Fechner, at Leipzig, in
1829 (twenty-four needles and forty-eight wires) gave any impulse
to telegraphy. Only in 1832 did the Russian Councillor of State,
Baron Schilling de Kannstadt (who had seen the telegraph of his
friend Sommering, and had made it known in Russia), invent a new
instrument with but five wires, which number he subsequently
reduced to one. In it, the movements of the needle were rendered
more perceptible by means of little discs of paper attached to a silk
thread, holding the needle in suspension. This telegraph, it is
true, was not put in application on a large scale, for Schilling died
in 1837, but, on the 23rd of Sept. 1835, he had already brought out
his apparatus at Bonn and at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where it was
seen amongst other persons by Prof. Muncke, who doubtless
constructed a similar one which he took with him to Heidelberg."
It was only one year before his death that Schilling succeeded
in obtaining the support of the Russian Government for his telegraph,
and it was only after Muncke had shown it (March 6, 1836) to
Wm. Fothergill Cooke, then a student in medicine at Heidelberg,
that the latter produced his needle telegraph, which was followed
by Cooke and Wheatstone's still more perfect instrument in 1837
(Prime's "Life of Morse," pp. 265, 276). Some improvements in
Schilling's so-called deflective telegraph had, in the meantime,
been made by Gauss and Weber at Gottingen, as well as by Steinheil
at Munich.
Prior to his visiting Bonn (Meeting of Naturalists — Is is, Nog.,
1836) Schilling had taken the working model of his telegraph to
Vienna, where he made many experiments with it in conjunction
with Baron Jacquin and with Prof. Andreas von Ettinghausen.
Upon his return home from Germany in 1836, he declined invita-
tions made him to bring his instruments to England (Dr. Hamel's
St. Petersburg lecture on " The Telegraph and Baron Paul
Schilling "), whilst, by direction of the Russian Commission of
Inquiry, he set up an experimental telegraph in two chambers of
the Palace of the Admiralty connecting the apparatus by a long
line over ground and by a cable laid in the waters of the canal.
The results proved so satisfactory that in May 1837 the Emperor
Nicholas ordered a submarine line to be laid between St. Peters-
burg and Cronstadt. Schilling's death, on the 25th of July
following, prevented, however, the execution of the project.
REFERENCES. — Biography in Sci. Am. Supp., No. 547, p. 8737;
Polytechnic Central Journal, Nos. 31, 32 for 1838; Lumiere Electrique
for March 17, 1883; " Allg. Bauztg.," 1837, No. 52, p. 440; L. Turnbull,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 423
Electro. Magn. Tel. p. 223 ; (Hibbard's Ev. 31 ; Channing, Ev. 41) ; Pog-
gendorff,Voi. II. p. 798 ; Annales TSltgraphiques for November to December
1861, p. 670; Journal Soc. of Arts for July 22, 1859, p. 598; References
at Ronalds' "Catalogue," p. 457; Du Moncel, " Expose*," Vol. III.
p. 8 and " Traite" Theorique et Pratique du Tel. Elect./1 Paris, 1864,
p. 217; Comptes Rendus, Vol. VII for 1838, p. 82; Journal Franklin
Inst. for 1851, p. 60; H. F. E. Lenz, " Uber die Praktische . . . Galvan-
ismus," 1839; " Report of Smithsonian Inst.," 1898, pp. 224-225.
A.D. 1812-1813. — Morichini (Domenico Pint), eminent Italian
physician, is the first to announce that unmagnetized steel needles
can be rendered magnetic by making the focus of violet solar rays
collected through a lens pass repeatedly from the middle to one end
of the needle, without touching the other half (Zantedeschi, II.
p. 314).
The long contention created by this announcement and the
ingenious experiments of Mrs. Somerville, together with the
results obtained by P. T. Riess and L. Moser, are detailed at p. 48
of Brewster's (1837) "Treatise on Magnetism." At p. 12 of his
article (Vol. XIV of the eighth " Britannica "), Sir David Brewster
states that Morichini's experiments were successfully repeated by
both Dr. Carpi at Rome and the Marquis Ridolfi at Florence ; but
M. d'Hombre Firmas, at Alais, in France ; Prof. Pietro Configliachi,
of Pavia, and M. Berard, of Montpelier, failed in obtaining decided
effects from the violet rays. In 1814 Morichini exhibited the actual
experiment to Sir Humphry Davy, and in 1817 Dr. Carpi showed it
to Prof. Playfair. A few months later Sir David Brewster met
Davy at Geneva, and learned from him the fact that he had paid
the most diligent attention to one of Morichini's experiments, and
that he had actually seen with his own eyes an unmagnetized needle
rendered magnetic by violet light. Then follow in the same article
the account of Dr. Carpi's experiment as given to Brewster by Prof.
Playfair, also details of the investigations of Mrs. Somerville, Mr.
Christie, Sir William Snow Harris, Prof. Zantedeschi, of MM. Baum-
gartner and Barlocci, as well as those of Riess and Moser above
alluded to.
REFERENCES. — " Elogio storico del Cavaliere D. Morichini in Mem.
della Soc. Ital., Vol. XXVI. p. 3 ; Riess and Moser in Phil: Mag. or
Annals, Vol. VIII. p. 155, 1830 and in Edin. Trans., Vol. X. p. 123;
" Library of Useful Knowledge " (El. Mag.), p. 97; Zeitschrift, Vol. I.
p. 263 ; Noad, " Manual," pp. 532, 533 ; the article of Col. George Gibbs
in Silliman's Amer. Jour, of Sci., 1818, Vol. I. pp. 89, 90; Annales de
Chimie, Vol. XLII. p. 304; Brewster's "Optics," p. 92; also articles
" f~\n4-lf*o " *v *.f\f^ " T «/vVi 4- " t-* t r»/-» o « A '* T?l«»r»^-t*i/M 4-tr " r% ef\f\ f\f 4-V»<» <»tcrVii'Vi
I. p.
Trans, for 1826, pp.' 132, 219; D. Olmstead, " Int. to Nat. Phil.," 1835,
Vol. II. p. 194. See also Thomas Thomson's " Outline of the Sci.,"
p. 514, and Berzelius' " Trait6 de Chimie," Vol. I. p. 138 for Morichini's
observations on galvanic energy; " Bibi. Brit.," Vol. LII, 1813, p. 21 ;
424 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Vol. LIII, 1813, p. 195; Vol. LIV, 1813, p. 171 (Experiments of G.
Babini in Florence); Vol. IV, N.S., 1817, pp. i~8; Vol. V, N.S., 1817,
p. 167; Vol. VI, N.S., 1817, p. 81; Vol. XI, N.S., 1819, p. 29 for the experi-
ments of L. A. d'Hombre Firmas on Morichini's violet rays, whilst p. 174
of the same issue gives J. Murray's investigations as recorded in the
"Phil. Mag." for April 1819.
Peter (Pietro) Configliachi, already named, was the successor
of Volta as Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Pa via University,
and became editor of the " Biblioteca Fisica d'Europa," the
" Biblioteca Germanica/' the " Biblioteca Italiana " and the
" Giornale di Fisica, Chimica e Storia Naturale " (Larousse, " Diet.
Univ./' Vol. IV. p. 908; J. J. Prechtl, in Schweigger's Journal,
Vol. IV for 1812; Fr. Mochetti, " Lettera al P. Configliachi,"
Como, 1814; "Bibl. Britan.," Vol. LVIII, 1815, p. 305 and Vol.
IV of the N.S. for 1817, pp. 1-8).
A.D. 1813.— Sharpe (John Robert), of Doe Hill, near Alfreton,
transmits to the Repertory of Arts a letter, which appeared in its
Vol. XXIX, second series, p. 23, wherein he alludes to p. 188, Vol.
XXIV of the same series, containing an account of Sommering's
apparatus. He says :
" Without the slightest wish to throw a doubt over the originality
of Mr. Sommering's invention, I beg leave to mention that an
experiment, showing the advantages to be obtained from the appli-
cation of the certain and rapid motion of the electric principle
through an extensive voltaic circuit to the purpose of the ordinary
telegraph, was exhibited by me before the Right Hon. the Lords of
the Admiralty, in the beginning of February 1813."
It is said that the Lords of the Admiralty spoke approvingly of
it, but stated that as the war was over, and money scarce, they
could not carry it into effect (Saturday Review for August 21, 1858,
p. 190).
Ronalds says (" Catal./' p. 473) :
" No description of this telegraph appears to have been printed.
It was mentioned at the Admiralty after the invention and full
description of Sommering's, described fully and with figures in the
Denkschriften of the Academy of Munich for 1809-1810, issued in
1811."
Mr. Benjamin Sharpe, nephew of J. R. Sharpe, is the author of
" A Treatise on the Construction and Submersion of Deep-Sea
Electric Telegraph Cables," London, 1861, wherein he alludes to
the above, and asserts that his uncle " convened signals a distance of
seven miles under water " (Fahie's " History/' pp. 244-246; Sci.
Am. Supp., No. 404, pp. 6, 446).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 425
A.D. 1813. — Deleuze (Joseph Philippe Francois), French
physician, publishes his " Histoire Critique du Magn&isme Animal,"
containing the result of observations made by him during the
previous twenty-five years upon animal magnetism.
According to Dr. Allen Thomson, of the University of Glasgow,
Deleuze believed in the existence of an all-pervading magnetic
fluid. This fluid, says he, is under the control of the will, and is
constantly escaping from our bodies, forming around them an
atmosphere, which, having no determinate current, does not act
sensibly on the person near us ; but, when urged and directed by
our volition, it moves with all the force which we impress upon
it ; it is moved like the luminous rays emitted by substances in a
state of combustion. The chief difference between the Deleuze
and Ptiysegur schools has reference to the various modes in which
the magnetic fluid should be brought into action, and the suitable
occasions for its employment.
During the year 1815 the Magnetic Society was established in
Paris, with M. De Puysegur as its president and M. Deleuze as
vice-president, but it expired in 1820. In 1819 M. Deleuze had
published his " Defense du Magnetisme Animal," in reply to the
attack made upon the subject by M. Virey through the " Diet ion -
naire des Sciences Mddicales," and he was followed, more par-
ticularly, by M. Bertrand, who issued in 1823 his " Traite du Som-
nambulisme," and in 1826 his still more important work, " Du
Magnetisme Animal en France," etc. Respecting the last named
Deleuze says :
" Of all the attacks directed against magnetism up to the present
day, this is the most powerful, the most imposing, and the most
ably combined. The author is a man of genius, etc. He has been
occupied with magnetism for some years. He has joined its practice
to that of medicine, and he has even taught its doctrines in public
lectures. A more attentive examination and new experiments
have dissuaded him from a belief which he himself propagated;
he undertakes to undeceive others, and to prove that magnetism
is a mere chimera. Certainly his conviction must be very strong."
REFERENCES. — Article " Somnambulism," in the " Britannica,"
more especially for a review of, and extracts from, Deleuze's great work,
also the translation of the latter by T. C. Hartshorn, of which the enlarged
fourth edition was published at London in 1850, accompanied by notes
and a life by Dr. Foissac.
A.D. 1813.— Brande (William Thomas), F.R.S., succeeds Sir
Humphry Davy as Processor of Chemistry to the Royal Institution
after having long been his assistant.
He was already favourably known through a long line of interest-
426 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
ing chemical experiments, one of which, treating of the effects of
the galvanic current on albumen, had attracted very particular
attention at the time it was communicated to the Philosophical
Transactions. When he applied Davy's method to fluids containing
albumen, the albumen and acid were found at the positive pole and
the albumen and alkali at the negative pole, and he also observed
that, although it remained fluid with a weak battery, a stronger one
caused it to be separated in a coagulated form. In like experiments
subsequently made by Golding Bird, coagulation took place in the
positive vessel, while none occurred in the negative ; after a time
the contents of the former had an acid taste, and of the latter a
caustic alkaline flavour. When all in the positive vessel was
coagulated by the galvanic action, he found there hydrochloric acid
mixed with chlorine and the alkali in the negative vessel.
He also repeated the experiments of Davy on the light developed
by charcoal points connected with a powerful galvanic battery,
and found that this light was as effectual as solar light in decom-
posing muriate of silver and other bodies, and in acting upon
hydrogen and chlorine gases, causing them to detonate, but he
could not produce the same effect by the moon's rays or by any
other light.
The electricity developed in flame, which had received much
attention from Paul Erman and others, was likewise investigated
by Prof. Brande, whose conclusions are to be found detailed at
Sec. III. chap. iii. part i. of the " Electricity " article in the " Ency-
clopaedia Britannica." Therein is recalled the fact that A. L.
Lavoisier, P. S. Laplace and Aless. Volta previously obtained clear
indications of electricity by the combustion of charcoal, while
H. B. dfe Saussure failed to develop electricity either by the com-
bustion or explosion of gunpowder, and Humphry Davy could not
obtain it through the combustion of charcoal or of iron in air or in
pure oxygen. In the above-named article will also be found an
account of the investigations of Pouillet and of Becquerel in the
same line ; some of the other well-known scientists who have treated
more or less directly upon the subject being E. F. Dutour, J. S.
Waitz, J. J. Hemmer, Heinrich Buff, G. Gurney, Carlo Matteucci,
W. R. Grove, Michael Faraday, M, A. Bancalari, W. G. Hankel,
F. Zantedeschi and M. Neyreneuf.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag., Vol. XLIV. p. 124 ; Phil. Mag. or Annals,
Vol. IX. p. 237; Annales de Chimie, 5* s&rie, Vol. II; Phil. Trans, for
1809 and 1820; Mtmoires de Mathtmatiques, Vol. II. p. 246; " Cat. Sc.
Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 48; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. LVII, 1814, p. n.
A.D. 1813.— Colonel Mark Beaufoy (already alluded to at
Graham, A.D. 1722), describes in the first volume of Dr. Thomas
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 427
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy what has by many been called the
most perfect form known of the variation compass. It is also to
be found illustrated at p. 81, Vol. XIV of the eighth " Britannica,"
wherein it is said that he employed it in the valuable series of
magnetic observations made by him between the years 1813 and
1821. It consists of a telescope, underneath the axis of which is
a magnetic needle whose position is alterable in order to indicate
the exact angle of deviation, or the declination of the needle from
the true meridian.
Brewster states (eighth " Brit.," Vol. XIV. p. 54) that when
the diurnal variation of the needle was first discovered it was sup-
posed to have only two changes in its movements during the day.
About 7 a.m. its north end began to deviate to the west, and about
2 p.m. it reached its maximum westerly deviation. It then returned
to the eastward to its first position, and remained stationary till it
again resumed its westerly course in the following morning. When
magnetic observations became more accurate, it was found that the
diurnal movement commences much earlier than 7 a.m., but its
motion is to the east. At 7.30 a.m. it reaches its greatest
easterly deviation, and then begins its movement to the west till
2 p.m. It then returns to the eastward till the evening, when it has
again a slight westerly motion ; and in the course of the night, or
early in the morning, it reaches the point from which it set out
twenty-four hours before. The most accurate observations made in
England were those of Colonel Beaufoy, when the variation was
about 24^' west. In these the absolute maxima were earlier than
in Canton's observations, and the second maximum west about
ii p.m. Dr. Thomas Thomson alludes to the diurnal investigations
of Barlow and Christie and others, and gives (" Outline of the
Sciences," London, 1830, pp. 543-550) a table of the mean monthly
variation of the compass from April 1817 to March 1819 as
determined by Colonel Beaufoy. Mr. Peter Barlow, he says, has
given in his " Essay on Magnetic Attractions " a very ingenious
and plausible explanation of the daily variation by supposing the
sun to possess a certain magnetic action on the needle.
REFERENCES. — Phil. _Mag.,_ Vol. JLIII, 1819, p. 387; LV, 1820,
" ' " '' Encycl.
, series i,
nd N.S., Vol. I. p. Q4, for Beaufoy's owns
of all his observations.
p. 394; W. S. Harris, " Rud. Mag./' Parts I, II, pp. 150-152; " Encycl.
Metrop./' Vol. Ill (Magnetism), pp. 766, 767; Annals of Phil., series i,
Vols. II, VI, IX, XVI, and N.S., Vol. I. p. 94, for Beaufoy's own summary
A.D. 1814. — Mr. Thomas Howldy addresses to the Philosophical
Magazine a letter, dated Hereford, March 24, 1814, relative to
" Experiments evincing the influence of atmospheric moisture on
an electric column composed of 1000 discs oi zinc and silver/' wherein
428 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
he also makes reference to the dry pile of J. A. De Luc alluded to at
A.D. 1809.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag., Vol. XLIII. pp. 241, 363, and Nicholson's
Journal, Vol. XXXV. p. 84 ; also the Phil. Mag., Vol. XLI. p. 393, for a
description of the electric column of 20,000 pairs of zinc and silver
plates, and others, constructed during the previous year (1813) by Mr.
George J. Singer.
The above-named letter was followed (Phil. Mag., Vols. XLVI.
pp. 401-408, and XLVII. p. 285) by a communication on the
" Franklinian Theory of the Leyden Jar . . , with Some Remarks
on Mr. Donovan's Experiments,'1 and by another letter sent to
MM. R. Taylor and R. Phillips (Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. I. p. 343)
relative to the paper of William Sturgeon " On the Inflammation of
Gunpowder by Electricity," which appeared at p. 20 of the last-
named book.
An interchange of correspondence not long since through the
columns of the London Electrical Review, for the purpose of ascer-
taining the period of the earliest use of carbon as a resistant, brought
forth an extract from the " Treatise on Atmospheric Electricity,"
published at London and Edinburgh, 1830, by Mr. John Murray,
of Glasgow, which reads as follows : " Mr. Howldy, of Hereford,
an ingenious electrician, has by some novel experiments clearly
proved the increased power of electricity if retarded in its progress ;
instead of using tubes of glass filled with water, as Mr. Woodward
had done, he has employed a glass tube supplied with lamp black."
A.D. 1814. — Murray (John), Scotch physician and chemist, also
Ph.D., and Professor of Chemistry and Matcria Medica in the
Edinburgh University, is the author of works entitled, " On Elec-
trical Phenomena, and on the new substance called Jod (lode)," also
" On the Phenomena of Electricity," published at London, respec-
tively, during the years 1814 and 1815 (Tilloch's Phil. Mag., Vols.
XLIII. pp. 270-272; XLV. pp. 38-41; " Catalogue Sci, Pap. Roy.
Soc.," Vol. IV. pp. 556-557)-
Dr. John Murray died July 22, 1820, in Edinburgh, the place
of his birth, as will be seen by reference to Larousse, " Diet. Univ.,"
Vol. XL p. 706, and to Poggendorff, Vol. II. pp. 243, 244, He
should not be confounded, as has been done by many, with Mr.
John Murray, whose papers, read before the Royal Society (c< Cata-
logue Scientific Papers," Vol. IV. pp. 557-559; Vol. VI. p. 731),
treat of the relations of caloric to magnetism, of the unequal dis-
tribution of caloric in voltaic action, etc., of aerolites, of the decom-
position of metallic salts by the magnet, of the ignition of wires
by the galvanic battery, of lightning rods, conductors, etc. (These
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 429
papers appear in Tilloch's Phil. Mag., Vols. LIV, 1819, pp. 39-43;
LVIII, 1821, pp. 380-382; LX, 1822, pp. 358-361; LXI, 1823,
p. 207; LXII, 1823, p. 74; LXIII, 1824, pp. 130, 131; L. F. von
Froriep, " Notizen . . ." for 1823, Vol. IV. col. 198; Edin. Phil.
Jour., Vols. XIV for 1826, pp. 57-62 ; XVIII for 1828, pp. 88-91 ;
and in Sturgeon's Annals, Vols. Ill for 1838-1839, pp. 64-68;
VII for 1841, pp. 82-83.)
Mr. John Murray is said to have been a lecturer on experimental
philosophy, and one of his most interesting reviews is the one ap-
pearing at p. 62, Vol. XLIII of the Phil. Mag. regarding Ezekiel
Walker's theory of combustion as deduced from galvanic phenomena.
Murray thinks there is much obscurity in Mr. Walker's solution,
which arises " from his using indiscriminately the terms heat
(caloric) and combustion. Now caloric (the matter of heat) and
combustion (the act of ignition) are not identical. What may be
collected, however, from the general tenor of that paper is the
theory of Lavoisier in a new dress."
At p. 17 of this same volume is a paper from Mr. John Webster
on the agency of electricity in contributing the peculiar properties
of bodies and producing combustion, while, at p. 20, is a letter
from Mr. George J. Singer wherein he calls Mr. Walker a novice
in the science of electricity, saying that among other things he " has
yet to learn that a conducting body supported by dry glass and
surrounded by dry air may be still very far from being insulated."
The treatise of Mr. John Murray on " Atmospheric Electricity "
previously alluded to (at Thomas Howldy, A.D. 1814) was translated
into French ("Mem. de 1'Elec. Atm.") by J. R. D. Riffault, Paris,
1831.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag., Vols. XLIII. p. 175; L. pp. 145, 312;
LII. p. 60; LIU. pp. 268, 468; LVIII. p. 387; LX. p. 61; LXI. p. 394 ;
LXII. p. 456; LXIII. p. 130; also pp. 306, 307 of Fahie's " History,"
regarding John Murray's " Notes to Assist the Memory in Various
Sciences."
A.D. 1814. — Wedgwood (Ralph), member of the family whose
name is inseparably connected with one of the most beautiful
manufactures of pottery, completes an electric telegraph, upon
which he has been steadily at work from 1806. Of its construction
or mode of action he appears, however, to have left no particulars.
At pp. 178 and 180 of " The Wedgwoods . . ." by Llewellyn
Jewett, London, 1865, appears the following :
" This Thomas Wedgwood was, I believe, cousin to Josiah, being
son of Aaron Wedgwood, etc., etc. . . . He was a man of high
scientific attainments, and has the reputation of being the first in-
ventor of the electric telegraph (afterward so ably carried out by
480 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
his son Ralph) and of many other valuable works. ... In 1806
Ralph Wedgwood established himself at Charing Cross, and soon
afterward his whole attention began to be engrossed with his scheme
of the electric telegraph, which in the then unsettled state of the
kingdom — in the midst of war, it must be remembered — he con-
sidered would be of the utmost importance to the government.
In 1814, having perfected his scheme, he submitted his proposals
to Lord Castlereagh, and most anxiously waited the result . . . was
informed that ' the war being at an end, the old system was suffi-
cient for the country/ The plan, therefore, fell to the ground,
until Prof. Wheatstone, in happier and more enlightened times,
again brought up the subject with such eminent success. The
plan thus brought forward by Ralph Wedgwood, in 1814, anti of
which, as I have stated, he received the first idea from his father,
was described by him in a pamphlet, entitled ' An Address to the
Public on the Advantages of a Proposed Introduction of the Stylo-
graphic Principle of Writing Into General Use; And Also an Im-
proved Species of Telegraphy, Calculated for the Use of the Public,
as Well as for the Government.' "
The pamphlet is dated May 29, 1815. Fahie gives (" History/'
pp. 125-127) extracts both from this pamphlet, regarding the electric
Fulguri-Polygraph, and from the communication of Mr. W. R.
Wedgwood to the Commercial Magazine for December 1846, urging
his father's claims to a share in the discovery of the electric telegraph.
REFERENCES. — " Life of Wedgwood," by Miss Meteyard, 2 vols.,
1865-1866; J. D. Reid, " The Telegraph in America/' p. 70.
A.D. 1814. — Singer (George John), distinguished English scientist
and writer, publishes the first edition of his valuable " Elements of
Electricity and Electro-Chemistry/' of which translations were
made, in French by M. Thillaye, Paris, 1817, as well as in German
and in Italian during the year 1819.
Mr. Singer is the inventor of the improvement upon Mr. Bennet's
electroscope, which is to be found illustrated and described in nearly
all works upon natural philosophy and the main design of which
is to diminish, if not totally prevent, the amount of moisture
generally precipitated upon the surface of insulators. Mr. Singer
remarks that his arrangement so effectually precludes moisture
that some of the " electrometers constructed in 1810 and which
have never yet (1814) been warmed or wiped, have still apparently
the same insulating power as at first/' The use of this apparatus
is strongly recommended by Dr. Faraday, whose instructions for
the use of electrometers are given at great length at pp. 617-619,
Vol. VIII of the eighth " Britannica."
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 481
After describing the above-named electrometer, Mr. William
Sturgeon remarks (" Lectures/' London, 1842, pp. 42, 43) :
" It is frequently exceedingly difficult, without extensive reading,
to confer the merit that is due to invention on the right party, and
even then we sometimes err for want of proper information. Mr.
Singer has hitherto, with most writers, had the exclusive merit of
insulating the axial wire of the electroscope from the brass cap, by
a glass tube ; and it would appear from the description he gives of
this improvement in his excellent treatise on electricity that he
was not aware of anything of the kind being previously done. It
appears, however, by an article of Mr. Erman in the Journal de
Physique, Vol. LIX. p. 98, and Nicholson's Journal, Vol. X, pub-
lished in 1805, that a Mr. Weiss had applied the glass tube for the
purpose of insulating the axial wire of Bennet's electroscope. The
account runs thus : ' The electrometer he (Mr. Erman) used was
that distinguished in Germany as the electrometer of Weiss.'
From this it would appear to have been long known. ' The length
of its leaves of gold is half an inch, and the diameter of the glass
cylinder which encloses them is three-quarters of an inch, the
height being an inch and a half. Its cover of ivory does not pro-
ject above the glass, and is perforated in the middle with a hole
in which a smaller glass tube is fixed, and through this last tube passes
the metallic rod that serves to suspend the gold leaves.' Singer's
improvement, first published in 1814, would, therefore, consist in
adding the brass ferrule, which covers the glass tube first introduced
by Weiss."
Singer is also the inventor of one of the best-known amalgams
for the cushions of the electric machine. It is described at p. 536,
Vol. VIII of the eighth " Britannica," where it is said that a
mixture of one part tin and two parts mercury is very effective,
as is also the amalgam consisting of mosaic gold and the deuto-
sulphuret of tin. (Other descriptions of the application of mosaic
gold on the rubber are to be found at p. 432, Vol. II of " Young's
Course of Lectures "; Woulfe, Phil. Trans., 1771, p. 114; Bienvenu
and Witry de Abt, Lichtenb. Mag., Vols. II. p. 211, and IV. st. 3,
pp. 58-61; Marquis de Bouillon, " Observ. de Physique," XXI.)
The dry electric columns which Mr. Singer invented are alluded
to in Phil. Mag., Vols. XLI. p. 393 and XLV. p. 359, while the
results of his experiments on the electric fusion of metallic wires
and the oxidation of metals, as well as those made upon the elec-
tricity of sifted powders and also in order to ascertain the effects
of electricity upon gases, are to be found recorded at pp. 564, 592,
593 and 597, Vol. VIII of the 1855 " Britannica," and at p. 46
(" Electricity ") of " Library of Useful Knowledge/'
482 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — pp. 15, 16 of the last-named work; Poggendorff,
Vol. II. pp. 938, 939; Figuier, " Exp. et Hist.," 1857, Vol. IV. p. 267;
Sturgeon's " Lectures," 1842, p. n; Phil. Mag., Vols. XXXVII. p. 80;
XLII. pp. 36, 261; XLIII. p. 20; XLVI. pp. 161, 259; likewise Ch.
Samuel Weiss, at Poggendorff, Vol. II. pp. 1287-1289; " Bibl. Britan.,"
Vol. XLIII, 1810, p. 166; Vol. XLVII, 1811, pp. 3, 113, 213, 313; Vol.
LVI, 1814, pp. 197, 318.
A.D. 1814-1815. — Fraunhofer — Frauenhofer (Joseph von), a
practical Bavarian physicist and optician, who had been assistant to
the celebrated George Reichenbach, publishes his observations on
spectra in a pamphlet entitled " Bestimmung des Brechungs und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermogens. ..."
In the latter work will be found detailed his experiments with
the electric spark, which he found to give a different specteum
from all other lights. Sir David Brewster says that in order to
obtain a continuous line of electrical light Fraunhofer brought to
within half an inch of each other two conductors, a$d united them
by a very fine glass thread. One of the conductors was connected
with an electrical machine and the other communicated with the
ground. In this manner the light appeared to pass continuously
along the fibre of glass, which consequently formed a fine and
brilliant line of light. When this luminous line was expanded by
refraction, Fraunhofer saw that, in relation to the lines of its
spectrum, electric light was very different both from the light of
the sun and from that of a lamp. In this spectrum he met with
several lines partly very clear, and one of which, in the green space,
seemed very brilliant compared with other parts of the spectrum
(Edin. Jour, of Sci.t No. XV. p. 7). He saw in the orange another
line not quite so bright, which appeared to be of the same colour
as that in lamplight spectra ; but in measuring its angle of refraction
he found that its light was much more strongly refracted, and
nearly as much as the yellow rays of lamplight. In the red rays
toward the extremity of the spectrum, he observed a line of very
little brightness, and yet its light had the same degree of refrangi-
bility as the clear line of lamplight, while in the rest of the spectrum
he saw the other four lines sufficiently bright. In a subsequent
paper read at Munich in 1823 (" Neue Modification des Lichtes . . ."
or " New Modification of Light ") and in Schumacher's " Astrono-
mische Abhandlungen," Fraunhofer states that, by means of the
large electrical machine in the cabinet of the Academy of Munich,
he obtained a spectrum of electric light in which he recognized a
great number of light lines, and that he had determined the relative
place of the lightest lines as well as the ratios of their intensities.
The introduction of the electric spark for the purpose of volati-
lizing metals was an important step in the development of spectral
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 438
analysis, but although used by both Wollaston and Fraunhofer its
true value in that particular line was not realized for many years
after their time.
Fraunhofer is not only celebrated as one of the founders of
spectrum analysis, but he is well known also as the inventor of
many important philosophical instruments, being the constructor
of the great Dorpat parallactic telescope, called by Struve the
giant refractor. It was during the year 1814 that he measured
and described the innumerable dark lines of the solar spectrum
known as Fraunhofer's lines, which were first noticed by Wollaston
and reported upon by the latter to the Royal Society in 1802.
REFERENCES. — M. Merz, " Das Leben und Wirken Fraunhofers,"
Landshut, 1865; Ninth " Encycl. Brit.," Vol. IX. p. 727; " Abh. der
K. Bayer, Akad. d. Wiss." for 1814 and 1815; Fraunhofer's biography
in the " Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London," Vol. III.
p. 117; his " Determination . . ." Miinchen, 1819; Whewell, " Hist, of
Ind. Sci.," 1859, Vol. II. p. 475; Sci. Am., Nov. 19, 1887, p. 321; Phil.
Trans, for 1814, pp. 204, 205, and for 1820, p. 95; Tyndall, " Heat as a
Mode of Motion," 1873, pp. 485, 486; article " Optics " in eighth " Encycl.
Brit.," Vol. XVI. pp. 544, 588, 591 ; Sir David Brewster's article on
" Electricity " in the " Encycl. Brit." ; " Mem. of the Roy. Bav. Acad. of
Sci." for 1822 ; " On the Spectrum of the Electric Arc," in Jas. Dredge's
" Elec. Ilium.," Vol. I. pp. 32, 36; Edin. Trans., Vol. VIII for 1822;
Edin. Jour. Sci., Vol. XIII. pp. 101, 251 ; Biblioth. Univ., Vol. VI. p. 21,
as per Becquercl's " Trait6 . . ." Vol. I. p. 23; Dr. William A. Miller's
first and third lectures before the Royal Institution in 1867; Houzeau
et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 136; Rich. A. Proctor, "Old
and New Astronomy," 1892, p. 787.
A.D. 1815. — Bohnenberger (Johann Joseph Friedrich von),
1765-1831, Professor of Mathematics and of Astronomy at the
Tubingen University, constructs an extremely sensitive electro-
meter by suspending a single strip of gold leaf upon a wire midway
between, though apart from, the insulated terminating discs of De
Luc's column.
With this contrivance he found that, however slightly the leaf
was electrified, it was drawn to one of the poles according to the
nature of the electricity affecting it, and he was thus enabled to
observe not only the presence of the slightest electrical influence,
but the kind of electricity which was present.
Noad gives, at p. 30 of his " Manual," an illustration of the
electrometer as subsequently improved by Becquerel, and states
that Mr. Sturgeon describes (" Lectures on Galvanism/' 1843) a
somewhat similar arrangement, the delicacy of which he states to
be such that the cap (plate) being of zinc and of the size of a six-
pence, the pendant leaf is caused to lean toward the negative pole
by merely pressing a plate of copper, also the size of a sixpence,
upon it, and when the copper is suddenly lifted up the leaf strikes.
The different electrical states of the inside and outside of various
FF
434 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
articles of clothing were readily ascertained by this delicate
.electroscope,
M. Gottlieb Christian Bohnenberger, of Neuenberg (1732-1807),
is the author of several works treating particularly of the electrical
machine, the electric spark, the electric doubler, etc., published
at Stuttgart between 1784 and 1798,
REFERENCES. — " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. VII. p. 84; L. W.
Gilbert, Annalen der Physik, Vols. XXIII (for Behrend's) ; XLIX, LI
(for " Bcschreibung . . . cmpiindlichen elektrometers . . .") ; Annales
de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XVI. p. 91 ; J. C. Poggendorff, " Biogr.-
Liter. Handworterbuch . . ." Vol. I. p. 226; Sci. Am. Supp.t No. 519,
p. 8290, for Pouillet's remarks upon the effectiveness of dry pile elec-
troscopes; De la Rive, " Treatise on Electricity," Vol. I. pp. 54-56.
A.D. 1815.— Mr. B. M. Forster sends to the Philosophical
Magazine (Vol. XLVII. pp. 344~345) the description of an electrical
instrument called " The Thunderstorm Alarum/' which can be
made to show the effect produced by the passage of a charged
cloud over an atmospherical electrometer.
He had several years before described, at p. 205 of the same
publication, a method of fitting up in portable form one of De
Luc's electrical columns, respecting which latter he subsequently
addressed communications, which appeared in Vols. XXXV. pp. 317,
399, 468; XXXVI. pp. 74, 317, 472; XXXVII. pp. 197, 265, also
relative to one which he constructed and which ran continuously for
five months.
REFERENCES. — Phil. Mag., Vol. IV for 1828, p. 461 • eighth
"Britannica," Vol. XXL p. 619.
A.D. 1815.— Gregory (Olinthus Gilbert), LL.D., Professor of
Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in his
" Treatise on Mechanics," London, 1815 (Vol. II. pp. 442-449),
describes the methods of transmitting distant signals introduced
by Polybius, the Marquis of Worcester, Robert Hooke, Amontons
and Chappe, and alludes to an improved telegraph described in
the " Gentleman's Magazine," as well as to the so-called nocturnal
telegraph, of which an account is to be found in the Repertory of
the Arts and Manufactures (" Biographic Generate," Tome XXI.
p. 903).
A.D. 1815.— In the Philosophical Magazine (Vol. XLVI.
pp. 161, 259), will be found an account of the electrical experiments
of M. De Nelis, of Mechlin, or Malines, in the Netherlands, with
an extension of them by George J. Singer and Andrew Crosse.
These allude to many investigations made during previous years
by M. De Nelis, who reported upon them to Mr. Tilloch and to
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 435
M. de la M£therie, and which show " very remarkable and per-
manent evidence of the expansive power of the electric charge."
Singer adds : " It is difficult to contemplate such extraordinary
mechanical effects without admitting that the power by which
they are produced has at least the leading characteristics of a
material substance." At p. 127, Vol. XLVIII of the Phil. Mag.,
is an account of some further electrical experiments of M. De Nelis,
one of which is intended to improve the simple current with an
apparatus not insulated by discs. In this communication, which
bears date July 10, 1815, he discourses upon the theory of the
two fluids.
A.D. 1816.— Coxe (John Redman), M.D., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Pennsylvania, is the second to propose a system
of transmitting signals, based, like Sommering's (A.D. 1809), upon
the discovery of Nicholson and Carlisle.
In the first series of Dr. Thos. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy
for 1816 (not 1810), Vol. VII. pp. 162, 163, will be found Coxe's
letter " On the Use of Galvanism as a Telegraph," wherein he
says :
" I have contemplated this important agent as a probable means
of establishing telegraphic communication with as much rapidity,
and perhaps less expense, than any hitherto employed. I do not
know how far experiment has determined galvanic action to be
communicated by means of wires ; but there is no reason to suppose
it confined as to limits, certainly not as to time. Now, by means
of apparatus fixed at certain distances, as telegraphic stations, by
tubes for the decomposition of water, metallic salts, etc., regularly
arranged, such a key might be adopted as would be requisite to
communicate words, sentences or figures, from one station to
another, and so on to the end of the line. ... As it takes up little
room, and may be fixed in private, it might in many cases of besieged
towns, etc., convey useful intelligence with scarcely a chance of
detection by the enemy. However fanciful in speculation, I have
no doubt that, sooner or later, it will be rendered in useful practice.
I have thus, my dear sir, ventured to encroach on your time with
some crude ideas that may serve perhaps to elicit some useful
experiments in the hands of others. When we consider what won-
derful results have arisen from the first trifling experiments of the
junction of a small piece of silver and zinc in so short a period,
what may not be expected from the further extension of galvanic
electricity? I have no doubt of its being the chief agent in the
hands of nature in the mighty changes that occur around us. If
metals are compound bodies, which I doubt not, will not this active
486 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
principle combine their constituents in numerous places so as to
explain their metallic formation; and if such constituents are in
themselves aeriform, may not galvanism reasonably tend to explain
the existence of metals in situations in which their specific gravities
certainly do not entitle us to look for them ? "
Coxe does not appear, however, to have at any time made
satisfactory experiments, and his systems were considered im-
practicable until worked out by Alex. Bain during the year 1840.
At pp. 99-110, Vol. II of Dr. Coxe's Emporium of Arts and
Sciences, Philadelphia, 1812, will be found his illustrated " De-
scription of a Revolving Telegraph/' for conveying intelligence by
figures, letters, words or sentences, upon which plan, he say^, he
constructed a small telegraph that worked " readily and appro-
priately, although by no means fitted with the various pulleys,
etc., to facilitate the motion of the ropes. "
REFERENCES. — For full explanation of Coxe's systems, see L. Turnbull,
"Elect. Mag. Tel." Highton's "Electric Telegraph," p. 39; Jour.
Franklin Inst., Vol. XXI. for 1851, pp. 332, 333; Comptes Rendus for
1838, Vol. VII. pp. 593, etc.; Sci. Am. Supp., Nos. 404, p. 6446, and
453, p. 7234; Alfred Vail, " The American Electro-Magnetic Telegraph,"
pp. 128, 129; Prime's " Life of Morse," p. 263.
A.D. 1816.— In Part I of the Philosophical Transactions for
1816, and at p. 14, Vol. XLVII of the Philosophical Magazine,
will be seen an account of the observations and experiments made
by Mr. John T. Todd on the torpedo off the Cape of Good Hope,
during the year 1812 (" Abstracts of Papers . . . Roy. Soc./' Vol.
II. p. 57).
It is said that the torpedo in this locality is never more than
eight nor less than fiv^ inches in length, and never more than
five nor less than three and a half inches in breadth. Mr. Todd
found the columns of their electrical organs to be larger and less
numerous in proportion than those described by Hunter, and that
they appeared to be of a cylindrical form, while from a number of
experiments he drew, among other conclusions, the fact that a more
intimate relation exists between the nervous system and electrical
organs of the torpedo, both as to structure and functions, than
between the same and whatsoever organs of any known animal.
(See Hunter at A.D. 1773.)
Reports of another series of experiments, carried on by Mr.
Todd at La Rochelle during 1816, will be found in the Phil Trans.
for the year following as well as at p. 57, Vol. II of the " Abstracts
of Papers ... of the Phil Trans., 1800-1830." The last-named
investigations were made especially to determine whether the
torpedo possessed any voluntary power over the electrical organs,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 437
either in exciting or interrupting their action, except through the
nerves of these organs.
A.D. 1816.— -Philip— Phillip— (Wilson) , English physician,
publishes in the Philosophical Transactions a continuation of re-
searches made by him to establish the relations existing between
the phenomena of life and voltaic electricity. Noad gives (" Manual/'
pp. 341-344) an account of some of the experiments made on animals
to prove the analogy existing between the galvanic energy and the
nervous influence, and he alludes also to the fact of asthma having
been relieved by galvanism through Dr. Philip, whose treatment
had received the endorsement of Dr. Clarke Abel, of Brighton.
REFERENCES. — Journal of Science, Vol. IX. See also Faraday's
" Experimental Researches," 1791 and note; " Abstract of Papers . . .
Phil. Trans., 1800-1830," Vol. II for 1822, p. 156.
A.D. 1816. — The Rev. James Bremmer, of the Shetland Islands,
is rewarded by the Society of Arts for his night telegraph, the
operation of which consists in the alternate exhibition and conceal-
ment of a torch in manner similar to that devised by Joachimus
Fortius for Bishop Wilkins, as stated at A.D. 1641. This plan is
said to have been successfully operated between the Copeland Island
lighthouse and Port Patrick on the other side of the English Channel.
Particulars of the above-named night telegraph, as well as of
the apparatus devised for day service, will be found in the
Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, Vol. XXXIV. pp. 30, 213-227. The
day telegraph consisted of a framework, having two circular open-
ings, in each of which was a semicircular screen or shutter which,
revolving upon an axis in the centre of the circle, was capable of
assuming four different positions. This contrivance expressed an
alphabet of sixteen letters, by dividing the latter into four classes
of four each, and making one screen or shutter express the class,
while the other indicated the number of the letter in that class.
A.D. 1816. — Sir Home Riggs Popham (1762-1820) British naval
officer, who had been a rear-admiral in 1814, introduces his land
semaphore which shows a great improvement upon all previous
ones and at once replaces the Murray apparatus heretofore used
by the English Admiralty (see A.D. 1795). It consists only of two
arms placed upon the same hollow hexagonal mast, and movable
upon separate pivots, each of which can be made to assume six
different positions, giving together forty-eight different signals.
It is fully described and illustrated at pp. 30, 167-177, Vol. XXXIV
of the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, and also appears in the " Tele-
graph " article, Vol. II of the " Encycl, of Useful Arts/' as well
488 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
as at p. 149, Vol. XXIV of the " Penny Encycl./' at *pP- 67, 68,
Vol. VIII of the ("Arts and Sciences") "English EncycL," and
in the " Telegraph " article by Sir John Barrow, one of the secre-
taries to the Admiralty, in the seventh "Britannica."
In this same year (1816), Sir Home Popham also introduced a
ship semaphore, which latter, as well as other similar devices of
his construction, is to be found in the several publications already
mentioned (the " Navy " article of the " Britannica " and pp/xii,
xiii of Ronalds' " Catalogue ").
A.D. 1816. — Ronalds (Francis), English experimentalist (1788-
1873) — F.R.S., 1844, knighted 1870 — whose serious attention to
the development of electrical science appears to date from* his
meeting with M. De Luc in 1814, constructs at Hammersmith his
telegraph which is the type of all dial instruments and which first
presents the employment of two synchronous movements at the two
stations. The telegraph is fully described and illustrated in the
" Description of an Electrical Telegraph and of Some Other Elec-
trical Apparatus," 8vo, 83 pages, which Mr. Ronalds issued in
pamphlet form, London, 1823, and which is said to be the first
work published on electric telegraphy. Copious extracts from this
are to be found at pp. viii-xi of the Ronalds " Catalogue/' and at
pp. 129, 135-145, of Fahie's " History/' the latter also containing
several fine plates reproduced from the original work.
For his experimental line, Ronalds " erected two strong frames
of wood at a distance of 20 yards from each other, and each con-
taining 19 horizontal bars ; to each bar he attached 37 hooks, and
to the hooks were applied as many silken cords, which supported
a small iron wire (by these means well insulated), which (making
its inflections at the points of support) composed in one continuous
length a distance of rather more than eight miles." After making
many experiments with this overhead line, he thus laid one under-
ground :
" A trench was dug in the garden 525 feet in length, and four
feet deep. In this was laid a trough of wood two inches square,
well lined on the inside and out with pitch, and within this trough
thick glass tubes were placed, through which the wire ran."
His biographer, Mr. Frost, adds :
" In order to prevent the tubes from breaking by the variation
of temperature, each length was laid a short distance from the next
length, and the joint made with soft wax. The trough was then
covered with pieces of wood, screwed upon it whilst the pitch was
hot. They were also well covered with pitch, and the earth then
thrown into the trench again/'
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 439
Mr. Edward Highton, at p. 40 of his work, the " Electric Tele-
graph/' 1852, says :
" Ronalds employed an ordinary electric machine and the pith-
ball electrometer in the following manner. He placed two clocks
at two stations ; these two clocks had upon the second hand arbor
a dial with twenty letters on it; a screen was placed in front of
each of these dials, and an orifice was cut in each screen, so that
only one letter at a time could be seen on the revolving dial. The
clocks were made to go isochronously ; and as the dials moved round
the same letter always appeared through the orifices of each of
these screens. The pith-ball electrometers were hung in front of
the dials. The attention of the observer was called through the
agency of an inflammable air gun fired by an electric spark."
Realizing the value of his invention, Ronalds strove to bring
it before the English Government, but was met (Aug. 5, 1816),
with much the same encouragement we have seen vouchsafed
Sharpe (A.D. 1813), and Wedgwood (A.D. 1814), viz. " Telegraphs
of any kind are now wholly unnecessary and no other than the
one now in use will be adopted/' The one alluded to was the
semaphore line between London and Portsmouth, originally of the
Chappe pattern and improved upon by Charles W. Pasley and
Rear Admiral Popham.
Alluding to Mr. (afterward Sir) John Barrow's letter in a note
at p. 24 of his work Ronalds says :
"... Should they again become necessary, however, perhaps
electricity and electricians may be indulged by his Lordship and
Mr. Barrow with an opportunity of proving what they are capable
of in this way."
He was so disappointed that he not long after announced his
" taking leave of a science which once afforded him a favourite
source of amusement," and that he was " compelled to bid a cordial
adieu to electricity." Fortunately for the scientific world, however,
he afterward gave his attention again to electrical matters as is
evidenced by many important papers contained in the publications
noted below.
In Ronalds' aforenamed work the phenomenon of retardation
of signals in buried wires is clearly foreseen and described, although
Zetzsche endeavours to combat this assertion at p. 38 of his " Ges-
chichte der Elektrischen Telegraphic," Berlin, 1867. Speaking of
the apprehended difficulty of keeping the wire charged with elec-
tricity, Ronalds suggests that when not at work " the machine
be still kept in gentle motion to supply the loss of electricity by
default of insulation ; which default, perhaps, could not be avoided,
because (be the atmosphere ever so dry, and the glass insulators
440 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
ever so perfect), conductors are, I believe, robbed of their electricity
by the same three processes by which Sir Humphry Davy and
Mr. Leslie say that bodies are robbed of their sensible heat, viz.
by radiation, by conduction, and by the motion of the particles
of air." He also gives descriptions of an improved electrical
machine (eighth "Britannica/' Vol. VIII. p. 536; Sci. Am. Supp.,
No. 647, p. 10326; Noad's " Manual," p. 69), of a new method of
electrical insulation and of some experiments on Vesuvius (Quar-
terly Jour, of Sci., Vols. II. p. 249; XIV. pp. 332-334), of a new
electrograph for registering the charge of atmospheric electricity,
of a pendulum doubler (Edin. Phil. Jour., Vol. IX, 1823, pp. 323-
325) and of an attempt to apply M. De Luc's electric column to
the measurement of time. His other contributions relative to the
dry pile are to be found in the Phil. Mag., Vols. XLIII. p. 414, and
XLV. p. 466.
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Mem. of Sir Francis Ronalds, F.R.S.," by Alfred
J. Frost, in Ronalds' "Catalogue"; " Mem. of Dist. Men of Science,"
by William Walker; Ronalds' " Corres. and Memoir.," in 1848-1849,
to 1853, to April 17, 1855, to June 5, 1856, to Sept. 2, 1862, and in
1866-1870; Ronalds' " Walk Through . . . Exh. oi 1855 "; Illustrated
London News of April 30, 1870 ; eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII. pp. 622,
627, for Ronalds' improved electrometers and his telegraph ; Nature,
London, Nov. 23, 1871, Vol. V. p. 59; Journal of the Telegraph, March
15, 1875, Vol. VIII. p. 82, reporting the inaugural address of Mr. Latimer
Clark before the English Society of Tel. Engineers ; Comptes Rendus
for 1838, Vol. VII. pp. 593, etc.; Sci. Am. Supp., No. 384, pp. 6, 127; No.
547, p. 8735, and No. 659, p. 10521, for his Telegraph; "Bombay
Mag. Observatory," 1850; Fortschri/t des Phys., Vol. III. p. 586, and
Buys-Ballot " Meteor. Preisfrage," 1847, for Ronalds' apparatus to
measure atmospheric electricity; Phil. Mag., Vols. XLIV. p. 442 ; XLV.
p. 261 ; XLVI. p. 203 ; and third series, Vols. XXVIII for 1846; XXXI.
p. 191; British Ass. Reports for 1845, 1846, and Reports concerning
the Kew Observatory for 1845, 1850, 1852; Phil. Trans, for 1847,
Moigno's Le Cosmos, Vol. XIII; L. Von Forster, " All Bauzeitung " for
1848, p. 238; Noad's " Manual," pp. 184, 185, 748; Knight's " Mechani-
cal Dictionary," Vol. I. p. 708; Turnbull's "Electromagnetic Tele-
graph," p. 22 ; Annals of Electricity, Vol. III. p. 449; "English Cyclop."
(Arts and Sci.), Vol. VIII. pp. 71, 72; Jour. Soc. Teleg. Eng., 1879,
Part XV, xxxviii ; Vol. VIII, first part, p. 361 ; Reply to Mr. W. F. Cooke's
pamphlet, " The Elec. Teleg. : Was it Invented by Prof. Wheatstone ? "
London, 1855; Du Moncel, Vol. Ill; "Telegraphic Tales," 1880, p. 42;
J. D. Reid, " The Telegraph in America," 1887, p. 71 ; Ure's " Diet,
of Arts," etc., London, 1878, Vol. II (Elect. Metal.), p. 230; T. P.
Schaffner, "Tel. Man.," 1859, pp. 147-156; Silliman, "Principles of
Physics," 1869, p. 617; " Edin. Phil. Journal," 1823, Vol. IX.
PP- 322, 395-
A.D. 1816.— -Porret (Robert) (1783-1868) communicates to
the Annals of Philosophy (Vol. VIII. p. 74) a paper " On Two
Curious Galvanic Experiments " (Electro vection, Voltaic Endos-
mose, or Electro-chemical Filtration).
Jle observed that when water was placed in a diaphragm ap-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 441
paratus, one side of which was connected with the positive and the
other side with the negative electrode of the battery, that a con-
siderable portion of the liquid was transferred from the positive
toward the negative side of the arrangement. It has since been
found that the same result occurs in a minor degree when saline
solutions are electrolyzed, and, generally, the greater the resistance
which the liquid offers to electrolysis the greater is the amount
which is thus mechanically carried over. ... It appears from the
researches of Wiedemann (Pogg., Ann., Vol. LXXXVII. p. 321),
which have been confirmed by those of Quincke, that the amount
of liquid transferred, cateris paribus, is proportioned to the strength
or intensity of the current ; that it is independent of the thickness
of the diaphragm by which the two portions of liquid are separated ;
and that when different solutions are employed, the amount trans-
ferred in each case, by currents of equal intensity, is directly pro-
portional to the specific resistance of the liquid. Miller, from whom
the above is taken, says that this transfer has been minutely studied
by Quincke, and gives an account of the latter's work extracted
from the Ann. de Chimie, LXIII. p. 479. Brewster's allusion to
Porret and Wiedemann (eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII. p. 630)
is followed by the statement that Mr. Graham considers ordinary
endosmose as produced by the electricity of chemical action.
REFERENCES. — Graham, Vol. II. p. 266; De la Rive's " Electricity,"
Chap. IV. pp. 424-443; "Roy. Soc. Cat. of Sci. Papers," Vol. IV.
pp. 987, 988 ; Wm. Henry, " Elem. of Exp. Chem." 1823, Vol. I. p. 178 ;
C. Matteucci, " Traite des Ph&iom. Elect. Phys.," 1844, p. 262 for
Porret and Becquercl; Sturgeon's " Sc. Researches," Bury, 1850,
p. 544; Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 503; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. Ill, N.S.,
1816, p. 15 (Thomson's "Annals" for July 1816).
A.D. 1817. — Mr. J. Connolly makes known through an English
and French pamphlet, entitled " An Essay on Universal Telegraphic
Communication/' the details of his portable telegraph.
As shown in the thirty-sixth volume of the Transactions of the
Society of Arts and in the twenty-fourth volume of the " Penny
Cyclopaedia/' his apparatus consists merely of three square boards
painted with simple devices, like triangles, crescents, etc., the colours
on the one side being the reverse of those on the other. Each of
the six figures thus obtained is capable of producing four different
distinct signals, making in all twenty-four, by successively turning
each side of the board downward. In experiments made at Chat-
ham, boards only eighteen inches square were found to answer
for a distance of two miles, with a telescope having a magnifying
power of twenty-five ; and Mr. Connolly had also, it is said, exhibited
these signals between Gros-nez and Sarque, a distance of seventeen
miles, with boards twelve feet square,
442 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
At pp. 205, 208, of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, 1818,
Vol. XXXV, and at p. 98, Vol. XXXVI for 1819, will be found
Mr. Connolly's system of telegraphing by means of flags in manner
different from that of Lieut. -Col. John Macdonald alluded to at
Pasley, A.D. 1808.
A.D. 1817. — In the " Encycl. Brit.'* article treating of the
influence of magnetism on chemical action, it is said that M. Musch-
man, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Christiania, made
experiments to ascertain the effect of the earth's magnetism on the
precipitation of silver.
Desirous of explaining the chemical theory of the tree of Diana
(Arbor Diana, first observed by Lemery), " he took a tube like a
siphon and poured mercury into it, which accordingly occupied
the lower part of the two branches ; above the mercury he poured
a strong solution of nitrate of silver. He then placed the two
branches of the siphon so that the plane passing through them
was in the magnetic meridian, and after standing a few seconds
the silver began to precipitate itself with its natural lustre ; but it
accumulated particularly in the northern branch of the siphon,
while that which was less copiously precipitated in the other branch
had a less brilliant lustre, and was mixed with the mercurial salt
deposited from the solution." Muschman and Prof. Hansteen,
having repeated this experiment with the same result, concluded
that the magnetism of the earth had an influence on the precipitation
of silver from a solution of its nitrate, and Muschman inferred from
the experiment the identity of galvanism and magnetism (eighth
" Britannica," Vol. XIV. p. 42).
A.D. 1817. — Freycinet (Claude Louis Desaulscs de) (1779-1842),
captain in the French navy, is sent in command of an expedition
fitted out by the French Government for the purpose of making
scientific observations in a voyage round the world. The experi-
mental stations were the Island of Rawak (near the coast of
Guinea), Guam (one of the Ladrones), the Isle of France, Mowi
(one of the Sandwich Islands), Rio Janeiro, Port Jackson, Cape
of Good Hope, Paris and the Falkland Islands, as described in his
" Voyage Autour du Monde . . ." Paris, 1842.
His observations on the diurnal variations of the needle, which
confirm the investigations made by Lieut. -Col. John Macdonald
(A.D. 1808), are to be found at p. 54, Vol. XIV of the eighth
" Britannica."
REFERENCES. — His " Voyage de D6couvertes . . . 1800-1804 ..."
(F. P6ron and Louis Freycinet), also bis " Navigation et G4og. ..."
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 443
1515; the note at p. 158, Vol. I*of
1849; Phil. Mag., Vol. LVII. p. 20.
A.D. 1817.-— In Vol. XLII. pp. 165, 166, of the Transactions of
the Society of Arts will be found a record of the explanation of his
magnetic guard for needle pointers which Mr. Westcott made before
the Committee of Mechanics during the year 1817. This is said to
consist of several " bar magnets smeared over with oil placed in a
frame behind the grindstone."
A.D. 1818.— Bostock (John) (1774-1846), English physician,
F.R.S., lecturer at Guy's Hospital, publishes in London his " Account
of the History and Present State of Galvanism," which is scarcely
more than a compilation of works treating of that branch of
science.
One of the passages is, however, worth quoting, for it reflects
the opinion shared by many physicists of the time that the resources
of the galvanic field were already wellnigh exhausted. It thus
appears at p. 102 : " Although it may be somewhat hazardous to
form predictions respecting the progress of science, I may remark
that the impulse which was given in the first instance by Galvani's
original experiments, was revived by Volta's discovery of the pile,
and was carried to the highest pitch by Sir H. Davy's application
of it to chemical decomposition, seems to have, in a great measure,
subsided. It may be conjectured that we have carried the power
of the instrument to the utmost extent of which it admits; and
it does not appear that we are at present in the way of making
any important additions to our knowledge of its effects, or of
obtaining any new light upon the theory of its action."
Bostock is also the author of ' ' Outline of the History of the Galvanic
Apparatus "; " On the Theory of Galvanism " (Nicholson's Journal
for 1802) ; " On the Hypothesis of Galvanism " (Annals of Philosophy,
III, 1814), and of other works upon different scientific subjects.
Reference is made by Mr. William Leithead (" Electricity/' London,
1837, Chap. VI. pp. 296, 297) to Bostock's " Elementary System
of Physiology," 1827, Vol. II. pp. 413, etc., wherein is shown among
other results, that, contrary to the views of Dr. Philip, there is no
necessary connection between " the nervous influence " and the
action of the glands. At p. 306 of Leithead appears another ex-
tract, from the third volume of Bostock, relative to the application
of the electro-physiological theory in elucidating the phenomena of
disease.
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 249, ,250; "Nicholson's
Journal," Vols. II. p. 296, and III. p. 3; Figuier, "Expos, et Histoire,"
1857, Vol. IV. p. 425; Gilbert, Vol. XII. p. 476.
444 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1819.— Hansteen (Ctiristoph) (1784-1873), Norwegian
astonomer and physicist, embodies in his notable work, " Unter-
suchungen iiber den Magnetismus der Erde . . ." (" Inquiries
regarding the magnetism of the earth "), the result of his extensive
researches concerning terrestrial magnetism, the account of which
is accompanied by a chart indicating the magnetic direction and
dip at numerous places. This work, which is said to have been
practically completed in 1813 (Humboldt, " Cosmos/' 1859, Vol. V.
p. 66), was translated by the celebrated Peter Andreas Hansen
(Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 1013-1015) from the original manuscript
and published in German. It attracted much attention through-
out the scientific world, and so highly was it thought of that in
almost all the voyages of discovery afterwards undertaken most
magnetic observations were made according to its directions.
Through the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " we learn that Han-
steen '$ able work was first made known in England by Sir David
Brewster through two articles in the Edin. Phil. Journal for 1820,
Vol. III. p. 138, and Vol. IV. p. 114, and that an account of his
subsequent researches, drawn up by Hansteen himself, appeared
in the Edin. Journal of Science for 1826, Vol. V. p. 65. It is also
stated that the Royal Society of Denmark proposed in 1811 the
prize question, " Is the supposition of one magnetical axis sufficient
to account for the magnetical phenomena of the earth, or are two
necessary? " Prof. Hansteen's attention had been previously
drawn to this subject by seeing a terrestrial globe, on which was
drawn an elliptical line round the south pole and marked Regio
Polaris magnetica, one of the foci being called Regio fortior, and
the other Regio debilior. As this figure professed to be drawn by
Wilcke, from the observations of Cooke and Furneaux, Hansteen
was led to compare it with the facts ; and the result of his
researches was favourable to that part of Halley's theory which
assumes the existence of four poles and two magnetic axes.
Hansteen's Memoir, which was crowned by the Danish Society,
forms the groundwork of his larger volume published in 1819.
" In his fifth chapter, on the Mathematical Theory of the Magnet,
he deduces the law of magnetic action from a series of experi-
ments similar to those of Hauksbee and Lambert. ... In deter-
mining the intensity of terrestrial magnetism Professor Hansteen
observed that the time of vibration of a horizontal needle varied
during the day. Graham had previously suspected a change of
this kind, but his methods were not accurate enough to prove it.
Hansteen found that the minimum intensity took place between
ten and eleven a.m., and the maximum between four and five
p,rn, He concluded also that there was an annual variation, the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 445
intensity being considerably greater in winter near the perihelion,
and in summer near the aplielion ; that the greatest monthly varia-
tion was a maximum when the earth is in its perihelion or aphelion,
and a minimum near the equinoxes; and that the greatest daily
variation is least in winter and greatest in summer. He found
also that the aurora borealis weakened the magnetic force, and
that the magnetic intensity is always weakest when the moon
crosses the equator."
According to Dr. Whewell (" History of Indue. Sciences/' 1859,
Vol. II. p. 226), the conclusions reached by Hansteen respecting
the position of the four magnetic " poles " excited so much interest
in his own country that the Norwegian Storthing, or Parliament,
by a unanimous vote provided funds for a magnetic expedition
which he was to conduct along the north of Europe and Asia, and
this they did at the very time when, strange to say, they refused
to make a grant to the King for building a palace at Christiania.
The expedition was made in 1828-1830, and verified Hansteen's
anticipations as to the existence of a region of magnetic convergence
in Siberia, which he considered as indicating a " pole " to the north
of that country. The results were published in Hansteen and Due's
" Resultate magnetischer . . /' (" Magn., Astron. and Meteor.
Obs. on Journey through Siberia ") which appeared in 1863.
In the Sixth Dissertation, Chap. VII of the " Encycl. Brit./'
it is said that, next to Prof. Hansteen, science is mainly indebted
for the great extension of our knowledge of the facts and the laws
of terrestrial magnetism to two illustrious German philosophers,
Baron Alexander von Humboldt and Prof. Karl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855). An account is therein given of Gauss's individual
investigations, as well as of the researches he made in conjunction
with Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891), who was likewise a
professor at Gottingen. Of Alex, von Humboldt, we have spoken
fully under date 1799, and of Gauss and Weber, mention has
already been made at Schilling (A.D. 1812).
The very valuable contributions of Gauss and Weber appear
throughout all the many scientific publications of the period,
notably in the " Abhandlung d. Gott. Geselsch. d. Wiss./' their
joint work being shown to advantage in the important " Resul-
tate . . . des Magnet. Vereins," published in Leipzig, I837-J.843.1
1 For Gauss and Weber: Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. I. pp. 172,
185-186; Vol. II. p. 720, and Vol. V, 1859, pp. 63, 71; "Encycl. Brit.,"
1879, Vol. X. p. 116, and the 1902 ed. Vol. XXXIII. p. 798; " Am. Journ.
of Psych.," Vol. IV. pp. 7-10 ; " New International Encycl.," 1903, Vol. VIII.
p. 159. The following curious array of figures is selected from Gauss' many
interesting calculations. He found that the earth's magnetism is such as
would result from the existence, in every cubic yard of its mass, of six mag-
446 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — For M. Hansteen's scientific papers and for an
account of additional magnetic results obtained by himself and others,
consult the eighth " Britannica," Vols. I. p. 745; IV. p. 249; XIV.
pp. 15, 23, 42 (experiment with M. Muschman), 50, 55, 57-64, et seq.,
for Morlet and others; Thomson's " Outline of the Sciences," London,
1830, pp. 546-548; Whewell, "History of the Indue. Sci.," Vol. II.
pp. 613, 615, also p. 219 for Yates and Hansteen; Johnson's new
" Univer. Encycl.," 1878, Vol. III. pp. 231-234 for Morlet, etc. : Weld's
" Hist, of Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. p. 435; " Edin. Jour, of Sci.," London,
1826, Vols. I. pp. 87, 334; V. pp. 65-71, 218-222; " Report of Seventh
Meeting British Association," London, 1838, Vol. VI. pp. 76, 82; J. G.
Steinhauser's articles published between 1803 and 1821 ; Harris' " Rudi-
mentary Magnetism, London, 1852, Part. III. pp. 38, 39, in; Phil.
Mag., Vol. LIX. p. 248, and Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. II. p. 334;
" Zeitschr. f. pop. Mitth.," I. p. 33; Schweigger's Journal, 1813—1827;
PoggendorH's Annalen, 1825-1855; " Acad6mie Royale de Belgique "
for 1853, 1855, 1865; C. Hansteen and C. Fearnley, " Die Univ.-Stern-
warte . . ." 1849; Hansteen, Lundh and Muschman, " Nyt. Mag. for
Naturvid," 1823-1856. See likewise his biography in the " English
Vol. IX. p. 243; "Annual Rec. Sc. Disc.," 1873, p. 683; 1875, p. 155;
Knight's " Amer. Mech. Diet.," 1875, Vol. II. p. 1374, and eighth
" Britan.," Vol. XIV. p. 49, regarding Hansteen's lines of no variation
for 1787; Humboldt's "Cosmos," 1859, Vol. V. pp. iio-iu, for the
investigations of Hansteen, Sir Ed. Belcher and others, those of the
last named being treated of at p. 493 of the Phil. Trans, for 1832 ; Noad,
"Manual," pp. 529, 530, 534, 616, 617, etc.; Appleton's "New Am.
Cycl.," Vol. XL p. 64.
A.D. 1819.— Hare (Robert) (1781-1858) who was for twenty-
nine years Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania University,
publishes in Philadelphia " A New Theory of Galvanism, Supported
by Some Experiments and Observations Made by Means of the
Calorimotor . . /'of which an English edition appears in London
the same year. (A full review of this work is to be found more
particularly at p. 206, Vol. LIV of the Philosophical Magazine ;
in the " Encycl. Metropol.," Vol. IV (Galvanism), p. 222; in Ure's
"Dictionary of Chemistry," Am. ed., article "Calorimotor"; at
p. 187 of the Phil. Trans, for 1823; at pp. 409, 410, Vol. I of
Gmelin's " Chemistry," and at pp. 413-423, Vol. I of Silliman's
Am. Jour, of Sci., the last named being accompanied by a very fine
illustration of the Calorimotor.)
This apparatus, which has already been alluded to (Pepys,
A.D. 1802), consists of sheets of zinc about 9 inches by 6, and of
copper about 14 inches by 6, coiled around one another nearly
half an inch apart ; there being in all 80 coils, 2 J inches in diameter,
which are let down by means of a lever into glass vessels containing
the acid solution. Dr. Hare observes :
netized steel bars, each weighing one pound. Compared with one such magnet,
the magnetism of the earth is represented by 8,464,000,000,000,000,000,000
("Am. Ann. of Sc. Dis.," 1852, p. iii).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 447
" Volta considered all galvanic apparatus as consisting of one
or more electromotors, or movers of the electric fluid. To me it ap-
peared that they were movers of both heat and electricity ; the ratio
of the quantity of the latter put in motion to the quantity of the
former put in motion being as the number of the series to the
superficies. Hence the word electromotor can only be applicable
when the caloric becomes evanescent, and electricity almost the
sole product, as in De Luc's and Zamboni's columns ; and the word
calorimotor ought to be used when electricity becomes evanescent
and caloric appears the sole product.'*
" It afterwards appeared quite natural," remarks Mr. W. B.
Taylor (Note B, " Mem. of Jos. Henry," p. 376) " to distinguish
these" classes of effects by the old terms — ' intensity ' for electro-
motive force, and ' quantity ' for calorimotive force. There is
obviously a close analogy between these differences of condition
and resultant, and the more strongly contrasted conditions of
mechanical and chemical electricity; and indeed the whole may
be said to lie in a continuous series, from the highest ' intensity '
with minimum quantity, to the greatest ' quantity ' with minimum
intensity/'
Two years later (1821), Dr. Hare constructed his galvanic deflag-
rator. It consists of two pairs of troughs, each ten feet long, and
containing 150 galvanic pairs, so arranged that the plates can all
be simultaneously immersed into or withdrawn from the acid.
Each pair turns on pivots made of iron, coated with brass or copper,
and a communication is established between these and the voltaic
series within by means of small strips of copper. The " Encyl.
Brit." gives a full description of the construction and working of
the apparatus, as do also the " Encycl. Metropol.," Vol. IV (Galv.),
p. 176; Noad ("Manual," pp. 266, 267) ; Gmelin ("Chemistry," Vol. I.
pp. 409, 410), and Silliman (" Journal of Sci. and Arts," Vol. VII.
p. 347). The first-named publication says of Dr. Hare's deftagrator :
" A brilliant light, equal to that of the sun, was produced between
charcoal points, and plumbago and charcoal were fused by Profs.
Silliman and Griscom. By a series of 250, baryta was deflagrated,
and a platina wire, three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, ' was
made to flow like water/ In the experiments with charcoal, the
charcoal on the copper side had no appearance of fusion, but a
crater-shaped cavity was formed within it, indicating that the
charcoal was volatilized at this side and transferred to the other,
where it was condensed and fused, the piece of charcoal at this pile
being elongated considerably. This fused charcoal was four times
denser than before fusion. In a letter from Prof. Silliman, which
was transcribed in the Sc. Am. Sup. for Sept. 21, 1878, he says :
448 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
' Undoubtedly the earliest exhibitions of electric light from the
voltaic battery were those made with the deflagrators of Dr. Hare
by Prof. Silliman at New Haven in 1822, and subsequently on a
magnificent scale at Boston in 1834, when an arc of over five inches
diameter was produced by the simultaneous immersion of 900 large-
sized couples of Hare's deflagrator. But no means had then been
devised for the regulation of the electric light to render it con-
stant, and although the writer as early as 1842 used this light
successfully to produce daguerreotypes, the progress of invention
had yet to make further use of the discovery of science before
electrical illumination was possible/ "
The description of Dr. Hare's electrical machine (before alluded
to at Van Marum A.D. 1785), wherein the plate is mounted horfeon-
tally so as to show both negative and positive electricity, was
published in London during 1823, and can ^e found in Vol. LXII
of the Phil. Mag., as well as at pp. 538, 604, 605, Vol. VIII of
the 1855 " Encycl. Brit/1 In the last-named article mention is
made of the introduction of a band (illustrated Fig. 7, Plate CCXXII)
which prevents the plate from being cracked, as it frequently is,
through some hasty effort to put it in motion while it adheres to
the cushions. It is also therein stated that in order to offset the
heavy expense attending the breakage of large cylinders and plates,
M. Walkiers de St. Amand, of Brussels, among many others, made
an apparatus of varnished silk 25 feet long and 5 feet wide, capable
of giving sparks 15 inches long (see A.D. 1785), while Dr. Ingenhousz
constructed machines with pasteboard discs four feet in diameter,
soaked in copal or amber varnish dissolved in linseed oil, which
gave sparks of one and even two feet in length.
In the fifth volume, new series, of the Amer. Phil. Trans, will
be found Dr. Hare's " Description of an Electrical Machine," with
a plate four feet in diameter, so constructed as to be above the
operator; also of a battery discharger employed therewith, and
some observations on the causes of the diversity in the length of
the sparks erroneously distinguished by the terms positive and
negative. Hare is also the inventor of a single gold-leaf electro-
scope of such great delicacy that it has, he says, enabled him to
detect the electricity produced by one contact between a zinc and
copper disc, each six inches in diameter (Noad, " Manual/' p. 29;
Harris' " Rudim. Elect.," p. 50; Silliman's Journal, Vol. XXXV).
He invented several other electrical appliances, and he is likewise
the author of numerous important memoirs which it would be
impossible to detail in the narrow limits of this " Bibliographical
History." They will, however, be found recorded in the publica-
tions named below.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 449
REFERENCES .—Phil. Trans, for 1769, Vol. LXIX. p. 659. See also,
for Walkiers de St. Amand, the entry at A.D. 1785, as well as Lichten-
berg's Magazin, Vol. Ill, ist, p. 118, for the last-named year. To these
might be added the machines made by Mundt, of silken strips (Gren's
Journal der Physik., Vol. VII. p. 319); by N. Rouland, " Descript. des
mach, elec. a taffetas," Amsterdam, 1785; by Croissant and Thore;
of paper by W. H. Barlow (Phil. Mag,. Vol. XXXVII. p. 428), of gutta
percha; as well as machines of rubber by Fabre and Kunneman, as
shown at Th. Du Moncel's " Expose* des appl. de 1'El.," second ed.,
p. 399, and third ed., 1872, Vol. II. pp. 78, 122, 265, besides the
peculiarly constructed machines of Erdmann Wolfram (Ferussac, " Bul-
letin des Sciences Tech." for 1824) ; of G. H. Seiferheld, " Beschreib . . .
elektrische mach," 1787 ; of F. E. Neuman, as modified by F. Zantedeschi
(" Ann. Sci. Lom.-Ven.," XII. p. 73), and of those described at p. 420,
Vol. II, and at p. 4, Vol. Ill of Nicholson's Magazine. Consult likewise,
PP- 335. 34°, second Am. ed. of the "New Edin.' Encycl.," 1817.
Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 1018, 1019; "Cat. Sci. Papers of Roy.
9oc.," Vol. III. pp. 177-182; Vol. VI. p. 182; Silliman's Am. Jour.
" '• "ois. ii. pp. 312, 326; ir
; V11I. pp. 99, 145; A
p. 322 \ XV7 p. 271*7 XXIV. p. 253, XXV. p. 136; XX'XL p. 275;
Sci. and Arts, Vols. II. pp. 312, 326; III. p. 105; IV. p. 201 ; V. p. 94;
VII. pp. 103, 108, 351 ; V11I. pp. 99, 145; X. p. 67; XII. p. 36; XIII.
XXXII. pp. 272, 275-278, 280-285; XXXIII. p. 241; XXXV. p. 329;
XXXVII. pp. 269, 383; XXXVIII. pp. i, 336, 339; XXXIX. p. 108;
XL. pp. 48, 303 ; XLI. pp. i, and XLI1L p. 291 ; Phil. Mag., Vols. LVII.
p. 284; LX1I. pp. 3, 8, etc.; Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. VI. pp. 114,
171; Journal of the Franklin Institute, third series, Vol. XV. pp. 188,
etc.; Trans, of the Am. Phil. Soc., N.S., Vol. VI. p. 297 (for Hare
Sc.," London, 1830, pp. 515, 517; Appleton's " New Amer. Cycl.," Vol.
VII. p. 66; Appleton's "Diet, of Machines, Mechanics . . ." 1861,
pp. 432, 433 ; Dr. William Henry, " Elem. of Exper. Chem.," London, 1823,
Vol. I. p. 169, and Supplement, Chap. VII. p. 29; " Annual of Sc. Disc."
for 1862, p. 99.
A.D. 1819. — Gmelin (Leopold), the most distinguished member
of the family of that name, publishes, at Frankfort, 1817-1819, the
first edition of his celebrated " Handbuch d. theoret. Chemie,"
which embodies the whole extent of chemical science as it then
existed and the fourth and last edition of which, under the author's
supervision, appeared during 1843-1845. This extensive work is
well known, both in its original form and through the very able
translation of it made by Mr. Henry Watts. In the report of the
Council of the Chemical Society for 1854, it is said that " the
greatest service which Gmelin rendered to science — a service
in which he surpassed all his predecessors and all his contem-
poraries— consists in this : that he collected and arranged in
order all the facts that have been discovered in connection with
chemistry. His Handbuch der theoret Chemie stands alone. Other
writers on chemistry have indeed arranged large quantities of
materials in systematic order, but for completeness and fidelity of
collation and consecutiveness of arrangement, Gmelin's Handbuch
is unrivalled."
CO
450 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Although many references have been made herein to Leopold
Gmelin's treatment of such departments of science as directly
appeal to the readers of this compilation, it is well to mention
some of the headings under which they are to be found. They
are, " Electricity," " Electro-chemical Theories/1 " Electrolysis,'
" Technical Apparatus of Electricity/' " Theory of Galvanism/
" Galvanic Batteries/' " Magnetic Condition of All Matter/' etc.,
etc,, the whole occupying pp. 304 to 519, Vol. I of Gmelin's English
edition. The list of many of Leopold Gmelin's valuable contribu-
tions to science is given in the " Catalogue Sc. Papers Roy. Soc./
besides which may be mentioned his " Uber e angebl. meteorische
masse " (Gilbert, Annalen, LXXIII for 1823), and his " Versuch
einer elektro-chemisch. theorie " (Poggendorff's Annalen der Fhysik
und Chemie, Vol. XLIV for 1838, while at pp. 547-550 of Mr. J. J,
Griffin's able work, published in London during 1858, will be
found the results obtained by Prof. G. Magnus and by Prof. Faraday
with a summary of Gmelin's conclusions under the heading of " The
Evidence of Electrolysis in Favour of the Radical Theory."
GMELIN FAMILY
This family, which, through four generations, has been con-
tinuously distinguished for its valuable contributions to chemistry
as well as to the natural and medical sciences, deserves equally
well here of such a special mention as was accorded to the Bernoulli
and Cassini families, under dates A.D. 1700 and 1782-1791.
Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), a very able chemist and
pharmaceutist of Tubingen, was the father of :
Johann Conrad Gmelin (1707-1759), physician and author
in the same city of Tubingen.
Johann Georg Gmelin (1709-1755), distinguished naturalist
and chemist, who graduated as M.D. in his nineteenth
year, became a member of the St. Petersburg Acad. of
Sc. and was sent by the Empress Anna, in company
with G. A. Miiller and other noted scientists, upon a
ten years' exploring expedition through Siberia. He
was one of the first explorers of Northern Asia, and
a genus of Asiatic plants was named Gmelina after
him by Linnaeus.
Philip Friedrich Gmelin (1722-1768), Professor of Botany
and of Chemistry at Tubingen, author of many scientific
monographs.
Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744-1774), elder son of Philip Fried-
rich, who, like his uncle, graduated M.D. at nineteen and was sent
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 451
two years later by the Empress Catherine II upon a scientific tour
through South-Eastern Russia, is the author of " Historia Fu~
corum . . ." as well as of other contributions which were edited
through the famous Pallas. His biographical notice appears in
the last volume of the " Reise durch Russland ..." published at
St. Petersburg.
Johann Friedrich Gmelin (1748-1804), M.D., succeeded his
father, Philip Friedrich, in the chair of chemistry and botany at
the Tubingen University, became Professor of Medicine at Got-
tingen in 1778 and a member of " I'Academie des Curieux de la
Nature." He is the author of the thirteenth edition of Linnaeus'
" Systema Naturae," which, notwithstanding Cuvier's severe criti-
cism* of it, is said to be the only work which even professes to
embrace all the objects of natural history described up to the
year 1790 (" Encycl. Brit.," 1855, Vol. IX. p. 4). He is also the
author of " Geschichte der Chemie . . ." Gottingen, 1797-1799,
and of " Praelectio de col. metal, a Volta . . ." (" Commentat.
Soc. Gott." XV (Phys.) for 1800-1803, p. 38). (See J. C. Poggen-
dorff, " Biogr.-Literar. Handworterbuch," Vol. I. pp. 914-915.)
His son, Leopold Gmelin (1788-1853), who has already been
noticed, practised chemical manipulation in the Tubingen pharma-
ceutical laboratory of Dr. Christian Gmelin, the son of Johann
Conrad, and studied at Gottingen, Vienna and in Italy, after which
he became medical and chemical professor at Heidelberg, 1817-1851
(Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 915-916).
Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), elder son of Dr.
Christian Gmelin, was Professor of Medicine and of Natural History
in the Tubingen University, and wrote " Diss. sistens obs. phys.
et chem. de electricitate et galvanismo " during 1802 (Poggendorff,
Vol. I. pp. 916-917).
Christian Gottlob Gmelin (1792-1860), brother of the last named,
M.D., was Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy at the Tubingen
University, and the author of " Experimenta electricitatem ..."
1820; " Uber d. Coagulat. . . . d. Electricitat " (Schweigger's
" Journal," Vols. XXXVI for 1822) ; " Analyse d. turmalins . . ."
(Schweigger's " Journal," Vols. XXXI for 1821 and XXXVIII for
1823 — Poggendorffs " Annalen," Vol. IX for 1827), as well as of
a " Handbuch der Chemie," published 1858-1861 (Poggendorff,
Vol. I. p. 917; Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. III. p. 460).
REFERENCES. — Gmelin and Schaub, " Effets Chimiques de la col.
metal . . ." (" Magas. Encyclop.," Vol. VI. p. 201); Eberhard Gmelin's
letter to M. Privy Councillor Hoffmann of Mayence (1787), and his new
investigations (1789) on the subject of animal magnetism (" Salzb. Med.
Chir. Zeit.," 1790, I. p. 358); Whewell, " Hist, of the Ind. Sc.," 1859,
Vol. II. p. 348.
452 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1819.— Dana (J. F.), M.D. (1793-1827), Chemical Assis-
tant in Harvard University and Lecturer on Chemistry and Phar-
macy in Dartmouth College, writes, Jan. 25, 1819, to Prof. Benjamin
Silliman concerning his new form of portable electrical battery.
This apparatus, consisting of alternate plates of flat glass and
of tinfoil, the sheets of which latter are connected together, is
fully described at pp. 292-294, and is illustrated opposite p. 288,
Vol. I of Silliman's American Journal of Science, 1818, wherein
it is stated that, while " in a battery of the common form, 2 feet long,
i foot wide and 10 inches high, containing 18 coated jars, there
will be no more than 3500 square inches of coated surf ace/' a battery
of Dana's construction will have no less than 8000 square inches
covered with tinfoil, allowing the sheet of glass and of foil to be
a quarter of an inch thick. In a brief description of this apparatus,
which appears at p. 468, Vol. Vof Tilloch's Phil. Mag. and Journal,
it is stated that a " battery constructed in this way contains, in
the bulk of a quarto volume, a very powerful instrument; and
when made of glass it is extremely easy, by varnishing the edges,
to keep the whole of the inner surfaces from the air, and to retain
it in a constant state of dry insulation."
A.D. 1820.— Oersted— Orsted (Hans Christian), native of Den-
mark (1770-1851), Professor of Natural Philosophy and founder of
the Polytechnic School in Copenhagen, makes known, through a small
four-page pamphlet entitled " Experimenta circa effectum conflictus
electrici in acum magnet icam," his great discovery of the intimate
relation existing between electricity and magnetism (Thomson's
Annals of Philosophy for October 1820, Vol. XVI, first series,
pp. 273-276). He thus lays the foundation of the science of electro-
magnetism, which subsequently was so materially developed by
Ampere and Faraday.
It is said that after taking his doctor's degree in 1799, he gave
much attention to galvanism, and that in the year 1800 he made
important discoveries as to the action of acids during the production
of galvanic electricity. He was one of the earliest to show the oppo-
site conditions of the poles of the galvanic battery, also that acids
and alkalies are produced in proportion as they neutralize each
other. Upon his return from a trip to France and Germany, 1801-3,
he lectured on electricity and the cognate sciences, publishing thereon
a number of essays. (These are to be found, more particularly, in
J. H. Voigt's Magazin, Vol. III. p. 412; Van Mons1 Journal, No.
IV. p. 68; the Bulletin of the Societe Philomathique, No. LXVII.
an. xi. p. 128; A. F. Gehlen's Neues Allgem. Journal d. Chemie,
Vols. Ill for 1804, VI for 1806, VIII for 1808; Schweigger's
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 458
Journal, Vol. XX; Phil. Mag.t Vol. XXIII. p. 129; the " Skand.
Lit.-Selskabs Skrifter/' Vol. I; "Oversigt over det Kongl. . . .
Forhandlinger," 1814-1815; " Nyt Biblioth. f. Physik," etc.,
Vol. IX, and in the Journal de Physique as well as in the Journal du
Galvanisme.)
He revisited Germany during 1812, and, at the suggestion of
Karsten Niebuhr, published in Berlin his work " Ansicht der
Chemischen Naturgesetze. . . ." ("Inquiry into the identity of
chemical and electric forces "), a translation of which was made
by M. P. Marcel T. de Serres under the title of " Recherches sur
I'ldentite". . . ." (Fahie, " Hist, of Electric Teleg.," 1884, pp. 270-
273). The last-named work appeared at Paris during 1813, and not,
as stated at p. 41, Vol. LVII of the Philosophical Magazine* during
1807, which was the date of the original small German edition.1
One of his biographers says that Oersted was lecturing one day
to a class of advanced students, when, as a means of testing the sound-
ness of the theory which he had long been meditating, it occurred
to him to place a magnetic needle under the influence of a wire
uniting the ends of a voltaic battery in a state of activity. " In
galvanism/' said he, " the force is more latent than in electricity,
and, still more so in magnetism than in galvanism ; it is necessary
therefore to try whether electricity, in its latent state, will not affect
the magnetic needle." He tried the experiment upon the spot and
found that the needle tended to turn at right angles to the wire,
thus proving the existence of electro-magnetism, or the relation
of electricity and magnetism as mutually productive of each other,
and as evidences of a common source of power. Previous to this
time the identity of magnetism and electricity had only been sus-
pected. For several months Oersted prosecuted experiments
on the subject, and on the 2ist of July 1820 promulgated his
discovery through the Latin pamphlet above alluded to. Therein
he contends that there is always a magnetic circulation around
the electric conductor, and that the electric current in accordance
1 Whewell, " Hist, of Indue. Sci.," 1859, Vol. II. p. 244. It paved the
way for his subsequent identification of the forces of electricity, galvanism
and magnetism.
Prof. W. B. Rogers remarks that attempts to discover this connection
had been made with galvanic piles or batteries whose poles were not connected
by conductors, under the expectation that these would show magnetical
relations, although in such cases the electricity accumulated at the extremities
was evidently stagnant. It was reserved for Oersted first to bring into promi-
nent view the fact that it was not while the electricity was thus at rest, but
while it was flowing through the wire connecting the two poles, that it
exhibited magnetic action, and that a wire thus carrying a current, while
it had the power of affecting a magnetic needle, was in turn susceptible of
being acted on by a magnet ; and this was the initial step in the science of
electro-magnetism,
454 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
with a certain law always exercises determined and similar impres-
sions on the direction of the magnetic needle, even when it does not
pass through the needle but near it (the eighth edition of the
" Encycl. Britannica," Fifth Dissertation, pp. 739, 740, 745; and
the Sixth Dissertation, pp. 973-976; Schaffner, "Tel. Manual,"
1859, Chap. VIII; Practical Mechanic, Glasgow, 1842, Vol. III.
P- 45).
For this discovery, which naturally excited the wonder of the
entire scientific world, he received the Copley medal of the English
Royal Society, the Dannebrog order of knighthood and numerous
testimonials from nearly every quarter of Europe. As observed
by Mr. J. D. Forbes (Sixth Disser. " Encycl. Brit./' Vol. I), J' the
desideratum of a clear expression of the manifest alliance between
electricity and magnetism has been so long and so universally
felt that the discovery placed its author in the first rank of scientific
men. . . . The prize of the French Institute, which had been
awarded to Davy for his galvanic discoveries, was bestowed upon
Oersted."
Oersted's experiments were repeated before the French Academy
of Sciences by M. De la Rive on Sept. n, 1820, and, seven days
later, as we shall see, Ampere made known the law governing
electro-magnetism (Mme. Le Breton, " Hist. et. Appl. de TElect.,"
Paris, 1884, pp. 72, 73; W. Sturgeon, " Sci. Researches," Bury,
1850, p. 18; Higg's Translation of Fontaine's " Electric Lighting,"
London, 1878, p. 54).
The many investigations subsequently carried on by Oersted
in different branches of sciences are alluded to in the works named
below. Perhaps the most interesting, outside of the ones already
spoken of, are those attaching to thermo-electricity which he made
in conjunction with Baron Fourier, and independently of Dr.
Seebeck.
REFERENCES. — Eighth " Britannica," pp. 651 and 652, Vol. XXI, as
well as pp. ii and 12, Vol. XIV of Oersted's " Ef terretning om nogle nye, af
Fourier og Oersted . . ." Kiobenhaven, 1822-1823, translated into French
as mentioned in Vol. XXII of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique; " Over-
sigt over det Kongl. . . ." for 1822-1823 and 1823-1824; Poggendorff,
Vol. III. pp. 309-312; " Catal. Sci. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 697-
701 ; Biog. Sketch by P. L. Holier, " Oersted's Character und Lcben,"
1851, also Hauch und Forchammer, 1853; Obituary notice in four.
Frankl. Inst.t 1851, Vol. XXI. p. 358 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. I.
pp. 182, 185 and the 1819-1820 entry of " Magnetic Observations/'
in Vol. V; " Oversigt over det Kongl. danske Videnskabernes Selskabs
Fordhandlinger " for 1822, 1832, 1834-1835, 1836-1837, 1840-1842,
1847-1849; Poggendorff's Annalen, Vol. LIII; " Ursin's Magaz. f.
Kunstncre . . ." Vols. I and II; "Diet, of Elect romagn.," 1819; Stur-
geon's Annals of Electricity, Vol. I. p. 121 ; Hatchett " On the Experim;
... of Oersted and Ampere " (Phil. Mag., Vol. LVII. p. 40), PhiL Mag.,
Vols. LVI. p. 394 ; LVII. pp. 47-49 ; LIX. p. 462 ; PhiL Mag. or Annals,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 455
Vol. VIII. p. 230; Annales de Chimie for Aug. 1820, p. 244 ; S. S. Eyck,
"Over de magnetische. . . ." (BibL Univ., 1821); Translation by H.
Sebald, of H. C. Oersted's " Leben," 1853 ; Michaud, " Biog. Univ./' Vol.
XXXI. p. 196; P. L. Holler, " Der Geist in der Natur " (" The Spirit
in Nature ") ; Elie de Beaumont, " Memoir of Oersted " (" Smith. Rep." for
1863) ; Gilbert's A nnalen, Vol. LXVI. p. 295, 1820 ; Callisen, " Medicinisches
Schriftseller-Lexikon " ; W. Sturgeon's " Sci. Researches," Bury, 1850,
p. 8 (for 1807), and pp. 9-12 for English version of Oersted's pamphlet
which was translated in German in Vol. XXIX of Schweigger's " Journal,"
as well as in Vol. LXVI of Gilbert's Annalen, and which appeared in
French in Vol. XIV of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique for 1820, as
well as in Vol. II. pp. i -6 of " Collection de Me* moires relatifs a la Physique,"
Paris, 1885. See also " Biogr. G6n.," Vol. XXXVIII. pp. 522-535 ;
" Gottinger Gelehrte Anz.," No. 171; Sturgeon's " Sc. Researches,"
pp. 17, 18, 28, 415; Thomson's " Annals of Philosophy," Vol. XVI. p.
375 for second series of observations ; Van Marum on " Franklin's Theory
of Electricity," pp. 440-453 ; " Galvanism," by Mr. John Murray, p. 467;
' Note sur les experiences . . . de Oersted, Ampere, Arago, et Biot,"
(Annales des Mines, 1820); L. Turnbull, " Elec. Mag. Tel.," 1853,
pp. 45, 221 ; J. F. W. Herschel's " Preliminary Discourse," 1855, pp. 244,
255 ; Fahie, " Hist. Elec. Tel.," 1884, pp. 270-275, Harris, " Rud. Elec.,"
1853, p. 171; Ostwald's Klassiker, No. 63 and " Elektrochemie," 1896,
p. 67; Mrs. Somerville, "Con. of Phys. Sci.," 1846, p. 314; Noad,
" Manual," p. 642 ; " Lib. Useful Know." (El Magn.), pp. 4, 79 ; Lardner's
"Lectures," 1859, Vol. II. p. 119; Tomlinson's " Cycl. Useful Arts,"
Vol. I. p. 559 ; Ure's " Diet, of Arts/' 1878, Vol. II. p. 233 ; Henry Martin's
article in Johnson's " New Cyclopaedia," 1877, Vol. I. pp. 1512, 1514;
" Nyt Biblioth. f. Physik," Band I auch Schcrer's Nord. "Arch., II;
" Tidskrift f. Natur ..." I 1822 : Schumacher's " Astron. Jahrbuch"
for 1838; L. Magrini, " Nuovo mctodo. . . ." Padova, 1836; Boisgeraud
" On the Action of the Voltaic Pile . . ." (Phil. Mag., Vol. LVII. p.
203); Sci. Am. SuppL, No. 454, p. 7241; Schweigger's Journal, Vols.
XXXII, XXXIIT, LII; Figuicr, "Expos, et Hist./' 1857, Vol.
IV- P- 393: " Engl. Cycl.," " Arts and Sci.," Vol. III. p. 782; Brande's
"Man. of Chcm.," London, 1848, Vol. I. p. 248; Prime's "Life of
Morse," pp. 264, 451; Dr. Henry's " Elm. of Exper. Chcm.," London,
1823, Vol. I. pp. 193-203; Jour, of the FvankL Inst. for 1851, Vol. XXI.
p. 403; "La Lumiere Electnque " for Mar. 19, 1887, p. 593, and for
Oct. 31, 1891, pp. 201, etc. : Sir William Thomson, " Math. Papers,"
reprint, etc., 1872; " Encyl. Metrop." (Elect. Mag.,) ; G. B. Prescott,
" Elect, and the El. Tel.," 1885, Vol. I. p. 91 ; " Smithsonian Report "
for 1878, pp. 272, 273, note; Bacelli (L. G.), " Risultati . . ." Milano,
1821 ; " Bibl. Britan./' Vol. XVII, N.S. p. 181 ; Vol. XVIII, N.S. p. 3;
" Edin. Phil. Journal," Vol. X. p. 203 ; " Journal of the Soc. of Tel.
Eng.," 1876, Vol. V. pp. 459-464, for a verbatim copy of Oersted's
original communication on his discovery of electro-magnetism, and
pp. 464-469 for a translation thereof by the Rev. J. E. Kempe under the
title of " Experiments on the effect of electrical action on the Magnetic
Needle." For the interesting electro-magnetic experiments of J. Tatum,
at this same period, consult the Phil. Mag., Vol. LVII, 1821, p. 446;
Vol. LXI, 1823, p. 241 ; Vol. LXII, 1823, p. 107, and, for additional
investigation, the Vols. XLVII and LI for years 1816 and 1818.
A.D. 1820. — On Oct. 9, M. Boisgeraud, Jr., reads, before the
French Academic des Sciences, a paper concerning many of his
experiments, which prove to be merely variations of those previously
made by Oersted.
He observed that connecting wires, or arcs, placed anywhere in
the battery, affect the needle, and he noticed the difference of in-
456 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
tensity in the effects produced when electrical conductors are
employed to complete the circuit. He proposed to ascertain the
conducting power of different substances by placing them in one
of the arcs, cells or divisions of the battery, and bringing the magnetic
needle, or Amp&re's galvanometer, toward another arc, viz. to the
wire or other connecting body used to complete the circuit in the
battery. With regard to the positions of the needle and wire, as
observed by Boisgeraud, they are all confirmatory of Prof.
Oersted's statement (" Ency. Met." (Electro.-Mag.), Vol. IV. p. 6).
One month later, Nov. 9, 1820, Boisgeraud reads, before the
same Academie, his paper " On the Action of the Voltaic Pile upon
the Magnetic Needle," which will be found on pp. 203-206 and 257,
258, Vol. LVII of the Philosophical Magazine.
A.D. 1820. — Banks (Sir Joseph) (1743-1820), a very eminent
English naturalist and traveller, to whom reference has been made
under the A.D. 1775 date, deserves mention here were it alone for
the fact that while occupying the presidential chair of the Roy. Soc.,
during the extraordinary long and unequalled period of over forty-
two years (1777, date of Sir John Pringle's retirement, to 1820, the
date of President Banks' death) he was instrumental in bringing
prominently before the world many of the most important
discoveries and experiments known in the annals of magnetism
and electricity.
Sir Joseph Banks was succeeded in the presidency of the Royal
Society by William Hyde Wollaston, M.D., June 29, 1820, and by
Sir Humphry Davy, Bart., Nov. 30, 1820, the last named holding
the office seven years (R. Weld, " Hist. Roy. Soc./' 1848, Vol. II.
p. 359). Banks and Dr. Solander, the pupil of Linnaeus, had sailed
(1768-1771) with Captain Cook in his voyage around the globe, in
the capacity of naturalists, and afterwards (1772) visited Iceland,
where they made many important discoveries. In 1781 Banks was
created a baronet ; he received the Order of the Bath in 1795 and
subsequently had many honours conferred upon him by different
English and foreign societies. It is said that he was never known
to be appealed to in vain by men of science, either for pecuniary
assistance or for the use of his extensive library.
REFERENCES. — Tilloch's Phil. Mag. for 1820, Vol. LVI. pp. 40-46;
"Cat. Sci. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. p. 176; Dr. Thomas Thomson,
" Hist. Roy. Soc.," London, 1812, p. 12; Gentleman's Magazine for 1771,
1772 and 1820; " Biog. Univ./' Vol. LVII, Suppl. p. 101 ; Larousse,
"Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 155; " Eloge Histonque de Mr. J. Banks,
lu a la Stance de T Academic Royale des Sciences, le 2 Avril 1821 " ;
Sir Everard Home, " Hunterian Oration," Feb. 14, 1822, See besides,
the Phil. Mag., Vol. LVI. pp. 161-174, 241-257, for " A review of some
of the leading points in the official character and proceedings of the late
President of the Royal Society," contrasting the respective personal
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 457
merits and achievements of Sir John Pringle and of Sir Joseph Banks ;
" Lives of Men of Letters and Science,'1 by Henry, Lord Brougham,
Philad., 1846, pp. 199-229, 294-295.
A.D. 1820. — Barlow (Peter), F.R.S. (1776-1827), who taught
mathematics at the Military Academy of Woolwich from 1806 to
1847, brings out the first edition of his " Essay on Magnetic
Attractions, Particularly as Respects the Deviation of the Compass
on Shipboard Occasioned by the Local Influence of the Guns, etc.,
with an Easy Practical Method of Observing the Same in all Parts
of the World/' One of his biographers states that through this
valuable publication, which received the Parliamentary reward
from the then existing Board of Longitude, as well as presents
from the Russian Emperor, he was the first to reduce to strictly
mathematical principles the method of compensating compass
errors in vessels (Edin. Jour, of Sci., London, 1826, Vols. I. pp. 181,
182; II. p. 379).
This work contains the results of the many experiments to ascer-
tain the influence of spherical and other masses of iron upon the
needle, which Barlow instituted, more particularly after Prof. Han-
steen's investigations became generally known. Sir David Brewster
details Barlow's work in the " Encycl. Brit.,1' and refers to the
separate observations of Mr. Wm. Wales (at A.D. 1774), Mr. Downie
(at A.D. 1790), Captain Flinders (at A.D. 1801), and Charles Bonny-
castle (at A.D. 1820), mentioning the fact that it is to Mr. W. Bain
we owe the distinct establishment and explanation of the source
of error in the compass arising from the attraction of all the iron
on board of ships. The small 140-page book which Mr. Bain pub-
lished on the subject in 1817 is entitled " An Essay on the Variation
of the Compass, Showing how Far it is Influenced by a Change in
the Direction of the Ship's Head, with an Exposition of the Dangers
Arising to Navigators from not Allowing for this Change of Variation."
Brewster remarks that additional light was thrown upon Mr. Bain's
observations by Captains Ross, Parry and Sabine, but that we owe
to Prof. Barlow alone a series of brilliant experiments which ter-
minated in his invention of the neutralizing plate for correcting
in perfect manner this source of error in the compass (Noad's
"Manual," pp. 531, 532; Olmstead's " Introduct. to Nat. Hist.,"
1835, pp. 206, 210). The simple contrivance therein alluded to is
described and illustrated at pp. 9 and 90-91 of the " Britannica,"
article on " Navigation," and may briefly be said to consist of only
a thin circular plate of iron placed in a vertical position immediately
behind the binnacle or compass (Fifth Dissertation of " Britan-
nica," Vol. I. p. 745, and article " Seamanship," in Vol. XX. p. 27).
Such plates were immediately tried in all parts of the world and were
458 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
at once applied to the English vessels "Conway," " Leven " and
" Barracouta " (Trans. Soc. of Arts for 1821, Vol. XXXIX. pp. 76-
100 ; Harris' " Rud. Mag,/' III. pp. 69-76; John Farrar, " Elem. of
El. . . ." 1826, pp. 376-383; Westminster Review for April 1825;
"Encycl. Metropol.," Vol. Ill (Magnetism), pp. 743, 799).
For Mr. Barlow's experiments on the influence of rotation upon
magnetic and non-magnetic bodies, the result of which was com-
municated by him to the Royal Society, April, 14, 1825, six days
before the receipt of S. H. Christie's paper " On the Magnetism of
Iron, Arising from its Rotation," communicated by J. F. W.
Herschel, see pp. 10, 33, 34, of the " Britannica," Vol. XIV above
referred to (Edin. Jour, of Science, 1826, Vols. III. p. 372, and
V. p. 214. Consult also, J. Farrar, " Elem. of EL," 1826, pp. ^87-
395. For his extensive observations regarding the influence of
heat on magnetism and relative to the variation, as well as for the
mode of constructing his artificial magnets, consult the same volume
of the " Britannica," at pp. 35, 36, 50-53 et seq. and p. 73. See
likewise, for the variation, Dr. Thomas Thomson's " Outline of the
Sciences," London, 1830, pp. 549-556; Harris, "Rud. Mag.,"
I, II. pp. 152-153. For Samuel Hunter Christie, consult " Abstracts
of Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 197, 225, 243, 251, 270,
3°5> 321, 347 and 351).
The new variation chart which Prof. Barlow constructed and
in which he embraced the magnetic observations made in 1832 by
Sir James Ross, R.N., is described and illustrated in Phil. Trans.
for 1833, pp. 667-675, Plates XVII, XVIII. He remarks that the
very spot where his officer found the needle perpendicular, " that
is, the pole itself, is precisely that point in my globe and chart in
which, by supposing all the lines to meet, the several curves would
best preserve their unity of character, both separately and conjointly
as a system" (eighth " Britan.," Vol. XIV, note, p. 50; Noad,
" Manual," p. 617; D. Olmstead, " Intr. to Nat. Phil.," 1835, p. 192).
Mr. Barlow's electro-magnetic globe was exhibited by Dr. Birkbeck
in his lectures on " Electro-Magnetism " at the London Institution,
May 26, 1824. (Its construction is fully described, more particularly,
at p. 65 of the English " Encycl. Brit." (Magnetism) ; p. 91 of
the " Lib. of Useful Knowledge " (Electro-Magnetism) ; pp. 139-
140, Vol. I of the Edin. Jour, of Science, London, 1826, and
pp. 120-122, Part III of Harris' " Rud. Mag.") Its purpose was to
show that what had hitherto been considered as the magnetism of
the earth might be only modified electricity, and it was also intended
to illustrate the theory advanced by M. Ampere, who, as is well
known, attributed all magnetic phenomena to electric currents.
In the words of Dr. Brewster :
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 459
" Barlow considers it as probable that magnetism as a distinct
quality has no existence in Nature. As all the phenomena of terres-
trial magnetism can be explained on the supposition that the mag-
netic power resides on its surface, it occurred to Mr. Barlow that if
he could distribute over the surface of an artificial globe a series of
galvanic currents in such a way that their tangential power should
everywhere give a corresponding direction to the needle, this globe
would exhibit, while under electrical induction, all the magnetic
phenomena of the earth upon a needle freely suspended above it.
Mr. Barlow says ' he has proved the existence of a force competent
to produce all the phenomena without the aid of any body usually
called magnetic,' yet he acknowledges that ' we have no idea how
such a system of currents can have existence on the earth, because,
to produce them, we have been obliged to employ a particular
arrangement of metals, acids, and conductors.' "
Barlow was the first to test the practicability of Ampere's sug-
gestion that by sending the galvanic current through long wires
connecting two distant stations, the deflections of enclosed magnetic
needles would constitute very simple and efficient signals for an
instantaneous telegraph (Ann. de Chimie et de Phys., 1820, Vol.
XV. pp. 72, 73). He has thus stated the result : " In a very early
stage of electro-magnetic experiments, it had been suggested (by
Laplace, Ampere and others) that an instantaneous telegraph might
be established by means of conducting wires and compasses. The
details of this contrivance are so obvious, and the principle on which
it is founded so well understood, that there was only one question
which could render the result doubtful ; and this was, is there any
diminution of effect by lengthening the conducting wires ? It had
been said that the electric fluid from a common (tinfoil) electric
battery had been transmitted through a wire four miles in length
without any sensible diminution of effect, and, to every appearance,
instantaneously ; and if this should be found to be the case with the
galvanic circuit, then no question could be entertained of the practi-
cability and utility of the suggestion above adverted to. I was there-
fore induced to make the trial ; but I found such a sensible diminution
with only 200 feet of wire, as at once to convince me of the impracti-
cability of the scheme. It led me, however, to an inquiry as to the
cause of the diminution, and the laws by which it is governed." This
passage is quoted in ''Smithsonian Report" for 1878, p. 279;
Fahie, "Hist. El. Tel./1 p. 306; " Memor. of Jos. Henry," 1880,
pp. 223, 224, the last named containing the following footnote :
" On the Laws of Electro-Magnetic Action," Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, Jan., 1825, Vol. XII. pp. 105-113 :
" In explanation and justification of this discouraging judgment
460 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
from so high an authority in magnetics, it must be remembered
that both in the galvanometer and in the electro-magnet, the coil
best calculated to produce large effects was that of least resistance ;
which unfortunately was not that best adapted to a long circuit. On
the other hand the most efficient magnet or galvanometer was not
found to be improved in result by increasing the number of galvanic
elements. Barlow in his inquiry as to the law of diminution was
led (erroneously) to regard the resistance of the conducting wire
as increasing in the ratio of the square root of its length " (pp. no,
in of the last-cited " Journal/'
Mr. Taylor justly adds that subsequent experiments have proved
Ohm's law (announced three years after Barlow's) of a simple ratio
of resistance to length as approximately correct. *
REFERENCES. — G. B. Prescott, " The Speaking Telephone," 1879,
pp. 223, 224, 245, 254, 616; "Lib. Useful Knowledge" (Magnetism),
p. 86 and (El. Mag.), pp. 7, 18, 22, 28; Sturgeon's " Sci. Researches,"
Bury, 1850, pp. 26, 29, 31, 298; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849,
Vol. I. p. 183; Mrs. Somerville, " On the Earth not a Real Magnet,"
in the "Conn, of the Phys. Sci.,"; Phil. Mag., Vols. LV. p. 446; LX.
pp. 241, 343; LXII. p. 321; Harris, " Rud. Mag.," Part III. pp. 114-116;
" Encycl. Metropol.," Vol. IV (Elect. Mag.), pp. 1-40; "Abstracts of
papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 164, 197, 241, 318; "Cat. Sc.
Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 182-184; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol.
XX, N.S. p. 127; " Edin. Phil. Journal," 1824, Vol. X. p. 184 (alludes
to papers of Barlow and Christie in Phil. Trans, for 1823, Part II).
Mr. Wm. Henry Barlow, second son of Peter Barlow, is the author
of a treatise, " On the spontaneous electrical currents observed in
the wires of the electric telegraph/' which was published in London
during 1849 and appeared in Part I of the Phil. Trans., for that
year. He is also the inventor of a new electrical machine alluded
to herein at Hare (A.D. 1819), also at p. 130 of the " Annual of
Sc. Disc./' at pp. 76-77 of Noad's " Manual/' and at p. 428, Vol.
XXXVII of the " Philosophical Magazine."
A.D. 1820. — Laplace (Pierre Simon, Marquis de) (1749-1827), a
very distinguished French astronomer and mathematician, suggests
for telegraphic purposes the employment of magnetic needles
suspended in multipliers of wire, in place of the voltameters of
Sommering, and on the 2nd of October 1820 his theory is thus
explained by Ampere in a paper read before the French Academy of
Sciences :
" According to the success of the experiment to which Laplace
drew my attention, one could, by means of as many pairs of live
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 461
wires and magnetic needles as there are letters of the alphabet,
and by placing each letter on a separate needle, establish, by the
aid of a distant pile, and which could be made to communicate by
its two extremities with those of each pair of conductors, a sort
of telegraph, which would be capable of indicating all the details
that one would wish to transmit through any number of obstacles
to a distant observer. By adapting to the battery a keyboard
whose keys were each marked with the same letters and establishing
connection (with the various wires) by their depression, this means
of correspondence could be established with great facility, and would
only occupy the time necessary for pressing down the keys at the
one station and to read off the letters from the deflected needles
at ttfe other."
Laplace is, perhaps, best known by his " Traite de Mecanique
Celeste," the sixteen books and supplements to which are by many con-
sidered, next to Newton's " Principia," the greatest of astronomical
works ; a book which has been truly said to have had no predecessor
and which has been called the crowning glory of Laplace's scientific
career. His next important work was the " Theorie Analytique
des Probabilites," the most mathematically profound treatise on the
subject which had yet appeared, while his " Systeme du Monde "
was called by Arago " one of the most perfect monuments of the
French language." By Prof. Nichols, Laplace is called " the titanic
geometer " ; by Mr. Airy " the greatest mathematician of the past
age "; by Prof. Forbes " a sort of exemplar or type of the highest
class of mathematical natural philosophers of this, or rather the
immediately preceding age."
Laplace also wrote, in conjunction with Lavoisier, a treatise
" On the Electricity which Bodies Absorb when Reduced to Vapor "
(M&m. de Paris for 1781). Prof. Denison Olmstead, treating of
the origin of atmospherical electricity (" Introd. to Nat. Phil.,"
1835, pp. 158, 159), says : " Among the known sources of this agent
none seems so probable as the evaporation and condensation of
watery vapor. We have the authority of two of the most able
and accurate philosophers, Lavoisier and Laplace, for stating that
bodies in passing from the solid or liquid state to that of vapor,
and, conversely, in returning from the aeriform condition to the
liquid or solid state, give unequivocal signs of either positive or
negative electricity/' and he adds, in a footnote :
" M. Pouillet has lately published a set of experiments, which
seems to overturn Volta's theory of the evolution of electricity by
evaporation. He has shown that no electricity is evolved by
evaporation unless some chemical combination takes place at the
same time . . ," (Thomson, " Outlines/' p. 440) . . . " But we shall
462 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
be slow to reject the results of experiments performed by such ex-
perimenters as Lavoisier and Laplace, especially when confirmed by
the testimony of Volta and Saussure."
With regard to the origin of meteorites, Laplace has advanced
the very bold theory that they may be products of Lunar volcanoes,
and Prof. Lockhart Muirhead stated that he would " present the
reasoning upon which this extraordinary hypothesis is founded in
the popular and perspicuous language of Dr. Hutton, of Woolwich :
the respect due to the name of Laplace justifying the length of the
extract," which he gives at pp. 633-635, Vol. XIV of the 1857
" Britannica."
REFERENCES. — Humboldt, " Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. J. pp.
108-109; Young, " Course of Lectures/' London, 1807, Vol. II. p. 501,
alluding to " Zach. Mon. Corr.," VI. p. 276, also to Gilbert, XIII. p. 353,
1 08, and stating that Olbers had suggested Laplace's idea in 1795. See
" Mem. of the Astronom. Soc. of London," Vol. III. p. 395 : Laplace,
" Mem. dc 1'Institut" for 1809, p. 332; Dr. Young's " Course of Lect-
ures," 1807, Vol. I. pp. 249, 250, 522; Vol. II. p. 466; Humboldt,
" Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. I. pp. 28, 76, 130 ; Vol. II. p. 712 ; Lavoisier
at A.D. 1781 : Biot at A.D. 1803; Annal. de Ch. et Phys., Vol. XV. pp.
72, 73, and for Laplace and Lavoisier, see Delaunay, " Manuel ..."
1809, p. 178; "Mem. de 1'Acad. des Sc.," for 1781; "Journal des
Savants," for Feb. 1850 and Nov. 1887; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl.
G6n.," Vol. II. p. 184; "Cat. Sc. Pap. Roy. Soc.," Vol. III. pp. 845-
848; Johnson's " Cyclopaedia," pp. 1647-1650 and the "First Supple-
ment," p. 62.
For Laplace and Joseph Louis Lagrangc, see " Memoircs de 1'Institut,"
Vol. III. p. 22; also " Pioneers of Science," by Sir Oliver Lodge, London,
1905, Lecture XI, and for Lagrange, consult " Journal des Savants,"
Sept. 1844, May 1869, August 1878, Sept. 1879, Sept. 1888 and Oct. 1892.
M. Cyrille Pierre Theodore Laplace, captain in the French navy,
is the author of the " Voyage Autour du Monde . . . sur la Corvette
Favorite ..." and of " Campagne de Circumnavigation de la
Fregate I'Artemise . . ." published in Paris during the years 1833,
1839 and 1841.
Baron Jean Baptiste Fourier, celebrated French physicist
(1768-1830) who, in 1827, succeeded Laplace as head of the Council
of the Ecole Polytechnique (" Biog. Gen.," Vol. XVIII. p. 346) says
of his predecessor :
" Posterity, which has so many particulars to forget, will little
care whether Laplace was for a short time minister of a great state.
The eternal truths which he has discovered, the immutable laws of
the stability of the world, are of importance, and not the rank which
he occupied " (C. R. Weld, " Hist. Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. p. 465).
Fourier is the author of " Experiences thermo-electriques " (" Encycl.
Brit.," ninth ed.f Vol. IX. p. 490; " Eng. Cycl.," Biography, Vol.
II. p. 977).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 468
A.D. 1820.-— Dutrochet (Ren£ Joachim Henri) (1776-1847) a dis-
tinguished French natural philosopher, and likewise medical adviser
to the King of Spain, Joseph Bonaparte, publishes an interesting
treatise on meteors, in conjunction with Mr. Nathaniel Bowditch,
who had already written many very able papers on astronomical
subjects and who afterwards translated the " Mecanique Celeste " of
Laplace. Eight years later (1828) appeared Dutrochet's " Nouvelles
Recherches . . ." wherein he attributes to electricity the direction
taken by fluids through animal and vegetable membranes. The
passage of a fluid from without inwardly he called endosmosis, and the
passage of the fluid from within outwardly he termed exosmosis.
Of Dutrochet, Dr. John Hutton Balfour, of Edinburgh, makes
merRion when treating of the temperature of plants. He thus
expresses himself : " While the nutritive processes are going on
in the plant, there is a certain amount of heat produced. This,
however, is speedily carried away by evaporation and other causes,
and it is not easily rendered evident. Dutrochet, by means of
Becquerel's thermo-electric needle, showed an evolution of heat in
plants. In doing this, he prevented evaporation by putting the
plant in a moist atmosphere. In these circumstances the tempera-
ture of the active vegetating parts, the roots, the leaves, and the
young shoots, indicated a temperature above the air of J to f of a
degree Fahrenheit. Van Beek and Bergsma, in their experiments
on the Hyacinthus Orientalis and the Entelea Arbor escens, found
the proper heat of the active parts of plants about r8° F. above that
of the air. The vital or proper heat of plants, according to Dutrochet,
is found chiefly in the green plants, and it undergoes a quotidian
paroxysm, reaching the maximum during the day, and the minimum
during the night. When stems become hard and ligneous, they lose
this vital heat. Large green cotyledons gave indications of a proper
heat. The hour of quotidian maximum varied from 10 a.m. to
3 p.m. in different plants."
It is stated by Becquerel that in the act of vegetation, the earth
acquires continually an excess of positive electricity, while the bark
and part of the wood receive an excess of negative electricity. The
leaves act like the green part of the parenchyma of the bark — that
is to say, the sap which circulates in their tissues is negative with
relation to the wood, to the pith, and to the earth, and positive with
regard to the cambium. The electric effects observed in vegetables
are due to chemico- vital action, and he asserts that the opposite
electric states of vegetables and of the earth give reason to think
that, from the enormous vegetation in certain parts of the globe,
they must exert some influence on the electric phenomena of the
atmosphere.
464 BIBLIOGRAPICAL HISTORY OF
REFERENCES. — Gmelin's "Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 447; " Biog. Ge*n.,"
Vol. XV. p. 506; Poggendorff, " Annalen," Vol. I. p. 663; Larousse,
" Diet. Univ.," Vol. VI. p. 1448; J. W. Ritter, in " Denkschr. d. Munch.
Acad." for 1814, and the eighth ed. of the " Ency. Brit." Vol. XXI.
p. 635, for observations concerning the mimosa pudica and the mimosa
sensitive* ; " Cat. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 422-425; Vol. VI.
p. 646; Vol. VII. p. 584; Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 633; " Observations
on the diurnal variation of the magnetic needle," in Sturgeon's " Annals,"
Vol. VII. pp. 369-370, and in the Comptes Rendus, Vol. XII. p. 298,
of Feb. 8, 1841 ; Burnet, " On the motion of sap in plants. Researches
of Dutrochet on Endosmose and Exosmose . . ." London, 1829 (" Phil.
Mag. or Annals," Vol. V. p. 389).
A.D. 1820.— Fresnel (Augustin Jean) (1788-1827), one of the
most distinguished French mathematicians and natural philoso-
phers, communicates a paper detailing his experiments for decom-
posing water by means of a magnet. He produced a current m an
electro-magnetic helix enclosing a bar-magnet covered with silk, and
on plunging the ends of the wire in water he observed some very
remarkable effects which are set forth in the Annales de Chimie et
de Phys., series 2, Vol. XV. p. 219.
REFERENCES. — " Eloge de Fresnel," by Arago, in his " (Euvres,"
Vol. I; Account of Kresnel's life in the "Biog. Univ.;" Whewell,
" Hist, of Indue. Sci.," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 96, 102, 114-117; " CEuvres
completes d' Augustin Fresnel, publie'es par les soins du Ministre de 1' In-
struction Publique," Paris, 1870, in three vols.
A.D. 1820.— Sir Richard Phillips (1778-1851), communicates,
July ii, to the Philosophical Magazine (Vol. LVI. pp. 195-200) a
very interesting paper entitled " Electricity and Galvanism Ex-
plained on the Mechanical Theory of Matter and Motion." After
reviewing the then existing theories, he concludes by saying :
" Electricity is no exception to the mechanical principles of
matter and motion, and in regard to the kindred phenomena of
galvanism, I will content myself with observing that it is merely
accelerated electricity, the interposing fluid being palpably decomposed
and evolving the electrical powers, each term in the series of plates
being a new impulse or power added to the previous one, till the
ultimate effect is accelerated, like that of a body falling by the con-
tinuous impulses of the earth's motions, or like a nail heated red-hot
by accelerations of atomic motion produced by repeated percussions
of a hammer."
Consult " Bibl. Ital.," Vol. XXVII. p. 107 for references to the
" Annals of Philosophy, " in which he mentions an experiment upon
a young poplar, " whereby it would seem that copper was imbibed
in the branches, etc., from a solution placed at its roots, and that
it was precipitated on a knife used to cut off a branch."
A.D. 1820.— Brewster (Sir David) (1781-1868), a very dis-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 465
tinguished English natural philosopher and writer, who had just
founded the " Edinburgh Philosophical Journal " in conjunction
with Prof. Robert Jameson, announces his discovery of the existence
of two poles of greatest cold on opposite sides of the northern pole of
the earth. By this he was, like other authors, led to the belief that
there might be some connection between the magnetic poles and those
of maximum cold, and he remarks (Noad " Manual," London, 1859,
p. 545, and article " Magnetism " in " Encycl. Brit.") : " Imperfect
as the analogy is between the isothermal and magnetic centres,
it is yet too important to be passed over without notice. Their
local coincidence is sufficiently remarkable, and it would be to over-
step the limits of philosophical caution to maintain that they have
no otiier connection but that of accidental locality; and if we had as
many measures of the mean temperature as we have of the variation
of the needle, we might determine whether the isothermal poles
were fixed or movable." Similar opinions entertained by Dr. Dalton,
Dr. Traill and Mr. Christie are also mentioned by Noad, who quotes
from Oersted's treatise on " Thermo -Electricity " the statement
of the Danish philosopher " that the most efficacious excitation
of electricity upon the earth appears to be produced by the sun,
causing daily evaporation, deoxidation and heat, all of which excite
electrical currents."
From his able paper in the Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions
for 1820, one is led to share Sir David Brewster's belief " that two
meridians of greatest heat and two of greatest cold are called into
play, and that the magnetism of our globe depends in great measure
upon electro or rather thermo-magnetic currents." The electro-
magnetic hypothesis was, he says, ably supported by Prof. Barlow
in his paper " On the probable electric origin of all the phenomena
of terrestrial magnetism," communicated to the Phil. Trans, for
1831. Brewster thus locates the two poles of maximum cold :
The American pole in N. Lat. 73, and W. Long. 100 from Greenwich,
a little to the East of Cape Walker ; the Asiatic pole in N. Lat. 73
and E. Long. 80, between Siberia and Cape Matzol, on the Gulf of
Oby. Hence the two warm meridians will be in W. Long. 10 and E.
Long. 170, and the two cold meridians in W. Long. 100 and E.
Long. 80.
As has already been indicated (under A.D. 1717, Lem£ry),
Sir David Brewster was the discoverer of the pyro-electrical condition
of the diamond, the garnet, the amethyst, etc. His development of
some of Haiiy's experiments led to a similar discovery, attaching
to several mineral salts as well as to the plates and powders of the
tourmaline, of the scolezite and the melozite ; and he likewise
experimented with the boracite, mesotype and with the several
II H
466 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
minerals and artificial crystals detailed at pp. 208-215, Vol. I of the
Edin. Jour, of Science, London, 1826; and in Chap. II. s. i, vol.
viii of the eighth " Encycl. Brit./' article on " Electricity."
At Part I. chap. i. s. 6 of the last-named article will be found
Brewster's observations on the nature and origin of electrical light,
his latest researches having been' made, like those of Joseph von
Fraunhofer (see A.D. 1814-1815), on the dark and on the luminous
lines which appear in the spectrum formed from it by a prism.
During the year 1831 appeared Brewster's " Treatise on Optics,"
his " Life of Sir Isaac Newton," and his " Letters on Natural Magic."
It is in one of the chapters of the last-named work that he treats of
automatic talking machines and remarks : " We have no doubt
that before another century is completed a talking and a singing
machine will be numbered among the conquests of science."
Brewster's other scientific treatises are too numerous and cover too
wide a range to be enumerated here. The " Catal. of Sci. Papers
of the Roy. Soc." (Vol. I. pp. 612-623) gives the titles of as many as
299 contributions made by him on important subjects, and he has
had no less than 76 papers in the first 39 parts of the North British
Review, 30 in the Phil. Trans, and 28 in the Edin. Review. They
appear, in fact, in all the prominent publications of his time, and
have won for him leading honours, more especially from the Edin-
burgh and Aberdeen Universities and the Scotch, Irish, English
and French Societies, the French Academy of Sciences doing him
the signal honour of selecting him as one of its eight foreign asso-
ciates in place of Berzelius, deceased. Conjointly with Davy,
Herschel and Charles Babbage, he originated the British Associa-
tion during 1831, and it was in this same year that he was knighted
and decorated by King William IV. He had been made a Fellow
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1808, and had during the
same year undertaken the editorship of the " Edinburgh Encyclo-
paedia of Sci., Lit. and Art." This he continued for twenty-two
years, after which he edited the Edin. Jour, of Sci.t and also entered
with Taylor and Phillips upon the editorship of the London and
Edin. Phil. Mag. and Journal. Many of our readers will doubtless
be glad to know that the last named was a continuation of the
well-known Philosophical Magazine so often quoted in this
" Bibliographical History."
REFERENCES.— The obituary notice contributed by Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone to the proceedings of the Royal Society ; Chemical News, Amer.
reprint, Vol. II. pp. 198, 233; also p. 293 for accounts given by Sir J.
Simpson and Prof. Fraser; J. Robison and Brewster, "A System of
Mechan. Phil.," London and Edin., 1822; Ferguson and Brewster's
" Essays and Treatises on Astr. Elect.," etc., Edinburgh, 1823 ; Brewster's
several articles in the " Encycl. Britannica," 7th and 8th editions, on
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 467
" Electricity and Magnetism " ; Transactions of the Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh,
Vols. IX. 1821; XX. Part IV; Edin. Jour, of Sci.t Oct. 1824, No. 2,
p. 213; Noad, "Manual," London, 1859, pp. 31, 32, 636-638; Harris,
" Magnetism," Part III. p. 119; Whcwell, " Hist, of Indue. Sci.," 1859,
Vol. II. pp. 75, 81, 331, 332; the lectures delivered by Wm. A. Miller
during 1867 before the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Charles Babbage (1792-1871), a prominent English scientist
who is mentioned above and who besides being one of the founders
of the Royal Astronomical Society, as has already been stated,
was also a founder of the British Association and the originator of
the Statistical Society, is the author of valuable papers, exhibiting
a wide range of learning and research — mainly on mathematical
subjects and relating to magnetical and electrical phenomena —
whicft have been published in the Reports of the Royal and other
Societies ("English Cycl.," Vol. I. p. 457; "Encyl. Brit.," ninth
ed., Vol. III. p. 178; Larousse, "Diet.," Vol. II. pp. 5-6; account
of Babbage's work in C. R. Weld's " Hist. Roy. Soc.," Vol. II.
PP. 369-39I).
A.D. 1820. — Fisher (George) (1794-1873), who two years before
had joined Captain David Buchan in his voyage to the Arctic regions,
is the first to point out the true cause of the sudden alteration in the
rates of chronometers at sea. " He observed," says Dr. Roget, " that
the chronometers on board the ' Dorothea ' and ' Trent ' had a different
rate of going from that they had on shore, even when these vessels
had been frozen in, and therefore when their motion could not have
contributed to that variation ; . . . this effect could be attributed
only to the magnetic action exerted by the iron in the ships upon
the inner rim of the balance of the chronometers, which is made of
steel. A similar influence was perceptible on placing magnets in the
neighbourhood of the chronometers. This conclusion was con-
firmed by experiments made for this purpose by Mr. Barlow, who
ascertained that masses of iron devoid of all permanent magnetism
occasioned an alteration in the rates of chronometers placed in
different positions in their vicinity."
REFERENCES. — Fisher's article " On the Errors in Longitude as
Determined by Chronometers at Sea, Arising from the Action of the
Iron in the Ships upon the Chronometers," communicated by John Bar-
row, F.R.S., to the Phil. Mag., Vol. LVII. pp. 249-257. See besides,
Edinburgh Jour. Sci., London, 1826, Vol. V. p. 224; Phil. Trans, for
1820, Part. II. p. 196, and the volume for 1833, relative to magnetical
experiments; also the " Lib. U. K." (Magn.), p. 63. For Capt. Buchan,
consult Barrow's " Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic
Regions."
Mr. George Thomas Fischer (1722-1848) is the author of " A
Practical Treatise on Medical Electricity" (Poggendorff, Vol. I.
P- 756).
468 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A.D. 1820. — Bonnycastle (Charles), Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Virginia, treats of the distribution of the magnetic
fluids in masses of iron, as well as of the deviations which they
produce in compasses placed within their influence, at pp. 446-456,
Vol. LV of Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine.
He refers to the then recent publication of Peter Barlow's
" Essay on Magnetic Attractions," containing the results of
many experiments, made principally upon spheres of iron, as
well as to Dr. Young's views of the subject, which were printed by
order of the Board of Longitude, and he says that the principle
upon which he intends establishing his inquiry "is an extension
of the law that regulates the action of electrified bodies upon con-
ductors ; which was first given by M. Poisson in the Memoirs of the
Institute for 1811, and employed by him to determine the develop-
ment of the electric fluids in spheres that mutually act on each other."
The aforenamed dissertation, at the time, called forth a rejoinder
from a correspondent and a further communication from Mr. Bonny-
castle, both of which appear at pp. 346-350, Vol. LVI of the same
publication.
REFERENCES. — Silliman's Journal, Vol. XL. p. 32 ; " Sketch of the
Life of Chas. Bonnycastle/' by Thomas Thomson; Poggendorff, Vol. I.
pp. 234, 235 ; article " Magnetism," p. 9, Vol. XIV of the eighth
"Britannica."
A.D. 1820. — Harris (Wm. Snow), member of the College of
Surgeons, and a very distinguished English scientist (1791-1867),
proposes to the Board of the Admiralty his system of lightning
conductors, of which an account appears at p. 231, Vol. LX of the
Phil. Mag., as well as in a separate work published at London during
1822. This is followed by his " Observations on the Effects of
Lightning ..." 1823, and by papers relative to the defence of
ships and buildings from lightning, which were published, more
particularly, in several numbers of the Nautical Magazine, the Phil.
Mag., the Annals of Electricity, and in the Proc. Lond. Elec. Soc. for
1842, as well as in his " Record of Phil. Papers/' and under separate
heads during many years between 1827 and 1854. One of his
biographers remarks :
" His researches have gone far to remove certain popular errors
as to what have been called ' conductors ' and ' non-conductors '
of electricity, and to show the inutility of the old form of lightning
rod in the majority of cases ; it being necessary, in place of such
rod form, to link into one great chain all the metallic bodies
employed in the construction of a building, thus providing a connec-
tion with these conductors between the highest parts and the ground,
the single conductor, in one highest part, being possibly insufficient
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 469
to divert the course of the fluid and protect the whole fabric. These
general principles have been largely applied to the protection of
the ships of the Royal Navy during the last five and twenty years,
under his advice and direction ; and, laying aside the opinions which
had been commonly received, the masts themselves of a ship have
all been rendered perfectly conducting by incorporating with the
spare capacious plates of copper, whilst all the large metallic masses
in the hull have been tied, as it were, into a general conducting
chain, communicating with the great conducting channels in the
masts, and with the sea. This may be considered as the greatest
experiment ever made by any country in the employment of metallic
conductors for ships, and the result has been to secure the navy from
a destructive agent, and to throw new light upon an interesting
department of science " (Whewell, " Hist, of Indue. Sci.," Vol. II.
pp. 199, 200 ; Phil. Mag. for March 1841 ; eighth " Encycl. Britan-
nica/' Vols. VIII. pp. 535, 610, 611, and XX. p. 24; " Edin.
Review " for Oct. 1844, Vol. LXXX. pp. 444-473).
Harris was the first, says Brewster, who introduced accurate
quantitative measures into the investigation of the laws of statical
electricity — the unit measure by which quantity is minutely esti-
mated— and also the hydro-electrometer and scale-beam balance
by which its intensity and the laws of attractive forces at all
distances are demonstrated. Of not less value is the thermo-
electrometer, by which the heating effects of given quantities of
electricity are measured and rendered comparable with the varying
conditions of quantity and intensity. Besides these instruments,
we owe to Harris the discovery of a new reactive force, through
which repulsion and other small physical forces are investigated
and determined by means of his bifilar balance, founded upon the
reactive force of two vertically suspended parallel threads when
twined upon each other at a given angle, and acted upon by a sus-
pended weight. With the aid of these instruments he has carried
on a variety of important inquiries into the laws of electrical forces,
and the laws and operations of electrical accumulation (eighth " Brit.,"
Vol. VIII. p. 535). His papers on the subject appeared in 1825
and 1828, and a resume of them is given by Noad (" Manual,1' 1859,
PP- 35» I37~I4°)' as well as in tne " Electricity " article of the
" Britannica," both of which contain descriptions and illustrations
of Harris' unit jar and electro-thermometer.
During the year 1827 Mr. Harris published in the Trans. Roy.
Soc. of Edinburgh his memoir entitled " Experimental Inquiries
Concerning the Laws of Magnetic Forces/' which experiments were
made by means of a new and very accurate apparatus invented by
him for examining the phenomena of induced magnetism. The
470 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
above was followed by two other memoirs, published in the Phil.
Trans, for 1831, " On the Influence of Screens in Arresting the Pro-
gress of Magnetic Action ..." and " On the Power of Masses of
Iron to Control the Attractive Force of a Magnet/' which are dis-
coursed of in the " Britannica " article on " Magnetism/' wherein
special treatment is also given more particularly to Mr. Harris'
researches concerning artificial magnets as well as the magnetic
charge, the development of magnetism by rotation and the pheno-
mena of periodical variations (" Rudim. Mag./' Part III. p. 60;
Fahie's " Hist, of Elec. Tel./' pp. 283, 284).
Besides additional apparatus named in the subjoined references
Mr. Harris invented a very effective steering compass, of which
an account is given in Part III. pp. 148-153, of his " Rudimentary
Magnetism," as well as at p. 594 of Noad's " Manual," at p. 105 of
the " English Cyclopaedia " (Arts and Sciences), Vol. Ill, and at
p. 80, Vol. VIII, 1857, " Encycl. Britannica," and he has also
devised a magnetometer for 'the measurement of electric forces,
of which the description and illustrations appear in the last-named
publication as transcribed from Mr. Harris' work already mentioned.
Mr. Harris was made a F.R.S. in 1831, and received the Copley
medal four years later. It was in 1843 he published his well-known
work " On the Nature of Thunderstorms," the plans he advocated
being adopted in 1847, when he received the order of knighthood
as well as a large money grant from the English Government in
acknowledgment of his scientific services. The following appears
in the obituary notice of Sir Wm. Snow Harris, contributed by Mr.
Charles Tomlinson to the Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. (XVI, 1868) :
" Harris' sympathies were with the Bennetts, the Caven dishes 4
the Singers, the Voltas of a past age. Fractional electricity was
his forte and the source of his triumphs. He was bewildered and
dazzled by the electrical development of the present day, and almost
shut his eyes to it. He was attached too closely ^and exclusively to
the old school of science to recognize the broad and sweeping
advance of the new. He was not conscious even of being behind
his age when he presented to the Royal Society in 1861 an elaborate
paper on an improved form of Bennett's discharger, and still less in
1864, when he discussed the laws of electrical distribution, and yet
relied upon the Leyden jar and the unit jar."
REFERENCES. — Trans, of the Plymouth Institution, also Trans, of the
Roy. Soc. for 1834, 1836, 1839 ; " Eng. Encycl." (" Common Electricity "),
Vol. III. p. 801 ; W. A. Miller, " Elem. of Chem.," 1864, p. 32. For
descriptions of his bifilar balance see the eighth " Britannica/' Vol. VIII.
&623; Harris, " Rud. Elec./* p. 99, and " Rud. Magn./' pp. 119, 120;
oad, "Manual," pp. 26, 27, 37, 40, 41, 63, 580; C. Stanelin, "Die
Lehre , , ," 1852; P, Volpicelli, " Ricerche analitiche . . ." Roma,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 471
1865, while, for his balance electroscope and electrometers, sec " Edin.
Phil. Trans.," Dec. 1831 ; eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII. pp. 540, 590, 620
622, 624; Harris, " Rud. Elec./' pp. 99, etc.; the " Bakerian Lecture ";
the " Report of British Association," Dundee, 1867, for an able account
of electrometers by Sir William Thomson. His electrical machine is
described at pp. 74-76 of Noad's " Manual," as well as at p. 604, Vol.
VIII of the 8th " Britannica," the latter also giving, at p. 550, Harris'
experiments on the electrical attraction of spheres and planes.
" Catal. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. III. pp. 191-192 ; Lippin-
cptt's " Biog. Diet.," 1886, p. 1230; Biography in Harris' " Fric-
tional Electricity"; "Abstracts of Papers . . . Phil. Trans., 1800-
1830," Vol. II. p. 298; Lumi&re Electrique for Oct. 3, 1891, p. 49; reprint
of Sir Wm. Thomson's "Mathematical Papers," 1872; "Brit. Asso.
Reports" for 1832, 1835, 1836; Edin. Phil. Trans, for 1834; Fahie's
" History," p. 321; Edin. and London and Edin. Phil. Mag. for 1840;
Phil. Trans., 1842; Phil. Mag. for 1856-1857, and Harris' "Manuals
of Electricity, Galvanism and Magnetism," published in John Weale's
itudimentary Series.
A.D. 1820.— Mitscherlich (Eilardt— -Eilhert), Professor of Chem-
istry at the Berlin University, discovers what is called Isomorphism
(isos, equal; morphe, form), showing that bodies containing very
different electro-positive elements could not well be distinguished
from each other ; it was impossible therefore to put them in distant
portions of the classification, and thus, remarks Whewell, the first
system of Berzelius crumbled to pieces.
In other words, Mitscherlich was the first to draw attention to
the fact that two bodies having the same composition could assume
different forms ; to this law Berzelius gave the name of Isomerism
(isos, equal; meros, part).
Sir John Herschel makes particular mention (" Treatise on Light/'
s. i, 113) of Mitscherlich 's remarkable experiment with sulphate of
lime — the alteration in the tints of which by heat, it is said, was first
observed by Fresnel. This experiment was repeated by Sir David
Brewster, and he discovered still more curious properties in glauberite,
all of which are detailed in Vol. I. p. 417 of the London and Edinburgh
Phil. Mag. for Dec. 1832.
REFERENCES. — " Cat. Sci. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. IV. pp. 413-416;
"Library Useful Knowledge" (Pol. of Light), p. 63; Poggendorff,
Vol. II. pp. 1 60, 161 ; the very able treatise of Mr. J. Beete Jukes on
" Mineralogical Science"; also Poggendorff's Annalen, Vol. XV. p. 630,
for Mitscherlich on the chemical origin of iron glance in volcanic masses.
A.D. 1820. — Ampere (Andre* Marie) (1775-1836), one of the most
distinguished philosophers of the century, Professor of Mathematical
Analysis in the French Ecole Polytechnique (1809), afterwards Pro-
fessor of Physics at the College de France, reads before the Academic
Royale des Sciences, Sept. 18, 25, Oct. 9, 13, and Nov. 6, 1820, papers
472 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
containing a complete exposition of the phenomena of electro-
dynamics. His investigations were subsequently embodied in the
" Recueil d 'Observations . . ." Paris, 1822, and were still further
developed during 1824 and 1826, as shown through both his
" Precis de la theorie . . ." and " Theorie des Phenom&ies Electro-
Dynamiques."
The news of Oersted's discovery of the relation existing between
thA electric current and the magnet — the fundamental fact of electro-
magnetism — was made known in July 1820, and the inquiry was
at once taken up more particularly by Ampere, Arago, Biot, and
Felix Savary in France, as well as by Berzelius, Davy, De la Rive,
Gumming, Faraday, Joseph Henry, Schweigger, Seebeck, Sturgeon,
Nobili and others throughout Europe and elsewhere. Of all these
scientists, Ampere proved the most energetic, and, within three
months of the announcement of Oersted's discovery, his first memoir
on the subject was publicly read in Paris.
In this first paper, Sept. 18, he explains the law determining the
position of the magnetic needle in relation to the electric current, and
he also makes known his intended experiments with spiral or helical
wires, which he predicts will acquire and retain the properties of
magnets so long as the electrical current flows through them.
He likewise explains his theory of magnets, saying that if we assume
a magnet to consist of an assemblage of minute currents of electricity
whirling all with the same direction of rotation around the steel mole-
cules and in planes at right angles to the axis of the bar, we will have
an hypothesis which will account for all the known properties of a
magnet. He constructed his spirals and helices, and to the astonish-
ment of all, he produced magnets formed only of spools of copper
wire traversed by electric currents. We can readily imagine, adds
Prof. A. M. Mayer, the intense interest awakened by this discovery,
a discovery whic"h caused Arago to exclaim, " What would Newton,
Halley, Dufay, ^Epinus, Franklin and Coulomb have said if ons had
told them that the day would come when a navigator would be able
to lay the course of his vessel without a magnetic needle and solely
by means of electric currents ? " " The vast field of physical
science," says Arago, " perhaps never presented so brilliant a dis-
covery, conceived, verified and completed with such rapidity."
Thus Ampere became the author of a beautiful generalization, which
not only included the phenomena exhibited by the new combinations
of Oersted, but also disclosed forces existing in arrangements already
familiar, although they were never detected till it was thus pointed
out how they were to be looked for. His electro-dynamic theory
of the action of currents and of magnets has been thought worthy of
a place near the Principia of Newton , . . it deservedly gained for
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 478
him the title of the Newton of electro-dynamics, as he did for this
branch of science even more than Coulomb had previously done for
electro-statics (Profs. A. M. Mayer and W. B. Rogers, " Memorial
of Jos. Henry/' 1880, pp. 81, 476; Lardner, "Lectures," 1859,
Vol. II. p. 120; Fahie, " Hist. Tel./' p. 276).
The experiments of Oersted and Ampere were at once greatly
extended by many scientists, among whom may be especially
mentioned MM. Yelin, Bceckmann, Van Beek, De la Rive, Moll, Nobili,
Barlow and Cumming. The last named apparently gave the earliest
notice of the increased effects of a convolution of wire around the
magnetic needle, and constructed the first astatic needle galvano-
meter (Trans. Camb. Soc., Vol. I. p. 279). The Chevalier
Julitis Konrad Yelin (1771-1826), German mathematician, ascer-
tained that the electricity of an ordinary machine when passed along
a 'helix, either in simple electrical sparks or by discharges from a
battery, has the effect of rendering an included needle magnetic.
According to Dr. Henry, M. Bceckmann found in varying these
experiments that no modification of the effect is produced by altering
the diameter of the helix from half an inch to thirteen inches. With
a helix of thirty-four inches diameter, and a coated surface of 300
square inches, much less magnetism was, however, imparted; and
with one of eighty-four inches it was scarcely perceptible. It was
found that a needle outside of the helix was magnetized as much as
one within ; that after being once fully magnetized a continuation
of the discharges diminished its power ; and that five jars, each of
300 square inches, did not produce, by repeated discharges, much
more effect than one of them (Poggendorff, Vol. II. p. 1382;
Gilbert's Annalen for 1820-1823).
In his second paper, Sept. 25 (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Vol.
XV. pp. 59-170), Ampere makes known the results of his experiments
on the mutual attractions and repulsions of electrical currents,
showing conclusively that when the voltaic current is passed in
the same direction through two parallel wires, so placed as to move
freely, they attract each other, and that they are repelled if the cur-
rents are passed in opposite directions. Thus he establishes the
second fundamental law of electro-magnetism, the first law, instituted
as we have seen by Oersted, being that the magnetical effect of the
electrical current is a circular motion around the current. In the
last-named paper he also proposes the hypothesis of currents of
electricity circulating from east to west around the terrestrial globe
in planes at right angles to the direction of the dipping needle,
to account for the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism (Roget,
" Electro-Magn./' p. 47).
In his third paper, Oct. 9, Ampere investigates the properties
474 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of currents transmitted through wires forming closed curves (courbes
fermees) or complete geometrical figures, an inquiry also alluded
to in another memoir read Oct. 30, 1820.
These papers were immediately followed by others, which engaged
nearly all the sittings of the Academy between Dec. 4, 1820, and
Jan. 15, 1821. In these he brings forth new confirmations of his
theories, and reduces the phenomena of electro -magnet ism to
mathematical analysis.
Mr. Samuel Prime remarks (" Life of Morse," 1875, p. 266) that
the discovery of the action of the spiral coil upon the magnetic
needle seems to have been independently made by Ampere in 1821 :
" I showed that the current which is in the pile acts on the mag-
netic needle by the conjunctive wire. I described the instrument,
which I proposed to construct, and, among others, the galvanic
spiral. I read a note upon the electro-chemical effects of a spiral of
iron wire, subjected to the action of the earth, directing an electric
current as well as a magnet. I announced the new fact of the
attraction and repulsion of two electric currents, without the in-
termediation of any magnet, a fact which I had observed in
conductors twisted spirally (Tilloch's Journal of Science, Vol. LVII.
p. 47, 1821).
One of his biographers, Professor Chrystal says : " Scarcely had
the news of Oersted's discovery reached France, when a French
philosopher, Ampere, set to work to develop the important conse-
quences which it involved. Physicists had long been looking for
the connection between magnetism and electricity, and had, perhaps,
inclined to the view that electricity was somehow to be explained
as a magnetic phenomenon. It was, in fact, under the influence
of such ideas, that Oersted was led to his discovery. Amp&re showed
that the explanation was to be found in an opposite direction. He
discovered the ponderomotive action of one electric current on
another, and, by a series of well-chosen experiments, he established
the elementary laws of electro-dynamic action, starting from which,
by a brilliant train of mathematical analysis, he not only evolved
the complete explanation of all the electro-magnetic phenomena
observed before him, but predicted many hitherto unknown. The
results of his researches may be summarized in the statement that
an electric current, in a linear circuit of any form, is equivalent in
its action, whether on magnets or other circuits, to a magnetic shell
bounded by the circuit, whose strength at every point is constant
and proportional to the strength of the current. By his beautiful
theory of molecular currents, he gave a theoretical explanation of
that connection between electricity and magnetism which had been
the dream of previous investigators. // w$ except the discovery of the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 475
laws of the induction of electric currents, made about ten years later
by Faraday, no advance in the science of electricity can compare for
completeness and brilliancy with the work of Ampere. Our admiration
is equally great, whether we contemplate the clearness and power
of his mathematical investigations, the aptness and skill of his
experiments, or the wonderful rapidity with which he elucidated his
discovery when he had once found the clew."
" Oersted/' remarks M. Babinet, " was the Christopher Colum-
bus of magnetism; Amp&re became its Pizarro and its Fernand
Cortez."
Of Ampere's astatic needles, a description, taken from one of
his memoirs (Ann. de Ch. et de Ph., Vol. XVIII. p, 320), appears
at pp. 280-281 of Fahie's " History " (Knight's " Mech. Diet.,"
1874, Vol. I. p. 171, and Vol. II. p. 1181). For this greatly
perfected form of galvanometer the credit has erroneously been
given to Prof. Cumming, who first suggested the idea of neutra-
lizing the directive force of the needle arising from the earth's
magnetism, which he did by placing a magnetized needle im-
mediately beneath the movable or index needle. Fahie adds, in
a footnote : "In Prof. Cummmg's paper ' On the Connection of
Galvanism and Magnetism/ read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, April 2, 1821, he described a near approach to the astatic
needle. In order to neutralize the terrestrial magnetism he placed
a small magnetized needle under the galvanometer needle " (Trans.
Cam. Phil. Soc., Vol. I. p. 279). The credit of Ampere's discovery is
sometimes given to Nobili, as in Noad's " Manual of Electricity,"
London, 1859, p. 327; alsa Roget's " Electro-Magnetism " in
" Library of Useful Knowledge," London, 1832, p. 42.
As has been already shown (Laplace, A.D. 1820), the first proposal
to apply Oersted's discovery to telegraphic purposes by substituting
the deflection of the magnetic needle through electric currents for
the divergence of the pith balls of the electroscope, was made by
Ampere, in his Memoir of Oct. 2, 1820, which appears in the Comptes
Rendus, and at p. 72, Vol. XV of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique.
His plan, remarks Sabine, was, however, doomed to the same fate
as that of Sommering, of never coming into practice, and for the
same reasons, principally the number of line wires. Had Ampere
combined his system, or rather the one of Laplace, with that which
Schweigger pro posed of reducing Sommering's telegraph to two wires,
or with any other using a code of signals, the problem of the electric
telegraph would have been solved from the year 1820. Ampere
makes no mention of surrounding the needles with coils of wire, as
is so frequently stated by writers on the telegraph. Indeed he
could not then have even heard of the galvanometer ; for, although
476 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
Schweigger's paper on the subject was read at Halle on the i6th of
September 1820, it was not published until the November following.
M. Jean Jacques Antoine Ampere (1800-1864), son of Andr6
Marie Ampere, was an accomplished scholar who succeeded Franc. ois
Andrieux as professor at the College de France and became a member
of the French Academy in 1847.
REFERENCES. — For accounts of Ampere's rotary magnet, electro-
dynamic cylinders, revolving battery, and of his electripeter employed
to alter rapidly the direction of the electric current in voltaic batteries,
consult pp. 639, 640, 643, Vol. VIII of the eighth " Britannica."
Fahie, " Hist, of El. Tel.," p. 303. See " Catal. Sci. Papers Roy.
Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 58, 61 ; Messrs. Sainte-Beuve et Littre" s account
of his life and labours in the Revue des Deux Mondes for Feb. 15,
1837; " Notice sur M. Ampere," par M. E. Littre', Paris, 1843; Aarago's
" Eulogy on Ampere," translated, at pp. 111-171 of the " Report of the
Smithsonian Institution " for 1872. Consult also " Report Smiths.
Instit." for 1857, pp. 100-107; Ampe're's biography in the Sci. Am.
SuppL, No. 674, p. 10760; also Ampe're's " Journal et Correspondance,"
PoggendorfT, Vol. I. pp. 39, 40 ; Address of His Royal Highness the
Duke of Sussex to the Eng. Roy Soc., 1836; Barlow on " Magnetic
Attractions" : Comptes Rendus for 1838, Vol. VII. p. 81 ; Bibl. Univ.,
XX; Phil. Mag., Vols. LVI. p. 308; LVII. pp. 40-47, " On the Electro-
Magnetic Experiments of Oersted and Ampere," by Mr. Hatchett, and
pp. 47-49 ; Ann. de Phys. de Bruxelles, Vol. VII ; Ann. de Ch. et de Phys.,
XXIX; Du Moncel, Vol. III. p. 7; " Acad. de Paris," Sept. 12, 1825;
La Litm. Elect, for Oct. 31, 1891, p. 202 ; Roch, in " Zeitschr. f. Mathe*m,"
1859, p. 295 ; Rogeton Ampere's theory of Mag. ; K.W.Knochenhauer,Pogrgr.
Annul., XXXIV. p. 481 ; J. Marsh, " On a Particular Construction of M.
Ampere's Rotating Cylinder," Phil. Mag., LIX. p. 433, 1822 ; Henn, " De
Amperi principiis . . ."; "Memorial of Joseph Henry," 1880, pp. 59,
81 ; " Lib. of Use. Know." (El. Mag.), pp. 24, 28, 83-92; Harris, " Rud.
Elec.," pp. 170, 171, and "Rud. Mag.," p. 130; Noad, "Manual)"
pp. 661-662, 861-864; " Encyl. Metrop." (El. Mag.), Vol. IV. pp. 5-8;
Highton, " Elec. Teleg.," p. 39; Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 317;
Mrs. Somerville, "Conn. Phys. Sci.," 1846, pp. 320, 321; Dr. Lardner,
"Lectures," Vol. II. p. 125; J. F. W. Herschel, "Prelim. Dis. Nat.
Phil.," 1855, p. 243 ; Whewell, " Hist. Indue. Sc.," 1859, Vol. II. pp. 242,
246, 619; "Ann. of Sc. Disc." for 1850, p. 129, and for 1865, p. 125;
" Smithsonian Report " for 1878, p. 273; Sturgeon, " Sci. Researches,"
Bury, 1850, pp. 12, 16, 29; Jour. Frankl. Inst. for 1851, Vol. XXII.
p. 59; Turnbull, " El. Mag. Tel.," 1853, pp. 55 and 221 ; (Vail's " History,"
pp. 133, 134; Prof. Henry's Evid., 85a, record; Doct. Channing's Ev.,
47a, record; Hibbard, Ev., 31^. . . .) See also Humboldt's " Cosmos,"
articles "Aurora Borealis," "Volcanoes," "Earthquakes"; Ampdre et
Babinet, " Expose" des Nouv. De"c. . . de Oersted, Arago, Ampdre, Davy,
Biot, Erman, Schweigger, De la Rive," etc., Paris, 1822, translated into
German " Darstellung der ncuen . . dem Franzosischen," Leipzig, 1822,
and alluded to in Lumiere Electrique for July 18, 1891, pp. 148, 149;
Hachette et Ampe're," Sur les Experiences de Oersted et Ampdre" : Journal
de Physique for September 1820. Annales de Chimie for 1825 ; " Journal
des Savants," for June 1872; "Diet. Gen6r. de Biogr. et d'Histoire,"
Paris, 2e ed., pp. 85-86 ; " Collection dc Me"moires relatifs a la Physique,"
Paris 1885, 1887, Vols. II and III passim, as per indexes; " Amer.
Journ. of Psychology," Vol. IV. pp. 6-7.
For William Ritchie (1790-1837), the author of an able paper,
On electro-magnetism, and Ampere's proposal of telegraphic com-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 477
munication by means of this power," consult Phil. Trans, for 1833,
p. 313 ; " Abstracts of Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 350, 382 ;
Phil. Mag. or Annals, Vol. VII, 1830, p. 212 ; Phil. Mag. and Journal
of Science, Vol. Ill, 1833, pp. 37, 122, 124, 145.
For Leopoldo Nobili (1784—1835), frequently mentioned above,
consult "Bibl. Univ.," Bruxelles, 1834 (Sc. et Arts), Tome LVI.
pp. 82-89, 150-168 ; " Edin. Trans." Vol. XII and Phil. Mag. Vol. XI,
1832, p. 359, for the account of experiments made by James David
Forbes, similar to those of Nobili, wherein an electric spark was
elicited from a natural magnet. For J. D. Forbes, see also Phil.
Mag.f 1832, Vol. XI. p. 359. For Nobili and Antinori, consult
Phil. Mag., Vol. XI, 1832, pp. 401, 466; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXV,
i824,JN.S. p. 38; Vol. XXIX, 1825, N.S. p. 119. For Antinori
and Marchese Cosimo Ridolfi, consult " Bibl. Britan/' Vol. XVI,
N.S., 1821, pp. 72-75, 101-118.
For Prof, James Gumming (1777-1861), also frequently named in
above article, consult Phil. Mag., Vol. LX, 1822, p. 253; "Bibl.
Britan.," Vol. XXV, N.S., 1824, p. 104, for experiments of Cumming,
Trail and Marsh; the investigations in the same line of Mr. Thos.
Stuart being especially reported on in " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXVII,
N.S., 1824, pp. 199-206; " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol XIII. p. 296;
"Edin. Phil. Journal," 1824, Vol. X. p. 185; "Cat. Sc. Papers
Roy. Soc.," Vol I. pp. 58-61 ; Vol. VI. p. 565; Vol. VII. p. 29; " Bibl.
Britan.," Vol. XVI, N.S. p. 309; Vol. XVII, N.S. p. 16; Vol. XIX.
p. 244; Vol. XX. pp. 173, 258; Vol. XXIV. p. 109.
For Le Chevalier Julius Konrad von Yelin (1771—1826), consult
" Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XXIII, N.S., 1823, p. 38; Vol. XXIV, N.S.,
1823, p. 253, and, especially, the important tract on the discovery of
thermo-magnetism at p. 31 of his " Die Akademie der Wisseiischaften
und ihre Gegner," Munich, 1822.
A.D. 1820. — Arago (Dominique Francois Jean), famous French
astronomer, physicist and statesman (1786-1853), who at the early
age of twenty-three had, besides being Assistant Astronomer to the
Observatory, become the successor both of Lalande in the Academy
of Sciences and of Monge in the chair of analytical mathematics at
the Polytechnic School, and who, conjointly with Gay-Lussac, had
founded the highly valued Annales de Chimie et de Physique in 1816,
communicates to the French Institute, on the 25th of September 1820,
his discovery that the electric current has the power of developing
magnetism in iron and steel. Into the axis of a galvanic conductor
made in the form of a coil, or helix, he placed a needle, the extremi-
ties of the wire coil being connected to the poles of a battery, and
with this he proved that the wire not only acted on bodies already
478 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
magnetized, but that it could develop magnetism in such as did not
already possess the power. When soft iron was used, the magnetism
given was only temporary, but on repeating the experiment, M.
Arago succeeded completely in permanently magnetizing small
steel needles. Arago 's paper on the subject appears at p. 94, Vol. XV
of the Ann. de Ch. et de Ph., and it is said that at about the same time
Dr. Thos. J. Seebeck (1770-1831), and Georg Friedrich Pohl (1788-
1849) laid similar results before the Berlin Academy, also that Sir
Humphry Davy independently made a like discovery, of which he
advised Dr. Wollaston, Nov. 12, 1820. Reference to this fact has
already been made at Davy, under date A.D. 1801, wherein it was
stated that the latter had found iron filings to so adhere to the
connecting wire as to form a mass ten or twelve times the thickness
of the wire. This was also the case in the experiments of M. Arago,
who, upon observing that the filings rose before coming in contact
with the conjugate wire, drew the conclusion that each small piece
of iron was converted into a temporary magnet. Thus was Arago
led to the discovery of what is called magnetic induction by electric
currents, or, in other words, that an electrical current passing
through a conductor will induce magnetic action in such bodies
near it as are capable of being magnetized (Phil. Trans, for 1821,
p. 9; Tilloch's Jour, of Sci., Vol. LVIL p. 42, 1821; eighth
" Britannica," Vol. VIII. p. 532 and Vol. XIV. p. 640 ; Thomas
Thomson, " Outline of the Sciences/' p. 563).
A fact worth noting in connection with the development of
Oersted's discovery by both Arago and Ampere, is that in order
" to prevent the communication of the electricity laterally in the
folds of the coil, the wire was insulated by varnish in the first instance
and afterward by winding silk or cotton around it " (F. C. Bakewell,
" Elec. Sci./' London, 1853, p. 37).
On the 22nd of November 1824, Arago announced to the
French Academy of Sciences the remarkable discovery made by
him of a new source of magnetism in rotatory motion. He was led
to this by observing that when a magnetic needle was oscillating above
or close by any body, such as water or a plate of metal, it gradually
oscillated in arcs of less and less amplitude, as if it were standing
in a resisting medium, and, besides, that the oscillations performed
in a given time were the same in number (Humboldt's " Cosmos,"
" Magnetic Observations/' 1825). He caused a circular copper plate
to revolve immediately beneath a magnetic needle or magnet,
freely suspended so that the latter might rotate in a plane parallel
to that of the copper plate, and he found that the needle tends to
follow the circumvolution of the plate ; that it will deviate from its
true direction, and that by increasing the velocity of the plate the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 470
deviation will increase till the needle passes the opposite point, when
it will continue to revolve, and at last with such rapidity that the
eye will be unable to distinguish it. This, says Mrs. Somerville, is
quite independent of the motion of the air, since it is the same if
a pane of glass be interposed between the magnet and the copper.
When the magnet and the plate are at rest, not the smallest effect,
attractive, repulsive, or of any kind, can be perceived between them.
In describing this phenomenon Arago states that it takes place
not only with metals, but with all substances, although the intensity
depends upon the kind of substance in motion.
Arago 's experiments were repeated in London, March 7, 1825.
His valuable discovery, which obtained for him the Copley medal,
and which confirms the doctrine of the universal prevalence of magnet-
ism in all bodies, is recorded in Arago 's " Sur les Deviations . . .
aiguille aimante'e " (An. de Ch. et de Ph., Vol. XXXIII, and Phil.
Trans., p. 467 for 1825), and a solution of the phenomena is
given by Faraday in Phil. Trans, for 1832, p. 146, by Sir John Leslie
in the Fifth Dissertation of the eighth " Britannica," p. 746, as
well as in the article " Magnetism " of the latter publication, and in
Mrs. Somerville 's " Conn, of Phys. Sc.," pp. 325-327. (See also the
observations recorded in Humboldt's " Cosmos/' 1849, Vol. I.
pp. 172, 173; in Dr. Thomson's " Outline of the Sciences," pp. 556-
558; Fahie, pp. 282, 283, 321 ; Dr. Whewell, Vol. II. pp. 254-256;
Brewster's Edin. Jour, of Sci., 1826, Vol. III. p. 179; " Diet. Gehi.
de Biogr. et d'Histoire," Paris, 2e ed. p. 126.)
In Brewster's Edinburgh Journal of Science (Vol. V. p. 325),
notice is given of Arago 's then recent researches on the influence
which bodies considered not magnetic have on the motions of the
magnetic needle, and reference is made to a new communication
transmitted by Arago to the Acad&nie des Sciences, as well as
to a report of additional experiments in the same line given at meet-
ings held July 3 and 10, 1826. Arago satisfactorily meets the
denials made by Leopoldo Nobili and another Italian natural
philosopher (Liberato Giovanni Bacelli) that substances not metallic
have any influence on the magnetic oscillations, and he announces
as a result of his investigations that, for certain positions of a vertical
needle, and for velocities of rotation sufficiently rapid, the repulsive
force which is exerted in the direction of the radius is as great as the
force perpendicular to the radius, of which the effects are observed
upon a horizontal needle.
Poisson having stated in his memoir " On the Theory of
Magnetism " in motion (see Poisson at A.D. 1811) that Coulomb
had recognized the magnetic virtue in all bodies, independently of
the iron which they contain, Arago remarked that the idea
480 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
of Coulomb was quite different from his, Coulomb having been of
opinion that a quantity of iron, although too small for chemical
analysis even to appreciate, was sufficient to produce in bodies which
contained it appreciable magnetic effects. MM. The*nard and La
Place confirmed this remark. Brewster adds that, in justice to
Coulomb, it is necessary to state that he is the undoubted author of
the discovery that all bodies, whether organic or inorganic, are sensible
to the influence of magnetism. M. Biot has remarked that there are
two ways of explaining this, either all substances in nature are sus-
ceptible of magnetism, or they all contain portions of iron, or other
magnetic metals, which communicate to them this property. This
last explanation, though adopted by Coulomb, by no means affects
his claim to the discovery of the general fact that all bodies, whether
organic or inorganic, are susceptible of becoming magnetic. Prof.
Hansteen has drawn from numerous experiments and observations
the important conclusion that every vertical object, of whatever material
it is composed, has a magnetic south pole above, and a north pole
below (Edin. Phil. Journal for January— April 1821).
M. Arago made many valuable investigations concerning the
influence of the aurora borealis on the needle, on the variations of
the latter, upon the nature of meteors, lightning, the zodiacal
light, magnetic storms, etc. etc., which are admirably recorded
more particularly in the great work of Alex, von Humboldt. The
latter remarks that Arago has left behind him a treasury of
magnetical observations (upward of 52,600 in number) carried on
from 1818 to 1835, which have been carefully edited by M. Fedor
Thoman, and published in the " (Euvres Completes de Francois
Arago " (Vol. IV. p. 493). Much could be said, especially regarding
Arago 's paper, presented by him to the Academy of Sciences in 1811,
which is considered to have established the foundation of chromatic
polarization. Mention must at any rate be made of the fact that in
Humboldt 's estimation the discovery of the two kinds of polarization
of light may be considered the most brilliant of the century. They,
unquestionably, rank among the most splendid of optical phenomena.
Etienne Louis Malus, a distinguished French philosopher (Fifth
Dissert, of " Encycl. Brit/'), discovered in 1808 polarization by
reflection from polished surfaces, and Arago, during 1811, made the
discovery of coloured polarization. A world of wonder, remarks
Humboldt, composed of manifold modified waves of light having
new properties was now revealed. A ray of light which reaches
our eyes, after traversing millions of miles from the remotest regions
of heaven, announces of itself in Arago 's polariscope (consisting of a
plate of quartz cut across the axis placed in one end of a tube, at
the other end of which is a doubly refracting prism) whether it is
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 481
reflected or refracted, whether it emanates from a solid or fluid, or
gaseous body, even announcing the degree of its intensity (Delambre,
" Histoire de I'Astronomie," p. 652; Humboldt, "Cosmos/' 1849,
Vol. I. p. 33; Vol. II. p. 715).
In 1818, Arago was elected a F.R.S. ; he became a member
of the Royal Astronomical Society and also member of the Bureau
des Longitudes during 1822, was made Perpetual Secretary of the
Academy and Director of the Paris Observatory eight years later, and
received the Rumford medal in 1850. The Copley medal given him
in 1825 had never before been conferred upon a Frenchman of
science. It was upon his urgent request that the " Annuaire du
Bureau des Longitudes " and "Les Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires "
were commenced by the Academy, 1828-1835.
In a letter to Schumacher, Humboldt speaks of Arago as " one
gifted with the noblest of natures, equally distinguished for intellec-
tual power and for moral excellence/' In conjunction with Gay-
Lussac, Arago was, for almost half a century, Humboldt's most
intimate friend, and their ever-increasing intimacy became such as
to lead to a perfect unity of thought on scientific subjects. It
cannot, therefore, be considered an exaggerated expression of feeling
when, in a letter to Geoffroy St. Hilaire, dated Berlin, June 24, 1829,
Humboldt should conclude with the words : " Pray remember me
to MM. Valenciennes, Deleuze and Cuvier, but especially to him
whom I hold dearest in this life, to M. Arago."
REFERENCES. — Poggendorff, Vol. I. pp. 53, 54, and the several
biographies named at p. 202, Vol. I of " Johnson's New Univ. Cycl.," 1877 ;
J. A. Barral, " (Euvres de F. Arago," 1854-1855; Faria E. De e Arago,
"Breve compendio . . ." Lisbon, 1800; Arago 's "Notices Scienti-
fiques," " Cat. Sc. Papers Roy. Soc.," Vol. I. pp. 80—84 ; Vol. IV. pp. 697—
701 ; Vol. VI. pp. 567, 736-737; Vol. VIII. p. 537; " Encycl. Metropol.,"
Vol IV (Magnetism), pp. 6, 7; J. F. W. Herschel, " Nat. Phil.," 1855,
pp. 117, 244, and his account of the repetition of M. Arago's experiments
on rotatory magnetism in Phil. Trans, for 1825; Whewell, "Hist.
Indue. Sci.," 1859, Vol.11, p. 226; Phil. Mag., Vols. LIX. p. 233; LVII.
pp. 40-49; LVIII. p. 50; LXI, p. 134 ; " Lib. Useful Knowledge ' (Mag-
netism), p. 91; Noad, "Manual," pp. 204,534; "Ann. of Sci Disc."
for 1850, p. 124; Harris, " Rud. Magn.," Parts I, II. pp. 58-61 anu Phil.
Trans, for 1831, Part I; Prime's " Life of Morse," pp. 168, 265, 266;
Gmelin's "Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 317; Comptes Rendus for 1836, Vol. II.
p. 212; Dredge, " Electr. Ilium.," Vol. II. p. 122; Sturgeon, " Scient.
Res.," Bury, 1850, pp. 13, 37, 216, etc.; Appleton, " New Am. Cycl.,"
Vol. XI. p. 71 ; Sci. Am. SuppL, No. 204, p. 3254; La Lumi&re Electrique
for Oct. 31, p. 202 ; " Reports of the Smithsonian Institution " for 1857,
pp. 102, 107; for 1862, pp. 132-143, and p. 127 of last named for Malus'
discovery. Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gene" rale," Vol. I. part. i.
pp. 676-677 detailing the contents of Arago's " OEuvres Completes,"
published in thirteen volumes under the direction of J. A. Barral, also
Soc,," Vol. U. p. 249.
II
482 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
A. D. 1821. — Ridolfi (Marquis Cosimo di),an Italian agriculturist,
is the author of several treatises on fenomeni elettro-magnetici,
published in Florence, wherein he expresses the belief that " because
electricity produces both magnetic and calorific phenomena, the
elements giving these separately may possibly be so compounded
together as to produce electricity; which infers that electricity is
a compound of magnetism and caloric."
REFERENCES. — " Antologia di Firenze," 1824, p. 159, and " Biblio.
Itai.," Vol. LXIII. p. 268 for Ridolfi's description of the electric plate
machine of Novellucci; also " Annales de Chimie et de Physique,"
Vol. X. p. 287; Sturgeon, " Scientific Researches," 1850, Sec. I. p. 29;
" Bibliothdque Universellc " for Feb. 1821.
A.D. 1821.— Scoresby (Dr. William) (1789-1857), English
master-mariner, and author of numerous scientific and other
treatises, first publishes, in the " Trans, of the Edinburgh Society/'
accounts of his magnetometer — magnetimeter — and of his electro-
magnetic experiments. These were duly followed up by full
reports of his many interesting investigations relative, more parti-
cularly, to the development of magnetic properties of metals by
percussion, as well as to magnetic induction, and regarding the
uniform permeability of all known substances to the magnet's
influence.
REFERENCES. — " Abstracts of Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," London 1832-
1833, Vol. II. pp. 108, 168, 210; " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," London, 1897,
Vol. LI. p. 6; Phil. Trans, for 1822-1824; "Trans. Edin. Soc.,"
Vol. IX. pp. 243-258, 353, 465; Vol XI for 1824; Vol. XII for
1831; Vol. XIII for 1832, and Vol. XIV for 1833; " Brewster's Jour,
of Sc.," Vol. VIII for 1828; " Biblio th£que Britannique," Gendve,
1796, N.S., Vol. XXIX for 1825, p. 185; " Edin. Phil. Jour " for 1823,
Vol. IX. p. 45.
A.D. 1821. — Babinet (Jacques) (1794-1872), French scientist,
is the author of a very valuable treatise, published in Paris, upon the
magnetical discoveries of Oersted, Ampere, Arago, Davy and others.
This was followed by his " Resume* complet de la physique/' etc.,
and by a companion work treating of the relations of ponderable
and imponderable bodies to the phenomena of magnetism and
electricity, also, during the year 1829, by his Memoir upon the
determination of terrestrial magnetism.
He succeeded Savary as Professor at the College de France in
1838, and, two years later, took the place of Dulong in the section of
General Physics at the Academic des Sciences, becoming not long
after the Assistant Astronomer at the Paris Observatory for
Meteorology.
His numerous scientific treatises are to be found throughout
the " Memoires de la Societe Philomathique," the " Annales de
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 483
Physique/' the " Comptes Rendus," the " Revue des Deux-
Mondes " and other prominent publications of the day.
REFERENCES. — Laroussc, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 10; " Eng.
Cycl.," London, 1872, Supplement, p. 143; " Biog. Ge*n.," Vol. IV. p. 21 ;
Mine. Blavatsky, " Isis Unveiled," Vol. 1. p. 202; and Ronalds' "Cata-
logue," pp. 10-11, for the joint works of Ampe're and Babinet.
A.D. 1821.— Pfaff (Christian Heinrich) (1773-1852), who became
Professor of Medicine, Physics, etc., at the Kiel University, and was
one of the most energetic followers of Volta, sends an unusually
interesting communication to Gilbert's " Annalen der Physik " and
to Schweigger's " Journal fur Chemie und Physik," wherein he
very^ibly supports the views of the Pa via physicist.
Pfaff had, long before that, become favourably known through
numerous scientific papers, which were translated into the leading
foreign journals, the ones entitled " Dissertatio inauguralis . . ."
published at Stuttgart, and " Ober thierische Elektricitat," pub-
lished at Leipzig, having brought him special distinction. He had
also written, more particularly, upon the experiments made by
Alex, von Humboldt as well as relative to Pacchiani's " Formation
of Muriatic Acid by Galvanism," alluded to at the A.D. 1805 entry,
and it was by reason of the investigations made by Pfaff and Van
Marum that the use of the voltaic column was generally abandoned.
These scientists had constructed very strong piles consisting, in
some instances, of as many as seventy large separate discs, when
they found that the lower layers of wet cloth or of pasteboard were
so seriously compressed by the discs above them as to neutralize
their effect.
REFERENCES. — Johann Samuel T. Gehler's " Phys. Worterbuch,"
Vol. VI. pp. 507, 517-518; " Roy. Soc. Cat. Sc. Papers," Vol. IV. pp.
866-871 ; " Ann. der Chemie," Vol. XXXIV. p. 307; Vol. LX. p. 314;
" Annales de Chimie et de Physique," Vol. XLI. pp. 236-247; Sturgeon,
" Annals," Vol. VIII. pp. 80, 146; Noad, " Manual," p. 558; Wilkinson,
"Elements," Vol. I. pp. 1-8, 18, 22, 196, 326, 407; Vol. II. p. 106;
" Encycl. Brit." ninth ed., Vol. XVIII. p. 725; " Soc. Philom.," Vol.
II. p. 181 ; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXVII. p. 338.
A.D. 1821. — Faraday (Michael), a very distinguished English
chemist and natural philosopher (1791-1867), who probably did
more for the development of the study of electrical science than
any other investigator, publishes his " History of the Progress of
Electro-Magnetism " and succeeds, on the morning of Christmas
(December 25), 1821, both in causing a magnetic needle to rotate
round a wire carrying an electric current and in making the wire
rotate around the needle, thus rendering possible the production
of continuous mechanical motion by electricity.
484 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
The apparatus with which he produced this result is described
in nearly all works treating of natural philosophy. Premising his
reference to this discovery of Mr. Faraday, whose original papers
thereon appear in the Quarterly Journal of Sciences and the Arts,
Vol. XII. pp. 75, 186, 283 and 416 (the first bearing date September
n, 1821), Dr. Whewell says that on attempting to analyze the
electro-magnetic phenomena observed by Oersted and others into
their simplest forms, they appeared, at least at first sight, to be
different from any mechanical actions which had yet been observed.
It seemed as if the conducting wire exerted on the pole of the
magnet a force which was not attractive or repulsive, but transverse ;
not tending to draw the point acted on nearer, or to push it further
off, in the line which reached from the acting point, but urging it
to move at right angles to this line. The forces appeared to be
such as Kepler had dreamt of in the infancy of mechanical con-
ceptions, rather than such as those of which Newton had estab-
lished the presence in the solar system, and such as he, and all his
successors, had supposed to be the only kinds of force which exist
in nature. The north pole of the needle moved as if it were im-
pelled by a vortex revolving round the wire in one direction, while
the south pole seemed to be driven by an opposite vortex (called
by Wollaston vertiginous magnetism and considered by Mr. Barlow
as the result of tangential action). The case seemed novel, and
almost paradoxical. It was soon established by experiments,
made in a great variety of forms, that the mechanical action was
really of this transverse kind. And a curious result was obtained,
which a little while before would have been considered as altogether
incredible : that this force would cause a constant and rapid revo-
lution of either of the bodies about the other — of the conducting
wire about the magnet, or of the magnet about the conducting
wire (Vol. XII of the " Journal of the Royal Institution " ; Watkins,
"Popular Sketch of .Electro-Magnetism; or Electro-Dynamics,"
London, 1828; Mrs. Somerville, "Connection of Phys. Sciences,'1
1846, p. 315).
Passing over many of Faraday's important scientific investi-
gations in other lines, we come to his second great discovery, that
of magneto-electric induction, which is the converse of Oersted's
(developed by Ampere and Arago), the production of electricity
by magnetism. This is recorded in the first series of " Experi-
mental Researches in Electricity," read November 24, 1831 before
the Royal Society, of which body Faraday had become a Fellow .
during 1824, and it is published at p. 125 of the Phil. Trans, for
1832.
It appears that upon observing certain phenomena, which he
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 485
described as Volta-electric, he concluded before long that magnetism
in motion ought to produce an electric current just as electricity
was made to imitate all the effects of magnetism. He carried on
many experiments, and after the announcements made by Arago to
the French Academy, November 22, 1824, ^e endeavoured to make
the conducting wire of the voltaic circuit excite electricity in a neigh-
bouring wire by induction, just as the conductor charged with
common electricity would have done, but he obtained no satis-
factory results until August 29, 1831 (Annales de Chimie, Vol.
XL VIII. p. 402). He remarks : " Certain effects of the induction
of electrical currents have already been recognized and described;
as those of magnetism; Amp&re's experiments of bringing a copper
disc 'hear to a flat spiral; his repetition, with electro-magnets, of
Arago 's extraordinary experiments, and perhaps a few others.
Still it appeared unlikely that these could be all the effects which
induction by currents could produce. . . . These considerations,
with their consequence, the hope of obtaining electricity from
ordinary magnetism, have stimulated me at various times to in-
vestigate experimentally the inductive effects of electric currents.
I lately arrived at positive results, and not only had my hopes
fulfilled, but obtained a theory which appeared to me to open out
a full explanation of Arago's magnetic phenomena, and also to
discover a new state which may probably have great influence in
some of the most important effects of electric currents/' His very
important conclusion was finally verified, October 1-17, in the
following manner. He had taken a helix, or spool of copper wire,
which latter, Prof. Brande tells us, was covered with silk as in his
former experiments and which was connected by its extremities
with a galvanometer, the deflection of which would of course
announce a current of electricity in the spiral and wires connected
with it, and he found that while in the act of introducing the pole
of a powerful bar-magnet within the coils of the spiral, a deflection
of the galvanometer took place in one direction, and that when in
the act of withdrawing, it took place in the opposite direction ; so
that each time the conducting wire cut the magnetic curves, a
current of electricity was, for the moment, produced in it. Dr.
Whewell's account of the discovery is so well interspersed with
references that it deserves repetition here :
" In 1831, Faraday again sought for electro-dynamical in-
duction, and, after some futile trials, at last found it in a form
different from that in which he had looked for it. It was then
seen, that at the precise time of making or breaking the contact
which closed the galvanic circuit, a momentary effect was induced
in a neighbouring wire, but disappeared instantly (Phil Trans.,
486 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
1832, p. 127, ist ser., Art. 10). Once in possession of this fact,
Mr. Faraday ran rapidly up the ladder of discovery, to the general
point of view. Instead of suddenly making or breaking the contact
of the inducing circuit, a similar effect was produced by removing
the inducible wire nearer to or further from the circuit (Art. 18) —
the effects were increased by the proximity of soft iron (Art. 28)
— when the soft iron was affected by an ordinary magnet, instead of
the voltaic wire, the same effect still recurred (Art 37) — and thus
it appeared, that by making and breaking magnetic contact, a
momentary electric current was produced. It was produced also
by moving the magnet (Art. 39) — or by moving the wire with
reference to the magnet (Art. 53). Finally, it was found that the
earth might supply the place of a magnet in this as in other experi-
ments (2nd ser., Phil. Trans., p. 163) and the mere motion of a
wire, under proper circumstances, produced in it, it appeared, a
momentary electric current (Art. 141). These facts were curiously
confirmed by the results in special cases. They explained Arago's
experiments : for the momentary effect became permanent by the
revolution of the plate. And without using the magnet, a re-
volving plate became an electrical machine (Art. 150), a revolving
globe exhibited electro-magnetic action (Art. 164), the circuit being
complete in the globe itself without the addition of any wire ; and
a mere motion of the wire of a galvanometer produced an electro-
dynamic effect upon its needle (Art. 171). . . . And thus he was
enabled, at the end of his second series of ' Researches ' (December
1831), to give, in general terms, the law of nature to which may be
referred the extraordinary number of new and curious experiments
which he has stated (Arts. 256-264), namely, that if a wire move so
as to cut a magnetic curve, a power is called into action which tends
to urge a magnetic current through the wire; and that if a mass
move so that its parts do not move in the same direction across
the magnetic curves, and with the same angular velocity, electrical
currents are called into play in the mass. And here might properly
be added the experimental distinction between a helix and a magnet,
which Faraday subsequently pointed out (' Exper. Res./ Art. 3273) :
' Whereas an unchangeable magnet can never raise up a piece of
soft iron to a state more than equal to its own, as measured by the
moving wire, a helix carrying a current can develop in an iron core
magnetic lines of force of a hundred or more times as much power
as that possessed by itself when measured by the same means/ "
An article on the reduction of Mr. Faraday's discoveries in
magneto-electric induction to a general law appeared in the " Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society," Vol. III. p. 37, and at
Vol. IV.p. n, new series, of the Philosophical Magazine (see Faraday's
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 4*7
first two Memoirs in the Phil. Trans., Book XIII. chaps, v and viii ;
letter to Gay-Lussac in Annales de Chimie, Vol, LI. 1832, pp. 404-
434; Phil. Mag., Vol. XVII. pp. 281, 356); while, in the Phil.
Trans, for 1832, p. 132, is the Report of his production of the
electric spark through a modified arrangement in which the electric
current was induced by an electro-magnet, as shown in his subse-
quent work published in London during 1834. This is alluded to ill
Vol. V. pp. 349-354 of the Phil. Mag. for latter year, and in
Poggendorffs Annalen, Vol. XXXIV. pp. 292-301 for 1835. (See
also Bakewell, " Elect. Science/' pp. 39, 140, 144.)
" Around the magnet, Faraday
Is sure that Volta's lightnings play ;
But how to draw them from the wire ?
He took a lesson from the heart
'Tis when we meet — 'tis when we part,
Breaks forth the electric fire."
HERBERT MAYO, in Blackwood.
In Prof. Alfred M. Mayer's address, delivered before the American
Association at Boston, August 26, 1880, we read : " It is not
generally known or appreciated that Henry and Faraday inde-
pendently discovered the means of producing the electric current
and the electric spark from a magnet. Tyndall, in speaking of
this great discovery of Faraday, says : ' I cannot help thinking
while I dwell upon them, that this discovery of magneto-electricity
is the greatest experimental result ever obtained by an investigator.
It is the Mont Blanc of Faraday's own achievements. He always
worked at great elevations, but higher than this he never subse-
quently attained/ And it is this same physicist who further
remarks (' Johnson's Cycl.,' Vol. II. pp. 26-27) that all our in-
duction coils, our medical machines, and the electric light so far
as it has been applied to lighthouses, are the direct progeny of
Faraday's discovery. In the paper here referred to (Nov. 24,
1831) he for the first time calls the ' magnetic curves,' formed
when iron-filings are strewn around a magnet, ' lines of magnetic
force.' All his subsequent researches upon magnetism were made
with reference to those lines. They enabled him to play like a
magician with the magnetic force, guiding him securely through
mazes of phenomena which would have been perfectly bewildering
without their aid. The spark of the extra current, which I believe
was noticed for the first time by Prof. Joseph Henry, had been
noticed independently by Mr. William Jenkin. Faraday at once
brought this observation under the yoke of his discovery, proving
that the augmented spark was the product of a secondary current
evoked by the reaction of the primary upon its own wire." The
488 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
phenomenon of the spark from the extra current here alluded to was
first announced by Henry in July 1832. He had observed that
when the poles of a battery are united by means of a short wire of
low resistance, no spark or at least a very faint one is produced,
but when the poles of the battery are connected by a long copper
wire and mercury cups, a brilliant spark is obtained at the moment
the circuit is broken by raising one end of the wire out of its cup
of mercury and also that the longer the wire and the greater the
number of its helical convolutions, the more powerful would be the
effect (Silliman, " Am. Jour, of Sc.," Vol. XXII). The results of
Faraday's investigation of the extra current first appeared in the
Phil. Mag. for November 1834.
The references already named give an account of many*other
important results attained by Faraday during 1831 and up to the
date of the publication of the third series of his " Experimental
Researches " (p. 76), wherein he recognizes the " Identity of Elec-
tricities derived from different sources " x (Vol. I. par. 265 and 360),
after investigating the electricities of the machine, the pile, and of
the electrical fishes, and after employing as conductors the entire
plant of the metallic gas pipes and water pipes of the city of London
(Phil. Trans, for 1833, p. 23; Poggendorff, Annalen, Vol. XXIX,
1833, pp. 274, 365).
In the fourth series, relating to " A New law of electric con-
duction " (Vol. I. par. 380, 381, 394, 410), he demonstrates the
influence of what is called " the state of aggregation " upon the
transmission of the current. He found that although the latter
was conveyed through water it did not pass through ice. This he
subsequently explained by saying that the liquid condition enables
the molecule of water to turn round so as to place itself in the proper
line of polarization, which the rigidity of ice prevents. This polar
arrangement must precede decomposition, and decomposition is
an accompaniment of conduction (Phil. Trans, for 1833, P- 5°7>
Poggendorff, Annalen, Vol. XXXI, 1834, p. 225; also Phil. Mag.,
Vol. X. p. 98; "Royal Inst. Proc.," Vol. II. p. 123; Silliman 's
Journal, Vol. XXI. p. 368).
Other series (pars. 309, 450, 453-454, 472, 477, 661-662, 669, etc.)
treat of " Electro-chemical or electrolytic decomposition/' The
experiments of Wollaston in this line have been given under the
A.D. 1801 date, where Prof. Faraday's opinion of them is also
expressed. Faraday was successful in the employment of Wollas-
ton's apparatus for the decomposition of water, and he afterwards
1 See the 1839 ed. of " Experimental Researches " : I, " Voltaic Electricity,"
par. 268; II, "Ordinary Electricity," par. 284; III, "Magneto-Electricity,"
par, 343; IV, "Thcr mo-Electricity," par. 349; V, "Animal Electricity,"
par. 351.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 489
devised an arrangement enabling him to effect true electro-chemical
decompositions by common electricity as well as by the voltaic
pile. For this, it is said, he used an electric battery consisting of
fifteen jars and a plate machine having two sets of rubbers and a
glass disc fifty inches in diameter, the whole presenting a surface
of 1422 inches. One revolution of the plate could be made to
give ten or twelve sparks, each one inch long, while the conductors
afforded sparks ten to fourteen inches in length. He also devised
a discharging train, to instantaneously carry off electricity of the
feeblest tension by connecting a thick wire as he had previously
done with the London gas and water pipes. A good description of
the methods by which he succeeded with the latter apparatus in
establishing the analogy between ordinary and voltaic electricity
is given in the eighth " Britannica," Vol. VIII. pp. 596-597. He had
shown, at paragraph 371 and p. 105 of his " Researches/' that as a
measure of quantity, a voltaic group of two small wires of platinum
and zinc, placed near each other, and immersed in dilute acid for
three seconds, yields as much electricity as the electrical battery,
charged by thirty turns of a large machine ; a fact that was established
both by its momentary electro-magnetic effect, and by the amount
of its chemical action, but, in order to enable him to establish a
principle of definite measurement, he devised a voltameter or volta-
electrometer as mentioned at paragraph No. 739 (Noad, " Manual,"
p. 365). By means of this apparatus he calculated that a single
grain of water in a voltaic cell will require for its decomposition a
quantity of electricity equal to that liberated in 800,000 discharges
of the great Leyden battery of the Royal Institution (" Re-
searches," par. 861). Also, that the decomposition of a single grain
of water by four grains of zinc in the active cell of the voltaic circle,
produces as great an amount of polarization and decomposition in
the cell of decomposition, as 950,000 charges of a large Leyden
battery, of several square feet of coated surface.; an enormous
quantity of power, equal to a most destructive thunderstorm.
Tyndall remarks (" Notes on Electricity," No. 118, also " Faraday
as a Discoverer," 1868, p. 44) that Weber and Kohlrausch ascer-
tained that the quantity of electricity associated with one milli-
gramme of hydrogen in water, if diffused over a cloud 1000 metres
above the earth, would exert, upon an equal quantity of the opposite
electricity at the earth's surface, an attractive force of 2,268,000
kilogrammes.1
Faraday introduced new terms to express more specifically the
circumstances attending electro-chemical decomposition. Objec-
tions had long been made to the designation poles — one positive,
1 In English measure, the metre is i^- yd., the milligramme is ^ of. a.
grain ; the kilogramme is 2 Ib. 3 J oz.
490 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
the other negative — on the ground that such did not convey a correct
idea of the effects produced. These designations had been given
under erroneous supposition that the poles exerted an attractive
and repulsive energy towards the elements of the decomposing liquid,
much as the poles of the magnet act towards iron. When connecting
the extremities of a battery, the electricity simply makes a circuit ;
the current passes through the substance to be decomposed and the
elements remain in operation until the connection is broken. Since
the poles merely act as a path to the current he calls them electrodes
(electron, electricity, odos, a way) ; that part of the surface of the
decomposing matter which the current enters — immediately touch-
ing the positive pole — he designates as anode (ana, upward) and the
part of the matter which the current leaves — next to the negative
pole — cathode (kata, downward). He names electrolyte (luo, to set
free) the fluid decomposed directly by electricity passing through
it ; the term electrolyzed meaning electro-chemically decomposed.
The elements of an electrolyte are named ions (ion, going), the anion
being the body (in sulphate of copper solution, the acid) which
goes up to the positive pole, to the anode of the decomposing body,
whilst the cation is that (in sulphate of copper solution, the metal)
which goes down to the negative pole, to the cathode of the decom-
posing body.
The many tests which he made with his voltameter led him to
the conclusion " that under every variety of circumstance, the
decompositions of the voltaic current are as definite in their char-
acter as those chemical combinations which gave birth to the
atomic theory" (Phil. Trans, for 1833, p. 675; for 1834, p. 77;
Poggendorff, Annalen, Vols. XXXII. p. 401; XXXIII. pp. 301,
433> 481; Bakewell, "Electric Science," p. 124; "Brit. Assoc.
Report " for 1833, p. 393; Henry's " Memoirs of Dalton," p. 106).
The eighth series of his " Researches " (Vol. I. pars. 875, etc.)
treats of the " electricity of the voltaic pile," a further investigation
of which is shown through the papers constituting his sixteenth and
seventeenth series as per Index of Vol. II. p. 302. Faraday establishes
by very simple experiments the most powerful known refutation of
Volta's contact theory and shows conclusively that the current in
the pile results from the mutual chemical action of its elements,
just as Fabbroni and Wollaston had stated before him. An extract
from the conclusion of his very elaborate defence of the chemical
theory reads as follows : " . . . the contact theory assumes, that
a force which is able to overcome powerful resistance . . . can
arise out of nothing : that, without any change in the acting matter,
or the consumption of any generating force, a current can be pro-
duced, which shall go on for ever against a constant resistance, or
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 491
only be stopped as in the voltaic trough, by the ruins which its
exertion has heaped upon its own course. . . . The chemical theory
sets out with a power, the existence of which is pre-proved, and then
follows its variations, rarely assuming anything which is not sup-
ported by some corresponding simple chemical fact. The contact
theory sets out with an assumption to which it adds others, as the
cases require, until at last the contact force, instead of being the
firm unchangeable thing at first supposed by Volta, is as variable
as chemical force itself. Were it otherwise than it is, and were the
contact theory true, the equality of cause and effect must be denied.
Then would perpetual motion also be true ; and it would not be at
all difficult, upon the first given case of an electric current by contact
alone}* to produce an electro-magnetic arrangement, which, as to
its principle, would go on producing mechanical effects for ever "
(" Exp. Res., " pars. 2071-2073, Vol. II. pp. 103-104 ; Phil. Trans, for
1834, p. 425 ; for 1840, pp. 6 1, 93 ; Poggendorff, Annalen, Vols. XXXV.
pp. i, 222 ; LII. pp. 149, 547 ; LIII. pp. 316, 479, 548. Auguste Arthur
De la Rive, " Archives de 1'Elect.," Geneve, 1841-1845, Vol. I. pp.
93, 342; Graham, " Elem. of Chem./' London, 1850, Vol. I. pp. 242,
etc, ; Faraday and Sturgeon, " Ann. of Elec.," Vol. IV. pp. 229, 231 ;
Daniell, "Intro, to Study of Chem. Phil/'; Liebig, Annul., Vol.
XXXVI. p. 137; Figuier, " Expos, et Hist./' 1857, Vol. IV. p. 434.
Also De la Rive's " Treatise/' Vol. I. pp. 393-402; " Exper.
Researches/' Vol. I. pp. 322-323 — induction of galvanic current
upon itself).
Faraday's theory of induction offers nothing new as to the
nature of the electric forces — it simply indicates the manner of
their distribution and the laws by which they are affected. His
experiments show that electrization by influence is possible only
by means of continuous particles of air or other non-conducting
medium (dielectric), that no electric action occurs at a distance
greater than the interval existing between two adjacent molecules
of such medium, in which latter a true polarization of the particles
takes place, and that it is by means of this polarization that electric
force is transferred to a distance. Induction only takes place
through insulators : induction is insulation, it being the action of
a charged body upon insulating matter, of which latter the particles
communicate to each other in a very minute degree the electric
forces whereby they become polarized and are enabled to transmit
an equal amount of the opposite force to a distance. The latter
property is termed inductive force or specific inductive capacity,
and Faraday discovered that the intensity of electric induction
varies in different insulating media ; for instance, the induction
through shell-lac (the first substance he experimented with) being
492 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
twice as great as through a like thickness of air. It was while experi-
menting with shell-lac that he first observed the singular pheno-
menon of the return or residual charge, i. e. the charge which would of
itself gradually reappear in the apparatus after the latter had been
suddenly and perfectly discharged. This, he considered due to
the penetration, into the substance of the dielectric, of a portion of
the charge by conduction. The inductive capacity of all gases he
found to be the same as that of air, and this property does not alter
with variations in their density.
His discovery of the specific inductive capacity of various sub-
stances has been already alluded to (A.D. 1772, Cavendish). Fara-
day's biographer in the ninth " Britannica " says : "It appears,
from hitherto unpublished papers, that Henry Cavendislf had,
before 1773, not only discovered that glass, wax, rosin and shell-lac
have higher specific inductive capacities than air but had actually
determined the numerical ratios of these capacities. This, of
course, was not known to Faraday or other electricians of his time."
It was on the 30th of November, 1837, Faraday communicated to
the Royal Society the paper on Induction wherein he announces
the re-discovery of specific inductive capacity. One of its most
important results to-day, remarks John Tyndall, " is the establish-
ment of the specific inductive capacity of insulators — a subject of
supreme importance in connection with submarine cables. As a
striking illustration of Faraday's insight, it may be mentioned that
as early as 1838 he had virtually foreseen and predicted the re-
tardation produced by the inductive action between the wires of
submarine cables and the surrounding sea-water " (Tyndall 's
" Notes on Electricity/' 1871, pp. 160-161; " Exper. Researches/'
Index Vol. I.; "Faraday as a Discoverer/' new edition, p. 89).
Consult, also, the references entered at Cavendish, A.D. 1772 ; J. E. H.
Gordon, " Phys. Treatise on Elect. . . /' London, 1883, Vol. I. chap,
xi. par. 81-83, which alludes to " Exper. Researches," 1161, Vol. I.
p. 360 as well as to the investigations of specific inductive capacities
made by Boltzmann, Romich and Fajdiga, Romich and Nomak,
Schiller, Silow, Wiillner, Dr. Hopkinson, J. E. H. Gordon, Ayrton
and Perry, and gives the " General Table of Specific Inductive
Capacities," detailing the observations of Cavendish, Faraday and
all the others named above. See, besides, " Reprint of Papers ..."
Sir Wm. Thomson, 1872 to 1884, 2nd ed., paragraphs 36, 46, 50 ;
Phil. Trans., 1838, pp. I, 79, 83, 125; 1842, p. 170; Poggendorff,
Annalen, Vols. XLVI. pp. I, 537; XLVII. pp. 33, 271, 529; XLVIIL
pp. 269, 424, 513; XCVI. p. 488; XCVII. p. 415; Phil. Mag., Vols.
IX. p. 61; XI. p. 10 ; XIII. pp. 281, 355, 412; " Bibl. Univ./1 Vol.
XVII. p. 178 and "Archives des Sc. Phys.," Vol. XXXI. p. 48;
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 498
" Journal de Pharm.," Vol. XXVII. p. 60; W. S. Harris, " Specific
Inductive Capacities . . ." (Phil. Trans., 1842).
In the fifteenth series of his " Exper. Researches " (Vol. II. pars.
1749-1795), Faraday gives the results of his experiments proving
the identity of the power of the gymnotus or the torpedo with common
electricity. He concludes that " a single medium discharge of the
fish is at least equal to the electricity of a Leyden battery of fifteen
jars, containing 3500 square inches of glass coated on both sides,
charged to its highest degree " (p. 8) ; " all the water and all the con-
ducting matter around the fish, through which a discharge circuit
can in any way be completed, is filled at the moment with circulating
electric power and this state might be easily represented generally
in a diagram by drawing the lines of inductive action upon it. In
the case of a gymnotus surrounded equally in all directions by water,
these would resemble generally in disposition the magnetic curves
of a magnet having the same straight or curved shape as the animal,
that is, provided he in such cases employed, as may be expected, his
four electric organs at once " (p. 12) (C. Matteucci, " Traite des
ph£nom. . . /' Paris, 1844, pp. 188-192).
Then follow in due course, Faraday's remarkable papers re-
lating to the magnetization of light and the illumination of magnetic
lines of force, the polar and other condition of diamagnetic bodies,
etc. These communications, which he made to the^Royal Society
in November and December 1845, contain the particulars of what
many consider to be his most brilliant discoveries. He first shows
that when a ray of polarized light passes through a piece of silicated
borate of lead glass placed between the poles of a natural (or prefer-
ably an electro-) magnet, so that the line of magnetic force shall
pass through its length, the polarized ray will experience a rotation.
The law is thus expressed : " If a magnetic line of force be going
from a North pole or coming from a South pole, along the path of a
polarized ray, coming to the observer, it will rotate that ray to the
right hand, or if such a line of force be coming from a North pole
or going from a South pole it will rotate such a ray to the left hand "
(Phil. Trans, .for 1846 and 1856; Poggendorff, Annalen, Vol. C.
pp. in, 439; Noad, " Manual/' pp. 804-805; Harris, " Rud. Mag./1
Parts I and II. p. 71; Whewell, " Hist, of the Inductive Sciences/'
Vol. II. pp. in, 133; Gmelin's " Chemistry/' Vol. I. pp. 168-169).
At the Faraday Centenary Celebration held in London, June 18,
1891, Lord Rayleigh observed that " the full significance of the
last-named discovery was not yet realized. A large step towards
realizing it, however, was contained in the observation of Sir William
Thomson, that the rotation of the plane of polarization proved that
something in the nature of rotation must be going on within the
494 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP
medium when subjected to the magnetizing force, but the precise
nature of the rotation was a matter for further speculation, and
perhaps might not be known for some time to come."
Through Faraday's other communication, is made known the
discovery of diamagnetism. Therein he shows, as the result of
his customary careful experimental explorations that the magnetism
of every known substance (even tissues of the human frame) is
manifested in one of two ways. Either the body is, like iron,
attracted by the magnet, taking a position coincident with the
magnetic forces which he calls paramagnetic (para beside or near,
magnetes, magnes, magnet) or bodies — like bismuth, for instance —
are repelled by the poles and should therefore be called diamagnetic
(dia, across) for they set themselves across, equatorially, or a* right
angles to the magnetic lines. As far back as 1788, the repulsion
by bismuth was first observed by Brugmans, while M. Becquerel,
during 1827, confirmed the observation, said to have been made by
Coulomb, that a needle of wood could be made to point across the
magnetic curves, and stated that he had found such a needle place
itself parallel to the wires of a galvanometer. Yet, neither M.
Becquerel nor M. Lebaillif, who (after Saigy and Seebeck) had
called attention to the repulsion of both bismuth and antimony by
the magnet, made a distinction of the diamagnetic force from the
paramagnetic as Faraday did. Amongst other results, this English
scientist found that phosphorus is at the head of all diamagnetic
substances, bismuth taking the lead amongst the metals, whilst,
of many gases and vapours, oxygen proved to be the least dia-
magnetic, in fact, the only one which is paramagnetic (" Lond.,
Edin., and Dub. Phil Mag/' for December 1850). All the facts set
forth in Mr. Faraday's paper are, according to Brande, resolvable
by induction into the general law; that while every particle of a
magnetic body is attracted, every particle of a diamagnetic body is
repelled by either pole of a magnet : these forces continue as long
as the magnetic power is sustained, and cease on the cessation of
that power, standing therefore in the same general antithetical
relation to each other as the positive and negative conditions of
electricity, the northern and southern polarities of ordinary magnet-
ism, or the lines of electric and magnetic force in magneto-electricity
(Phil. Trans, for 1846-1851 ; Phil. Mag., Vols. XXVIII. pp. 294,
396, 455; XXIX. pp. 153, 249; XXXVI. p. 88; Annales de Chimie,
Vol. XVII. p. 359; Poggendorff, Annalen, Vols. LXVIII. p. 105;
LXX. p. 283; LXXXII. pp. 75, 232; "Bibl. Univ. Archives,"
Vols. I. p. 385; III. p. 338; XVI. p. 89; Ludwig F. von Froriep,
" Notizen," Vols. XXXVII. cols. 6-8; XXXIX. col. 257; Erdmann,
"Jour. Prak. Chem./' Vol. XXXVIII. p. 256; Liebig, Annal.,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 495
Vol. LVII. p. 261 ; Napoli, " Rendiconto," Vol. VI. p. 227; Silliman's
"Journal," Vols. II. p. 233; X. p. 188; Walker, "Elect. Mag./'
Vol. II. p. 259 ; John Tyndall, " Researches on Diamagnetism and
Magne-crystallic Action," London, 1870, pp. i, 38, 89, 90, 137;
Whewell, " Hist, of Ind. Sc.," 1859, Vol. II. p. 620; " Athenaeum "
for January 31, 1846; Pliicker's paper " On the relation of Magnet-
ism and Diamagnetism," dated September 8, 1847, m Poggendorffs
Annalen and in Taylor's " Scientific Memoirs," Vol. V. part ix.
p. 376; Edmond Becquerel's " Memoir on Diamagnetism " in An. de
Ch. et de Ph., Vol. XXXII. p. 112; " Practical Mech. and Engin.
Mag.," 1846, p. 117; for "Coexistence of Paramagnetism and
Diamagnetism in same Crystal," see " Jour, of Chem. Soc.,"
Londqji, February 1906, p. 69, taken from Les Comptes Rendus).
During the course of Faraday's experiments to ascertain the
effects of magnetism on crystals some very curious results were
obtained with bismuth. Having suspended four bars of the metal
horizontally between the poles of the electro -magnet, the first
pointed axially ; the second equator ially ; another equatorial in
one position, and obliquely equatorial if turned round on its axis fifty
or sixty degrees ; the fourth equatorially and axially under the same
treatment ; whilst all of them were repelled by a single magnetic
pole, thus showing their strong and well-marked diamagnetic char-
acter. These variations were attributed to the regularly crystalline
condition of the bars. He then chose carefully selected crystals
and, after describing their peculiar action between the poles, he
says that " the results are altogether very different from those pro-
duced by diamagnetic action. They are equally distinct from those
dependent on ordinary magnetic action. They are also distinct
from those discovered and described by Pliicker, in his beautiful
researches into the relation of the optic axis to magnetic action ;
for there the force is equatorial, whereas here it is axial. So they
appear to present to us a new force, or a new form of force in the
molecules of matter, which, for convenience' sake, I will con-
ventionally designate by a new word, as the magne-crystallic force."
Prof. A. M. Mayer justly observes (" Johnson's Cycl.," I. 1342)
that the above-named facts " received their full explanation at the
hands of Tyndall, whose subtile examination or lucid explanation
of these phenomena — though not popularly known — we think
form his greatest claim to illustrious distinction as a man of science."
For an extract fiom the last-named work relative to M. Poisson's
remarkable theoretic prediction of magne-crystallic action, see the
article concerning that scientist at A.D. 1811. (Consult Phil.
Trans, for 1849, pp. 4, 22; Phil. Mag., Vol. XXIV. p. 77 and
s. 4, Vol. II. p. 178; De la Rive, " Treatise," Vol. I. pp. 482-497;
496 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
"Athenaeum/1 No. 1103, p. 1266; Gmelin's " Chemistry/' Vol.
I. pp. 5I4-5I9-)
The remarkable discoveries we have named were succeeded by
many others of a very high order, the references to which occupy
as many as 158 separate entries through pp. 555-560, Vol. II. of the
" Catal. of Sci. Papers of the Royal Society/1 Among those may be
singled out his additional investigations regarding the magnetism
of gases and the magnetic relations of flames and gases, the lines
of magnetic force, subterraneous electro-telegraphic wires (Phil.
Mag. s. 4, Vol. VII. 1854), tne relation of gravity to electricity,
atmospheric magnetism, likewise his recorded observations on
hydro-electricity, magneto-electric light for lighthouses, pyro-
electricity, the electrophorus, Wheatstone's telegraph, etc. (* Roy.
Inst. Proc." for 1854-1858, pp. 555-560). It was in 1848 he wrote
of the powerful insulating properties of gutta-percha (Gmelin's
" Chemistry," Vol. I. p. 313; " Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag./' Vol.
XXXII. p. 165), and he not long after constructed a very singular
apparatus to a Leyden jar consisting of a wire 140 miles long, per-
fectly insulated with gutta-percha, one end of which communicated
with an insulated pile of 360 elements of zinc and copper charged
with acidulated water, as described in the " Britannica." The results
of his inquiries concerning the Leyden jar charge of buried electric
conducting wires were, according to Whitehouse's pamphlet on the
Atl. Tel. (p. 5) communicated to the Roy. Inst. during the year 1854.
The life of Michael Faraday is an admirable example of extra-
ordinary successes achieved through patient endeavour and con-
stancy of purpose over unusual obstacles of birth and education. M.
Dumas, in the sixteenth volume of the London " Chemical News,"
tells us he was the only man in England who raised himself to the first
rank in science, whose every attribute can be fearlessly held up as a
model. He had none of the' " ambition, eternal pining after rank
or hauteur " of Davy, nor " the secret iveness and coldness " of
Wollaston. " Faraday's intellect, while it burnt as brightly as
Davy's, was as deep searching as Wollaston 's, and as reverent as
Newton's, yet it had nothing in it which could repel us, chill us, or
forbid our affection/1 The son of a blacksmith, he was first placed
in a bookseller's shop, then apprenticed to a bookbinder, but his
tastes were averse to the trade and he was led to seek instruction
in another line, more particularly after attending the evening
lectures of Mr. Tatum, yet, as already stated (see Dr. George Gregory,
A.D. 1796), it was while in M. Riebau's (the bookbinder's) employ
that chance threw in his way the works which led him to enter the
channels in which he subsequently became so distinguished. To a
friend, he writes :
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 497
" Your subject interested me deeply every way ; for Mrs. Marcet
was a good friend to me, as she must have been to many of the
human race. I entered the shop of a bookseller and bookbinder at
the age of thirteen, in the year 1804, remaining there eight years,
and during the chief part of the time bound books. Now it was in
those books, in the hours after work, that I found the beginning
of my philosophy. There were two that especially helped me, the
' Encyclopaedia Britannica/ from which I gained my first notions
of electricity, and Mrs. Marcet 's ' Conversations on Chemistry/
which gave me my foundation in that science. Do not suppose
that I was a very deep thinker, or was marked as a precocious
person . . . but facts were important to me and saved me. I
could ^trust a fact and always cross-examined an assertion. So
when I questioned Mrs. Marcet 's book by such little experiments
as I could find means to perform, and found it true to the facts as
I could understand them, I felt that I had got hold of an anchor
in chemical knowledge, and clung fast to it ../'(" Faraday as a
Discoverer/' by John Tyndall, 1868, pp. 6-7).
Think of the startling, not to say marvellous, achievements
growing out of Faraday's subsequent first experiments with an
electrical machine made out of an old bottle and by the aid of a
Leyden jar constructed with a medicine phial !
In 1812, he was taken by Mr. Dance to the lectures of Sir
Humphry Davy, whose chemical assistant he became the following
year and in whose company, as we have already seen (A.D. 1801),
he travelled on the Continent until 1815. Mr. Davies Gilbert, to
whom is due Davy's introduction to the Royal Institution, has
said of the last-named illustrious philosopher that the greatest of
all his discoveries was the discovery of Faraday. In 1816, Michael
Faraday was placed by Mr. Brande in charge of the " Quarterly
Journal of Science," and, during 1823, he was elected corresponding
Member of the French Academy, becoming F.R.S. the ensuing
year through the influence of his friend Richard Phillips. It was
during 1825-1826 he published in the Phil. Trans, the chemical
papers wherein he announces the discovery of benzole (called by
him bicarburet of hydrogen) to which, says Hoffmann, " we virtually
owe our supply of aniline, with all its magnificent progeny of colours."
In 1827, Faraday succeeded Davy as lecturer at the Royal Institu-
tion, and, from 1829 to 1842, he occupied the post of chemical
lecturer at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. The " Experi-
mental Researches," to which we have so often alluded, first appeared
in the 1831 Phil. Trans., and were afterwards collected in three
volumes, which were published respectively during 1839/1844, 1855.
Faraday was made D.C.L. in 1832 by Oxford University, and, one
KK
498 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF
year later, he received the Fullerian professorship of chemistry in
the Royal Institution, which he held till his death. A pension was
given him by the English Government in 1835, and he also received
the Royal Medal, which latter was again conferred upon him,
together with the Rumford Medal, during 1846. Ten years before
(1836) he had become a member of the Senate of the London Univer-
sity, and during the year 1858 the Queen allotted him the
residence in Hampton Court where he died in 1867. " Taking him
for all in all/' says Tyndall, " it will, I think, be conceded that
Faraday was the greatest experimental philosopher that the world
has ever seen ; and I would hazard the opinion that the progress
of future research will tend not to diminish but to enhance the
labours of this mighty explorer."
REFERENCES. — " Life of Faraday," by Dr. H. Bence Jones (Sec.
R.I.) ; "Michael Faraday," by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 1872; "Faraday
as a Discoverer," by John Tyndall; the biographical sketch by Prof.v
Joseph Lovering; "Michael Faraday, his Life and Work," by Silv.
P. Thompson, New York, 1898 ;" The Chemical News " (Am. Rep.), Vol. I.
pp. 246, 250, 276, and Vol. II. pp. 98, 202 ; Report of the Faraday Cen-
PP-
1856;^ Reports on Faraday's Lectures delivered before the Roy. Inst.
(taken from the " London Mining Journal," Nos. 714, 717-722), at
pp. 319-324, 387-393 ; Vol. XVIII for 1849 of " Jour, of Frankl. Inst.";
Gmelin's " Chemistry," Vol. I. pp. 424,etc., 435-436, 514-519 ; Poggendorff,
Annalen, Vols. LXXXVIII. p. 557; Erganz, Vol. I. pp. i, 28, 64, 73,
108, 187, 481-545; Gustav Wiedemann, " Die Lehre von Galv./1 1863
and "Die Lehre von der Elektricitat," 1883; W. H. Uhland, "Die
Elektrische Licht," 1884, p. 62; An. Sc. Dis. for 1850, pp. 129, 131,
132; for 1851, p. 133, and for 1852, p. no on " Atmospheric Magnet-
ism," taken from "Jameson's Journal," July 1851; for 1853, p. 132;
for 1856, p. 161 ; for 1858, p. 177, Faraday, " On the Conservatism of
Force"; for 1860, p. 125, Faraday on "Static Induction"; for 1863,
p. 108, " Elec. Lamp in Lighthouses"; for 1868, p. 169; for 1870, p. 10;
lor 1874, p. 174, on "Dielectric Absorption"; Robison, " Median.
Phil."; Leslie, " Geomet. Anal."; "Jour. Roy. Inst." for February
1831, Vol. I. p. 311 (Electrif. of ray of light); eighth " Britannica,
Vols. I, sixth dissertation; VIII. pp. 532-533, 539, 542, 544, 552, 601,
607, 617; XIV. pp. 68, 663; XXI. pp. 612, 622, 628, 630; ninth
" Britannica," Vol. IX. pp. 29-31 ; Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexi-
kon," Vol. VI. pp. 565-566; "Lond.and Edin. Ph. Mag.," Vol. I. p. 161
for letter of Faraday of July 27, 1832, enclosing one signed P. M., "in
which chemical decomposition is for the first time obtained by the induced
magnetic current " ; Faraday and Schonbein (" London and Edin. Mag./'
July-August 1836; " Roy. Instit. Proc.," III. 70-71); Faraday and
Riess, " On the action of non-conducting bodies in electric induction/'
1856; Sturgeon, " Sc. Res./' 1850, pp. 20, 475; " Practical Mechanic,"
Vols. II. pp. 318, 408; III. p. 197; " Libr. of Useful Knowledge " (Elec.
Mag.), pp. 1 8, 99; Humboldt, " Cosmos," Vol. I. pp. 182, 188; Harris,
" Rud. Magn.," 1852, 1 and II, pp. 61-69, etc., 199 ; III. 122-128 and " Rud.
Elec./' ist ed., pp. 33-34; " Edin. Jour. Sc./' 1826, Vol. III. p. 373;
" Edin. new Ph. Jour.," Vol. LI. p. 61 ; Golding Bird's " Nat. Phil.,"
&227; James Johnstone, "The Ether Theory of 1839," pp. 26, 37;
oad, " Manual," pp. 59, 236, 692, 805, 866; " Am. Jour. Sc." for April
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 499
1871, relative to lines of magnetic force; "Ann. of Phil." for 1832;
" Bibl. Univ. Archives," Vol. XVI. p. 129; " Roy. Instit. Proc.," Vol. I,
1851-1854, pp. 56, 105, 216, 229; Phil. Trans., 1832, p. 163; 1851,
pp. 29, 85 ; 1852, pp. 25, 137; Phil. Mag., Vol. Ill, 1852, p. 401 ; Dredge,
" Elect. Ilium.," Vol. I. pp. 46, 91, 95; " New Eng. Mag." for March
1891; Silliman's Journal, Vol. XII. p. 69; " Sc. Am. Suppl.," Nos. 198,
p. 3148; 206, p. 3284; 526, p. 8404; 547, p. 8733; 652, p. 10416; LaLum.
Electrique for October 31, 1891, pp. 202-203; Marcel Joubert, " Le£ons,"
1882, Vol. I. pp. 495, 559, 576 ; Th. du Moncel, " Expos£ des App. de
1'Elec.," 1872, Vols. I and II; G. B. Prescott, "Electricity," 1885,
Vol. I. pp. 105-112; "Reports of the Smithsonian Institution" for
l857» PP- 372-380; for 1862, p. 204; for 1889, p. 444; Richard Mansill,
"New Syst. of Univ. Nat. Science," 1887, pp. 180-185; "Faraday's
Researches on Electrostatical Induction," also " Faraday's Law of
Attractions and Repulsions," at pp. 26-30, and 647-664 of " Reprint
of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism," by Sir Wm. Thomson,
London, 1884; " Essays in Historical Chemistry," T. E. Thorpe, London,
1894, p. 142 ; " Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley," by Leonard
, New York, 1901, as per Index at pp. 513-514; " Fragments of
ixley, New York, 1901, as per Index at pp. 513-514; " Fragments of
Science," by John Tyndall, New York, 1901, Vol. 1. pp. 420-443; " Jnl.
of Psychological Medicine," by Dr. William A. Hammond, New York, 1870,
PP- 555~5691 " Cat. Sc. Papers . . . Roy. Soc.," Vol. II. pp. 555-561;
Vol. VI. p. 653 ; Vol. VII. p. 638 ; " Bibl. Britan.," Vol. XVIII, N.S. for
1821, p. 269; " Phil. Mag. and Jour, of Science," 1833, Vol. III. pp. 18,
37, 38, 161, 253, 353, 460, 469, and Vol. XI, 1838, pp. 206, 358, 426, 430,
APPENDIX I
ACCOUNTS OF EARLY WRITERS, NAVIGATORS AND OTHERS
ALLUDED TO BY GILBERT AND NOT ALREADY DISPOSED
OF THROUGHOUT THIS " BIBLIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY"
'»
Abano, PIETRO DI — Petrus Aponus, Apponensis or Apianus —
called " the Reconciler " (1250-1316), was Professor of Medicine
at Padua and wrote several works of importance on different
subjects. The best known is " Conciliator different iarum philo-
sophorum ac Medicorum," which is devoted to the reconciliation
of the various medical and philosophical schools, and in which
reference is made to the loadstone, as is also the case in his
" Tract atus de Venenis," published during 1490.
REFERENCES. — Larousse (Pierre), "Diet. Universel," Vol. I. p. n;
"Biographic Ge"n<§rale," Vol. I. pp. 29-31; G. A. Pritzel, "Thesaurus
Literature Botanica?," Lipsiac, 1851, p. 226; N. F. J. Eloy, " Diet,
hist, de la m£decine," Mons, 1778, Art. Apono ; Ludovico Hain, " Reper-
torium Bibliographicorum," Art. Abano ; Mazzuchelli (Frederigo),
" Raccolta d'Opuscoli . . ." Venetia, 1741; Pellechet (Marie), "Cata-
logue g£n6ral des incunables," 1897, pp. 1—4; Gilbert, De Magnete,
Book I. chap. i.
Agricola, Georgius — Bauer — Landmann — (1494-1555), is called
by Dr. Thomas Thomson one of the most extraordinary men as
well as one of the greatest promoters of chemistry that have ever
existed, and he pronounces Agricola's " De Re Metallica," which
was published in 1546, 1556, 1558, 1561, as, beyond comparison,
the most valuable chemical work produced in the sixteenth century.
Agricola is also the author of " De Natura eorum," of " De Natura
fossilium " and of " De veteribus et novis metallis," all published
at Basle in 1657.
Gilbert mentions Agricola in his De Magnete (Book I. chaps,
i. ii. vii. viii. ; Book II. chap, xxxviii.) and, in connection with him,
alludes more particularly to Gilgil, the Mauretanian, and also to
Christoph — Entzelt — Encelius, author of a book bearing the same
name as Agricola's chief work, " De Re Metallica," published at
Frankfort, 1551. Attention may as well be called here to additional
authors, whose works, in the same line, are of gre^t variety and
501
502 APPENDIX I
but little known : (i) Csesalpinus (Andreas) (1519-1603), " De
Metallicis," Romae, 1596; (2) Morieni (Roman!), who, in his " De
Re Metallica," Parisiis, 1559, treats (as does also John Joachim
Beccher, 1635-1682 : " Mutton's Abridgments," Vol. I. p. 620)
of the transmutation of metals and of the occult, much in same
manner as Robert us Vallensis in his " De veritate et antiquitate
artis chemicae . . ." *593> 1612; (3) Bernardo P&rez de Vargas,
who, in his " De Re Metallica, en el qual se tratan de muchos diversos
secretos ..." Madrid, 1569, tells how to find different kinds of
minerals and metals and how to treat them to the best advantage
in various industries ; (4) J. Charles Faniani, " De Arte Metallicae,"
1576.
Cuvier says of Agricola : " He was the first mineralogist' who
appeared after the renaissance of the sciences in Europe : he was
to mineralogy what Conrad Gesner was to zoology."
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Generate," Vol. I. pp. 410-411; Larousse
(Pierre), " Diet. Univ.," Vol. I. p. 141 ; " Diet. hist, de la me'decine "
(N. F. J. Eloy), Mons, 1778, Vol. I. pp. 50-52.
Agrippa, Heinricus Cornelius — ab Netiesheyem, Nettesheim —
(1486-1535), German Doctor of Medicine, also a Doctor of Divinity,
a soldier — knighted for valour on the battle-field of Ravenna — a
diplomatist, an astrologer, etc. He was in turns, ambassador at
Paris and London, historiographer to Emperor Charles V, professor
at the university of Pavia, town physician in Friburg, private
practitioner at Geneva, court physician to Louise of Savoy, chief
magistrate of Metz, theological delegate to the schismatic council
of Pisa, etc., and for three years was engaged in a military expedition
to Catalonia. He is the author of several important works, the full
collection of which was published at Lyons in 1550. The one by
which he is best known is " De occulta philosophia/' which was
translated in French by Levasseur.
REFERENCES. — Morley (Henry), " The Life of H. Corn. Agrippa,"
London, 1856; Bayle (Pierre), " Diet. Hist."; Jos. Ennemoser, " History
of Magic," London, 1854, Vol. II. pp. 253-256; G. Maude", " Apologie ";
Larousse (Pierre), "Diet. Univ.," Vol. I. pp. 143-144; Bolton (H. C.),
" Chr. Hist, of Chem.," p. 946; Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i.
Albategnius — Machometes Aractensis, Muhammad Ibn Jabir —
Al-Battani — (d. A.D. 929), is considered by Lalande one of the
twenty greatest known astronomers. His principal work, " De
scientia stellarum," was published in 1537.
REFERENCES.-— Delambre (J. B), "Hist, de 1'astron. moderne,"
pp. 10-62 ; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Ge*ne>ale," Vol. I. part. i.
p. 467; Vol. II. p. 71; Gilbert, De Magnete, Book VI. chap, ix.; *' Engl.
Cycl.," Vol. I. p. 84.
APPENDIX I 503
Alexander Aphrodisaeus — Aphrodisiensis — a celebrated
Greek scientist and the oldest commentator on Aristotle, who lived
at about the close of the second century after Christ, and whose
works were so highly esteemed by the Arabs that they translated
most of them (Casiri, " Bibl. Arab. Hisp. Escur.," Vol. I). The
list of all of his publications appears in " Biog. G&ieYale," Vol. I.
pp. 911-914.
REFERENCES. — Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Graeca,"
Vol. V. p. 650; Ritter (Dr. Heinrich), " Geschichte der Philosophic,"
Vol. IV. p. 24; Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i. and Book II.
chaps, ii. xxv.
Amatus Lusitanus. See Lusitanus Amatus.
Anaxagoras, born at Clazomenae, one of the Greek towns of
Ionia, in 500 B.C., three years before the death of Pythagoras, was
a very eminent philosopher of the Ionic school, wherein he suc-
ceeded Anaximenes as a leader, and numbered among his many
hearers and pupils Diogenes of Apollonia, Pericles, Euripides,
Socrates and Archelaus. A very good analysis of Anaxagoras'
philosophical opinions is to be found in the " Biographical Dictionary
of the Society of Useful Knowledge/' Gilbert alludes to him (De
Magnete, Book II. chap. iii. and Book V. chap, xiii.) as believing
that the loadstone was endowed with a sort of life, because it pos-
sessed the power of moving and attracting iron, and as declaring in
fact that the entire world is endowed with a soul.
Anaxagoras is accused, by Pliny and other early writers, of
having predicted the fall of aerolites from the sun, and of regarding
all bodies in the universe " as fragments of rocks, which the fiery
ether, in the force of its gyratory motion, has torn from the earth
and converted into stars " (Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1859-1860,
Vol. I. pp. 133-135, note ; Vol. II. p. 309 ; Vol. III. pp. 11-12 ; Vol. IV.
pp. 206-207).
Aristotle also attacks Anaxagoras for not properly etymologizing
the word aether, from o&Qsiv, to burn, and on this account using it
for fire. He shows that aether, which signifies to run perpetually,
implies that a perpetual motion and perpetuity of subsistence
belongs to the heavenly bodies (" Treatises of Aristotle,'* by Thos.
Taylor, London, 1807, p. 43, note).
According to Anaximenes, named above (born at Miletus about
528 B.C.), the primal principle was Aer, of which all things are
formed and into which all things are resolved. He belonged to the
branch called the dynamical, whose doctrines as to the heavenly
bodies were opposed to those of mechanical philosophers such as
Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Anaximander of Miletus (" Engl.
Cycl.," Biography, 1866, Vol. I, p. 201),
504 APPENDIX I
REFERENCES. — Houzeau et Lancaster, "Bibl. Ge*n.," Vol. I. part i.
pp. 401-402, and Vol. II. p. 74; " Plato," by George Grote, London,
1865, Vol. I. pp. 49-62; " Essai the*orique et pratique sur la ge*ne*ration
des connaissances humaines," par Guillaume Tiberghien, Bruxelles,
1844, Vol. I. pp. 181-182; Dr. Heinrich Ritter, "History of Ancient
Philosophy," London, 1846, Vol. I. pp. 281-318; Chas. RolHn, " Ancient
History/' London, 1845, Vol. I. p. 376; Paul Tannery, " Pour 1'histoire
de la Science Hellene," Paris, 1887, Chap. XII; Theod. Gomperz,
11 Greek Thinkers," transl. of L. Magnus, London, 1901, Chap. IV.
PP- 556-558, 597' Ueberweg, " Hist, of Philosophy," transl. of Geo.
:orris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 63-67; Alf. Weber, " Hist, of
Phil.," transl. of Frank Thilly, New York, 1896, pp. 48-53.
Aquinas — St. Thomas — also called Doctor Angelicas (born at
Aquino in Naples, A.D. 1225) — " the most successful organizer of
knowledge the world has known since Aristotle " — was a famous
schoolman and is considered by many the greatest of Christian
philosophers. He is well worthy the profound respect and high
admiration in which he is held always by Gilbert, who alludes to
him in Book I. chap. i. and in Book II, chap. iii. of his De Magnete.
The chief work of St. Thomas Aquinas is the " Summa Theologiae,"
to which he devoted the last nine years of his life and which by
many has been called the supreme monument of the thirteenth
century. The first part of the " Summa Theologian " is said to
have been originally published in 1465 and the second part in 1471,
the completed work first appearing during the year I485.1
One of his critics remarks that those wishing to thoroughly
comprehend the peculiar character of metaphysical thought in
the Middle Ages should study Aquinas, in whose writings it is seen
with the greatest consistency. He is thus spoken of in Dr. Wm.
Turner's " History of Philosophy/' published by Ginn & Co., 1903 :
" He had a comprehensiveness of purpose which, in these modern
times, seems nothing short of stupendous. It is only when, as we
study the history of later scholasticism and the history of the
philosophy of modern times, we shall look back to the thirteenth
century through the perspective of ages of less successful attempts
at philosophical synthesis, that we shall begin to realize the true
grandeur of the most commanding figure in the history of mediaeval
thought/1
1 In the Summa of Theology was presented, says Ozanam Antoine
Fre'de'ric, a vast synthesis of the moral sciences, in which was unfolded all
that could be known of God, of man and of their mutual relations — a truly
Catholic philosophy. . . . Sixtus of Sienna and Trithemius both declare that
St. Thomas explained all the works of Aristotle and that he was the first
Latin Doctor who did so (" Christian Schools and Scholars," p. 81).
It may also be added that, in the estimation of one of his biographers,
the greatest of the many disciples of St. Thomas was, by far, Dante Alighieri,
in whose " Divina Commedia " the theology and philosophy of the Middle
Ages, as fixed by Stt TJipmasf have receivec} the immortality which poetry
ajone can bestow,
APPENDIX I 505
Aquinas died at the Cistercian Monastery in 1274, and was
canonized forty-nine years later by Pope John XXII.
REFERENCES.— Carle (P. J ), " Hist, de la vie ... de Th. d'Aq.,"
1846; Maffei (Francesco Scipione), "Vita . . ." 1842; B. Haureau,
" De la Phil. Schol.," Paris, 1850, Vol. II. pp. 104, 213; G. Tiberghien,
" Essai historique . . . dcs con. hum.," Bruxelles, 1844, Vol. I. pp. 374-
378; Dr. Fried. Ueberweg, "Hist, of Phil.," transl, of Geo. S.
Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 440-452; " Thomae Aquinatis
Opera Theologica," Venice, 1745-1760, 28 vols. quarto, edited by
Bernardo M. de Rossi-Rubeis ; " Petri de Bergamo, Super Omnia Opera
D. Thomse Aquinatis," Bononise, 1473 ; " Biogr. G6n.," Vol. XLV.
pp. 208-218; " Siger de Brabant et I'Averroisme au 13° sidcle," par
Pierre Maudonnet, Friburg, 1899, Chap. IV passim; "Albert the
Great," by Dr. Joachim Sighart, transl. of Rev. Fr. T. A. Dixon, London,
1876, Chap. VI. p. 63; " The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages," by
W. J. Townsend, London, 1881, pp. 199-241 ; Alfred Weber, " Hist
of Thil.," transl. of Frank Thilly, New York, 1896, pp. 241-246; Dr.
W. Windclband, " Hist, of Phil.," authorized transl. by Jas. H. Tufts,
New York, 1893, pp. 313-314; Paola Antonia (Novelli), " De D. Th.
Aquin."; A. Hunaci, " Oratio," Venice, 1507; likewise Veen (Otto
van), Etiro (Partenio), Rodericus de Arriaga, Frigerio (Paolo) and
Thouron (V. C.) in their works on Aquinas, 1610, 1630, 1648, 1688 and
1737-1740; Henry Hart Milman, "History of Latin Christianity,"
London, 1857, Vol. VI. pp. 273-278, 281-286; Pellechet (Marie), " Catal.
G6n. des Iiicunablcs," 1897, pp. 210-249; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl.
Gen.," Vol. II. p. 264; " Lc Journal des Savants" for May 1851,
pp. 278, 281-298 passim, and also in the issue of December 1905.
Aristarchus of Samos, one of the earliest astronomers of the
Alexandrian School, who lived in the third century B.C., is referred
to in Gilbert's De Magnete, at Chaps. Ill and IX of book vi.
Vitruvius ascribes to him the invention of a concave sundial which
he calls scaphe and which is described by Martianus Mineus Capella
(cited by Weicller) ; and Censorinus says that Aristarchus was the
author of an extensive work called " Annus Magnus," covering a
period of 2484 years.
REFERENCES. — Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. I. p. 623; Montucla
(J. F.), " Hist, des Math.," Vol. I. p. 721 ; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl.
Gen.," Vol. II. p. 77; " Engl. Cycl.," Vol. I. p. 314.
Arnaldus de Villa Nova — Arnaldus Novicomensis — Arnaud
de Villeneuve, dit de Bachuone (1235-1312), who assumed the name
of Magrinus when on his way from France to Sicily, was an eminent
physician, the master of Raymond Lully, who taught medicine as
well as alchemy at Barcelona and whose numerous treatises upon
the virtues of plants, etc., are analyzed in M. F. Hcefer's " Histoire
de la Chimie/' Vol. I. p. 385. The first edition of his works appeared
at Lyons in 1504.
REFERENCES. — Campegius (Laurentius), " Arnaldi Vita " ; " Nouvelle
Biographic G£n<§rale " (Hoefer), Vol. Ill, pp. 279-282 ; Boulay (H. de),
" Hist, de 1'Univ. de Padoue/' Vol. IV; Freind (John), " Hist, de la
JKfctecine," Vol. HI; N. F, J. Eloy, " Pfct, Pist. 4$ & ]K$decine/'
506 APPENDIX I
Mons, 1778, Tome III. p. 131 ; Astruc (Jean), " Hist, de la fac. de m6d.
de Montpellier " ; "Journal des Savants for June 1896, p. 342,
" Testaments d'Amand de Villeneuve et de Raimond Luile," " L'Alchi-
mie et les Alchimistes " ; Figuier (Louis), Paris, 1860, p. 172; Gilbert,
De Magnete, Book I. chap. i.
Barbaras, Hermolaus — Barbaro Ermoleo — (1454-1495) — (Bar-
bari Hermolai, Aquileiensis Pontificis), whose name alone Gilbert
mentions, was a well-known Italian savant, Professor of Philosophy
at the Padua University, and the author of many works, of which the
most popular are : (i) " Castigationes Plinianae," Rome, 1492,
wherein he boasts of having made more than five thousand correc-
tions in Pliny's " Natural History " ; (2) " Castigationes Secundae,"
Venice, '1480 ; (3) " Castigationes in Pomponium Melam," Antwerp,
1582; (4) " Compendium scientiae naturalis ex Aristotele," Venice,
I545-
REFERENCES. — Paul Jove, " Elogia "; Boissardus (Joannes Jacobus),
" Icones . . . virorum lllustrium " ; " Giornale de* letterati d' Italia," Vol.
XXXVIII; "Theosaurus Litteraturae Botanicae," Lipsiae, 1851, p. 333;
" Biogr. Ge'ne'rale," Vol. IV. pp. 418-419.
Becanus. See Goropius.
Benedictus — Benedetti — Joannes Baptista (1530-1590), Italian
mathematician, who was considered a prodigy at the age of eighteen,
and who, five years later, published in Venice a remarkable
work on the solution of most of Euclid's problems. He is also the
author of treatises on navigation, astronomy, music, etc., and
can justly be placed in the first rank of savants of the sixteenth
century.
REFERENCES. — "La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. VI. pp. 132-133;
" Biog. Generate," Vol. V. pp. 340-342; Libri (Guillaumc), " Hist, des
Sciences Mathe"m," Vol. III. pp. 121-133; Montucla (J. F.), " Hist, des
Mathe"m.," Vol. I. pp. 572, 693, 729; Marie (J. F.), " Hist, des Sc.
Math.," Vol. II. p. 307; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibliographic Ge"ne"rale,"
Vol. II, p. 83 ; Gilbert, De Magnete, Chap. IX of book iv.
Brasavolus, Antonius Musae (1500-1570), alluded to by Gilbert
in Book I. chap, i., was a very eminent Italian physician and the
author of " Examen omnium simplicium medicamentorum," Rome,
1536, as well as of " In octo libros Aphorism. Hippocratis Com-
ment, et Annot.," Basle, 1541, and of several other works, in-
cluding a very complete index of all the notable features of the
works of Galen.
REFERENCES. — Ginguene" (Pierre Louis), "Histoire LiteYaire d'
Italic " ; Baruffaldi (Girolamo), " Commentario istorico all' inseri-
zione . . ." Ferrara, 1 704 ; " Biog. Ge'ne'rale," Vol. VII. p. 269 ; " Storia
della Medicina in Italia " (Salvatore de Renzi), Napoli, 1848, in Vol. Ill
passim as per Index, Vol. V. p. 987; Pritzel (G. A.), " Thesaur. Lit.
Botan.," 1851, p. 31.
APPENDIX I 507
Calaber, Hannibal Rosetius. Of all the authors cited by Gilbert,
this is the only one, who, thus far, cannot satisfactorily be identified,
although exhaustive efforts to this end have been made by the
authors of both the English translations of De Magnete. One
interpretation (Hannibal, of Roseto in Calabria, shown on map at
end of Vol. I. of " Briefe uber Kalabrien und Sizilien," Gottingen,
1791), has as yet found no endorsement.
Galcagninus, Cselius, Italian philosopher and astronomer (1479-
1541) is the author of " Quomodo Coelum stet, terra moveatur . . ."
wherein he asserts that the earth turns around the sun, also of
" De Re Nautica," containing a good account of ancient ceremonies
and observations, as well as of a Commentary on Aristotle, and of
many creditable poetical effusions published 1533. His complete
works appeared at Basle during the year 1544, and a list of them,
fifty-six in all, is given by Jean Pierre Niceron in his " Memoires
pour servir a 1'histoire des hommes illustres," Paris, 1727-1745.
REFERENCES. — Calcagnini (T. G.), "Delia vita . . . C. Calcag";
Ginguene" (Pierre Louis), " Histoire Lit6raire d' Italic," Vols. IV, VI
and VII; Paul Jove — Jovius — Giovip (b. 1483, d. 1552), "Eloges";
Borsetti, Ferranti Bolani (Ferrante Giovanni), " Historia almi Ferrariae
Gymnasii," 1735; " Biog. Ge"n.," Vol. VIII. pp. 159-161; Larousse,
" Diet. Univ.," Vol. III. p. 109; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G6n.,"
Vol. II. p. 98 ; Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i.
Cardanus, Hieronymus (1501-1576), who is so very frequently
mentioned by Gilbert, throughout Books I, II, III and IV, was an
Italian physicist whose writings are extremely numerous and are
well reviewed in the best edition of his works published at Lyons
during 1663. Those by which he is best known are the " Ars
Magna," " De Rerum Varietate, Libri XVII," and the "De Sub-
tilitate, Libri XXI," which may be considered the exponent of
all his scientific knowledge and a notably good translation of which,
in French, by Richard Leblanc was published in Paris, 1556.
, REFERENCES. — Morley (H.), " Life of Cardan," 1854, wherein, Vol. II.
pp. 56-70, will be found a long account more particularly of the contents
of " De Subtilitate "; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. III. pp. 376-377;
Dr. Fr. Ueberweg, "Hist, of Philosophy," tr. of Geo. S. Morris, 1885,
Vol. II. p. 25; Walton and Cotton, "Complete Angler," New York
and London, 1847, Part I. p. 142; Houzeau et Lancaster, "Bibl.
G&i.," Vol. II. p. 101.
Copernicus, Nicolaus — Koppernik — Zepernic — celebrated
astronomer, native of Poland (1472-1543), whose studies led him to
reject the Ptolemaic system of the universe, and who proposed the
one now bearing his name, is the author of " De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium," which was published May 24, 1543, a few days
before his death. He is alluded to by Gilbert (De Magnete, Chaps.
508 APPENDIX 1
II, III, VI, IX, of book vi.), who calls him "the restorer of astro-
nomy " and " a man most worthy of the praise of scholarship."
The life and labours of Copernicus are fully detailed, in chapter
treating of " Discoveries in the celestial spaces " of the " Cosmos,"
by Von Humboldt, who, in relation to a passage in " De Revolutioni-
bus," makes the following very curious note : " It very singularly
happens that in an otherwise instructive memoir " (Czynski,
" Kopernik et ses travaux," 1847, p. 102), " the Electra of Sophocles
is confounded with electric currents. The passage of Copernicus
(quoted in Latin) is thus rendered : ' If we take the sun for the torch
of the universe, for its spirit and its guide — if Trismegistes call it
a God, and if Sophocles consider it to be an electrical power which
animates and contemplates all that is contained in creation . < ., .'
" Four men, Gutenberg, Columbus, Luther and Copernicus,
stand at the dividing line of the Middle Ages, and serve as boundary
stones marking the entrance of mankind into a higher and finer
epoch of its development " (Kapp (Friedrich), Gcschichte, etc., I).
REFERENCES. — Westphal (E. J.), " Nikolaus Kopernikus " ("Bio-
graphic des Copernicus ") ; Delambre (J. B. J.), " Histoire de I'astronomie
Moderne " ; " Journal des Savants " for February 1864 and for December
1895; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. V. pp. 66-67; Edw. S. Holden in
" Pop. Sc. Monthly " for June 1904, pp. 109—131 ; Phil. Magazine, Vol.
XIX. p. 302; Gassendi (Pierre), in " Nicolai Copcrnici Vita," appended
to his biography of Tycho (" Tychonis Brahei Vita," 1655, Hagae Comi-
tum, p. 320); W. Whewell, " Hist, of the Ind. Sciences," New York,
1858, Vol. I. pp. 257-290; the article at pp. 378-382, " Engl. Cycl.,"
which abounds in references; Rheticus, " Narrat. prima " ; Kepler
(Johann), " De Temporis"; Horrebow (at A.D. 1725 — the luminous
process of the sun, a perpetual northern light) ; Houzeau et Lancaster,
" Bibl. Ge"n.," Vol. II. pp. 109-113, for an extended list of authorities,
and also pp. 1571-1572; Joachimus (Georgius) surnamed Rhecticus,
who quotes many works on Copernicus.
Cordus, Valerius — Eberwein — celebrated German botanist
(1515-1544), who is alluded to by Gilbert, Book I. chap ii. wrote a
Commentary on Dioscorides, published by Egenolphe in 1549, as
well as an extensive history of plants, which is to be found in the
Strasburg editions of his works, issued during 1562 and 1569.
REFERENCES. — " Biog. Ge'ne'rale " '(Hoefer), Vol. XI. pp. 804-807;
Larousse (Pierre), "Grand Dictionnaire Universel," Vol. V. p. 133;
Adam (Melchior), " Vitae med. Germ." ; " Lindenius renovatus " —
" Thcsaur. Lit. Botan.," 1851, pp. 52, 334; Camerarius, "Vita Mel-
anchton" ; Linden (Joannes Antonides van der), " De Scriptis Medicis,"
1651, pp. 572-573; " Diet. Historique de la Me'decine," par N. F. J.
Eloy, Mons, 1778, pp. 705-707, Vol. I.
Cortesius, Martinus, celebrated Spanish geographer who died
about 1580, is the author of the well-known and extremely scarce
work, " Breve compendio de la esfera, y de la arte de navegar,"
Cadiz, 1546 1551, and Seville, 1556, which was translated by
APPENDIX I 509
Richard Eden, 1561, 1589, 1609. Of the 1556 issue,Salva remarks (II,
3763) : " 2e Edition aussi rare que la premiere. C'est cet ouvrage qui
a revolutionne* la science nautique et qui fut le premier a indiquer
la declinaison de 1'aiguille. Les instructions pour const ruire des
mappemondes ne sont la partie la moins inte*ressante du texte
et pourraient £tre utiles & tous ceux qui sont incapables de com-
prendre le principe des roses de vents et des loxodromes, qui couv-
rent la surface des cartes hydrographiques anciennes, Mais c'est
justement ici que 1'mtelligence p6ne*trante de Cortez a indique* les
de*fauts de la projection longtemps avant Mercator."
For a reproduction of the title page and of the twelve-page
text of Martin Cortez's " Breve Compendio," see G. Hellmann,
" Neudrucke," 1898, No. 10.
REFERENCES. — Fernandez de Navarrete, " Disertacion sobre la
historia de la nautica y de las mathematicas," Madrid, 1846; "La
Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XII. p. 1114; "Biographic Generate,"
Vol. XI. p. 964; Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i. ; Book III.
chap. i. and Book IV. chap. i.
Costaeus, Joannes — Giovanni Costeo — of Lodi, who died at
Bologna in 1603, was an Italian physician -teaching medicine at
the Universities of Turin and of Bologna and the author of several
valuable works, notably the " Tractatus de universal! stirpium
natura," Turin, 1578; the " Disquisitionum physiol. . . . Avicennse
sectionem," Bologna, 1589; the " Annot. in Avicennse cano-
nem . . ." Venetia, 1595; and the " De igneis medicinae . . ."
published also at Venice in the last-named year.
Gilbert, who speaks of him (De Magnete, Book I. chap. i. ; Book
II. chap. iii. ; Book VI. chap, v.) gives this as the theory propounded
by Costaeus regarding the powers of amber and loadstone : " There
is work on both sides, result on both sides, and therefore the motion
is produced in part by the loadstone's attraction and in part by
the iron's spontaneous movement ; for, as we say that the vapours
given out by the loadstone do by their own nature haste to attract
the iron, so, too, do we say that the air impelled by the vapours,
while seeking a place for itself, is turned back, and when turned
back impels and transfers the iron, which is picked up, as it were,
by it, and which, besides, is exerted on its own account. In this
way, there is found a certain composite movement, resulting from
the attraction, the spontaneous motion and the impulsion ; which
composite motion, however, is rightly to be referred to attraction,
because the beginning of this motion is invariably from one term,
and its end is there too ; and that is precisely the distinguishing
character of attraction."
REFERENCES. — Eloy (N. F. J.), " Diet, historique de la M6decine " ;
Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. V. p. 245.
510 APPENDIX I
Gusanus — Nicolas Khrypffs or Krebs, Cardinal de Cusa (1401-
1464), an eminent German scholar, who, abandoning the study of
law, entered the Church, became Archdeacon of Li6ge, member of
the Council of Basle, and was raised, in 1448, to the dignity of
Cardinal. His biographer in the ninth " Encycl. Britan." (Vol. VI.
pp. 728-729) says : " As in religion he is entitled to be called one
of the Reformers before the Reformation, so, in philosophy, he was
one of those who broke with scholasticism while it was still the
orthodox system/' His works were published in complete form by
H. Petri, 1565.
REFERENCES. — Hartzheim (Josephus), " Vita N. de C.," Troves,
1730; Deux (M.), " Life of C. Cusa," 1847; Scharpff (Franz Anton),
" Der Cardinal und Bischof Nic. von Cusa . . ." Tubingen. 1871 ;
Dr. W. Windelband, " History of Philosophy," auth. tr. by Jas. H.
Tufts, New York, 1893, pp. 345-347 ; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1860, Vol. II ;
Libri (G.), " Hist, des Sciences Mathein.," Vol. III. p. 99; Dr. F. Ueber-
weg, " History of Philosophy," tr. by Geo. S. Morris, 1885, Vol. II. pp. 23—
24; Ritter (Dr. Heinrich), " Geschichte der Phil.," Vol. IX. p. 142;
Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i. and Book II. chaps, iii. xxxvi. ;
"Journal des Savants" for January 1894; Houzeau et Lancaster,
" Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 115; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. V. p. 687;
" Biogr. Gen.," Vol.- XII. pp. 651-657.
Dominions, Maria Ferrariensis — " Novara " — Italian savant
(1464-1514), taught astronomy at Bologna, Rome and elsewhere,
and had for one of his pupils the celebrated Copernicus, who, later
on, became an associate in his investigations. None of his writings
have reached us.
Gilbert thus alludes to Dominicus as well as to Stadius at Chap.
II. book vi. of his De Magnete: "According to Dominicus Maria's
observations, the north pole is raised higher and the latitudes of
places are greater now than in the past : from this he infers a change
of latitudes. But Stadius, holding the directly opposite opinion,
proves by observations, that the latitudes have grown less. ' The
latitude of Rome/ says he, ' is given in the Geographia of Ptolemy
as 41 1°; and lest any one should say that some error has crept
into the text of Ptolemy, Pliny relates, and Vitruvius in his ninth
book testifies, that at Rome on the day of the equinox the ninth
part of the gnomon's shadow is lacking. But recent observation
(as Erasmus Rheinhold states) gives the latitude of Rome in our
age as 41 £° ; so that you are in doubt whether one-half of a degree
has been lost (decrevisse) in the centre of the world, or whether it
is the result of an obliquation of the earth.' "
REFERENCES. — Borsetti (Ferrante Giovanni), " Hist. Gymn. Ferrar./'
Vol. II. p. 50 ; Tiraboschi (Girolamo), " Storia della Letteratura Italiana,"
Vol. XIV. p. 296; Montucla (J. F.), "Hist, des Math./' Vol. I. P. 549;
Houzeau et Lancaster, "Bibl. G&i." Vol. II. pp. 215-216; Biog.
G<§n,/' Vol. XXXVIII. p. 336.
APPENDIX t 511
Dupuis. See Putaneus.
Empedocles, whom Gilbert merely names in Book V. chap. xii.
of De Magnete, was a native of Sicily, distinguished as a philosopher
as well as for his knowledge of medicine and of natural history.
Empedocles flourished about the year 442 or 460 B.C., and was
pupil of Pythagoras or Anaxagoras, and, as others say, of Par-
menides (" The Metaphysics of Aristotle," by the Rev. John H.
McMahon, London, 1857, PP- 19-20, 34, 118).
" Rien n'est engendre*, disait Empe'docle, rien ne p&it de la
mort funeste. II n'y a que melange ou separation de parties. . . .
L'e"clair, c'est le feu s'e*chappant du nuage ou le soleil 1'avait lance*.
La foudre n'est qu'une plus grande quantity de feu. Le tonnerre,
c'est v.e me'me feu qui s'eteint dans le nuage humide. . . . Les
phenomenes magn&iques viennent de la.convenance parfaite des
pores et des effluves de 1'aimant et du fer. Des que les effluves de
1'aimant ont chasse* 1'air que contenaient les pores du fer, le courant
des effluves de fer devient si fort que la masse entiere est entrain £e "
(" Diet, des Sc. Philos./' Paris, 1852, Vol. II. pp. 206-214).
REFERENCES. — Karsten, " Emped. Agrig. Carmin. Reliq." in
Vol. H of " Phil. Graec. vet. relig.," Amst., 1838; and the extensive
list of authorities cited in Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VII. pp. 457-
458; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G6n.," Vol. I. part i. p. 401;
Ueberweg, "Hist, of Philos." (Morris), 1885, Vol. I. pp. 60-63; "The
Works of George Berkeley," by A. C. Fraser, Oxford, 1901, Vol. III.
pp. 205, 247, 254, 290; Paul Tannery, " Pour 1'histoire de la Science
Hellene," Paris, 1887, Chap. XIII. pp. 304-339; " Greek Thinkers,"
by Theodor Gomperz, tr. of L. Magnus, London, 1901, Chap. V. pp. 558-
562, 601 ; " A History of Classical Greek Literature," by Rev.
John P. Mahaffy, New York, 1880, Vol. I. pp. 123-128; Vol. II. pp. 48,
73, 77; " Essai Th6orique et Historique sur la generation des connais-
sances humaines," par Guillaume Tiberghien, Bruxelles, 1844, Vol. I.
pp. 185-187.
We are told by Alex. Aphr. (Qusest. Nat., II. 23, p. 137, Speng)
that, like Empedocles, Democritus sought to explain the attractive
power of the magnet, upon which the latter wrote a treatise
(according to Diog. IX. 47).
Democritus was born at Abdera in Thrace about 470 or 460 B.C.,
and, according to Thrasyllus, the grammarian, he died 357 B.C. —
the same year as Hippocrates. He was considered, by far, the most
learned thinker of his age, and, according to Carl Snyder, who
dedicates " The World Machine," 1907, to Democritus, he was
justly esteemed by Bacon as the mightiest of the ancients, for he
wrote illuminatively upon almost every branch of natural knowledge.
The following note to " The Atomistic Philosophy " appears at
p. 230, Vol. II of Dr. E. Zeller's " History of Greek Philosophy/'
translation of S. F. Alleyne, London, 1881 :
512 APPENDIX I
" Leucippus and Democritus derive all action and suffering from
contact. One thing suffers from another, if parts of the latter
penetrate the empty interspaces of the former. . . . Democritus
thought that the magnet and the iron consist of atoms of similar
nature but which are less closely packed together in the magnet.
As, on the one hand, like draws like, and, on the other, all moves
in the Void, the emanations of the magnet penetrate the iron, and
pass out a part of its atoms, which, on their side, strain towards the
magnet, and penetrate its empty interspaces. The iron itself follows
this movement, while the magnet does not move towards the iron,
because the iron has fewer spaces for receiving the effluences."
The attraction of the magnet, as explained by Diogenes of
Appolonia, is thus given by Alex. Aphr. (Qusest. Nat., II. 23,1). 138,
Speng) : " Empedocles supposed that, after the emanations of the
magnet have penetrated into the pores of the iron, and the air
which choked them has been expelled, powerful emanations from
the iron pass into the symmetrical pores of the magnet, which draw
the iron to itself and hold it fast."
It may be added that the Atomic Doctrine of Leucippus and
Democritus was opposed to the Homoiomeria of Anaxagoras of
Clazomenae — the last great philosopher of the Ionian School.
REFERENCES. — Ueberweg (Fr.), " History of Philosophy/1 trans.
of G. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 67—71 ; Larousse (Pierre),
"Diet. Univ. du XIXe sidcle," Paris, 1870, Tome VI. pp. 409-410;
" La Grande Encyclopedic/' Paris, Tome XIV. pp. 66-69; " Nouvelle
Biographic G&ierale " (Hoefer), Paris, 1855, Vol. XIII. pp. 566-574;
Franck (Ad.), " Fragments qui subsistent de Democrite," in the " Mem.
de la Soci6te" Royale de Nancy/' 1836; Beazley (C. Raymond), " The
Dawn of Modern Geography/' Oxford, 1906, Vol. I. p. 254 (the use by
Democritus of magnetic stones, mentioned by Solinus) ; Snyder (Carl),
" The World Machine," 1907, p. 133 (work on the magnet) ; Zeller
(Eduard), " Philosophic der Griechen"; Ritter and Preller, " Historia
Philosophic Graecac" (7th ed., Gotha, 1888); Mulloch (F. G. A.),
" Democriti Abderitae operum fragmenta/' Berlin, 1843.
Erasmus, Reinhpldus (1511-1553), a German savant, who
taught astronomy and mathematics at Wittemberg, has left us
" Commentarius Theoricae Novae Planetarum," 1542, 1558, a work
which, Delambre says, supplies the omissions of Purbacchius and
must have cleared many of the passages of Ptolemy's syntax. He
also wrote " Almageste," 1549 ;l made up the Prutenic (Prussian)
1 Almagest was the name given to the great work of Aboulw6fa and was
afterwards often applied to astronomical writings treating of celestial pheno-
mena in general. The word is of Greek, not Arabic, origin, and signifies a
composition made up on a very extensive scale (" Journ. des Savants,"
December 1843, p. 725, and March 1845, p. 150). Almagest was also the
name given to the, extensive astronomical work by Ptolemy of Alexandria,
which established the Ptolemaic System as astronomical science for 1400
years, until overthrown by the system of Copernicus. Ptolemy's work
APPENDIX I 513
astronomical tables (" Prutenicae tabulae ccelestium motnum/'
1551), from the observations of Copernicus, Hipparchus and
Ptolemy, and he is believed to be the author of the anonymous
work entitled " Hypotyposes orbiumf ccelestium. . ." which
appeared during the year 1568.
Gilbert's reference to Erasmus has already been given in con-
nection with Dominions.
REFERENCES. — Vossius (G.), " DC Sclent iis Mathein.," Chap. XXXVI.
p. 14; Dclambre (J. B. J.), " I Fist, dc 1'astronomic modcrnc," Vol. I.
pp. 142, 146, 164; Zcdler (Johann Hch.) ; Madlcr — Maxller (Johann
Hcnrich von), Vol. 1. p. 168; Bailly (Jean Sylvain), " Histoire dc 1'astro-
nomic modcrne . . ." Vol. I. p. 366 and Vol. J 1. p. 71; Jochcr (Johann.
Fricddcli), " Bibliogr. Astronom." ; Wcidler (Christian Gottlieb), p. 353;
" Biogi. Gencralc," Vol. XLI. pp. 928-929.
•
Erastus, Thomas — Thomas Liebcr — (1524-1583) was a native
of Switzerland, notable in medicine and famous in ecclesiastical
polemics, who furiously combated the medical views of Paracelsus,
notably in his " Disputationum cle Medicina," Basilere, 1572-1573.
Gilbert mentions him (Dc Magneto, Book I. chaps, i. and vii.), merely
saying that, knowing naught of the nature of the loadstone, Erastus
draws from it weak arguments against Paracelsus.
His numerous works are detailed in the " Biographisclies
Lexikon," Vienna und Leipzig, 1885, Vol. II. pp. 292, etc., and a
very complete account thereof is to be found at pp. 561-564 of
" De Scriptis Medicis," by Joannes Antonides Van Der Linden,
Amstr-L, 1651.
REFERENCES.-- Fluquct (Francois Andre Adricn), "Diction, dcs
Heresies"; Morcri (Louis), " Le Grand Dictionnairc Ilistonquc " ;
Wordsworth (Christopher), "Ecclesiastical Biography"; "New Int.
Encycl ," New York, 1903, Vol. VI. p. 828; " Biog. G£n.," Vol. XXXI.
pp. 174-175; " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XVL p. 163; Larousse,
" Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIL p. 788; Adam (Melchior), " Vita? Gcrmanorum
Medicorum," pp. 107 109; J Sol Ion, H. C., " Ch. Hist, of Chcm.," p. 981.
Evax — Euace — a Latin naturalist who lived in the time of
Tiberius and said to have been King of the Arabs, is the supposed
author of " De no minibus et virtutis lapidum qui in artem medicinae
recipiuntur," treating of gems, of which the MS. — now in the Oxford
Library — was used by Marbodeus to make up his own work on
precious stones.
Salmasius delivers it as his opinion that, by an error of
transcribers, from Cratevas, who in some copies is also named
(originally entitled " The Great Composition "), the Arabs called by the
Greek word magistt, " greatest," and, with the addition by Arabic translators
of their article al, " the," the hybrid name " Almagest " came into use
(" Encycl. Amer.," Vol. I. n. p. ; " Encycl. Britan.," Edin., 1886, Vol. XX),
LL
514 APPENDIX I
Crate vas, this Evax has arisen. (" Gen. Biog. Diet." of Alex.
Chalmers, London, 1814, Vol. XIII. p. 411.)
REFERENCES. — " Journal des Savants " for June 1891 (" Traditions
. . . chcz les Alchimislcs du Moyen Age," par Marccllm Pierre Eugene
Berlhclot); Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. VII. p. 1153; Gilbert, De
Magnete, Book II. chap, xxxviii.
Fallopius, Gabriellus (1523-1562), was a famous Italian anato-
mist and one of the three who, according to Cuvier, restored or
rather created anatomy during the sixteenth century. The other two
were Vassalli and Eustachi. His principal work is " Observationes
Anatomicae," Venice, 1561; a list of the others — named in " Biog.
Gen.," Vol. XVII. pp. 66-69 — embracing " De medicatis . . . de
metallis sev fossilibus . . ." Venice, 1564; " De Simplicibus
Medicamentis purgantibus tractatus," 1566; " De Compositione
Medicamentoruin/' 1570; "Opera Genuina Omnia," 1584, 1596,
1606. The collected edition of his complete works was published
in Venice, 1584, and at Frankfort, 1600.
REFERENCES. — Tiraboschi (Girolamo), " Biblioteca Modencsc,"
Vol. II. p. 236; Niceron (J. P.), " Memoircs," Vol. IV. p. 396; Gilbert,
De Magnete, Book I. chaps, i. and xv. also Book 11 chap, xxxviii.;
Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. p. 67.
Fernelius, Joannes Franciscus (1497-1558), celebrated French
physician, called the modern Galen, is the author of many works
which are cited at pp. 477-483, Vol. XVII of the " Biographic
GeneVale," the principal ones being " De natural! parte medicinae,"
1542, " De vacuandi ratione liber," 1545, and " De Abditis Rerum
Causis," 1548. Gilbert alludes to the last named (De Magnete,
Book I. chap, i.), saying that Fernel believes there is in the loadstone
a hidden and abstruse cause : elsewhere he says this cause is
celestial; and he does but explain the unknown by the more un-
known. This search after hidden causes, he adds, is something
ignorant, beggarly and resultless.
REFERENCES. — Thou (Frai^ois Auguste dc), " Historiarum sui
temporis"; Sc. de Sainie Marthe, " Elogia Doct. Gallorum"; Eloy,
" Diet. Hist, dc la Medecine," Mons, 1778, Vol. II. pp. 208-221 ; Larousse,
" Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. p. 259.
Ficino, Marsilia (1433-1499), was the son of Ficino, the physician
of Cosmo de Medici, and was one of the leading scholars of the
Renaissance. He was celebrated as the most distinguished trans-
lator of Plato and as the reviver of Platonic philosophy in Italy.
One of his biographers has said that the most important feature
of his philosophy is his claim to harmonizing Platonic idealism with
Christian doctrine,
APPENDIX I 515
Gilbert says that " Ficinus chews the cud of ancient opinions,
and to give the reason of the magnetic direction seeks its cause in
the constellation Ursa. Ficinus writes, and Merula copies, that
in the loadstone the potency of Ursa prevails, and hence it is
transferred into the iron " (De Magnete, Book. I. chap. i. ; Book III.,
chap. i. ; Book IV. chap. i.).
His complete works (published in two volumes, Venice, 1516,
Basle, 1561, 1576, Paris, 1641), embrace "Theologize Platonicae,"
1488; " De Vita libri tres," 1489; " lamblichus, de mysteriis . . ."
1497; " Apologise in qua medicina, astrologia . . ." 1498.
REFERENCES.— Corsi (Haimondo Maria), " M. Ficmi Vita," Pisa,
1772; Symonds (John Addinglon), " Remains in Italy," London, 1875,
and " Renaissance in Italy," New York, 1888, pp. 324-328; " English
Cyclop. " (Biography), Vol. II. p. 908; " The Rise of Intellectual Liberty
from Thales to Copernicus," by JKrederic May Holland, New York, 1885,
pp. 279-280; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. pp. 331-332 ; " Journal
des Savants" for May 1894; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.,"
Vol. II. p. 131 ; " Biog. Generale," Vol. XVII. pp. 634-638 ; " The Works
of Gco. Berkeley," by A. C. Fraser, Oxford, 1901, Vols. II. p. 268; III.
pp. 216-217, 221—223, 2OO» 2(j6-297; "Diet, of Philos. and Psych.,"
by J. M. Baldwin, New York, 1901, Vol. I. p. 381.
Fracastorio, Hieronymo (1483-1553), Italian physician and one
of the most learned men of his day, is said to have been made Pro-
fessor of Logic at the University of Padua when but nineteen years
of age. J. B. Ramusio admitted that he owed to Fracastorio the
idea and much of the material for his great work " Rac. di Navi-
gazioni e Viaggi," first published in 1550.
Fracastorio made many important astronomical observations,
and it was he and Peter Apian who first made known in Europe
the fact that comets' tails are always turned away from the sun,
so that their line of prolongation passes through its centre.
Gilbert alludes to Fracastorio (Dc Magnete, Book I. chap. i. ;
Book II. chaps, ii. iv. xxiv. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Book IV. chap, i.),
and to his " De Sympathia," of which the first edition is Venet.,
1546. This, says Libri, is " an important wrork in which universal
attraction, as well as electric and magnetic motion, is attributed
to an imponderable principle."
REFERENCES. — Baillct (Adricn), " Jugemcnt des Savants," Vol. II;
Menken (F. ().), " De Vita," Leipzig, 1731; Teissier (H. A.), " Eloges
des homines illustres," tires de M. De Thou; Libri, " Hist. des. Sc.
Math&n.," Paris, 1838, Vol. III. p. 100; "Biog. Gen.," Vol. XVIII.
pp. 418-420; Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849, Vol. I. p. 86; Vol. II. p. 697;
Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIIE. pp. 692-693; Houzeau et Lancaster,
11 Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 135.
Garcia d'Orta — Garzia ab Horto — Garcia del Huerto — Garcie
du Jar din — a Portuguese physician and the author of " Coloquios
516 APPENDIX I
dos simples . . . pello douctor Garcia Dorta," 1563, whicli was
translated into French arid united to the works of C. d'Acosta and
Nic. Monardcs (Christophile de la Coste et M. Nicholas Monard)
in 1567, 1574 and 1579. The passage whicli Gilbert alludes to (in
De Magnete, Book I. chap, xiv.), is to be found in the abridged
Latin translation of Garcia's work made by Charles de 1'Eclusc.
Antwerp, 1593, lib. i. cap. 56, pp. 178-179. Hakewill observes
(" Apologie," 1635, lib. ii. p. 165) : " Remarkable indeed, that is
which Garzias ab Horto writes concerning the loadstone in Simpl.
India, lib. i. cap. 47."
RKI-ERKNCKS. — " Biog. Gen.," Vol. XXXVI II. p. 887; Machado
(Barb.), " Bibhothcca Lusitana " ; Denis (Ferdinand), "Bulletin du
Bibliographc " ; Pincio (Leon), Bibhotcta Oriental y Occidental";
" Ilistoire des Drogues par Antoinc Collin," Lyon, 1619; " Thcsaur.
Lit. Hot.," 1851, p. 127
Gauricus, Lucas (1476-1558), Italian mathematician and
astronomer, one of whose pupils was Cesar Scaliger, is the author
of twenty-one different works (" Opera Omnia," Basle, 1575), of
which the best known are " Rcrum naturalium et divinarum ..."
1540; " Isagogicus ... in totam astrologiam praedictivam . . ."
1546; " Tractatus Astrologicus," 1552 ; " Tabulae de primo mo bill,"
1560.
Gilbert says (De Magnete, Book I. chap, i.) the astrologer Lucas
Gauricus held that beneath the tail of Ursa Major is a loadstone,
and that he assigns the loadstone (as well as the sardonyx and the
onyx) not only to the planet Saturn, but also to Mars (with the
diamond, jasper, and ruby), so that the loadstone, according to him,
is ruled by two planets. Further, Lucas says that the loadstone
belongs to the sign Virgo — and with a veil of mathematical erudition
he covers many similar disgraceful stupidities.
REFERENCES. --Ughclli (Fcrdinando), "Italia Sacra," Yenetiis
1717-1722; Nicodcmo (Francesco), " Hiblioieca Napolctana " ; " Chroni-
cum Mathcmaticorum," which prefaces the Almagest of Riccioli; " Biog.
Gen.," Vol. XIX. pp. 681-683; "La Grande Encycl.," Vol. XVIII.
p. 617; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VII L p. 1087.
Geber — Yeber — Djaber — Abu-Musa-Jabir — Ibn Haiyan — Al-
Tarsusi — who, according to Aboulwefa (Michaud, " Diet.," Vol. XVI.
p. 100) lived in the eighth century A.D., is the earliest of the Great
Arabian chemists or alchemists. Rhazes and Avicenna call him
" the master of masters," and, by the author of " The Lives of
Alche mystical Philosophers," he is designated as " the prince of
those alchemical adepts who have appeared during the Christian
Era." As many as five hundred different alchemical works have
APPENDIX I 517
boon attributed to him, and a complete list of the most important
will be found in M. F. Hcefer, " Histoire de la Chimie," Paris, 1842.
REFERENCES. — " Journal dcs Savants," for May 1851, February
1892, pp. 118-128 passim, and for May 1892 (" Gebcr ct scs (ruvrcs
alchimiques "), pp. 318-329; Laronsse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII.
pp. 1114-1115; Houzcau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 147;
Bolton (II. C.), " Chron. Hist, of Clum.," pp. 985-986; " La Grande
Encyclopedic," Vol. XV1IL pp. 680-082; Gilbert, De Maguete, Book I.
chap. vii.
Gemma, D. Cornelius, a well-knowii physician of Louvain
(1535-1597) and son of the celebrated mathematician Gemma
Frisius, is the author of the several works named at p. 854, Vol. XIX
of the " Biographic Gcnerale." Of these, the most important is
the '» Cosmocriticc, seu de naturae divinis . . . proprietatibus
reruni " published at Antwerp in 1575.
RKFKRKNCES. — Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica" — " Biog. Medicalc ";
Linden (Joannes Anionidcs van der), " De script is medicis," Amst.,
1651, pp. 147-1.48; Gilbert, De JMa^iiete, Book 11, c ha}), ni.
Gemma, Frisius — Raincr — (1508-1555), above alluded to, be-
sides being a mathematician was a medical practitioner. He wrote
" De Principiis Astronomic et Cosmographiae ..." Antwerp,
1530 (now of excessive scarcity and Chapters XXX-XXXI of
which deal with America), as well as several other similar works
published notably in 1539, 1545, 1548. These are standards of the
Netherlands geographical schools, whose most brilliant representa-
tive was the well-known geographer, Gerard Mercator (1512-1594).
REFERENCES.- " Biog. Generalc," Vol. XTX. p. 854; "La Grande
Encycl.," Vol. XVIII. p. 702; Jlouzcan et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.,"
Vol. L. part i. p. 1405 and Vol. II. p. 148.
Goropius, Henricus Becanus — Jean Becan — Jean Van Gorp
(1518-1572), a Belgian savant who practised medicine at Antwerp
and who attempted to prove, in his " Indo-Scythica," that Adam's
language was the German or Teutonic. We are told by Gilbert,
in the first book of De Magnete, that Goropius ascribes the invention
of the compass to the Cimbri or Teutons, on the ground that the
thirty-two names of the winds thereon inscribed are pronounced
in German by all mariners, whether they be British or Spaniards,
or Frenchmen.
REFERENCES — "Opera Joannis Goropii Becani," Antwerp, L570'
Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. II. p. 457; "Biog. Generate," Vol. V.
pp. 70-71; and, for additional citations, as well as for mention of all
his works, the " Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XIX.
Grotius, Hugo, the latinized form of the Dutch De Groot — a
great theologian and jurist (1583-1645). His singular precocity
518 APPENDIX I
attracted Joseph J. Scaliger, who undertook to direct his studies at
the Leyden University, where it is said he achieved brilliant success
in all studies.
One of his biographers remarks that, in the annals of precocious
genius, there is no greater prodigy on record than Hugo Grotius,
who was able to write good Latin verses at nine (1592), was ripe
for the University at twelve (1595), and at the age of fifteen (1598),
edited the Encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella — a writer of the
fifth century — with the aid of his father, Jan de Groot, the Delft
burgomaster. It might be added that, in 1597, he had delivered
public discourses on mathematics, philosophy and jurisprudence; in
1598, he was so highly sought for everywhere, that he was asked
to, and did, accompany Count Justin of Nassau and Olden Barne veldt
on their special embassy to the French Court, and that, in 1599,
he not only took his degree of doctor of law and pleaded his first
cases before the Hague Courts, but was able, through his superior
knowledge of mathematics, to translate into Latin Simon Stevin's
work on navigation. Later on, 1603, he was appointed historio-
grapher of the United Provinces, becoming fiscal general in 1607
(also Council Pensionary at Rotterdam six years later), and during
1609, he published his first work " DC Mare Liber urn," which was
a treatise against the claims of the English to exclusive right over
certain seas. This was followed in 1610 by " De Antiq. Reipub.
Batavae," and some years afterwards by his chief work, " De Jure
Belli et Pads/' considered the basis of international law and freely
translated into all the principal languages. Grotius is twice
mentioned in Book IV. chap. ix. of De Magnete.
REFERENCES. — Brandt et Cattcnbuch, " llistoirc de Hugo de Groot,"
1727; Burigny (J. Leveque de), " Vic de Grotius," 1752; Cras (Hcndrik
Constantijn), " Laudatio Hugonis Grotii," 1796; Dr. Fried. Uebcrwcg,
" Hist, of Phil.," (Mortis tr., 1885, Vol. 11. p. 31) ; Roggc (H. C.), " Biblio-
theca Grotiana," 1883; Komen (Hcndrik Jakob), "Hugo Grotius,"
1837; " Chambers 's Encycl.," Vol. V. pp. 431-432 ; " La Grande Encycl.,"
Vol. XIX. pp. ^51—452 ; " Biographisch Woordenbock," J. G. Frcderiko
en F. J. Van den Branden, Amsterdam, pp. 301-302; Larousse (Pierre),
"Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII. p. 1556, giving list of his many works;
Butler (C.), " Life of Grotius," London, 1826; Creuzer (Georg Fricdrich),
" Luther und Grotius," Heidelberg, 1846; " Biog. Generale," Vol. XXII.
pp. 197-216 for a complete record of all his works.
Hali Abas — 'Ali Ibn Al-' Abbas — Al Majusi — celebrated Arabian
physician, whose death occurred about A.D. 995, is author of " Kotab-
el-Maleki," i. e. the " Royal Book " — Liber Regius — in which he
pretends to give all that was then known concerning medicine.
Mr. Adams explains (Appendix, " Barker's Lcmpriere," London,
1838), that he considers the " Royal Book " as the most complete
ancient treatise that has reached us on medicine, and the sciences
APPENDIX I 519
generally, with exception of the Synopsis of Paulus ^Bgenita. The
Latin translation of this work, given in 1127 by Stephanas Antio-
chenus, was first printed in Venice, 1492, then at Lyons in 1523.
REFERENCES. — Casiri (Michael), " Bibliolheca Arabico-hispana
Escur.," Vol. I. pp. 260, 273; Hcufer, " Nouv. Biogr. Univ./' Vol. II.
pp. 96-97; Micliaud, " Biog. Univ.," Paris, 1843, Vol. I. p. 468; Gilbert,
De Magnete, Book I. chap, i.; Freind (John), "History of Physick " ;
Choulant (Johann Ludwig), " Handbuch dcr Bucherkunde . . ." ;
\Viistcnfcld (II. F.), " Geschichte d' Arab. JErzte," p. 59; " Biog. G6n.,"
Vol. II. pp. 96-97.
Harriot, Thomas (1560-1621), one of the learned Englishmen
alluded to by Gilbert, at the end of the first chapter, Book I of
De Magnete, as having on long sea voyages observed the differences
of magnetic variation, was a mathematician and astronomer, whose
miscellaneous works, noted at pp. 437-439, Vol. XXIV of the
" Diet, of Nat. Biog.," embrace treatises on magnetism, mechanics,
etc. The account he has given of his voyage to Virginia was printed
in Hakluyt's " Principal Navigations," Vol. Ill and is pronounced
" one of the earliest and best examples of a statistical survey
made upon a large scale," at p. u, Vol. LXXI of the " Edinburgh
Review."
Heraclides of Pontus and Ecphantus, was a Greek historian and
philosopher who died about 330 B.C. Diogenes Laertius attributes
to him many works that have not reached us, and we have nothing
of him but fragments of his treatise on the constitutions of the
different States which have been printed with the works of Elien.
Gilbert commences the third chapter of his sixth book by saying
that Heraclides, as well as the Pythagoreans Nicetas of Syracuse
and Aristarchus of Samos, and, as it seems, many others, held that
the earth moves, that the stars set through the interposition of the
earth, and that they rise through the earth's giving way : they
do give the earth motion, and the earth being, like a wheel, supported
on its axis, rotates upon it from west to east.
REFERENCES. — Rowlcs (S.)t " De Vila et Script is," 1824, Vol. VIII;
Dcswert (Eugenius), "Dissert, dc Heraclide Politico," 1830; Krische
(August Kernhard), " Forschungen . . ." p. 325; " La Grande Encyclo-
pedic," Vol. XIX. p. 1131; Dr. F. Uebcrweg, " History of Philosophy,"
tr. by Geo. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 38-42; Humboldt,
" Cosmos," 1860, Vol. II. p. 309; " Essai thSonque . . . des con-
naissanccs humaines," par G. Tiberghkn, Bruxcllcs, 1844, Vol. I. pp. 182^
185; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 200.
Hermes Trismegistus (or "thrice great ") is the supposed
author of many Greek works that have reached us and which constitute
an encyclopaedia of Egyptian wisdom in that they treat of astronomy,
medicine, and other sciences. As one of his biographers has it,
520 APPENDIX I
the principal tenets of the Hermetic Books are that the Creator
made the Cosmos by his word out of fluid . . . that death and life
are only changes and that nothing is destructible . . . that passion
or suffering is the result of motion. . . . Gilbert only refers to him
in Book V. chap. xii. by saying that Hermes, Zoroaster and Orpheus
recognize a universal soul. Clemens Alexandrinus, who has given
an account and catalogue of his writings, makes him the author of
six books of physic and of thirty-six books of divinity and philosophy.
REFERENCF.S. — " The Works of George T3crkelcy," by A. C. Frascr,
Oxford, 1901, Vol. III. pp. 209, 253-255, 261, 267, 280; Baumgarten -
Crusius (Ludwig Fried rich Otto), "... de librorum llcnneticorinn . . ."
1827; "Diet, of Philos. and Psychol.," byj. M. Bald \\iii, Nesv York,
1901, Vol. I. p. 475; " Hermes Trismegist us," by Schciblc (J.), 1855 ; Alex.
Chalmers, "Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1814, Vol. XVII. p. 390 ;
" Hermes Trisimgistus," by Partlicy (Gnstav Friedrich Conslanlm), 185 \ ;
Hou/cau ct Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I. part i. pp. 427-428, 6yi —
694; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. TX. p. 228; and the long list of
citations in " Biog. Genernlc," Vol. XXIV pp. 377-382.
Hero — Heron — of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician, pupil of
the celebrated Ctesibius who flourished in the third century before
Christ and to whom have been attributed many ancient writings
upon different technical subjects. Allusion is made by Gilbert
(De Magnete, Book II. chap, ii.), to Hero's " Spiritualia," which is
his most valuable known work and which has been often translated,
notably into Latin, 1575, 1680, 1683, into Italian, 1547, *5&9> I592»
1605 ; and into German, 1687, 1688.
REFERENCES. — Hnltsch (Fricdricli), " Ilcronis Alex.," 1864-1874;
Montucla (J. F.), " Hist, dcs Mathcm.," Vol. I. p. 267; " Abliandlunpon
znr Gcsehiehte der Matheinatik," Vol. VJ11. pp. 175-214; Martin, " Sur
la vie ct les ouvragcs d'Heroii d'Alexandric " — Mem. de 1'Acacl. dcs Ins.
13. L., Paris, 1854, ss. 438-439; Arago (Francois), " Eloge de Walt"
((Eitvres, Vol. I); Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Gra?ca,"
Vol. IV. p. 23,1 ; Figuicr (Louis), " I list, des principalcs deeouvcrtcs," Vol. I.
p. ,\z; " A short history of Greek Mathematics," Jas. Gow, Cambridge,
1884, pp. 276-286; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 241; " Cham-
bers's Encyclopaedia," Vol. V. p. 689; ninth " Kncycl. Bulan.," Vol. XL
p. 760; " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XIX. p. 1200; " Journal des
Savants " for March 1903, p. 147, and for Apiil 1903, p. 203; " Biogr.
Ge'ne'rale," Vol. XXIV. pp. 447-449; Th. Martin (" Mem. Ac. des Inscr.,"
1854); also two papers by Boncompagni and Vincent in " Bulletino di
Bibliog.," Vol. IV.
Hipparchus the Rhodian, " le pins grand astronomc de 1'anti-
quite " — born, according to Strabo, at Nicaea in Bithynia, 160-
145 B.C. — is the inventor of the astrolabe l and discoverer of " the
precession of the equinoxes." He is mentioned by Gilbert five
times in Book VI. chaps, ii. viii. ix. of De Magnete, and is ex-
1 Sec resume concerning the Astrolabe at A.D. 1235-1315 — Raymond
Lully.
APPENDIX I 521
tensivcly treated of in the " Journal des Savants " for November
1828, January 1829, August and September 1831, October 1843,
August and September 1848, July 1859; a^S() by the Rev. H. M.
Close, in " Proc. of Roy. Irish Acad.," Series III. vol. vi. No. 3,
in Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. IX. p. 286, in the " Historical
Account of Astronomy," by John Narrien, London, 1833, pp. 219-
244, and in the " Astronomy " article of the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica."
By Humboldt, Hipparchus is called the founder of scientific
astronomy and the greatest astronomical observer of antiquity.
He was the actual originator of astronomical tables amongst the
Greeks and, in the new map of the world which he constructed and
founded upon that of Eratosthenes, the geographical degrees of
latitude and longitude were based on lunar observations, and on
the measurement of shadows, wherever such an application of
astronomy was admissible (" Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. II.
p. 545; Ideler, " Handbuch der Chronologic," Vol. I. ss. 212, 329).
The mathematician Eratosthenes, alluded to above, was a
native of Cyrene, and pronounced the most celebrated of the
Alexandrian librarians. He is reported to have made the earliest
attempt at measurement of an arc of the meridian. The next
measurement of record is that of the astronomers of Almamon in
the plains of Mesopotamia (" Encycl, Brit.," ninth edition, Edin-
burgh, 1876, Vol. X. p. 177). The first arc of the meridian
measured in modern times with an accuracy any way corresponding
to the difficulty of the problem was by Snellius, who has given an
account of it in his most remarkable work called " Eratosthenes
Batavus," published at Leyden in 1617 (" Ency. Brit.," ninth
edition, Vol. VII. pp. 597, 606, also eighth edition, Vol. I. pp. 617-
618; ''Cosmos," London, 1849, Vol. II. p. 544, and Chasles,
" Recherches sur 1'astronomie ..." in the Comptcs Rendus,
Vol. XXIII, 1846, p. 851). The biographers of Snellius— Snell
van Roijen (Willebrood) — state that he was a very celebrated Dutch
astronomer (1591-1626), the discoverer of the law of refraction
generally attributed to Descartes (Humboldt, " Cosmos," 1849,
Vol. II. p. 699), the author of a treatise on navigation (" Tiphys
Batavus," Leyde, 1624) after the plan of Edward Wright, and that
the method he employed (with imperfect instruments), for measuring
an arc of the meridian has since been followed by all scientists
("La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XXX. p. 115; " Nouv. Biog.
Gen.," de Hcefer, Vol. XLIV. p. 83 ; Montucla, " Hist, des Mathem.,"
Vol. II; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XVI. p. 795; Delambre,
"Hist, de 1'astronomie moderne," Vol. II. pp. 92-119; "Ency.
Brit.," Akron, Ohio, 1905, Vol. XXII. p. 211).
522 APPENDIX I
REFERENCES. — Theodor Gomperz, " Greek Thinkers," translation of
L. Magnus, London, 1901, p. 544; Houzcau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G6n.,"
Vol. I. part i. pp. 413-414, and Vol. II. p. 164; "Geographical
Journal " for October 1904, p. 411; Wm. Whcwell, " Hist, of the Ind.
Sc.," New York, 1858, Vol. I. pp. 145-156; " Journal des Savants" for
1828, 1831, 1843; Alex. Chalmers, " Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1814,
Vol. XVII. pp. 505-506.
Hues — Hood — Robert (i553(?)-i632), another of the English
sea voyagers named by Gilbert at the end of his first book, was a
mathematician and geographer who sailed around the world with
Thomas Cavendish and is the author of " Tractatus de Globis . . .
et eorum usu," 1593, 1594, 1627, which was written for the especial
purpose of being used in connection with a set of globes by Emery
Molyneux. This work was shortly afterwards followed by another
in the same line entitled " Breviarum totius orbjs " — " Bretfiarum
orbis terrarum (" Diet, of Nat. Biog./' Vol. XXVIII. p. 156).
Kendall — Kcndel — Abram, who has already been mentioned
(Gama, A.D. 1497; Norman, A.D. 1576), is called by Gilbert " the
expert English navigator." He was sailing master of the " Bear/' a
ship belonging to Sir Robert Dudley (1573-1649), on the voyage
which is referred to in Vol. IV of Hakluyt's " Collection of the
early voyages, travels and discoveries," London, 1811. Therein, at
pp. 57 and 58, mention is made of Kendall, who is also favourably
alluded to in the very attractive and justly prominent work of
Sir Robt. Dudley, published in three volumes at Florence, 1646-
1647, 1661, and entitled " Dell Arcano del Mare di Roberto Dudlcio,
Duca di Nortumbria e Conte di Warwick."
REFERENCES. — " Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," Vol. XVI. p. 125 ; also Libri's
" Catalogues," 1859, Vol. I. p. 160, arid 1861, Vol. I. p. 268 ; Vol. II. p. 573,
wherein it is said that amongst the Portiilaui arc thobc of Abraham
Kendall and John Dicz for the coasts of America and the West Indies.
Kendall is said to have joined, during the year 1595, the last
expedition of Francis Drake and to have died the year following.
Drake is alluded to in the address by Edward Wright in connection
with Thomas Candish (Cavendish), and they are both also mentioned
together (De Magnete, Book III. chap, i.), where Gilbert calls
Drake " our most illustrious Neptune," and Cavendish " that other
world-explorer."
REFERENCES. — David Hume, " History of England," London, 1822,
Vol. V; " Lives of Drake, Candish and Dampicr/' Edin., 1831 ; " Collec-
tion of Voyages and Discoveries," Glasgow, 1792 ; " English Seamen of the
Sixteenth Century," by James Anthony Froude, New York, 1896, pp. 75-
103, detailing Drake's voyage around the world ; " Life of Sir Francis
Drake and Account of his Family," reprinted from the " Biog. Britannica,"
1828; " The Works of John Locke," London, 1812, Vol. X. pp. 359-512,
for the " History of Navigation from its Origin to this Time " (1704),
prefixed to " Churchill's Collection of Voyages," and embracing the
voyages of Stephen Burrough, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Thos. Candish,
APPENDIX I 523
Christopher Columbus, Sir Francis Drake and Vasco da Gama, as well
as "the discoveries attributed 1o Gioia and others; making, for the
polarity of needle, special mention of Bochart's " Geog. Sacra," p. 716,
Purchas' "Pilgrims," p. 26 and Fuller's " Miscellanies," lib. iv. cap. 19;
Franciscus Drakus, 1581, is Kpig. 39, Liber Secundus, p. 28 of 1747,
Amsterodami ed. of " Epigrammatum loan Oweni " (John Owen, 1560-
1622, " Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. XLII. pp. 420-421). At pp. 437 and
444, Vol. I. of " The History of No' America," by Alfred Brittain,
Philadelphia, 1903, will be found a plate portrait of Sir Francis Drake
and the reproduction of a page from " Sir Francis Drake Revived,"
originally published in 1626. The latter is " a true relation of foure
sevcrall voyages . . . collected out of the notes of Sir Francis Drake,
Philip Nichols and Francis Fletcher. . . ."; "The Voyages of the
Cabot s," in " Narrative and Critical History of America," by Justin
Winsor, Boston, 1889, Vol. III. pp. 1-59-84 for Drake, Hawkins and
Cavendish. " Life of Sir Rob. Dudley . . ." by John Temple Leader,
Florence, 1895. For Sir Francis Drake and Thos. Candish, consult also
Vols. XV and XVI, as per Index, p. 412 of Richard Hakluyt, " The
Principal Navigations . . ." Edinburgh, 1889; "General Biog. Diet.,"
Alex. Chalmers, London, 1813, Vol. XII. p. 305 for Sir Francis Drake
and pp. 414-418 for Sir Rob. Dudley.
Lactantius — Lucius Coelius Firmianus — celebrated orator of
Italian descent, called " the Christian Cicero," died about 325-326
A.D. He was a teacher of rhetoric in Nico media, Bithynia, was
entrusted by Constantine the Great with the education of his son
Crispus Csesar (" History of Christianity," Rev. Hy. Hart Milman,
London, 1840, Vol. II. p. 384), and became a very extensive writer.
Dufresnoy enumerates as many as eighty-six editions of his entire
works, besides separate publications of his different treatises,
appearing between the years 1461-1465 and 1739 ; the best editions
being given in Vols. X-XI of the " Bibliotheca Patrum Ecclesiasti-
corum Latinorum . . ."by Gersdorf (Ephraim Gotthelf), Leipzig,
1842-1844 and in Migne (Jacques Paul) " Patrologise," Vols. VI-VII,
1844. His principal work is the " Divinarum Institutionum," the
third book of which (" De falsa sapicntia ") is referred to by Gilbert
(De Magnete, Chap. Ill), when he says that Lactantius, like the
most unlearned of the vulgar, or like an uncultured bumpkin, treats
with ridicule the mention of antipodes and of a round globe of earth.
Geo. Hakewill, who has already appeared in this " Bibliographical
History," at A.D. 1627, alludes to the above (" Apo logic," Oxford,
1635, lib. iii. p. 281), in manner following : " Yet that which to
me seemeth more strange is that those two learned Clearkes,
Lactantius (Divin. Inst., lib. iii. cap. 24), and Augustine (De Civitate
Dei, I. lib. xvi. cap. 9), should with that earnestnesse deny the
being of any antipodes. . . . Zachary, Bishop of Rome, and Boni-
face, Bishop of Mentz, led (as it seems), by the authority of these
Fathers, went farther herein, condemning one Vergilius, a Bishop
of Saltzburg, as an heretique, only for holding that there were
antipodes." Madame Blavatsky (" Isis Unveiled," Vol. I. p. 526)
524 APPENDIX I
says : " In 317 A.D. we find Lactantius teaching his pupil Crispus
Caesar, that the earth is a plane surrounded by the sky, which is
composed of fire and water, and warning him against the heretical
doctrine of the earth's globular form ! "
The following notes concerning the antipodes are likely to prove
interesting :
" Pythagoras left no writings — Aristotle speaks only of his
school — but Diogenes Laertius in one passage (' Vitse/ VIII. I.
Pythag. 25), quotes an authority to the effect that Pythagoras
asserted the earth to be spherical and inhabited all over, so that
there were antipodes, to whom that is over which to us is under. . . .
Plato makes Socrates say that he took up the work of Anaxagoras,
hoping to learn whether the earth was round or flat (' IJhaedo,1
46, Stallb. I, 176)." In Plutarch's essay, " On the face appearing
in the orb of the moon," one of the characters is lavish in his ridicule
of the sphericity of the earth and of the theory of antipodes.
(Justin Winsor, " Narrative and Critical History," Boston, 1889,
Vol. I. pp. 3-5, notes; Lucretius, " De Rerum," V. pp. 1052, etc.,
and vi. p. 630; Virgil (Publius V. Maro), " Georgics," I. p. 247;
Tacitus (Publius Cornelius), " Germania," p. 45.)
Speaking of the lower hemisphere or antipodes, as well as of
islands of magnetic power drawing vessels on their rocks, Albertus
Magnus says, in the book " De Natura Locorum," contained in his
" Philosophus Philosophorum Princeps " : " Perhaps also some
magnetic power in that region draws human stones, even as the
magnet draws iron." See the Legends, in Reisch's— Reysch's—
" Map of the World," Rome, 1508 (" Christ. Colombus," by J. B.
Thatcher, New York, 1903, Vol. I. pp. 165-166).
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the roundness of
the earth and the antipodes were generally recognized. Mention
thereof is to be found in the " Tresor " of Brunetto Latini, in the
" Divina Commedia," in the " Convito " (Dante, Opere Minori,
Vol. I. p. 93), and in the " Acerba " of Francesco degli Stabili (Cecco
d'Ascoli), at ft. 8-n, lib. i. cap. 3; as well as in most cosmographical
treatises of the fourteenth century (Libri, Vol. II. p. 197, note).
The passage in Lactantius (lib. iii. cap. 24), begins Ineptum
credere. In the 1570 edition, it commences at Chap. XXIII, " Aut
est . . ." p. 178. In the " Works of Lactantius," Edinburgh, 1871,
Vol. I. chap. xxiv. pp. 196-197, the translator, Wm. Fletcher, says
that he thus ridicules the antipodes and the roundness of the
earth : " . . . the rotundity of the earth leads, in addition, to the
invention of those suspended antipodes," whilst, at Vol. II. chap.
xxxix. p. 122, Lactantius says again that " about the antipodes,
also, one can neither hear nor speak without laughter."
Sopra It cieli nel beato regno
Done lumrmo fpirito e beriegno
Concluiione de cuta lopcra
Eilo e il tacer de cotanta cofa
b CofideriT do il mio poco iteledto
M:i Ii ^rl £rde m rnouc &t efcofa
Si chc ptego la uirtu di fopra
Ch^ nlums lalrna del beato afpedto
EC cbe llrnaginar fcguilca lopra
Er cal figluol nantil moto el tempo
El padre col figluol una natura
Etcrna che non cade mai ful tempo
Che fia eta iprirna prefbl primp ,?gete
Et efler tuto per lui nen iigura •
EC fjdto (eti3a lui dico e niente
Et 50 che faccto era uita in lui •
EC do per fede coiifediamo nui
Si come forma ne la mentc etcrna
E in qucfta uii : luce mai (incerna*
Finife il Iibro de Ciecho Efculano di<5td
Lacerba Jmpr^eflb ne Jalrna patria de
uenefia^p maiftro philipo de piero ne
gli anf del,M QCCC ,LXXVlt
" ^ , , ^
Cccco D'Ascoli. Last page of the earliest known edition of his " Acerba" Venetiai4y6.
Printed nineteen times up to and including the edition of 1546.
Now in the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, Paris.
utrfi^
motes pen^bdant*Huai*<{<ic^crrons^
fcmgOKlfmwodofaaiiro
iierifyffllimHnymr^
fttddimt m mutti HdicnU . qafe neceffe eft fal&efferqu; rebus faUi* con ~
gmuc^Cum amf prime KabueHhtfkkn:<|ualu funtea queftquucur noit
cteufpJcnmt+MdefaidimtoiM
fat an falfa ex confcqoencibus fedfcare. Quf igir iilos ad anopodas ratio
perduxicrVidebatlwderuoiifuanioc^
^indent parrem fcmj> ocddcre .at*p oriri temper ab eadem.Cumaucenon
pcripicerent <jue macbmaiw curias cent reparer : ncc cjuomo ab occafu ad
orienrem raneanr. Cflum ante ipm 6t omcs fere parccs putarcc re dcucxQ .
quod fie utderijppcer tmcnfam tanmdmcre needle eft. EKiTbmauefc rocu -
dum eiTe tnudum ficuc pdam.Ec oc mocu fideru opmad func coeftmt uolui .
fie aftia folemcp cu ocddermc uolubtliutc f pa mundt ad ortu rcferrl I cup
ftbereos orbcs f abricari funr.quaft ad ftguram mudi : eofcp cfUruc porren *
tofidc|uiburdamriiiiulacri5cjuf afhacffediarrnc. Hancigtccodirocudt"
tacem illud (ecpebacur : uc ttrra m medio ftnu enis effec mdud^fttoeirec
ccrmm tpam globo ftnalem. netf d fieri potier.uc non effcc rocudum : quod
rocudo mcluium cencremr . Si ante rotunda erfam cerna eflfer : neceile efk uc
m omes coeli partes eadem fadrm gettac.id ed.mores erigat : capos redat :
maria confternar. Quod (t effer : fccjucba r ill ud txcrrrau : ut nuUa Tic pars
terrf quf non ab botbus :cfderif<p aialtbus mcoUr. Sic {fendulos iftos anx
dpocUsceUrotimdic»ad^urnkvQiJodri<]ii^
defendunt.quomo non cadunt omta m raFenore ilbm cell portent f Plane
respondent reru effe na tura : ur pondcra m medui fiemnmr^t ad medium
conexafrncomia:ficuti^ic*uidemusmr^^^
buU^mus.igmstamedtod^crancutcelumpctanr.C^iddtcamdchid
nefiso : qm c& fttnd abermuermc : conftarer ra (hilatia peHcuerat. et uanis
uana defenduc .nifto^ cos mterdura puto ioci cauCi pbiWbphari^aur pru^
dences fiifcios raendada defendenda fufcipere. qfi ut mgenia fua m malis
rebus exercear net oftsendant. At ego mulas argumenns probare poffem ;
nullo mo fieri pofletuc ceiu terra fit mfertomiTtec Uber iam condudendus
adbuc aliqua reftarmt ejuc magts fine prefcnrf operi nccc(Taria« Et
1 ac-taiitius " I)e Hiviins Institutioiiibus." Paye taken fioui
In the Hil>li<itl)iv]uo Ste. Clencv irvr, Paris
APPENDIX I 525
In " Christian Schools and Scholars," Augusta Th. Drane,
London, 1867, p. 70, Albertus describes the antipodes and the
countries they embrace.
Robert Steele, in his " Mediaeval Lore," London, 1893, p. 75,
has it : " And fables tell, that there, beyond the antipodes be men
that have their feet against our feet."
At p. 200 of Andre Pezzani's " La Pluralite des Existences de
I'Ame," Paris, 1866, he mentions that Cardinal Nicolas De Cusa
admits the roundness of the earth, the plurality of worlds, etc.
For antipodes and roundness of the earth see, likewise : Libri,
''Hist, des Sc. Mathem.," Vol. II. pp. 178, 182, note; Ch. W.
Shields, "The Final Philosophy," New York, 1877, p. 46; " Le
Journal des Sgavans," Vol. XXXVI for 1707, p. 510, wherein it is
said that Plutarch denied the antipodes, as did both Lactantius
and Saint Augustine. Consult, also, the volumes of " Le Journal
des Sc.avans " for the years 1710 and 1721.
REFERENCES. - Dupin (Andre M. J. J.), " Biblioth. des Autcurs
Kcclcs.," Vol. I. p. 295; Cclicr (Le"once), "Hist, des Autcurs Sacres,"
Vol III. p. 387; Schoff (Carl), " Hist, de la Lit. Komaine," Vol. IV. p. 26
" Biog. Gen.," Vol. XXVIII. pp. 611-620; ninth " Encycl. Brit.,'
Vol. XIV. pp. 195-196; Lenain de Tillemont, " Hist. Ecclcs.," Vol. VI
FJeury (Claude), " Historia Ecelcsiastica " (" The Ecclcs. History
from A.D. 400 to A.D. 456 "), Vol. I; " History of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire," by Edward Gibbon (Milman), Philad. 1880,
Vol. II. p. 248 note; " Anti-Nicenc Christian Library," edited by Drs.
Roberts and Donaldson.
Lusitanus, Amatus — Joan Rodrigo Amato — Portuguese physi-
cian (1511-1568), is author of several medical essays wherein he
advocates the views of Galen and of the Arabian School. His most
important work is " Curationum medicinalium centurise septem,"
and is so named because it is divided into seven parts, each contain-
ing a hundred different observations and reports on medical cures,
etc. In De Magnete, Book I. chap, i., Gilbert names him amongst
authors, like Antonius Musae Brasavolus and Joannes Baptist a
Montanus, who tell of the efficacy of the loadstone in medicine.
REFERENCES. — " Thesaurus Literature BotanicaV* Lipsiae, 1851,
pp. 334-335; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. X. p. 796; "Diet. Hist.de la
M6decinc/J par N. F. J. Eloy, Mors, 1778, Vol. 1. pp. 106-107.
Lynschoten — Linschooten — Jan Huygan van — who, with
Richard Hakluyt , we find mentioned by Edward Wright in his Address
" to the most learned Mr. William Gilbert," was a celebrated Dutch
navigator (1563-1611) who accompanied Vicente Fonseca, Arch-
bishop of Goa, upon his Eastern trip and first published a relation
thereof during the year 1601. He is the author, also, of " Itinerario
526 APPENDIX I
Voyage ofte Schipvaert," Amstelrcdam, 1596, 1604, 1605, 1623, and
" Itinerarinm, ofte Schipvaert," Amsterdam, 1614.
REFERENCES. — Lautz (G.), " Biog. de J. H. Van L.," Amst., 1845;
Du Boys (Pierre), " Vies cles Gouverneurs," p. 4 ; " La Grande Encycl.,"
Vol. XXII. p. 299; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. X. p. 542; "Biog.
Generale," Vol. XXXI. p. 303.
Machometes Aractensis. See Albategnius.
Mar bode us Gallus, surnamed Pclliciarius, who is briefly men-
tioned twice by Gilbert in De Magnete, Book I. chap, i., was a French
writer, son of a merchant (Marbode, Marbceuf) who finally became
Bishop of Rennes in 1081, and died at Angers in 1123-1125. He is
best known by his poetical works, which were first published in
1524. As has already been said, Marbodeus is supposed to have
used the manuscript of Evax-Euace — to make up his own book on
precious stones. The latter work is alluded to by J. B. Haureau
in the second of his articles on the Latin MSS. of the Palatine —
" Codices Palatini Bibliothecoe Vaticanae " — wherein the first line
is quoted :
" Evax, vex Arabum, fertur scnpisse Neroni "
("Journal des Savants/' Sept. 1887, p. 565, June 1891, p. 372;
" Hildeb. et Marbod. Opera," Col. 1637).
Bertelli quotes, at p. 96 of his " Pietro Peregrino " Memoir,
four of the Latin lines, as well as those of Hildeberti, which can be
translated as follows :
" The magnet stone is found amongst the Trogloditcs,
The same stone which India, its mother, sends;
This one is known to be of ferruginous colour
And its nature is to draw iron when near it."
REFERENCES. — " The Lapidarium of Marbodus " (with translation
of the sixty-one chapters) at pp. 389-417 of " Antique Gems," by Rev.
C. W. King, London, 1866; " Galha Christiana," XIV. col. 746; " Hist.
Lit. de la France," Vol. X. p. 343; " La Grande Kncycl.," Vol. XXIII
p. 15 ; Larousse, " Diet Univ.," Vol. X2. p. 1126; " Biographic Generale,"
Vol. XXXIII. pp. 366-367.
Marco Polo. See A.D. 1271-1295, p. 55.
Matthaeus Silvaticus. See Silvaticus.
Matthiolus, Petrus Andreas — Pierre Andr6 Mattiole — (1500-
1577), Italian naturalist and physician, is best known by his Com-
mentary originally published at Venice under the title " II Dioscoride
con gli suoi discorsi " and translated into Latin, 1554, which is said
to contain all that was known of medicine and botany up to that
time (Larousse, "Diet. Univ./' Vol. X. p. 1349; Eloy, "Diet.
Hist, de Medecine," Mons, 1778, Vol. III. pp. 190-193.
Gilbert tells, in Book I. chap. i. of De Magnete, that Matthiolus,
APPENDIX I 527
the translator of Dioscorides," furbishes again the garlic and diamond
story, in connection with the loadstone, that he also brings in the
fable of Mahomet's shrine having an arched roof of magnets so that
the people might be fooled by the trick of the coffin suspended in
air, as though 'twere some divine miracle, and, furthermore, that
he compares the attractive virtues of the loadstone, which pass
through iron, to the mischief of the torpedo, whose poison passes
through bodies and spreads in an occult way."
Maurolycus — Marulle — Franciscus (1494-1575) was Abbot of
Messina and a celebrated geometer. His well-known " Opuscula
Mathematical Venice, 1575, containing treatises on the sphere,
astronomical instruments, etc., was preceded by his great book on
Cosmography published during 1543, and he also wrote many
other works which will be found enumerated in the Catalogue so
ably made up by the Abbe* Scina (Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. X.
p. 1365; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 201).
Gilbert mentions Franciscus Maurolycus (De Magnetc, Book I.
chaps, i. and xvii., also Book IV. chaps, i. and xviii.), regarding the
variation in the Mediterranean Sea and says that he discusses a
few problems regarding the loadstone, adopting the current opinion
of others, and that he believes the variation is caused by a certain
magnetic island mentioned by Olaus Magnus.
INFERENCES.-- Libri, "Hist, des Sc. Math6m.," Paris, 1838, Vol IU.
p. 102; " Nouv. Biog. G6n." (Hoefer), Vol. XXXIV. p. 428; " Vita del
Abate. Maurolico," Mcssme, 1613 ; Nieeron, " Memoires," Vol. XXXVII;
" Bio£. Univ." (Midland), Vol. XXVII. p. 352; Tessier (H. A.), " Eloges
des homines Illuslrcs " ; "Diet. Univ. du XIXe siecle " (Larousse),
Vol. X. p. 1365.
Menelaus (called also Mile us, Milieus, by Apian and by Mersenne),
was a celebrated Alexandrian, living end of first century A.D., who,
in his brilliant treatment especially of spherical geometry, went
considerably beyond all his predecessors. The only work of his,
however, that has reached us is a treatise on the sphere in three
books, of which the translation was made by Maurolycus and
inserted by P. Mersenne in his " Univ. Geometriae Synopsis," 1644.
Menelaus is mentioned by Gilbert (De Magnete, Book VI. chaps,
viii. and ix.) together with Ptolemy and Machometes Aractensis,
who, says he, have held in their writings that the fixed stars and the
whole firmament have a forward movement, for they contemplated
the heavens and not the earth and knew nothing of magnetic
inclination.
REFERENCES. — Montucla, J. F., " Hist, des Mathem.," Vol. I. p. 291;
Dclambrc, J. B. J., " Hist, de 1'Astron. Moderne," Vol. II. p. 243.
Merula, Gaudentius, was an Italian savant living early in the
528 APPENDIX I
sixteenth century, author of " De Gallorum . . . antiquitate,"
1536, 1538, 1592, of " Memorabilium " 1546, 1550, 1551, 1556,
and of several general histories, etc. Gilbert says (De Magnete,
Book I. chap, i.) Merula advises that on a loadstone be graven
the image of a bear, when the moon looks to the north, so that,
being suspended by an iron thread, it may win the virtue of the
celestial Bear.
REFERENCES. — Cotta (Lazaro Agostino), " Musoco Novarese,"
p, 133; Philippe Argellati, " Bibliotheca . . . Mcdiol. . . ." Vol. IT.
pp. 2131-2134; " ha Grande Encycl. " Vol. XXIII. p. 732; " Biog. Gen.,"
Vol. XXXV. p. 127.
Montagnana, Bartholommeo, who is briefly alluded to at the
end of Book I. chap. xv. of De Magnete, was the head of a well-
known family of Italian physicians. He was born about 1400,
practised medicine at Bologna and Padua, and wrote " Consilia
Medica, edita Padua anno 1436," also " De Balneis Patav. ; de
compositione et dosi medicamentorum," the latter appearing at
Padua in 1556.
REFERENCES. — Papadopoli (Nicolaus Comncnus), " Ihstoria Gymnasii
Pat.ivavini," J; Manget (Jean Jacques), " Ribliolheca Sciiptorum
Mcclicorum " ; " Bog. Gcnerale," Vol. XXXVI. p. 34.
Mont anus. Arias — Benedictus (1527-1598), eminent Spanish
Catholic divine and orientalist, member of the Council of Trent,
is best known by his Polyglott Bible — Biblia Regia or Biblia Plan-
tiniana — though he is the author of many works, mostly religious,
published during the years 1569, 1571, 1572, 1574 and 1593. Upon
completing the last of the eight folio volumes of the Biblia, he was
offered, but declined, a bishopric by King Philip II, at whose request
he had undertaken the work and who, later on, rewarded him with
a liberal pension and other emoluments.
He is but briefly referred to by Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I.
chap. i.
REFERENCES. — Antonio (Nicolas), " Bibl. Hisp. Nova " ; D. Nicol.
M. Serrano, " Appendice al Dice. Univ.," Madrid, 1881, Vol. XIV. p. 407;
" Diccionario Enciclopedico Hispano- Americano," Barcelona, 1887,
Vol. II. p. 596; Loumyer (C.), " Vie de B. A. Moniano," 1842; " Biog.
Gen.," Vol. III. pp. 145-146; Rosenmueller (Ernst Fricclrich Carl),
" Handbuch fur die Literatur," Vol. III. p. 296; Colomids (Paul),
" Italia et Hispania Orientalis," p. 241.
Montanus — Da Monte — Joannes Baptista (1488-1551), already
mentioned in connection with Lusitanus, was a Professor of Medicine
at the Padua University and regarded as one of the most celebrated
physicians of his day. He is the author of many valuable works,
including " Metaphrasis Siimmaria/' 1551, " De Differentiis Medi-
APPENDIX I 529
camentorum," 1551; " In Nonum librum; Rhaz6s ad Almansorem
Expositio," 1554, 1562.
REFERENCES. — Tiraboschi (Girolamo), " Storia della Letleratura
Italiana " ; Facciolati (Jacopo), "Fasti Gymnasii Patavini," par. Ill;
Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap, i.; " Biog. G&ierale," Vol. XXXVI.
pp. 108-109.
Myrepsus — Myrepsius — Nicolaus, Greek physician, living in the
thirteenth century, became very prominent in Rome as a great
student of the Arabic writers. He is the author, more particularly,
of a medical treatise, divided into forty-eight sections containing
as many as two thousand six hundred and fifty-six formulae, which
was translated by Leonard Fuchs under the title " Nic. Myr. Alex,
medicamentorum opus," Basle, 1549, an^ frequently reprinted,
whilst another translation was made by Nicolas de Reggio, who,
like Matthaeus Silvaticus, was a physician at Salerno and who called
it " Nic. Alex, liber de compositione medicamentorum," Ingoldstadt,
1541. The last-named work has, by some, been confounded with
the " Antidotarium " of Nicolas Praepositas.
Myrepsus is spoken of by Gilbert, Book I, at end of chap. xiv.
De Magnete treating of the medicinal virtue of the loadstone.
Nicolaus, says he, puts into his " divine plaster " a good deal of
loadstone, as do the Augsburg doctors in their " black plaster "
for fresh wounds and stabs ; because of the exsiccating effect of the
loadstone without corrosion, it becomes an efficacious and useful
remedy. Paracelsus, in like manner, and for the same end, makes
loadstone an ingredient of his plaster for stab wounds.
REFERENCES. — Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Graeca,"
Vol. X. p. 292; Vol. XII. pp. 4, 346; Kastner (Christian Wilhelm),
" Medicin. Gelehrten-Lexikon," p. 577; Freind (John), " Hist, of Physic,"
Vol. I. p. 464; Hcefer (M. F.), " Hist, de la Chimie," Vol. I; Sprengel
(Kurt Polycarp Joachim), " Gcschichte der Arzneikunde," Vol. II.
p. 334; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XI. p. 744; "Biog. Ge"n6rale,"
Vol. XXXVII. p. 92.
Nicander of Colophon, whom Gilbert mentions twice in his
first book, chapter ii., " On the loadstone, what it is : its discovery " —
was a Greek poet and physician who lived second century B.C.
and of whom comparatively little is known. Only two of his many
reported works remain : these are treated of at pp. 917-920, Vol.
XXXVII of the " Biographic Generate," where can likewise be found
the titles of all the others according to Fabricius (Johann Albert),
" Bibliotheca Graeca," Harles edition, Vol. IV. p. 345).
REFERENCES. — Haller (Albrecht von), " Bibliotheca Botanica " ;
Charlant (Johann Ludwig), " Handb. ... die ^Eltere Medicin " ;
G. A. Pritzel, " Thesaur. Lit. Bot.," 1851, pp. 210-211.
MM
530 APPENDIX I
Nicetas — Hicetas — of Syracuse, a Pythagorician of the fourth
century B.C., native of Choiue in Phrygia (the old Colossae of St.
Paul) alluded to by Gilbert in conjunction with Heraclides of Pontus,
was doubtless the first, according to Diog. Laert (VIII, 85), to teach
the earth's rotation. Humboldt remarks (" Cosmos/' 1860, Vol. II.
p. 109) that Nicetas, Tlicophrastus and Heraclides Ponticus appear
to have had a knowledge of the rotation of the earth upon its axis ;
but Aristarchus of Samos, and more particularly Seleucus of Babylon,
who lived one hundred and fifty years after Alexander, first arrived
at the knowledge that the earth not only rotated on its axis, but
also moved around the Sun as the centre of the whole planetary
system. Cicero, " Academica," lib. iv. cap. 39 : " Nicetas of
Syracuse/' as Theophrastus says, " believed that the heavens, the
sun, the moon, the stars — in brief, all things above — stand still;
alone, the earth, of all things in the world, moves. Because it is
rapidly turning and twisting upon its axis, it gives the effect of the
whole sky moving, and that the earth stands."
REFERENCES.-- Fabricius (Johann Albert)," Biblioth. Gurra," Vol I.
p 847; " Biog. Generalc," Vol. XXIV. p. 642; " La Gi antic Encycl.,"
Vol. XX. p. 63 ; Houzeau ct Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 214;
Gilbert, De Magnete, Book VI. chap. iii.
Nunez, PEDRO — Nonius, Petrus — was a celebrated Portuguese
mathematician (1492-1577) who, after his voyage to the East Indies,
became chief cosmographer of the kingdom, and made a great many
improvements in astronomical instruments, the merits of which
were recognized notably by Tycho Brahe and by Dr. Halley. Of
all his books, the most important are the " Tratado da sphera ..."
I537'> " De arte atque ratione navigandi/' 1546; "Opera Mathe-
matica," 1566 (containing many treatises on navigation, instru-
ments, sailing cards, etc.) ; " Annotacoes a Sphera de Sacro Bcsco/'
; " Instrumcnta Artis Navigandi/' 1592. Stockier observes
1 Sacro Bosco, here alluded to, is John Holywood or Halifax — in Latin,
Johannes de Sacro Bosco or Sacro Busto — an English mathematician, said
to have studied at Oxford and to have afterwards become a Professor of
Astronomy at the University of Paris about the year 1230. Sacro Bosco was
one of the first, in the Middle Ages, to avail himself of the Arabian writings
on astronomy and is believed to have condensed pretty much all the science
therein contained in his own well-known " Tractatus de Sphapra." Of the
latter, which was the second astronomical work to appear in print and which
was first issued at Fcrrara in 1472, there were, it is said, as many as twenty-
four more editions published before the year 1500. Houzeau says this
" Tractatus " was the standard for three centuries, and the writer in " La
Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XXIX. p. 44, steites that there were more than
seventy Latin editions of it published between the fifteenth and the seven-
teenth centuries.
He is also the author of numerous other works, including " De Astrolabio "
and a very meritorious " Tractatus de Artc Numerandi," which latter is
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APPENDIX I 531
that the last-named treatise, which is an amplification of the 1537
" Tratatos das cartas de marear," would alone justify placing
Nonius among the most distinguished geometricians of his time.
REFERENCES. — Fernandez de Navarette, " Recherches . . . sciences
nautiques" (tr. M. D, de Mofras), Paris, 1839; Varnhagen (Francisco
Adolfo de), " Historia geral do Brazil"; Machado (Barb.), " Biblioth.
Lusitana"; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Ge*ne"rale," 1887, Vol. I.
part i. pp. 216, 574-575, and part ii. p. 1222; Gilbert, De Magnete,
Book IV. chap, viii.; " La Grande Encycl.," Vol. XXV. p. 140; " Bio-
graphie Ge*nerale," Vol. XXXVIII. pp. 361-363; " Estromento de
Sombras " of Pedro Nunez, copied in Dr. G. Hellmann's " Neudrucke,"
1898, No. 10 ; J. F. Montucla, " Hist, des Mathem. . . ." (Supplement),
Vol. II. pp. 656-659, for names of many other authors of treatises on
navigation. For Sacro Bosco : " Diet, of National Biography," edited
by Sidney Lee, London, 1891, Vol. XXVII. p. 217; Larousse, "Diet.
Univ.," Vol. IX. pp. 934-935; Graesse (J. G. T.), " Tre\sor des livres
rartfe," Vol. VI. pp. 209-211 ; " Biog. Ge"n.," Vol. XXVI. p. 555 ; Fabricius
(Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Latina Mediae . . . Gratis"; Delambre
(J. B. J.), " Astron. du Moyen-Age," Vol. II ; " Hist. Litter, de la France,"
Vol. XIX. p. i; " Ency. Brit." ninth edition, Vol. XXI. pp. 140, 543.
Oribasius, SARDIANUS, was an eminent Greek physician, born
about A.D. 325 at Sardes, the capital of Lydia. Gilbert (De Magnete,
Book I. chap, i.) alludes to Chapter XIII of Oribasius' " De Facultate
Metallicorum," which is embraced in one of the only three authentic
treatises of his that have reached us, the first being part of a com-
pilation relative to seventy medical books, whilst the second is a
Synopsis, or rather an abridgment, of the first, and the third is
called Euporistes, or manual of practical medicine.
REFERENCES. — " Diet. Hist, de la M&iecine," par N. F. J. Eloy,
Mons, 1778, Vol. III. 419-422; Eunapius, " Vitae Philos. et Soph. ;
Sprengel (Kurt Polycarp Joachim), " Hist, de la M^decine " ; "La
Grande Encycl.," Vol. XXV. p. 561 ; " Biog. G6n.," Vol. XXXVIII.
pp. 786-789; Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Graeca," Vols. IX.
p. 451 ; XII. p. 640, and XIII. p. 353; Linden (Joannes Antonides van
der) " . . . de scriptis medicis," Amst., 1651, pp. 476-477.
Orpheus, to whom Gilbert alludes (De Magnete, Book I. chap. ii. ;
Book II. chap. iii. and Book V. chap, xii.) is supposed to be the
reproduced at pp. 1-26 of the " Rara Mathematica " of Jas. Orchard Halli-
well, London, 1839.
The best commentary ever written on the astronomy of Sacro Bosco is
the " Commentarius in sphaeram ... of Christopher Clavius," called the
Euclid of his country. Clavius was born at Bamberg in 1538, died at Rome
in 1612, and, according to Houzeau, was the author of as many as twenty-six
different works on mathematics and astronomy. An almost equally valuable
Commentary on the Sphere of Sacro Bosco was written by the famous encyclo-
pedist Cecco d'Ascoli (1257-1327) whose real name, as we have already been
informed, was Francesco degli Stabili (Libri, " Hist, des Sc. Mathe'm.,"
Vol. II. pp. 191-200, 525-526; Hcefer, " Hist, de 1'Astronomie," Paris, 1873,
p. 285; Alex. Chalmers, " Gen. Biog. Diet.," Vol. IX. pp. 1-3; Rose, " New
Gen. Biog. Diet./1 Vol. VI. p. 153; " Encycl. Brit.," 1876, Vol. V. p. 282;
Bertelli, " Pietro Peregrine,^ 1868, p. 129).
532 APPENDIX I
Vedic Ribhu. Orpheu§ is a very important figure in Greek legend,
whose existence is denied by Aristotle, but to whom are attributed
many writ ings such as the Argonautica, Lithica, Bacchica, Orphica, etc.
REFERENCES. — " La Grande Encyclopedic," Vol. XXV. pp. 607-608;
" Biog. Generale," Vol. XXXVIII. pp. 868-877; " English Cyclopaedia,"
Vol. IV. pp. 592-593-
Oviedus, GONZALUS — Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes —
was one of the earliest historiographers of the New World (1478-
1557), whose principal work — " Summario de las Indias Occi-
dentales," printed 1525 — Gilbert says (De Magncte, Book I. chap, i.)
contains earliest mention of the fact that in the meridian of the
Azores there is no variation.
REFERENCES. — The complete edition of Ovicdus's writings which
appeared in 1850; " Thesaurus Liter. Botanica?," 1851, p. 218; Ticknor
(George), " Hist, of Span. Lit.," 1849.
Parmenides, an ancient philosopher, native of Southern Italy,
living in fifth century A.D., and the most prominent of the followers of
the Eleatic School (founded by him and Xenophanes), has embodied
a brief summary of his tenets in a work called " Nature," of which
an able analyzation is to be found in the ninth " Encycl. Brit./' Vol.
XVIII. pp. 315-317. Gilbert's only allusion to him is at Book V. chap,
xii. of De Magnete, where he says that the ancient philosophers, as
Thalcs, Heraclides, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Pythagoras, Empedoclcs,
Parmenides, Plato and the Platonists — nor Greek philosophers
alone, but also the Egyptian and the Chaldean — all seek in the
world a certain universal soul, and declare the whole world to be
endowed with a soul.
Parmenides has also left fragments of a poem on astronomy
which was published by Scaliger.
REFERENCES. — Ritter (Dr. Heinrich), " Hist, de la Philos." (tr. M.
Tissot), Vol. I; Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Biblioth. Gra?ca," Vol. I.
p. 798; " Diog. Lacrt.," IX. 23; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. G6n.,"
Vol. II. p. 220; Laroussc, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XII. p. 307; " Biog.
G6n.," Vol. XXXIX. pp. 227-230; Dr. Friedrich Ueberweg, " Hist, of
Philosophy," New York, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 54-57; Paul Tannery,
" Pour 1'Histoire de la Science Hellene," Paris, 1887, Chap. IX. pp. 218-
246.
Paulum Venetum. See Marco Polo, at A.D. 1271-1295.
Paulus Venetus. See Sarpi, Pietro at A.D. 1623.
Philolaus, the Pythagorean, was born at Crotona and flourished
about 374 B.C. He was a disciple of Archytas, was the first known
writer on the subject of physics, and it is said his writings were so
highly esteemed that Plato employed three books of Philolaus for
the composition of his " Timseus." Gilbert says (De Magnete,
APPENDIX I 533
Book VI. chap, iii.) that Philolaus, whom he calls an illustrious
mathematician and a very experienced investigator of nature,
would have the earth to be one of the stars and to turn in an oblique
circle around the fire, just as the sun and moon have their paths.
In the " Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik,"
Leipzig, 1899, Vol. IX. pp. 275-292, will be found " Note sur le
charactere de 1'astronomie Ancienne," by Paul Mansion, explaining
the seven systems of Ancient Astronomy and showing the centre
of the world to be, according to Philolaus, a central fire, or vital
flame of the entire planetary system ; whilst Eudoxus,1 Ptolenueus
and Tycho Brahe believed it to be the earth immovable ; Heraclides
of Pontus asserted that it was the earth rotating from West to East ;
and bojh Aristarchus and Copernicus maintained that it was the
Sun.
REFERENCES. — Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliothcca Graiea " ;
Rose's " New Gen. Biog. Diet.," London, 1850, Vol. XI. p. 102 ; Houzeau
et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 224; Chaignct (Antelnic Edouard),
" Pylhagorc et la Philosophic Pythagoricienne," 1873; Humboldt,
" Cosmos," 1859, Vol. 1. p. 65 ; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. XII. p. 823.
Philostratus, FLAVIUS, to whom Gilbert alludes briefly at Chap.
XXXVIII. book ii. of his De Magnete as affirming that the stone
pantarbes attracts to itself other stones, was an eminent Greek
sophist, born at Lemnos between 170 and 180 A.D., whose only
writings known to us are accounts of the lives of Apollonius of
Tyana 2 and of the Sophists. These were first published, Paris,
1608, and a part thereof have found a good translator in M. A.
Chassang, who entitled his book " Le Merveilleux dans 1'Antiquite,"
Paris, 1862.
REFERENCES. — Letronnc (Jean Antoine), " M6m. de 1'Acad. des
Inscrip.," N. S., Vol. X. p. 296; Gibbon (Edward), " Roman Empire,"
Vol. 111. p. 241; Rittcr (Dr. Heinrich), "Hist, dc la Philos. Ancienne,"
Vol. Xll. chap. vii. ; Fabricius (Johann Albert), " Bibliotheca Gra'ca,"
Vol. V. p. 540 ; Miller, in the " Journal des Savants," 1849 ; " Biog. Ge"n.,"
Vol. XL. pp. 3-5; ninth " Encycl. Britan.," Vol. XVIII. pp. 796-797.
Plancius, PETER, who is alluded to in Edward Wright's address
to Gilbert, was a Dutch theologian and astronomer — " a most
diligent student, not so much of geography as of magnetic observa-
1 Eudoxus, not before mentioned in this " Bibliographical History," was
a native of Cnidus, Asia Minor, who flourished about 370 B.C. He was a pupil
of Plato, and is frequently mentioned by Aratus, Archimedes, Aristotle,
Cicero, Hipparchus, Proclus, Ptolemy, Seneca, Strabo, Vitruvius and others.
Cicero calls him the greatest astronomer that has ever lived, and Strabo
quotes him as a very distinguished mathematician.
2 Apollonius of Tyana, a Pythagorean philosopher who lived in first
century after Christ and who, in the account of his extraordinary travels
through India, reports having seen the precious stone pantarbes casting rays
of fire, and attracting all other gems, which adhered to it like swarms of bees
(" Engl. Cycl.," Chas. Knight, Biography, Vol. I. p. 266).
534 APPENDIX I
tions " — (1552-1622), the first to recommend the Dutch expeditions
to the Indies and who prepared the necessary instructions and maps
to ensure their success. His universal map has been alluded to at
the Blundeville entry, A.D. 1602. In the article on Dr. Kohl's
Collection of Early Maps (" Harv. Univ. Bull./' Vol. III. p. 305)
allusion is made to a map of America by Peter Plancius, 1594,
which is spoken of by Blundeville in his " Exercises " as " lately
put forth in the yeere of our Lord 1592."
REFERENCES. — Wagenaar (Jan), " Hisloire de la Hollande," Vol. IX.
p. 140, and also " Histoire d'Amsterdam," Vol. I. p. 407, and Vol. III.
p. 219; " Biog. G6n.," Vol. XL. p. 403; Larousse, "Diet. Univ.,"
Vol. XII. p. 1129.
Plotinus of Alexandria, the father of Neoplatonism, lived 205-
270 A.D. His writings were left to the editorial care of Porphyry,
who arranged them in six divisions, each of . hich was subdivided
into nine books, or Enneads. Plotinus maintains that men belong
to two worlds, that of the senses and that of pure intelligence, and it
depends upon ourselves as to which one we will direct most our
thoughts and finally belong. The fire-firmament of Plotinus is
alone referred to by Gilbert in the third chapter of the last book
of De Magnete.
REFERENCES. — " Neoplatonism," and works cited in the Encyclo-
paedias, also the works on Plotinus, especially b} Kirchner (Carl), 1854.
by Brennmg (Emil), " Die Lehre . . . Plotin . . ." (1864), and by
Kleist (E. C. von) (1884) ; Plotini, " Operum Philosophicorum Omnium,"
Basilae, 1580, Liber III, Ennead II, p. 115; Kin^sley (Charles), "Alex-
andria and her Schools," Camb., 1854; Grucker (Emile), " De Plotini-
anis," Paris, 1866; Lewes (George Henry), " History of Philosophy from
Thales to Cointe," l London, 1867; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. XII.
p. 1198; " Biog. G6n.," Vol. XL. pp. 487-494; Dr. Fried. Ueberweg,
f' Hist, of Philos.," tr. of Geo. S. Morris, 1885, Vol. I. pp. 240-252;
Bouillet (Marie Nicolas), " Les Enne"ades de Plotin, "• 1857.
Ptolemaeus, CLAUDIUS, the great Egyptian mathematician,
geographer and astronomer who flourished in middle of the second
century after Christ, is frequently alluded to throughout four
of the books of De Magnete, and Gilbert makes direct reference to
the " Opus Quadripartitum," " Cosmographia " and " Geographia."
The last is, however, the work with which Ptolemy's name is most
prominently connected. It was the standard up to the time of the
marine discoveries of the fifteenth century, and has been translated
and published into editions too numerous to mention here.
1 Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie Fran9ois-Xavier) (1798-1857). Very
celebrated French philosopher, founder of Positivism, called Le Fondateur
de la religion de I'humanite'. Consult : Caird (Edward), " The Social Philo-
sophy and Religion of Comte."
APPENDIX I 535
It may be added that the " Geographia Universalis " issue of
1540 is the first to embrace a proper map bearing the name
" America/' and that, .to the identical account of Columbus which
originally appeared in the 1522 and 1525 editions, Servetus appended
a few words concerning the absurdity of putting the claims of
Americus Vespuccius before those of the real discoverer.1 The
first book in which the name America was formally given to the new
Continent is entitled " Globus Mundi," published 1507-1510, and
attributed to Henricus Loritus — de Claris — Glareanus. The sug-
gestion of the name had, indeed, been made by the geographer
Waldseemiiller (Martinus Hylacomylus) of Freiburg, in his " Cosmo-
graphise Introductio," published at St. Die, in Lorraine, April 25,
1507, bjit the " Globus Mundi " was first to put it into effect.
The Waldseemuller suggestion above alluded to is thus trans-
lated : " And the fourt'/part of the world, having been discovered
by Americus, it may be Called Amerige ; that is, the land of Americus,
or America/' In 1901, Prof. Jos. Fischer, of Beldkirch, discovered,
at Wolfegg Castle in Wiirtemberg, two huge maps, measuring
together eight feet by four and a half feet, which proved to be those
of Waldseemuller, of which all trace had been lost for centuries.
They were reproduced in London, during the year 1903, and were
thus alluded to by one of the writers at the time :
" Ever since Humboldt first called attention to the ' Cosmo-
graphiae Intcoductio ' no lost maps have ever been sought for so
diligently as those of Waldseemuller. It is not too much to say
that the honour of being their lucky discoverer has long been con-
sidered as the highest possible prize to be obtained amongst students
in the field of ancient cartography. But until the summer of 1901,
although many copies of the book are known in various editions,
no specimen of either the globe or map has ever been seen or heard
of in modern times. Some historians and geographers have even
gone so far as to state definitely that they were never issued at all,
and the book published alone. Others have held that they never
got beyond their manuscript form, while some have contended that
they were actually issued with the book, but, being separate, had
become lost in the course of time. The writers holding this last view
have been brought to their belief by tracing the supposed influence
of the St. Die cartography in later maps, and these authorities have
been proved to be right by Prof. Fischer's discovery. The expecta-
tion that the missing map would be found to bear the name of
1 With reference to the real discoverer, we can add here with propriety
the words of John Fiske : " No ingenuity of argument can take from Columbus
the glory of an achievement which has, and can have, no parallel in the whole
career of mankind. It was a thing that could be done but once ! "
536 APPENDIX 1
AMERICA on the newly discovered Western Lands has also been
duly realized."
REFERENCES. — " Le nom d'Am£rique ct les grandes mappemondcs
. . . de 1507 et 1516," in " Annales de Geographic," 15 Janvier 1904,
pp. 29-36; " History of North America," by Alfred Brittin, Philadelphia,
1903, at p. 293, Vol. I of which is a fine reproduction of a sheet from
Waldscemiiller's " Cosrnographiae Introductio " published in May 1507,
showing the passage that first suggested calling the new world by the
name of America; " Martin us Hylacomylus Waltzemtillcr, ses ouvrages
et ses collaborators, par un geographe bibliophile " (M. d'Avczac),
Paris, 1867; "Geographical Journal," Vol. XIX. pp. 201-209, 389;
Humboldt, " Exameii Critique," Paris, 1836, Vol. I. p. 22; also Vol. IV
and Vol. V passim; " Amerigo Vespucci," Vol. II. pp. 129-179 of Justin
Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History of America," Boston, 1889.
See also the geography and maps of Loritus (Henricus), Glareanits, in
the " Geographical Journal " for June 1905; " Le Journal cles Savants "
for December 1830; April and May 1831; August 1840; October and
December 1843; July 1847; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I.
part i. pp. 420-424, 684-688, and part. ii. p. 1390; also Vol. II. p. 231.
Puteanus, GUILIELMUS — Dupuis, and not Dupuy — French physi-
cian of the sixteenth century, professor at the University of Grenoble,
is the author of " De Medicamentorum," Lyons, 1552, which was
reproduced with a treatise of Cousinot under the title " De Occult is
Pharmacorum " two years later. To Puteanus, Gilbert alludes
(De Magnete, Book I. chap. i. and Book II. chap, iii.) saying that he
discusses the loadstone briefly and crudely and deduces its power,
not from a property of its whole substance unknown to any one
and incapable of demonstration (as Galen held and, after him,
nearly all physicians), but from " its substantial form as from a
prime motor and self-motor, and as from its own most potent nature
and its natural temperament, as the instrument which the efficient
form of its substance, or the second cause, which is without a
medium, employs in its operations. So the loadstone attracts iron
not without a physical cause, and for the sake of some good."
But nothing like this, adds Gilbert, is done in other bodies by any
substantial form unless it be the primary one, and this Puteanus
does not recognize.
REFERENCES. — " Biographic Generate," Vol. XV. p. 367; Larousse,
Diet. Universe!/' Vol. VI. p. 1420.
Pythagoras, celebrated Greek philosopher (569-470 B.C.) who,
as Hegel says, " First made thought and not sense the criterion of
the essence of things." He is said to have travelled widely and,
according to one of his biographers, he learned geometry from the
Egyptians, arithmetic from the Phoenicians, astronomy from the
Chaldaeans, religious formulae and ethical maxims from the Magians,
and obtained other scientific and religious knowledge from the
Arabians and the Indians. He settled finally at Crotona in Lower
APPENDIX I 537
Italy, during the year 529 B.C. and there established the school
that has made him famous.
To a complete exposition of the Pythagorean school or sect, the
" Biographic GeneYale " devotes, in Vol. XLI, twenty-four full
columns, whilst the notices of the Pythagoreans which Aristotle
gives in the first book of the " Metaphysics " contain about all
that is of importance in their theory.
According to the report of Philolaus of Croton, the Pythagoreans
taught the progressive movement of the non-rotating Earth, its
revolution around the focus of the world (the central fire, hestia),
while Plato and Aristotle imagined that the Earth neither rotated
nor advanced in space, but that, fixed to one central point, it merely
oscillated from one side to the other. Humboldt, from whose
" Cosmos " the above is taken, further says that the figurative and
poetical myths of the Pythagorean and Platonic pictures of the
universe were as changeable as the fancy from which they emanated,
and he cites Plato, who, in the Ph&drus, adopts the system of
Philolaus, whilst, in the Timceus, he accepts the system according
to which the earth is immovable in the centre and which was
subsequently called the Hipparchian or Ptolemaic.1
REFERENCES. — Ucbcrweg (Dr. Friedrich), " History of Philosophy/1
tr. of Geo. S. Morris, New York, 1885, Vol". I. pp. 42-49; Butler (William
Archer), "Lectures on Ancient Philosophy"; Gilbert, De Magnete,
Book II. chap. ii., and Book V. chap. xii. ; Chas. Rollin, " Ancient
History,"- London, 1845, Vol. I. pp. 383—384; lamblichus' " Life of
Pythagoras," translated from the Greek by Tlios. Taylor; "Diet, dcs
Sc. Plulos./' Paris, 1852, Vol. V. pp. 297-312; Hitter (Dr. Heinrich),
" History of Ancient Philosophy," London, 1846, Vol. I. pp. 326-357;
Ilouzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. II. p. 232; Roeth (Eduard),
" Geschichte," 1846-1858; Cantor (Moritz), " Geschichte dcr Mathe-
matik," Leipzig, 1894, Vol. I. pp. 137-201; Grote (George), "Greece,"
Vol. IV. pp. 525-551 ; Chaignct (Anlelme Edouard), " Pythag. et la
Phil. Pyth./' 1873.
Reinholdus, ERASMUS. See Erasmus.
Rhazes — Razes — Rasis — Rasaeus — Abu-Be kr Al-Razi — Muham-
mad Ibn Zakariya — one of the most famous of the ancient Arabian
1 " ... Aristotle adds that some say the earth being situated in the
centre, is rolled around the pole, as it is written in the Timceus . . . there
are three significations of the pole with Plato. Thus, in the Phcedot he calls
heaven the pole, and also the extremities of the axis about which the heaven
revolves. But, in other places of the Timceus, and also in the present passage
he calls the axis the pole " (" The Treatises of Aristotle, Thos. Taylor,
London, 1807, p. 235; Humboldt, "Cosmos," 1849, Vol. II. p. 695, note).
The Earth " is said by Plato to be conglobed about the pole, which is extended
through the universe ; because she (the Earth) is contained and compressed
about its axis. For the axis also is the pole. And the pole is thus now
denominated because the universe revolves about it ... on this account,
the pole is said by Plato to be extended through the universe, as entirely
pervading the centre of the Earth " (" The Six Books of Proclus," Thos.
Taylor, London, 1816, Book VII. chap. xxii. pp. 172-173).
538 APPENDIX I
physicians, is the author of " De simplicibus, ad Almansorem," the
ten books of which contain a complete system of medicine.1 In
Book I. chap. xv. of De Magnete, reference is made to Chap. LXIIL
liber ix. of RhazeV work, entitled " De Curatione omnium partium,"
wherein an electuary of iron slag, or of prepared steel filings, is
spoken of as a highly commended and celebrated remedy for dried-up
liver, the Arabs believing that iron opens the spleen and the liver.
REFERENCES. — " Journal des Scavans," Vol. LXXVI for 1725,
p. 220, and Vol. LXXXV for 1728, p. 412; " Journal des Savants"
lor February 1892, pp. 118-126 passim, and for March 1892 (" 1'Alchimie
de Razes"), pp. 190-195, also for May 1851, p. 288, giving names of all
the leading alchemists ; " Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathe-
matik," Vol. VI., Leipzig, 1892, pp. 43-44, 76; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.,"
Vol. XIII. p. 747; Frcind (John), " History of Physic " ; Eloy (N. F. J.),
" Diet. Hist, de la Mtedecine," Vol. IV. pp. 56-61 ; Haller (Albrctfit von),
" Bibliotheca Botanica " ; Sprengcl (Kurt Polycarp Joachim), "Hist,
de la Me"dccine."
Ruellius, JOANNES — Jean Ruel — (1479-1537), was a French
physician, attached to the court of Fran£ois I—, who wrote a Com-
mentary on Dioscorides, published 1516, 1529, 1543, as well as
several medical treatises. The one by which he is best known is the
" De Natura Stirpium/' Paris, 1536, reprinted four times at Basle
and at Venice, from which Gilbert extracts (De Magncte, Book I.
chap, i.) the mention by Ruellius that the loadstone's force, when
failing or dulled, is restored by the blood of a buck.
REFERENCES. — " Sc. de Ste Marthe, Elogia Doct. Gallorum " ;
Eloy (N. F. J.), "Diet. hist, de la Med."; "Biographic G6nerale,"
Vol. XLII. pp. 864-865.
Rueus, FRANCISCUS — Fran£ois dc la Rue — (1520-1585), Flemish
naturalist who long practised in his native country and the author
of " De Gemmis aliquot . . ." 1547, 1565, which was printed,
with the book on " Philosophy of Vallesius " in 1588, 1595, 1652,
also at Franckfort in 1596, and together with the " Similitudines
ac Parabolas " of Lev. Lemnius in 1626. Gilbert's only reference
to him is briefly made in the opening chapter of De Magnete.
REFERENCES. — Valere, Andre", " Bibl. Bclgica," p. 240; Mercklein
(Gcorg Abraham), " Lindenius renovatus," 1686, pp. 297, 304; Le P.
Lelong, " Bibl. Sacr.," p. 935; " Biog. Ge'ne'rale," Vol. XXIX. p. 702.
Scaliger, JULIUS CESAR (1484-1558), a famous Italian scholar
who practised medicine at Verona until 1525 and afterwards de-
1 It was for a copy of the valuable works of this popular Arabian physician,
which he borrowed from " La Faculte" de Me'decine " of Paris, that Louis XI
had to deposit in pledge a large quantity of plate and had, besides, to procure
a nobleman to join him as surety in a Deed binding himself under great
forfeiture to restore these extraordinarily scarce books (Gabr. Naude,
" Additions a 1'histoire de Louis XI," par Comines, Vol. IV. p. 281). Rhazes
was born and brought up at Rai, the most northern town of Irak Ajemi,
where he is said to have died A.D. 923 or 932 (" Engl. Cycl.," Vol. V. pp. 69-70).
APPENDIX I 539
voted his time to writing on various subjects, as shown in the
" Biographic G6neYale," Vol. XLIII. pp. 446-450. Of the works
cited in latter, should be extracted, as best known : " In Aris-
totelis . . . de plantis," 1556; " In Theophrasti, de causis plan-
tarum," 1566; " De Subtilitate ad Cardanum," 1557, I56o, 1576,
1592, 1634.
It is to the last-named important work that Gilbert frequently
alludes (De Magnete, Book I. chaps, i. xvi; Book II. chaps, i. iii. iv.
xxxviii. ; Book iv. chap. i.). He says, more particularly, that
Scaliger strays far from truth when, in treating of magnetic bodies,
he speaks of diamond attracting iron, also that he keeps the load-
stone and iron in bran to protect them from the injurious action
of the atmosphere, and that Scaliger, in order to explain the differ-
ence of variation for change of locality, brings in a celestial cause
to himself unknown, and terrestrial loadstones that have nowhere
been discovered ; and seeks the cause not in the " siderite moun-
tains," but in that force which formed them, to wit, in the part
of the heaven which overhangs that northern point.
REFERENCES. — Tcissicr (H. A.), " Eloges des hommes illustres " ;
Coup6 (Jean Marie Louis), " Soirees Iitt6raires," Vol. XV; NiceVon
(Jean Pierre), " M£moires," XXIII; Larousse, " Diet. Univ.," Vol. VIII.
pp. 692-693.
Silvaticus — Sylvaticus — Matthaeus Moretus, well-known Italian
savant living in 1344, physician to the King of Naples, one of the
professors at Salerno,1 and author of " Matth. Silvatici, medic, de
Salerno, Liber cibalis et Medicinalis Pandectarum . . ." originally
published at Naples, 1474. This work, dedicated to Ferdinand,
King of Sicily, is an Encyclopaedic Dictionary and one of the most
important books we have of the history of medicine in the Middle
Ages, and at beginning of the Italian Renaissance. The citations
made by Graesse (" Tr6sor," Vol. VI. p. 406), state that Silvaticus
was the owner of a private botanical garden at Salerno (Chap.
CXCVII. s.v. " Colcasia " of the Opus Pandectarum), and allude
to Thos. Frognall Dibdin's " Bibliotheca Spenceriana," Vol. IV.
London, 1815, pp. 24-25, and Van der Meersch, " Rech. sur les
impr. Beiges," etc., Vol. I. pp. 384, etc.
1 The School of Salerno and the introduction of Arabian sciences into
Italy are discussed with learning and judgment by Muratori (Lodovico
Antonio), " Antiquitates Italiae Medii Aevi.," Vol. III. pp. 932-940, and
by Giannone (Pietro), " Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli, Vol. II. pp. 119-
127). Consult, likewise, for the Salerno school, " Universities of Europe in
London, 1896.
540 APPENDIX I
REFERENCES. — " Repertoire et sources historiques du Moyen Age,"
par I'abb6 Ulysse, Joseph Chevalier, Paris, 1877-1886, p. 2089; Argellati
(Phihppo), " Bibliotheca Mcdiolan.," 1745; Tiraboschi (Girolamo),
" Sioria della Letteratura ItaJiana," 1807, Vol. I. p. 275; Sbaralea
(Joannes Hyacinthus), " Supplement um . . . Script ores ordinis," 1806,
P- 5291 Tafuri (Giovanni Bernardino), " Scrittori . . . di Napoli,"
1749, Vol. II. pp. 67-70; " Thesaur. Lit. Bot.," 1851, p. 185; Brunei
(Jacques Charles), "Manuel du Libraire," 1864, Vol. V. pp, 387-388;
Watt (Rob.), " Bibliotheca Britannica," Edinburgh, 1824, Vol. II.
p. 856 h\ Larousse, "Diet. Univ.," Vol. XIV. p. 1308; Paul Lacroix,
" Science and Literature of the Middle Ages," p. 117; Ludovico Hain,
" Repcrtorium Bibliographicorum," Vol. II. part ii. Nos. 15192-15202,
PP- 375"37^« Gilbert, De Magnete, Book I. chap. i.
Solinus, CAIUS JULIUS — Grammaticus — a Roman writer who
lived in latter part of the second century, the author of a compilation
in fifty-seven chapters which contains a sketch of the world as it
was known to him, but which is supposed to have been taken
entirely from Pliny's " Natural History." It was originally pub-
lished under the title of " Collectanea rerum mirabilium," the second
edition being headed " Polyhistor." This was one of the earliest
known printed books, having first appeared at Venice in 1473, and
it has since been translated into many foreign languages, notably
during 1600, 1603, and 1847.
The most important of the three references Gilbert makes to
Solinus is found in DC Magnete, Book II. chap, xxxviii., where it
is said that Pliny and Julius Solinus tell of the stone cathochites,
affirming that it attracts flesh and that it holds one's hand, as
loadstone holds iron and amber holds chaff. But that, says he,
is due solely to its viscosity and its natural glutinousness, for it
adheres most readily to a warm hand.
REFERENCES. — Dodwell (Henry, the elder), " Dissertaliones
Cyprianicaj " ; Moller (D. W.) ; C. J. Solino, in " Biog. G6n.," Vol. XLIV.
pp. 153-154; " La Grande Encycl.," Vol. XXX. p. 232.
Thebit Ben-Kora— Thabit Ibn Corrah— Abu Thabit Ibn Kurrah
— Tebioth ben Chore zen (Houzeau, No. 1130), one of the most
brilliant and accomplished scholars produced by the Arabs (836-
901), called by Delambre " Le Ronsard de 1' Astronomic, " is the
author of many treatises on mathematics, and on other scientific
subjects, the mention of the titles of which take up nearly two folio
pages of Casiri's " Catalogue." Especially is he shown in latter as
having translated into Arabic the chief works of Archimedes,
Apollonius, Euclid and Ptolemy also the Physics and Analytics of
Aristotle and many of the works of Hippocrates and Galen.
Incidentally it may be added that geometry, to which Thebit
Ben-Kora gave particular attention, was named by the Arabs
handassah, and that the Tahrir Hendassiat contains : the explication,
APPENDIX I 541
the data and the optics, of Euclid, the syntaxis magna of Ptolemy,
the spherics of Theodosius and his book concerning night and day,
the spherics of Menelaus, the movable sphere of Autolycus, the
ascendants or horoscopes of Asclepius, a treatise of Aristarchus on
the discs of the sun and moon, the lemmas or theorems of Archimedes,
also his treatise on the sphere and cylinder, the conies of Apollonius
and Thebit Ben-Kora, a treatise of Theodosius on the positions,
or quiescence, of bodies, etc., etc. (D'Herbelot, art. Handassah, and
Aklidcs. See also, for origin of geometry, etc. " A Short History
of Greek Mathem.," Jas. Gow, Cambridge, 1884, pp. 123-134.)
The allusions by Gilbert are to be found, Book III. chap, i., and
Book VI. chap. ix. of De Magnete, in which latter it is said that,
Thcbitius, in order to establish a law for the great inequalities in
the movements of the stars, held that the eighth sphere does not
advance by continued motion from west to east, but that it has a
sort of tremulous motion, " a movement of trepidation."
REFERENCES. — " Hist, de la Me"decine Arabe," par Dr. Lucicn Lc-
clcrc, Paris, 1876, Vol. 1. pp. 168-172; Dreycr (J.), " Tycho Brahe,"
1890, pp. 354-356; Houzeau et Lancaster, " Bibl. Gen.," Vol. I. part i.
pp. 466-467, 702; " Histoiy of Mathematics," Walter W. Rouse Ball,
London, 1888, p. 153; " Abhandlnngcn zur Gcsdiichte der Mathc-
mahk," Vol. VI, Leipzig, 1892, pp. 25-26.
Themistius of Paphlagonia — surnamed Euphrades — was a dis-
tinguished Greek orator and writer (about 315-390), whose philo-
sophical works consist of commentaries in the form of paraphrases
on some of Aristotle's writings, one being upon the work " On
Heaven," and the other upon the twelfth book of the " Meta-
physics." The paraphrases were first published by Hermolaus
Barbaras in 1481. Gilbert's only reference is briefly made in De
Magnete, Book II. chap. iv.
REFERENCES.— Scholl (Carl), " Geschichte d. G. Litt.," Vol. III.
pp. 96, 388, or " Hist, de la Litt. Grccque," Vol. VI. p. 141; Vol. V1L
p. 121 ; Photius, cod. LXXIV; Plenty, "Hist. Ecclcs."; Tillcmont,
"Hist, des Emp.," Vols. IV and V; Snidas, art. "Themistius"; E.
Baret, " De Themistio sophist a . . ." Paris, 1853; Brucker, "Hist.'
Crit. dc la Phil.," Vol. II. p. 484.
Zoroaster — Zarath 'ustra — Zerdusht — founder of the religious
system contained in the Zend-Avesta (religious book of the Parsees,
fire worshippers), is said to have been a native of Bactria, near the
modern Balkh, and to have lived about 589-513 B.C. That he was
an historical personage, equally with Buddha, Confucius and
Mahomet, it is now scarcely possible to doubt.
His able biographer in the English Cyclopaedia, London, 1868,
Vol. VI. pp. 946-948, states that Zoroaster was a great astrologer
and magician, and it is said at p. 95 of Mr. A. V. W. Jackson's
542 APPENDIX I
admirable work on Zoroaster, published in New York, 1899, that
some of the original Nasks of the Avesta are reported to have been
wholly scientific in their contents, and that the Greeks even speak
of books purported to be by Zoroaster treating of physics, of the
stars and of precious stones.
Zoroaster is merely named by Gilbert in manner shown at the
Hermes Trismegistus entry.
REFERENCES. — •" Life of Zoroaster," prefixed to Anquetil du Perron's
"Zend-Avesta," Paris, 1771; Pastoret (Claude Emmanuel J. P. de),
" Zoroaster, Confucius et Mahomet compares," 1787; Hyde (Thomas),
" Historia . . . Vcterum Persarum . . ." Oxford, 1760; "Zend-
Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre," 2 vols. Paris, 1771; Martin-Hang (I.),
"Essays," Bombay, 1862; Malcolm (Sir John), "History of Persia,"
1815; Darmesteter, " Ormazd et Ahriman," Paris, 1877; Spiegel
(Friedrich), " Eranische Alterthumskundc," Leipzig, 1871-1878; Chas.
Kollin, " Ancient History," London, 1845, Vol. 1. pp. 234-2*35, 237;
Kitler (Dr. Heinrich), " History of Ancient Philosophy," London, 1846,
Vol. I. p. 52 ; " History of the Decline and Fall of the Koman Empire,"
Edward Gibbon (Milman), Philad., 1880, Vol. I. pp. 229-230, notes,
and, for abridgment of his theology, pp. 231-234; also the Bury ed.,
London, 1900, Vol. I. pp. 197-198, 456—457; Vol. V. p. 487; " Classical
Studies in Honour of Hy. Drisler," New York, 1894, pp. 24-51; " The
Fragments of the Persika of Ktcsias," by John Gilmorc, London, 1888,
pp. 29-36, 95 ; " The Great Monarchies of the Ancient Western World,"
by Geo. Kawlinson, London, 1865, Vol. 1. p. 195; Vol. III. pp. 93, 98,
105, 127, 135-139, 164; Vol. IV. pp. no, 333; " Essai Historique,"
Etig. Seilvcrtc, Paris, 1824, Vol. II. p. 503.
To the foregoing " Accounts of Early Writers," can properly be
added the following happy description of " The School of Athens," l
as coloured by Raphael and now to be seen among his frescoes in
the papal state-apartments (Stanze — Camere) of the Vatican in
Rome, for, it will be observed, most of the leading writers of which
we have spoken are therein depicted :
' ' The School of Athens ' ' — Scttola d'Atene — represents
Philosophy in general, and is, with regard to expression and scholastic
knowledge, a wonderful work; for every philosopher, by his posture
and gestures, characterises his doctrines and opinions. . . . Beginning
with the Ionian School, on the right, before the statue of Minerva,
the aged person whose head is covered with linen, after the Egyptian
manner is Thales ; whom Raphael has represented as walking with
a Stick, because, with that, he measured the Pyramids. Next to
Thales is Archelaus of Messenia. . . . Behind them is Anaxagoras,
resting his foot upon a marble book and almost hidden ; in reference
to the persecutions he underwent. The next figure, standing alone,
at a little distance, to show that he is of another School, represents
Pythagoras ; who seems resolved to continue fixed at one spot, to
1 Extracted from " Information and Directions for Travellers," by Mariana
Starke, 8th ed., John Murray, London, 1832.
APPENDIX I 548
show the unchangeableness of his ideas . . . his head and body
being turned different ways shows his metaphorical method of
teaching important truths; and the crown, formed by his hair,
refers to his initiation in all mysteries. The Figure leaning on a
column is Parmenides; close to whom sits a youth, his adopted
son Zeno, who is writing something short ; referring to a Poem, by
Parmenides, which compared, in two hundred lines, all the various
Systems of Philosophy. Two masters only of the Eleatic School
are introduced; because its followers were few in number. The
metaphysics of Parmenides and Zeno gave rise to the Sceptical
Philosophy of Pyrrho, expressed by the next figure. ... At the
opposite side of the Picture, talking with his fingers to a Figure in
armour, supposed to represent Alcibiades, is Socrates . . . who,
like THales, appears to be walking; because geometry was never
taught in a fixed place. . . . Plato and Aristotle are placed to-
gether on a flight of steps in the centre of the Picture : Plato,
representative of the speculative school, holds the Timseus : his
sublime style is expressed by his attitude, denoting that his thoughts
soar above this earth ; and the cord attached to his neck marks his
initiation at the Eleusinian Mysteries. . . . Aristotle, founder of
ethical and physical philosophy, points earthward. The Figure in
shade, nearest to Plato, is Archothsea. . . . The next Figure, in
the same line, indicates roughness of character, and represents
Xenocrates. . . . Behind Socrates and another Figure, Lasthenia,
is a bearded old man Zeno of Citium, the founder of the sect called
Stoics. . . . Behind Zeno of Citium is Antisthenes, in shade,
because his School is expressed by that of Zeno. On the side of
Aristotle, the tallest and most conspicuous Figure is Theophrastus
. . . said to be the portrait of Cardinal Bembo. The next figures
are Strato of Lampsacus, Demetrius Phalereus, Callisthenes,
Neophron, Glycon. Behind the last named is Heraclides and in
rear of the disciples of Aristotle are Euclid of Megara and Eubulides
of Miletus, his pupil : the last hated Aristotle, and is looking angrily
at him. The lower part of the Picture, on the side with the statue
of Apollo, represents the Philosophy of Leucippus, the disciple of
Zeno, though the author of a very opposite system. He first taught
the doctrine of Atoms. . . . Democritus, his most celebrated
disciple, is sitting near him — booted, in the manner of his country-
men, the Abderites — and writing upon a stone table, shaped like
the sacrophagi among which he used to meditate : he lost his
fortune, therefore his dress indicates poverty ; and he is represented
in deep meditation, to show his uncommon studiousness. Opposite
to Leucippus sits Empedocles, resting on a cube, though not with
coniempt, according to the principles of Leucippus ; because Empe-
544 APPENDIX I
docles adhered, on some points, to the Pythagorean system. The
youth holding, before Empedocles, Pythagoras 's Table of the
Generation of Numbers and the Harmonies, is Me ton. . . . The
Figure in an Oriental costume bending over Pythagoras, represents
Avcrrhoes, or one of the Magi, from which sect the Grecian Schools
derived part of their doctrines. Behind Empedocles, is Epi-
charmus. . . . The Figure in a toga is Lucretius, placed near
Empedocles, as having been his follower ; but looking another way,
because he differed from his master. This figure is the portrait of
Francesco, Duke of Urbino, nephew to Julius II. The person
crowned with vine-leaves and resting a book * on a pedestal, is
Epicurus, looking gay, according to the account given of him, and
the Figure leaning upon his shoulder is Metrodorus ; next to whom
is Hcraclitus, wearing a black veil, like that of the Ephesian*1 Diana,
in whose temple he exposed his works. Seated on the second step,
near the centre of the Picture, is Diogenes, and below him is a
Portrait of the great architect, Bramante (under the character of
Archimedes), who is tracing an hexagonal figure on the pave-
ment . . . the enthusiastic-looking person who points to the
hexagon, is supposed to be Archytas of Tarcntum; the boy on his
knees, is Phenix of Alexandria ; and behind him, with a hand on his
back, is Ctesibius. In the angle of the picture are Zoroaster and
Ptolemy, one holding a celestial and the other a terrestrial globe,
as representatives of Astronomy and Geometry; the figure wearing
a crown, under the character of Zoroaster, being Alphonso, King of
Arragon, Sicily and Naples; the person with a black turban on his
head, and likewise holding a Globe, may probably represent Con-
fucius : and the two persons with whom Alphonso seems con-
versing are portraits of Raphael and of his master Pietro Perugino.
The statues and bassi-rclicvi with which Raphael has ornamented
his scene, are emblematical of the different Schools of Philosophy :
and the picture, in point of composition, is considered to be his
chef-d'oeuvre, the Sibyls of Sa Maria dclla Pace excepted.
A more detailed description of the above will be found in the
works of Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1843), and of Ricliter (Heidelberg,
1882), bearing title " Ueber Rafael's Schule von Athen."
APPENDIX II
DISCOVERIES MADE BY WILLIAM GILBERT — DESIGNATED IN
" DE MAGNETE " BY THE LARGER ASTERISKS
(Alluded to in the Gilbert A.D. 1600 Article, p. 83)
BOOK I. chap. iii. The loadstone ever has and ever shows its poles,
which look toward the poles of the earth and move toward
them and are subject to them.
Book I. chap. vi. The loadstone attracts iron ore, as well as the
smelted metal, the best iron, acies, being the most readily
attracted.
Book I. chap. ix. Iron ore attracts iron ore.
Book I. chap. x. Iron ore has and acquires poles, and arranges
itself with reference to the earth's poles.
Book I. chap. xi. Wro light-iron, not magnetized by the loadstone,
attracts iron.
Book I. chap. xii. A long piece of iron, even not magnetized,
assumes a north and south direction.
Book I. chap. xiii. Smelted iron has in itself fixed north and south
parts, magnetic activity, verticity, and fixed vertices or poles.
Book II. chap. ii. Not only do amber and jet attract light sub-
stances : the same is done by the diamond. . . .
Book II. chap. ii. When the atmosphere is very cold and clear,
the electrical effluvia of the earth offer less impediment.
Book II. chap. xxv. A strong, large, loadstone increases the power
of another loadstone, and also the power of iron.
Book II. chap, xxxiv. Why a loadstone is of different power in
its poles as well in the north as in the south regions (two
experiments).
Book III. chap. xii. Iron becomes magnetized when red-hot and
hammered in the magnetic meridian ; also when the iron bars
have, for a long time, lain fixed likewise in the north and south
position (two experiments).
Book III. chap. xv. Two more experiments to show that the poles,
equator, centre, are permanent and stable in the unbroken
NN 545
546 APPENDIX II
loadstone ; when it is reduced in size and a part taken away,
they vary and occupy their positions.
Book IV. chap. ii. Variation is due to inequality among the earth's
elevations.
Book V. chap. ii. Illustration of the direction and dip of a terrella
representing the earth relative to the standard representation
of the globe of the earth, at north latitude 50°.
Book V. chap. iii. Instrument for showing by the action of a
loadstone, the degree of dip below the horizon in any latitude.
Book V. chap. vi. Of the ratio of dip to latitude and the cause
thereof.
Book V. chap. xi. Of the formal magnet ical act spherically
effused.
APPENDIX III
THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL
SOCIETY OF LONDON
UNABRIDGED
COMMENCED in 1665, as a periodical, by H. Olden berg, first
Secretary of the Society, and continued by him up to June 1677.
Afterwards, successively edited by N. Grew, R. Plot, W. Musgrave,
R. Walker, Sir H. Sloanc, E. Halley, C. Mortimer, and other
Secretaries, up to March 1752, when the publication began to be
superintended by a Committee of the Royal Society. From 1665
to 1678, the publication was regularly made, with exception of six
months between 1677 and 1678.
The title-page, " Philosophical Transactions giving some account
of the present undertakings, studies and labours of the Ingenious
in many considerable parts of the world," was maintained up to
the sixty-sixth volume, for year 1776, when it gave place to " The
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London."
From 1679 to 1682, no volumes appeared, the lacunae being
(partly) made up through the seven numbers of " Philosophical
Collections " issued by Robert liooke (Nos. 1-7, one volume 4to).
From 1683 to the present time, the publication has gone on
uniformly, with exception of years 1688-1690, during which nothing
was published, and of years 1691-1692, the proceedings of which
appear in a volume (sometimes marked Vol. 16 and sometimes
Vol. 17), containing the numbers 192-195.
Reference to " The Bibliographer's Manual," by Wm. Thomas
Lowndes (London, 1863, Part VIII. pp. 2143-2146) and to Samuel
H. Scudder's " Catalogue of Scientific Serials " (Cambridge, Mass.,
1879, p. 27) will show how the different unabridged volumes have
been made up, viz. Vols. 1-65 cover the years 1665-1775; Vols.
66-81 cover the years 1776-1791 ; Vols. 82-142 cover the years
1792-1852; Vols. 143-166 cover the years 1853-1876.
Regular dates followed up to Vol. 177, issued 1886-1887, since
547
548 APPENDIX III
when the publication has appeared in two series, viz. A (Physical)
and B (Biological). The volumes now running are A 220, B 210.
In addition to the above, there have appeared, amongst many
publications :
" A General Index ... to all the Philosophical Transactions
from the beginning to July 1677," London, 1678.
" A General Index . . . from January 1667-1668 to December
1693," London, 1694. And one by James Briggs, 1665-1817.
" A General Index to the Philosophical Transactions from the
first to the end of the seventieth volume," by Paul Henry Maty
(viz. 1665-1780, which was continued for 1781-1820 as Part II
and for 1821-1830 as Part III).
" Index to Volumes 1-17 " (London, 1787) ; " Index to Volumes
71-110" (London, 1821); "Index for years 1821-1830" (London,
J833) ; " Index to Volumes 1-120 " (London, 1842).
" Supplement to the Philosophical Transactions of July 1670 "
(by W. Holder), London, 1678.
" Supplement to the Philosophical Transactions for October
1702 " (by M. Lister), London, 1702.
" Miscellanea Curiosa . . . being the most valuable discourses
read and delivered to the Royal Society," 3 Vols., London, 1723-
1727-
"Abstracts of the Papers printed in the Philosophical Transac-
tions" : 1800-1830, Vols. I-II; 1831-1843, Vols. III-IV; 1843-
1850, Vol. V ; 1850-1854, Vol. VI. From Vol. VI, continued as
the " Proceedings of the Royal Society," the years 1854-1905
being represented by Vols. VII-LXXVI (issued, from this date
onward, in two series (A, Physical, and B, Biological) ; about two
volumes each year).
" Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Compiled and published by
the Royal Society of London " : 1800-1863, A. to Z, Vols. 1-6;
1864-1873, A to Z, Vols. 7-8; 1874-1883, A to Z, Vols. 9-11;
1800-1883, A to Z, Vol. 12; 1884-1900, A to B, Vol. 13, reaching
Vol. 17 in 1920.
Four volumes of Subject Index to the above have appeared,
treating of Pure Mathematics, Mechanics, Heat, Light and Sound,
Electricity and Magnetism.
ABRIDGED
The several Abridgments may be properly collated as follows
(through Lowndes, Scudder, Bolton, also through the private lists
of the different copies found in Hartwell House, November 1843, and
given to the compiler by Mr. Latimer Clark), viz. : From 1665 to
APPENDIX III 549
end of 1700, by John Lowthorp, 3 vols., Vols, I, II, III1; from
1700 to year 1720-1721 by Ben. Motto, 2 vols. 2; from 1700 to year
1720 by Henry Jones, 2 vols., Vols. IV, V3; from 1720 to year
1732 by Mr. Reid and John Gray, i vol. 4; from 1719 to year 1733,
by John Eames and John Martyn, 2 vols., Vols. VI, VII5; from
1732 to year 1744, by John Martyn, 2 vols., Vols. VIII, IX6; from
1743 to year 1750, by John Martyn, 2 vols., Vol. X (two parts).
" Memoirs of the Royal Society; or a New Abridgment of the
Philosophical Transactions from 1665 to 1740," by Benjamin
Baddam, 10 Vols. (first edition, 1665-1735; second edition, 1665-
1740).
" The Philosophical Transactions from their commencement
in 1665 to 1800 abridged with notes and illustrations, by Charles
Hntton* George Shaw and Richard Pearson," 18 vols., the last'
volume containing a General Index to the whole which covers
116 pages.7
Translations, in French, of some of the abridged and unabridged
volumes are to be found recorded at p. 109 of Scudder's " Catalogue,"
already mentioned, one of the most important being " La Table des
memoires imprimes dans les Transactions Philosophiques . . . 1665—
I735/1 by M. De Bremond, Paris, 1739.
Translations have also been made in Latin, for the first live years,
and some were published in Italian during 1729 and 1731-1734.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
The Philosophical Magazine, 1798-1813, 42 vols. United in 1814
with the Journal of Natural Philosophy, etc., and continued
under the title of
1 Vol. Ill has at p. 688 an Index and an advertisement to the effect
that two more volumes by Benjamin Motte will continue the work from
1700 to 1720.
2 Benjamin Motte edited in 1721 an abridgment 1700-1720, in three
volumes which " was very incorrect and was severely handled by a rival
editor, Hy. Jones, fellow of King's College, Cambridge " (" Diet, of Nat.
Biogr.," Vol. XXXIX. p. 194).
3 These volumes, IV and V, are generally adopted, instead of those hy
Benjamin Motte, " a printer who had issued a bad abridgment of the same
portion " before that of Henry Jones (" Diet. Nat. Biogr.," Vol. XXX.
p. 109).
4 This volume is in two parts, separately paged, and is by some designated
as the volume VI to take the place of one of those of Eames and Maityn.
5 Volume VII is followed by an Index to the previous seven volumes.
8 John Martyn published, between 1734 and 1756, five volumes com-
prising the Transactions from 1719 to 1750 (" Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," Vol.
XXXVI. p. 318). The last two volumes are marked Vol. X. parts i. and ii.
7 Hutton's Abridgment contains . . . many biographical memoirs of
deceased members of the Royal Society, as well as some rare tracts not
readily found elsewheie.
550 APPENDIX III
The Philosophical Magazine and Journal, etc., 1814-1826, 26 vols.,
the sixty-eight volumes being called the first series. During
1827 it was united with the Annals of Philosophy or Magazine
of Chemistry and it became then
The Philosophical Magazine or Annals of Chemistry, etc., 1827-
1832, eleven vols., making up the second series. From 1832
to 1840, after amalgamating with Edinburgh Journal of Science,
sixteen volumes were published under the name of
The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal
of Science, and, during 1840-1850, twenty-one volumes appeared
under the name of
The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science, in all thirty-seven volumes constituting
the third scries. The fourth series, of fifty volumes, was
issued 1851-1875 ; the fifth series 1876-1900 ; and the sixth
series, which began in 1901, is still running as we go to press.
LE JOURNAL DES SQAVANS (SAVANTS)
Le Journal dcs S$avans (Scudder, " Catal. of Sc. Serials," 1879,
p. 97). Published 1665-1792, with Supplements to 1707-1709
and a Continuation in 1797.
Journal des Sfavans (" Catal. of Ronalds' library/' 1880, p. 261).
Published 1665-1748, 1749-1792, 1816-1845.
Le Journal des Spavans (" British Museum Catalogue of Periodical
Publications — Paris," pp. 1369-1370). Published from 1665 to-
1828. Edited successively by the Siciir de Hedonville, by
J. Gallois, and others. With a Supplement for 1672-1674,
and a Supplement for each of the years 1707, 1708 and 1709 —
142 volumes, Paris, 1681-1828, also 1723.
The " Journal des Scavans " was commenced January 5,
1665, and suppressed March 30, 1665, after the publication of
only thirteen numbers. Its publication was resumed January
4, 1666, during which year forty-two numbers were issued.
In 1667, there appeared only sixteen numbers; only thirteen
in 1668; four in 1669; one in 1670; three in 1671; eight in
1672 ; none in 1673 ; and only two in 1674. From 1674 to 1723,
a number was published either once a fortnight or once a week,
and, from 1724 to 1792, a number appeared every month. In
December 1792, the publication was discontinued, but it was
resumed January 4, 1797. On the i8th of June of the same
year, however, it was again discontinued until September 1816,
after which a number was for a time published regularly once
a month.
APPENDIX III 551
" Table Generate des matieres contenues dans le Journal des
Sgivans . . . depuis 1'annee, 1665 . . . jusqu' en 1750 in-
clusivement . . ." 10 vols., Paris, 1753-1764.
Another edition of vols. 1-105, Amsterdam, 1679-1753, also
1685.
Another edition of the years 1725-1760, Paris, 1725-1760.
" Annales des Sciences . . . faisant suite au Journal des
Sgavans," Amsterdam, 1804-1806.
" Journal des Sgavans, combine avec les Memoires de Trevoux.
Suite des 170 Volumes . . .," Amsterdam, 1756-1757.
" Journal des Sc,avans, combine avec les meilleurs Journaux
Anglais," January 1779 to December 1781, Amsterdam, 1779-
1781.
Journal des Savants (" British Museum Catalogue of Periodical
Publications — Palis," pp. 1370-1371). Edited successively
by P. C. F. Danon, le Brim, and others from 1816.
" Table methodique et analytiquc des articles . . . 1816-
1858," Paris, 1860.
" Table analytique des articles . . . 1859-1908," Paris,
1909.
APPENDIX IV
List of additional works, relating to subjects treated of in this
" Bibliographical History/' which have not before been especially
mentioned herein and which are deemed worthy of perusal :
1486. Reisch (Father Gregory), " /Epitome . . . Marg. Phil. . . . Scibili."
1495. Robert! dc Vallc Rot ho, Magcnsis ..." Compendium a Plinio
data . . ."
I535- Stcefiler (J.), " Ccelcstium . . . lotius spherics . . ."
1536. Mela (Pomponius), " De situ orbis."
1537. Maurius, " Sphcra Volgare."
1544. Ulsiadius (P.), " Coelum Pliilosophorum . . ."
1548. Leoniccrus (James), " Compendium dc meteoris . . ."
1555. Navagcro (A.), " Orationcs . . . earnim . . . nonnulla. . . .
I55^- Gobel (Scvcrin), " DC Succino."
1560. Pedcmontani (Alex.), " De Secret is . . ."
1562. Carpentarius (J.), " Descriptions universal natunr."
1571. Titelmanni (Franc.), " Natural is Philos. Compendium."
1571. Fulco-Fulke, " A goodly gallery . . . Meteors . . ." (also published
in 1634 an(l 1670).
1572. Biringuccio (V.), " Pyrotechnic."
1572. Lemnius (Levin us), " Occulta naturae miracuhr."
1574. Zacairc (D.), " Livres sur rarithmetique . . . metaux," etc.
1582. Rao (Ccsare), " I Mcteori."
1582. Camorano (R.). " Compendio dc la arte dc navegar . . ."
1586. Malfanti (G.), " Le meteore."
1592. Digges (Thomas), " A prognostication . . ."
1596. Gallucci (G. P.), " Ratio fabric andi . . . magnetica acu
1596. Vucchcr (Jean Jacques), " Les secrets et merveilles . . . '
1596-. Bodin (J.), " Universal naturae theatrum . . ."
1604. Herlicius (D.), " Tractatus de fulmine."
1604. Harward (S.), "Discourse of ... lightning."
1605. Morales (G. de), " Libro de las virtudes . . ."
1607. Bollenatus Burgundo-gallus, " Theses physic a) ..."
1609. Goclcnius (R-), " Tract. . . . de magnetica curatione." (See also his
" Mirabilium natura? liber," published in 1643.)
1610. Arlensis, " Sympathia septem mctallorum . . ."
1610. Argolus (Andreas), " Kpistola ad Davidcm . . ."
1615. Godigno (N.), " De Abissinorum rebus."
1615. Foscarini (P. A.), " Epistola ..."
1621. Drebbel (C.), " Dc natura elementorum."
1621. Tarde (J.), " Les usages . . . esguille aymantee."
1627. Fromondi (L.), " Meteorologicum . . ." (See reference to Fromondi
infra at 1781 date. He employed heart pulsations to calculate
the distance of thunder.)
1630. Longinus (Caesar), " Trinium magicum . . ."
1631. Kcenio (H.), " Fulminum theoria meteor. . . ."
1632. Remmelinus (Joannes L. U.), " Instrumentum magncticum ..."
553
554 APPENDIX IV
1637. Ward (S.), " Magnetis rcductorium . . ." (See also his " Wonders of
the loadstone," published in 1640.)
1638. Fludcl (Robert), " Philosophia Moysaica . . ."
1641. Fabricius (Hildanus), " Observationum et curationum . . ."
1643. Servius (Petrus), " Dissertatio de Unguento . . ."
1645. BhTHi (G. and J.), " Th6atre du Monde."
1646. Henricus (Regius), " Fundamenta physiccs." (See also his " Philo-
sophia naturalis," published in 1654.)
1649. Zucchi (Nicolo), " Nova de machinis philosophia."
1651. Rea>l (F.), " Observ. . . . aen de magncetsleen . . ."
1656. Irvine (C.), " Medicina magnetica . . ."
1657. Turner (Robert), " Ars Notaria."
1662. Rattray (Sylvester), " Theatrum sympaiheticum ..."
1662. Weslen (Wynant Van), " Het ecrste dcel ..."
1663. Helvetius (jf. F.), " Theatr. Itcreulis. . . ." (See also his " Disj ut itio
Plulosophica," published in 1677.
1664. Power (Henry), " Experimental Philosophy."
1665. Johnston (J,), " Thaumatographia naturalis."
1666. Accademia del Cimento, " Saggi di naturali cspcricnzc." ,
1666. " Memo ire d'Homberg, sur l'61ectr. d'un globe cle soufre."
1667. Colcpress (Samuel), " Account of some magnetical experiments."
1668. Leotaudus (Vincent), " Magnctologia . . . magnetis philos."
1668. Vitalis (H. )i " DC magnetica vulncrnm curatione."
1673. Mentzel (M. Chn.), " De lapidc bononiensi in obscuro lucenti."
1674. Oughtred (W.), " Dcscript. . . . double horiz. dyal. . . ."
1676. Hciclcl (W. E.), " Johannis Trithemii ..."
1677. Dechales (C. F. M.), " Art de naviguer . . ."
1677. Hartmann (Pliilip Jacob), " Succini Prussici . . ."
1679. Schielcn (J. G.), " Bibliothcca cnitelcata."
1 68 1. Senguerd (W.), " Philosophia naturalis . . ."
1682. Miller (L. H.), " Mysterium artis. . . ."
1684. Lana-Lariis (Franciscus de), " Magistcrii . . . et artis . . ."
1684. Marana (G. P.), " L'espion du Grand Seigneur . . ."
1685. Friderici (J. B.), " Cryptographia ..."
1686. " Recueil d'expericnces sur 1'aimant . . ." published anonymously at
Lyons.
1687. Dalance (M. I).), " Trait6 de 1'aimant . . ."
1688. Bartholinus (C. T.), " Specimen philos. naturalis . . ."
1688. Boulanger, " Traite de la sphere du monde."
1689. Blagrave (Joseph), " Astrological practice of physick."
1689. Eschcnbach (A. C.), " Orphei Argonautica . . ."
1689. Rennefort (Souchu dc), " L'aiman mystique."
1691. Cecchi, " Saggi di naturali espcricnze."
1692. Brown (R.), " Disputatio philosophica ..."
1692. Cellio (Marco Antonio), " DC terra magnetc."
1693. Gregorio (D.), " Lettera intorno all' clcttricita."
1695. Hale (Sir M.), " Magnetismus magnus . . ."
1697. Z winger (Theodor), " Scrutinum magnetis ..."
1698. Ballard, on the magnetism of Drills in the Philos. Trans., for the year
1698, p. 417.
1698. Tredwey (Robert), in the Philos. Trans., Vol. XIX. p. 711.
1700. Cesi (In.), " De meteoris dissertatio."
1707. " Curiose spcculationes . . . speculirt," Leipzig and Chemnitz.
1714. Billingsley (C.), " Longitude at sea . . ."
1718. Du Petit, Albert, " Secrets Merveilleux . . ."
1718. Ludcrus (G.), " De methodis . . . declin. . . . magnetis . . ."
1719. Ditton, " Longitude and latitude found by the inclinatory and dipping
needle." (See also the edition published in London during 1721.)
1722. Qucllmalz (S. J.), " Dissertatio de magnete . . ."
1723. Santanelli (F.), " Philosophic recondite . . ."
1729. Ab^rcorn (J. Hamilton, Earl of), "Calculations . . . virtue of load-
stones."
APPENDIX IV 555
1729. Wischoff (C.), " De Wonderwerkcn Godts."
1730. Bailey (Nathan), " Loadstone," in " Dictionarium Britannicum."
1731. Reibelt (J. J. A.), " Thes . . . magnetis mys tern's ..."
1732 Derham (W.), " Physico-theology."
J734 Marana (G. P.), " Letters writ by a Turkish Spy."
1739 Brdmond (Francois de), in Philos. Trans., Vol. XLI. p. 614.
1740. Mortenson, " Dissertatio de electricitate . . ." Upsal. (Also the 1742
edition.)
1743. Lobe (W.), " De vi corporum electrica."
1744. Akenside (Mark), Book III of " The Pleasures of Imagination."
1745. Piderit (J. R. A.), " Dissertatio inaugaralis . . ."
1745. Psellus (M. C.), " De lapidum virt. Grrcc. ac Latine."
1745. Rosenberg (A. G.), " Versuche einer Erklarnng . . ."
T745- Winkler (J. H.), " Qua?dam electricitatis . . ." (See Philos. Trans.
for 1745, p. 307.)
1746. Elvius (Pctrus), " Historisk berattelse . . ."
1746. Lohier fils, " Globules lumineux . . ."
1746. Sguario-Squario (Euseb.), " Due Dissertazionc . . ."
1746. Tr#mbley (A.), at p. 58, Vol. XLIV of the Philos. Trans.
1747. Carli (G.), " Dissertazione . . . bussola nautica . . ."
1747. Faure (G.), " Conghietture fisiche . . . machina elettrica."
1747. Franklin (Georg), " Declaratio pha?nomenorum . . ."
1747. Gottsched (Johann Christoph), " Nov. Prosp. in hist, electr. . . ."
1747. Maffei (Scipionc), " Delia formazione de' Fulmini."
1747. Vasquez-y-Morales (D. Jos.), " Ensayo sobre la Electricidad . . ."
(This is the translation of Nollet's work, to which is added " Histona
de la Elett.")
1748. Collina (Egondio), " Considerazioni . . . bussola nautica . . ."(claims
that the compass was in use during the tenth or eleventh century).
1718. Rackstrow (B.), "Miscellaneous Observations . . ."
1748. " Rccucil de traites sur 1'clectricite . . ." (published at Paris).
1749. Bclgrado (Giacomo), " I fenomcni clcttrici . . ."
1749. Darcct, " Description d'un elcctromdlre."
17.49. Manj>in, "Question nouvclle . . . sur I'electricit6 . . ."
1749. Plata (F. M.), " Dissertatio de electricitate . . ."
1750. Krafft (G. W.), " Pra^lectioncs . . . physicam thcorcticam."
1750. Secondat de Montesquieu (J. B.), " Histoire tie 1'elcctricite."
1751. Bcrthier, J. E., " Attractions ct repulsions dlectriques."
1751. Binat (Rev. F.), " Electricorum effectuiim."
1752. Gu6rin, " Histoire gen6rale et particuliere de I'dlcctricite."
1752. Penrosc (F.), " Treatise on electricity," also " Essay on Magnetism."
1753. Rabiqueau (C.), " Le spectacle du feu ele"mcntaire . . ."
I753- Wolf (C.), and Bina (A.), " Physica experiment alis . . ."
1755. Frisi (Paolo), " Nova elect, theoria," also his " De existcntiact motu
a^theris ..."
1755. Landriani (G. B.), " Nova electricitatis theoria . . ."
1755. Premoli (C. P.), " Nova electricitatis theoria."
1756. Cartier (J.), " Philosophia electrica ad menten . . ."
1757. Butschany (Matthias), " Dissertatio ex phcTenom. electricis."
1759. Egeling (J.), " Disq. phys. dc electricitate."
1759. Fayol, " Observations sur un effect singulier . . ."
1760. Avelloni (D.), " Lett era . . . al fuoco clettrico . . ."
1760. Dutour (E. P.), " Rccherches . . . matidre £lectrique."
1760. Oberst (J.), " Conjecture . . . magnetis naturam . . ."
1760. Tillet, " Sur I'incendie."
1761. Laborde (J. B.), " Le clavecin electrique . . ."
1761. Wakcley (Andrew), " The Mariner's compass rectified," as revised by
Wm. Mountaine.
1762. Paulian (A. H.), " Conjectures nouvelles . . ." likewise " Nouvelles
conjectures sur les causes des ph£nomdnes eiectriqucs," published
at Nimes. (See also his "Electricitcsoumise . . ." Avignon, 1768.)
1764. Meyer (Johann Fricdr.), " Chymische versuche . . ."
556 APPENDIX IV
1765. Schmidt (N. H. A.), " Vom magneto," published at Hanover.
1767. Cellcsius (Fabricius), " DC natural! clcctricitatc ..." A very rare
work published at Lucca.
1769. Krunitz (Johann Georg), " Vcrzeiclmis dcr vornehmsten schriften
vender Elcctricitat . . ." published at Leipzig.
1771. Baiietti (Carlo), " Nuove spcrienze elettriche . . ."
1771. Berdoe (M.), " Inquiry into the influence of the electric fluid in the
structure and formation of animated beings." This curious
work was published at Bath, where Mr. Berdoe 's book " On the
electric Fluid " was also published in 1773.
1772. Herbert (J. Keller von), " Theorize phaenomenorum . . ." also " Disser-
tatio . . . aqua; ..." published at Labacii during the same
year.
1772. Para, " Cours complct. . . ." also " Theorie . . ." published in 1786.
1773. "Essay on electricity . . . late discoveries of Jas. Dcevin, C. M. F.,
Bristol."
1774. Fontana (Felice), " Descrizioni ed usi . . . dell' Aria."
1774. Pasumot (Fra.), " Observations sur les effets de la foudrc . . ."
1775. Detienne, " Peculiar construction of conductor of electrical 'machine
for increasing the action thereof."
1775. Jacquct de Malzet (Louis Sebastien), " Lettre . . . sur 1'electrophore."
1775. Simmons (John), " An essay on the cause of lightning."
1776. Changeux (P. N.), " Meteorographie, ou 1'art d 'observer les ph6nomenes
de I'atmospherc," published at Pans.
1776. Landriani (Marsiglio), " Osscrvazioni sulla poca . . ."
1776. Rossler (T. F.), " Progr. dc luce primigenia." He says that the light
before the creation of the sun, mentioned by Moses, was an electrical
light. See besides " Le solcil est un aimant," by R. P. Secchi
(" Le Cosmos," 453, Paris, 1854).
1776. Schinz (Salomon), " Specimen phys. . . ." also " Supplementum
speciminis physici de Electricitate," published at Turici in 1777.
1777. Chigi (Alcso.), " Dell' Elettricita terrcstre-atmosferica dissertazione "
(Bibl. Ital. di El. e Magn., p. 30).
1777. Gross (Johann Friedr.), " Precis des poses electriques."
1777. Vairano (Josephus), " Diatriba de Electricitate."
1777. Weigel (Chr. Ehrenfried), " Grundriss der reinen v. angewandt. Chemie."
1778. Chaptal (J. A. C.), " Observations sur 1'influence de 1'air . . ." (pub-
lished in the Reports of the Toulouse Academy, first scries).
1778. Steavenson (Robert), " Dissert, de clcctricitate. . . ."
1779. Liidicke (A. F.), " Comment, de attract, magnetum . . ."
1780. Ilemmer (Johann Jacob), Articles in the Commentat. Acad. Theodoro-
Palatine published at Mannheim.
1780. Pilatre des Rozier in the Journal de Physique, Vols. XVI and XVII.
1780. Tozzetti (Targioni), " Atti e memoric inedite . . ."
1781 Bianchi (Iso), his- " Elogium on Libertus Fromondi," published at
Cremona.
1781. Brisson, " Dictionnaire de Physique."
1781. Gablcr (Matthias), " Thcoria Magnetis."
1781. Lacepekle, " Essai sur rdlcctricite* naturclle et artificielle."
1782. Le Mercure de France, No. 23, for June 1782.
1782. Sans (M. de), in the Journal de Medecine for this year.
1783. Milner (Thomas), " Exper. and Obscrv. in Electricity."
1785. Bruno (M. de), " Rccherches . . . fluide magnet iquc."
1787. Crcll (L. F. F.), the miscellaneous scientific articles in his Chemische
Annalen, published at Helmstadt.
1787. Hoffmann (C. L.), Magnetist, published at Frankfort.
1789. Pasqual (A. R.), "Descrub. . . . aguja nautica . . ."
1790. Fremery (N. C. de), " Dissertatio . . . de fulmine."
1790. Segnitz (F. L.), " Specimen . . . elect, animali . . ."
1791. Peart (Edward), " On electricity . . . Magn. . . . and El. Atmo-
spheres," published at Gainsboro'.
1792. Aberg (V. J.), " . . . vim magneticam et electricam."
APPENDIX IV 557
1792. Carminati (Bassiano), in Brugnatelli's Giorn. Fis. Med., II. p. 115.
1792. Reil (J. C.), " Uber thierischc clcktricitat."
1793. Creve (J. C. I. A.), " Bcitrage zu Galvanism . . ." published at Leipzig
and at Frankfort. (See his " Phenomdncs du galvanisme " in the
Mtm. de la SocAett m£d. denudation.]
1793. Hauch (Adam Wilhelm von), his articles in the Vidensk. Selsk. Skri/t.
Ny Samml, published at Copenhagen.
1794. Gutle (J. C.), " Zaubcrmcchanik od. Bcschreibung . . ." published
at Niirnbcrg.
1794. Hopf (C. G.), respond K. Kschenmayer, "Dissert, sislens . . . theorize"
(Sue, Vol. I. p. 133).
1797. Bressy (Jos.), " Essai sur I'cHcctricite de 1'eau."
1798. Hoffmann (J. C.), " Anweisung gulc Elektrisirmasehincn . . ."
published at Leipzig.
1798. Tingry (P. F.), two articles, "Sur la phosphorescence des corps " and
" Sur la nature du fliiidc clcctriquc," published in the Journal de
Physique, Vol. XLVII.
1798. Walker (Ralph), " A treatise on the magnet . . ."
1799. Arjiim (L. A. von), " Versuch einer thcorie . . ." published at Halle.
1799. " Proceedings of the Am. Phil. Soc.," Old Series, Vol. IV. p. ib2, lor
" An Essay tending to improve intelligible signals . . ."
1800. Tlulme (N.), see his " Experiments and Observations . . ." in the
Philos. Trans, for 1800, Part I. p. 161, as well as Vol. IV of Reussis
Repertonum.
1800. Trcviranus (Gottfried R.), sec articles in Cilb. Aunal., Vol. VII as well
as in Vol. VIII.
APPENDIX V
MERCATOR'S PROJECTION
TlJE JUST CLAIM OF THE ENGLISH MATHEMATICIAN, EDWARD
WRIGHT
MERCATOR, GERARDUS (latinized form of Gerhard Kremer),
1512-1594, a Flemish geographer and mathematician, who is men-
tioned at pp. 79, 508, 516 of this " Bibliographical History of
Electricity and Magnetism/' is reported to have invented a new
method of making maps. The name of Mercator, it is said, was
given to Kremer on account of the great usefulness of his reported
invention to mercators or merchants.
Mercator's earliest map was published in 1537. One year later
appeared his Map of the World (rediscovered during 1878 in New
York), and, in 1541, he introduced a terrestrial globe which was
followed, ten years afterwards, by his equally well-known celestial
globe. Then appeared, in 1568-1569, the first edition of his cele-
brated planisphere, intended for use in navigation, which is the
earliest known map on what is called " Mercator's Projection,"
and, in later years, he brought out many other maps as well as
geographical tables, etc., which are too numerous to be specified
here. [See article Mercator in the Belgian " Biographic Nationale,"
Vol. XIV, 1897, and consult likewise " L'ceuvre geographique de
Mercator " by Van Ostroy, " Meyers Konversations Lexikon,"
1897, Vol. XII, pp. 153-154, also " La Nouvelle Biographic
Generate " de Mr. le Dr. Hoefer, Vol. XXV. p. n.]
The original constructor of the chart known as " Mercator's
Projection " is, however, said to be a very able English mathema-
tician, Edward Wright (1560-1615) who is alluded to herein at pp.
78, 79, 520, 524, 532. He was the designer of a very large sphere for
Prince Henry, which showed the motion of the planets, etc., and he
predicted the eclipses for a period of 17,100 years.
So much has been said herein regarding different well-known
maps that the following cannot but prove interesting. It is in
apparently just claim on behalf of Edward Wright to the above-
named invention, and, as stated in the volume published during
559
560 APPENDIX V
1880 by John Davis for the Hakluyt Society, the first Map of the
World that was engraved in England on Wright 's (Mercator's)
projection is fully described by Mr. C. M. Coote in a Note at pp.
85-95 of the Davis " Voyages and Works." That map, he says, was
published one year after Wright had explained the principle of the
projection in his " Certain Errors." From Mr. Coote's description,
the following is extracted :
What appears to have escaped the notice of Hallam, and those
who have attempted to describe it at various times down to our day,
is, that our map is laid down upon the projection commonly known as
Mercator's. So little appears to be known as to the early history
of this projection, that as recently as April 16, 1878, it has been
suggested by Mr. Elias F. Hall that charts upon this projection were
not in general use among seamen at a period much earlier tttan 1630.
Still more recently it has been gravely asserted that a distinguished
Admiral of the American navy only knew of it as the Merchant's
projection, and that he never knew that there was such a man as
Mercator. In 1569 was produced at Duisbourg, Mercator's well-
known Mappcmonde, and many years elapsed before it attracted the
notice of other mapmakers. However interesting it may be to us
as a monument of geography, it is now admitted that, as regards
the projection, it is only approximately correct up to latitude 40.
For the want of a demonstration of the true principles upon which
such a projection was to be laid down, beyond the legend on the
Mappemonde, it found but few imitators. The only three known to
us arc Bernardus Puteanus of Bruges in 1579, Cornelius de Jode in
1589, and Petrus Plancius in 1594. Of the first and third no
examples of their maps on this projection are known to exist, these
two doubtless had all the imperfections of the original Mercator.
De Jode's " Speculum Orbis Terrarum " of 1589 is remarkable, as,
while being on the old plane projection with the lines of latitude and
longitude equidistant, there is to be seen on it a feeble attempt to
divide the central meridional line according to the idea of Mercator,
one of the best possible proofs how imperfectly this idea was under-
stood by Mercator's own fellow-countrymen. About 1597 was
published by Jodocus Hondius in Amsterdam, a map entitled Typus
Totius Orbis Terrarum, etc., easily to be recognized by an allegorical
figure, at the bottom of it, of a Christian soldier armed for the fight
against all the powers of evil. This is on the true projection, known
as Mercator's, but which is really that of Edward Wright. From
Hondius' connection with Mercator, and whose joint portraits from
the frontispiece of the well-known Atlas of the latter, it might with
good reason be supposed that Hondius acquired the art of pro-
jecting this map from Mercator, yet if one thing is more certain than
APPENDIX V 561
another in the history of this projection, it is the fact that Hondius
did not acquire this art from Mercator or his map, but from Edward
Wright, the friend and colleague of Hakluyt.
In proof of this, the following evidence is adduced. We learn
from Blundeville that, at some previous period, probably as early as
1592, Wright sent his friend, the author, " a table to drawe thereby
the parallells in the Mariner's Carde, together with the vse thereof
in trewer sort, with a draught " or diagram of the projection. These,
it is evident, were extracts from Wright's " Errors in Navigation,"
then in MS. Wright, in his preface to the reader, in his work when
printed, bitterly complains that he was induced to lend MS. to
Hondius, who, with its aid and without Wright's consent, prepared
and published several " inappes of the World, which maps had been
vnhatch'ed, had not he [Hondius] learned the right way to lay the
groundwork of some of them out of his book." That the above
Typus is one of the printed maps complained of, seems to be proved
by the allusion to Wright to be found on it.
The strongest evidence against the theory of Hondius having
acquired this art from Mercator, is the fact that in none of the
subsequent editions of Mercator's Atlases edited by him is there a
map on this projection to be found. The truth is, that to Wright,
and not to Mercator, is due the honour of being the first to demonstrate
the true principles upon which such maps were to be laid down by
means of the now well-known Tables of meridional parts.
The first legitimate attempt to lay down a map upon the really
true projection, is no other than the original of our map. Before
proceeding to point out some of its remaining points of interest, it
will be convenient here to endeavour to remove one or two misappre-
hensions respecting it, which are even now entertained by more than
one of our eminent booksellers.
Mr. Quaritch, without adducing the least amount of evidence,
asserts that " Hakluyt intended to insert this map in his work of
1589." This is impossible, as from internal evidence it could not
possibly have been produced at an earlier period than 1598 or 1599,
as has been before pointed out. Upon this point we fear that Mr.
Quaritch has allowed himself to be misled by the pardonable blunder
of Hallam. Again he says, that Hakluyt calls the original of our
great map a terrestrial globe. This is also a mistake. When
Hakluyt said a globe, he meant one, and not a map ; such a globe as
he describes was forthcoming in 1592, at a period midway between
the first edition of the " Voyages " and the appearance of our map.
The only example of this globe at present known to exist is preserved
in the Library of the Middle Temple.
Hitherto one of the difficulties in describing and establishing
oo
562 APPENDIX V
the identity of this map has been its anonymous authorship. Mr.
Quaritch, in an otherwise fair appreciation of the writer's labours
in this direction, has thought fit, in another part of his catalogue,
to charge the writer with appropriating Mr. Quaritch's labours in
this matter of authorship. The charge has found no foundation
in any fact whatsoever. The writer's conclusions about it were
based solely upon a comparison made between our map and a globe,
two things which Mr. Quaritch has confounded. The globe referred
to is known to be by Molyneux, the reference to it in the title of the
map led the writer to the not unnatural inference that they were by
one and the same author. This position the writer strengthened by
two quotations from a scarce tract by the late Dr. J. G. Kohl of
Bremen, which was published twenty years before Mr. Quaritch's
catalogue of 1877 [No. 11919] saw the light. The conclusion arrived
at by the writer, without any assistance from Quaritch, was that our
map, circa 1600, was a new one, on a new projection, made by one of
the most eminent globe-makers of his time, probably under the
superintendence of Hakluyt. The evidence upon this point is of
course strongly circumstantial only, which future research may either
refute or confirm. Be this as it may, one thing is now quite certain,
namely, that our map, to a very great extent, bears evidence upon
the face of it of the handiwork of another of Hakluyt 's friends and
colleagues, hitherto unsuspected, we take it, even by Mr. Quaritch.
Allusion has been already made to Wright's " Errors in Navigation,"
the first edition of which was published in 1599. In 1610 appeared
the second edition, in which mention is made of a general map, which
map it has not been our good fortune to see, as the copy in our
national library is without it. Several editions were subsequently
published by Moxon. In these are to be seen copies of a map laid
down upon lines almost identical with ours. They have geographical
additions up to date, and also indicate the variations of the compass.
These later maps are avowedly ascribed to Wright, and a comparison
of any one of them with our map most certainly points to one common
source, namely, the original. The conclusion is therefore irresistible,
that whatever may be due to Molineux or Hakluyt in the execution
of the original, it also represents the first map upon the true pro-
jection by Edward Wright. It will be observed as a somewhat
happy coincidence that Hallam's almost first words of introduction
to our map are a reference to the Arctic work of Davis, 1585-1587.
On the map is also to be observed a record of the discovery by the
Dutchman Barents, of northern Novaya Zemlya, in his third voyage
in 1596. This is the latest geographical discovery recorded upon it,
which serves not only to determine the date of the map, but to
establish for it the undoubted claim of being the earliest one engraved
APPENDIX V 563
in England, whereon this last important Arctic discovery is to be
found. The striking similarity between our map and Molineux's
globe, in the delineations of these Arctic discoveries of Davis and
Barents, seems to point to the conclusion that, so far as the geography
is concerned, they both came from one source, namely, the hands of
Molyneux.
Arctic discovery did not escape the notice of our immortal
Shakespere. In some fifty lines preceding his supposed reference
to our map in " Twelfth Night/' occur the following words. " You
are now sailed into the north of my lady's opinion, where you will
hang like an icicle on a Dutchman's beard." The antithetical idea
being of course the equatorial region of the lady's opinion. If the
date assigned to it is correct it is probable in the extreme that the
thought underlying these words was suggested to the mind of
Shakespere- by a glance at the upper portion of our map, evidently
well known in his time as a separate publication. The remaining
points that call for notice are as follows. The improved geography
of the whole of the eastern portion of our map, as compared with its
contemporaries, and the traces of the first appearance of the Dutch
under Davis and Houtman at Bantam. On all the maps was to be
seen the huge Terra Australis of the old geography. This, as Hallam
remarked, had been left out on our map ; but what is so remarkable
is that upon it is to be observed, rising " like a little cloud out of the
seas, like a man's hand," the then unknown continent of Australia.
It will be observed that Hallam describes the original as " the best
map of the sixteenth century." Mr. Quaritch improves upon this,
and says it is "by far the finest chartographical labour which appeared,
from the epoch of the discovery of America down to the time of
d'Anville." If this implies a reference to our map as a work of art,
i. e. an engraving, we beg to differ from him, as such terms are
misleading. As a specimen of map engraving, it will not compare
with even its pirated prototype by Hondius. The art of engraving
by Englishmen, more particularly that of maps, was at this period,
as is well known, in its infancy. Maps and illustrations for books
were for the most part executed abroad, and those who did work
here were almost all foreigners. The two best known were Augustus
Ryther, who executed among other things the maps for Saxton's
Atlas, and Hondius, who did those for Speed's Atlas. Mr. Richard
Fisher writes : " We have scarcely any record of any Englishmen
practising engraving in this country prior to the commencement of
the seventeenth century." The names, however, of two are afforded
us by Davis himself in his Introduction to the " Seaman's Secrets,"
namely, those of Molyneux and Hillyer. It is to be hoped that the
position of our map in the history of cartography is secured upon
564 APPENDIX V
firmer grounds than those suggested by the best intentions of Mr.
Quaritch. It was the writer's belief in this that first led him to
express the hope that the original of the facsimile, so admirably
done for the Society, would henceforth be as firmly associated with
Shakespere's " Twelfth Night " as it certainly is now, not only with
the page of Hakluyt, but with the publications of the Society that
bears his name.
INDEX
(Embracing much additional data. — See Preface]
ABANO — Apponensis, Aponus, Apianus,
Apian, Bienewitz— Pietro di, " Tracta-
tus de Venenis " ; " Conciliator
differenMarum . . .,"26, 35, 124, 501,
515, 526, 527. See Mazzuchclli, G. M.,
'' Gli Scrittori . . .," Vol. I. Part I.
pp. i-n; Bayle, Pierre, " Diction-
naire Historiquc . . .," Vol. I. pp.
383-386.
Abbas Mcssanensis. See Maurohco.
Abbeville, Hist. Chr. d', par Nicolas
San son, 108
Abbott, Evelyn, translator of m"ax
Duncker's " History of Antiquity," 7
Abd-Allatif- — Movatfik, Eddin — Arabian
physician (1162-1231), " Relation de
1'Egypte," 299
Abderites (at School of Athens), 543
Abel, Dr. Clarke, of Brighton (at A.D.
1816, Phillip, W.), 437
Abercorn, J. Hamilton, Earl of, " Calcu-
lations . . . loadstones." See Hamil-
ton, James.
Aberdeen University (at Sir David
Brewster), 466
Abcrg, Ulrich Johann, " Comparatio . . .
magneticam," 1792, 556
Abhand. Berlin Akademie der Wissen-
schaften, 192
Abhand. d. Gottingen Kon. Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften, 445
Abhand. d. Mathern. . . . Kon. Baier-
ischc Akad. der Wissenschaften :
Miinchen, 1808-1824, 433, 477
Abhand. d. Naturforschendc Gesell-
schaft : Halle, 414
Abhand. zur Geschichte der mathe-
matik : Leipzig, 126, 520, 535, 538,
54 J
Abilgaard, Peter Christian (1740-1801),
" Tentamma electrica," 249
Abohalis. See Avicenna.
Abr6ge de 1' Astronomic. See Lalande,
J. J. le Fra^ois de.
Abrege de 1'histoire des Sarrazins. See
Bergeron, Pierre.
Absorption, dielectric (at Faraday,
Michael), 498
Abstracts of the papers printed in the
Philosophical Transactions, 548. See
Royal Society, London.
Abul-Wefa (Aboulwefa), al bouzcljani
(930-998), 93, 94, 512, 516
" Academia caesarea leopoldino-carolina
. . . naturae curiosum. . . ." Hist.
Nova Acta, etc. : Breslau Academy,
216, 273, 451
Academia electorahs inoguntina scien-
tiarum utilium. Nova Acta, etc. :
Erfurt, 12 Vols., 218
Academia electorahs scientiartim, also
called Academia Theodoro-Palatina.
Academia scientiarum imperah.s petro-
politana. Commentarii, Nova Acta,
etc. : St. Petersburg Imperial
Academy, 140, 204, 214, 232, 273, 274,
368
Academia secretim? natuKP, 75
Academia Theodcro-Palatina . ,' . Com-
mentarii (Histc,ria et Commenta-
tiones). See Manhoim, also Hemmer,
J.J. .
Academic de Tindustrie francaise,
Journal des travaux de 1', 421
Academic de Marine, 274
Academic de Medecine : Paris, 237
Academic des Curieux de la Nature.
See Academia . . . natural curio-
sum. . . .
Academic des Inscriptions et Belles
Lettres : Paris, 8, 520, 533
Academic des Sciences (Institut), Paris,
Memoires, Histoire, Table, etc.
(Comptes Rendus, Les, will be found
under separate head), 18, 34, 72, 81,
115, 129, 130, 132, 138, 139, 140, 142,
144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152,
J53. 155, 158, 160, 161, 162, 169, 171,
177, 178, 183, 190, 192, 198, 200, 201,
204, 205, 207, 214, 218, 220, 235, 237,
240, 248, 249, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270,
271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 279, 280,
286, 288, 299, 300, 302, 303, 320, 329,
335. 337. 354. 380, 386, 387, 389, 395,
396, 407, 411, 412, 454, 455, 456, 460,
462, 466, 471, 476, 478, 479, 480, 481,
482, 485, 497
Academic du Card, 10
" Academy and Literature," 99. (In
June 1902, " Literature " was in-
corporated with " The Academy.")
Academy of Lignitz, 174
Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia, U.S.A., 356
566
INDEX
Academy of Sciences. See American,
Bavarian, Barcelona, Belgium,
Besancon, Brescia, Brussels, Cam-
bridge (U.S.A.), Copenhagen, Genoa
(147), Lyoua, Madrid, Manheim, Mont-
pellier, Padua, Paris, Prague, Naples,
Saint Petersburg, Stockholm, Turin,
Washington, etc.
Accademia Bonon. et Istituto, Com-
mentarii, 7 Yols. 1731-1791. See
Bologna Academy.
Accademia del Cimento, Saggi di naturali
esperienze (Essays of natural experi-
ments), Firenze (Florence), 96, 129,
J43i 554- See Tozzetti, Antinovi, also
Magalotti, latromathematical school.
Experiment at A.D. 1684, 143
Accademia Etrusca, Cortona, Italy,
Memoirs, etc., Vols, I.-IX. 1755—
1791, 58
Accademia Pontificia dci Nuovi Lincei,
Roma, Atti, etc., 71, 380
Accumulator, electrical (secondary
battery), first constructed by Ritter,
J. W., 380
Acerbi (at Brugnatelli, L. V.), 363
Achard, Franz Carl (1753-1821), 262-
263, 275, 282, 327, 332
Achromatic telescope, first construction,
214. See Kelly t John.
Acide galvaniqvje '^ Journal de Paris,
No. 562). See Robo-tson, E. G., 351
Ackermann, Johann Fnednch (1726-
1804), " Medicir>isch-chirurgische Zei-
tung " — on the contact theory —
1792; " Versuch einer . . . Korper" ;
" Nachrichten . . .," 249, 284, 327
Acoromboni, Francesco (at Sarpi, Pietro),
112
Acosta, C. d', and Monardes, Nicholas,
516
Acosta, Joseph d' (1540-1599), 21, 78, 118
" Acta Helvetica Physico-Mathematico.
..." See Basle, Basel.
Acton, J. (at Chladni, E. F. F.), 314
Adam, Melchior, " Vitae Germanorum
Medicorum," 508, 513
Adamantus. See Origen.
Adam as, 15
Adams (at Hali Abbas), 518 (Appendix,
Barker's Lempriere).
Adams, Charles Kendall, 38. See
Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, 38
Adams, George (1750-1795), " Essay on
Electricity," 1784, 1785, 1787, 1792,
1799; " Lectures . . .," 22, 160, 174,
201, 205, 206, 212, 231, 241, 258, 262,
263, 271, 280-281
Adams, John, President of U.S., 328
Adams's language, the language of the
Germans or Teutonic, 517
Adanson, Michel (1727-1806), 192-193,
218, 230, 296, 298, 374; " Histoire
naturelle du Senegal," etc.
Addison, Joseph (1672-1719), " The
Spectator" (March i, 1711 to Dec.
6, 1712), 99
Adelard (Aetheland) of Bath — Adelardus
Bathoni'ensis (twelfth century), 1302,
57
Adsigerius, Petrus, by W. Wenckebach,
1865, 48, 53
/Egineta — /Eginata, yEgenita — Paulus.
See Paulus ^Egenita.
^Elianus, Claudius (Greek writer who fl.
c, A.D. 250), 270
jEneas, the tactician (at 341 B.C.), 12
" ^Epinus atomized," 218
iEpinus, Franciscus Maria Ulricus Theo-
dorus (1724-1802), Mathematical
theory of electricity (at A.D. 1759);
" Sermo Academicus de simihtudme
vis elcctricre atque magnetics " ; Petro-
poli, 1758; " Exposition de la theorie
de Felectricit6 de M. yEpinus " : Paris,
1787, 17, 185, 205, 215, 217-218, 286,
309. 310, 353. 415, 472> 553
Aerolites, Meteorites, Meteorolites,
Meteors, 125, 151, 161, 258, 295, 313,
314, 315, 376, 380, 396, 414, 503. See
Fisher, E.G.; Fletcher, L. ; Naidinger,
W. R. von ; Bjorn, Hans O. ; Moigno,
F. N. M. ; Perego, Antonio; also the
references given by S. P. Thompson
in his " Notes on the De Magnite of
Dr. William Gilbert," 1901. Consult,
likewise, the A.D. entries herein, as
follows : 1790, Vassalli-Eandi, p. 295;
1794, Chladni, p. 313; 1801, Fourcroy,
p. 354; 1803, Biot, E. C., p. 380;
1820, Laplace, p. 462
Aerolites, spontaneous ignition of, 313
/Eschylus (525-456 B.C.), 3, 4. See
Euripides.
/Ether — Ether — Ether theory, 12, 133,
183, 184, 213, 254, 360, 404, 498,
503
JEtius, Amidenus, Greek physician (fl.
fifth to sixth century), 26, 27
" Afhandl. i Fisik " (Berzelius), 370
Affaitatus, Fortunius — Affaydatus —
Italian physicist, 71. See Mazzuchelli,
G. M., " Gli Scrittori," Vol. I. Part I.
p. 165.
Africanus, Sextus Julius, Optical signals,
22
Agamemnon's line of optical signals, 3,
4
Agathias of Myrene (fl. sixteenth century) ,
" De imperio . . . gestis Justiniani,"
1648, 10
Agencies of electricity (Humphry Davy),
3<M
Aglave et Boulard, " Lumierc Elec-
trique," 150, 152, 154, 166, 350
Agricola, Georgius — Bauer — Landmann
(1494-1555), " De re metallica," 501-
502. See Bayle, Pierre, " Diet.
Historique," Vol. I. pp. 139-140.
Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1486—
I535). 82, 502; " De occulta philo-
sophia," etc. See Bayle, Pierre,
" Diet. Historique," Vol. I. pp. 145-
156.
INDEX
567
Agulhas (Aguilhas), Cape (the Needles) —
Capo d'Agulhas, most southerly point
of Africa. See Wm. Gilbert, by
Gilbert Club, 1900, p. 178; also Wm.
Gilbert, by P. F. Mottelay, 1893, p.
266.
Ahrens, J. E. W., " Dissertatio . . .
qualitate et quantitate electricitis
. . ." : Kiel, 1813.
Aikin, John (1747-1822), " General Bio-
graphy," 10 Vols. 1799-1815, 92, 131,
245, 3ii
Air, plate of, electrified like a plate of
glass, 205, 215, 217
Airy, Sir George Biddell (1801-1892),
335. 461
Akademie der Wissenschaften und ihre
Gegner. See Bavarian Academy.
Akenside, Mark, " The pleasures of
imagination," 555
Akin, C. **[£ , on the origin of electricity
(Trans. Phil. Soc. Cambridge), 1866.
Albategnius, Mahometcs — Machometes
Aractensis — Al-BattanT, a very promi-
nent Arabian astronomer and mathe-
matician (d. A.D. 929), 5O2
Al-Battfinl. See Albategnius.
Albert, M., " Amer. Ann. d. Artz," 224
Albertus Magnus, the " Universal
Doctor" (1193-1280), " De Miner-
alibus," 16, 17, 18, 27, 34, 35-37. 39.
72, 82, 119, 125, 171, 524-525
Albinus, F. B., " Specimen . . ."
(at Chladni, E. F. F.), 314
Albo, Comte Prosper (at Galvani, A.),
284
Albrecht, Duke of Prussia, 70
Albrecht, G. T., " Geschichte der
Electricitat," 206
Albumazar (A.D. 805-885), prominent
Arabian astronomer.
Alcazar, Ludovicus (at Zahn, F. J.), 146
Alchimie d' Avicenne, 40
Alchimie et Alchimistes, 506. See
Figuier, Louis G. Consult also
" English books on alchemy " in
Notes and Queries, 8th ser., xi, 363, 464.
Alchimistes du moy en-age, 514
" Alchemy of Happiness," by Moham-
med Al-Ghazzali, 38
Alchemystical Philosophers, Lives of, 516
Alcibiades (c. 450-404 B.C.), 543
Aldini, Giovanni, nephew of Aldini
(1762-1834), 270, 283, 304, 306, 326,
327. 331, 365. 366, 367. 374. 375. 393.
418, 419. See " Essai theorique et
experimental sur le galvanisme," 1804.
Aldrovandi — Aldrovandus — Ulysses,
Ulisse (1522-1607), 8, 13, 72, 112, U'^
114, 126. " Musacum Metallicumy^
Alemanni, P. (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXVII.
p. 339, 1807), 393
Alembert, Jean Le Rond d' (7^17-1783),
French mathematician ,,/* ' Elements
de philosophic," 1759; " Trait6 de
dynamique " : Paris, 1743, 1781,
1796. / ."
Alessandrini, Antonio, " Biografia Itali-
ana " : Bologna, 1858. See Bologna,
" Nuovi Annali."
Alexander Aphrodisacus — Aphrodisien-
sis (second century A.D.), 503, 511,
512. See Spcng, also Joannes Petrus,
Lucensis.
Alexander, Emperor of Russia (at
Schilling, P. L.), 421
Alexander, James (at Franklin, B.), 197
Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), 35, 38-39.
Doctor Irrefragabilis.
Alexander the Great, King of Macedon
(356-323 B.C.), 81, 333, 530
Alexandre, Jean (at A.D. 1802), 360-361
" Alexandria and her schools," Charles
Kingsley, 534
Alfarabius — Alpharabius — Al-Farabi
(870-950), 37-38
Alfonso Diego. See Diego.
Alfonso el IX. (Alfonso— Alonzo—X.,
according to chronological order) ;
" Las siete Partidas . . .," 60, 544
Alfonso the Tenth. See Alfonso el IX.
Al Gazel— Al Ghazzali (1058-1111), 37,
38
Alibard, Thomas Francois d'. See
Dalibard.
Alibert, C., " Eloges . . .," 240, 258,
284
Alizeau (at Aldini, G.), 305
Alkalies, fixed decomposition of, 340,
341. 343. 372
Allamand, Jean Nicholas Sebastian
(1713-1787), 170, 173, 299
Allen, Z., " Philosophy of the Mechanics
of Nature," 1852.
Allen, Z., and Hare, R., 449
Allen, Z., and Pcpys, W. H., 372. See
also Romagnosi; Mazzuchelli, G. M.,
" Gli Scrittori," Vol. I. Part I. 403-
408; Bayle, Pierre, "Diet. Histori-
que," Vol. I. pp. 212-213.
Alleyne, S. F., Translator of E. Zeller's
" Hist, of Greek Philosophy," 511
Allgem. . . . Annal. der Chemie. See
Scherer, A. N.
Allgem. bauzeitung . . . von Forster,
L. von: Wien, 1836-1876, 422, 440
Allgem. Deutsche Bibliothek, 256
Allgem. Deutsche Biographic : Leipzig,
218, 384. See Mitscherlich and Tralles,
J.G.
Allgem. Encyklopaedie. See Ersch and
Gruber.
Allgem. Gelehrten Lexicon. See Jocher,
C. G., 71
Vllgem. Journal der Chemie. See
*Scherer, A. N.
Allgem. Koust-en-Letterb. See Vorsell-
mann de Heer.
"Allgem. Literatur-Zeitung " : Halle,
Allgem. Magazin der Natur-Kunst. See
Lipsiae.
" Allgem. Nordlische Annalen der
Chemie. ..." See Scherer, A. N.
568
INDEX
Alliaco, Cardinal Pctrus de — Pierre d'
Ailly (1350-1420), Chancellor of the
Pans University; " Imago Mundi,"
34
Allibonc, S. Austin, " Critical Dictionary
of English Literature," 92, 102, 132
Almagests of Aboulwefa, Ptolemy,
Riccioh, and others, 55, 512, 513, 516
" Almagestum Novum. Astronomiam
. . ." : Bologna, 1651. See Riccioli,
G. B.
Al-Majusi — Hali Abas, 518
Alphabetical, Autographic, Autokinetic,
Automatic, and other telegraphs.
Consult Index to Catalogue of
Wheeler Gift to Am. Ins. El. Eng.,
Vol. II. pp. 453-463-
Alphonso Diego. See Diego.
Alphonso, King of Arrago (at School of
Athens), 544
Altdorf (Franconia), University of, 129
Althaus, Julius von (b. 1791), " Vcrsuche
. . . elektromagnetismus . . ." : Hei-
delberg, 1821, 326
Alvord, General B. H. W., U.S.A., 259,
260
Amirmtates academical . . . : Stock-
holm.
Amaenitates hteranae. . ., 202
Amand, Walkiers de Saint, of Brussels
(Lichtenberg Mag , III., 118, 1785),
448, 449
Amatus Lusitanus. See Lusitanus
Amatus.
Amaury, Marrigues a Montfort 1', 1773,
385
Amber. See F'lcctron, 10
Amber and the Magnet, different names
given to them by the ancients. See
the numerous citations made by Dr.
S. P. Thompson in his " Notes "
on Gilbert's De Magnete.
Amber, historical account of, in Phil.
Trans, for the year 1699, Nos. 248
and 249
Amecourt, Ponton d', 285
America, name given to New World in
honour of Am. Vespuccius, 535
American Academy of Arts and Sciences :
Boston, 199, 259, 371
American Annual of Scientific Discovery.
See Annual.
American Association, 1868, 389, 487
American Association for the advance-
ment of science, 260, 315
American Electrical Society Journal :
Chicago, 111.
American Electrician : New York, 1896-
1905.
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers : New York, xiv
American Journal of Psychology, 445,
476
American Journal of Science and the
Arts: New Haven, U.S.A., 1818 to
date. See Silliman, B.
American Meteorological Journal, 321
American Philosophical Society. Trans-
actions, etc. : Philadelphia, Penn.,
67, 193, 228, 237, 241, 259, 282, 283,
298, 299, 319, 327, 328, 329, 337, 354,
373, 448, 449, 557
American Polytechnic Review, 367
Amerigo Vespucci, the Florentine. See
Vespucci.
Ames, Joseph, Typog. Antiq. (Herbert) :
London, 1749, 95
Ammersin, Rev. Father Windelinus —
Wendelino, of Lucerne, 209
Ammoniacal amalgam first explained
by Berzelius and Pontin, 370
Amontous, Guillaume (1663—1705), 143,
149, 254, 301, 434
Amoretti, Carlo (1741-1816), " Nuova
scelta d'opuscoli," 2 Vols. : Milano,
1804 and 1807; " Scelta di Opuscoh,"
36 Vols., and its sequel in 22 Vols :
Milano, 208, 224, 233, 248, 252 253,
254. 257, 295, 298, 3^7. 347, 367, 383,
387, 393, 401. See Ritter, Johann
Wilhelm.
Amort, Eusebius (1692-1775), " Plnlo-
sophia Pollingana . . . " : Augsburg,
1730.
Ampolius, Ansonio Lucius (fl. third
century A.D.), " Liber Memorialis,"
18
Ampere, Andre Marie (1775-1836),
" Theorie des phenomenes electro-
dynamiques . . .," 1826; " Memoires
sur 1'action mutuelle . . .," 1820-22,
1826, 1827; "Analyse dcs Memoires
..." (Ann. de Phys de Bruxelles,
Vol. VII.), 7, 344, 352, 356, 375, 380,
420, 421, 422, 452, 454, 455, 456, 458,
459, 460, 471-476, 478, 482, 483,
484, 485. The unit of current was
named after Ampere; the other
electrical measures are : the Volt,
unit of pressure; the Ohm, unit of
resistance, and the Watt, unit of
power.
Ampere, A. M., and Babinet, J. See
Babmet Jacques ; also Nipher, Francis
Eugene.
Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine (1800-
1864), 476
Amsterdam, " Vaderlandsche Biblio-
teek. . .," I., 1773-1796.
Amyot — Amiot — Le Pdre (1718-1794),
259
Anacharsis, Travels in Greece, 291
Analogia electncitatis et magnetismi.
See Swinden, J. H. van, 272; also
Cigna, G. F., 224
Analogy between caloric and the electric
*luid, 386
Analogy of electricity and lightning.
See articles on Franklin and on Nollet.
Anaxagoros of Clazomene (500-428 B.C.),
one of the greatest Greek philosophers,
15. 503, 5". 512, 524, 532, 542
Anaximander ol Miletus (610-547 B.C.),
503 ; successor ot ' -^es.
INDEX
569
Anaximenes of Miletus (born c. 528 B.C.),
503. See Speng.
Andala, Ruardus, " Kxercitationes aca-
demicae . . .," 1708, 122
Ancienncs relations des Indes et de la
Chine, par E. Renandot, 60
Andrew, the Florentine — (Andrea Floren-
tine— mentioned in Gucrino's Venetia,
1477 folio), 57
Andrews, Professor (at Keir, James), 297
Andrieux, Professor Francois Emile,
" M6moire . . .," 1824, 326, 476
Andry et Thouret, " Observations et
recherches sur 1'aimant," 245. (Reuss,
Repertorium, xii, 18.)
Angell, John, " Magnetism and elec-
tricity," 28
Angelstrom, D. (at Dalton, J.), 308
Anglade, J. G., " Essai sur le gal-
vanisme," 326
Angos, M*. le Chevalier d', 235
Angstrom, Anders Jons (1814-1874),
Swedish physicist who wrote exten-
sively on magnetism, heat, and on
the Zodiacal Light, 141
Animal Magnetism. See Magnetism,
Animal.
Annalen der chcmie. See Scherer, A. N.
Annalen der chemie, von Liebig (Justus
von) : Heidelberg.
Annalen der pharmacie. See Liebig,
Justus von.
Annalen der physik und chemie, Johann
Christian Poggendorff : Leipzig. See
Journal der Physik, von F. A. C. Gren.
Annalen der physik und chemie. See
Halle, also Journal der Physik, von
F. A. C. Gren.
Annalen der physik und der physik-
alischen chemie, L. W. Gilbert :
Halle und Leipzig. See Halle, also
Journal der Physik, von F. A. C. Gren.
Annalen der telegraphic. See P. W.
Bnx, also " Zeitschrift des Deutsch-
Oesterreichischen. . . ."
Annalen fur das umversalsystem der
elemcnte . . . von Serturner : Gottin-
gen.
Annalen fiir meteorologie. . . . See
Johann Lamont.
Annales de chimie. See Mons, Jean
Baptistc van.
Annales de chimie et de physique, par
Gay-Lussac, etc., Vols. I.-LXXV, etc. :
Paris, 119, 140, 157, 195, 218, 230, 233,
247, 248, 249, 261, 270, 279, 280, 284,
290, 291, 294, 297, 299, 306. 321, 335,
340, 344, 347» 348, 350, 352, 354, 355,
363, 368, 37°, 372, 376« 378> 383, 388,
389, 390, 39i, 39-2, 393, 394, 39°, 4°6,
412, 414, 416, 420, 423, 426, 434, 441,
454, 455, 459, 462, 464, 473, 475,
476» 477, 478, 479, 482, 483, 485, 487,
494, 495
Annales de chimie . . ., par De Morveau,
etc., Vols. I.-XCVT., 1789-1815. See
Paris.
Annales d'electricite et de magnetisme
. . . public6s, par Mr. Georges
D union t : Paris, 1889-1890.
Annales de geographic et de biblio-
graphic, 34, 58, 59, 536
Annales dc la Societe de Medecine de
Montpellier. See Montpellier.
Annales de la Societ6 des Sciences
d'Orleans, Vols. I.-XIV., 1819-1836.
Annales de Felectricit6 : Bruxelles,
1882-1884.
Annales de I'electricite medicale, 326
Annales de TObservatoire de Bruxelles.
See Brussels, also Quetelet, L. A. J.
Annales de physique de Bruxelles,
476
Annales des mines, 380, 455
Annales des sciences et des arts . . . par
Maisonneuve : Paris, 1808-1809.
Annales des sciences faisant suite au
Journal des Savants, 551
Annales du Magnetisme Animal : Paris.
Annales du Museum d'histoire naturelle.
See Museum.
Annales Encyclop6diques. See Millin
de Grandmaison.
Annales generales dc sciences physiques
et naturclles : Bruxelles, 1819-1831,
par MM. Bory de St. Vincent, Drapez
et Van Mons, 255
Annales Mundi. See Briet, Philippe.
Annales, or, a generalle chronicle of
England, by Stow, John, 211
Annales Ord. Min. See Wadding.
Annales politiques, 265
Annales telcgraphiques : Paris, 368,
423
Annali del Reale Osservatorio Meteor-
ologico . . . Napoli. See Palmieri,
Luigi.
Annali delle scienze del Regno Lombardo
Veneto, del Fusinien (Ambrogio) :
Padova, Milano, Venezia, 298, 314
Annali delle scienze natural! : Bologna.
Annali delle scienze naturali. See Padua.
Annali di chiimca, dall Polli, Vols. I.—
XLVIH. : Milano, 1845-1868.
Annali di chimica . . ., di Brugnatelli,
L. V. : Pavia.
Annali di fisica, chimica . . ., Majocchi,
Giov. Aless. : Milano.
Annali di fisica . . ., dell' Zantedeschi,
Franc. : Padova.
Annali di matematica pura a applicata
. . ., da Tortoloni, Barnaba : Roma,
54
Annali di scienze ... da Tortoloni,
Barnaba, etc. : Roma.
Annali di scienze matematiche e fisiche,
da Tortoloni, Barnaba, 8 Vols. :
Roma, 1850-1857.
Annali di storia naturale : Bologna.
Annalium Hirsaugiensium . . . 1690.
See Trithemius, Johannes.
Annals of Caius Cornelius Tacitus 140
Annals of chemistry . . . electricity,
galvanism . . . : London.
570
INDEX
Annals of chemistry. See Philosophical
Magazine.
Annals of Clan-mac-noise, 139
Annals of electricity, magnetism and
chemistry. See Sturgeon, Win. :
London, 1836-1843.
Annals of philosophical discovery. . . .
See Sturgeon, Wm.
Annals of philosophy, or magazine of
chemistry . . . and the arts. See
Thomson (Thos.) ; united with the
Philosophical Magazine.
Annals of Turin Observatory. See
Turin.
Annee Scientifique et Industrielle. See
Figuicr, Louis.
Annuairc du Bureau des Longitudes,
195. 266, 315, 321, 481
Annual of scientific discovery : Boston
1850-1851; edited by Wells, D. A.
and others (continued as Annual
Record of Science and Industry), 300,
33°. 386, 416, 445, 449, 460, 476, 481,
498
" Annus Magnus," the work of Aris-
tarchus of Samos, covering 2484
years, 505
Anschell, Salmon (at Humboldt, Alex.
von), 333
Anselmo, Georgio (at Aldini, Giov.), 305
Ansicht der chcmischen naturgesetze.
See Niebuhr Karstcn.
Antheaulme — Antheaume, M. de 1'aca-
demie des sciences, " Traite sur
les aimans artificiels," 1760, 190,
274
Anthony of Bologna, called the Panormi-
tan, 56
Anthropo-telegraph of Knight Spencer,
400
" Anti-Jacobin Magazine," 311
Anti-magnetic bodies, observations on,
3?7
Anti-Nicene Christian Library, 525
Antinon, " Notizie istoriche . . . Accad.
del Cimento " : Firenze, 1841; Anti-
nori and Nobili, 477
Antiochenus, Stephanus (at Hali-Abas),
5iQ
Anti-phlogistic doctrine, 261, 386
Antipodes and rotundity of earth
ridiculed, 523-525
Antiquitates Americana?, 115
Antiquitates Italiac Modii-Acri, 539
Antisthenes, Greek philosopher (b. 423
B.C.) ; founder of the Cynic school of
philosophy, 543
"Antologia, giornale di scienze . . .,
dir Vieusseux " : Firenze, 256, 482
Antologia Romana. See Gandolfi, B.
Antonia, Paola (Novelli), 505
Antonii, Bibl. Hisp. Vetus., 39
Antonio, Nicolas, " Bibl. Hisp. Nova,"
528
Antonius de Fantis. See Fantis.
Antonius Musas Brasavolus. See
Brasavolus.
" Apercus historiques sur la boussole."
See Avezac d'.
Aphron (south) and Zohvon (north), 33,
35
Apianus. See Abano.
Apjohn, James (at Pearson, Geo.), 325
Apollo (at School of Athens), 543
Apollonius of Perga (born c. 262 B.C.),
540. 54*
Apollonius of Tyana (fl. first century
A.D.), Life of, by Philistratus, 8, 533
Aponus. See Abano.
Appleton and Company, " New American
Cyclopaedia/' 22 Vols. ; " Dictionary
of Machines, Mechanics . . .," 22,
149. 255, 286, 316, 317, 318, 446, 449,
481
Apuleius — Appuleus (fl. second century),
" Apologia and Florida " : Leipzig,
1900, 8
Aquinas. See Thomas Aquinas'.
Aractensis Machometes. See Albatag-
nius.
Arago, Dom. Francois Jean (1786-
1853), vii, 126 138, 142, 166, 190,
195, 208, 228, 248, 259, 266, 309, 315,
321, 344, 375, 380, 389, 396, 412, 416,
417> 455, 4°X 464, 47^ 476> 477~48l»
482, 484, 485, 520
Aranjuez-Madnd, telegraph line, 1798,
318
Aratus of Soli, in Cilicia (born c. 315 B.C.),
533
Arcana of science and art . . . : London,
1828-1838.
Archelaus, Greek philosopher of the
fourth century B.C., surnamed
Physicus, 503, 532, 542
" Archeologia plulosophica nova . . ." :
London, 1663, 4, 210. See Harvey,
Gideon.
Archimedes (c, 287-212 B.C.), whom
Lodge calls the " father of physics,"
533, 540, 54i, 544
Archives de relectricite", par Rive, M. A.
de la; Supplement a la " Biblio-
thequd Universelle," de Geneve.
Archives dcr mathcmatik und physik.
See Grundig, C. G.
Archives des sciences. . . . See Geneve.
Archives des sciences physiques. See
" Bibliotheque Universelle " : Geneve.
Archives du magnetisme animal, 237
Archives du Musee Tyler, 160
Archives du Nord, pour la physique et
la medecine : Copenhagen, 353
Archives . . . Ges. Natural, 288
Archives fur chemie und meteorologie.
See Kastner, K. W. G.
Archives fiir . . . naturlehre. See Kast-
ner, K. W. G.
Archives litteraires, 351
Archives Ne"erlandaises, 142
Archytas of Tarentum (c. 428-347 B.C.),
Greek scientist of the Pythagorean
school, 532, 544
Arcothea (at School of Athens), 543
INDEX
571
Arcueil, La Societ6 <T, 236, 386, 389
Arcy, Patrik d' (1725-1799), 177
Arderon, M. (at Milly, N. C. de Thy),
235
Ardoniis — Ardonyis — Santes dc, Pisau-
rensis ; " Liber de Venenis," 1492, 26
Arella, Carnerale Antonio, " Storia dell'
Elettricita," 2 Vols., 1839, 296
Arezzo, Ristoro d', 50
Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August
(1799-1875), in the Vortragen geh. in
tier Konigsberg Gesellschaft, 139
Argelatti, Philippe, native of Bologna
(1685-1755), " J3iblioth. Mediol.,"
528, 540
Argentelle, Louis Marc Antoine Robillard
d' (1777-1828), 302, 303
Argolus, Andreas, " Epistola ad Davi-
dem," 1610, 553
Aristarclyis of Samos (fl. 280-264 B.C.),
Greek astronomer, 505, 519, 530, 533,
54i
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), xix, 7, n, 15,
21, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. 41. 43. 57,
81, 88, 124, 129, 136, 230, 323, 333,
37°, 503, 504. 507, 5ii, 524, 53^,
533- 537, 539, 541, 543- " PG Anirna,
libri tres . . ." ; " De C<K!O, Hbri
quatuor . . ." ; " De Generatione . . .
libri duo . . ." ; " Meteorologicorum,
libri quatuor . . ." ; " De naturali
auscultationc . . ." ; Joannes a Trini-
tate; Joannes Baptista, 1748; Joannes
de Mechlinea. See Jourdain, C. M.
G. B. ; Scaligcr, J. C. ; Speng,
Leonhard ; Taylor, Thomas.
Arlandes, Comte d' (at Charles, J. A. C.),
288
Arlensis, " Sympathia septem mctal-
lorum," 1610, 553
Arlincourt, M. d' (at Cruikshanks, Win.),
33»
Armagh Observatory, 92
Armangaud, Jcune. See " Electricite
L .
Armed loadstones or magnets, 86 (Gil-
bert), 100 (Bacon).
Armees Meteores, Les, 115
Armstrong and Faraday (at Schiibler,
G.), 416
Armstrong, Sir William George, First
Lord, F.R.S., " Electric Movement in
Air and Water" (1810-1900).
Arnaldus de Villa Nova — Arnaud de
Villeneuve, dit de Bachuone (1235-
1312); "Tractatus de virtutibus her-
barum," 27, 505-506
Arnaud and Porna, 385
Arnim, Ludwig Achim von (1781-1831),
" Versuch. einer theorie . . ." ; "A
treatise on the magnet " : Halle, 1799,
285, 393. 557
Arnold, Brother, " La Salle Institute "
(Peregrinus), 45
Arnold, Matthew, Oxford Lectures, 6
Arrais, Edoardo, Madeira — Arraes. Du-
arte Madeyra, 135-137
Arrhenius, Claudius — Claes — Clas (1627-
1694), 140. H1- See " Nouv. Biogr.
Univ." iii, 351-352
Arrhenius, Svante August, Director of
the Physico-Chemical Department of
the Nobel Institute, Stockholm (1859),
391, 392
Arriaga, Rodericus de, 505
Arsaces, Queen of Ethiopia, 8
Arsinoe, temple of, 18
Arsonval, Arsene d' (1851), 420
Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia
(404-358 B.C.), 196
" Art de verifier les dates. ..." See
Saint Allais, 2
Art of making signals, both by sea and
by land, 149
Arts and Sciences, New Universal
History of, 155
Arts (Royal), Society of, London. See
Journal of the Society of Arts : London.
Asclepius, the ascendants or horoscopes
of, 541 (fl. end of fifth century A.D.).
Ash, Dr. Edward (on the action of
metals . . .), 337
Ashburner, Dr. John, translator of
Reichenbach's " Physico- Physiologi-
cal Researches," 140, 401
Askesian Society, founded by Pepys,
W. H., and others, 371
Association, British, for the advance-
ment of science. See British Associa-
tion.
Astatic needles, invented by Ampere
(A.D. 1820), 473, 475
Asterisks, large and small, in Gilbert's
De Magnete, 83, 545
Astrolabe (at A.D. 1235-1315), invented
by Hipparchus, 32, 46, 54, 148 (Bion),
520, 530
Astronom. Jahrbuch of Schumacher for
1838 (entered at Oersted, A.D. 1820),
455
Astronomia Britannica. See Newton,
John.
Astronomical Society of France. See
Paris.
Astronomical Society of Great Britain.
See London.
Astronomische Abhandlungen of Schu-
macher (entered at Fraunhofer, A.D.
1814-1815), 432
" Astronomische Gesellschaft Viertel-
jahrschrift : " Leipzig, 1866-1876, 165
Astronomy, Historical account of, 521
Astruc, Jean, " Historic de la faculte
de medecine de Montpellier," 506
Ateneo, Commentarii, Perego, Antonio :
Brescia.
Ateneo di Venezia. See Venetian
Athenaeum.
Athenac Britannicae. See Davies, Myles-
Miles.
Athenae Cantabrigienses. See Cooper,
C. H.
Athenae Oxionenses. See Wood, An-
thony a.
572
INDEX
" Athenaeum : '* London, 33, 134, 209,
495. 496
Athenaeum of Treviso, 253
Athens, School of, 542-544
Atkinson, H. (at Chladni, E. F. F.), 314
Atlantic line of no declination, 64
"Atlantic Monthly," 114
Atlas showing charts of magnetic varia-
tion, 62
Atmosphere, electricity of the, 319-321
Atmospheric electricity. See Electricity,
atmospheric.
" Atmospheric magnetism " (taken from
Jameson's Journal), 498
Atomic doctrine of Leucippus and
Democritus, 512
Atomic theory of chemistry, 307
Atomistic philosophy, 512
Atoms, doctrine of, 543
Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei :
Roma.
Atti (also Memorie) dell' T. R. Istituto
Venet. di scienze. See Venetian I. R.
Institution.
Attractive poynt of Robert Norman, 76
Atwood, George, " A description . . .
natural philosophy," 1776, 212
Aubenas, George Adolphe. See Miller,
B. E. C.
Aubert, II., "Electrometrischc Flaschc " :
Paris, 1789, 282
Aubrelicque of Compiegne, 34
Auge, Claude. See Larousse, Pierre.
Augustin, Friedrich Ludwig (/?. 1776),
" Vorn Galvanismus . . . " : Berlin,
1801; " Versuch einer geschichte
. . . elektricitat . . .," 1803, 326, 383
Augustine, Aurclius, Saint (354-430),
the most prominent of the Latin
Fathers of the Church, xix, 18, 20,
21, 25-26, 73, 74, 124, 523, 525. See
Monroe Cyclopaedia, Vol. I, pp. 300—
301.
Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis
d'Orleans, due d1 (1822-1907). See
Dazebry, Charles, et Bachelot, The.,
" Dictionnaire . . ." p. 300, xix.
Aurifaber, Andreas (1512-1559), " Suc-
cini lustoria " : Konigsberg, 1551, 8
Aurora Australis, or Southern Polar
Light, 141 See Ulloa, A. de, 165-166
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Polar
Light, 138-141 ; its first distinctive
name, NororljJs, was given it by the
Icelandic settlers of Greenland (Cleas-
by and Vigfusson's Dictionary), 114,
396. Consult the entries herein under
A.D. 1683, pp. 137-141, also at
Dalton, pp. 307-308; 1793—1797,
Robison, pp. 308-311; 1799, Hum-
boldt, pp. 330-335; l8°7» Young,
PP- 395-396; 1820, Arago, pp. 477-
481. Consult Ramus, J. F., and
Capron, J. Rand.
Aurora? Boreales, Catalogue of, 140
Aurorae Boreales, Chronological Sum-
mary of Authors, 140
Aurorae Boreales, Theory of Max Hell,
^33
Ausonius, Decimus Magnus (c, A.D. 309-
393), " Mosella," u, 18
Austen. See Roberts, Austen.
Autolycus of Pitana, Greek astronomer,
author of " De Sphaera " (fourth
century B.C.), 541
Autun, Honorius d', " Imago Mundi," 35
Autun. See Societe d' Agriculture.
" Avazamenti della Medicina e Fisica."
See Brugnatelli, L. V.
Avelloni, D. d', " Lettera . . . al fuoco
elettrico," 315, 555
Avempace, Arabian philosopher (d.
1138), 36, 39
Averroes, Muhammed Ibn Ahmed Ibn-
Roschd (1120-1198), 36, 38, 39-40,
124, 544. See Bayle, P., " Diet.
Historique," Vol. I. pp. 552-^62
Averroes et 1'Averroisme. See Renan.
Averroisme au xiiiu siecle, 37, 505
Avezac, M. d', " Aper$us historiques sur
la boussole," 1858-1860, 63, 536
Avicenna — Abu 'Ah Hufain Ibn 'Abd
Allah, Ibn Sind, Abohahs (980-1037),
22, 26, 27, 36, 37, 40, 169, 509, 516
Avogrado, Amadeo, Comte de Quaregna
(1776-1856). Consult Bibl. Univ.
Suppl. Arch. 1' Electricit£, Vol. II.
pp. 102—110; Mem. di Torino for
1823 and 1846; Botto, G. D.
Axon, William Edward Armilage (Proc.
Phil. Soc. of Manchester, Vol. 16,
pp. 166-171, 1877, relative to Strada) ;
" On the history of the word tele-
graph " (Proc. Lit. Soc. of Manchester,
Vol. 19 pp. 182-184, 1880).
Ayres, Brown (Journ. Franklin Inst.,
Ser. 3, Vol. 75, pp. 378~393 and
Scientific American Supplement,
July 6, 1878, concerning the tele-
phone).
Ayrton and Perry (at Faraday, M.), 492
Ayrton, William Edward. See Romag-
nosi (Journ. of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, 1871), 492
Azais, Pierre Hyacinthe (b. 1766),
" Theorie gen6rale dc 1'electricite, du
galvanisme et du magnetisme," 1807,
248
Azuni, Domenico Alberto (1749-1827),
" Dissertation sur Torigine de la
boussole," 1805 (Dissertazione sull'
origine della bussola nautica, 1797),
i, 3, 17. 22, 30, 31, 33, 43, 55, 57,
60, 69
Azyr, Vicq d', 302, 303
B
BABBAGE, Charles (1792-1871) at p.
467 and mentioned at p. 466
Babinet, Jacques (1794-1872) and
Ampere, A.M.," Expose des nouvelles
decouvertes, par Oersted . . ." : Paris,
1822, 475, 482, 483
INDEX
573
Babington, Dr. William (1756-1833),
(at Cruikshanks, , Wm., A.D. 1800),
338
Babini, G. (at Morichini, D. P., A.D.
1812-1813), 424
Bacelli, Liberto Giovanni (1772-1835),
" Risultati dell' csperienze . . .," 455,
479
Bache, Dr. William (at Mesmer, F. A.,
A.D. 1772), 237
Bacher, Alex. Andre Philippe Frederic,
Recueil periodique : "Journal de
medecine," 307
Bacon, Francis, Baron Verulam, called
by Sir Oliver Lodge " the herald of
the dawn of science " (1561-1626),
" Novum Organum" — Novum Organon
— Bibliographical Account, xiv, 88, 89,
90, 92, 99-103, 129, 167, 171, 511
Bacon, Roger — Bacconis, Rogerii —
(1214-^294), les editions de. See
Monroe, " Cyclopaedia," Vol. I. pp.
316, 317, also pages herein, 16, 34,
36, 37, 41-43, 45, 59, ii9, 124, 137
171
Baddam, Benjamin. See Royal Society.
B.Trle, K. van. See Barkrus.
Baffin, William, Baffin's Bay, 98
Bagdad Observatory; also Bagdad
University, 38
Baguette clivinatoirc. See Divining rod.
Baierischen (Bavarian), Akad. Neue
Abhandlungcn, 272, 316
Bailak — Bailik— of Kibdjack, 55, 59,
«7
Bailey, Nathan — Nathaniel — (d. 1742),
" Dictionanum Bntannicum . . .,"
1736, 555
Baillet, Adrien, " Jugement des
savants/' 109, 515
Bailly, Jean Sylvain, " Histoire de
1' astronomic modcrne," 513
Bain, Alexander (at Coxe, John Redman,
A.D. 1816), 436
Bain, William (1775-1853) (at Barlow,
Peter, A.D. 1820), 457
Bajon, M. (d. 1790) (at Bancroft, Edward
Nathaniel, A.D. 1769), 230
Baker, H. (at Ingen-housz, Johan), 257,
and (at Pearson, George), 326
Bakewell, Frederick C., "A manual of
electricity," 3rd ed., publ. in 1859;
" Electric Science, its history . . .,"
1853, 152, 223, 284, 338, 347, 381, 478,
487, 490
Balbi, Count Pado Battista (1693-1772),
294
Balck, Uldericus Dominicus (at Helmont,
J. B. van, A.D. 1621), 104
Baldwin, J. M., " Diet, of Philosophy
and Psychology," 32, 39, 40, 519, 520
Baldwin, Loammi (1745-1807), 199,
281
Balfour, Dr. John Hutton, of Edin-
burgh (1808-1884), 463
Ball, Sir Robert (at Newton, Sir Isaac),
133
Ball, Walter W. Rouse, " History of
Mathematics," 541
Ballard, " Magnetism of Drills," 554
Ballot, Christopher Hendrik Buys-,
" Meteor. Preisfrage," 1847, 44°
Bammacaro, Niccolo, " Tentamcn de vi
elcctrica," 273
Bancalari, Michele Alberto (b. 1805),
426
Bancroft, Edward Nathaniel (1744-
1820), 129, 229, 239, 298
Banks, Sir Joseph (1743-1820), 247,
250, 252, 456
Barbarossa — Emperor Frederick I. —
water compass, 30, 146
Barbarus, Hermolaus (1454-1495),
" Compendium scientiee . . .," 506.
See Baylc, Dictionary, Vol. I. pp. 633-
638.
Barbazan, Etienne, " Fabliaux," 30
Barberet, Denis (1714-1776), 167, 321
Barbcu-Dubourg, Jacques (1709—1779),
196
Barcelona Academy of Sciences, 317,
3i3
Bardenot, J. R. P., " Les recherchcs
. . . refutees " : Paris, 1824, 305
Barents, discoverer of Novaya Zemlya,
562, 563
Baret, E. (at Thcmistius of Paphlagonia),
54°
Baretus and Oviedo, narrative of, 1554,
192
Barlaeus — Bnerle — Kaspar van, " Obscrv.
. . . magnestcen en de magnetische
. . .," 1651, 136
Barletti, Carlo (d. 1800,) " Nuove
sperienze," 1771, 207, 249, 556
Barlocci, Saverio (1784-1845), 423
Barlow, Peter (1776-1862), 398, 427,
457-460, 465, 467, 473, 476, 484.
" Essay on magnetical attractions
. . .," 1823, 1824; " Encyclopaedia of
British Arts, Manufactures . . .," 1855.
Barlow, William Henry, 449, 460
Barlowe — Barlow — William (d. 1625),
1 8, 27, 57, 76, 78, 79, 80, 87, 90, 97,
141. " Magneticall Advertisements
. . .," 1613, 1616, 1618, 1843; " Navi-
gator's supply . . .," 1597.
Barnes, Robert (at Jadelot, J. F. N.),
330
Barneveldt — Barneveld — Joan van
Olden — Oldenbarneveld (1549-1619)
(at Grotius, Hugo), 518
Barneveldt— Barneveld — Wilhelm van
(1747-1826), 6, 325, 326
Baronio, Dr. Joseph, of Milan, 393
Barral, G. (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D.
1802), 362
Barral, J. A. (at Arago, D. F. J., A.D.
1820), 481
Barrow, Sir John, F.R.S. (1764-1848),
114, 438, 439, 467
Bart and Schweigger researches, 414
Barthelemy, Jean Jacques (1716-1795),
291. 301
574
INDEX
Barthema. See Vartliema.
Bartholinus, C. Thomas (1688), 554
Bartholinus, Erasmus, " De Cometus,"
122
Bartholinus, Thomas (1616-1680), " De
Luce animalium " ; " De naturae
. . .," 29
Bartholomacus de Glanvilla — Anglicus —
(fl. 1230-1250), " Liber de proprietati-
bus rerum," 13, 16, 34, 37, 124. See
" Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," 1908, Vol.
VII. pp. 1288-1290.
Bartoli (at Eandi, G. A. F. G., A.D.
1790), 294
Baruffaldi, Girolamo (at Brasavolus,
A. M.), 506
Barwick, G. A., xx
Basilica chimica. See Crollius, Oswal-
dus.
Basle — Basel — Acta Helvetica Physico
Mathematico — Botanico — Medica, 8
Vols.; Nova Acta, etc., 1751-1787,
299. See also Bernoulli L, James.
Basle — Basel — University, 147
Basse, Frederic Henri, of Hamel (at
A.D. 1803), 384
Batavae, De Antiq. Reipubl., 517
Batavi Scientific Society. See Haarlem.
Batavian Society of Experimental Philo-
sophy. See Rotterdam.
" Bath Chronicle," 128
Bathanarius, once Count of Africa, 25
Bathseba, mentioned at p. 5 (1033-975
B.C.).
Batines, Colomb de, " Bibliog.
Dantesca," 1845-1846, 44
Batteries (piles), electric, galvanic, etc. :
Volta, 1775; Van Marum, 1785;
Children, Cruikshanks, Davy, Troms-
dorff, Babington, Eastwick in 1800;
Wollaston, 1801; Pepys, Parrot in
1802; Ritter, Hachette in 1803;
Behrends and Dyckoff, Gay-Lussac
in 1804; Mar£chaux, 1806; Deluc,
1809; Zamboni, 1812; Dana, 1819.
Bauer, L. A., " U.S. Magnetic Tables
. . ."; "Terrestrial Magnetism . . .,"
60, 70, 79, 81, 91, 92, 138
Baumgarten — Crusius — Ludwig Fried-
rich Otto, 520
Baumgartner, Andreas von, Baron (b.
1793), 423. See Ettmghausen, also
" Zeitschrift fur physik. ..."
Bavaria, Electoral Academy of. See
Baierischen, 272
Bavarian Academy of Sciences, Munich,
273» 38o, 406, 407, 424, 432, 433, 477
Bayle, Pierre (1647-1706), " Dictionnaire
histprique et critique," 502 : London
edition, 1734.
Bayly and Wales, 242
Bayly, William, astronomer (d. 1810),
348
Bazin, Gilles Augustin (d. 1754), 208,
273. See Nouv. Biogr. G6n., IV.,
887.
Beacon fires (at 1084 B.C.), 4
Beaufoy, Col. Mark (1764-1827), 157,
426, 427
Beaume. See La Beaume.
Beaumont, Elie de, " Memoir of
Oersted," 455
Beauvais, M. (at Alexandre, Jean, A.D.
1802), 361
Beazley, C. Raymond (at Empedocles),
5H-5I2
Becani, Joannis Goropii. See Goropus.
Becanus. See Goropius.
Beccari — Beccaria — J acopo Bartolom-
meo (1682-1767), 199, 208; " De
artif. elect."; "A series of experi-
ments," 1775.
Beccaria, Giovanni Battista (1716-1781),
178, 189, 199, 206-208, 224, 226, 246,
253» 294, 320, 416
Beccher — Becher — Johann Joachim
(1635-1682), 261, 262, 502
Beck, M. van. See Moll. <
Beckensteiner, C. (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 386
Becket, John Brice (at Wilkinson, C. H.),
269, and (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Beckmann, Johann (1739-1811), " A
history of inventions . . .," 17, 27,
148, 152, 233
Becquerel, Adolphe, " Des applications
dc l'61ectricite . . . " : Paris, 1856-
1860, 386
Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond (1820-
1891), 218, 295; (Comptes Rendus,
1840, 1843-4-6-7, 1864); "Memoir
on Dia-Magnetism."
Becquerel, Antoino C6sar (1788-1878),
"Elements d'electro-chimie," 1843;
" Traite experimental de I'electricitS
et de magnetisme," 1834-5-6-7,
1840; " Experiences sur la developpe-
ment de I'electricit6 . . .," 1823;
"Trait6 de Physique . . .," 1844, 8,
29, 3J> 55. 195. 204, 258, 293, 321,
347. 352, 353, 37°. 373, 389, 4°3, 4*7.
426, 433, 441, 463, 494. See Vapereau,
G., Dictionnaire, p. 119, also Electro-
capillary phenomena.
Becquerel, A. C., and Becquerel, Edmond
(1820-1891), " Trait6 d'£lectricit<§ et
de magnetisme . . ." : Paris, 1855,
1856; " Elements de Physique . . ." :
Paris, 1847; " R&sume" de 1'historie de
1'electricite et du magnetisme " :
Paris, 1858, 24, 29, 30, 54, no, 129,
153. 271, 315, 38o, 388
Becquerel, A. C., and Brachet, A., 241,
271 ; Concernant des experiences sur la
torpille (Comptes Rendus, III., 135).
Becquerel, Edmond, and Fremy, Ed-
mond, " Recherches electro-chimiques
sur les proprie"t£s des corps elec-
trise" s " : Paris, 1852.
Beddoes, Thomas (1760-1808), 392
Beeck, A. van, Van Beck and Bergsma,
463, 473
Beer, Aug., 1868 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
INDEX
575
Beetz, W. von (at Zamboni, Giuseppe,
A.D. 1812), 420
Behaim — Behm — Martin (1430-1506),
67
Behmen. See Boehm.
Behrend (at Bohnenbergcr, J. J. F. von),
434
tehn
Behrends, T. G. B. (at Reinhold, J. C. L.,
and at Humboldt, F. H. Alex, von),
327* 333
Behrends, Wilhelm, of Francfort, 284,
387
Belcher, Sir Edward, 446
Belgium, Royal Academy of Sciences,
243, 259, 280
Belgrade, Giacomo (1704-1780), 420, 555
Bell, Alexander Graham (1847), 72, 234
Bell. Jud. Adv. Roman, 10
Bellani, Angelo (at Volta Alcssandro,
A.D. 1775), 248
Bellay, * Joachim du (1524-1560),
" Comme le fer quisuit la calamitc," 16
Belleau, Remy (1528-1577), " Ber-
geries," 16
Belli, Giuseppe (1791-1860) (at Tralles,
J. G., A.D. 1790), 293
Bellingeri — Berlingicri — Carlo Francesco
(d. 1848), 284, 355
Beloe, William (1756-1817), "The
Sexagenarian," 324
Belon, Pierre (1517-1564), 270
Beltrami, P., 1823 (at Gay-Lussac, J. L.,
A.D. 1804), 389
Bembo, Cardinal (at School of Athens),
542
Bencora — Ben Konah — Thebitius, 540-
541
Ben David — Bcndavid — Lazarus,
" Ueber die religion der Ebraer von
Moses," 9
Benedictus, Joannes Baptista (1530-
1590), 506
Benham, Charles E. (at Gilbert, William,
A.D. I60O), 92
Bennet, Abraham, Curate of Wirks-
worth7 F.R.S. (1750-1799), 127, 282,
289, 303. 336, 373. 430. 47°
Benzenberg, Johann Friedrich (1777-
1846), 208, 314
Berard, Frederic (1789-1828), 423 (at
Morichini, D. P., A.D. 1812-1813).
Beraud — Berault — Laurent (1703-1777),
"Dissertation . . . electricite " ;
" Theoria electricitatis," 1755, 163,
164, 167, 258, 259
Bercy, Ugo di. See Sercy.
Berdoe, M., " Inquiry into the influence
of the electric fluid . . .," 1771, 556
Bergen, Carolus, Augustus van (at Jalla-
bert, J. L., A.D. 1749), 189
Bergerac, Savinien, Cyrano de (1629-
1655), 103, 171
Bergeret — Berjeret — a physician of
Dijon, 183
Bergeron, Pierre (second half of sixteenth
century), " Abr6g6 de 1' historic . . .,"
60
Bergmann — Bergman — Sir Torbern
Olof (1735-1784), " Bemerkung . . .
Krystales"; " Commentarius . . .
turmalini " ; " Elektrische versuche
. . .," 32, 220, 221; History of
Chemistry and other sciences.
Bergsma and Van Beek (at Dutrochet,
R. J. H., A.D. 1820), 463
Berio (at Alexandre, Jean, A.D. 1802),
361
Berkel, A. van (at Shaw, George, A.D.
1791), 299
Berkeley, George, the works of, 511,
515. 520
Berlin, Astronomer Royal (Bernoulli),
14.7
Berlin Academy — University — Memoirs,
History and Reports — Abhandlungen,
153, 155. 170, 173. 192, 214, 217,
2l8, 220, 223, 225, 226, 230, 262,
263, 276, 288, 299, 308, 352, 392, 471,
478
Berlingieri, Francesco Vacca Leopold
(1732-1812), 206, 270, 300, 305, 327,
33i
Bernoulli, Christoph (at Rittcr, J. W.,
A.D. 1803—1805), 381
Bernoulli, Daniel (1700-1782) (Ada
Helvetica, III. 1758, p. 223), 147 160,
213
Bernoulli, family, 146-147, 155, 450
Bernoulli, James I. (1654-1705), 147
Bernoulli, John I. (1667-1748), 146,
226
Bernoulli, John II. (1710-1790), 147,
214
Bernoulli, John III. (1744-1807), 147,
226
Berrutti, S., " Elogio del ... Vassalli
Eandi," 1839, 29
Bertelli — Barnabita, Timoteo (1826-
1905), 3°. 44> 45. 47. 48> 5°, 5r. 57.
59, 60, 71, 72, no, in, H2, 526, 531 ;
" Memoria sopra P. Peregrine."
Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin,
Membre de 1'Institut, F.R.S. , " Chimie
organique. . . ."
Berthier, J. E., " Attractions et r6pul-
sions electriques," 1751, 555
Berthollet, Claude Louis de (1748-1822),
" Discours . . .," 233, 236, 279, 377,
386, 388
Bertholon de St. Lazare, Nicolle Pierre
(1742-1800), " De I'electncit6 du
corps humain," 1780; " De 1 61ec-
tricitedes v^getaux," 1783 ; " De 1'elec-
tricite des meteores . . .," 1787, 20,
129, 178, 189, 223, 229, 240, 243, 256,
257, 258, 259, 263, 270, 295
Bertholot, Marcellin Pierre Eugene
(1827-1907), " Collection des anciens
alchimistes grecs"; "Traditions du
moyen-age"; "La revolution chi-
mique," x, 17, 262, 514; " La Grande
encyclopedic." There is also a Berthe-
lot, Th., mentioned in Dezebry, Ch.
Berton, Henri Montan (1766-1844), 329
576
INDEX
Bertrand, J. L. F., 276
Berzelius, Jons Jacob von (1779-1848),
" Lehrbuch dcr Chemie," 5 Vols. :
Leipzig, 1848; " Af handling
Galvanismcn " : Stockholm, 1802;
" Essai sur la th6orie . . . " : Paris,
1819, 33<3, 340. 343. 345, 3^4, 368-
370, 419, 423, 466, 471, 472
Berzelius, J. J. F., and Kissinger, W.
(1766-1852), " Forsok med. elektr.
. . . : " Stockholm, 1806 (Aihandl. i
fisik, kemi och Mineralogi, De i).
Bcseke, J. M. G. (at Lavoisier, A. L., A.D.
1781), 262
Bessard, Toussainctc de, " Dialogue de
la longitude," 1574, 63, 72, 115
Betancourt, Augustin de, Telegraphic
line from Aranjuez to Madrid (Ronalds'
Catalogue, pp. 57 and 280). See
Betancourt y Molina.
Betancourt — Bethcncourt — y Molina,
Augustin dc (1760-1826), 176, 318
Betylos, 17
Bevis — Bevans — John (1693-1771), 175,
I78
Bew, Ch., 1824 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antome, A.D. 1803), 385
Beyer, M., Memoirs of, 198, and (at Gay-
Lussac, J. L.), 198, 389
Beziers, College de, 353
Bianchi, G., 1738 and 1740 (at Dalton,
John, A.D. 1793), 1 86, 308
Bianchi, Iso, 1781, 556
Bianchini, Dr. Giovanni Fortunato
(1719-1779), 1 86, 263, 385
Bianco, Andrea (beginning of fifteenth
century, A.D.), 62-63, 64, 65
Bianconi, G. (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D.
1802), 363
Bias, native of lona (fl. c. 570 B.C.), 7
Bibl. Acad. Beige de Namur, 256
Bibl. Dantcsca. See Batincs, Colomb de.
Bibl. Hisp. Vetus. See Antonii.
" Bibliografia Itahana di Elettricita e
Magnetismo . . .," Rossetti, T. E. ;
Cantoni, G. : Padua, 1881.
Bibliographer's Manual of William
Thomas Loundes, 1863, 547
Bibliografia Italiana. See Alessandrini,
Antonio, 256, 257, 293
Bibliographia I3ritannica.
Bibliographia Poetica. See English
Poets.
Bibliographical Dictionary, 503
Bibliographical History of Electricity
and Magnetism. General Cross-Entry
Index. See Encyclopaedia Britannica,
XIV., 2637 B-c- to A.D. 1821, 1-499,
82, 273, 294, 295, 346, 396, 408, 448,
466, 523, 533, 559
Bibliographic Analytique. See Miller,
B. E. C.
Bibliographic Astronomique, Lalande,
J. J. Le F. de, 233 ; Jocher, J. F.
Bibliographic de 1'astronomie. See
Houzeau, J. C., et Lancester, A.,
Bruxelles.
Bibliographic des magnetismus. See
Murhard, F. W. A.
Bibliographic Voltairienne, Querard,
J.M., 1842,59
Bibliography of Electricity and Mag-
netism. See Bibliographical History
of Electricity and Magnetism.
Bibliography of Electricity and Mag-
netism, " Die Weltliteratur der Elek-
tricitaet und des Magnetismus, von,
1860-1883 . . .": Wien, 1884. See
Bulletin of Bibliography, also " Bulle-
tino di Bibliografia. . . ."
Bibliography of Ptolemy's Geography.
See Winsor, Justin.
Bibliography of the sympathetic tele-
graph, at entry No. 1881 and at
pp. 409-418 of " Catalogue of Wheeler
Gift to the Am. Inst. El. Eng.," 1909.
Bibliotcca Fisica d'Europa (at Morichini,
D. P., A.D. 1812-1813), 248, 4424. See
Brugnatelli, L. V.
Biblioteca Germanica (at Morichini,
D. P.), 326, 333, 424; edited by Bura,
Configliachi, Ridolfi and Santini.
Biblioteca Italiana (at Morichini, D.
P.), 296, 424; edited by Acerbi,
Brugnatelli, Gioberti. Configliachi,
Monti and others, 5 Vols., 256, 293,
295, 296, 298, 306, 363, 424, 464, 482,
554. See Lombardy. Continued as
Giornala dell' l.R. Istituto Lombardo
. . . e Biblioteca Italiana up to
1856; it was not repubhshed until
1858-1862, when it appeared as " Atti
dell* l.R. Istituto Lombardo."
Biblioteca Marciana : Venice, 62, 63
Biblioteca Modenese. See Tiraboschi,
G.
Biblioteca Napolitana, 516
Biblioteca Oltramontana, 295
Biblioteca Oriental y Occidental, 516
Biblioteca Vaticame, Codices, 526
Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurial-
ensis. See Casin, Michael.
Bibliotheca Belgica, 517. See Foppers,
J- F.
Bibliotheca Bibhothecarum, 54
Bibliotheca Britannica, A. Robert
Watt: London, 16, 97, 117, 131,
134, 140, 170, 178, 231, 238, 240,
244, 248, 256, 263, 270, 282, 299, 306,
307, 313. 315, 3^8, 337, 340, 347, 359,
363, 367. 37°, 37L 373, 383, 384. 393,
394, 403, 406, 407, 414, 416, 420, 423,
424, 426, 432, 441, 455, 460, 477, 499,
540
Bibliotheca Chemica : Glasgow, 1906,
43, 262, 520
Bibliotheca Enucleata of Schielen, J. G. :
Ulm, 1679, 554
Bibliotheca Grotiana. See Rogge,
H. C.
Bibliotheca Historica Italica . . . 1874.
See Merula, Gaudentius.
Bibliotheca Historica Medii ^Evi. By
August Potthast.
INDEX
577
Bibliotheca Historico-Naturalis. . . .
See Zuchold, E. A.
Bibliotheca Hulthemiana : Gand, 202
Bibliotheca Latina Mediae . , . /Etatis
(Medii Mvi) of Albert Johan, 531
Bibliotheca Lusitana. See Machado, B.
Bibliotheca Mediol. See Argellati, P.
Bibliotheca Palatina Vindobonensis :
Vicenna.
Bibliotheca Patrum Ecclcsiasticorum
Latinorum, 523
Bibliotheca Sacra. See Le Long Le
Pere Jacques.
Bibliotheca Scriptorum Medicorum. See
Manget, J. J.
Bibliotheca Technologica. See Martin,
Benjamin.
Bibliothecarius Quadripartitus. See
Hpttinger, J. H.
Bibliothek der philosophic : Berlin.
Bibliothqjt electro-technische : Braun-
schweig und Wien.
Bibliothek fur philosophic : Berlin.
Bibliotheque Bibliographique : Paris.
Bibliotheque Britannique : Geneve et
Bruxelles, 1796-1815, 199, 231, 249,
482
Bibliotheque de 1' Arsenal : Paris, xi
Bibliotheque d'histoire scientifique. See
Hamy, E. T.
Bibliotheque dcs actualites industrielles.
See Urbanitsky.
Bibliotheque des auteurs ecclesiastiques.
See Dupin, M. J. J., 524
Bibliotheque des sciences . . ., 6 Vols. :
Lyon, 1668.
Bibliotheque des sciences contem-
poraines : Paris.
Bibliotheque du magnetisme animal :
Paris.
Bibliotheque Egyptologique : issued in
Paris during 1897, *4
Bibliotheque Germanique. See Biblio-
teca Germanica.
Bibliotheque Italienne. See Biblioteca
Italiana.
Bibliotheque Mazarine : Paris, xi, 108
Bibliotheque Nationale : Paris, xi,
xix, xxi, 30, 33, 43, 45, 53, 57,
102
Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve ; Paris,
xii, xix, xx
Bibliotheque Universelle : Geneve et
Bruxelles, 140, 193, 257, 298, 416,
420, 433, 453, 476, 477» 482, 491. 49.2,
494, 499. The Archives de TElectricite
is a supplement; likewise, the
Archives des sciences physiques.
Bichat, Marie Francois Xavier (Biogr.
Gen., VI. 2-20), 284, 285, 305
Biddle, Memoir of Seb. Cabot, 69
Bidone, Giorgio (1781-1839), " Descrip-
tion d'une nouvelle boussole ..."
(M6m. de Turin, 1809-1810).
Bienvenu and Wittry de Abot, 431
Bifilar balance and balance Electro-
scope, 470-471
Bigeon, L., in Ann. de Ch. et de Phys.
(at ^pinus, F. M. U. T.), 218
Bigot de Morogues, Pierre Marie Sebas-
tien (1776-1840), " Chronological
catalogue . . .," 315
Billingsley, C., " Longitude at sea . . .,"
1714, 554
Bina, Andrea (b. 1724), " De physicis
experimentibus . . .," 2 Vols. 1733-
Binat, Rev. F., " Electricorum Effec-
tuum . . .," 1751, 555
Bindemann, Carl, " Der heilige Au-
gustinus," 1844-1855, 25
Bio -bibliographic. See Chevalier.
Biografia degli Italiana illustri. See
Tipaldo, E. A.
Biographia Britannica, 80, 91, 124, 522;
Kippis, Andrew : London, 1793, 16
Biographia Medica. See Hutchinson,
Benjamin.
Biographia Philosophica. See Martin,
Benjamin.
Biographia Scotica. See Stark.
Biographical Dictionary of the Society
of Useful Knowledge, 502
Biographical Dictionary. See herein
"General Biographical Dictionary,"
by the different authors, Alex.
Chalmers, John Gorton, J. B. Lippin-
cott and H. J. Rose.
Biographic Generate . See Nouvelle Bio-
graphic Gen6rale.
Biographic Medicale, 218, 258, 516
Biographic Nationale, 559
Biographic Universelle, ancienne et
moderne. See Michaud, M.
Biographic Universelle et Portative,
233, 277, 293, 330
Biographisch-Literarisches Handwor-
terbuch. See Poggendorff.
Biographischen Lexikon, 513
Biography, Ecclesiastical. See Words-
worth, C.
Bion, Nicolas (1652-1733), 32, 148
Biot, Edouard Constant (1803-1850), 7,
380 (Acad. des Sciences, Savants
Etrangers, Vol. X.).
Biot, Jean Baptiste (1774-1862),
" Traite de Physique"; " Traite
elementaire d 'astronomic et de
physique."
Biot and Arago, Biot and Becquerel
(Comptes Rendus, 1839, viii, 223).
Biot and Cuvier (Annales de Chimie,
Vol. XXXIX. p. 247).
Biot, Faraday and Sarart.
Biot, Oersted, Arago, Ampere, Davy,
etc, ; Paris, 1822, 93, 139, 141, 157,
195, 247, 273, 275, 276, 277, 279, 284,
313. 349* 396-380, 388, 390, 393,
402, 407, 419, 455, 462, 472, 476,
480
Birch, John (1745-1815), "Delia forza
dell1 Elettricita , . ./' 1778; " Essay
on medical application of electricity/'
1803, 28j
578
INDEX
Birch, M., " Observations on medical
electricity," 1779-1780.
Birch, Thomas (1705-1766), F.R.S..
131, 132, 175, 183, 195, 272; on the
luminousness of electricity (Phil,
Trans, for 1754). See History of the
Royal Society.
Bird, Golding (1814-1854), 325, 426,
498
Biringuccio, V., " Pyrotechnic," 1572,
553
Birkbeck, George (1776-1841), 458
Bjcrregaard, C. H. A., " Sufi interpreta-
tions," 38
Black, John, " An attempt . , . electro-
chemical theory," 370
Black, Joseph (1728-1799), 309
Blackborrow — Beckborrow — Peter (at
Bond, Henry, A.D. 1637), 118
"Blackwood," London (at Faraday,
Michael), 487
Blaeu, G. and J., " Th6atre du Monde,"
1645. 554
Blagden, Sir Charles (1748-1820), " An
account of some fiery meteors," 1784
(Phil. Trans. LXXIV. Part I.).
Blagrave — Blagrau — John, eminent
English mathematician, 94, 95
Blagrave, Joseph (1689), 552; "Trait6
de la sphere du monde."
Blake, Professor (at Franklin, Benjamin,
A.D. 1752), 197
Blakcy, Robert, " History of the philo-
sophy of the mind," 237
Blanc, Gilbert (at Fowler, Richard,
A.D. 1793), 307
Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna Hahn-
Hahn (1831-1891), " Isis Unveiled,"
9, 10, 12—13, 15, 17, 64, 105, 108, 120,
135. 237, 401, 414, 483, 523
Bloch, Marcus E., Naturgeschichte der
Auslandischen fische," 1786, 299
Blome's translation of Descartes' Philo-
sophy, 133
Blondeau, M. (at Swinden, J. H. van,
A.D. 1784), 274
Blondus, Flavius, " Italia Illustrata,"
211
Blondus, Michael An^elo (1497-1560),
De ventis et navigatione," 58, 211
Bloomfield, Robert, " Norfolk," 1806,
95
Biount, Sir Thomas Pope, " Censura,"
93
Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (1752-
1840), 327, 331
Blundeville, Thomas (b. 1530), 72, 94,
534. See Diet. Nat. Biogr., 1886,
V. 271 ; " Theoriques of the seven
planets," 1602; " His exercises . . .,"
1606.
Boaz, James (at Pasley, C, W., A.D.
1808), 398
Bobierre, A. (a* Davy, Sir Humphry,
A.D. 1801), 345
Bocardo, Nuova Encyclopaedia Italiana :
Torino, 1877, 61
Boccalini, Trajano, Advices from Par-
nassus, 10
Bochart, Samuel (1599-1667), " Geo-
graphia Sacra " : Caen, 1646; Frank-
fort, 1681, 5, 523
Boddaert, Pierre D. M. (b. 1730),
" Histoire de la boussole," 61
Bodies, anti-magnetic, observations on,
387
Bodin, J. (1596), " Universae naturae
theatrum, ' 1596, 553
Bodleian Library at Oxford, xix, 53.
This library was founded in 1602
by Sir Thos. Bodley. It is now the
largest University library in the world,
and is second in England to the
British Museum Library which was
founded in 1753.
Boeckmann, Johann Lorenz (1741-1802),
285,308, 316, 393, 473
Boehm — Bohme — Behmen — Jacob
(1575-1624), 65, 75
Bocrhaave, Hermannus (1668-1738),
" Biblia naturee," on title page, 132,
157, 169-170, 202
Bogulawski, Albrecht von (at Beccaria,
G. B., A.D. 1753), 208
Bohadasch, J. B., " Disscrtatio," 229,
385
Bohnenberger, Gottlieb Christian (1732-
1807), 434
Bohnenberger, Johann Joseph Friedrich
von (1765-1831), 364, 433
Boinet, Amed6e, xii
Boisgeraud— Boisgerard — Junior (Phil.
Mag., LVII. 203), 455-456
Boissardus, Joannes Jacobus (at Bar-
barus, Hermolaus), 506
Boissier, C. Henri, "Memoire sur la
decomposition de 1'eau," 1801, 229,
329, 330, 375
Boisvalle, Sieur de Vissery de, 268,
269
Bollenatus, Bnrgundo-Gallus, 1607, 553
Bologna Academy and University, Com-
mentani, Rendiconto, Memorie (Trans-
actions), 258, 268, 283, 284, 304, 509
Bologna, " Istituto delle scienze ed
arti liberali," 1745-1748.
Bologna, " Istituto nazionale Italiano,"
Memorie, 248
Bologna, Journal Encyclopedique, 237,
275
Bologna, Nuovi Annali delle scienze
naturali : Alessandrini, Bertoiini,
Gherardi e Ranzani, 30 Vols., 1834-
1854-
Bolonian stone, 206. See Canton's
phosphorus.
Bolten, Jochim Frederick, 26, 245
Bolton, Henry Carrington, " Select
Bibliography of Chemistry," 32, 37,
65, 228, 502, 513, 517, 548
Boltzmann, Ludwig (1844-1906) (Sitz.
Ber. Akad. Wiss, Math.-Nat., Vol.
52), 492
Bombay Magnetic Observatory, 440
INDEX
579
Bompass, Charles Carpenter, " Essay
on the nature of heat, light and elec-
tricity," 199
Bonaparte. See Napoleon.
Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Spain, 463
Bonaventura. See Fidanza, John, " Die
mysterien und des magnetischen
somnambulismus," 1856.
Boncompagni " — Ludovisi Baldassare
(1821-1894), 54. See Bulletino di
Bibliografia.
Boncompagni — Buoncompagni and Vin-
cent, 520
Bond, Henry, " The longitude found."
See Seaman's Kalender, 1637, a^&0
Phil. Trans, for 1668, 1672, 1673, 118
Bondioli, Pietro Antonio (1765-1 808), 308
Bonel, A., Histoire de la telegraphic . * . :
Paris, 1857.
Bonelli, G., Telegraphies electro-chimique
de Bondli et Casselli," 1863, 338
Boniface, the Apostle of Germany (680-
754), 553
Bonnefoy, Jean Baptiste, " De 1'appli-
cation de I'electricite a 1'art de guenr,"
299, 385
Bonnejoy, Octave Ernest, " Des applica-
tions de I'electricite a la therapeu-
tique," 305
Bonnet, Charles (at Aldini, Giovanni,
A.D. 1793), 258, 272, 505 (1720-1793).
Bonnycastle, Charles (1792-1840), 457,
468
Bonon. See Bologna.
Boot — Boodt — Anselme Boece de(i55O-
1632), " Gemmarum et lapidum his-
toria," 17
Borda, Jean Charles (1733-1799), 76,
249, 266
Bordeaux, Academic Royale des Sciences,
167, 183, 203, 286, 288, 389
Borel, Pierre, M.D. (1620-1689), " Biblio-
theca Chimica . . . " : Parisiis, 1654.
Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso (1608-1679),
" Applicazione dell' elettricita alia
navigazione," 1855, 96, 97, 240, 270
Borough — Burrowes — William (1536-
1599), " A discourse of the nature
(variation) of the cumpas . . .,"1581,
76, 77, 117
Borsetti, Ferranti Bolani (Ferrante
Giovanni), 507, 510
Bos, van den. See Moll.
Boscovitch (Boscovich), Father Roger
Joseph — Ruggiero Giuseppe — (1711-
* 139, 140.
Bossange — Bosange — letter from Lieb-
nitz, 152
Bosscha, J. (at Volta, Alessandro, A.D.
1775), 247
Bossut, Charles. See Histoire, G6n6rale
des Mathematiques, 35, 147
Bostock, John (1774-1846), 17, 249,
415, 419, 443; "An account of the
history and present state of galvan-
ism " : London, 1818 ; " Outline of the
history of the galvanic apparatus, etc."
Bostock and Riley (at Thales, 600-
580 B.C.), 8
Botto, A. (at Mariner's Compass), 59
Botto, Giuseppe Domenico (1791-1865)
(Mem. de Turin for 1843, 1845
and 1851; Botto and Avogrado
" Memoire sur . . . les courants elec-
triques . . . " : Turin, 1839).
Bottomley, James Thompson, " Elec-
trometers " : London, 1877 (describes
the quadrant and absolute electro-
meters of Lord Kelvin).
Boucher, Pierre Joseph (1715-1780),
" Recueil des savants 6trangers," 59
Boudet, Dr., " De I'electricite en
medecine," 229
Boudin, Jean Charles Marie, " Histoire
physique et medicale de la fondre,"
1854, 389
Bou6, A. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Bouguer, Pierre, Membre de 1'Academie
Royale des Sciences and F.R.S. (1698-
1758), Traite de la navigation," 1753,
138, 225
Bouguerel, Le Pere Joseph (1680-1753),
114
Bouillet, J. Marie Nicolas, 109, 295, 534
Bouillon-Lagrange, Edma Jean Bap-
tiste, Marquis de (1764-1840), 431
Boulanger — Boulenger — Jean, " Traitd
de la sphere du monde," 1688, 553
Boulanger — not Boullangere — Nicholas
Antoine (1722-1759), 185, 191-192
Boulay, H. de, " Histoire de l'Universit6
de Padone," 505
Boulger, Demetrius Charles, " History
of China," 2
Bourdonnay, D. (at Coulomb, C. A. de,
A.D. 1785), 276
Bourguet (at A.D. 1812, Mr. Donovan),
419
Bourinot, J. G., 32, 115
Boussole — Bussola — Mariner's Compass.
See Azuni, D. A., i, 22, 55, 60, 69;
Bertelli, T., 57, 72; Davies, i;
Fincati, 58; Klaproth, i, 3, 5, 22
passim, 28, 29, 61, 69, 72; Grimaldi,
6 1 ; McCulloch, 61 ; Molinier, 61 ;
Magliozi, 61 ; Morveau, boussole &
double aiguille, 233 ; Signorelli, P. N.,
58; Venanson, 5, 17. B.C. mo,
p. 3; 1068, p. 4; 1033-975, p. 5;
1022, p. 5. A.D. 121, p. 21 ; 235,
p. 22; 265-419, p. 22; 543, p. 27;
658, p. 27; 806-820, pp. 27-28; 1067-
1 148, p. 28 ; 1111-1117, p. 29 ; 1 190-
1210, p. 30; 1204-1220, p. 30;
1207, p. 31; 1235-1315, p. 31; 1250,
p. 33; 1260, p. 43; 1265-1321, p. 43;
1266, p. 44; 1269, pp. 45-54; 1270,
p. 54; 1271-1295, p. 55; 1282, p. 55;
1302, p. 56; 1327-1377, p. 58; resume
at pp. 59-61 passim.
Bouvier de Jodoigne. See Jodoigne.
Bowditch, Nathaniel (1773-1838), 412,
4<>3
580
INDEX
Boyle, Robert (1627-1691), " Mechani-
cal origin . . . electricity," 1675;
" Experiments and Notes . . .,"1676;
" Experiments and Observations . . .,"
1681; "Philosophical Works . . .,"
1725, 7, 113, 125, 130-132, 135. M7.
167, 262
Boze — Bose — Georg Mathias (1710-
1761), 166, 169, 179, 182, 185, 203
Bozc, Gros de. See Claude.
Bozolus, Joseph (at A.D. 1767), 226-227,
244
Brachet. See Bccquerel, A. C., 241,
27*
Brackett, C. F., Professor, xii
Brahe, Tycho. See Tycho Brahe.
Bramaiite, Lazzari (c. 1444-1514), 544
Brandc, William Thomas (1788-1866),
"A Manual of Chemistry"; "Dic-
tionary of Science . . ."; " Disser-
tatio . . .," 37, 347, 370. 425. 426,
455. 4**5, 494. 497- S™ Quarterly
Journal of Science.
Branden, F. J. van den, " Biographisch
Woordenbuck," 518
Brandes, lleinrich Wilhclm (1777-1834),
195, 208, 314
Brandt, Georg (1694 1768), 163
Brandt and Caltcnbach, 518
Brannt, W. T., translator of Langbcin's
work on the electro-deposition of
metals, 24
Brard, Cypricn Prosper (1788-1838),
Manuel du mincralogiste," 153,
286
Brasavolus, Antonius Musaa (1500-1570),
26, 506, 525. See Mazzuchelh, G.M.,
" Gli Scrittori . . .," Vol. II. Part IV.
pp. 2023-2028; likewise Joeher, C. G.,
" Allgemeines, Gel. Lex.," pp. 1338-
1339-
Braun, C. J. H. E. (at Dalton, John, A.D.
1793). 3°#
Braun, J. A. (at Swinden, J. II. van,
A.D. 1784), 274
Bravais, Auguste (b. 1811), 139
Bray, William (at Boyle, Robert, A.D.
1675), 130
Bray ley, E. W. (at Gilbert, William, A.D.
1600), 91
Brechmann, Arrigi (at Gioia, Flavio, A.D.
1302), 56
Breda, Jacob van, 282
Breguet, Louis Frar^ois Clement (1804-
1883) ; Breguet et Betancourt, 318
Breislak, Scipio (1748-1826), also Con-
figliachi, Carlini and others, 363
Bremmer, Rev. James, 437
Bremond, Francois de, 555, 559
Brenning, Emil (at Plotinus of Alexan-
dria), 533
Brera, V. L., " Giornale di medicina
. . .," 12 Vols. : Padova, 1812-1817,
300. 363
Brescia, Academy and Athenaeum. Com-
mentarii del Ateneo di Brescia, 1814-
1851, 420
Brescia, Commentarii, dell' Accademia
di Scienze ... del : Mella, 1808.
Breslau Academy, Miscellanea . . .
Ephemerides, Academiae Caes. Naturae
Curiosum . . .," 24 Vols. 1670-1706.
Also " Ephemerides, Acad. Ca?s. Nat.
Curios., 5 Vols. : Novimb., 1712-1722 ;
Act a Physico-medica Acad. Caes.
Leopoldino-Carolinae, Nat. Cur. . . ,,
18 Vols. : Novimb., 1727-1791.
Bressy, Joseph (at A.D. 1797), 324, 557
Breton freres (<jtf Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 385
Breton, Madame Le, " Hist, et Appl. de
1'electncite . . .," 229
Brewer, John Sherren (1810-1879), " Fr.
Rogcri Bacon," 41, 42, 171, 269. See
"Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," 1908, Vol. X.
pp. 1202-3.
Brewster, Sir David (1781-1868), 96, 127,
J34. 153. 156, 185, 208, 213/225, 230,
261, 271, 275, 288, 298, 307, 311, 346,
379, 390. 409, 4IJ» 423. 427. 432, 44i.
444. 457. 458, 464-467, 471, 479, 480
Brewster, Sir David, and Ferguson,
James, " Essays . . . astronomy,
electricity . . .," 1823.
Brewster, Sir David, and Robison, John,
" A system of mechanical philoso-
phy . . .," 4 Vols. 1822. Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia of Science, 1810-1830;
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1831—
1832; Edinburgh Philosophical Jour-
nal, 1819-1824; London and Edin-
burgh Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science,i832-i85o; London,
Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science,
1851; "Treatise on Magnetism,"
1838; " Edinb. Encyclop.," IV. 173;
" Encyclop. Britannica," Vol. XXI.
See Copley Medal, Royal Medal, Rum-
ford Medal.
Breze, II Marchcse de, 347
Briand, J., 1854 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
Bridges, John Henry, Oxford, 1897,
37. 43
" Brief e uber Kalabrien und Sizilien : "
Gottingen, 507
Briet, Philippe (1601-1668), " Annales
Mundi," 56, 58
Briggs, Charles F., " The story of the
telegraph . . .," 1858, 159
Bright, Charles, son of Edward Brails-
ford Bright, " Yof Dakar underground
cables . . .," 1893.
Brilhac's plate electrical machine, 257
Brisson, Dictionnaife de physique, 1781,
556
Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1723-1806),
" Dictionnaire raisonne de physique,"
6 Vols., 1800, 204, 247
Bristol, C. M. F. (at 1773), 240, 556
Bristol Philosophical (Pneumatic) Insti-
tution, 343
Britannica Baconica. See Childrey.
INDEX
581
British Academy, Proceedings of the,
1905-1906, 54
British Annual, i, 28, 80
British Association for the advancement
of science, London ; originated in 1831 .
Reports, Journals, etc., 142, 240, 267,
313, 335. 377. 389, 440, 446, 466, 47i,
490
British Encyclopaedia. See Nicholson.
British Museum, London, 54, 80, 106,
143, 272, 550, 551. See Bodleian
Library.
British Quarterly Review. See Quar-
terly Review.
Brittain, Alfred, 523, 536
Britton, John (at Gilbert, William, A.D.
1600), 91
Brix, T. W., " Annalcn der telegra-
phic": Berlin, 1870.
Brockelmann, Carl (at Avempace), 39
" Brocklfcuis' Konversations-Lexikon,"
F. A. Brockhaus : Berlin, Leipzig und
Wien, 498
Brook, Abraham, electrometer, otc., 231,
281
Brougham, Lord Henry, 262, 457
Broussonet, Pierre Marie Auguste, 192
Brown, J. A., on the aurora borealis,
140
Brown, R., 1692, 553
Browne, G. H. (at Duvcrney, J. G., A.D.
1700), 148
Browne, Richard (at Arrais, E. D., A.D.
1683), 136
Browne, Sir Thomas (1605-1682),
" Pseudodoxia Epidemica," 1650, 7,
17, 18, 66, 69, 71, 113, 114, 123, 124,
127, 128
Browning, J. (at Ingen-housz, A.D. 1779),
257
Browning, Robert, translator of /Eschy-
lus, 3
Brucker, Johann Jacob (1690-1770),
" Histoire critique de la philosophic,"
541. See Enfield.
Brugmans, Anton (1732-1789), 215, 254,
494
Brugmans, Sebald Justin (at Brugmans,
Anton, A.D. 1778), 254-255
Brugnatelli, Gaspare (1795-1852), son
of L. V. Brugnatelli. Joined Con-
figliachi in the editorship of the
Giornale di Fisica, 363
Brugnatelli, Luigi Valentino (1761-
1818), " Biblioteca fisica d'Europa ";
" Annali di Giornale di Pisica,
Chimica . . ."; " Principles " ;
" Avanzamenti . . . Fisica"; "Gior-
nale di Pa via"; " Grunsatte ";
" Giornale fisico-mcdico . . ."; " Ncf-
tizie . . ." (1802, 1805) 247, 248,
258, 282, 284, 292, 294, 295, 296,
297, 298, 303, 306, 329, 330, 337, 350,
36i, 362, 363, 383, 393, 394, 408, 419,
424
Brugnatelli, L. V., and Brera, V. L.,
" Commentarii medici," 1796-1799.
Brugnatelli, L. V., Brunacci, G., and
Configliachi, Pietro, " Giornale di
fisica, chimica e stona naturale."
Brugsch, Dr. H., founder of " Zeitschrift
fur /Egyptische Sprache und Alter-
thumskunde," 14
Brurnoy, Pierre (1688-1742), " Le
theatre des Grecs," 4, 7
Brunacci, G. (at Brugnatelli, L. V.,
A.D. 1802), 363
Brunet, G., Annuaire des societ£s
savantes, 1846.
Brunet, Jean Charles, Manuel du
Libraire, 54, 63, 71, 146, 539, 540
Brunctto, Latini (1230-1294), xix, 34,
43, 56, 59, 5^4
Bruno, Giordano (at Lully, Raymond),
3i, 33
Bruno, M. de, " Rccherches . . . fluida
magnetique . . .," 1785, 556
Bruns, V. von (at Jadelof, J. F. M.,
A.D. 1799), 330
Brussels— Bruxelles — Annales de Physi-
que (at Ampere, A. M., A.D. 1820),
476
Brussels — Bruxelles — Annales de 1'Ob-
servatoire. See Quetelet, L. A. J.
Brussels— Bruxelles — Annales Generates
des sciences physiques et naturelles,
par Mr. Bory de St. Vincent, 255
Brussels, Royal Academy, Memoirs,
etc., 195, 243, 256, 273, 289, 293, 298,
299, 3J4
Bryant, W. (at Adanson, Michael), 193
Bryant, William Cullen, 6
Brydone, Patrick, 27, 229, 385
Buccio, M., 1812 (at Jadelot, J. F. N.,
A.D. 1799), 33°
Buch, Leopold de (Phil. Mag., Vol.
XXIV. p. 244), 393
Buchan, Captain David (1780-1839),
467
Buchmeri, Spec. Acad. Nat. Cur. Hist.,
103
Bucholz, Christoph Christian Friedrich
(1770-1818), 400
Buddha (at Zoroaster), 541
Budge, 1846 (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Bucil College at Angers, 179
Buff, Heinrich (at Brande, W. T., A.D.
1813), 426
Buff, M. (b. 1805) (Phil. Mag. N. S., Vol.
VII. p. 22), 258
Buffon. See Le Clerc, Georges Louis.
Buisson, F. R., " Precis historique . . .,"
305
Bulletin de G6ographie, 28, 30
Bulletin de la Societ6 Academique de
Laon, 94
Bulletin des sciences mathematiques,
astronoraiques, physiques et chimiques.
1 6 Vols . See J^erussac, Andre Etienne,
Bulletin des sciences technologiques, 19
Vols. : Paris. See Ferussac, Andre
Etienne (1786-1836).
Bulletin du Bibliophile, 265, 516
582
INDEX
Bulletin International de I'electricit6 :
Paris, 1882-1895.
Bulletin of Bibliography for 1905, 138
Bulletino di Bibliografia e di storia delle
scienze . . . de Boncompagni," 54,
520
Bulletino Meteorologico dellj Osserva-
torio del Collegio Romano . . . e
bibliografia. . . . See Sacchi, Angelo
(1818-1878).
Bulletino telegrafico de Regno d'ltalia,
1865-1888.
Buniva, Dr. Michele Francisco (at Hunter,
John, A.D. 1773), 241.
Burci, 1852 (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Burgess, George, translator of Plato's
" Ion," 13, 15, 20
Burigny, J. L'Evegne de, 518
Burke, Edmund (at Callender, Elisha,
A.D. 1808), 400
Burkhardt (at Swinden, J. H. van, A.D.
1784), 273; also (at Jadelot, J. F. N.,
A.D. 1799), 330
Burnet (at Dutrochet, R. J. H., A.D.
1820), 464
Burq, M. V., " Mctallo-therapie," 1853,
233
Burrough, Stephen, master of the
" Serchtrift," 69, 522
Burstyn, J. P. (at Zamboni, Giuseppe,
A.D. 1812), 420
Burton, Dr. William (at Boerhaave, H.,
A.D. 1743), 170
Busby, Dr. Thomas, translator of
Lucretius' " De rerum natura," 19
Bushee, J. (at Gay-Lussac, J. L., A.D.
1804), 389
Bussola nautica, origine della. See
Collina, A.
Bussy, Antoine Alexandre Brutas,
"Manipulations Chi miques," 1827, 340
Butet, Pierre Roland Fra^ois, 274, 326,
330
Buti, Francesco da, 57, 63. See Maz-
zuchelli, G. M., " Gli Scrittori , . .,"
Vol. II. Part IV. pp. 2468-2469.
Butler, Alban (at Augustine, St., A.D.
426), 25
Butler, A. J. (at Dante, Alighieri, A.D.
1265-1321), 44
Butler, C. (at Grotius, Hugo), 518
Butler, Samuel (1612-1680), author of
" Hudibras," 99
Butler, William Archer (at Pythagoras),
537
Butschany, Matthias, " Dissert, ex
phsenom. electricis . . .," 1757, 555
Butterfield's wonderful collection of
loadstones," 159, 175, 402
Buttmann, " Bemerkungen . , . des
magnetes und des basaltes," 15
Buys-Ballot. See Ballot, C. H. Bu;ys.
Buzzi, F. (at Wilkinson, C. N., A.D. 1783),
270
Byerges, Swedish Count (at A.D. 1266),
45
CAB^EUS, Nicolaus — Cabeo, Nicelo —
(1585-1 650) , ' ' Philosophia Magnetica, ' '
1629, 7, 33, 48, 50, 109, no, 112, 113,
120, 146, 1 60
Cabot bibliography. See Winship, G. P.
Cabot, Jean (at Cabot, Sebastian,
A.D. 1497), 69
Cabot, Sebastian (1474-1557), 65, 68,
69, 115, 521, 522. See Diet. Nat.
Biogr., 1886, VIII. 166-171
Cadet, Jean Marie (1751-1835), 235,
249, 273
Cadozza, Giovanni (1816-1877), "Sulla
polarizazione rotatoria ..." (Gior-
nale dell' I.R. Istit. Lombardo, 1852,
1853, 1854. See also Atti. Accad.
Sc. : Torino, IV. 729-755, 1869).
Caesalpinus, Andreas (1519-1^03), " De
Metallicis," 17, 501
Cassar, Caius Julius (102-44 B.C.), " De
bello Africano," 24
Caesar, Crispus. See Crispus.
Caesarc, Giulio Moderati (at A.D. 1590),
78, 79, 112, 113, 115, 149
Caille, Nicholas Louis de la (1713-1762!,
301 (Nouv. Biog. Gen., Vol. 28,
p. 441).
Caird, Edward, " The social philosophy
and religion of Cornte," 533
Calaber, Hannibal Rosetius, 82, 507
Calamai, L. (a^Shaw, George, A.D. 1791),
298
Calamita — calamite — the native mag-
net, 15, 16
Calandrin (at Swinden, J. H. van,
A.D. 1784), 274
Calcagnini, T. G. (at Calcagninus,
Caolius), 507
Calcagninus, Caelius (1479-1541), " De re
nautica commentatio . . .,"58, 507
Caldani, Floriano (1772-1836), " Ri-
flessioni . . . elettricita anitnale,"
1792, 303, 326 (Ann. di Chimica di
Brugnatelli, VII. 138, 159, 186, 208).
Caldani, Leopoldo Marco Antonio (1725-
1813), 148, 303
" Caledonian Mercury," 296
Callender — Calendar — Elisha, of Bos-
ton, 400
Callisen, Adolf Karl Peter (1786), 375,
455; " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-
L^xikon," 1829-1837.
Callisthenes of Olynthus (c. 360-328
B.C.), Greek historian, 543
Calogera — Calogiera — Angelo, " Rac-
colta d'Opuscoli scientifici . . ."; also
" Nuova Raccolta , . .," 140, 308
Caloric and electric fluid, analogy
between, Berthelpt at 1803.
Calorimotor — Calorimotive force— Hare
at A.D. 1819, pp. 446-447; Pepys at
A.D. 1802, p. 373
Camara, Matteo, " Memorie . , . " •
Salerno, 1876, 57
INDEX
588
Cambridge Philosophical Society Trans-
actions, 140, 473, 475
Cambridge University, 129, 212
Camerarius, Joachim (1500-1574), " Vita
Melanch. . . .," 507
Camillas, Leonardus. See Leonardus.
Camoene, Luiz de (1524-1579), " Os
Lusiades," 24
Camorano, R., " Compendio de la arte
de navegar . . .," 1582.
Campan, John (died c. 1300), 54
Campcgius, Laurentius (at Arnaldus de
Villa Nova), 505
Camper, Pierre (1722-1789), 243, 332
Campi (at Beccaria, G. B., A.D. 1753),
208
Candish — Cavendish — Sir Thomas, 79,
211, 522, 523
Cantapratensis, Thomas, of Lou vain, 34
Canterzani, Sebastiano, 304 (Tipaldo,
" Biofrafia," Vol. VIII. p. 87).
Canton, John (1718-1772), 153, 157,
167, 176, 200, 205-206, 215, 217, 232,
252, 320, 393, 402, 415, 427
Cantoni, G. See " Bibliografia Itali-
ana."
Canton's phosphorus, 206, 252, 393, 402
Cantor, Moritz, of Leipzig, 147, 537
Cantu, Cesare (at Volta, Alessandro),
248; (at Romagnesi, G D. G. G.), 367
Capella, Martianus Minneus Felix (fl.
fifth century A.D.), 505, 518
Capmany y Montpalau, Antonio the
elder (1742-1813), " Memonas his-
toricas," 60
Capocci (a* Chladni, E. F. F., A.D. 1794),
3M
Cappanera, Rodolfo, editor of " L'Elet-
tricita," and " La Natura," in Florence
and Naples.
Capron, J. Rand, " Auroras, their
characters and spectra": London,
1879.
Ca,rdanus — Hieronymus (1501-1576), 14,
17, 29, 35. 53, 108, 115, 126, 507, 539;
" De subtilitate . . .," 1550, 1611;
" De reruni varietate," 1556, 1557;
" Ars magna-artis magnae." See Sca-
liger, J. C., also Wundt, " Philoso-
phische Studien."
Cardanus, Giovanni, " De fulgure " in
his " Opera Omnia," 10 Vols. : Lugd.,
1663, 199
Carhart, Dr. Henry S., mentioned at
Grotthus, Theodor, A.D. 1805, 391
Carignano, Princess Giuseppina di, 208
Caritat. See Condorcet.
Carl, P., Doctor. See " Repertorium
fur Physikalische Technik," 1865;
" Repertorium fur experimental
physik," 1868-1882.
Carle, P. J. (at Aquinas, St. Thomas), 504
Carli, Gian Rinaldo (1720-1785), " Dis-
sertazione . . . bussola nautica , . .,"
*747. 553
Carlini (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D. 1802),
3<>3
Carlisle, Sir Anthony (1769-1840), 270*
335-337, 419, 435
Carlyle, Thomas, " Crit. and Misc.
Essays," 59
Carminati, Prof. Don Bassiano, of Pavia
(1750-1830), 246, 249, 284, 285, 303,
393, 555 (Tipaldo, " Biografia,"
1838, Vol. IX. p. 250).
Carmoy, M., 229, 257, 282, 385
Carnarvon, Earl of, translation of
Homer's Odyssey, 6
Carnegie, Andrew, " James Watt," 190
Carnevale, Antonio Arella, " Storia
dell' elettricita," 2 Vols. : Alessandria,
1839, 296
Carney, Michael (at Carpue, J. G. S.), 375
Carnot (at Sommering, S. T. von, A.D.
1809), 407
Carpentarius, J., 156, 553
Carpenter, Nathaniel (1589-1628),
" Geography delineated . . .," 1625,
I^35,' " Philosophia libera . . .,"
1621, 1622, 1636, 1675, 107
Carpi, Dr., of Rome, 423
Carpue, Jean Joseph Constantin (1764-
1846), 306, 375
Carradori, Gioachino (1758-1818), 232,
277, 292, 303, 304, 326, 327, 337-
Consult " Annali di Chimica di Brug-
natelli."
Cars, chariots, magnetic. See Magnetic
cars, also Chariots or cars.
Carsten. See Karsten.
Cartesius, Cartesian system. See Des-
cartes.
Cartier, J., " Philosophia electrica ad
menten . . .," 1756, 555
Carus (at Jacopi, J., A.D. 1810), 409
Casali, G. (at Halley, Edmund, A.D.
1683), 138
Cascades, electricity of, 293
Casiri, Michael (1710-1791), " Biblio-
theca Arabico-Hispana Escuraliensis,"
1760-1770, 40, 502, 519, 540
Casselli et Borelli, Tetegraphes electro-
chimiques, 338
Cassini de Thury, Cesar Francois (1714-
1788), 266, 268, 301
Cassini family, 117, 132, 141, 142, 144,
147, 148, 157, 168, 268, 315, 450
Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625-
1712), 142, 144, 268
Cassini, Jacques (James) (1667-1756),
268
Cassini, Jean Jacques Dominique, Comte
de (1747-1845), 266-268, 273
Cassius, Larcher. See Larcher.
Castberg, P. A. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.,
A.D. 1799), 330
Castianus (at Porta, A.D. 1558), 74
Castlereagh, Lord (at Wedgwood, Ralph,
A.D. 1814), 430
Castor and Pollux, 23
Castro, Ezekiel di, " De igne lambente,"
29
Catalogue Bibl. Publicae Univers, Lug.
Bat., 54
584
INDEX
Catalogue of Books and Papers relating
to Electricity, Magnetism . . . com-
piled by Sir Francis Ronalds and
edited by Alfred J. Frost : London,
1880. Designated throughout these
pages as the Ronalds' Catalogue.
Catalogue of books printed in Bibl.
Nationale, 102
Catalogue of electrical bodies. See
Plot, R.
Catalogue of Latimer Clark Library, xiv
Catalogue of Scientific Papers. See
Royal Society.
" Catalogue of Scientific Serials." By
Samuel H. Scudder, 1879, ix, 548-550
Catalogue of Wheeler Gift to Am. Inst.
of Elect. Engineers, 2 Vols., 1909.
Gates, William Leist Readwin (1821-
J895), co-operated with Bernard
Bolingbroke Woodward in the publi-
cation of the " Dictionary of General
Biography" (3rd ed. 1880), after
editing the " Encyclopaedia of
Chronology," 1872. [His brother,
Gates, Arthur (1829-1901), co-operated
with Papworth, Wyatt Angelicus Van
Sandau (1822-1894), in the publica-
tion of the Architectural Dictionary."]
Cathochiles (a/Solinus, Caius Julius), 540
Caulficld, James, third earl of Charlc-
mont (1728-1799), 316. (He wrote
on the tellograph, etc.)
Cauxois, Robert Reynault, " The
Naturall and Morall Historie of the
East and West Indies," 1604, 78
Cavalieri, Buenaventura (at Cassini
family), 268
Cavalieri, G. M. (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
Cavallo, Tiberius (1749-1809), 5, 45,
70, 78, 80, 138, 174, 193, 226, 229,
243-245, 246, 258, 261, 263, 269, 275,
277, 278, 280, 291, 304, 310, 313, 326,
336, 393; "A complete treatise on
electricity . . .," 1777, 1787, 1795,
1802; " Treatise on magnetism . . .,"
1787, 1800; "Elements of natural
philosophy . . .,"4 Vols. 1803.
Cavendish, Charles, Lord, 175, 238, 239
Cavendish, Henry (1731-1810), called
" the Newton of Chemistry." See
Maxwell, J. Clerk, " The electrical
researches of the Hon. Henry Caven-
dish"; also Copley Medal, 185, 199,
206, 207, 216, 218, 223, 231, 238-239,
240, 245, 251, 252, 255, 256, 291, 298,
3io, 329, 374, 405, 406, 470,^492
Cavendish, Sir Thomas. See Candish.
Cawthorn, James (at Desaguliers, J. T.,
A.D. 1739), 167
Caxton, William (c. 1422-1491),
" Myrrour," 16
Cazeles, Masars de (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 385
Cazin, Achille, " Traite theorique des
piles . . .," 248
Cecchi, 1691, 554
Cecco d'Ascoli. See Stabili.
Cedrinus, G., " Compend. Hist.," 18
Celi (at Bertholon de St. Lazare, A.D.
1780-1781), 259
Celier, Leonce, " Histoire des auteurs
sacres . . .," 525
Cellarius (at Columbus, Christopher,
A.D. 1492), 67
Cellesius, Fabricius, " De naturali elec-
tricitate . . .," 1767, 556
Cellio, Marco Antonio, " De terra
magnete . . .," 1692, 554
Celsius, Anders (1701-1744), " Observa-
tions of the needle . . .," 157, 168,
191, 232. See Hjorter.
Censorinus, Roman writer of the third
century, A.D., 505
Centralblatt fuer Electrotcchnik :
Muenchen, 1880-1889.
Cesi, In, " De meteoris dissertatio . . .,"
1700. 554 k
Ccbpcdes, Andres Garcia de, " Reg. de
Nav. y Hyclr.," 68
Cezanne, " Le cable transatlantique . . .,"
361
Chaignet, Antelme Edouard, 533, 537;
" Pythagore et la philosophic Pytha-
goriennc," 1873.
Chaldeans, 536
Chales. See Dechalles.
Chalmers, Alexander (I759~I^34),
" General Biographical Dictionary,"
32 Vols. 1812-1817, 54, 95, 106, 120,
122, 129, 167, 186, 189, 265, 311, 514,
520, 522
Chambers, Ephraim (d. 1740), "Cyclo-
paedia, or an Universal Dictionary of
Arts and Sciences "; " Papers for the
People"; "History and Memoirs
of the Royal Academy of Sciences
of Paris," 5, 39, 79, 81, 97, 193, 229,
240, 330, 518, 520
" Chambers' Journal," 143
Chambers, Robert (1802-1871), "Cyclo-
paedia of English Literature."
Chambers, William and Robert, " De-
scriptive Astronomy," 142
Champignon, " Etudes physiques . . . " :
Paris, 1843 (at Mesmer, F. A., A.D.
1772), 237
Champlin, Samuel (at Lully, Raymond,
A.D. 1235-1315), 32
Chancellor of Bavaria, Hervart Johann
Georg, 1 06
Chancellor, Richard (at Cabot, Sebastian,
A.D. 1497). 69
Chandos, Duke of (at Desaguliers, J. T.,
A.D. 1739), 1 66
Changeux, P. N., 1776, 556
Channing, F. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Channing, Dr. William Francis (b.
1820). He published, with Prof.
John Bacon, Jr., Davis's " Manual
of Magnetism" (1841), also "Notes
on the medical application of elec-
tricity" (1849), 423, 436, 476
INDEX
585
Chappe, Claude (1763-1805), 301, 317,
434. 439
Chappe, d'Auteroche, L'Abbe Jean
(1722-1769), 301
Chappe, Ignace Urbain Jean (1760-
1829), " Histoire de la telegraphic, "
2 Vols. : Paris, 1824, 301
Chappe, Robillard et Sylvestre, 302,
3<>3» 306
Chaptal, J. A. C., 1778, 556
Chaptal, M., Ministre de I'lntSrieur,
360, 361
Charas,Moise,"Antiquitehistorique. . .,"
M
Charcot (at Mesmer, F. A., A.D. 1772), 237
Chariots or cars, magnetic, i, 3, 4, 5,
22, 27, 28
Charlant, Johann Ludwig (Choulant),
Handbuch der Biicherkunde," 519,
also " Handbuch ... die yEltere
Medicifi," 529
Charlemont, Lord, on the tellograph (at
Edgeworth, R. L., A.D. 1794), 317
Charles, Emile, " Roger Bacon," 43
Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar (1746-
1823), French physicist and aeronaut,
204, 247, 288-289, 351, 354, 407
Charles I, King of England, 91, 104, 121
Charles II, King of England, 119, 127,
130
Charles II, King of Naples, 16
Charles IV, of Lorraine (at Leurechon,
Jean, A.D. 1628), 109
Charles V, Emperor of Germany and
King of Spam, 61, 70, 114, 501
Charleton, Walter — Charlton — ( 1619-
1707), 27, 91, 104, 105, 124, 245, 299;
" A ternary of paradoxes . . . mag-
netic cure . . .," 1650; " Disquisi-
tiones dusc chymico-physicae . . .,"
1665; " Physiologia Epicure Gassendo,
Charltoniana . . .," 1654.
Charlotte, Queen, Consort of George
III, 405
Charpignon, Dr. (at Amoretti, Carlo,
A.D. 1808), 401
Charton — Edpuard — Edmond, " Voya-
geurs anciens et modernes . . .,"
69; contains an extensive biblio-
graphy of Marco Polo.
Charts of the magnetic variation. See
Bianco, Andrea, A.D. 1436, 62
Chasles, Michel (1793-1880), French
mathematician, 96, 288 (note), 333,
351, 354. 386, 521
Chasles, Victor Euph6mien Philarete
(1798-1873).
Chassang, M. A., " Le merveilleux dans
1'antiquite," 533
Chaucer, Geoffrey (c. 1340-1400), 16, 32,
46, 58, 61-62; "The house of
fame"; "Assembly of foules";
" Romaunt of the rose "; "Treatise
on the astrolabe."
Chaudon, Louis Mai'cul (et Delandine),
" Diet. Hist orique Universel," 20 Vols.
1810-1812, 163, 187, 192
Chauveau, M. A. B. (at Ewing, John,
A.D. 1795), 321
Checler. See Wheler, Granville, 154,
" Chemical News : " London, 134, 150,
344, 370, 380, 466, 496, 498
Chemical Society : London, 449, 495
Chemische Annalen, von Crell, L. F. F. :
Helmstadt, 1784-1803, 250
Chemisches Archiv., von Crell, L. F. F. :
Helmstadt und Leipzig, 1783-1794.
Chemisches Journal, von Crell, L. F. F. :
Helmstadt, 1778-1781.
Chenevix, Richard (6. 1830), 387
Chevalier — Chevallier — J ean Gabriel
(1778-1848), 362; "Instruction sur
les paratonnerres " : Paris, 1823.
Chevalier and Henri (at Brugnatelli,
L. V., A.D. 1802), 362
Chevalier, 1'Abbe Ulysse Joseph (6.
1841), " Repertoire des sources histori-
ques du moyen-age"; " ist part —
Bio-Bibliographie," 401, 540
Chevremont, F. (at Robespierre, F. M.
J. L, A.D. 1783), 269
Chevreul, M. E., " De la baguette divma-
toire," 401
Chiaromonti, Scipione, " Anti-Tycho,"
1621, 93
Chicago Meteorological Congress, 321
Chigi, Aleso— Alessandro — "Dell' elet-
tricita terrestre — atmosferica disser-
tazione " : Sienna, 1777.
Children, John George (1777-1852), 338,
372, 402, 419
Childrey, Dr. Joshua (1623-1670),
" Britannica Baconica," 1660, 142,
1 88
Chilo (fl. fifth century B.C.), 7
Chiminello, Vincenzo (1741-1815; at
Toaldo, Giuseppe, A.D. 1778), 253,
254
China—La Chine— B.C. 2637, mo,
1068, 1022; A.D. 121, 235, 265, 295,
806, 968, mi, 1327-1377. See
Boulger, Davis, Du Halde, Paleologue,
Panthier, Saillant et Nyon, Staunton.
Chinese dictionary, or rather encyclo-
paedia " Poei-wen-yun-fou," 22
Chinese history, chronological tables of,
(at 2637 B.C.), i
Chinese knowledge of the loadstone, 21
Chinese nation, extraordinary antiquity
of, according to Voltaire, 58
Chladni, Ernst Florenz Friedrich (i756-
1827), founder of the theory of
acoustics, " Ueber den Ursprung der
von Pallas . . .," 1794. 3I2~3J5
ChomprS, Nicolas Maurice (1750-1825),
390, 391 (Phil. Mag., XXVIII. 59).
See Riffault and Chompre\
Choue-wen, celebrated Chinese diction-
ary of Hin-tchin, 2 1
Chrichton, A. See Crichton, A.
Christiana, "Magazin fur Naturvidens-
kaberne," 29
Christiana, University of, 442
586
INDEX
Christie, Samuel Hunter (1784-1865),
335, 432, 427, 458, 460, 465 (Phil.
Trans., 1825, 1828, 1833, 1835, and
Part 1 1. for 1836).
" Chronicle," London (at Alexandre,
Jean, A.D. 1802), 361
Chronological History of Chemistry.
See Bolton, H. C.
Chronological History of Magnetism,
Electricity and the Telegraph, vii, xi,
xiv
Chronological Summary of authors re
Aurora, 140
Chronological Tables of Chinese History,
2637 B.C.
Chrystal, Professor, mentioned at
Ampere, A. M., A.D. 1820, 474
Church of New Jerusalem, founded by
Swedenborg, 163
Church of Notre Dame de Chartres, 144,
145 (" Diet of the wonders of nature,"
pp. 362-366).
Church of Saint Augustine at Arimini,
78, 112, 113, 114
Church of Saint Brides, London, 232
Church of Saint Jean at Aix, 113, 114
Church of Saint John the Baptist at
Arimini, 112, 113, 123
Church of Saint Laurence, Rome, 112
Church of Saint Michael th' Archangel,
210
Church of the Augustines at Mantua,
H3
Churchill, Awnsham (d. 1728) (Diet.
Nat. Biogr. 1887, x, 307), 522
Churchill, Awnsham and John, authors
of "A collection of voyages and
travels . . . " : London, 1704-1732,
98, 522
Churchman, John (1753-1805), 315;
The magnetic Atlas . . ., 1790, 1794,
1804.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.C.), 2,
8, 43, 529,532; " Academica"; "De
divinatione."
" Ciel et Terre," 61, 92, 321
Cieza de Leon, Pedro de, " The seventeen
years travels . . .," 1709, 211
Cigna, Giovanni Francesco (1734-1790),
' ' Analogia magnetismi et electrici-
tatis," 224
Cioni e Petrini, 337, 392
Cisternay Dufay. See Dufay — Du Fay,
161
Claridge, Rev. J. T. W., F.R.S., 142
Clark, Latimer (1822-1898), x, xi, xiv,
361, 408, 440, 547
Clarke, Dr. Samuel (1675-1729), trans-
lator of Rohaulti's " Physica," 160,
129
Classen, Aris (at Schouten, W. C., A.D.
1616), 98
Claude, Gros de Boze (1680-1753), 290
Claudianus, Claudius (fl, c. A.D. 365), u,
14, 18
Clausius, Rudolph Julius Emanuel (1822-
1888), 347, 391, 392
Clavius, Christopher (1538-1612), 102,
530
Clayfield (at Tilloch, Alexander, A.D.
1805), 392
Cleasby and Vigfusson's Dictionary.
See Aurora Borealis.
Clement IV, Pope (at Bacon, Roger,
A.D. 1254), 41
Clement and Desormes, 376
Clement Mallet, J. J., " Documents . . .
teleg., elec., magn./' 1850.
Clement of Alexandria — Clemens Alex-
andrinus (born c. A.D. 150), 520
Cleobolus, born in the island of Rhodes
(fl. c. 560 B.C.), 7
Cleopatra sent news by wire ( ?) through-
out her kingdom, 12
Cleoxenes, Greek engineer (at Polybius,
200 B.C.), 19
Close, Rev. N. M. (at Hipparchus the
Rhodian), 521 *
Clouet, M. (1751-1801), 372
Clowes, J. (at Swedenborg, Emmanuel,
A.D. 1734), 164
Clytemnestra. In Greek legend, the
daughter of King Tyndareus and
Leda; wife of Agamemnon, 3
Cochon, Prefect of Vienne (at Alexandre,
Jean, A.D. 1802), 361
Codices Palatini Bibliothecae Vaticanae,
526
Codrus (c. 1060 B.C.), last King of Athens,
4. 5
Coiffier, employs lighting to charge an
electric jar, 200
Colardeau (at Coulomb, C. A. de, A.D.
1785), 277
Colepress, Samuel, " Account of some
magnetical experiments," 1667, 273,
554
Colla, Ant. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Colladon, Jean Darnel, Professor of
Mechanics at Geneva, 244
Collection de memoires relatifs a la
physique, 277, 455, 476
College de France, Paris, 114, 117, 132,
263, 376, 471, 476, 482
College of Bueil at Angers, France,
179
College of Surgeons, London, 468
Collegium curiosum, established on plan
of the Accademia del Cimento, 129
Collegium experimentale physico-me-
chanicum, 147
Collegium experimentale sire curiosum
. . ., 129, 130
Collenuccio, Pandolfo, " Historiae Na-
politanae," 1572; " Compendio . . .
regno di Napoli," 1591, 57, 211
Colles, Christopher (1738-1821), 418
Collin, Antoine (at Garcia d'Orta), 516
Collina — Abbondio — Abondio ( 1 69 1 -
i753)i 60, 555; " De acus nautica
inventore," 1747; " Considerazioni
. . . origine dellabussola nautica. ..,"
1748
INDEX
ssr
Collinson, Peter (1693-1768), xiv, 193,
194, 196, 321
Collis, H. M. (at Thillaye-Platel, An-
toine, A.D. 1803), 386
Colomies, Paul (at Montanus, Arias
Benedictus), 528
Colonna, Egidius (c. 1247-1316), 16
Colonne pendula of Marexhaux, 304
Colsmann (at Reinhold, J, C. L., A.D.
1797-1798)* 327
Columbus, Christopher, xx, 24, 32, 34,
65-68, 78, 475, 508, 523, 534, 535
Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus (fl.
first century A.D.), 10
Combe, Blanche. See Janin de Combe
Blanche, 304, 385
Comines, Philippe de Sieur d'Argentan
(1445-1510), " Memoires," 537
" Commercial Magazine/' 430
Compass. Early compasses of various
kinds ' are mentioned by Robert
Norman in chapter x. of his " Newe
Attractive " ; also more particularly
at B.C. 2637, i no, 1068, 1033-975,
1000-907; A.D. 121, 265-419, 1067-
1148, 1204-1220, 1207, 1235-1315,
1250, 1265-1321, 1266, 1269, 1270,
1282, 1302, 1327-1377, 1775. See
Chambers' Cyclopaedia, Vol. I., also
Colina and Diderot's " Encyclopedic,"
II. 374-379-
Compass card — rose of the winds — rose
des vents, 63
Compass plant — silphium lancinatum — •
first introduced into Europe, 259—260
Completa Raccolta d'Opuscoli, 253
Composition of water from its con-
stituent gases, Fourcroy at 1801, 354
Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires, de
1' Academic des Sciences : Paris. See
Chambers, Ephraim, x, i, 29, 93,
139, 140, 142, 195, 241, 258, 316, 318,
321, 329, 337. 359, 38o, 389, 407»
423, 436, 440, 464, 475, 476, 481,
483. 495. 52i
Comte, Isidore A. M. F. X. (1798-
1857), founder of Positivism, 534.
See Lewes, G. H., also Caird, Edward.
Comus. See Le Dru.
Condamine, 165
Condenser of electricity, Cavallo's, 244 ;
Read's, 312. See A.D. 1802, 368
Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas
Caritat, Marquis de (1734-1794), 190*
264
Conducting power of silk thread and of
human hair (at Robison), 311
Configliachi, Pietro (1779-1844), " Gior-
nale di fisica chimica e storia naturale."
See " Biblioteca fisica d'Europa";
" Biblioteca Germanica "; " Biblio-
teca Italiana," 248, 363, 406, 423, 424
Confucius, 541, 542, 544
Connaissance des temps, la. See Paris.
Connel, A. (at Nicholson, William/
A.D. 1800), 337
Connolly, J, (#*A,D. 1817), 441-442
Conringius, Hermannus, " De anqui-
tatibus Academicis dissertationes . . ./'
36
Conservation of force (Faraday), 498
Constantine the Great, mentioned at
Lactantius, L. C. F., 523
Contact and Chemical theories (Fara-
day), 490-491
Conti, A. S., on the aurora borealis, 140
Conversations-Lexicon nieuwenhuis
wooderbock . . . : Leiden. See Kon-
versations.
Cook, Benjamin, of Birmingham, 415
Cook, Captain James (1728-1779), 242,
348, 456
Cooke, Conrad W., 92, 116
Cooke, Sir Thomas William Fothergill
(1806-1879), " The electric telegraph,
was it invented by Professor Wheat-
stone ? " (Five distinct pamphlets
were issued under this title in 1854,
1856, 1857 and 1866), 365, 384, 407,
421, 422, 440, 444
Cooke, Sir Trios. , and Hamel, T., " His-
torical account of the introduction
of the galvanic and electro-magnetic
telegraph into England . . . " : Lon-
don, 1859.
Cooper, C. C., " Identities of Light and
Heat of Caloric and Electricity " :
Philadelphia, 1848.
Cooper, Charles Henry (1808-1866),
" Athenae Cantabrigienses," 91, 95
Cooper, M., " Philosophical en-
quiry . . /' : London, 1746,.
Coote, C. M., 560
Copenhagen, Academy (University) of
Sciences, 157, 158, 249, 366; " Det
Kongelige Norske . . ." : Kioben-
haven, 1768-1774; "Det Kongelige
Danske . . ." : Kiobenhaven, 1801-
1818, 1824, 1826; " Nye Samling . . .
selskabs skrifter . . ." : Kioben-
haven, 1784.
Copenhagen, Archives du Nord pour la
physique et la medecine, 353
Copenhagen, Polytechnic School, 452
Copenhagen Society, " Acta Reg. Soc.
Hafniensis," 4 Vols. : Hafn. 1812, 115
Copernicus, Nicolaus — Koppernik (1472-
1543), Copernican, 88, 90, 94, 95, 96,
102, 507-508, 510, 512, 513, 515, 533.
See Wundt, Wilhelm, " Philoso-
phische Studien," Index, p. 22.
Copley Medal of the Royal Society,
London : three to Desaguliers, two
each to Faraday and to Canton, 167,
176, 227, 246, 263, 454, 470, 479, 481.
Amongst other recipients of the
Copley Medal are : Stephen Hales,
1739; Sir John Pringle, 1752; Ben-
jamin Franklin, 1753 ; John Dollond,
1758; Benjamin Wilson, 1760; Hon.
Henry Cavendish, 1766; Count Ben-
jamin Rumford, 1792; Sir David
Brewster, 1815 ; Alexander von Hum-
boldt, 1852, and Lord Rayleigh, 1899.
588
INDEX
Corday, Charlotte, mentioned at Robes-
pierre, A.D. 1783, 269
Cordier, Henri, mentioned at Marco
Polo, A.D. 1271-1295, 55. See Man-
deville.
Cordus, Valerius — Eberwein (151 5-1544) .
508
Cornelius, Agrippa, See Agrippa.
Cornelius, Gemma. See Gemma.
Cornelius, Tacitus — Caius Publius. See
Tacitus.
" Cornhill Magazine," 208, 227, 330, 413,
481
Corsa, A., " Notizie . . . elettro-chi-
mica," 363
Corsi, Raimondo Maria, mentioned at
Ficinus, Marsilio, 515
Cortambert and Gaillard (at Galvani,
Luigi, A.D. 1786), 284 (Mem. de la
Soc. m6dicale d'Emul,, 1. 232).
Cortez — Cortes — Cortesius — Martinus
(died c. 1580), " Breve compendio de
la esfera y de la arte dc navigar,"
1546; "Breve compendio de la
sphera . . .," 1551; " Arte de nave-
gar," 1556, 68, 114, 115, 507, 508
Cortez, Fernand, mentioned at Oersted,
H. C., 475
Corvisart-Desmarets, Jean Nicolas (1755-
1821), " Journal de Medecine," 325,
326
Cosa, Juan de la (d. 1509), mentioned
at Columbus, Christopher, 68. See
Nouv. Biogr. Gen. XII. 17.
Cosmo de Medici, mentioned at Ficino,
Marsilio, 514
Cosmos (at Humboldt, Alex. von).
Cosmos, Le, Cosmos les Mondes. See
Moigno, L'Abbe F. N. M., 365
Cosnier, Maloet and Darcet, 229, 385.
See Le Dru.
Costa, Fillipe — Felipe — of Mantua, 112
Costa-Saya, Antonio, " Dinamometro
magnetico " (Giprn. del Sc. contem-
poranea) ; Messina, 1813.
Costaeus — Costa — Joannes, of Lodi (d.
1603), 115, 508; " De universal!
stirpium natura," 1578.
Cotena, mentioned at Brugnatelli, L. V.,
A.D. 1802, 363
Cotes, Roger (1682-1716), 315
Cotes, T. (at Leurechon, Jean, A.D.
1628), 109
Cotta, Lazaro Agostino, 527
Cotte, Louis (1740-1815), " Traite de
meteorologie " ; "Table of 134
Auroras observed in the twelve years,
1768-1779," 140, 207, 271, 308, 320
Cotugno, Domenico (1736-1822), 274,
33i
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de (1736-
1806), 156, 157, 215, 220, 225, 247,
254. 275-277, 302, 303, 310, 333, 354,
377» 379, 409, 413. 472, 473. 479,
480, 494
Council of Trent, mentioned at Sarpi —
Paulus Venetus, A.D. 1632, no
Coupe, Jean Marie Louis, " Soirees Lit-
teraires," 539
Couronne de tasses, 247, 351, 363
" Covtrrier du livre," 32
Court de Gebelin, Antoine (1725-1784),
" Monde Primitif . . .," 9 Vols. :
Paris, 1781. Phoenicians credited
with a knowledge of the compass.
Court Journal, London, mentioned at
A.D. 1781, 260
Cousin, Victor, ". . . History of modern
philosophy . . .,"33
Cousinot, " De occultis pharmacorum,"
536
Couvier, George, mentioned at Galvani,
Luigi, A.D. 1786, 284-285
Coxe, John Redmond (1773-1864), 435
Cramer, Gabriel, mentioned at Bernoulli,
John I, A.D. 1700, 146
Cramer, J. A., mentioned at Dalton,
John, A.D. 1793, 308 <
Cras, Hendrik Constantijn, mentioned
at Grotius, Hugo, 517, 518
Crateras, mentioned at Evax-Euace,
513, 514
Crauford and Hunter, mentioned at
Marum, M. van, A.D. 1785, 279
Creech, Thomas, translator of Lucretius'
" De rerum natura," 19, 21, 33
Crell, Lorenz Florenz Friedrich von
(1744-1816), 250, 253, 254, 255, 327,
3^3, 554- See Chemisches archiv. ;
Chemisettes Journal; Chemische
annalen; "Die ncucsten cntdeckun-
gen in der chimie " : Leipzig.
Crescentio, Bartolomeo, mentioned at
Raymond Lully, A.D. 1235-1315,
32
Creve, Johann Caspar Ignaz Anton
(1769-1853), " Phenomenes du gal-
vanisme " (Beitriige zu Galvanis
vcrsuchen . . . : Frankfurt und
Leipzig, 1793). See Mem. dc la Soc.
d'Emulation, 1.236; " Biographisch-
Literarisches Handworterbuch," pp.
497-498, 270, 284, 321, 327, 332, 333,
337. 393. 556
Crichton, A., Recucil Periodique de
Litt. Med. Etrangere, 206
Crimotel de Tolloy. See Tolloy.
Crispus, Cesar, 523, 524
Crivelli, Joannis, mentioned at Hell,
Maximilian, A.D. 1770, 233
Croissant and Thore, 449
Crollius, Oswaldus, " Basilica chimica
. . .," 27
Crompton, Dr., mentioned at Newton,
Sir Isaac, A.D. 1675, 134
Cronstedt, Axel Frederick von (1722-
I7^5)» "Versuch einer mineralogie
. . .," 163, 287
Crookes, Sir William (1832-1919), men-
tioned at 337-330 B.C., 12
Crosse, Andrew (1784-1855), 178, 201,
248, 320, 434 ; experiments in voltaic
electricity (Phil. Mag., XLVI. 421,
1815).
INDEX
589
Crosse, J. de la, " Memoirs for the
ingenious," 145
Cruger, P., Disputatio de motu magnetis
(Poggendorff, I. 501) : Leipzig, 1615.
Cruikshanks, William (1746-1800), on
galvanic electricity (Nicholson's
Journal, IV.), 270, 337
Cruz, Alonzo de Santa. See Santa Cruz.
Cryptographia, by Friderici, 552
Crystal, Professor. See Chrystal.
Ctesias, Ktcsias, the Knidian, Greek
historian (fl. c. 400 B.C.), 9, 10, 196, 541
Ctesibus of Alexandria (fl. c. 120, B.C.),
520, 544
Gumming, Prof. James (1777-1861),
discoverer of thermo-electric inversion
(Phil. Mag., Series 4, Vol. XXVII.) ;
"Manual of electro-dynamics," 1827;
"Researches in thermo-electricity"
(Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1827), 472,
473. 4*5, 477
Cunams, N., wealthy burgess of Leyden,
who, in 1746, independently made the
discovery previously announced by
Kleist, 173, 174. See Ronald's Cata-
logue, p. 120.
Curtet, Francois Antoine, 285, 341
Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 259
Curtius, Nicolaus, " Libellus de mcdica-
mentis," 27
Cusa — Cusanus — Nicolas Khrypffs( 1401-
1464), " Nicolai Cusani de staticis
. . .," 1550, 82, 124, 509, 524
Cuthbertson, John, " Eigenschappen van
de clektricitat " : Amsterdam, 3 Vols.
1769, 1782, 1793; "Practical elec-
tricity and galvanism " : London,
1807, 1821, 228, 230-231, 264, 265,
277, 280, 326, 337, 342, 375, 393, 419;
" . . .A new method of increasing
the charging capacity of coated
electrical jars, discovered by John
Wingfield " (Phil. Mag., XXXVI. 259,
1810).
Cuthel and Martin, mentioned at Aldini,
G., A.D. 1793, 30$
Cutts, Rev. E. L., mentioned at Gilbert,
William, A.D. 1600, 91
Cuvier, Frederic (1773-1838), 344, 378
Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien
Frederic Dagobert de (1729-1822), a
brief history of galvanism, 190, 279,
284. 303. 344. 4*9, 451. 48l> 5°3, 5*5-
See " Histoire des Sciences Naturelles."
Cuvier, G. L. C., and Biot, " Sur.
1'appareil galvanique " ; Paris, 1801.
Cuvillers, Mr. le baron d'Henin de,
mentioned at Mesmer, F. A., 237
Cuyper — Cuypers — C., " Expose . . .
des machines electriques . . .,"
1778. 387
Cybete — Kybele — Rhca Cybele or " The
great mother of the gods," 12, 17
Cyclopaedia of the Physical Sciences.
See Nichols, Professor.
Cyclopaedia of the Useful Arts. See
Tomlinson, Charles.
Cyclopaedic Science. See Pepper, J. H.
Cyrano de Bergerac. See Index of
Jal's Dictionary, p. 1312.
Czynski, mentioned at Copernicus,
Nicolaus, 507
D
D'AcosxA, Jose (1539-1600).
Dalance (" D . . ! "), Joachim, "Traite
del'aiman — 1'aimant," 1687, 1691,554
Dalembcrt, Jean Le Rond d'. See
Diderot, Denis, also D'Alembert.
Dalibard, Thomas Fran£ois (1703-1779),
175> X95» 199-^01, 320
Dal Negro, Salvatore (1768-1839),
" Nuovo metodo . . . machine elet-
triche," 1799; Mem. Soc. Ital., xi,
xxi; Annal. del Reg. Lomb.-Veneto,
Vols. II., III., IV., V., VIIL).
Dal Rio Giorn., Ital. Letter del, 1805, 392
Dalton, John (1766-1844), 138, 140, 165,
307, 464. See Royal Medal.
Dampier, William (1652-1715), English
navigator, 522
Dana, Dr. J. F. (1793-1827), 452
Dance, Mr. (at Faraday, Michael, A.D.
1821), 497
Dandinus, Hieronymus (at Zahn, F.
Joannes, A.D. 1696), 146
Danicll, " Introduction to study of
Chem. Phil.," 491
Danon, P. C. F., " Journal des Savants,"
551
Dante, Alighieri, illustrious Italian poet
(1265-1321), author of the " Divma
Commedia," xix, 36, 40, 43, 44, 57,
60, 504, 524
Dantzig — Dantzic, Dantzik, Danzy —
Memoirs, appeared under the caption
of " Versuche und Abhandlungen . . .
in Danzig," 1754, 161, 168, 169, 170,
172, 174, 175, 185, 186, 187, 189
Danuye, R. (at Chladni, E. F. F., A.D.
1794). 315
Darcet, "Description d'un electrometre,"
i?49, 555
Darcet, Jean, Maloet, etc., 229, 235, 385.
See Le Dru.
Darguier and Marcorelle, 308 ; Marcorelle
communicated many papers, relative
to the declinaison de I' aiguille aimantee,
to the Mem. de Mathem. et de Phys.
Vols. II. and IV., and to the Reports of
the Toulouse Academic, M6m. de
1' Academic Royale des Sciences de
Toulouse, ist Ser. Vol. III. 1788.
Darmester, James, French author (1849-
1894), 451
Dartmouth College, 452
Darwin, Dr. Erasmus, of Lichfield (1731-
1802), 213
Daubancourt — Daubencourt. See
Larcher.
Daval, Peter (d. 1763) (at Watson,
William, A.D. 1745), 175
David, King, 5
590
INDEX
David the Jew (at Alfarabius), 37, See
Davies and Davis.
Davies, D., " Early history of the
mariner's compass, " i
Davies, Myles — Miles (1662-1715),
" Athenae Britannicae . . .," 1716.
Davies, Thomas Stephens (1795-1851),
" Researches on terrestrial magnet-
ism."
Davis, Daniel, " Manual of Magnetism " ;
" Medical applications of electricity,"
1846, 1852, 347
Davis, John, for the Hakluyt Society,
562, 563
Davis, Joseph (at A.D. 1805), 389-390
Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., "The
Chinese; a general description of the
empire/' 1836, 1844, 2 Vols.; "China
during the war/' 1853, 1857, 2 Vols.;
" La Chine," 1837, 2 Vols., i, 22, 23,
29, 30. 43. 54. 56> 61, 259
Davy, Dr. John (1790-1868), 8, 88, 89,
241, 278, 343, 345, 346, 347
Davy, Edward (1806-1885). See sketch
of his career and of his telegraphic
inventions in " Electrician," XII.
196-197, 1884.
Davy, Henry, " Suffolk Collections "
(at Blundeville, T., A.D. 1602), 95
Davy, Sir Humphry (1778-1829), 8,
88, 89, 167, 215, 233, 249, 262, 276,
278, 3°8, 322. 327. 33°, 338. 339-347.
350. 356, 364. 369. 372, 373. 38o, 381,
386, 389, 390, 392, 393, 394, 395,
416, 419, 423, 425, 426, 440, 443, 454,
456, 466, 472, 476, 478, 482, 496, 497.
See Romagnosi, G. D ; Paris, J. A.;
Davy, John; Rumford Medal.
Dazebry, Charles, et Bachelet, Th.,
" Dictionnaire," for Le Due d'Aumale.
" De Bow's Review," 318, 407
Decade Philosophique, littiraire . . .:
Paris, 1794-1804. Continued as " La
Revue on d6cade philosophique . . .,"
and subsequently incorporated with
" Le Mercure de France," 277, 306
Dechales — Deschales — Claude Fran£ois,
553. S^Milliet.
Declination, magnetic, first announced
in print by Francisco Falero in 1535,
67-68. See also 65-66, 71
Declination or variation, 76
Decomposition of water. See Electric
and galvanic decomposition of water.
" Dedication of books, 60
Deffand, Marie de Vichy Chamcoud,
Marquise de (1697-1780), 291
Deflagrator of Robert Hare (at A.D.
1819), 447
Deiman, Johann Rudolph (1743-1808),
245. See Troostwjck.
De La Hire. See La Hire.
De Lambre — Delambre — Jean Baptiste
Joseph, Membre de 1'Institut (1749-
1822), " Rapport historique sur le
progres des sciences . . ."; " Abr6ge
de 1'astronomie . . ./' 1813; " His-
toire de 1'astronomie ancienne . . .,"
1817; " Histoire de 1'astronomie du
moy en-age . . .," 1819; "Histoire
de 1'astronomie moderne . . .," 1821;
" Histoire de 1'astronomie ou 18*
siecle . . .," 1827, 54, 92, 102, 117,
125, 130, 141, 220, 273, 302, 335, 361,
481, 502, 508, 512, 513, 521, 527, 531,
540
Delandine, F. A., et Chaudon, L. M.,
192
De Lanis, " Magistinum naturae et
artis," 1684.
De Lapide. Book in which Aristotle
is said to have mentioned the employ-
ment of the magnet in navigation,
33. 35
De La Rive. See La Rive, A. A. de.
Delaroche (at Wilkinson, C. H., A.D.
1783), 269
Delaunay, C. F. Veau (17*1-1814),
" Manuel de 1'electricite . . .'': Paris,
1809, 198, 265, 277, 280, 281, 288, 289,
292, 324, 353, 386, 393, 394, 4°^ 4<>2,
462
Delaunay, Louis (1740-1805), 8, 288;
" Lettre sur la tourmaline," 1782;
" Mineralogie des anciene," 2 Yols.
1803.
Delaval, Edward Hussey (1729-1814),
220
Deleuze, Joseph Philippe Fra^ois (1753-
i835). 237, 425, 481
Delezenne, M., " Experiences . . .,"
406, 417 (Extrait des Mem. de la
Soc. R. des Sciences . . . de Lille,
1844-1845).
Delisle, Rome de, " Essai de cristallo-
graphia " : Paris, 1772, 218
Delisle the younger (at Bion, Nicolas,
a.d. 1702), 148
Delia Bella, Giovannantonio (1730-
1823), 275; according to Lamont
(Handbuch, p. 427), Delia Bella dis-
covered before Coulomb the law of
magnetic attraction and repulsion.
Delle Chiage, " On 'the organs of the
torpedo," 241, 298, 409
De Lor. See Lor.
De Luc, Jean Andre. See Luc.
De Magnete. See Gilbert, Dr. William.
Demeter — Ceres — goddess of the grain,
13
Demetrius, Phalereus (c. 345-283 B.C.),
543
Democritus (born c. 470-460 B.C.), 19,
5ii, 543
Denis, Ferdinand, " Bulletin du Biblio-
graphe," 516
" Denkschriften der Kon. Akad. . . zu
Miinchen," 407
Denmark, Royal Society of, 444
Denys, William (at A.D. 1666), 129.
Consult " Biog. Univ. de Michaud/'
Vol. X. p. 439.
Denza, F, (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
INDEX
591
De re metallica — de Metallicii — de Arte
Metalltca, by Agricoal, Encelius,
Caesalpinus, Morieni, B. Perez de
Vargas, J. Chas. Famiani, 500-501
Derham, W. (1657-1735), 140, 141, 143,
308, 553 (Phil. Trans, for 1728, 1729-
1730) ; Phil. Exp. and Observations
for 1726.
Derozieres (at Ingen-housz, John, A.D.
J779). 257
Desaguliers, Jean Theophile (1683-
1744), 166, 174, 175 (Phil. Trans, for
the years 1729, 1738, 1739, 1740,
1741, 1742).
Desbordeaux, sur le moyen d'obtenir un
courant constant avec la pile de Wol-
laston (Comptes Rendus, Vol. XIX.
P- 273), 359
Descartes (Cartesius), Ren6 du Perron
(1596-1650) — Cartesian system,
" Principia philosophise " : Amstelo-
dami, 11)56, 1664, 8, 90, 103, 109
114, 122, 129, 133, 152, 213, 360, 520.
See Wundt " Philosophische Studien,"
Index, p. 23.
Deschanel's article on thermo-dynamics,
3*6
Des Essarts. See Essarts, also Lemoyne.
Desgenettes, Nicolas Rene Dufriche,
Baron (1762-1837), 303
Deshais, Medical electricity. See
Sauvages.
Deslandes, Andre Frangois Boureau
(1690-1757), 204
Desmarets, Nicolas (1725-1815), " Ex-
periences . . ." : Paris, 1754, 151
Desmortiers, Lebouvier, "Observations
sur le danger du galvanisme ..."
(Journ. de Physique, 1801, p. 467);
" Examen des principaux systemes
sur la nature du fluide electrique . . ." :
Paris, 1813, 326, 330
Desormes, C. B., " Experiences . . .
1'appareil de Volta " (Ann. de Chimie,
XXXVII. 1801, p. 284).
Desormes, Charles Bernard, et Hachette,
J. N. P., " Memoire pour servir a
1'histoire . . . qu'on nomme galvan-
isme " (Ann. de Chimie, XLIV. 1802) ;
" Doubleurs de 1'electricite (Ann. de
Chimie, XLIX, 1804), 249, 290, 363,
375. 376, 388, 419
Desparquets, " L'electricite appliquee
au traitemont des malades," 1862, 386
Despretz, Cesar Mansuete (1791-1863),
337; " Traite de physique," 1837
(Comptes Rendus, XXIX. 1849).
Desrousseaux, F., " L'electricite
devoilee . . .," 1868; "Sources de
1'electricite . . .," 1864.
Desruelles (at Zamboni, Giusippe, A.D.
1812), 420
Dessaignes (at A.D. 1811), 415. On
phosphorescence;(Phil.Mag.,XXXVII.
3, 1811, and XLIV. 313, 1814).
" Destruction of Destruction," by
Averrdes, 38
" Destruction of the philosophers,"
by Al Gazel, 38
Des Vignes, Pierre (Petri de Vineis), 15
Derwert, Eugenius (at Heraclides of
Ppntus and Ecphantus), 519
Detienne (Journ. de Phys., 1775; Scelta
d'Opuscoli, XXIV. 1776), 249, 402,
556
Deux, M. (at Cusanus, Nicolas K.\, 510
Deux-Ponts-Berigny, L. A., " Obser-
vations . . ." : Paris, 1856.
Deveria, Charles Th6odule (1831-1871),
" Le fer et 1'aimant . . .," 14, 106
Dezeimers, J. E., " Dictionnaire his-
torique de la medecine," 105
Dia-magnetic conditions of flame and
gases (Phil. Mag., Series IV., Vol. 31,
pp. 401-421, 1865).
Dia-magnetism, 254, 494, 495. Con-
sult the following: "Abhandl. der
Konigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der
Wiss." : Gottingen, 1867; "Abhandl.
der Konigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft
der Wiss.": Leipzig, 1852, 1867;
Becquerel, Edmond, 495; Brugmans,
Anton, 254; Faraday, Michael, 494-
495; Plucker, Julius, 495 (Pogg.
Annalen, LXXIL, LXXIII., LXXV.,
LXXVL); Oersted (Oversigt over
det Kongl . . ., 1847, 1848, 1849);
Tyndall, John, 411 (Phil. Mag., 1851,
1856; Lieber's Catal., 1865).
Diamilla-Muller, " Physique du Globe" :
Torino and Firenze, 1870.
Diana temple at Ephesus, one of the
world's seven wonders, 18
Dias (mentioned at Aetius, Amidenus,
A.D. 450), 27
Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, " Bibliotheca
Spenceriana/' 539
Diccionario Universale, Madrid, 1881,
527, 25 Vols., Barcelona, 1877-1899,
528
Dickerson, Dr. (mentioned at Volta,
Alessandro, A.D. 1775), 246
Dickinson, Dr. E. N. (mentioned at
Schilling, P. L., A.D. 1812), 421
Dictionario Enciclopedico Hispano-
Americano.
Dictionary of Arts. See Ure.
Dictionary of Biographical Reference.
See Phillips, L. B.
Dictionary of Biography. See Thomas,
Joseph.
Dictionary of Electro-Magnetism, 454
Dictionary of Engineering, 362
Dictionary of General Biography. See
Gates, W. L. R.
Dictionary of National Biography, edited
by Sidney Lee and Leslie Stephen,
ix, 32, 39, 41, 77, 80, 91, 95, 97, 105,
107, 109, 122, 125, 127, 128, 134,
158, 160, 172, 201, 203, 209, 256,
296, 297, 308, 477, 482, 518, 521,
522, 530, 548
Dictionary of Philosophy and Psycho-
logy* by J. M. Baldwin, 32, 39, 40
592
INDEX
Dictionary of Science (" Athenaeum,"
Dec. 1871). See Rodwell, G. F.
Dictionary of Universal Biography. See
Maunder. «
Dictionnaire, biographique Suedois, 141
Dictionnaire classique d'histoire. See
Gregoire, L.
Dictionnaire critique de biographic et
d'histoire. See Jal, Auguste.
Dictionnaire de biographic. See La-
rousse Grand Dictionnaire Universel;
contains a list of writers on the
magnet.
Dictionnaire des sciences medicales,
3OI» 425
Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques
par une societe dc savants, 40, 511,
537
Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographic
ecclesiastiques, 1911 and 1913, 476,
502
Dictionnaire encyclop6dique . . . de
physique. See Brisson, M. J.
Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la
France, Le Bas, Philippe, 192
Dictionnaire encyclopedique des sciences
See Gregoire, L.
Dictionnaire general de biographic et
d'histoire, 389, 476, 479
Dictionnaire historique de la meclecine.
Sec Dczeimers, J. E., Kloy, N. F. J.
Dictionnaire historique, le grand. See
Moreri, Louis.
Dictionnaire historique-universel. See
Chaudon, L. M.
Dictionnaire raisonne. See Diderot,
Denis, et D'Alembert.Jean Le Rond d'.
Dictionnaire technique ct pratique d'
electricite. See Durant, George.
Dictionnaire universel. See Chaudon,
L. M.
Dictionnaire universel, by Bertrand,
Elie (1712-1790).
Dictionnaire umversel des contem-
porains. See Vapereau, G. : Paris,
1893-
Dictionnarium Britannicum. . . . See
Bailey, N.
Diderot, Denis (1713-1784), et D'Alem-
bert, Jean Le Rond d' (1717-1783),
editors of " Encyclop6die en Diction-
naire Raisonne . . .,"224
Diego-Alfonso (mentioned at Gama,
Vasco de, A.D. 1497), 69
Dieterici — Dietericii — Friedrich, " Die
Philosophic der Araber," 38
Dietrich, P. F. von (mentioned at
600 B.C.), 10
Diez, John (mentioned at Kendall,
Abraham), 522
Digby, Sir Kenelme (1603-1665), 7, 83,
90, 121, 1 60. See Biogr. Britan.,
Vol. V. pp. 184-199.
Digges,Thomas, "A prognostication . . .,"
1592, 551
Dijon, Lyceum, 386
Dinaux, Arthur Martin-Mathurin, 34
Dingier, J. F. See " Polytechnische
Journal."
Diodorus, surnamed Siculus (fl. in time
of Augustus). See Posts, 2, 8, 196
Diogenes Laertius (c. beginning of third
century A.D.), 15, 519, 524, 530, 532
Diogenes of Apollonia (fifth century
B.C.), " Nat. Quaest.," 14, 503, 512
Diogenes the Cynic (c. 412-323 B.C.), 544
Dionysius Areopagitus, first bishop of
Athens.
Dionysius — Dyonisius — of Halicarnas-
sus (died c. 7 B.C.), 29, 74
Dioscorides, Pedacius, Greek physician,
" De medicinali materia . . .," 1543,
ii, 17, 20, 21, 26, 27, 508, 526, 538
Dioskuri, 13
Dip and intensity, laws governing,
Biot (1803), 376-380; Gay-Lussac
(1804), 389
Dip or inclination, first announced in
print by Norman in 1576, 75-76, 266
Dipping needle, 70, 76, 138, 147, 552
(Encycl. Brit., 8th ed., Vol. XIV.
pp. 57, 82-89).
Dircks, Henry, Life of the Marquis of
Worcester, 127
Directorium magneticum magneticis, 274
Discharger, universal, of William Henley,
,237
Discoveries and experiments made by
William Gilbert, xvii, 545-546
Dissociation theory (at Grotthus, Theo-
dor, A.D. 1805), 391
Ditton, " Longitude and latitude
found . . .," 1710, 553
Divining rod — virgula divina — (at Amo-
retti, Carlo, A.D. 1808), 401
Diwish, Procopius (1696-1765), 209
Dixon, Rev. J. A. (at A.D. 1254), 37;
(at Aquinas, St. Thomas), 505
Dobbie, W., 140, 308 (Phil. Mag., LVI.
175, 1820, and LXI. 252, 1823).
Dobelli, F. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Dods, Rev. Marcus, translator of St.
Augustine's " De Civitate Dei," 25,
26
Dodson, James — Dooson, Jacob. See
William Mountaine.
Dodwell, Henry, the elder, 540
Dollond, John (1706-1761), 214. Was
awarded Copley Medal in 1758 for
the achromatic telescope, although
Chester Moor Hall had anticipated —
but "not adequately published" —
the invention.
Dollond, Peter (1730-1820), 214
Dolomieu, M., 249
Dominicus, Maria Ferrariensis (Novara)
(1464-1514), 510
Donadoni, Charles Antoine, Bishop of
Sebenico (1675-1756), 186
Donovan, Michael (b. 1790), " On the
origin, present state and progress of
galvanism . . .," 1815, 1816, 347,
393, 418, 428
INDEX
593
Doppelmayer, Johann Gabriel (1671-
1750), " Neuentdeckte . . . der elec-
triscnen kraft . . .," 1744
Dormoy (at Ingen-housz, Johan, A.D.
1779), 257
Dorpat Naturwiss. Abhandl., 368
Dorpat parallactic telescope, called the
giant refractor, 433
Double, F. J. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.( A.D.
1799), 330
Doublers of electricity (Bennet,Desonnes,
Hachette, Read, Ronalds), 290, 336.
Likewise the revolving doubler in-
vented by Nicholson, 336
Douglas, Robert (at Cassini, J. J. D.,
A.D. 1782-1791,) 267
Dove, Heinrich Wilhclm (1803-1879),
71, 292, 296, 321, 354, 380; " U'ber
elektricitat " : Berlin, 1848; Pog-
gendorff, Annalcn, XIII., XX.,
XXVIA., XXIX., XXXV., XLIIL,
XL1V., XLIX., LII., LIV., LVI.,
LXIV., LXXII., LXXXVII.; " Re-
pertorium dcr physik," 7 Vols. 1837-
1849, published in conjunction with
Meser, Ludwig. See the Repertorium
der physik, Vol. V. p. 152, for " Liter-
atur des magnetismus und dcr elek-
tricitat," 1844.
Downie, Master of H.M.S. " Glory,"
292, 457
Drake, Sir Francis, xiv, 211, 522, 523
Drane, Augusta Th., " Christian schools
and scholars," 34, 37, 40, 42, 504,
525
Drant, Archdeacon Thomas, xix
Drebble, Cornelius (1572-1634), 552;
" De natura elementorum . . ." :
Hamburg, 1621.
Dredge, James (1840-1906), " Electric
Illumination " : London, 1882-1885,
225, 347. 433, 481, 499
Dreyer, John Louis Emil, " Tycho
Brah6 . . .," 92, 93, 541
Drills, magnetism of, Ballard (Phil.
Trans, for 1698, p. 417).
Drinkwater, John Elliot, " Life of
Galileo," 116
Drissler, Henry, Classical studies in
honour of, 1894, 36, 37, 542
Dropsy, J. (mentioned at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
Drummond, Dr. (at Walsh, John, A.D.
1773), 239
Drummond, T., "On meteoric stones
(Phil. Mag., XLVIII.28, 1816).
Dryden, John (1631-1700), 91
Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science,
6 Vols. 1861-1866.
Dublin, Trinity College, 344
Du Bois-Reymond, Emile H. (b. 1818),
335, 413, 420
Du Boulay, Cesar Egasse, "Historia
Universitatis Parisiensis, " 1665-1673,
39
Du Boys, Pierre (at Lynschoten, Jan
Hugo van), 526
QO
Ducretet, E. (at Mauduyt, A. R., A.D.
1781), 264
Dudley, Sir Robert (1753-1649), " Dell'
Arcano del Mare di Roberto Dudleio,
Duca di Nortumbria e conte di War-
wick," 522, 523
Dudoyon (at Aldini, Giovanni, A.D.
1793), 305
Due, Christian, and Hansteen, Christo-
pher, " Resultate niagnetischen . . .,"
1863, 445
Dufay — Du Fay — Charles Fran9<pis de
Cisternay (1698-1739), " Histoire de
1'electricite," 1733, 1734, 1737; "On
Grey's experiments," 1737 (Phil.
Trans, (abridged) VIII. 393; Phil.
Trans, (unabridged) XXXVIII. 1735;
Mem. de 1'Acad. de Paris for 1733,
1734, 1737; Dantzig, Memoire, I.
226, 1737), 161-162, 181, 196, 218,
224, 263, 356, 419, 472
Du Fresnel (at Jadelot, J. F. N., A.D.
1799), 330
Dufresnoy, Andre Ignace Joseph (1733-
1801), 523
Duhalde — Du Halde — Jean Baptiste
(1674-1743), " Description de 1'ernpire
de la chine," 1738, i, 2, 3
Du Hamel, Henri Louis du Monceau
(1700-1782), 190, 191, 206, 217;
" Fa9on singuliere d'aimanter . . ."
(Mem. de Paris, 1745, Hist. p. i, Mem.
181). See also Mem. de Paris, 1750,
Hist. p. i, Mem. 154; 1771, Hist,
p. 32; 1772, Mem. p.' 44.
Du Hamel, Jean Baptiste (1624-1706),
235. 299 '> " Philosophia vetus et
nova . . .," 4 Vols. (also 6 Vols.),
1678, 1681, 1700; "Hist. Acad. Reg.
Paris."
Duillier. See Fatio — Facio — Faccio — de
Duillier, " Lettre a Cassini . . . " :
Amsterdam, 1686.
Duke of Sussex (at Ampere, A. M., A.D.
1820), 476
Du Lasque, compass needles, 235
Dulong, Pierre Louis (1785-1838), 389,
482
Dumas/ Charles Louis (1765-1813), 325;
" De magnetismo animali . . . Judi-
cium medicum," 1790
Dumas, Jean Baptiste (1800-1884), 496.
See Gates, "Dictionary," p. 1504;
" Rapport ... en faveur de 1'auteur
des applications les plus utiles de la
pile de Volta . . ." : Paris, 1864.
Du Moncel, Th. (b. 1821), 209, 245, 318,
407, 414, 423, 440, 449, 476, 499;
" Expose des applications de 1'elec-
tricitd . . .," 1853, 1854, 1857, 1862;
" Coup d'ceil . . . des applications
. . . de 1'electricitey' 1855; "Notice
historique . . . sur le tonnerre et les
eclairs . . .," 1857; "Recherches sur
I'electricit6 . . .," 1861 (Comptes Ren-
dus, XXXIV. 1852; XXXVI. 1853;
XXXVII. 1853; XXXIX. 1854;
594
INDEX
Du Moncel (cont.}
Annales t&egraphiques, Vol. III. p.
465, 1861, also for May and June,
1863); Du Moncel was editor of the
Journal " La Science."
Dumont, Georges, " Annales d'elec-
tricite et de magnetisme " : Paris,
1889-1890.
Duncan, A., " Medical cases . . ." :
Edinburgh, 1778, 229
Duncker, Professor Max, "History of
Antiquity," 7
Duns Scotus, John, Doctor Subtilis (c.
1270-1308), 36, 40, 41. See Joannes
ab Incarnatione and Joannes de
Colonia.
Du Perron, Anquetil, " Zend Avesta," 542
Du Petit, Albert, "Secrets merveilleux
. . .," 1718, 554
Dupin, Andre M. J. J., " Bibliotheque
des auteurs ecclesiastiques," 525
Dupin, Charles, " Essai historique . . .,"
329
Dupotet — Du Potet — de Senneroy,
J. Baron, " Manuel . . .," 237
Duprez, Francois Joseph Ferdinand (b.
1807), 195, 196, 292, 319, 416
Dupuis, Charles Fra^ois (1742-1809),
254, 264
Dupuis. See Puteanus Guilielmus, " De
medicaraentorum . . .," 1552, 536 .
Dupuytren, C. (at Galvani, Luigi, A.D.
1786), 285
Duquesne, Jean, " Li livres don Tresor,"
xix
Durant, Georges, " Dictionnaire tech-
nique et pratique d'electricit6 " :
Paris, 1887-1889, 347
Dureau, A.,etMoreau, E. Lemoine, Paris,
1868, " Des poissons electriques. . . ."
Dutens, Louis (1730-1812), " Abreg6
chronologique pour servir a 1'histoire
de la physique"; " Recherches sur
1'origine des decouvertes . . .," 2
Vols. 1766, 1796, 10
Dutertre, P., " Des aurores et de quel-
ques autres meteores " : Le Mans,
1822, 308
Dutour — Du Tour — -Etienne Fran9ois
(1711-1784), 170, 183, 214, 273, 426;
Discours sur 1'aimant (Acad. de Paris,
V., Mem. II. p. 49); (Mem. de
MathSm. et de Phys.,I. 375; II. 246,
516; III. 233, 244) ; " Recherches sur
les differents mouvements de la matiere
electrique."
Dutour — Du Tour — Gregoire, on the
aurora borealis, 140
Dutrochet, Rene Joachim Henri (1776-
1847), 463; " Nouvelles recherches sur
1'endosmose et I'exosmose " : Paris,
1828. See also Burnet, "On the
motion of sap in plants. Researches
of Dutrochet . . ." (Phil. Mag. or
Annals, V. 389, 1829).
Duverney, Joseph Guichard (1648-
1730), 148
Duvernier (mentioned at A.D. 1785), 282
Dwight, Professor R. H. W., 222
D wight, S. E. (Phil. Mag. or Annals,
111.74, 1828).
Dyckhoff, " Experiences sur I'activit6
d'une pile de Volta . . .," 387-388,
420 (Journal de Chimie de Van Mons,
No. XL p. 190).
EAMES, John, also Eames and Martyn.
See Royal Society.
Eandi, Antonio Maria. See Vassalli-
Eandi.
Eandi, Giuseppe Antonio Francesco
Geronimo (1735-1799), 294
" Earth, a great magnet," 82 (Gilbert),
92 (Fleming), 92 (Mayer), 145 (De la
Hire), 101 (Bacon).
Eastwick (at Cruikshanks, Wm.), 338
Eberhart, Prof., of Halle (at Aurora
Borealis), 138
Ebulides of Miletus, Greek philosopher
(fl. fourth century B.C.), 543
Ecclesiastical Biography. See Words-
worth, C.
Echard J. See Quetif and Echard.
Ecclesiastical History. See Rohrbacher.
Echeneis, or sucking fish, magnetic
powers of, 299
Ecole de Medecine : Paris, 351
Ecole Normale : Paris, 353
Ecole Polytechnique : Paris, 195, 338,
351, 354. 375, 37<>, 462, 47i, 477
Edelmann (at Zamboni, G., A.D. 1812),
420
Edelrantz, Chevalier A. N., Swedish
savant, 398, 399
Eden, Richarde, / 509
Edgeworth, Ma
Edgeworth, P' ^d Lovell (1744-1817),
316
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, Sir David
Brewster, 18 Vols. 1810-1830, 40,
147, 170, 289, 304, 318, 413, 449, 466
Edinburgh Journal of Science. See
Philosophical Magazine.
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,
393
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 255,
290, 347. 359, 4M, 42°, 429, 44°, 444»
446, 459, 460, 465, 477, 480, 482, 498
Edinburgh Review — Magazine, 102, 296,
299, 335. 389, 395> 466, 469. 5i8
Edinburgh Royal Society — Transactions,
Proceedings, etc., 225, 296, 297, 306,
309, 311, 423, 433, 465, 466, 467, 469,
470, 477, 482
Edinburgh University, 61, 227, 296, 390,
428, 466,
Edison, Thomas A., xi
Edrisi — Idrisi — Aldrisi, Abou-Abd-ben-
Edris al Hamondi (fl. A.D. 1099), the
most eminent of Arabian geographers),
59, 61
Edward I, King of England, 32
INDEX
595
Edward III, King of England, 15, 58
Eeles — Eales — Major Henry, of Lismore
(1700-1781), 211, 318, 319, 418
Effemeridi Chim. Med. di Milano, 1807
(at Brugnatelli, L. V.), 363
Egeling, J., " Disq. phys. de electricitate,
1759, 555
Egenoff — Egenolphe — Christian (1519-
1598), German writer, 508
Egyptians (geometry), 536
Einhoff (Gilbert Ann., XII. p. 230), 326
Eisenlohr, Wilhelm (1799-1872),
" Lehrbuch der Physik . . ." ; Mann-
heim, 1836.
Eleatic School, masters of the, 532, 543.
See Parmenides.
Electric acid, 362
Electric and chemical forces, identity
of (at Oersted, H. C. ), 453
Electric and galvanic decomposition of
water;* methods, various apparatus,
etc.: Marum, 1785; Pearson, 1797;
Wollaston, 1801 ; Van Proostwjck,
1789; Wilkinson, 1783; Nicholson
and Carlisle, 1807; Gautherot, 1801;
Creve, 1783; Brugnatelli, 1802;
Trommsdorff, 1801; Corradori in
1804; Pacchiani in 1804; Cuthbert-
son in 1806; Alemanni in 1807;
Rossi and Michelotti in 1811 ; Fresnel
in 1820; Mollet in 1821-1823; Hare
in 1839; Grove in 1847; Palmieri in
1844 ) Callan, N. J., in 1854 (Phil- MaS->
Feb. 1854).
Electric and galvanic fluids, identity of,
363
Electric and galvanic fluids, not identical,
Humboldt, F. H. Alex, van, " Experi-
ences . . .," 1799.
Electric and magnetic bodies, difference
between (Gilbert), 85
Electric and magnetic cures : Aetius at
A.D. 450, Wesley, 1759; Molenier,
etc., 1768; Mesmer, 1772; Bolten,
etc., 1775; Wilkinson, 1783; Adams,
1785; Perkins, 1798; Jadelot, 1799;
Humboldt, 1799.
Electric and magnetic fluids : Coulomb,
1785-
Electric and magnetic forces, analogy
between, Swinden (at 1784), 272;
Ritter (at 1803-1805), 383
Electric and magnetic forces of attrac-
tion and repulsion, analogies between.
See Huebner, L.
Electric and nervous fluids, identity of,
Valli, 302-303
Electric arc, first displayed by Sir
Humphry Davy, 341
Electric atmospheres, investigated by
^Epinus and Wilcke, 215
Electric fishes. See more especially the
following A.D. entries : Scribonius,
50; Cavendish, 1772; Adanson,
1751; Redi, 1678; Hunter, 1773;
S'Gravesande, 1774; Bancroft, 1769;
Walsh, 1773; Spallanzani, 1780;
Wilkinson (Galvani, Berlinghieri,
Fontana and others), 1785; Vassalli-
Eandi, 1790; Merula, 1791; Ingen-
housz, 1779; Shaw (Reaumur,
Schilling, Musschenbroek and others),
1791; Ewing, 1795; Humboldt,
1799; Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 1803;
Matteucci (Bibl. Univ. de Geneve,
November 1837), Zantedeschi (Bull.
Acad. Brux., VIII. 1841). See also
Aristotle, 341 B.C., and consult
separate heads, like gymnotus,
tetraodon, malapterus, raia, silurus,
scolopendva, trichirus torpedo, etc.
Electric fluid and caloric, analogy
between, 386
Electric fluid composed of three beams
(at Bressy, J., A.D. 1797), 323
Electric fluid in medical practice, Lovett,
etc., 212-213, 229, 281, 295
Electric fluid, its relation to vegetation,
282
Electric, galvanic and magnetic theories.
See Theories.
" Electric Light/' Journal of electric
lighting . . . : London, 1882-1883.
Electric light, nature and origin of (at
A.D. 1803, Biot), 379
Electric lighting, historical retrospect.
See Jamin, Jules Celestin (1818-1886)
in the "Revue des deux mondes," Ser.
III. Vol. 26, pp. 281-303; "Journal
of the Franklin Institute," Ser. III.
Vol. 75, pp. 403-409; Dredge, James,
" Electric Illumination."
Electric machine, its development from
the time of von Guericke, 126
Electric photometry, Masson in 1845,
1847, 1850, 1851.
Electric smelting : Marum, M. van,
" Beschriving . . ." 1785-1787.
Electric spark, influence of form and of
substance upon it (at A.D. 1793), 212
Electric telegraph, history of the :
Reynaud in 1851; Highton, 1852;
Jones, 1852; House, 1853; Michaud,
1853; Bonel, 1857; Briggs and
Maverick, 1858; Prescott, 1859; Lam-
bert, 1862; Fahie, 1884.
"Electric telegraph and railway
review " : London, 1870.
Electric telegraphs : Morrison, C. M.,
1753; Comus, 1762; Lullin, 1766;
Bozolus, 1767; Volta, 1775; Le
Sage, 1774; Don Gualtier, 1781;
Linguet, 1782; Lomond, 1787;
Barthelemy, 1788; Reveroni, St.
Cyr., 1790; Chappe, 1792; Reusser,
1794; Beckmann, 1794; Salva, 1795;
Monge, 1798; Berton, 1798; Alex-
andre, 1802; Sommering, 1809;
Schweigger, 1811; Schilling, 1812;
Sharpe, 1813; Wedgwood, 1814;
Coxe, 1816; Ronalds, 1816; Ampere,
1820. For additional and more
modern telegraphs, see " Electric
telegraph, history of the."
596
INDEX
Electrical accumulator, Ritter at 1803-
1805.
Electrical air thermometer, Kinnersley,
221
Electrical and magnetical analogy,
denied by Swinden, J. H. van, 272
Electrical and magnetical publications
(additional), published up to the
year 1800, xvii, 551-555
Electrical attraction law, similar to
that of gravity (at Robison), 310
Electrical condenser, Cavallo at 1775.
Electrical conductors, pointed form,
preference for, 243, 250-252
Electrical decomposition of salts : Mur-
ray in 1821, Matteucci in 1830,
Brande in 1831.
Electrical distribution and equilibrium,
theory of: Jager (A.D. 1802), 363;
Prechtl (A.D. 1810), 407
Electrical doubler, Rev. Abraham Ben-
net, 1787, 280
" Electrical Engineer," publication com-
menced in London, also in New York,
during the year 1882.
" Electrical Industries," publication
commenced in Chicago during 1889.
Electrical machines: Ramsden, 1768;
Dollond, 1761; Holtz, 1864; Mason,
1771; Priestley (at Hooper), 1774;
Heintze, 1777; Ingen-housz, 1779;
Nairne, 1782; Sigaud de la Fond,
1785; St. Amand, 1785; Van Ma-
rum, 1785; Mann, 1787; Ribright,
1788; Ronalds, 1816; Hare, 1823
and 1827; Ridolfi, 1824; Dakin,
1830; Dal Negro, 1834; Eton, 1841;
Fizeau, 1853; Magrini, 1858.
" Electrical Magazine," publication
commenced in London during 1843.
Electrical measures. See Ampere, A. M.
" Electrical News and Telegraphical
Reporter:" London, 1875.
Electrical Resistance, absolute limit of.
History of the subject by Rowland,
Henry Augustus (1848-1901) in Am.
Jour. Sc., Ser. III. Vol. 15, pp. 281,
325, 430, 1878.
"Electrical Review : " London, 180, 428
" Electrical Review and Western Elec-
trician : " New York and Chicago,
222, 223
Electrical Society, London, Transac-
tions, Proceedings, etc., 299
Electrical Units. See Nipher, Francis
Eugene.
" Electrical World : " New York, vii,
xi, xiv
" Electrician," publication commenced
in London during 1876, 269
Electricians, Lives of the, by Jeans,
Wm. T., 1887.
" Electricien, L'," publication com-
menced in Paris during 1881.
" Electricit6, L'," publication com-
menced by Armengaud Jeune during
Electricities, the two, theories of Du-
fay, 161, 196; Grey, 161, also 153-
I55i Tranklin, 196; Watson, 196",
also 175-177; Wilcke, 215; /Epinus,
217; Symmer, 219; Tossetti, G. B.f
" Nuova macchina . . . della due
elettriciti . . .," n. d. ; Zantedeschi,
F., " De la difference . . . des deux
electricites " (Comptes Rendus,
XXXV. 1852).
Electricity — electricities. Both terms
first used by Browne, Sir Thomas
(1605-1682), in " Pseudodoxia Epi-
demica . . .," 1646. The name elec-
tricity appears for the second time
in Helmont's " A ternary . . .,"1650.
Electricity absorbed by bodies when
reduced to vapour (at Laplace), 461
Electricity, agencies of, 364
Electricity, analogy between ordinary
and voltaic, 489 '
" Electricity and Electrical Engineer-
ing :" London, 1890, etc.; Freke,
John, 1752; Turner, Robert, 1746;
Martin, Benj., 1746.
Electricity and galvanism explained on
the mechanical theory of matter and
motion (at A.D. 1820), 464
Electricity and galvanism, identity of,
356
Electricity and galvanism, medical effi-
cacy of (at Thillaye-Platel), 384, 385
Electricity and light, analogy between,
Marianini in 1862.
Electricity and lightning, analogy be-
tween. See articles on Franklin and
Nollet.
Electricity and magnetism, identity of,
affinity, analogy, connection, between
them: Cigna, 1759; ^Epinus, 1759;
Hubner, 1780; Hemmer, 1781; Swin-
den, 1784; Cavallo, 1787; Wollaston,
1801; Robertson, 1801; Volta, 1802
and 1814; Ritter, 1801; Gumming,
1822.
Electricity and magnetism in medical
practice (Thillaye-Platel at A.D. 1803),
384-386
Electricity and nervous fluids, identity
of, 302
Electricity and phosphorescence, re-
lation between (at Dessaignes, A.D.
1811), 415
Electricity and thunder, analogy be-
tween, Mazeas in 1752.
Electricity, animal, Achard, 1781 ; Co-
tugno, 1784; Valli, 1792; Brug-
natelli, 1792; Berlinghieri, 1792;
Fontana, 1793; Fowler, 1793; Wells,
I795I Rheinhold, etc., 1797; Robison
(Fowler), 1793-1797; Coulomb, 1798;
Davy, 1800; Lehot, 1801; Hemmer,
1799-
Electricity, atmospheric, 195, 206, 258,
293, 319-321, 416, 428, 429; theories
as to its origin (at Ewing, J.), 319;
T ullin r>*AA- •Ro^/x.r-io T^T^C • rial-
INDEX
597
Electricity (cont). —
litzin, 1775; Saussure, 1783; Ber-
tholon, 1786; Read, 1794; De Lor,
1752; Schubler, 1811 ; Murray, 1814;
Adams, "Essay . . .," 1784; Gar-
dini, 1784; Experiments by leading
investigators, 319; Biot, 377-378
Electricity, compounds of magnetism
and caloric (at Ridolfi), 482
Electricity, condenser of, Cavallo, 244
Electricity destroyed by flame, 1 70
Electricity developed in flame, 426
Electricity developed in minerals by
friction, 287
Electricity distribution upon the sur-
faces of bodies (Coulomb), 275
Electricity, effects of upon decapitated
bodies, 295, 305
Electricity, ever present in the at-
mosphere, 177
Electncfty, fire, heat, light, caloric,
phlogiston, identity of (at A.D. 1802),
359
Electricity, first English printed book
on the subject, " Origin ... of elec-
tricity, "by Robt. Boyle, 1675, 130-132
Electricity, first Latin printed book on
the subject, De Magnete, by Wm.
Gilbert, 82-92
Electricity, first step in the storage of, 348
Electricity, galvanic, in medical prac-
tice, 325
Electricity, galvanic, its influence on
minerals (Guyton de Morveau), 233;
history of, Sue, Pierre aine, 1802 and
1805, 361; Gregory, George, 1796,
323-324; Heidmann, J. A., 1806,
393. See also Bostock, John; De-
launay, Claude Veau; Donovan,
Michael; Guette, J. C. ; Izarn, G.;
tDnes, William ; Lusson, F. ; Mangin,
'Abbe ; Secondat, 131; Tromms-
dorff.J. B.; Schaub, J.; Wilkinson,
C. H.; likewise at A.D. 1812, pp. 418-
420, for a sketch of the history of
galvanism divided into three periods.
Electricity in amber : Thales (Theo-
phrastus, Solinus, Priscian, Pliny),
B.C. 600-580.
Electricity in minerals by friction,
Hauy, 1787, 286
Electricity in vacuo, Eandi (1790), 294;
Nollet (1746), 182
Electricity, its resemblance to thunder
and lightning, 152
Electricity, light, heat of caloric ; iden-
tities of. See Cooper, C. C., 1848.
Electricity,, magnetism, galvanism, his-
tory of, Mangin in 1752; Priestley in
1767-1794; Sigaud de la Fond in
1781; Du Fay in 1733-1737; Schaub
in 1802; Sue in 1802-1805; Delaunay
in 1809; By water in .1810; Donovan
in 1815; La Rive in 1833; Arebla
in 1839; Holdat de Lys in 1849-
1850; Milani in 1853; Noad, 1855-
1857; Becquerel in 1858.
Electricity, mechanical, origin or pro-
duction of, by Boyle, 131, 132
Electricity, medical, history of, Guitard
in 1854; Toutain, 1870; Krunitz-
Kirtz, 1787; La Beaume, " Re-
marks . . .," 1820, 384-386
Electricity, multiplier of, Cavallo in
1755, 244; Hare in 1839, 44^-449
Electricity, new theories of (at Eandi),
294
Electricity not evolved by evaporation
(at Laplace), 461
Electricity of cascades, 293; Tralles
(Schiibler, Gustav; Belli, Giuseppe;
Becquerel, A. C. ; Wilde, F. S.), 1790,
293; Bressy, 1797.
Electricity of flame, Matteucci in 1854.
Electricity of human body, most com-
plete series of experiments known,
285, 329
Electricity of ice, Achard, 1781.
Electricity of metals and minerals,
/Epinus, 1759; Delaval, 1760; Guy-
ton de Morveau, 1771 ; Brugmans,
1778; Bertholon, 1780; Haiiy, 1787;
Libes, Wollaston and Huyghens, 1801 ;
Ure, 1811.
Electricity of meteors, Bertholon, 1780.
Electricity of plants. See Plant elec-
tricity.
Electricity of sifted powders, 290, 431
Electricity of vapours, Canali, Luigi
(1759-1841), " Questions . . .," 1795.
Electricity of vegetable bodies, Ingen-
housz, etc., 1779; Bertholon, 1780;
Saussure, 1784; Morgan, etc., 1785;
Read, 1794; Dutrochet, 1820.
Electricity, origin of. See Akin, C. K.
Electricity, plus and minus, Franklin,
1752; Nollet (Mem. de Paris, 1753
and 1762); Adams, 1785.
Electricity produced by pressure, 353,
379. See Press electricity.
Electricity, second English book pub-
lished, 167
Electricity, second Latin printed book
on the subject, Philosophia Magnetica,
by Nicolas Cabaeus, 109-110
Electricity, storage of, Gautherot, 1801.
Electricity, theories of. See Theories.
Electricity, voltaic and galvanic, iden-
tity of (Volta, Aless., " L'identita del
fluids . . ." : Pavia, 1814.
Electricity, voltaic, first employed for
the transmission of signals, 406
Electricity, voltaic, first suggestion as
to its chemical origin, 329
Electrification of plates of air (in same
way as plates of glass), 205 (at Canton,
!753). 215; (at Wilcke, 1757), 217;
(at ^Epinus, 1 759) .
Electrification of plates of ice (in same
way as plates of glass), 221 (at Berg-
man, 1760-1762).
Electrified air, Cavallo, 278
Electro-balistic chronograph. . . . Le
Boulange in 1864; Navez in 1859.
598
INDEX
Electro-capillary phenomena . . . en-
dosmosis and exosmosis . . . ist, and,
3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, ;th, 8th Memoirs
of Becquerel, A. C., in Mem. Acad.
des Sc. Institut de France, Vol.
XXXVI. 1870.
Electro-chemical decompositions, theory
of (at A.D. 1805), 390, 488-489
Electro-chemical exposition of com-
pound bodies, theory of, Davy, 1800;
Berzelius, 1802; Grotthus, 1805.
Electro-chemical telegraph, the first, 407
Electro-chemistry, Keir, J., 1791; Fara-
day, Michael, 1821 ; Hartmann, E. F.,
in 1838; Christophle, C., in 1851.
Electro-chronograph, Locke in 1850.
Electro-dynamic qualities of metals.
See Thomson, Sir William.
Electro-dynamics, Ampere, 47-2, 474 ;
Weber, W. E., Leipzig, 1846, 1850,
1852, 1857, 1863-1871.
Electrolytes, decomposition of, Renault
in 1867.
Electrolytic dissociation theory, Grot-
thus in 1805.
Electrolytic separation of metals,
Zosimus, 425
Electro-magnetic brake, invented by
Achard, 1781, 263
Electro-magnetic multiplier, Schweigger,
413, 414; Poggendorff in 1811.
Electro-magnetic rotations, first pro-
duced by Wollaston in 1801, 358, 478,
493
Electro-magnetic telegraph. See Turn-
bull, L., also Vail, Alfred.
Electro-magnetism, founder of, Oersted,
1820, 452, 472, 474 ; Romagnesi, 1802 ;
Ampere, 1820; Faraday, 1821.
Electro-magnetism, history of its pro-
gress, by Michael Faraday, 483
Electro-magnetismus. This term ap-
pears for the first time in Kircher's
Magnes sive . . .," 1641.
Electro-metallurgy, Grimelli, G., " Elet-
tro-metallurgia . . .," 1844; " Storia
scientifica . . . elettro-metallurgia
. . .," 1844; Watt, A., "Electro-
metallurgy practically treated . . ." :
London, 1860.
Electrometers and Electroscopes of dif-
ferent kinds mentioned by Cuthbert-
son (at Lane, A.D. 1767), 228; Henley,
quadrant, also of Priestley, 1767, 1772,
228, 237 ; Lane, discharging, 1767, 228,
282; Cuthbertson, balance, 1769, 230;
Brook, quantitative, 1769, 231 ; Tralles,
atmospheric, 1790, 293; Forster, atmo-
spheric, 1815, 434; Richman in 1753;
Cavallo in 1777; Volta's condensing
electroscope described in his " Del
Modo . . .," 1782; Bennet, gold-leaf
electroscope, 1787, 289; Singer, 1814,
430; De Luc in 1819; Hare in 1821,
448; Zamboniin 1833, 5^420; Peregp,
Antonio (Comment. Ateneo di Brescia
for 1842, p. 77) ; electroscopes, capillary
(Proc. Boy. Soc,, Vol. 32, pp. 85-103,
1880). Others are : Cavallo, A.D.
I775'. Saussure, 1785; Blanch, 1793;
Arnim, 1799; Walker, 1813; Bohnen-
berger, 1815; Oersted, 1840; Harris,
W, S. (hydro-electrometer), 1820, 469;
Faraday ( Volta-electrometer) , 1821,
489; Roussilhe, L., in 1857; Col-
lardeau, 277; Coulomb, 1785, 275;
Ronalds, 440, 470; Lord Kelvin.
S^Bottomley, J. P.
Electro-micrometer of Delaunay, 277
Electro-micrometer of Marechaux, 395
Electron (amber), 8, 10
Electrophorus, Electrophori of various
descriptions, and theories of (at In-
gen-housz, A.D. 1779; Volta, 1775;
jEpinus, 1759); Robertson, 1801;
Wilcke, 1757; Lichtenberg, 1777
(double electrophorus); Kraft, 1909;
Jacotot, 1804; Eynard, 1804* Phillips
m 1833, 360, 402 ; Landriani (Ronalds'
Catalogue, p. 285), 249, 274
Electrophorus, perpetual, 386, 387
Electroplating, Brugnatelli, 1802.
Electro-positive and electro-negative
substances, generalization of, 369
Electroscopes. See Electrometers and
Electroscopes.
Electro-static capacity of glass, Hopkin-
son, John (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 31,
pp. 148-149, 1880).
Electro-statics, founder of, Coulomb,
1785, 473; Volpicelli, P., numerous
works thereon, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855,
1856, 1858-1865.
Electro-therapeutics, technique of,
Walther, Ph. F., " Ueber die therapeu-
tische . . .," 1803. Consult also
Martens, F. H., " Vollstaendige . . .,"
1803; Reinhold, J. C. L., " Ges-
chichte . . .," 1803; and Kratzen-
stein, C. G., " Physikalische . . .,"
1772.
" Elektrotechniker, Der," publication
commenced in Vienna during 1882.
" Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift," publi-
cation commenced in Berlin during
1880.
Elements, invisible transfer at a dis-
tance, by Grotthus and by Hisinger
and Berzelius, 419
Elephantine island, on the Upper Nile,
12
" Elettricita (L')," publication com-
menced by Rodolfo Cappanera in
Florence during 1877.
Eleusinian mysteries, 543
Elice, Fernandino (6. 1786), " Saggio
sull' Elettricita," 256, 299
Elien, Claudius ^lianus Sophista (died
c. A.D. 260), 518
Elizabeth, Queen of England (1533-
1603), 80, 91, 211
Ellicott, John (1706-1772), 175, 185, 202
Ellis, George E. (" Memoir of Sir Benj.
Thompson "), 371
INDEX
599
Ellsworth, H. L. (at Callender, E., 1808),
400
Ellwert, J. K. P. von, Repertorium fiir
Chemie . . . : Hannover and Leipzig.
Elmo's fire. See Saint Elmo's fire.
Eloy, Nicholas Francis Joseph, " Dic-
tionnaire historique de la medecine,"
4 Vols., Mons, 1778, 27, 37, 40, 65,
105, 114, 186, 202, 501, 502, 505, 508,
509, 512, 525, 537, 538
Elster, J., and Geitel, H., "Zusammen-
stellung . . . atmospharische elek-
tricitat," 321
Elvius, Petrus, " Historisk berattelse
• • •/' 1746, 555-
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 122
Empedocles, native of Sicily (fl. c. 460-
442 B.C.), 503, 511, 532, 543, 544.
See- Wundt, " Philosophische Stu-
dien," Index, p. 25.
EmporUm of Arts and Sciences, Phila-
delphia, 19, 78, 149, 231, 302, 322,
436
Encelius — Entzelt — Christoph (d. 1583),
501; " De re metallica," 1551.
Enciso, Martin Fernandez de, " Summa
de Geographia," 68
Encyclopaedia Americana, 392, 513
Encyclopedia Britannica (different edi-
tions), 5, 10, n, 17, 27, 29, 34, 38, 39,
42, 43. 55. 65, 71, 72, 75, 94, 96, 97.
IO2, 103, 105, 113, 121, 122, 127, 132,
134, 143, 144, 145, I46, 147, 148, 157,
166, 170, 192, 193, 200, 202, 203, 208,
212, 213, 214, 2l8, 220, 221, 225, 227»
23°. 231, 232, 236, 240, 245, 249, 250,
253, 254, 263, 265, 269, 270, 271, 274,
275» 277. 278. 282, 285, 286, 287,
290, 292, 296, 297, 301, 307, 308,
309, 311, 312, 313, 315, 328, 329,
335. 336, 337. 345. 347. 348, 354. 373.
378. 379. 380, 383. 387. 388, 389. 399.
404, 409, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418,
423, 425. 247, 430, 431, 433, 434, 438,
440, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448,
451, 554. 457. 458. 462. 4^4. 465.
466, 468, 469, 470, 471, 476, 478, 479,
480, 483, 489, 492, 497. 498, 511. 5M.
521, 522, 526, 532, 533. First edition
was published, in 3 Vols., 1768-1771,
and the eleventh edition, in 29 Vols.,
1910-1911. The Index issued by the
Cambridge University Press, 1911, and
the Indexes to the Catalogue of the
Wheeler Gift, have served as a guide
for the Index to this Bibliographical
History, which will be found to em-
brace all names of individuals and of
publications likely to prove of service
to the general reader. It must be
conceded that " the value of any
Index depends to a large extent on the
fulness of its cross-references," and it
will be seen that our own Index
has not only been made upon an
unusually extensive scale, but that the
new " encyclopaedic system of alpha-
betization " has likewise been closely
followed along the lines adopted by the
publishers of the Eleventh "Britan-
nica," wherever found practicable.
Encyclopaedia Italiana. See Bocardo.
Encyclopaedia Mancuniensis. . . . See
Hodson, F. M.
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, I, n, 20,
22, 29, 30, 54, 76, 148, 195, 322, 330,
336, 347. 353. 355. 359. 37°. 375, 379,
380, 383, 403, 418, 427, 446, 447, 455,
456, 458, 460, 476, 481
Encyclopaedia of Chronology. See Gates,
W. L. R.
Encyclopaedia of Useful Arts. See Tom-
linson, Charles.
Encyclopadie der elekt. Wissenschaften.
. . . See Hartmann, J. F.
Encyclopedic ou Dictionnaire Raisonn6 :
Geneve, 1772. See Diderot, D., and
D'Alembert, J. Le R.
Endosmosis and Exosmosis, Dutrochet,
1820, 463; Porret (at 1816), 440.
For Endosmose et Osmose, consult
Table analytique des Annales de
Ch. et de Phys., Index, pp. 183, 282-
283 (Napier, Chem. Soc. Mem. and
Proc., Vol. III.). See Electro-capil-
lary phenomena.
Enfield, William (1741-1797), " The
history of philosophy," drawn up
from Johann Jacob Brucker's Historia
Critica Philosophiae, 1742-1767, 5, 17,
37, 43, 115
" Engineer," The London, 263
" Engineering," The, London, vii, xiv,
92, 116, 225, 263, 347
" English Cyclopaedia," Charles Knight :
London, 1854-1870, 18, 22, 33, 39,
40, 54. 55. 61, 67, 76, 79, 81, 93. i<>3,
113, 116, 117, 122, 127, 144, 147, 152,
163, 201, 221, 251, 256, 264, 296, 302,
313, 315. 317. 322, 329, 337. 348, 395.
404, 412, 438, 440, 446, 455. 462, 470,
47L 483, 5<>3. 505. 5°8. 515. 532, 533.
S38, 541
" English Mechanic and World of
Science," publication commenced in
London during 1865.
English Poets, " Biographica Poetica," 62
Enneads of Plotinus, 534
Ennemoser, Joseph, " History of Magic/'
13, 14, 17, 18, 26, 65, 75, 106, 502
Ens, Gaspar, " Thaumaturgus Mathe-
maticus," 125
Entzelt. See Encelius.
Ephem&ides MSteorologiques, 288, 320
Ephemerides of the Lecture Society,
Genoa, 361
Ephemerides. See Efiemeridi, Breslau
Academy.
Epicharmus, Greek poet (&, at Cos,
540 B.C.), 544
Epicurus, Greek philosopher (342-270
B.C.), 14, 544
Epiphanius (c. A.D. 315-403), " De
Gemmis," 17
600
INDEX
Epitome of Electricity and Magnetism,
by Green and Hazard, Philadelphia,
103, 162, 303
Er, M. (at Galvani, A.), " Physiologische
Darstellung . . .," 284
Erasmus, Reinholdus (1511-1553), 510,
512
Erastus, Thomas—Thomas Lieber (1524-
1583), 513, " Disputationem de medi-
cina."
Eratosthenes, native of Cyrene (at
Hipparchus), 521
Erdmann, Otto Linne, " Journal fur
praktische chemie "; " Lehrbuch der
chemie." See Scherer, A. N., also
Niirnberg, 494
Erdmon, Richter and Lamballe (at Thil-
laye-Platel), 386
Erfurt University — Erfurt, Academia
Moguntina Scientiarum, 352
Erganzungs — Conversations-lexikon, 498
Erigena, Joannes Scotus — " Scotigena "
(d . A.D. 875). See Monroe, Cyclo-
paedia, Vol. II. pp. 496-497, also
" Biogr. Britan.," Vol. V.pp. 597-600;
" Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," 1897,^ Vol. LI-
p. 115.
Erman, Paul (1764-1851), 248, 249, 285,
352> 384, 395. 4*4. 419. 420, 431,
476
Ersch, Johann Samuel, and Gruber,
Johann Gottfried, " Allgemeine Ency-
klopa?die der Wissenschaften . . .":
Leipzig, 1818, etc., 312
Ersch, Johann Samuel, " Handbuch
. . ." : Amsterdam, 1813, and Leipzig,
1822-1840, 353
Erxleben, Johann Christian Polykarp,
" Physikalisch-chcmische abhandlun-
gen," 1776; " Physikalischc-Biblio-
tek," 250, 258
Eschenbach, Andreas Christian of
Nuremberg (1663-1705), 554. See
Orpheus.
Eschenmayer, Carl Adolf von (1770-
1852), 326
Essarts, Le Moyne des, Nicholas Tous-
saint, " Sidcles Litteraires," 190
Essay on electricity . . . discoveries
of James Daevin and C. M. F. Bristol,
1773. 550
Essays in historical chemistry. See
Thorpe, T. E.
Etenaud, Alfred, " La t61egraphie elec-
trique," 292
Ether. See .Ether.
Etiolle, J. Leroy d', " Sur 1'emploi du
galvanisme," 330
Etiro, Parthenio (at Aquinas, St.
Thomas), 505
Etruscan theurgism, founder of. See
Tarchon.
Etruscans, the, 8-10
Etten. See Van Etten.
Ettinghausen, Andreas von, and Baum-
gartner, Andreas, " Zeitschrift fur
physik und mathematik," 422
Ettinghausen, Andreas von (1796-1878).
See " Zeitschrift fiir physik und
mathematik," 422
Euclid of Megara, Greek mathematician
(fl. third century B.C.), 40, 102, 328,
506, 531, 540, 541, 543
Eudiometer — eudio-s (clear) — instru-
ment for testing purity of air. The
best known eudiometers are those of :
Berthollet, Claude Louis (1748-1822),
Annalesdechimie, XXXIV. 78; Davy,
Humphry (1778-1829), Philos. Mag.,
XXXI. 3, 347; Hope, Professor, at
Edinburgh . . . Nicholson's Journ.,
8vo., IV. 210; Morveau, L. B.
Guy ton de (1737-1816), Nicholson's
Journ, 4to., I. 268; Pepys, W. H..
Phil. Trans, for 1807 and Phil. Mag.,
XXIX, 372; Priestley, Jos. (1733-
1804), Scelta d'Opuscoli, 12 mo.,
XXXIV. 65; Volta, AL-ssandro
(1745-1827), Nicholson's Journ., XXV.
154, and Annali di chimica di Brugna-
telli, II. 161, III 36; (Gay-Lussac),
389. Others, by John Dalton, Mr.
Seguin, Andrew Ure (418) ; Hare, etc.,
can be found in the " Elements de
Chimie Pratique" of P. J. Macquer.
Consult likeivise Hegeman in 1829,
Hauch in 1793, and Ernst Gottfried
Fisher in 1807.
Eudoxus of Cnidus, Asia Minor (fl. c.
370 B.C.), 533
Euler, Albert, 214
Euler, Johann Albrecht (1734-1800),
273, 36o
Euler, Leonhard (1707-1783), 141, 200,
213-214. Consult Euler, J. A., Frisi,
Paul, and Beraud, Laurent, " Disser-
tationes sclectae . . . electricitatis
causa et theoria . . ." : Petropoli et
Lucae, 1757; also Euler, Bernoulli
and Dutour, " Pieces des prix de
1'Acad. de Paris," 1748.
Eunapius, Greek historian (b. A.D. 347),
" The lives of the Sophists," 531
Euripides (c. 480-406 B.C.), " Fragmenta
Euripidhs," the third of the three
celebrated Greek tragedians in point of
time, the others being /Eschylus and
Sophocles, 13, 15, 503
Eustachi — Eustachio — Bartolomeo (d.
1574), author of " Tabulae Ana-
tomicas," 514
Eustathius, Archbishop of Thessalonica
(d. 1198), 29
Evax — Euace — King of the Arabs, 512-
513, 525. See " Notes and Queries,"
2nd Ser. VIII. 401.
Evax, name of a black crystal, according
to Paracelsus, 64
Evelyn, John, " Diary," 130, 131
Ewing, John (1732-1802), 299, 319-321
Exner, Franz, " Ueber die Ursache . . .";
" Repertorium der Physik," 321
" Experimental Researches " of Michael
Faraday, viii, xiii, 483-499
INDEX
601
Eyck, S. S. (at Oersted, H. C.), 455
Eydam, Immanuel (1802-1847), "Die
Erscheinungen der Elektrizitaet und
des Magnetismus. . ." : Weimar,
1843.
Eymerici, Nicolas (1320-1399), 32
Eynard, M. (at Ingen-housz, J.), 249, 257
FABER, Father, " Palladium chemicum,"
29
Fabre-Palaprat, Father B. R., 330, 385
Fabricius — Fabrizio — Girolamo (1537-
1619), Italian anatomist, successor of
Fallopius at Pisa University.
Fabricius, Hildanus, 1641, " Observa-
tionum," 147, 554
Fabricius, Johann Albertus, German
scholar (1644-1729), " Bibliotheca
latina,** 1697, 39; "Bibliotheca
ecclesiastica," 1718; "Bibliotheca
graeca," 1705-1728, 34, 39, 503, 520,
529, 53L 53*. 533
Fabricius, Wilhelm von llilden, " Obser-
vations . . .," 147
Fabroni— Fabbroni — Angelo, " Vitae
Italorum doctrina exccllentium," 20
Vols. 1778-1805; " Elogi d'lllustriae
Ttahani," 51, 113, 117, 253
Fabroni — Fabbroni — Giovanni Valen-
tino M. (1752-1822), " Dell' azione
chimica dei metalli . . .," 1801
(Ann. di Chim. di Brugnatelli, XXI.
277). 327. 329-330. 393. 419. 490
Facciolati, Jacopo (at Montanus, Joannes
Baptista), 529
Faculte de Medecine. See Paris.
Faculte des Sciences. See Paris.
Fahie, John Joseph, " History of Electric
Telegraphy to the year 1837";
" History of Wireless Telegraphy,"
1838-1899 "; " Emporium of Arts and
Sciences," x, n, 20, 22, 78, 82, 129,
145, 148, 208, 248, 284, 292, 318, 322,
33«, 349, 355. 3^i, 3^5. 3<>7, 376. 3^4.
390, 406, 407, 415, 421, 424, 429, 430,
438, 453. 455. 459, 47°. 47*. 475, 47<>,
479
Fahlberg, Samuel (1755-1836), " Beskrif-
ning ofver elektriska alen gymnotus
electricus " (Vetensk Acad. Nyr.
Handl., 1794, 1801), 230, 299
Fairfax, Edward, " Godefroy de
Boulogne," 58
Fajdiga. See Romich.
Falconer, William, " Observations on the
knowledge of the ancients respecting
electricity " (Mern. Soc. of Manchester,
III. 278), 10, 16, 24
Falconet, Camille (1671-1762), " Dissert,
historique et critique," 16, 21
Falero — Faleiro — Francisco (sixteenth
century, at Columbus, Christopher,
A.D. 1492), 67. In his Tratado del
esphera, 1565, is given the first
printed record of magnetic declination.
Falero, Ruy, astronomer, 67
Fallopius, Gabriellus (1523-1562), 27,
82, 5M
Faniani, J. Charles, " De arte metallica,"
502
Fant, Charles, " L'Image du Monde . . .,"
35
Fantis, Antonius de, of Treviso, " Tabula
generalis . . .," 1530, 53
Fantonelli — Fantanelli (at Brugnatelli,
L. V., A.D. 1802), 363
Faraday, Michael (1791-1867), vii, ix,
xi, xiii, 14, 167, 183, 184, 195, 230,
247, 267, 297, 323, 344, 357, 358, 370,
374, 380, 381, 383, 388, 389, 391, 392,
416, 420, 426, 430, 437, 450, 452, 472,
475, 479. 483~499
Farmer, Moses Gerrish (1820-1893;
mentioned at A.D. 1771), 234
Farquharson, Rev. James, 140, 308
Farrar, Frederick William (1831-1903),
" The early days of .Christianity,"
2 Vols. 1882; "The life of lives,"
1899.
Farrar, John (Mem. Amer. Acad. O. S.
1818), " Elements of electricity and
magnetism" (also of electro-magnetism,
likewise of electro-dynamics), 1826,
1839, 1842, 238, 292, 324, 348, 376,
379, 389, 411, 4J5, 420, 458
Farrington, Dr. Oliver C. (mentioned at
Chladni, E. F. F., A D. 1794), 315
Fatio de Duiller, Nicolas, " Lettre . . .
lumiere extraordinaire," 1686, 141
Faure, G., " Conghietture . . . machina
elettrica . . .," 1747, 555
Fayol, " Observations sur un effet
singulicr . . .," 1759, 555
Fazio degh Uberti. See Uberti.
Fearnley, C., and Hanstcen, C., 446
Febuner (at Ingen-housz, J., A.D. 1779),
257
Fech, Louis Antoine Lozeran du (^.1755),
167, 183
Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1801-1887),
" Repertorium (also Lehrbuch) der
experimental physik . . ." : Leipzig,
1832; " Handbuch der dynamischen
elekt . . . " : Leipzig, 1824, 421,
422
Feraut, Raimont, 16
Ferchius (at Duns Scotus) .
Ferdinand, King of Sicily, 539
Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany
(1610-1670), 135
Ferguson, Adam (1723-1816), University
of Edinburgh, 296
Ferguson, James (1710-1776), 232; " An
introduction to electricity," 1770,
1775, 1778, 1825.
Ferguson, James, and Brewster, Sir
David, " Essays . . . electricity . . ,,"
1823, 466
Ferguson, John, " Bibliotheca chemica,"
2 Vols. 1906.
Ferguson, R. M., " Electricity/' 1866,
30
602
INDEX
Fernel — Fernelius — Joannes Franciscus
(1497-1558), 17, 169, 514
Ferrari. See Resti-Ferrari, also
Zamboni, G.
Ferrario (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D.
1802), 363
Ferrer, Don Jaime (d. first half sixteenth
century), at Lully, Raymond, 32.
See Mosen, Jay me Ferrer de Blanco.
Ferussac, Andre" Etienne Baron de
(1786-1836), 19, 449; "Bulletin des
sciences mathe'matiques," 16 Vols.;
' ' Bulletin des sciences technologiques, ' '
19 Vols.
Fessenden, T. G. (at Perkins, B. D.,
A.D. 1798), 328
Feuiltec, L. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Ficino, Marsilio — Marsiglio (1433-1499),
108, 115, 5H-5I5
Fidanza, Giovanni, known as Bonaven-
tura (1221-1274), 38, 39, 42
Figueyredo, Manuel de Andrade de,
chorographer (1568-1630), 165
Figuier, Louis Guillaume (b. 1819),
' ' Exposition et histoire des principales
d^couvertes scientifiques et modernes,"
3 Vols. : Paris, 1855, 1857; " L'ann£e
scientifique et industrielle," 2 Vols. :
Paris, 1859; " L'alchimie et les
alchimistes " : Paris, 1860, 32, 42, 126,
226, 280, 304, 306, 307, 364, 367, 371,
380, 388, 389, 400, 403, 407, 432,
443, 449,455. 49*, 5<>6, 520
Fincati, Admiral Luigi, " II magnete . . .
e la bussola " : Rome, 1878, 58, 63
Finugius, Hieronimus (at Gilbert, Wm.,
A.D. 1600), 53
Fire beacons and signals : B.C. 1084,
588,200; A.D. 232-290.
Firenze, Atti della Reg. Soc. Economica,
33<>
Firmas. See Hombre-Firmas.
Fischer, Ernest Gottfried (1754-1831),
" Beschreibung d. Volta' schen Eu-
diometers," 1807; " Ober den
Ursprung der Meteorsteine," 1820.
Fischer, J. C., " Geschichte der
physik . . ,," 8 Vols. : Gottingen,
1801-1808, 55
Fischer, Joseph, of Beldkirch, 535
Fisher, George, " Magnetical experi-
ments . . ." (1794-187,3), 467
Fisher, George Thomas (1722-1847), 467
Fisher, Kuno (at Bacon, Sir Francis,
A.D. 1620), 103
Fisher, Richard, 565
Fishes, electrical. See Electrical fishes.
Fiske, John (1842-1901), " Discovery of
America," 535
Fitton, William Henry (1780-1861),
359
Flagg, H. C., Observations on the . . .
torporific eel (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.,
O. S. II. 170) 1786, 299
Flamsteed, John (1646-1719), the first
English Astronomer Royal, 130, 145
Fleming, J. A., xi, 92
Fletcher, Francis (at Kendall, Abraham),
523
Fletcher, L., " An introduction to the
study of meteorites," 1896.
Fletcher, William (at Lactantius,
L. C. F.), 524
Fleury, Claude (1640-1723), " Hist.
Ecclesiastique," 39, 525, 541 (the
Ecclesiastical History from A.D. 400
to A.D. 456).
Flinders, Matthew (1774-1814), 348,
Flint, Robert, " History of the philosophy
of history " : Edinburgh, 1893, etc.
Flint, Stamford Rapples, "Mudge
Memoirs " : Truro, 1883, 203
Florence — Firenze — Academy, 159, 329
Florence — Firenze. See Accademia del
Cimento.
Flores, Don Lazare de, "ArlPde navi-
guer," 165
Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre (b. 1794),
389
Fludd, Robert — Robertus de Fluctibus
(1574-1637), 65, 245, 554
Foggo (Edinb. Journ. Sc., IV.), 417
Fogliani, Giornal (at Volta, Alessandro,
A.D. 1775), 248
Fo-hi, the first great Chinese Emperor,
2
Foissac, Dr. (at Deleuze, J. F. F., A.D.
1813), 425
Folic, Mr. de la (at Swinden, J. H. van,
A.D. 1784) (Journ. de Phys., 1774), 274
Folkes, Martin (1690-1754), 175, 181,
183
Fond. See Sigaud de la Fond.
Fonda, " Sopra la maniera . . .," 1770,
253
Fonseca, Ludovicus, " Journal," 105,
245
Fonseca, Vicente, Archbishop of Goa,
525
Fontaine, Hippolyte, 454
Fontana, Felice (1730-1805), 235, 270,
284, 303-304, 305, 306, 327, 393, 419,
556
Fontana, Gregorio, " Disquisitiones
physico-mathematicae . . .," 1780,
290
Fontancourt, Sygerus de, 45
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier — Bouyer —
de (1657-1737), 162, 170
Fontenelle, Julia. See Julia- Fonte-
nelle.
Fonvielle, W. de, " Eclairs et Tonnerre,"
199
Foote, A. E. (at Chladni, E. F. F., A.D.
1794), 315
Foppens, John Francis (1689-1761),
" Bibliotheca Belgica," 517
Forbes, James David (b. 1809), 288, 454,
461, 477; "History of natural
philosophy"; "Review of the pro-
gress of mathematical and physical
science."
INDEX
603
Forbes, P., " On the application of
electro-magnetism as a motive power
. . . " (Annals of Electricity, V. 239),
1840.
Forchamrner and Hauch, 454
Forchammer, G,, 370
Ford, Paul L. (at Franklin, Benjamin,
A.D. 1752), 199
Forerus, Laurentius (at Zahn, F. J.,
A.D. 1696), 146
Formaleoni, Vincenzo Antonio, " Saggio
. . . de Veneziani," 64
Forskal, P., 299
Forster, B. M. (1764-1829), 406, 434
Forster, Johann Reinhold (1729-1798),
" On the aurora borealis," 166
Forster, L. von, 316, 440
Forster, T., on De Luc's electric column
(Phil. Mag. XXXVII. 424).
Forster's Bauzeitung, 1848 (at Reusser,
A.D. 1^4), 316
Fortin (at Dupuis, C. F., A.D. 1778),
254
Fortis, Alberto Giovanni Battista (1740-
1803), 351, 352, 401
Fortius, Joachimus, 119, 437
" Fortnightly Review," London, 124
Fortschrift der Physik, 440
Foscarini, P. A., " Epistola . . .," 1615,
Foster, Capt. Henry (at Lorimer, Dr.
John, A.D. 1775), 243
Foucault, Jean Bernard L6on (1819-
1868), " De la chaleur . . . 1'aimant
. . .," 1855-
Fourcroy, Antoine Francis de (1755-
1809), 236, 247, 302, 333, 349, 352,
354-355, 389, 419
Fourcroy, C. (at Fourcroy, A. F. de,
A.D. 1801), 354
Fourier, Baron Jean Baptiste (1768-
1830), " Experiences thermo-elec-
triques," 454, 462
Four lines of no variation, 78, 118
Four magnetic poles or points of con-
vergence, 118
Fournier, Georges (1595-1652), 69
Fouvielle, W. de, " Eclairs et Tonnerres,"
199
Fowler, Dr. Thomas (1736-1801), 102,
103, 229, 322, 332, 393, 419
Fowler, Richard (1765-1863), 306, 310,
327. 33i, 332
Fox, Robert Were (at Lorimer, Dr. John,
A.D. 1775), 243
Fracastorio, Hieronymo (1483-1553), 72,
299, 515; " De sympathia et anti-
pathia," 1574.
Frampton, translator of Nicholas
Monardus, 27
Francesco, Duke of Urbino, nephew to
Julius II, 544
Francis I, Emperor of Austria, 407
Francis I, King of France, 535
Franck, Ad., 512
Francker — Francquer — University, 254,
271
Franklin, Alf., "Hist, de la Bibl.
Mazarine," 108
Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790) (Phil.
Trans., 1751, p. 289; 1752, p. 505;
1758, p. 695; 1755, p. 300; 1765, p.
182; Phil. Mag., 1819, p. 61; Trans.
Amer. Phil. Spc., III. 1793). See
Magnetism, animal; Sparks, Jared;
Copley Medal; "Experiments and
Observations (also new experiments)
on electricity made in Philadelphia " :
London, 1751, 1754, 1769, etc., xiv,
9, 133, 161, 176, 186, 187, 193-199.
201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 216, 217, 218,
219, 221, 222, 227, 228, 231, 237, 239,
240, 243, 250, 251, 252, 258, 264, 269,
278, 282, 288, 319, 320, 321, 328, 332,
339, 356, 455, 472
Franklin's letters were not publicly
read before the Royal Society, or
printed in their Phil. Trans, contrary
to his wishes, 252
To Brother Potamian, the author
of this Bibliographical History is
much indebted for his Critical Notes to
the Catalogue of the Wheeler Gift . . . :
New York, 1909. Edited by Mr. Wm.
D. Weaver. On p. 191, Vol. I. of
said Catalogue, an entry is made of
the above-named 1751 edition of
" Experiments and Observations . . .,"
with the following note : ' ' These
experiments and discoveries, which
have given Franklin such fame were
the work of four men, Benjamin
Franklin, Philip Syng, Thomas Hop-
kinson and Ebenezer Kinnersley ; but,
owing to Franklin's writing of them to
England, they were published in his
name and have redounded to his
credit solely (Ford, P. L., Franklin
Bibliography)."
Franklin, B., Lavoisier and others, on
animal magnetism : Paris, 1784.
Franklin, Georg, " De electricitate . . ." :
Oemipont, 1747; " Declaratio phaeno-
menorum . . .," 1747, 555
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, 81, 199,
368, 370, 384, 406, 407, 423, 436, 449,
454, 455, 476, 498
Franz, Joseph (at Winckler, J. H., A.D.
1733), 162
Fraser, A. C., 511, 515, 520
Frauenhofer, Joseph von (1787-1826),
432, 466
Frazer, Professor (at Brewster, Sir
David, A.D. 1820), 466
Frazers — Fraser's — Magazine (at 600
B.C.), 10
Frederick the Great was King Frederick
II (1712-1786), 170
Frederick I, Emperor (1121-1190). See
Barbarossa.
Frederick II, King of Germany (1194-
1250), 93
Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1596-
1632), 127
604
INDEX
Frederiko, J. G., " Biographisch Woor-
denbock," 518
Freeman, Edward Augustus, " Historic
Towns " (Colchester, etc.), 91
Freind, John (at Arnaldus de Villa
Nova), 505, 519, 529, 538
Freke, John (1688-1756), 201
Fre"mery, N. C. de, " Dissertatio . . . de
fulmine," 1790, 556
Fremy, Edmond. See Becquerel,
Edmond.
Fresnel, Augustin Jean (1788-1827),
375, 389, 464, 471. See " Fresnel and
his followers," by Moon, Robert; also
Athenaeum, July 14, 1849.
Freycinet, Claude Louis Desaulses de
(1779-1842), 442 (Phil. Mag.,LVII. 20,
1831).
Friderici, Johannes Balthazar, 1685, 554
Friedlander's Experiments, 249
Frigerio, Paolo (at Aquinas, St. Thomas),
505
Friis, F. R., " Tyge Brah6," 93
Frisch (at Shaw, George, A.D. 1791), 298
Frisi, Paolo (1728-1784), 138, 555
Fritsche, " Untersuch . . . der Image
du Monde," 35
Fritz, H., "Das Polarlicht " : Leipzig,
1 88 1, 140
Frobenius — Froben — Forster — ( 1 709-
1791), 161
Frobisher, Martin (at A.D. 1754), 211
Frode, Ari Hinn — Ara Hin — or the Wise,
first compiled the Landnama-Bok, 28
Frornond, Jean Claude, Italian physicist,
208
Fromondi Libertus (1587-1653), " Mete-
orologicum," 1627, 9, 552, 555
Froriep, Ludwig Fnedrich von (1779-
1847), 429, 494; " Notizen aus d.
Gebietder" ; " Natur-und-Heilkunde,"
50 Vols. : Weimar, 1822-1836.
Froriep, L. F. von, und Froricp, R.,
" Neue Notizen . . .,"40 Vols. 1836-
18.45.
Froriep, R., " Beobachtung . . .
magneto-electrischen apparatus" :
Weimar, 1843, 386
Frost, Alfred James (1844-1881), Bio-
graphical Memoir of Sir Francis
Ronalds, 1880.
Froude, Alfred J., 438, 440
Froude, James Anthony, " English
seamen of the sixteenth century,"
522
Frulander, Dr., of Berlin, 342
Fuchs, Leonard (at Myrepsus, Nicolaus),
529
Fulco — Fulke, " A goodly gallery . . .
meteors," 1571, 1634, 1670, 552
Fuller, Andrew (1754-1815), "Mis-
cellaneous pieces . . .," 5, 523
Fuller, " Miscel.," iv, cap. 19 (at 1033-
975 B.C.), 5
Fuller, Thomas, " History of the worthies
of England"; "Church History of
Britain," 39, 91
Fumagelli (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D.
1802), 363
Fnrnaux, Tobias (at Hansteen, C., A.D.
1819), 444
Fusinieri, Ambrogio (1773-1854), 298,
314, 347, 420, 449; " Annali delle
scienze del Regno Lombardo-Veneto,"
1831-1845; " Memorie di meteoro-
logia," 1847.
Fuss, Nicolas von (1775-1826), 253
Fyfe, Dr. (mentioned at Cruikshanks,
A.D. 1800), 338
G
GABLER, Matthias (1736-1805), "Theoria
magnetis " : Ingoldstadt, 1781, 556
" Gaea-Natur und Leben," Bd. 1-12,
1865-1876 : Coin und Leipzig, 416
Gahn, Gottlieb (at Berzelius, J. J. F.
von, A.D. 1802-1806), 369/370
Gaillard et Cortambert, 284
Gale, Dr. L. D. (at Franklin, Benjamin,
A.D. 1752), 195; also (at Tralles,
J. G., A.D. 1790), 293
Gale, T. (at A.D. 1802), 364
Galen, Claudius Galenus, illustrious
Roman physician (A.D. 130-201),
" De facultatibus "; " De simplici
medicina," n, 20, 83, 169, 333, 506,
514, 525, 536, 540
Galileo-Galilei (1564-1642), 55, 90, 96,
102, 114, 115-117, 120, 122, 152 159.
Consult Wundt, Wilhelm, " Philoso-
phischen Studien," at Index, p. 27.
" Galileo of Magnetism," William Gil-
bert, 82, 90
Galizi, D.(a*Dalton, John, A.D. 1793), 308
Galli, Francisco. See Jayme, Juan.
Gallitzin, Prince Dmitry Alexewitsch
Furst. See Golitsuni.
Galois, J. (at" Le Journal desS9avans"),
550
Galvani, Luigi Aloysio (1737-1798), 202,
220, 223, 249, 269, 270, 283-285, 302,
3°3. 304» 3°<>, 322» 327. 331. 354. 3^3*
365, 419, 443
Galvani's experiments, report on (at
Fourcroy, A. F. de, A.D. 1801), 354;
also (at Wilkinson, C. H., A.D. 1783),
269 (Comment. Bonon. Scient., VII.
363, 1796; Opusc. Scelti, XV. 113).
Galvani Society of Paris, 304, 330, 348
350, 392, 394. 4*9 (Phil- Mag., XV.
281, 1803; XVI. 90, 1803; XXIV.
172 and 183, 1806; XXV. 260, 1806).
Galvanic battery, some forms of. See
Sharpless, S. P.
Galvanic conducting cord, sub-aqueous,
420
Galvanic current, its directive influence
upon a magnetic needle, 365
Galvanic deflagrator of Prof. Hare, 447
Galvanic electricity, complete history
of. See Electricity, galvanic, history of.
Galvanic electricity for treatment of
diseases, 325, 330
INDEX
605
Galvanic electricity, its influence on
minerals (at Morveau, Guyton de,
A.D. 1771), 233
Galvanic electricity, new theory of,
Parrot, 367; Volta, 367
Galvanic electricity, sketch of a new
theory of, by Parrot, G. F. (at A.D.
1802), 367
Galvanic energy and the nervous in-
fluence, analogy between, 437
Galvanic fluid, different hypotheses (at
Reinhold, J. C. L., A.D. 1797-1798),
326-328
Galvanic irritation and incitability,
relation between, 331
Galvanic pile of Dr. Baronio, composed
exclusively of vegetable substances,
393-394 (Phil. Mag., XXIII, 283,
1806).
Galvanism and frictional electricity,
identity of (A.D. 1801, Wollaston), 356
Galvanism and magnetism, identity of
(A.D. 1817), 442
Galvanism applied to medicine, Wil-
kinson, 1783, 269, 325, 330; Vassalli-
Eandi, 295; Humboldt, 333
Galvanism, different hypotheses on, 327
Galvanism employed by Alclini and
others to bring back life, 304-306
Galvanism, exciters and conductors of,
33i
Galvanism, history of. See Electricity,
galvanic, history of.
Galvanism, its effect on plants, 257
Galvanism, medical application of, 269,
330
Galvanism, theories of. See Theories,
also Galvanic electricity.
Galvano-magnetic indicator. See
Electro-magnetic multiplier.
Galvanometer : Schweigger, also Pog-
gendorif at A.D. 1811, pp. 413, 414;
Ampere, 1820, pp. 473, 475; Maria-
nini, 1827, pp. 373, 475; Pick, H.,
*855 (Jahresbericht . . . des Schul-
jahres, 1854-1855); Varley, 1863.
Gallucci, G. P., " Ratio fabric andi . . .
magnetica acu," 1596, 553 (" Modus
fabric andi . . . cum acu magnetica" :
Vinet, 1596).
Gama, D. Maria T. de, 69
Gama, Vasco da (c. 1460-1525), 68-69,
522. 523
Gamble, Rev. J., chaplain of the Duke
of York (d. 1811), 322
Gandolfi, B., Lettera al Sig. D. Mori-
chini . . . macchina elettnche (An-
tologia Romana, 1797), 423
Garbio, P., " Annali di Serviti," no, nr
Garcia ab Horto — Don Garzia dall'
Horto — Garcia du Jardin (1734-1787),
" Historia dei simplici aromati," ist
edition, Goa, 1563; "Dell' Historia
dei simplici aromati . . ." : Venezia,
1616, 5M-5I5
Gardane, Joseph Jacques (at Thillaye-
Platel, Antoine, A.D. 1803), 385
Garden, Alexander (at Bancroft, E. N.,
A.D. 1769), 230, 299
Garden, A., and Williamson, H., 230, 299
Gardiner — Gardner — " Observations on
the animal oeconomy," 306, 326
Gardini, Giuseppe Francesco (1740-
1816), 178, 258, 326, 362, 385
Garn, J. A., " De Torpedine " : Witteb.,
1778, 298
Garnet, John (at A.D. 1795), 322
Garrat, A. C. (at Thillaye-Platel, An-
toine, A.D. 1803), 386
Garthshorne, Dr. (at Davy, Humphry,
A.D. 1801), 342
Garzoni, Barthelemi (brother of Leo-
nardo Thomas), no
Garzoni, Father Leonardo Thomas
(1549-1589), some of his works were
published by Barthelemi Garzoni, no,
112, 113
Gasc, J. P., " Memoire sur 1'influence,"
257
Gassendi, Pierre (1592-1655), 7, 77, 90,
93, 107, 113, 114-115, 130, 132, 138,508
Gasser, Achilles P., " Epistola Petri
Peregrini . . . de magnete," 1558, 45
Gassiot, John Peter (1797-1877), 420
Gassner (at Zamboni, Giuseppe, A.D.
1812), 420
Gaubil, Le Pere, records the early use of
the compass, 21
Gauclentius, Merula. See Merula Gau-
dentius.
Gaugain, J. M. (Annales de Chimie,
1854, XLI. 66), 191
Gauricus, Lucas (1476-1558), 108, 516
Gauss, Johann Karl Friedrich (1777-
1855), 82, 317, 318, 345, 422, 445;
" Intensitas vis magneticae . . .,"1832.
Gauss, J. K. F., and Weber,
W. E., " Resultate aus den Beobach
tungcn des Magnetischen Ver
eins . . ." : Leipzig und Gottingen,
1837-1840.
Gautherot, Nicholas (1753-1803), 348-
350. 380
Gauthey — Gauthier — Gualtier — Don (at
A.D. 1781-1783), 264
Gauthier d'Espinois, 33 (at Vincent de
Beauvais, A.D. 1250).
Gauthier, J. Louis, " Dissertatio . . .,"
1793. 306
Gautier de Metz, 35; " L'lmage du
Monde," Nouv. Biog. Gen., Vol. XIX.
p. 718.
Gavarret, T. (at Galvani, Luigi, A.D.
1786), 284
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (1778-1850).
See Paris, " Annales de Chimie et de
Physique," 157, 195, 249, 294, 321,
334. 338, 34<>. 344. 347. 377. 388-389,
419, 477, 481, 487. Consult Ronalds'
Catalogue, pp. 196 and 406, for Gay-
Lussac's work in conjunction with
Biot, Humboldt, Poisson, Pouillet,
Thenard and others.
Gazetta di Roveredo, 367
606
INDEX
Gazetta di Trento, 365
" Gazette of Salem/' 233, 235
Geber (at Tarsiisi, fl. eighth century
A.D.), 515. 517
Gehlen, Adolph Ferdinand von, " Jour-
nal fiir die chemie und physik " ;
" Journal der chemie," 9 Vols.,
1803-1806 (Schweigger's Journ., VI.
1812; XII. 1814; XX. 1817), 363,
367, 370, 380, 383, 391, 394, 400,
407, 408, 412, 414, 452. See Scherer,
also Schweigger.
Gehler, Johann Samuel Traugott (1751-
1795)1 " Physikalisches Worterbuch ":
Leipzig, 17, 195, 248, 421, 483
Geiger, P. L. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.,
A.D. 1799), 330
Geitel, H. See Elster.
Gellert, C. E. (at Swinden, J. H. van,
A.D. 1784), 273
Gellibrand, Henry (1597-1636), 95, 107,
112, 117, 1 20, 156, 266; " A discourse
mathematical on the variation of the
magnetic needle . . .," 1635. Con-
sult "Diet. Nat. Biogr.," XXI. 117;
" Nouv. Biogr. G6n.f" XIX. 837;
" Biogr. Univ.," XVI. 128. John
Pell made a " Letter of remarks " on
the above, London, 1635.
Gemma, D. Cornelius (1535-1577), " De
natura divinis . . .," 14, 17, 299, 517
Gemma Trisius — Rainer (1508-1555), 517
General Biographical Dictionary, by
Alexander Chalmers, 54, 95, 106, 120,
122, 129, 167, 186, 189, 265, 311, 514,
520, 522, 523
General Biographical Dictionary, by
H. J. Rose. See New General Bio-
graphical Dictionary.
General Biographical Dictionary, by
John Gorton ; London, 1833, 92, 95,
131, 265
General Biography. See Aikin.
Geneve, Archives de I'electricit6, 5 Vols.
1841-1845.
Geneve, Archives des sciences physiques,
36 Vols. 1846-1857.
Geneve, Bibliotheque Britannique, 144
Vols. 1796-1815, 482.'
Geneve, Bibliotheque Universelle, 57
Vols. 1858-1876, 140, 482
Geneve, Catalogue of manuscripts in the
Geneva Library, 1834, 54
Geneve, Revue Suisse, 7 Vols. 1838-
1844.
Geneve, Soci£t6 de Physique, Memoires,
• 1821, 140
Geneve, Universit6, 270
Genoa, Academy of Sciences, 147
" Gentleman's Magazine," 10, 202, 205,
206, 296, 298, 324, 401, 434, 456
Geoffrey, Etienne Louis (1725-1810), 297
Geoffrey, Saint Hilaire Etienne (1772-
1844), 298, 300, 373-375, 4°9, 4®*
Geoffrey, Saint Hilaire Isidore (son of
Etienne) (6. 1805), " Histoire Natu-
relle . . .," 299, 374. 375
" Geographia distincta . . . " of Livio
Sanuto, 65
Geographical Journal, 32, 60, 62, 67,
521, 535
Geographic du moyen-age, Joachim
Lelewell, 62
Geographic Universelle. See Malte-
Brun, V. A.
Geometrical Analysis. See Leslie, Sir
John.
George III, King of England, 231, 251
Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II, his magnetic
clock mentioned by Simon Maiolus.
Gerbi, "Corso di Fisica," 5 Vols. : Pisa,
1823-1825. See Zamboni, G.
Gerboin, Antoine Claude (1758-1827),
351-352
Gerdil, Le Pere Hyacinthe Sigismond,
professor in the Turin University
(1718-1802), 209
Gerhard, C. A. (at Molenier,'-J.), 229,
and (at Thillaye-Platel, A. ), 385
Germain (at Zamboni, G., A.D. 1812), 420
Gersdorf, Ephraim Gotthelf, 523
Gerspach, Edouard (at Alexandre, Jean,
A.D. 1802), 361
Geschichte der mathematik. See Kast-
ner, Abraham G.
"Geschichte der physik. . .," by J. C.
Fisher: Gottingen, 1801-1808, 8
Vols., also by Poggenclorff.
Gessner — Gesner — Conrad (151 6-1 565) ,
270, 502
Gessner, J. Matthias, " De electro
veterum," 8
Geuns, Etienne Jean va n ( r 767-1 795) , 276
Gherardi, Silvestro (at Sarpi, P., A.D.
1632), 113, and (at Galvani, Luigi,
A.D. 1786), 284 (Ext. Nov. Act. Acad.
Istit. Bonon, II. and III. 1840).
Ghirlanda, " Intorno ... del galva-
nismo . . ." (Treviso Athenaeum, V.
p. 5, for 1835).
Ghisi, L. A., " Descrizione di due nuovi
telegrafi elettrici . . ." : Milano, 1850.
Giamone, Pietro (1676-1748), 539
Giant refractor, the. See Dorpat.
Gibbes, Sir George Smith (1771-1851),
270, 364
Gibbon, Edward (1737-1794), English
historian, author of " The Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire," edited by
Henry Hart Milman (1791-1868), 525,
533, 542
Gibbs, Colonel George (at Morichini,
D. P., A.D. 1812-1813), 423
Gilbert Club, London, 92, 113
Gilbert, Davies Giddy (1767-1839), 339,
497
Gilbert, L. W., " Annalen der Physik,"
195, 201, 211, 231, 248, 249, 253, 257,
277, 280, 284, 285, 293, 299, 300, 306,
320, 326, 327, 330, 333, 337, 355, 363,
364. 367. 3^8, 370, 374, 376, 380, 383,
384. 388. 391, 393. 394. 395. 4°^ 4<>7»
408, 416, 420, 434, 443, 450, 455, 462,
473. 483
0U7
Gilbert, Dr, William (1544-1603), " De
magnete magnetisque corporibus et de
magno magnete tellure; Physiologia
nova, plurimis et argumentis et experi-
rnentisdemonstrata," ist edition, Lon-
dini, 1600; 2nd edition, Sedini, 1628;
3rd edition, Sedini, 1633 ; " De mundo
nostro sub lunario Philosophia nova
, . ." : Amsterdam, 1651, vii, xi, xiv,
xvii, xix, ii, 17, 37, 40, 42, 47, 48, 53,
63, 65, 69, 71, 76, 79, 80, 82-92, 94,
97» 99, ioo, 101, 104, 105, 107, 108,
no, in, 112, 113-116, 118, 120, 121,
123, 124, 141, 146, 159, 160, 211, 277,
501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508,
5<>9, 5i°> 5ii* 513, 5M, 515, 5i6, 517,
518, 519, 520, 522, 523, 525, 526, 527,
528, 529, 530, 53L 532, 533, 534. 536,
537- 538, 539, 540. 54L 542, 545-546
Gilbert, Dr. William, accounts of early
writers, navigators and others named
in " De Magnete . . .," 501-542
Gilbert, Dr. William, his experiments
and discoveries, designated, in " De
Magnete . . .," by the larger aster-
isks, 545-546
Gilbert, Rev. Wm., 91
Gilgil, the Mauretanian (at Agricola,
Georgius), 501
Gilmore, John (at Zoroaster), 542
Gilpin, George, Clerk of the London
Royal Society, " Observations on the
variation and on the dip, . . ." :
London, 1806 (Phil. Trans, for 1806,
.PP- 385-419). 238
Gineau. See Lefevre-Gineau.
Ginguen6, Pierre Louis, 44, 506, 507
Ginn and Company, 504
Giobert, C. A. (at Brugnatelli, L. V.,
A.D. I8O2), 363
Gioberti, Giulio A. See Biblioteca
Italiana, also Giulio (Giorn. Fis. Med.,
I. 1 88, 1792).
Gioia — Goia — Flavio, Amalphus, Gioia
Joannes, an Italian pilot said to have
been at Positano near Amalfi, 56-59,
73, 81, 211, 523
Giordiani (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D.
1802), 363
Giornale Astrometeorologico of Toaldo,
Padua, 253
Giornale dei letterati d' Italia . . , :
Venezia and Firenze, 1710. See Zeno,
Caterino, Pietro.
Giornale dell' Italiana letteratura, 66
Vols.: Padova, 1802-1828, 248, 254,
330
Giornale dell' I.R. Istituto Lombardo.
See Biblioteca ItaUana.
Giornale del Sc. Contemporanea : Mes-
sina.
Giornale di fisica, chimica e storia natu-
rale, edited by L. V. and G. Brug-
natelli, Brunacci and Configliachi, 10
Vols. 1808-1817.
Giornale di fisica. See Nuovo Cimento ;
also Matteucc, Carloi.
Giornale di medicina pratica. See
Breva, V. L., 300
Giornale di Pavia. See Brugnatelli,
L. V.
Giornale di scienze. . . . See Verona
Poligrafo.
Giornale Enciclopcdico di Vicenza,
1779-1784, 253
Giornale fisico-chimico Italiano, 2
Vols. 1851-1852. See Zantedeschi, F.
Giornale fisico-medico . . ., 20 Vols.
1792-1796. See Brugnatelli, L. V.,
248
Giornale Sc. d'una Soc. Fil, di Torino,
257, 296
Giornale sulle scienze . . . : Treviso,
18 Vols. 1821-1830.
Giornale Toscano di scienze med. fis. e
natur : Pisa, 1840.
Giovene, G. M. (Mem. Soc. Ital., Vols.
8, 9 and 22), 1799-1841.
Giovini, Sarpi : Brussels, 1836, 113
Giraldi — Giraldus — Lilius Giacomo Gre-
gorius, " Libellusderenautica," 1540,
57-58, 63
Girardi and Walter (at Shaw, George,
A.D. 1791), 298
Girardin (Nouv. de la R6publ. des
lettres et des arts, 1779), 385
Giraud-Soulavie, Abbe, 273
Gironi (at Brugnatelli, L. V., A.D. 1802),
363
Girtannier, Christophe (1760-1800),
417
Giuli, G. (Ann. del Reg. Lombardo-
Vcneto, Vol. X. p. 30, 1840).
Giuli, G., and Linari-Santi (Ann. del
Reg. Lombardo-Veneto, Vol. IX.
p. 200, 1839).
Giulio — Julio — Sur les effets du fluide
galvanique applique" a differentes
plantes . . . (Bibliot. Ital., I. 28 :
Turin, 1803).
Giulio — Julio — e Rossi, " De excita-
bilitate contractionum . . ." : Turin,
1800, 257, 284, 295, 305, 306, 326, 327,
35°, 4J9
Giulio — Julio — Gioberti, Vassalli-Eandi,
e Rossi. See Biblioteca Italiana.
Gladstone, Dr. J. H., 466, 498
Gladstone, The Right Hon. William
Ewart, 6
Glanvill — Glanvil — Joseph (1636-1680),
called Saducismus — Sadducismus —
Triumphatus, 57, 127-129
Glan villa— Glanville. See Bartholo-
maeus de Glanvilla.
Glareamus, Heinrich Loriti (1488-1563).
See Loritus, 535
" Glasgow Mechanics' Magazine and
Annals of Philosophy." First issued
at Glasgow during 1824.
Glasgow Observatory, 417
Glasgow Roy. Phil. Soc., 20
Glasgow University, 309, 425
Gleig, Dr. G. (at Robison, John, A. D.
1793-1797). 3"
608
INDEX
Globus Mundi, the first book in which
the name " America " is mentioned,
535
Gloesener (Comptes Rendns, XXVI. 336;
also XXVII. 23 : Paris, 1848).
Glycon of Athens, sculptor of the Farnese
Hercules, 543
Gmelin, Christian (son of Johann Conrad
Gmelin), 451
Gmelin, Christian Gottlob (1792-1860),
" Expcnmenta electricitatem . . . ";
" Analys. d. turrnahns . . ."
(Schweigger's Journ., XXXI. 1821);
" Ilandbuch der Chcmie . . .," 221,
287. 297. 352, 359, 370. 4°3, 406, 446,
447. 449, 45i> 464> 476> 48l« 493.
496, 498
Gmelin, Eberhard, 451
Gmelin family, 450
Gmelin, Ferdinand Gottlob von (1782-
1848), 451
Gmclin, Johann Conrad (1707-1759), 450
Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804),
45i
Gmelin, Johann Georg (1674-1728), 450
Gmelin, Johann Georg (1709-1755), 450
Gmelin, Leopold (1788-1853), " Iland-
buch d. theoret. chemie," 2 Vols. 1817-
1829 (Handbook of Chemistry, trans-
lated and edited by Henry Watts,
1848-1861), 153, 286, 296, 446, 447,
449-451, 496
Gmelin, Philip Friedrich (1722-1768), 450
Gmclin, Samuel Gottlieb (1744-1774), 450
Gobel, Severin, 552
Goclenius, Ruciolphus, the younger
(1572-1621), 27, 245, 552
Godigno, N., 553
Godin deo Deionaio — Odonais — Louis,
M5
Godwin, Dr. Francis (at Wilkins, John,
A.D. 1641), 119
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749-
1832), greatest of German poets, 58,
33i
Goldsmith, Oliver (1728-1774), "Survey
of experimental philosophy, magnet-
ism and electricity," 2 Vols. : London,
1776.
Golitsuni — Gallitzin — Dmitry Aleksyr-
evich, Prince (1738-1803), 242, 262
Gomperz — Gompertz — Theodor, 8, 504,
5H. 522
Gonzalus, Oviedus — Gonzalo Fernando
de Oviedo y Valdes (1478-1557), 532
" Good Words," 7, 28, 87, 88
Goodsir, Prof, (at Geoffrey, St. Hilaire
Etienne, A.D. 1803), 375
Gordon, Andreas, 168, 203, 229, 239;
" Phenomena electricitatisexposita " ;
" Philosophia " ; " Tentamen . . .
electricitatis " ; " Versuche . . . elec-
tricitat."
Gordon, James Edward Henry,
" Physical treatise on electricity and
magnetism"; " Trait6 experimental
- - -,"239,492
Gore, George, " Theory and practice
of electro-deposition . . ."; "On
the electrical relations of metals . . ." ;
" Art of electro-metallurgy," 24, 352
Goropius, Henricus Becanus — Joannes
JBecano (1518-1572), 211, 517; " His-
panica loannis Goropii Becani," 1580,
211
Gorton, John (d. 1835). See "General
Biographical Dictionary."
Gosse, Edmund (at Browne, Sir Th.,
A.D. 1646), 124
Gothaische Gelehrte Zeitungen, 240
Gottingen, Abhandlung d. Gott. Gessel-
schaft d. Wiss., 445
Gottingen, " Magazin fur Allgemcine
natur . . .," n, 256, 257, 263, 298,
(at Lichtenberg, G. C., A.D. 1777) 250
Gottingen Observatory, 220
Gottingen, Societas regia Scientiarum
Gottingensis (Commentarii Goc. Reg.
Scient. Getting.), 28 Vols. : 1752-
1808, 8, 220, 314, 451
Gottingen University (at Lichtenberg,
G. C., A.D. 1777), 250
Gottmgische Gelehrte Anzeigen, 246, 455
Gottmgischen gemein. Abhand., 216
Gottling's Almanach, 383
Gottoin of Coma, the Canon, 277
Gottshed, J. C., 555
Gouget, " Origin of Laws," 10
Gough, John (at Berzelius, J. J. F. von,
A.D. 1802-1806), 370
Gould, Benjamin Ap thorp, Jr. (b. 1824)
(astronomer), 407
Gourdon, Victor Pierre (at Thillaye-
Platcl, A.D. 1883), 385
Govi, Gilberto (1826-1889), "Voltaela
telegrafia elettrica . . ." : Turin,
1868; " Komagnosi e 1'elettro-mag-
netismo . . .," 1869, 365, 366
Gow, James, of Cambridge, 39, 520,
541
Gower, John, " Confcssio Amantis," 58
Grsesse, Jean George Theodore, " Tresor
de livres rares et precieux " : Dresdc,
1861,63, 81, 531, 539
Graham, George (1675-1751), mentioned
at Porret, Robert, A.D. 1816 (Phil.
Trans., 1724, 1725, 1748), 146-157,
191, 266, 426, 441, 444
Graham, Richard (at A.D. 1745), 175
Graham, T., " Elements of Chemistry,"
2 Vols., 441, 491 (Phil. Mag. or Annals,
I. 107, 1827).
Gralath, Daniel (1729-1809), " Elektri-
sche Bibliothek " : Danzig, 1754,
1756; " Geschichte der Electricitat " :
Danzig, 1747, 1754, 1756, 174, 178,
185, 186-187
Grandamicus — Grandami — Jacobus, 1 20,
146
Grand Dictionnaire Historique, 1 740, by
Louis Moreri.
Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIX8
siecle, Pierre Larousse, 1866-1876,
15 Vols., 2, 24
INDEX
609
Grandeau (mentioned at Bertholon de
St. Lazare, A.D. 1780-1781), 259
Grande Encyclopedic dcs sciences, des
lettres et des arts, 2
Grant, R , " History of physical
astronomy."
Grapengieser, Dr. C J. C., " Versuche
den Galvanismus . . .," 269, 325,
326, 330, 332, 419
Gravesande. See S'Gravesande
Gray, Asa (1810-1888), 259, 260, 323
Gray, Edward Whittaker (17.48-1807),
237
Gray Grey-- Stephen (d. 1736), xiv,
I53~I55. 161, l62. I67. r77. iQ3> 2I4>
217, 240 (Phil. Trans., abridged,
VI , VIII., 1720, 1723, 1731, 1734-
1735, 1735-173^ ; also Phil Trans,
unabridged, XXXVII. 1731-1732;
XXXIX. 1735 1736 and 1738).
Gray, John. See Royal Society.
" Great Divide," 315
Greaves, John (1602-1652), 120
Green and Hazard, authors of " Epitome
of electricity and magnetism," pub-
lished at Philadelphia, 1809.
Green, George (1793-1841), " An essay
on the application of mathematical
analysis to the theories of magnetism
and electricity " • London, 1828, 262
Green, J , " Electro-magnetism " :
Philad , 1827.
Greenslet, Ferris (at Glanvill, Joseph,
A.D. 1665), 129
Gregoirexlu Tour, 140
Gregoire, Louis, " Dictionnaire Kncyclo-
pedique des Sciences " ; " Dictionnaire
classique d'histoire," 262
Gregorio, I) , " Lettera intorno all'
elettricita . . .," 1693, 554
Gregorovius, Ferdinand, " History of . . .
Middle Ages," translated by Annie
Hamilton, 1896, 539
Gregory, David (1661-1708), observa-
tions on laws of magnetic iiction, 145
Gregory, George (1754-1808), " Economy
of nature," 263, 306, 322-323, 496
Gregory, Ohnthus Gilbert (1774-1841),
434
Gregory, William, London, 1850, 140
Gregory XIII (at Bacon, Sir Francis,
A.D. 1620), 102
Gren, Fredrich Albert Carl (1760-1798).
See Journal der physik, 220, 248,
249, 271, 284, 326
Grenoble University, 536
Gresham College, 107, 117
Grew, Nehemiah (1641-1712), 159, 160,
547; " Musaeum regalis societatis,"
Royal Society Transactions.
Grey, Zachary (1688-1766), 99
Griffin, J. J. (at Gmclin, Leopold, A.D.
1819), 450
Grimaldi, Francesco Maria (1618-1663),
113, 127, 141
Grimaldi, G., " Dissertazione . . . della
bussola " : Roma, 1741, 58, 61
RR
Grimelli, G., " Storia . . . dell' elet-
tro metallurgia . . . lessicologica " :
Modena, 1844.
Grindel, David Hieronymus, " Rus-
sischer Jahrbuch fur der chemie und
pharmacie," 368
Griscom, Prof, (at Hare, Robert, A.D.
1819), 447
Gnselmi, Francesco, " Vita de Fra Paolo
Sarpi," in
Grofton (at A.D. 1676), 135
Groningen- Grocningne-— Academy of,
277
Gronov - Gronovius, Jacobus (Phil.
Trans , LXV.), 299
Gross, Johann Friedrich, 273, 556
Grote, George, " Plato," " Greece,"
ii, 5°4. 537
Grotius, Hugo— De Groot (1583-1645),
517-518
Grotthus, Theodor, Baron von (1785-
1822), 39Q-39A 41')
Groue, Francis (at Kratzcnstein, C. G.,
A D T745), J71
Grouemann (Archives Neerlandaises),
142
Grout, Jonathan, Jr. (at A.D. 1800), 337
Grove, Sir William Robert (1811-1896),
^ 391, 426
Growth of Industrial Art (at Grout,
J , Jr , A.D 1800), 337
Grubcr, Johann Gottfried. See Ersch
and Gruber.
Grucker, Emile (at Plotinus of Alex-
andria), 534
Grummcrt, Gottfried Heinrich, 172
Grundig, Chnstoph Gottlob (1707-1780),
" Archiv. der mathematik und physik,"
1841-1855-
" Grundriss der Chemie," 1833, edited
by Friedrich Wohlcr.
Gruner, Christian Gottfried (at Galvani,
Luigi, A D. 1786), 285
Gruter, John, the great humanist and
critic (1520-1627), is said to have
edited the ". . . De mundonostro . ..."
1651, of William Gilbert (Wheeler
Catalogue, No. 131).
Guadagni, G , 1744 (at Dalton, John,
A.D 1793), 308
" Guardian " (at Strada Famianus, A.D.
1617), 99
Guerickc, Otto von (1602-1686),
" Experimenta nova . . .," 125, 126,
130, 132, 150
Guerin, A. J., " Ilistoire Generale et
particuhere dc 1'electricite," 1752,
42°. 556
Guerino detto il Meschino, 57. See
Andrew the Florentine.
Gueront, Auguste, 208, 224, 361
Guette, Johann Conrad (b. 1747),
" Beschreibung . . ." : Nuremberg,
1790. It contains a bibliography and
history of electricity.
Guide to the literature of botany. See
Jackson, B. D. J.
610
INDEX
Guido dellc Colonnc --Io Colonna da
Messina, 44
Guillen, Felipe (at A.D. I53°~i542). 7°
Guillotin, Joseph Ignace (1738-1814), 305
Guinicelli, Guide, of Bologna (1240-
1276), 1 6, 43, 44. Consult Biog.
Gen. (Hcefer), Vol. XXII. p. 754; also
Biogr. Univ., XVIII. 214.
Guisan, F. S., " De Gymnoto " (at Shaw,
George, A.D. 1791), 299
Guitard, M. T., " Histoire de 1'rlectricite
medicale " : Paris, 1854, 179
Guitard, T. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A D. 1803), 386
Gull, W. (at Thillaye-Platcl, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Gunter, Edmund (1581-1626), 107, 117
Gunthcr, " Etuas voa elcktrophor . . . " :
Leipzig, 1783, 381
Gurncy,SirGokleworthy(i793 -1875), 4 26
Gustavson, Col. (at Dalton, John, A.D.
1793), 308
Gutenberg, Johann (c. 1398-1468), 508
Gutle, J. C., " Zaubermechamk od
Bcschreibung . .," 1704, 557
Guyc, Philippe A., " Journal de Chimie-
Physique " • Geneve, 392
Guyot — Guiot — dc Provins, xix, 28,
3°. 56. His poem on the magnet is
to be found in Lcgrand d'Aussy's
" Fabliaux . . .," 1781, and also in
Lonmer's " (Concise Essay , . .,"
1795. See " Nouv. Biogr. Gen."
(Hcefer), XXVIII. 951
Guyot, " Nouvclles recreations physiques
et mathematiques," 224
Gyges, ring of (at Thales of Miletus,
600-580 B.C.), 8
Gymnotus electncus, 20, 129, 230, 241,
299, 319, 335. 37-1. 493
H.
HAARLEM Batavi Scientific Society, 279
367
Haarlem Teylenan Society, 277, 278, 292
Hachette, Jean Nicholas Pierre (1769-
1834), 290, 375~37(>. 420, 476 (An-
nales de Chinue, LXV. 1808 ; XXXVII.
1828; LI. 1834). See Desormes.
Hachette et Ampere (Journal de Phys-
ique, Septcmbre 1820).
Hachette et Thenard.
Hacker, P. W., " Zur theorie des mag-
nctismus " : Niirnberg, 1856, 160
Haen, Antoni de, " Ratio Medendi in
Noscoraio practice . . .," 1760, 212,
213
Hagen. " Memoriae Philosophorum,' 97
Hagenbach-Bischoff, Jacob Eduard
(Arch. Sc. Phys. Nat , Ser. III.
pp. 476-482. Velocity of current
propagation on telegraph lines experi-
mented upon found to be 42,000 miles
per second), Geneva, 1884.
Ilahm, Friedrich von (at Walsh, John,
A.D. 1773), 240
Haidinger, W. Rittcr von, " Der meteor-
stein fall . . ." : Wien, 1866, 1868.
Hain, Ludovico, " Repcrtoriuni Bibho-
graphicorum," 502, 540
Hakewill, George (1578-1649), " An
apologie . . .," 108, 211, 516, 523
Hakluyt — Hackluyt— Richard (1553 -
1616) , Hakluyt Society, 58, 69, 70,
90, 115, 520, 522, 523, 525, 560-
564; " Principall navigations . . ." ,
" Voyages ..."
Haldane, Lieut. -Col. Henry, 270, 338,
393. 4*9
Haldat du Lys, Charles Nicholas Alex-
andra de (1770-1852), 277
Hale, Edward Everett, " Franklin in
France," 1887, 205, 207, 227, 250, 252,
288, 289
Hale, Sir Matthew (1609-1676), " Mag-
netismus magnus . . ." : London,
I095. 554 (Molecular magnets men-
tioned at p. 55 of above-named work.)
Hale, " Statical Essays," 189
Hales, Reverend Stephen (1677-1761),
1 88, 200. Sec Copley Medal.
Hah, Abbas (died c. A n. 995), 26, 517;
" Liber totiub medicma? . . .," 1523.
Hall (mentioned at Dalton, John,
A.D. 1793). 3°8
Hall, Elms F., 560
Hall, Joseph, Bishop of Norwich, " the
English Seneca " (1574-1656), 16, 20
Hall, Sir James (mentioned at A.D.
1805), 392
Hallam, Henry (1777-1859), Gi, 90, 113,
560-563; "History of the Middle
Ages~"; "Introduction to the liter-
ature of the fifteenth and sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries."
Halle, Abhandl. d. Naturf. Gesellsch.,
414
Halle, Annalen der Physik, von Gilbert,
L. W. Continued under name of
Annalen der Physik und Chemie.
Halle, Jean N., 247, 249, 270, 305, 326,
333. 354. 393
Halle, P. (at Naude, Gabriel, A.D. 1625),
108
Haller, Albert von (1708-1777), " Elc-
mcnta Physiologic"; " Bibliotheca
Botamca," 332, 385, 529, 538
Halley, Edmund, English Astronomer
Royal (1656-1724), 70, 78, 1 1 8, 134,
137-142, 165, 214, 273, 301, 315, 444,
472- 53°. 547
Halhwell, James Orchard, 531
Hallock, Prof. William, xii
Hamberger, Prof. Georg Erhard, 170
Hamburg, " Magazin der neuesten . . .
reisebeschreibungen," 273
Hamburgisches Magazin, 216, 273, 320
Hamel, Joseph J. von (1788-1862),
" Historical account of the intro-
duction of the galvanic and electro-
magnetic telegraph " : London, 1859,
365, 384, 407, 421, 422. See " Regia
Scientiarum."
INDEX
611
Hamel, J. T., and Cooke, W. F. : London,
1859.
Hamilton (at Swinden, J. H. van, A.D.
i784), 273
Hamilton, A. See Grcgorius.
Hamilton, Hugh (1729-1805), 308
(Scelta d' Opuscoli, XXXI. 3, 1776).
Phil, essays . . . observations on
the aurora . . ." : London, 1767.
Hamilton, James, Sixth Duke of Aber-
corn (1656-1734), 159-160, 554; " Cal-
culations . . . virtue of loadstones,"
1729.
Hamilton, Sir William, lectures on meta-
physics and logic," 40
Hammer, William J., xi
Hammond, Kobert, " The electric light
in our homes " : London, 1884
Hamy, Ernest Theodore, " Biblio-
thcquc d'histoire scientifique " : Paris,
1908*
Handbuch der Allgemeine Chemie,
262
Handbuch der Chemie. See Liebig,
Justus von.
Handbuch der naturlehre See Muncke,
G. W.
Handbuch des magnetismus See La-
mont, Johann, Leipzig.
Handbuch die o>lterc medicine. See
Charlant, J. L.
Handbuch fur die literatur, by Rosen-
mueller, E. E. C., 528
Hankcl, Wilhclni Gottlieb (1814-1899),
J53> 205. 4^6 (Komg. Sachische
Gesells. d Wissen, 1851, 1856, 1857,
1858, 1859, 1861, 1865, Poggendorff,
Ann., LXXXI. 1850)."
Hanson, Peter Andreas (mentioned at
Hanstsen, C., A i>. 1819), 444
Hansteen, Christopher (1784-1873), 28,
29, 141, 157, 225, 267, 308, 442,
444-446, 457, 480; " Untersuchungen
uber den magnetismus der erde . ." :
Chnstiania, 1819 (Poggcndortf's An-
nals, 1825-1855; Phil Mag., LiX.
248; Phil. Mag. or Annals, II. 324;
Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskabene,
1839, 1841, 1842, 1845-1851, Acad.
Roy. de Belgique, 1853).
Harcourt, College of, 280
Hare, Robert (1781-1858), 256, 278, 308,
337. 35^, 373^ 3^9. 446-449, 46°
(Phil Mag., LIV. 206, 1819; LV1L
284, 1821 ; LX1I. 8, 1823; Phil. Mag.
or Annals, VII. 114 and 171, 1829;
Arncr. Phil. Soc. Trans., V. 1837;
VI. 1839; VII. 1841).
Hare, Robert, and Allen, Z. (Amer.
Phil. Soc. Trans, VI 297, 1839).
Hariot — Harriot — Hariott — Thomas
(1560-1621), 76, 519; " On magnetic
variations" (Poggendorff, I. 1019).
Harisse, Henri, 69
Harper's Magazine : New York, 61
Harris' Life of Charles II. (at Boyle,
Robert, A.D. 1675), 130
Harris, Sir William Snow (1781-1867);
"Rudimentary Electricity"; "Ru-
dimentary Magnetism"; " Friction-
ary Electricity " ; " Nature of Thunder-
storms "; "Rudimentary Galvan-
ism"; on lightning conductors
(Annals of Electricity, IV. 484 ,
Nautical Magazine, 1841, 1852, 1853),
15, 24, 134, 149, 156, 177, 178, 190,
191, 195, 204, 205, 212, 225, 229, 231,
238, 239, 250, 256, 277, 280, 290, 292,
315. 335, 3»o. 407. 4iA 415, 4^3. 4^7>
446, 448, 455, 458, 461, 467, 468-471,
476, 481, 493, 498
Harrison, Eredenck C., " The new
calendar of great men," 44
Harsdorffcr, Georg Philippi, Senator of
Nuremberg, 125
Harsu, Jacques de (1730-1784), 246;
" Recueil des eftets salutaires de
1'aimant . . .," 1783.
Harte, Richard (at Mesmor, E. A ,
A.D. 1772), 237
Hartmann, Franz, " Life of ... Para-
celsus," 1887, 65
Hartmann, Georg (1489-1564) To him
is due the earliest determination of
magnetic declination on land, March 4,
1544; lts discovery on sea is due to
Columbus, September 13, 1492. " Ent-
deckte . . . diamagn. inclination . . .
des magnets . . ," 1544, 7°~7r' 77-
266
Hartmann, Johann Enedrich (d. 1800),
216, 320; " Encyclopadie der elekt.
wissenschaften . . " : Bremen, 1784
(Harab. Mag, XXIV. 1759, XXV.
1761).
Hartmann, Philipp Jacob (1648-1707),
8, 554, " Succim Prussici physica et
civilis hibtoria . . .," 1677 (Phil.
Trans, abridged, II. 473; Phil. Trans.-
unabridged, XXI. 5, 49).
Hartshorn, T. C. (at Delcuze, J. Philippe
F., A.D. 1813), 425
Hartsoeker, Nicolas (1656—1725), 151 ;
"Conjectures physiques," 1706;
" Cours de physique," 1730.
Hartwig, Dr. G. (at Shaw, George, A D.
J79T), -299
Hartzheim, Josephus (a/Cusanus, N. K.),
5i<>
Harvard College— University -62, 63,
417. 45-2, 534
Harvey — Harvy — Gideon (1640-1700) ;
" Archelogia philosophica nova . . ." :
London, 1663; "Remarks on the
influence of magnetism on rates of
chronometers."
Harvey, William (1578-1657), 90, 121,336
Harward, ()., " Discourse of ... light-
ning," 1604, 553
Hatchett, Charles (1765-1847), 286, 387,
454, 476
Hatchett, " On the electro-magnetic
experiments of Oersted and Ampere/'
1821 (Phil. Mag., LVII. 40).
612
INDEX
Hauch, Adam Wilhclm von (1755-
1838), " Memoir . . .," 249, 337, 454
(Vidensk. Sel.sk. Sknfl Ny Samml, IV.
Hauch and Forchammer, 454
Hault, Johann Karl Fneclnch (1766-
1846), " Ncucr galvan. Apparat . . .,"
1805-1804 (Gilbert's Annal, XV. 180^;
XV HI. 1804), 285
Hauksbce, Francis (died c. 1713), 149—
151, 156, 168, 181, i<)i, 229, 252,444
(Phil Trans , XXIV. 1700, 1707-
1709, 1711-1712).
Haureau, Jean Barthelemy (1812-1896),
" Histoire de la philosophic scholas-
tiquc," x, 37, 39, 4X> 5°5. 5^6
Hausch, M G., 93, 96; " Epistol<r . . ."
Hauscn- Hauscmus— Christian Augus-
tus (1692-1743), 168
Haussmann, J. F. L. (at Zamboni, G.,
A n 1812), 420 (Crell's Chem. An-
nal., 1803, 11. 207).
Hauy llauey— Le Pere, Rene Just
(1743-1822), 153, 273, 286-287, 295,
300, 353- 374. 4*5, 465 : " Traite
elementaire de physique," 3rd ed ,
2 Vols. 1821 (Soc. Philomatique
an 5, p ^4, an 12, p 191; Phil.
Mag, XX. 120, XXXV11I. 81,
Mem. dn Museum, Vol 111 ).
Ifavgk (at Remhold, J. C. L , A D. 1797-
1798), 3^7
Ilaward (at A D. 1676), 134
Hawkins, John, 211, 523
Haygarth, Dr. J (mentioned at Rein-
hold, J C L., A i>. 1797-1798), 328
Ilazhtt, William Carcw, " Collections
and Notes," 1876, 95, 300
" lleiit and light consist of the conflict
of the electricities. ." Thus stated
by Oersted, 11. C , in a note appended
to the translation of " Fxpenmenta
circa . . .," 1820, made by him for
Thomson's " Annals ot Philosophy.1'
Hebenstreit, Jean Ernest (i 703-1757), (at
Reinhold, J. C.L , A.D. 1797-1798), 327
1 lecker, Auguste Frederic (17 43-181 1 ),3 3 2
Hcdonvillc, Sieur de (at Lc Journal des
Sc-avans), 550
Heer. See Vorssclman de Hcer.
Hegel, Georg Wilhclm Friedrich (1770-
Heidel, Wolfgang, Ernst, 554
Hcidmann, J. A , 285, 393, " Theory of
galvanic electricity founded on experi-
ence " (Phil. Mag , XXVIII. 97, 1807).
Heidmann, J H., " Observations
physico-electriques " (Journ. di
Chunie, VI. 190).
Heineken, C. (Phil. Mag. or Annals, II.
362, 411, 1827).
Heineken, N. S. (at Schwenter, Daniell,
A D. 1600), 81
Heinrich, Placidus (1758-1825), 420;
" Die Phosphorescenz der Korper,"
1811, 1812, 1814, 1815, 1820
(Schweigg. Journ., TV. 1812; XIII.
1814; XV. 1815; XXIX. 1820;
Gilb Ann , XXVII. 1807).
Heinze, Johann Georg (1719-1801), 280
Helancius, alludes to the elcctro-mag-
netical power of the betyh, 1 7
Helebrandt (at Heidmann, J. A., AD.
1806), 393
Hclfenzrieder, J. E. (at Dalton, John,
A D. 1793). 3o8
Helferncht, Adolf, 32
Helffench, " Raymond Lully " : Berlin,
1888, 32
Hehodorus of Emesa in Syria (fl. c.
third century A D ), 8
Helix and magnet, experimental distinc-
tion between (Faraday), 486
Hell— Holl— Maximilian (1720-1792), 26,
23}, 236, 246, 308; " Ephcmeridcs
ad Meridian . . ." : Vienna, 1757-
1791, " Ephemcrides, An 1777. Ap-
pendix Aurora' theona."
Hellant, Anders (d 1789) (Schwedische
Akad. Abhandl , XVI II. 68; XXXIX.
285), 308
Heller, Theodor /Fgidius von (1759-
1810), 218, 248, 271, 320 (Gren's
New Journ., 11 1705, IV 1797;
Gilb. Annal , IV 1800).
Hellmann, Dr. G., 45, 46, 68, 77, 78, 79,
81, 92, 119, 138, 509, 531; " Neu-
drucke von schnften und Karten,"
1898; " Rara magnetica," 1898
Hellwag, Christoph Friedrich (1754-
i«35), ^85
Hellwag, C. F , and Jacobi, M., " Umfahr-
ungen . . . des galvamsmns . . .," 1802.
Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand
von (Pogg. Annal, LXXXHI. 1851;
LXXX1X 1853)
Helnurnt, Johann Baptist van (1577-
1644), 103-106; " De magnetica . . .
curatione " : Pans, 1621, "Ternary
of paradoxes, magnetic cure of wounds
..." Translation of Dr. W. Charl-
ton, London, 1650.
Helmuth, J. H , " liber d. Knstchungdes
Nordhchts," 1777, 308
Helsham, Dr. (at Ferguson, James,
A D. 1770), 232
Helsmgtors, University of, 179
Helvetius, J. F., 1663 and 1677, 554;
" Disputatio philosoplnca de mag-
nete.''
Helvig- -Hclwig -C. G. (Gilbert's An-
nalen, LI. S. 2,8. 10, 1815), 195,417,419
Hemman, M., " Medico Sur. Essays " :
Berlin, 1778, 64
Hemmer, Johann Jacob (1733-1790),
29, 258, 270, 308, 386, 417, 426, 556,
" Sur Felectricite des mcHaux " : Paris,
1780; "On experiments with an
electrophorus " (Mem. de 1'acad. de
Mannheim, Vol. IV. p. 112; Acad.
Theod. Palat. Commcntat. Vols. IV.
V. VI.).
INDEX
613
Henckel, Johann Friedrich (1679-1744),
" Pyntologia . . .," 273
lienlcy — Hcnly — William (d. 1779), 228,
237-238. 249, 252, 305, 320, 362, 403
Henley, William, and Konaync, T.
(Phil. Trans., 1772, p. 137).
Henley, W. T., " Telegraph e electrique
dans lequel les piles sont remplacees
par des 61ectro-aimants " (Comptes
Rendus, XXX. 412, 1850).
Henn, " De Amperi pnncipiis . . .,"
1850, 476
Henri (mentioned at Brugnatelli, TV. G.,
A.D. 1802), 362
Henricus (Regius), " Fundamenta
physices," 1646; " Philosoplua
naturalis," 1654, 55}
Henrion, Denis (at Leurechon, Jean,
A.D. 1628), 109
Henry, Joseph (1797-1878) (Trans.
Amer. Phil Soc , V '. 1855, 1837;
VI. 1839; VIII 1843; Proe. Amer.
Phil. Soc., III. 165, IV. 170; Trans.
Albany institute, I. 22, 1831), 318,
322, 323, 337, 421, 447, 449, 459, 460,
472. 473. 476. 487> 4«'\
Henry, Joseph, and Ian (or 'I en)
Eyck, Dr., " A work on the application
of electro-magnetism to mechanical
purposes " (Phil. Mag. or Annals, X.
3M).
Henry, Lord Brougham, " Lives of
Men of Letters and Science," 184(1,
457
Henry, Dr. William (1775-1836), " Ele-
ments of Experimental Chemistry,"
1799, "On Sir Humphry Davy and
Dr. Wollaston" (Phil. Mag. or Ann ,
VIL 228; Phil Mag, XXII 183;
XXXII. 277; XL. 337), 249, 270, 292,
347. 369. 392, 303. 4*9, 441. 449, 455.
Henry, W. C., " Memoirs of John
Dalton," 1854, 308, 490
HcraclidaB (descendants of Heracles — -
Hercules), 4, 5. See " New Int.
Cyclop ," IX. 789.
Heraclidcs of Pontus and Ecphantus
(died c. 330 B.C), 519, 530, 532, 533,
543
Heraclitus, Greek philosopher (fl. c.
500 B c ), mentioned by Gilbert,
Wm., in De Maqnete, Book V. Chap.
XII. See Zeller^ Kduard.
Herbelot, Barthelemy d', " Bibh.
Orientali;on Dictionnaire Univcrsel,"
541
Herbert, Joseph Klder von (1725-1794),
229, 273; "Theorise phjcnomenorum
clectricorum," 1772, 1778.
Herculean stone— native magnet (at
337-33° P.C.), 13
Hercules, Temples of, 13
Herlicius, D., " Tractatus de fulminc
. . . " : Starg, 1604, 553
Herembstads (at Humboldt, F. 1L A.,
A.D. 1799), 332
Hermann, Daniel, " De rara et lacorta
succino Borussiaco insitio," 1580,
1600.
Hermes (Trismegistus) —the Egyptian
god Thoth — -looked upon by the Greeks
as the originator of learning, 519, 542
Hermestaedt (at Reinhold, J. C. L.,
A.D. i797~I798), 327
Hermolaus Barbaras, " H. B. Patritii
Veneti et Aquileinsis . . .," 1516, 82,
54i
Hero— Heron — of Alexandria (fl. third
century u.c ), 520
Herschel, Prof. Alexander Stewart
(mentioned at Chladni, E F. F ), 313
Herschel, Sir Frederick William (1738-
1822), 158. See " Pioneers of Science,"
by Sir Oliver Lodge, 1905, Lecture
XI I. and Index, pp. 402-403.
Herschel, Sir John Frederick William,
son of the preceding (1792-1871);
" Preliminary discourse on the study
of natural philosophy," 1831, "Re-
vised instructions . . ." for Royal
Society, 1842, 76, 99, 101, 102, 140,
141, 158, 212, 262, 297, 300, 322, 369,
305. 455. 458, 466, 471, 476, 481
Hertz — Herz — Heinnch Rudolf, Pro-
fessor of Physics in Bonn University
(1857-1894), 184, 331
Hervart, Joannes Fndencus, " Admir-
anda Ethnics . . ," 15, 106
Hervart, Johann George (1554-1622), 106
Ilevehus — Hevel — Hewelcke Joannes
(1611-1687), 130 (Phil. Trans. 1670,
P- 2059).
Heyden, J. M. van der, " Memoire sur
relcctro-magnelisme " (Journal de
1'hys. Chim. et dTIist. Nat , Vol 94),
Paris, 1822.
Hiao-wou-ti, Emperor of the Chinese
Han dynasty, 5
Hibbard (mentioned at Ampere, A. M.,
A.D 1820), 476
Hien Toung, ascended Chinese throne,
A D. 806, 28
Higgs, Paget (at Oersted, II. C., A.D.
1820), 454
Highton, Edward, 148, 242, 248, 286,
316, 318, 337, 359, 407, 436, 439, 476;
"The electric telegraph, its history
and progress " : London, 1852.
Hilaire. See Geoffroy, Saint Hilaire.
Hildeberti — Gildebert— French writer
(C. A.D. 1055-1133), 526
Hildcbrand, A. (at Jacotot, Pierre, A.D.
1804), 387
Hildebrandt, Georg Friedrich (1764—
1816), 311 (Gilbert's Ann., XXI.
1805; XXX. 1808; Gehlcn's Neucs
Allgem. Jour. d. Chemie, VL 1808;
Schweigger's Journ., I. 1811; XL
1814).
Hill, Sir John (c. 1716-1775); "A
general natural history," 1748;
" Theophrastus' History of Stones,"
De lapidibus, 2nd ed. 1774, 13
614
INDEX
Hiller, L. H., " Mystcnum artis . . ./'
1682, 554
Ilillyer, mentioned at Mercator, 563
Ilin-tchin completed in A.D. 121 the
celebrated Chinese dictionary " Choue-
Wen," 21
Hiorter See Hjortcr.
Hipparchus the Rhodian — Abraxis (b.
160-145 (?) B.C.) — Hipparchian, 32,
.108, 513, 520-522, 533, 537
Hippias of Elis (c 460, B.C ), 15
Hippocrates, " father of medical
science " (c. 460-357 B.C ), 14, 40, 270,
506, 511, 540
Hirt, Aloys (1759-1837), " Dcr Tcmpcl
Salomonis " : Berlin, 1803, 5, 9
(Ronalds' Catalogue, p. 246).
Hismger, W. (1760-1852), " Forsk med.
elektnska . . ." : Stockholm, 336,
369, 419. See Ber/ehus, also Ideler,
C L.
llistoire abregec, par Dahbard, 175
Histoire academique du magnctisme
animal. See Mojon.
" Uistoire (Chinoise) traduitedu Thoung-
Kian-Kang-Mon " : Pans, 1777, 2
Histoire Chr. d'Abbcvillo, par Nicolas
San son, 108
Histoire critique dcs pratiques supcrsti-
tieuses, 148
Histoire do TArianisine, 144
Histoire do 1 'astronomic au i8(v sieclc.
See Delambre, J . 13 J .
Histoire de la Bibliotheque Mazarine, par
Alf. Franklin, 108
Histoire de la boussole. See I3ocld;ert,
P. 1). M.
Histoire de la chimie. See Hoefer, M. F.
Histoire . . . dc la dynastic de Tang,
21
Jlistoire de I'c'lectricite mcdicale. See
Guitard, M T.
Histoire de la htterature Romanic. See
Scholl, Car],
llistoire de la Medicine Arabc, par L.
Leclerc, 541
Histoire de la medicine, par J. Freind,
505. See also Sprengel, K. P. J.
Histoire dc la philosophic. See Rcmusat,
Charles de.
Histoire de la telegraphic. Sec Bonel,
A ; Chappe, I. IT. J.; also Mangin M. ;
Bonel, A.; Reynard, J. J.
Histoire de TUmvcrsite de Pans, 39
Histoire des auteurs sacrcs, par Leonce
Celier, 525
Histoire des meteorcs. See Rambosson,
Histoire des physiciens (Desaguliers,
Boyle, etc.). See Sevcricn, Alcxandre.
llistoire des sciences. See Maupied,
F. L. M.
Histoire des sciences mathematiques.
. . . See Marie, J. F.
Histoire des sciences mathematiques . . .
a la fin du 17'- siecle, par Guillaumc
Libri (1803-1869), 45
Histoire dcs sciences mathematiques et
physiques chez les Beiges. See
Quetelot, L. A J.
Histoire des sciences naturclles, par
Georges Cuvier, 190, 202
" Histoire du Gal van ism e . . ." See
Electricity, galvanic, history of.
Histoire ecclesiastiquc. par Lenain de
Tillemont, 525
Histoire generate des mathematiques,
Charles Bossut, 147
Histoire htteraire de la France, 33, 526,
53 l
Historia Ecclcsiastica, by Claude
Fleury, 525
Historia Gymnasii Patavavini, 528
"Ilistona rerum Norvcgicarum of ToiJ-
fjjus. 44
Historia . . . Veterum Persarum, by
Thomas Hyde, 141
Ilistona Univ. Par. Sec Du Boujay.
Historia1 Animahum Anglia?, 204
" Historic llierosolimrtana* "of Jacobus
de Vitry, 31
Historical account of astronomy. See
Narisson, John
Historical Magazine, 209
Historical Memoirs on Galvanism. Sec
Schaub, J.
Historical sketch of the Electric Tele-
graph, by A. Jones, 1852.
Histoiies of telegraphy, by I. U. J.
Chappe, 301
History and heroes of the Art of Medicine,
History and present state of Galvanism.
See Bostock, John.
History and progress of the electric
telegraph. Sec Sabine, Robert.
History of antiquity. See Dunckcr,
Max.
History of Chaldea, 2
History of China, Chronological tables, I
History of classical Greek literature,
History of Electric Science. Sec Bake-
well. Frederick C.
History of electricity. See Electricity,
galvanic, history of.
History of Greek mathematics, 520
History of Latin Christianity. See
Milman.
History of Magnetism. See Magnetism,
history of.
History of mathematics. See Ball,
W. W. R.
History of natural philosophy. See
Forbes, J. D.
" History of navigation from its origin to
this time " (1704), 522
History of Norway, 44
History of scientific ideas, by Whewell,
499
History of Spanish Literature, Gco.
Tickner, 532
History of philosophy from Thales to
Comte, 534
INDEX
615
History of the Crusades, 31
History of the decline and fall of the
Roman Empire, by Gibbon (Milman),
525
History of the Philosophy of History.
See Flint, Robert.
History of the telegraph. See p. 458 of
the Index, Vol. JI. of Catalogue of
Wheeler Gift to the Anier. Inst. of
Electrical Engineers, 1909. See also
Sabine, Robert; Jones, A.; Chappe,
1. U. J., 301
History of things lost, 1715, 81
History of wireless telegraphy, by J. J.
Fahie, x
History philosophically illustrated. See
Miller, Dr. George.
Hjortberg, G. F. (K. Schwed. Akad.
.Abh., Vol. 27, pp. 200, 280; Vol. 30,
p. 99), Leipzig, 1765, 1768, 385
Hjorter^ — Hiortcr — Olav — Oloi Peter
(1696-1750), 139, 168, 273, 308;
" Von der Magnct-Nadel . . . vestor-
benen A. Celsius . . .," 1747.
Hoaciley, B., and Wilson, B., " Obser-
vations . . . electrical experiments
. . .,"1756, 185
Hoang-ti, Chinese Emperor (at 2637 B.C.),
i, 2, 28
Hobart Town — llobarton — place at
which important magnetical observa-
tions were made by Edward Sabine in
1841, 1843, 267
Hodson, F. M., " Encyclopaedia Man-
cuniensis . . ." : Manchester, 1813.
Ilody, Humphrey (1659-1706), 43
Hoofer, Johann F. Chiistian, Charles M.
Ferdinand (1811-?); " Histoire de la
Chimie " ; " Histoire dc I'astronomie" ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Gencrale," 34,
44, 71, 505, 517, 529, 531
Hcrfer. See " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Hofbcrg, Hermann, 165,370, " Svenskt.
Biografiskt Handlexikon."
Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus van't. See
Van't Ho If.
Hoff ding, Harold, " A history of modern
philosophy," 94
Hoifmann, C. L. (at Faraday, Michael),
497, and at 1787, 556
Hoffmann, Johann Christian (6. 1768),
" Anweirsung . . .," 557; " Prak-
tische . . . elektriscrmachinen . . . " :
Leipzig, 1795.
Hoffmann, Privy Councillor of Maycnce,
451
Holden, Edward S. (at Galileo, A.D.
1632), 117; (at Copernicus, N.),
508
Holder, William (1616-1698), Royal
Society Transactions, 548
Holland, Frederick May (at Ficino,
Marsiglio), 515
Holland, Philemon (1552-1637), The
naturall historic of C. Plinius Secundus,
u, 13, 1 8, 26, 124. See Pliny.
Hollick, F. (at Jadelot, J. F. N., A.D.
1799), 330
Hollmann, Samuel Christian (1696—
1787), "Of electrical fire" (Phil.
Trans., X. 271, 1744—1745.
Holmgren, K. A., " Rechcrches . . .
Finnuencc de la temperature sur le
magnetisme " (Upsala Acad., 1855,
1859).
Holsbeck, H. van (at Thillayc-Platcl,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
Holtz, Wilhelm Theodor Bernhard,
" Ueber die elektrische . . ." : Berlin,
1878; " Zur theorie der miluenz-
elektrisismaschine " : Greifcwald,
1878 (Ann. Phys. und Chem., \'ol.
126, pp. 157-171, 1865), 179
Holywood. Sec Sacro Hosco.
Hombre-Firmas, Louis Augustin,
Baron d' (1785-1857), 423, 424
Home, Sir Everard (1756-1832) (at
Banks, Sir Joseph, A.D. 1820), 456
Homer, father of Creek poetry (nourished
according to Herodotus ninth century
B.C.), 5, 6, 23, 29
Homes, Henry Guy, translator of Al
Gazel, 38
Hondius, Jodocus, 562-564
Honorius, d'Autun (Phil. Mag., XXXV.
108), 35
Hood, T., " The use of both the globes,"
1592
Hooke, Dr. Robert (1635-1703), 26, 130,
142-143, 147, 301, 399, 434. 547
Hooker, Sir J. D. (at A.D 1781), 259
Hooper, Dr. William, " Rational Recrea-
tions," 241
Hopf, C. G. " Dissert, sistcns . . .
theorize," 1794, 557
Hopkinson, Thomas (1709-1751), " On
the effect of points in electricity."
Hopkinson, T , and Rittenhouse, D.
(Trans. Amcr. Phil. Soc. O.S. 1L. 178),
198, 252, 283, 492
Hoppe, Edmund, " Gechichte . . .,"
1884, 224, 319
Horrebow — Horreboe — Christian (1718-
1776), 158
Horrebow— -Horreboe — Nicolas (1712—
1760), 158
Horrebow — I lorreboe — Peter (1728-
1812), 158
I lorr ebo w — I lorreboe — 1 Je ter ( 1 6 79—
1764), 157-158, 508
Horrox — Horrockes — J eremi ah (1619-
1641), 96
Horsford, Eben Norton (b. 1818),
" Cabot's Landfall . . . Norumbega,"
115. Consult " Appleton's Cyclo-
paedia," Til. 265.
Hortenz — Hortentz — A. B. (mentioned
at A.D. 1805), 392 (Phil. Mag., XXIV.
91, 1806).
Horus (the Egyptian deity Hor), 14, 64
Hottinger, Johann Heinrich, " Biblio-
thecarius quadripartitus," 1664, 40
Houtman and Davis, 563
616
INDEX
Houzcau, Jean Charles, et Lancaster,
Albert, " Bibliographic generale de
1'Astronomic," 20, 40, 54, 58, 63,
68, 75, 93, 94, 96, 97, 106, 115, 116,
122, 127, 134, 138, 142, 143, 147, 152,
158, 181, 267, 293, 3°4. 3M. 335. 412,
432, 446, 462, 481, 501, 503, 505, 500,
507. 5oy. 5IO> 511. M5. 517. 519, 522,
527. 53°. 53*. 533, 536. 537. 54°. 541
Howard, Luke (at Wells, C. C , A.D.
J795), 32^ (Phil. Mag., XVI. 97.
334, i8cM; LVII 81, 1821).
Howldy, Thomas (Phil. Mag., XUli.
241, 363, 1814; XLV1 401, 1815;
XLVJn 285, 1810, Phil Mag or
Annals, 1. 343, 1827), 427, 429
Hoy, James "(Tilloclfs 1>ml- Mag . LI-
422, 1818), 308
Hubner, Lorenz (1753-1809), 272, 274
(at Swindcn, J. H. van, A.D. 1784),
" Abhandlnng . . ." (Neue Philos.
Abhand. d. Baier Akad. d. Wiss , Tl.
353-384)-
Hudson, Thomas, " Electricity " : Lon-
don, 1806.
Hues— Hood — Robert (1553-1632), at
76, 109, 522; "On magnetic varia-
tions "
Ilufeland, C. W., " Journal de mcdecme
pratique," 304, 327, 333, 385
Hugenius. See Huygens below.
Hughes dc Bercy. See Ugo di Bcrcy.
Hulme, N., "A continuation of the ex-
periments . . . Canton's phosphorus/'
1801 (Phil Trans, for 1800, part f. p
161 ; for 1801, p. 403), 556
Hulsius, Levinus, " IJescriptio et usus
. • .." 1597- 7i
Hultsch, Fnednch (at Hero of Alexan-
dria), 520
Humane Society, Transactions of, 238,
305
Humboldt, Friedrich Hemrich Alexan-
der von (1769—1859), Aphorism! ex
doctrma . . . voyage . . . dans les
annees, 1799-1804; " Asie Ccntralc
(Central Asien) . . . Recherches sur
les chaines de inontagnes . . ." :
Paris, 1843; Cosmos: Sketch of a
physical description of the universe
(this was translated into English by
Lieut -Col. Edward and Mrs. Sabine,
also by H. Faye, by C Galuskyand by
E. C Otte) ; Examen critique de
1'histoire de la geographic . . . et des
progres de 1'astronomie nautiquc :
Paris, 1836-1837; Experiences sur le
galvamsme. See Jadelot, J. F. N., at
A.D. 1799; Kritischc Untcrsuchun-
gen ; "Observations sur 1'anguille
electrique " : Paris, 1806; Kclation
histonque du voyage aux regions
equinoctiales ; " Views of Nature . . .,"
translated by E. C. Otte and H. G.
Bohn ; " Versuchc liber der elektri-
schen fischc " : Jena, 1806; Voyage
zoologique. See Klaproth.
Humboldt, F. H. A. von, and Biot, J. B.
(Phil. Mag, XXII. 248, 249, 1815.
Humboldt, F. H. A. von, and Boupiand,
"Untersuchungen . . ." : Paris, 1810.
Humboldt, F. H A. von, and Gay-
Lussac, L. J. (Phil. Mag., XXIIL 356,
1806). See Copley Medal and the
following reference numbers.
Humboldt, i, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, n, 15, 20,
22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37. 42, 44. 53. 54. 55. 5<3, 59/>o, 63, 64,
66, 67, 69, 70, 77, 78, 82, 87, 88, 91,
92. 93. 9r>. 98, 113, 114, 115, 117, 1 1 8,
119, 129, 132, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142,
T53, J57. 158, 165, 168, 193, 196, 207,
208, 230, 249, 254, 255, 262, 266, 270,
267, 277, 294, 299, 3^3, 3M. 3'H. 321,
326, 327, 330, 335, 337, 344, 354. 3«o.
389, 393. 4°2. 4!2, 4*7. 4T(>> 443. 444.
445, 446, 454, 460, 462, 476, 478, 479,
480, 481, 483, 498, 503, 510, 5,15, 521,
530, 537
Hume, David, " History of England/'
66, 522
Hunaci, A. (at Aguinas, St Thomas), 505
Hunt, Robert, F.R.S. See Walker,
William, Jr.
Hunter, George, of York (at Fowler,
Richard, A.D. 1793), 307
Hunter, John (1728-1 793), 240, 279, 298,
299, 331. 436 (Phil Trans, 1773,
1775; Opuscoh Scclti, XXII. 364).
Ilutchms, Thomas (at, Lorimer, Dr. John,
A.D. 1775), 243; "Experiences . . .
sur I'electricite galvamque . . /'
(Journ. de Chinne de Van Mons, No.
VL p. 289).
Hutchmson, Benjamin, " Biographia
Mechca . . /' 1799, 92
Hutton, Charles. See Royal Society
Hutton, Dr., of Woolwich, " Phil, and
Math. Dictionary/' 54, 80, 220, 400,
462
Huxham, John (at Dalton, John, A.D.
1793), 308 (Phil. Trans , XLVI. 472).
Huxley, Leonard (at Faraday, Michael,
A D. 1821), 499
Huxley, Prof the Right Hon. Thomas
Henry (1825- 1895), " Science and
Education " ; " Science Culture/1 228,
499
Huygens — Huyghcns -Huyhens — Hug-
emus— Christian (1529-1695), 151,
152, 235, 357
Hyde, Thomas (at Zoroaster), 541
I
IAMBLICHUS, Greek writer and head of
Syrian Neoplatonism (fl. second
century A.D.) ; Life of Pythagoras,
2, 515. 537
latromathematical School founded by
Borelh, which became the Accademia
del Cimento, 96
Ibn Ahmed, Ibn Roschd. See Averroes.
INDEX
617
Ibn Sina, Al Rayic. See Aviccnna.
Ibn Yahga. See Avemplacc.
Iceland spar and other crystals. See
references at pp 153 (Lemery, etc.),
and at pp. 355-357, Lehot, Huyghens,
etc.
Ideler, Christian Ludwig (1766-1846),
521 (Fogg. Annalen, XXVI. 1832);
" Handbuch der mathematischcn und
technischen chronologic.1''
Idrisi. See Edrisi.
" Iliad " of Homer, translation by Pope, 7
" Illustrated London News," 440
" II- Nuovo Cimento, Giornale di fisica
. . ." See Nuovo Cimento.
" II Poligrafo, Giornale di scicnze . . ." :
Verona, 420
Image du mondc — Imago mundi —
Mirroir du moiide, 35
Imhof, Maxnnus (1758-1817), " Thcona
electricitatis . . .," 1790 (Gilb., Ann ,
xvnr, 1804).
Imperial Cyclopaedia, also English and
Penny Cyclopaedias and Mech. Diet,
by Charles Knight, 4, 1 1, 18, 27, 29,
31. 56, 57» 59, (><>, 69, 148, 277, 284,
335, 397. 44°, 44f). 475
" Imperial Dictionary of Universal Bio-
graphy," published by Win. McKen-
zie, 82, 117, 129, 285
Imp. reale istituto veneto di scienze,
lettere ed artc , " Atti dcllc adnn-
anze " : Venezia. Sec Perego, An-
tonio.
Inclination. See Variation.
Inclination. Word introduced by Henry
Bond to denote magnetic dip.
Inclinometer. See Lloyd, Humphrey.
Indagme. See Jaeger, Johann Ludolph.
Index to the present work. See Encyclo-
paedia Bntanmca
Indicator, galvano-magnetic, 412
Induction, magneto-electric, Faraday's
discovery, 484-487
Induction memoirs. See Wurtmann,
Elie FranQois.
Industrie Modcrne : " Bruxelles, vn
Influence or induction machine, 337
Ingenhousz — Ingen-housz — Jan (1730-
1799), 230, 239, 249, 251, 252, 256-
258, 278, 280, 282, 299, 448 (Phil.
Trans., 1775, 1778, 1779, 1780, 1788,
1789; Journal de Physique, XXXV.
1789).
" Ing6meur (L'), Elcctricicn," publica-
tion commenced in Pans during
1861.
Inghs, Gavin, theory of water-spouts
(Phil. Mag., LIU. 216, 1818).
Ingram (at Walsh, John, A.D. 1773),
240
Innocenti, G. (at A.D. 1805), 393 (Nuova
Scelta d'Opusc ,11. 90, 1807).
Institut dcs mathematiques et physi-
ques, 409
" Institut, L'," publication commenced
in Paris during 1833.
Institut National des Sciences et des
Arts Memoires : Pans, 178, 228,
247, 248, 277, 284, 288, 318, 333, 335,
339, 349, 350, 35i, 352. 354, 355. 375,
376, 377, 380, 386, 388, 389, 410, 412,
4J5. 454. 455, 46^. 468. 477
Institution of Electrical Engineers, Lon-
don, xiv. The " Journal !> was com-
menced in 1872.
Intensitv, the most important element of
terrestrial magnetism, 70, 250. See
Borda.
" Internationale Elektrotechnische Zeit-
schnit und Bencht ueber die Elck-
trische Austellung " : Vienna, 1884
International Encyclopaedia (New),Dodd,
Mcade and Co. : New York, 34, 38, 39,
64, 92, 392, 445, 513
Invisible or Philosophical College, which
has since become the Royal Society,
i.V>
Ionian School (at School ot Athens),
54 2
lonides, S A. (at Lully, Raymond, A D.
* -235-J 3 J 5). 3-*
Ions, 391, 480
Irish Academy, Transactions, 263, 317,
419
Irish Royal Society, 419
Irvine, Christopher (1638 -1685), " Mcdi-
cma magnetica . . ." : Edinburgh,
1650, 55 j.
Irving, Washington (1783-1859), His-
tory of the life . . Columbus, 32, 66
Isidore— -Isodorus Hispalensis (c. A D.
560-036), Bishop ot Seville from A.D.
600 to 630, " Onginum sive Etymolo-
giarum," Lib. XX. 17, 18, ^o
Islands of eruption, or marine volcanoes,
4i7
Ibomerism (at Mitscherlich, E., A.D.
1820), 471
Isomorphism discovered by Mitscher-
lich, 471
Istituto dclle scienzc ed. arti liberah :
Bologna, 2 Vols. 1745-1748.
Istituto Nazion. Ital , 248
Istituto R. Lombardo- Veneto, Mo-
morie, Giornale, Atti, etc. See Lom-
barcly, 141, 248, 257, 420
Italian Society, Mcmoric di matematica
e iisica. See Societa Itahana.
Ivory, Sir James (1765-1842). See p.
645 of Cates' Dictionary (Phil Mag.,
LX. 81, 1822), 410
Izarn, Joseph (Giuseppe) (1766-1836),
" Manuel du galvanismc " : Paris,
1805; " Lithologie atmospheriques
. . . " : 223, 275, 282, 306, 315, 349,
350. 355, 359, 3^6, 367, 376, 383, 391.
See Romagnosi, G. D., " Manualc del
galvanismo " : Firenze, 1805.
J
J. G. S. (entered at A.D. 1707), 152
Jachim, George. See Rhactius.
618
INDEX
Jackson, A. V. W. (entered at Zoro-
aster), 541
Jackson, Benjamin Daydon, "Guide to
the literature of Botany," 153
Jackson, Charles Thomas (b. 1805),
" Electro-magnetic telegraph " : Bos-
ton, 1849, 234
Jacobi, Joseph (1774-1813), " Element!
di Fisica ..."
Jacobi, Moritx Hermann von (1801-
1874), 285, "On the application of
electro-magnetism to the movement
of machines": London, 1837 (Bull.
Phys. Math, du St. Petersburg, i. 129,
1842; II., 1841; Pogg. Annal., XL.
Jacopi, Joseph (1779-1813), 409
Jacopo. See Riccati-Jacopo.
Jacotot, Pierre (1755-1821), 386
Jacquet de Malzet, Louis Sebasticn
(1715-1800), 387, 556
Jacquin, Nicolas Joseph Baron (1727—
1817), 347. 4-22
Jadelot, J. Fr. Nicolas, was a son of the
very celebrated doctor Nicolas Jadelot
(1738-1793) and translated II u mboldt's
work on galvanism (1738-1793), 326,
33°
Ja?ger — -Jager— Johann Rudolph (Inda-
gme) (1728-1787).
J.Tger Jager— Karl Christopher Fried-
rich von, of Wurtembcrg, 303, 408, 421
Jahrbuch der Chemie und physik. . . .
See N urn berg, 410
Jal, Augustus (1705-1873), " Diction-
naire Critique de biographic et d'his-
loire," 1867.
Jallabert, Giovanni Francisco (1689—
1764), 263
Jallabert, Jean Louis (1712-1768), 179,
189, 209, 213, 229, 263, 385; "Ex-
periences sur Telectricite . . ." :
Geneve, 1748, and Paris, 1749 (Me-
moires dc Pans, 1742, 1748).
James 1 of England, 82
Jameson's Journal, 498
Jameson, Prof. Robert, of Edinburgh
(1774-1854), 296, 465. See Edinburgh,
Phil Journal and New Phil. Journal.
Janet, Paul (at Volta, Alessandro, A.D.
1775), 248
Janin dc Combe Blanche, Jean (1730—
1790), 304, 385
Japanese historical notes . . . received
about A.D. 543, " the wheel which in-
dicates the South," 27
Ja<jucs de Vitry. See Vitry, James.
Jay me, Juan, and Francisco Galli, test
a new declinatorium, 78
Jeans, William T., " Lives of the elec-
tricians," 1887.
Jebb, Dr. Samuel (1694-1772), " Fratris
Rogcri Bacon, ediclit Londini, 1733,"
42. See p. 700 of the " Diet, of Nat.
Biogr.," 1908, Vol. X.
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826), 327-
328
Jelgersma, W. B., " Specimen physicum
. . . clectricitatcm," 1775, 556
Jelinek, C., " Beitrage . . . mcteorolo-
gibcher apparate . . ." : Wien, 1850
(Sitzungsbericht Wien Acad., V. 1850,
II. Abtheil).
Jena — len a— -University, 403
Jen kin, Fleeming, " Precis of a lecture
on construction of telegraphic lines
. . ." : London, 1863.
Jenkin, William (at Faraday, Michael,
A.D. l82l), 487
Jessen, F. E , " Norge " (a/Torfa?us, Th.,
A.D. 1266), 45
Jessenius, John (at Brahe, Tycho, A.D.
1601), 93
Jest, E. F., " Macchina ideo-elcttrica
d1 Armstrong e sulla nuova pila ch
Bunsen " : Torina, 1844, 1845.
Jewctt, Llewellyn (at Wedgwood, Ralph,
A.D. 1814), 429 r.
Joachimus, Georgius, surnamcd/iV/^zVws
(1514—1570), has many works on
Copernicus (Honfer, " Nouv. Biog.
Gen.," Vol. XXVI. 716-718).
Joannes a Trinitate, " Disputationes
ammastiCcu . . .," 1713 [Aristotle].
Joannes ab Incarnatione, " Joannis
Duns Scoti . . . Sententiarum Pctn
Lumbardi . . .," 1609
Joannes Baptista Montanus. See
Montanus.
Jaonnes Baptista, " Plnlosophica Ansto-
telica Restituta," 17-18.
Joannes Baptista Poita See Porta.
Joannes Costa'us See Costams.
Joannes de Colonia, " Incipiunt ques-
tiones . . .," 1476 [Duns Scotus].
Joannes dc Mechlmea, " Textus . . .
de anima Anstoteles . . .," 1491.
Joannes de Monte Regio, " Saphaea?
nobihs instrumcnli astronomic!," 1534
[Midler, John, jRcgiowontanus].
Joannes de Rupectissa, " Coelum Philoso-
phorum," 1544 ; and " Liber . . .
lapidis philosophoruni," 1013, 1702
[Aquinas, St. Thomas] .
Joannes cle Sacro Bosco. See Holy wood,
John.
Joannes Franciscus Fcrnclius. See
Fernel.
Joannes Franciscus Offusius. See
Off u siu s.
Joannes Gioia. See Gioia.
Joannes Glozaviensis, " Introductor-
ium . . . sphere matenalis . . .,"
1518 [Holy wood, John — Sacro
Bosco] .
Joannes Isaacus, Hollandus, " Opera
mineralia . . . sive de lapide philo-
sophico . . .," 1616 (a hundred and
fourteen experiments, 1596) [Para-
celsus].
Joannes Langius. See Langius.
Joannes Petrus, Lucensis, " Problemata
Aristotelis . . .," 1501 [Alexander
Aphrodiseus] .
INDEX
G19
Joannes Scotus Erigena, " Ein beitrag
zur gcschichtc der philosophic . . .
in Mittelalter " : Mimchen, 1861. See
Erigena.
Joannes Stobnicensis, " Introductio in
Ptolcmai Cosmographiam . . .," 1519
[Ptolcmanis, Claudius].
Joannes Taisnier. See Taisnicr.
Jobert de Lamballc, Antoinc Joseph
(6. 1799), "Des Appareils . . ." ; "On
medical electricity " (" Bulletin Gene-
ral de therapcutiquc," Vol. XXIII. ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale,"
XXVI. 769), 299, 300, 386
Jocher — • J <rcher — Christian Gottlieb,
" Compcndioses Gelehrtcn -Lexicon " :
Leipzig, 1750, 71, 107
Jode, Cornelius de, 563
Jodoignc, Bouvicr tie (Van Mons' Journal,
Nos. XII. and XL.), 388
John II, ryng of Portugal (14=55-1495),
67
John IV, King of Portugal (1604-1656),
J35. 136-137
John of Holywood. See Sacro Bosco
John of London. See Peckham, John.
John of Rochelle. (d. 1271), 38
Johnson, Alvin L , " New Universal
Cyclopaedia," edited by Charles Ken-
dall Adams, 5, 23, 38, 64, 78, 208, 284,
302, 310, 412, 446/455, 462, 481, 487,
495
Johnson, E. J , " On the influence which
magnetic needles exercise over each
other " (Phil. Trans, for 1834).
Johnston, J , " Thaumatographia natu-
rahs," 1665, 554
Johnstone, James (at Faraday, Michael,
\.D. 1821), 498
Jones, Alexander, " Historical sketch of
the electric telegraph,1' i5<>
Jones, G., " Observations on the Zodiacal
Light . . .," 1856.
Jones, Henry Bence. See Royal Society,
also 498
Jones, H. Lewis, " Medical Electricity,"
183, 189
Jones, J. Winter (at Varthema, L. di,
A.D. 1502), 69
Jones, Prof. Stanley (at Porta, Giambat-
tista della, A.D. 1558), 72
Jones, Thomas, " On his reflecting
compass " (Gilb., Annal, LIV. 197,
508).
Jones, William (i675( ^-1740), " Epitome
of navigation. ..."
Jones, William (1726-1800), " Essay on
electricity": London, 1799, 281,
Jones and Rittenhouse, 1793.
Jordan, C. [., " Engraving by galvan-
ism " (Mechanics' Magazine for June,
1839).
Jordan, Johann Ludwig (mentioned at
A.D. 1812), 419
Josephus, Flavins (b. A.D. 37), 9
Joubert, Marcel (at Faraday, Michael,
A.D. 1821), 499
Joule, James Prescott (b. 1818), 346
(Ann. of Electricity, IV. 203, 1839;
IV. 474, 1840; V. 187, 1840; V. 431,
1841 ; Phil. Mag., Scr. in , XXIII. for
1843; Phil. Mag. for Oct., Dec. 1851
and Jan. 7, 1852).
Jourdam, Amable Louis M. M. Brechillct
(1738-1818), n, 38
Jourdam, Charles Marie GabrielBrechillct
(b. 1817), ii
Jourdain, M , " Sur les traductions
d' Aristotle/' 36
Journal clc Chimie. . . . See Mons,
J. B. van.
Journal dc Chimie et d'histoire naturelle.
Sec Moll, Gerit.
Journal de Chimie— Physique, de
Philippe— A. Guye : Geneve, 392
Journal de la socuHe dc pharmacie, 285,
306, 363
Journal de L'Ecolc Polytechniquc. See
Ecole Poly technique.
Journal de Leipzig, 2.^8, 285
Journal de Litterature medicale, 241
Journal de Medecme, 249, 255, 326, 402,
556. See also Bacher.
Journal de Pans, 265, 271, 284, 288, 300,
3H, 351
Journal do Pharmacie, 493
Journal cle Physiologic, 325
Journal de Physique. Sec Rozier, Monge ;
de l«i Methene ; begun as " Introdn.
sur la physique," 140, 198, 201, 207,
218, 224, 229, 235, 240, 241, 243, 248,
249, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 266, 271,
273, 274, 275, 277, 279, 280, 281, 284,
285, 288, 292, 295, 298, 300, 302, 303,
304, 306, 313, 320, 324, 326, 328,
329, 33°. 337. 34 1, 349. 35°, 35L 355.
3f>*, 375, 37^>. 379. 3«3. 3«», 394. 4°L
402, 416, 431, 453, 476, 556, 557
Journal der Chemie. See Gchlcn, A E.
Journal der Physik, von Enedrich Albert
Carl Grcn (1760-1798) : Halle,
Leipzig, 1790-1794; continued as
Ncues Journal der Physik, von E. A. C.
Grcn: Leipzig, 1795-1797; continued
as Annalcn der Physik, von (E. A. C.
(iron) L. W. Gilbert : Halle, 1797-
1808; Neuc Folgc, 1809-1818, Ncueste
Folge, 1819-1824; continued as
Annalen der Physik (und Chcmic), von
J. C. Poggendorff : Leipzig 1824-
1877, etc. " Journal fur Chemie und
Physik . . .," edited by J. J. Bernhardi,
C. F Bucholz . . ., J. S. C. Schweigger
and Dr. Meinecke : Nurnberg, 1811-
1820, 220, 248, 249, 271, 284, 293, 303,
316, 320, 335, 449
Journal des Debats, 224, 377
Journal des Mines, 288, 314, 324, 388,415
Journal des Savants — Scavans. See
Annales des Sciences, viii, x, xvii,
ii, 1 6, 20, 24, 26, 32, 33, 37, 39, 40,
42. 43. 54. 55. 61, 65. 75. 9L 93. 94.
96, 105, 117, 121, 122, 125, 127, 129,
130, 134, 140, 143, 144, 151, 152, 153,
620
INDEX
Journal dcs Savants (cont.) —
155, 162, 166, 171, 178, 183, 187, 189,
199, 204, 214, 229, 233, 235, 242,
247, 262, 280, 300, 322, 355, 370, 371,
375. 38°, 3«9. 4f>2, 476« 5°5, 5°8. 510.
514, 517, 520, 521, 522, 520, 533, 536,
53»
Journal dcs travaux de 1'acadcmie de
rindustnc franchise, 421
Journal du galvanismc See Nauche,
Journal Fncyclopcdique. See Bologna.
Journal fur die chcmie und pharmacie.
See Gehlcn, A V. von.
Journal fiir die chemic und physik.
Sec Gehlen, A. F. von, at Soberer, A N.
journal fur < hemie und physik. Sec
(ircn as above, likewise Schcrer,
Schweigger, also N urn berg.
Journal fur praktischc chcinie. See
Frdmann, Scherer, also Nurnbcrg.
Journal htteraire a la llaye, 155
fournal htterairc de Berlin, 26 ^
" Journal of Arts and Sciences." See
Newton's.
Journal of British Astronomical Associa-
tion, 93
Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry
and the Arts, by William Nicholson,
publication commenced in London
during 1797. After Vol 36, it was
incorporated with the Phil. Mag.
Sef p 54H.
Journal of physiological medicine, 4^9
Journal of science and the arts Sec
Dublin, aho Quarterly Journal, hhc-
wise Royal Institution, 418, 437
Journal of the British Astronomical
Association, 03
Journal of the (British) Royal Institute
See London.
Journal of the Franklin Institute of
the State of Pennsylvania, edited by
F. P. Jones and others, 27, 81, 199.
Sec Franklin Institute.
Journal of the Horticultural Society,
-57
Journal of the Koyal Institution, 322
Journal of the Society of Aits : London
See Society of Arts
Journal of the Society of Telegraph
Engineers, 440, 455
Journal of the Telegraph, 440
" Journal Telegraphique," publication
commenced at Berne during 1869.
Jove— Jovius — Paul — Paolo Jovio (1483-
1552), Italian historian, 58, 211, 506,
507. See Moreri, L., Grand Diction-
naire, Vol V. Pt 1, pp. 160 161.
Joyce, Jeremiah (1703- i8j(>).
Jukes, J. Beetc (at Mitscherlich, F.,
A.D. 1820), 471
Julia-Fontenelle, Jean Simon Sebastien
Fugcne de (1780-1842), " Manuel de
I'61ectricit6 " ; " Sur les combustions
humaines spontances"; " Manuel de
Physique," 329
Julio. See Giulio. Bibliothequc Itali-
cnne, 5 Vols., by Gioberti, Vassalh-
Eandi and Kossi
Julius Caesar Moderatus.
Julius Caesar Scahger. See Scaliger.
Jungmtz, L. A., " Aphonsmen uber d.
lehrc von d. Flektricit.it " : Breslau,
1704, 1790.
Junoblowiskiana Society, 285, 302, 303
J urine, Louis (1751-1819), 331
Justin of Nassau Court and Olden
Barnevelt, 518
K
K \EMPFKK, Fngcbrecht (1651-1716),
149, 230, 240
Kaemtz — Kamtz — Ludwig Frieclrich
(1801-1867), 185, 195, 249, 257, 308,
41^, 416, 417, " Lehr.buch tier
meteorologie," " Untersuchungen . ,"
1826 (Schweigg. Journ , XXXVI1L
1823; XLV. 1825; LIU. and LXL
1828 and 1831 , LVI. 1829; Phil Mag ,
LXII 441, Mem des Sar Ftrang ,
Vol. VI , Bull Phys Math Acad.
St Petersb., VI 1. 1849).
Kaestner, Karl \Vilhelm (iottheb — Kast-
ner, Christian -(1783-1857), 220, 314,
408, 529; " Archives fur . . . natur-
lehre/' 18 Vols. : Nurnberg, 1824,
i82(), " Archives fur . . meteoro-
logie," 1^30; "Medicin Gelehrte-
Lexikon "
K.ihm -Kalm P. (mentioned at Dalton,
John, A D 1793), 308 (Schwechsche
Akad Abhandl , tin 1752, p. 153).
Kai-bara -'L'ok-sin, shows in the " Wa-
xi-si " that the first magnetic cars
were; constructed in Japan during
A D. 658, 27
Kapp, Fried rich, " Geschichte . . .,"
508
Karlsruhe Polytechmsche Schule.
Karsten, Carl Johann Bernhard (1782-
T^53). 5rl . " Allgemeine Fncyclo-
padie der Physik " : Leipzig, 1856.
Karsten, Gustav (b. 1820), " Allgemeine
Physik " One of the editors of Vol.
I. of the " Allg Fncycl d. Physik."
Karsten, Wenceslaus Johann (iustav
(1732-1787), Anleitung . . . Kenntn.
d. Natur, 1783.
Kast, Johann Joachim, " Qucstionum
decades diur de magnete " : Strasburg,
1683.
Kastner — Kastner— -Abraham G., " Ge-
schichte der mathematik," 93, 96,
115, 117, 147, 538, 541
Kazwmi. See Zakanza.
Keferstein — Kefferstem — W., and
Kupfler, D., 300
Kcill, John (1671-1721), " Introductiones
ad veram physicum," 151, 163
Keir — Kicr — James (Phil. Trans, for
I//6) (1735-1820), 297
INDEX
621
Reiser (at Zamboni, Giuseppe, A.D. 1812),
420
Kelland, Rev. P. (at Young, Thomas,
A.D. 1807), 395
Kelly, John, Rector of Copford, " The
life of J. Dollond . . . inventor of
the achromatic telescope/1 214
Kelsch, M. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793)
308 (Coinmerc. Litt. Norunb , 1734)
Kelvin, Lord. See Thomson, Sir
William.
Kemp, M., " Description of a non-
galvanic pile . . .," 1828 (Jameson's
Journ., VI ).
Kempe, Rev. J. E. (at Oersted, H. C.,
A D. 1820), 455
Kempelen, Wolfgang von, 171
Kendall -Kendal — Abram— Abraham -
English navigator, 69, 76, 522
Keou-tsoungchy, writes the earliest
known description of a water compass,
29
Kepler, Johann (1571-1630), 92, 95,
95, 141, 208, 266,' 484, 5oH, "Stella
Marlis," " Epitome Astronomic
Copernican.r . . /' 16^5. .SYf Moron,
L, " Dictionnaire llistorique ,"
Vol. V. Pt. 2, p 2i ; Wuiult, " Philoso-
phische Studien," Index, p 34
Kerckrmg, Theodor. See Kircknngnis.
Kerner, T. (at Aldtni, G, AD 1793),
3«5
Kerr, Robert (1755-1813), 297
Kew Observatory (at Ronalds, Sir
Francis, A.D. i8H>), 440
Kiel University (at Pfaff, C H., AD.
1821), 483
Kielmayer — Kielmaier- Karl Fnedrich
(1765-1844), 284, 302, 326, " Dis-
sertatio sistens . . . do electncitate
et galvamsmo '' : Tubingen, 1802,
" Examen cxpenmenlormn . . . elfec-
tus magnetis . . /' : Tubingen, 1813
Kienmayer, Franz von (d. 1802), " Sur
une nouvcllc maniere de preparcr
ramalgamc electnque . . ." : Pans,
1788 (Jour, de Phys., XXXJII. 1788,
97; Opusc Scelti, XII, 3, 1789)
Kierski, M. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386; " Dissertatio de
electricitatis . . /' : Berolmi, 1854.
Ivies, Johann (1713-1871), " Deeffectibus
electricitatis . . ." : Tubingen, 1775.
Kiesser (Archiv , TV. 62), 401
Kilian, Franz M. (at Aldim, G., A.D.
17<J3), 3°6
King, Rev. C. W., " Antique gems,"
1 8, 526
King-che-so, the oldest known monument
of sculptured stone, 3
King, Edward, " Remarks concerning
stones said to have fallen from the
clouds, both in these days and in
ancient times " : London, 1796.
King's College, Cambridge, 549
Kingsley, Charles (at Plotinus of
Alexandria), 534
Kingsley and Silhman, " An account of
meteoric stones . . ." (Phil Mag'1
XXX. 2^2, 1808; Trans. Amer. Phil.
Soc , O S. vi., Pt. II. 1818).
Kin-Koung-yuan, the name of the
magnetic cars first made in A.D. 806-
820, 27, 28
Kinnersley, Ebenczer (1711—1778), 221—
223, 228, 234, 320, 367, 379; "New
experiments in electricity " (Phil.
Trans for 1763) ; " On some electrical
experiments with charcoal " (Phil.
Trans, for i 773).
" Kiobcnhavcn Selskab. Skrifter som
udi . . . ere Trcmlagde," 1745.
Kippingms, Henricus (d. 1678), " Antiq.
Rom. de Exped. Mar./' 5. See p.
32 of Moreri, L., " Grand Diction-
naire . . ," Vol. V.
Kippiss, Andrew, " Biographia Britan-
mca " : London, 1793.
Kirby, Thomas, " Analysis of electricity
and lire . . .," 1777.
Kireher, Athanasms (1601-1680), 5, 18,
53. °3. no-Hi, 125, 130, 146, 160;
" Ars magnetis . . . prodigiosis ciiectibus
magnotis/' 1631 ; " Magnes, sive de
arte magnetica," 1641, 1643, 1654;
" Pr.elusiones magnetica1 " (Pogg. 1.
1259), 1645, " Magneticum naturae
regnum/' 1667. See pp. 32-33, 63
of Moren, L , " Grand Diction -
n.nre /' Vol. \r.
Kirclihoff- Kirchoff — (Justav Robert
(1824-1877), Ilelmholtz, Hermann
lAidwig Ferdinand (1821-1894), and
Siemens, Ernst Werner (1816-1892),
" Verhandlungen dor Kgl. Preussi-
schen Akademie . . ." : Berlin, 1880.
An important paper on lightning
conductors.
Kirchhoif -Kirchoff- Nicolaus Anton
Johann (172=5-1800), " Zarustung, die
Wirkung . . .'' (Ciott Mag., T. 1. 1780,
St. 11. pp. 322-326).
Kirchmaier, Georg Caspar (1635-1700),
" DC fuhmne et tonitru," 1659; " De
luce, igne ac perennibus lucernis " :
Viteberg, 1676, 1677 (Miscell Acad.
Nat. Cur. 1677 and 1685, Pogg. I.
1261, 1676-1693).
Kirchmaier, Sebastian, " DC filis mcteori-
cis . . ." : Viteberg, 1666.
Kirchmaier, Theodor, " De virgula
divinatnce " (Pogg. 1. 1262), 1678,
401
Kirchner, Carl (at Plotinus of Alexandria),
534
Kirkrmgius — Kirckring — Theodor
"... spicilegium anatomicum," 147
Kirkwood, Daniel, " Meteoric Astron-
omy," 1867.
Kirwan, Richard (1733-1812), 263 (Phil.
Mag., XXXIV. 247, 1809).
Kirwanian Society of Dublin, 418, 419
Kjobenhavn, " Nyt bibliothck fer
physik . . .," 453, 455
622
INDEX
Kjobenhavn, " Ovcrsigt over det . . .
forhandlinger . . .," 453, 454
Klaproth, Julius (1783-1835)', " Lettre
a Mr. de Ilumboldt sur rmvcntion de
la boussole " : Paris, 1834, i, 3, 5,
22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 43,
54, 50, 6r, 69, 72, 77, 115, 153
Klaproth, Martin Hemrich (1743-1817),
315 ; " DCS masses pierrcuses ct metal-
liques tombees de V atmosphere "
(Mem. de FAcad. R. de Berlin, for
1803; Gehlcn, Jour. f. Chem. v.
Physik, Vlll. 1809).
Klein, G., 284, 305, 326, 385 (Mem. de
la Soc. de Haarlem, Vol. 1.).
Klein, S., " Dissertatio " (at Aviccnna),
40
Kleist, E. C. von (at Plotinu.s of Alexan-
dria), 534
Kleist, Kvvald Georg von (d. 1748),
inventor of the Leyden phial. [See
note in Ronalds' Catalogue, p. 268,
also Nos 323 and 460 of the Catalogue
of the Wheeler (aft, edited by VVm D.
Weaver. See likewise the Cunajus
entry herein], 173-175
Klenke (at Humboldt/F. II. A, AD.
I7()9), 335
Klindworth, J. A , 249
Klingenstierna -Klingenstcrma — Samuel,
Swedish mathematician (1689-1765);
" Dissertatio de electricitate," 1740,
1742; " Tal om de naysta zon vid
olcctriciteten," 1755, 187
Klingenstierna, S., and Brando, W. T ,
" Dissertatio de inagnctismo artifi-
ciale," 1752.
Klinkosch, Joseph Thaddaus (1734-
1778), 274, 387 (" Mem. cle 1'Acad. de
Prague/' 111. 218)
Kloench, F. W., " Versuche uber d.
Wirkungen d Magnets . . ." : Got-
tingen, 1765, 246
Kluge, Karl Alexander Ferdinand,
animal magnetism : Amsterdam,
1812 (in " Proeve ecner voorstel-
lung . . .").
Klugel, Georg Simon (1739-1812), 326
Knight, Charles, Cyclopaedia (1791-
*873). See also English Cyclopaedia,
Imperial Cyclopaedia, Penny Cyclo-
pedia, Mechanical Dictionary, 4, n,
1 8, 27, 29, 31, 56, 57, 59, 06, 69, 148,
277, 284, 335, 397, 440, 446, 475
Knight, Gowin (171^-1772), 180, 190,
265, 272, 276 (Phil. Trans., XL1I1.
161, 361 ; XL1V. 656).
Knockenhauer, Karl Wilhelm (6. 1805),
476 (Sitzungsberichten d. Wien Acad.
1. 1852; XV. 1855; XXVII. 1857),
" Uber die gesetze des magnetismus
nach Ampere's theorie " (Poggendorff
Annalen, XXXIV. 481).
Knox, Dr. Robert (at Bancroft, E. N.,
A.D. 1769), 230
Koate, President of the London College
of Surgeons, 304
Kobell, Franz von (b. 1803), " Die
Galvanographie . . .," 1842, 1846
(Schweigg. Journ., LXIV. 1832;
Gelehrt Anzeig d. Munch. Acad. 1834,
1843, 1850).
Kiunen, Ilendrik Jakob (at Grotius,
Hugo), 518
Kirnio, H., " Fulminum theoria
meteor . . .," 1631, 553
Koestlm— Koeslin— Carl Heinrich, " Ex-
ainen . . . effectus magnetis . . .,"
1813, 243
Kohl, Fred. Georg (at Brugmans, Anton,
A.D. 1778), 255
Kohl, Dr Johann Georg, collection of
early maps, 62, 63, 533, 562
Kohlrausch, R. H. (Fogg. Annal.,LXXII.
1847 to XCVIIT. 1856); "Theory of
the electric residue in the Leyden
Jar " : London, 1854.
Kohlrausch, R. II., and Weber. Win. Ed.,
489; " Elektrodynamischc Maasbes-
timmungen . . .," 1856.
Kohlreif, G. A. (at Lavoisier, A. L.,
A D. 1781), 262
" Kon baierische akademie der wissen-
schaften," 383
" Kongl svenskavetenskaps Academien,"
Handlmgar, Stockholm, p. 168, 453
Konversations-Lexikon. See Brockhaus,
Meyers, " Conversations."
Kopp, J. H , " Dissertatio . . . causis
combustionis spontanca^ in corpore
humano pacta1," 1800.
Koten, J. II. van, " De galvanische
stroom . . ." : Amsterdam, 1856.
Koupho, Chinese physicist, discourse on
the loadstone, 23
Krafft, Georg Wolfgang (1701-1754), is
the author of " Pnelectiones in
physicam theoreticam," " Obscrva-
tiones meteorological . . ," " De
vinbus attractioms magnetics experi-
menta," 140, 308, 554
Kraift, Wolfgang Ludwig (1743-1814),
141, 249, 257, 308, 402; " Tcntamen
theoriae elcctrophori," 1778 (Novi
Comment. Acad. Petropol., XV. 586;
XVII 695; XIX. 610; Acta Petrop.,
^1778).
Krais, J., translator of Lucanus'
" Pharsalia," 140
Kramer, G. E., Uber telegraphen —
schreib apparate, 1851 (Dingler's
Polytcch. Journ., CX1X. and CXXI.
for 1851).
Kramer, G. E., and Belli, Giuseppe,
" Sulla produzione dell' Ozono . . .,"
^1844, 1845.
Ivratzenstcin, Christian Gottlieb (1723—
1795), 170-172, 213; "Theoria
electricit. more geometrico explicata " :
Halle, 1746.
Krayenhoff, Cornelius Rudolph Theodor
van (1758-1840), and Van Troostwijk,
A. P., " De 1'appl. de 1'electricite . . .,"
1/88, 385
INDEX
623
Kreil, Karl (b. 1798), " Jahrbiicher . . .
fur Meteorologie und Krd magnetism us
von Kreil," " Magnetische und
geographischc . . .," 1846, 1855, 1862
(Sitzungsbenchtc d Wicn Acad., III.
1849; IV. 1850; VIII. and IX. 1852;
XXXVI., No. 16).
Kries, Friedrich Christian (1768-1849),
" Von d. inagnet. Erscheinungen,"
1827.
Krischc, August Bernhard(a/ Heraclides),
519
Kruger, Georg (at Dalton, John, A D.
1793), 308
Kruger, Johann Gottlob (1715-1759),
174; " Diss. de clcctricitatis Mus-
schenbroekiuna? . . .," 1756.
Krunitz, Johann Georg (1728-1796),
298, 326, 385, 556; " Vcrzeichnis dcr
vornehmstcn schnften dcr electricitat
und den elcctrischen curcn," 1769
Krunitz — ?Kirtz — -Johann Cieorg (1728—
1796), 298, 385
Krziwaneck, J ., " De eloctricitatc . . /'
1839, 3-28
Ktesias. See Ctcsias.
Kuhlmann, yuiniius (1652-1689),
" Kirchenana di* arte inagna sciendi
. . ." : London, 1681.
Kuhii (at Thillaye-Plutel, Antoinc, A.D.
1803), 386
Kuhn — Kuchn — Karl (1816-1869),
" llaudbuch der angcwandtcn elektn-
citatslehre . . ." : Leipzig, 1866,
264, 385, 413, 420
Kuhn — Kuchn — Karl Gottlob (1754-
1840), " Traite de 1'electricite/' 1771 ;
" Die nuest. Entdeckungcn . . .
elektricitat . . .," 1796, 1797.
Kung-foo-Whing is said to have invented
a method of transmitting sound
through wires by the thumthsein,
A.D. 968, 28
Kupffer — Kupfer — Adolpte Theodor (b.
!799). " Annales de 1'Observatoire
physique central de rempirc de
Russie . . .," 1850-1859.
Kupffer — Kupfer— D., and Kcfcrstcin,
W. (at Shaw, John, A.D. 1791), 300
LA BEAUME, Michael, " Du gal-
vanisme " : Pans, 1828, 330, 385
" La Bible " of Guyot de Provins, 30
La Boissiere, " Notice sur les tra-
vaux . . .," 10
Laborde, Jean Baptiste de (d. 1777),
" Le clavecin electriquc," 1761, 555
La Caille (at Lambert, J. H., A.D. 1766-
1776), 225
Lacepede, Bernard Germain Etienne de
la Ville, Comte de (1756-1825),
" Essai sur 1'electricit^ naturelle ct
artificielle," 2 Vols. 1781, 273, 556
Lachmann, M. (at Ilauy, Rene, A.D.
1787), 288
La Condamine, Charles Marie de (1701-
1774). 165
La Coste, Christophilc de, 516
La Croix, Paul, " Science and literature
of the middle ages," 54, 540
Lacque, Du (at Milly, N. C. De Thy,
A D. i;;!), 235
Lactantius, Lucius Coelius Firmianus
(died c. A D. 325-326), " Divinarum
Institutionum," 523-525
Lacy, II. de, " Du galvanisme medi-
cal . . .," 1849, 330
Laet, Jan de (1539-1640), " De gcminis
et lapidibus," 1647, 17
" La France htteraire, on Dictionnaire
Bibliographique des Savants," par
Joseph M. yuerard, 59
Lagos, Vinccnte Rodriguez dc (sixteenth
to seventeenth century), 69
La Grande Encyclopedic. Sec Larousse,
Pierre, also Bcrthclot, M. P. E.
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Comte de,
Meinbre de i'lnstitut, F.K.S. (1736
1813), 116, 133, 224, 318, 409, 402.
See Wundt, WiJhelm, " PlnJosophische
Studien," Index, pp 35-30.
Lagmnge, La Place, etc., " Rapport sur
nil nouvcdu telegraphe des citoycns
Bieguet, L. F. C., et Betancourt " :
Paris, 1798.
La Grave — Lagrave, 304, 419; "Ex-
periences galvam<]ues . . ." (Journal
de l^hysique, an XI, pp. 159, 233, 472).
La Hue, Philippe de, ". . . . New sort
of magnetical compass . . ." (Phil.
Trans, for 16(87, p. 344), 141, 144,
145, 148, 268
Lalandc — La Lande — Joseph Jerome le
Francois de (1732-1807), 95, 233, 300,
301, 477 (Journal des Savants, Nov.
1792); " Abrege dc rastronomie."
See " Bibliographic Astronomique."
" La Luimere Electnqtic," publication
commenced in Pans during 1879, vii,
24, 140, 154, 199, 208, 224, 269, 361,
416, 422, 455, 470, 476, 481, 499
Lamanon, Robert de Paul, Chevalier de
(1752-1787), 250
Lamartilli6re (at Aldini, G., A.D. 1793), 305
Larnballe. See Jobert de Lamballe.
Lambert, A. J. (at Chladni, E. F. F,
A.D. 1794), 314
Lambert, Alexandre, " Historiquc de la
tcli' graphic . . . sessystemes divers ":
Paris, 1862.
Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728-1777),
156, 220, 224-225, 309, 315, 444
Lambeth Palace, 329
Lame, Gabriel (6. 1795), " Cours de
physique dc 1'Ecole Poly technique,"
2 Vols. 1837, 195
La Metherie, Jean Claude de (1743-
1817), 261, 270, 281-282, 299, 303,
435 (Journal de Physique, XLIL
252; LIU. and L1V.; Annali di
Chim. di Brugnatelli, XIX. 156, 1802).
Lamirault, H., et Cie., 14, 80
624
INDEX
Lament, Johann (1805-1879), 71, 233,
275; " Handbuch des magnctismus "
(Allgem. Kncyclop. der Physik, XV.
1807) , " Annalen fur metcor-
ologie . . " : Munchen, 1842; " Mag-
netismus dcr erdc " . Berlin, 1846.
Lamotte-Fouque, Frederic Henri Charles,
Baron de (1777-1843), 75
Lampadius, Wilhelm August (1772-
1842), " Versuche und Beobachtungen
uber die elektricitat . . .,"1793,1804.
" Lamp of Life," 104
Lamy, Francois (1636 1711), "Con-
jectures physiques . . .," 1689.
Lana-Lanis -Franciscus de— Lana Perzi
-PertiusdeLanis(i63i-i687),53, no,
554. See p. 718, Cates' Dictionary.
" La Nature/' 171, 260
" Lancet," 97
Lancetti, Vincenzio, " Biographia Cre-
rnonese " : Milano, 1819-1822, 71
Landnama-Bok — Landnamabok, 28
Lando. See Mongiardmi.
Landnam, G. B., " Nova electricitatis
theoria . . .," 1755, 555
Landnani, Marsigho (d. 1816 . . .),
278, 284; " On an improved elcctro-
phorus " (Scelta d'Opuscoh, 12 mo.,
XIX. 73, 1770) ; (Mayer's Samml.
Phys. Aufsagc der Gesellsch. Bohmi-
scher Naturf," III ) Letters from Van
Mar um in 1789 and 1791.
Lane, Timothy (1734 1807), 228, 282;
" On the magnetic attraction of
oxides of iron " (Phil Mag., XXIII.
253); Description of Mr. Lane's
electrometer (Phil. Trans , LVTI 451,
1708).
Lang, Andrew, " vSagas of the Kings
of Norway," 115
Lang, Victor von (Sit/ungb. Wien.
Acad., XXXI. No. 18, 1858; L1X.
1 869) .
Langbein, Dr Geo , "A complete
treatise on the electro-deposition of
metals," 24
Langenbucher, Jacob (at Gay-Lussac,
J. L., A.D. 1804), 389
Languis, Joannes, " Kpistolorum medi-
cinahum," 1589, 17, 27, 82
Langworthy, Charles Cunningham,
" View of the Perkinian electricity,"
1798, 328
Lanis, P. Francisci Tertii de, 53, no •
La Perouse— Jean Francois de Galaup,
Comte de (b, 1741), 249
La Peyrouse— Perouse —Philippe (1744-
1818), " Description d'un meteore . . ."
(Toulouse Academy, iero Serie IV.
189, 1790), 250
Leipide Bononiensi : Mentzel, Chn.,
1673; Montalbam, Ovido, 1634;
Licetus, 1640; Mentzel, 554
Lapis electricus of Linnaeus, 13, 153
Lapis fulminaris, 218
Lapis heracleus, 15
Lapis herculaneus, 15
Lapis lyncurius, 13, 218
La Place, Capt. Cyrille Pierre Theodore
(b. 1793), 4°2
La Place, Pierre Simon, Marquis de
(1749-1827), 96, 141, 247, 261, 262,
318, 344, 349, 377, 378, 386, 409, 416,
426, 459, 460-462, 463, 475, 480. See
Wundt, Wilhelm, " Philosophische
Studien," Index, pp. 35-36.
La Place, P. S., and Lavoisier, A. L.
(Memoires de Pans for 1781), 462
Larcher, Cassius, Daubancourt, and
Zanetti, F. M., 306 (Ann. de Chun.,
XLV. 195).
Lard tier, Dionysius (1793-1859)1
"Manual of electricity . . .";
"Handbooks of Electricity, etc.";
"Lectures on Science and Art";
Cabinet Library, 12 Vols. ; Cabinet
Cyclopaedia, 134 Vols., 8, 10, 80, 115,
138, 157, 207, 227, 336, 339, 34^7,
379, 390, 39^, 4T7, 455, 473, 476
Lardner, Nathaniel (1684-1768), " Credi-
bility of the gospel history . . .," 25
La Rive, Auguste Arthur De (b. 1801),
" Kecherches sur la cause de 1'elec-
tncite . . ."; " Essai histonque " ;
" Traite d'electricite . . ."; "A
treatise on electricity . . .," 1853,
1856, 1858; "Archives de 1'elec-
tricite ; supplement a la Bibhotheque
Univcrselle De Geneve " (Ann. de
Chirme, XXX VII. 225, 1828, Phil.
Mag. or Annals, III 151, also the
Quarterly Journal, XXXV. 161, 1828;
Phil Trans, for 1847; pt. i, 10, 107,
139, 140, 185, 259, 263, 292, 300,
305, 308, 321, 330, 347, 352, 359, 365,
384, 3^5. 387, 391, 406, 407, 418, 420,
434, 441, 454, 472, 473, 476, 491, 495
La Hive and Marcet (Geneva, Soc. de
Phys., VI. 503, 1833).
Larousse, Pierre Athanase (1817-1875),
" Grand Dictionnaire Universcl du
XIX0 siecle . . . Biographic, etc.";
" Revue Kncyclopediquc," 2, 10, 21,
38, 41, 45, 64, 65, 68, 69, 80, 81, 91,
94, 97, 98, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109,
114, 117, 120, 121, 122, 127, 128, 130,
132, 148, 149, 158, 190, 253, 255, 259,
282, 286, 288, 289, 294, 295, 296, 306,
3^4. 350, 353, 359, 3°i, 367, 376, 3«3,
3**5» 386. 387, 402, 408, 409, 414, 420,
424, 4^8, 456, 464, 471, 483, 498, 501,
502, 505, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512,
5*3, 514, 5*5. 5*6, 5r7» 5*9, 520, 521,
525, 526, 527, 529, 531, 532, 533, 534,
536, 538, 539, 540
Larousse, Pierre, " La Grande Ency-
clopedic," 31 Vols. 1886-1903; " Le
Nouveau Larousse " (Claude Auge), i,
2, 14, 20, 31, 33, 34, 38, 39, 41, 44,
79, 80, 81, 91, 94, 97, 117, 122, 141,
148, 166, 170, 196, 208, 21 1, 236, 259,
262, 264, 370, 400, 434, 506, 509,
511, 513, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520,
521, 526, 528, 530, 531, 532, 540
INDEX
625
Larrey, Dominique Jean, Baron de
(1776-1842) (Acad. des Sciences,
XVIII. 417).
Larrey, Felix Hippolyte, Baron de
(1810-1852), 284
La Rue, W. de, " On the structure of
electro-precipitated metals" (Journal
of the Chemical Society, article CXXX.
p. 300).
Las Casas, Barthelemy de (1474-1566),
66
Lassell, J. and C. (at Humboldt, Alex
von), 335
Lassone, Jean Joseph Marie Francois
de, 263, 385 (Recueil sur I'electricite
medicale, I. 245, 1763).
Lasthenia, one of the most distinguished
disciples of Plato (born c. 420 B.C.),
543
Latini, Brunetto (1230-1294), " Les
livres dou Tresor," XIX.; "II
Tesofo," 1474. Romilds says it " con-
tains one of the oldest documents on
the knowledge in Europe of the
compass "
Laugicr, Andre (i77o--i832), on meteoric
stones (Phil. Mag., XXVI. u; LVI.
157; Annales de Ch., LVIII. 261;
Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., XIII. 441).
Laurencin, Paul, " Le Telegraphe," 12,
264
Lausanne, Memoires de la Societe
Physique de Lausanne, 91, 293
Lautz, G. (at Lynschoten, J. H. van), 526
Laverine (at Jadelot, J. F. N., A.D. 1799)
(Opusc. Scelti, XXII. 132, 1803),
330
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743-1794).
236, 261-262, 263, 297, 355, 386, 416,
426, 429, 461, 462; "Opuscules
physiques et chimiqucs," 1774, 1801.
See La Place, I*. S., " Traite 61emen-
taire de chinne . . . dans un ordre
nouveau . . .," 2 Vols. 1789, 1801.
Law, Alexander (at A.D. 1808), 400
Law, Dr. (at A.D. 1675), 133
Lawrence, R. M., 330, 386, " On the
application of electricity . . .," 1853;
" Galvanism, its medical application
and uses," 1857.
Lawrence, Sir Edwin Durning, xii
Leader, John Temple (at Kendall, A.),
523
Lebailif — Lebaillif (at Faraday, Michael,
A.D., 1821), 494
Le Bas. See Dictionnaire Encyclopedique
de la France.
Le Blanc, Richard (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803, and at Cardanus,
H.), 385, 507
Le Bouyier-Desmortiers, Urbain Rene
Thomas (1739-1827), 410. See
Desmortiers.
Le Breton, " Histoire " (at St. Elmo,
A.D. 304), 24, 229
Le Breton, Mme. J., " Hist, et Appl.
de I'electricite," 1884, 268, 454
SS
Le Brun (at Journal des Savants),
551
Le Brun, Pierre (1661-1729), 148, 401
Le Cat, Claude Nicolas (1700-1768),
" Memoirc sur I'electricit6," 1746,
128, 178
Lechman, M. (1707-1778), on the
tourmaline (at /Epinus, F. M. U. T.,
A.D. 1759), 218, 287
Leclerc, Jean Georges Louis, Comte de
Buffon (1707-1788), " Histoire
naturelle," 127 Vols.; "Histoire des
Mineraux," 5 Vols.; " Theorie de la
Terre," i, 7, 30, 33, 37, 55, 60, 61, 161,
200, 218, 259, 299, 320, 332, 359
Leclerc, Lucien, " Hibtoire de la medecine
arabe," 541
Lecluse — Lescluse -Charles de (1524-
1 609) .
Le Com us. See Le Dru.
" Le Cosmos," Paris, 57, 115, 134,
140, 209, 264, 302, 365, 401, 440
" Le Courrier du Livre," 32
Lectures on Electricity. See Sturgeon,
William.
Le Dru, Nicholas Philippe — called Le
Comus, Le Camus, also Cosnier
(1731-1807), 224, 229, 235, 385;
Cosnier (Le Dru), Malloet, Darcet and
others are named in report made in
Paris during 1783.
Lee, Sidney. See " Dictionary of
National Biography."
Leeson, " Experiments . . . electro-
chemical decomposition of water ..."
(Ann. of Elect., IV. 238), 337
Lefevre-Gmeau, Louis (1751-1829), 389
Lefroy, J. II . (at Dalton, John, A.D.
X793)» 3°& (Phil. Mag., 3rd Series,
XXXVI. 457. 1850).
Lefroy, J. H., and Richardson, Sir
John, " Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations ..."
Le Globe," 412
Le Grave (at Jadelot, J. F. N., A.D.
1799), 330
Legros and Onimus (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386
Le Hardy, Major Charles, 399
Lehmann, Johann Gottlob (d, 1767),
" Abhandlung von Phosphons,"
" Von magnet Theilen im Sande "
(Mem. de la Soc. de Haarlem, XL
Pt. I. 1769), 273
Lehmann, Otto, of Karlsruhe, " Die
elcktrischen lichterscheinungen . . ."
Lehot, C. J., " Observations sur le
galvanisme et le magnetisme " (Jour.
de Phys., an 9, LII. 135, 1801), 270,
348. 355, 419
Lehre von der Electricitat. See
Wiedemann, Gustav.
Lehre von Galvanismus und Electro-
Magnetismus. See Wiedemann,
Gustav.
Lehrbuch der Allgemeine Chemie. See
Ostwald, F. W.
626
INDEX
Lchrbuch der Chcmie, 5 Vols. Leipzig,
1848. See Berzelius, J. J. F. von.
Lehrbuch der Komischen Physik. See
Muller, J. II. J.
Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. See
Kaemtz, L. F.
Lchrbuch der Physik und Meteorologie.
See Muller-Pouillet.
Lehrbuch der Physik zum Gebrauche :
Mannheim, 1836. See Eisenlohr, W.
Lehrbuch der Physiologic des Mens
Korpers : Erlangen, 312
Lei bnitz — Leibniz— Gottfried Wilhelm
von (1646-1716), 147, 152
Leidenfrost, Ludwig Christoph, "... Mis-
cellanea experimenta circa electrici-
tatem," 1781.
Leipzig — Lipsue — " Acta Eruditorum
. . .," " Indices generales . . .," 117
Vols , 306
Leipzig, " Allgemcines Magazin der
Natur-Kunst und Wissenschaft."
Leipzig, " Commentarii de rebus in
scientia naturali et medicina gestis,"
von C G. Ludwig, 37 Vols Lipsur,
I752-i798, 130. 285
Leipzig Society. " Abhandlungen . . .
Wissenschaf ten . ' '
Leipzig University, 162
Lcitch, John, " Hieroglyphic Essays and
Correspondence," 396
Leithead, William, "Electricity; its
nature, operation . . .," 1837, 29,
129, r35. 149, 153. 240, 241, 376, 383,
443
Leland — Leyland — John (1506-1552), 42
Lelandri, Contessi G. (Ann. Reg. Lomb.
Veneto), 347
Lelewell, Joachim. See Geographic de
Moyen-Agc, 62
Lelong, Le P. Jacques, " Bibliotheca
sacra," 1709, 538
Le Lorrain de Vallemont. See Valle-
mont.
Lemaire — Le Maire (Mem. Acad. de
Paris; 1745, 175°). 19°
Lemery, Louis (1667-1743), exhibits the
tourmaline — lapis' electncus, 153, 218,
442» 465
Lemery, Nicholas (at Lemery, Louis,
A.D. 1717), 153
Lemoine — Moreau. See Dureau.
" Le Moniteur," 359, 380
" Le Moniteur Scientifique." See-
Quesneville, Dr. G. A.
Lemnius — Lemmeus — Lieven — Levinus
(1505-1568), " De miraculis occultis
naturae . . .," first edition, Ant-
werpiae, 1559 (" The Secret miracles
of nature," wherein he described the
mariner's compass), 5, 87, 538, 553
Lemonnier — Le Monnier — -Louis Guil-
laume (M6m. de Paris, 1746, 1752;
Philos. Trans, for 1746, p. 290).
Lemonnier — Le Monnier — Pierre Claude
Charles (1715-1799), " Lois du magne-
tisme . . . dans les differentes parties
du globe terrestre . . ." : Paris,
1776-1778, 176, 177-178, 200, 232,
320 (Mem de Paris, 1770, 1771, 1772,
1773. 1774. I777~I779).
Le Monnier, according to Brit.
Museum Catalogue; Nouvelle
Biographie Generate, 1859,
XXX. 621; Poggendorff Hand-
worterbuch.
Lemonnier, according to Encycl.
Britannica, 1911, XVI. 416;
Biographic Universelle, XXIV.
95-97; New Intern. Encycl.,
1915, XIII. 765; Diet, of Gen.
Biogr., 1881, p. 744.
Not mentioned in Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographic, 1883, Band
1 8, 1906, Band 51, or in either
Meyer's or Brockhaus' Konversa-
tions-Lexikon .
Lemoyne des Essarts, Nicholas Toussaint,
" Siecles Litteraires," 190
Lempriere, John (6. 1824), English
author, " Bibliotheca Classica," 1788,
5l8
Lemstrom, K. S., Professor at Helsing-
fors. See Lcnstrom.
Lcnain de Tillemont. See Tillemont.
Lenglet du Frcsnoy, Nicole (1674 1755),
" Methode . . .," 1772, Vol. XIV.
contains an outline of the history of
science and art.
Lcnoblc — Le Noble — Mr. L'Abbe,
Chanoine de la Collegiale de Vernon sur
Seine en Normandie, " Aimants arti-
nciels d'unc tres grande force " (Mem.
dc Paris, 1772, Hist., p. 17), 26, 253.
See Thouret, also Ronalds' Catalogue,
p. 296.
" Le Nouveau Larousse illustre," par
Claude Auge, 7 Vols. 1901-1904.
Lenstrom, Selim (at Aurora Boreahs),
139, 179, 180
Lenz, Hcinrich Friedrich Emil (1804-
1865), 423 (Mem. ct Bull, cle 1'Acad.
cle St. Petcrsb., 1831, 1836-1839,
1844-1858; Pogg. Ann., XXXI. for
1834, XXXIV. for 1835).
Lenz, R. (Mem. et Bull, de 1'Acad. de
St. Petersb., 1862, 1866).
Leonardus, Camillus (fl. sixteenth
century A.D.), 17, 26, 57, 73, 82;
" Speculum lapidum," 1502, 1516
(" The mirror of stones," 1750). See
Gnesse, " Tresor de livres . . .," Vol.
IV. p. 165.
Leopold of Tuscany, 96
Leopoldino-Carolino. See Breslau.
Lcotaud — Leotaudus, Leotandus —
Vincent (1595-1672), 120, 160, 554;
" R. P. Vincentii Leotaudi . . . mag-
netologia . . . magnctis philosophia,"
1668.
Leprince — Le Prince, " Nouvelle theorie
de 1'aurore boreale . . .," 1817, 308
Le Roi — Le Roy — and D'Arcy, 177
Le Roux de Lincy, 34
INDEX
627
Leroux — Le Roux — Francois Pierre,
" Etudes sur les machines electro-
magnetiques ..." (Ann. de Chim. et
Phys., Ser. IV. Vol. X. pp. 201-291).
Deals with the Peltier and Thomson
effects.
Le Roy — Le Roi — Jean Baptiste (d.
1800), 177, 198, 208, 240, 273, 302, 303,
320
Lesage — Le Sage — Georges Louis, Jr.
(1724-1803), "Traite de Physique
. . .," 209, 241-242, 255
Lesage — Le Sage — Georges Louis, Sr.
(1676-1759), " Des corps terrestres
et des meteores," 242
Leslie, Sir John (1766-1832), 134, 192,
'225, 295-296, 315, 440, 479, 498;
" Observations on electrical theories,"
1824. See Rumford Medal. "Treatises
on natural philosophy ..." (Phil.
Mag XLII. 44, 1813).
" Les Mondes," 248, 365. See Moigno.
Le t61egraphe. See Laurcncin, Paul.
Letheby, H., " An account . . . gymno-
tus electncus . . .," 1842, 299
Letronne, Jean Antoine, " Mem. de
1'Acad. des Inscriptions," 533
Leucippus, Greek philosopher, disciple
of Zeno (fl. fifth century B.C.), 512,
543
Leupold, electrical machine, 150
Leurechon, Jean, French poet (1591-
1670). See Van Ktten.
Leuwenhoeck, Anthony van (Phil.
Trans., XIX. for 1695-1697, p. 512),
245, 246
Levasseur (mentioned at Agrippa, H. C.),
502
Lewes, George Henry, " History of
philosophy from Thales to Comte,"
534
Lewis, Meriwethcr, on the zodiacal light,
141
Lexell, Anders Johann (1740-1784).
Leyden Jar discovered by E. G. von
Kleist, Nov. 4, 1745, 173
Leyden Jar principle employed by
Bozolus for transmitting intelligence,
226
Leyden University, 169, 518
Leyes de las Partidas. See Alfonso el
IX.
Leymarie, Alex. (1732-1796) " Une
nouvelle . . . tourmaline," 1850
(Toulouse Acad. 3° S6rie), 287-288
Liais, E., " Pendule electro-magnetique "
(Mem. de la Soc. de Cherbourg, II.
294, IV. 205).
Libanius, Greek Sophist (A.D. 314-393).
See Nouv. Biogr. de Hcefer, 1860, XXI.
110-113.
Libavius, Andreas (1560-1616), 124;
" Alchymia . . . medico physico che-
mico," 1606.
Libes, Antoine (1752-1832), 131, 277,
353; " Theorie de l'61ectricite . . .";
" Histoire philosophique des progres
de la physique " ; " Traite elementaire
de physique " (electricity by pressure) ;
" Dictionnaire de physique."
Library of American Biography. See
Jared Sparks.
Library of Literary Criticism. See
Moulton, Ch. W.
Library of Useful Knowledge, 103, 204,
219, 220, 226, 228, 256, 264, 278, 280,
282, 287, 290, 380, 423, 431, 455, 458,
460, 467, 471, 475, 476, 481, 498
" Library, The," 122
Libri Carrucci dalla Sommaia (Guglielmo
Bruto Icilio Timoleone) (1803-1869),
" Histoire des sciences mathematiques
en Italic depuis la renaissance des
lettres jusqu'a la fin du 17° siecle,"
4 Vols. 1835, 1838-1848, 1865;
"Catalogues . . ."; Nouvelle Biogr.
Gen. V. 922; 16, 23, 30, 33, 35, 43, 44,
45. 53. 55. 57. 61, 64« 6t>, 75, 97, Io6.
no, 114, 116, 117, 126, 140, 299, 506,
510, 515, 522, 524, 525, 527, 531
Liceti, Fortunio (1577-1657).
Licetus, Fortunatus (i57?-IO57).
" Litheosphorus . . . lapide Bono-
niensi lucern . . .," 1640.
Lichtenberg, Gcorg Chnstoph (1744-
1799). Discovered the double elec-
trophorus, as explained in his "De novo
rnethodo . . ." : Gcttingen, 1779 ; " An
Dr. Exlcben . . ." (Gott. Mag., J. i.,
S. li. 216-220, 1780), 250
Lichtenberg, Ludwig Christian (1738-
1812).
Lichtenberg, L. C., and Michaelis, G. A.,
concerning Solomon's temple, 10
Lichtenberg, L. C., and Voigt, J. H.
(1751-1823), " Magazm fur das neueste
aus der Physik . . .," 249, 256, 257,
280, 313, 316, 431, 449
Lieberkuhn — Lieberkyn — Dr. Johann
Nathaniel, of the Berlin Academy
(1711-1756), makes known Kleist 's
discovery o the Leyden Jar, 173,
174
Liebig, J., and Xopp, J. H., " Jahres-
bericht uber . . . chemie, physik,
etc."
Liebig, Justus — Justin — Freiherr von,
491, 494 (Poggendorff, J. C., " Hand-
worterbuch,"pp. 1455-1460) ; " Hand-
worterbuch der . . . chemie, von
Liebig, Poggendorff, Wohler, etc.";
" Annalen der pharmacie . . ."
Lientandi, " Magnetologia " : Lugdini
Bat., 1668.
Light, finite velocity of, discovered by
Roemer, Olaus, 157
Lightning and thunder attracted and
directed by the ancients, 9, 294
Lightning and thunder inoculated into
clouds by bombs, 368
Lightning, many sources recognised by
Etruscans and Romans, 9
Lightning-rod Conference, Report of,
198, 199
628
INDEX
Lightning rods on ancient temples, 600
B.C., 9
Liliencron, Rochus, 34
Lilhehook, C. 13. , " Voyages ... in
Scandinavia," 1842, 139
Linari-Santi, P. (1777-1858), 298, 337;
" Sur les propnetes electnques . . .
de la torpille " : Geneve, 1837-1838;
" Sull elettricita animale " : Napoli,
1843 (Bibl. Univ., 1837-1838;
Fusmieri, Ann. Sc. R. Lomb.-Veneto,
1839; Bibl. Ital., Vol. XCI1. 258;
Rendiconto dell' Acad. di Napoli, II.
i»43).
Linari-Santi, P., and Guili, G. (Ann. del
Reg, Lomb.-Veneto, IX. 200, 1839),
Linari-Santi, P., and Palmieri, Lmgi
(Rendiconto dell' Acad. di Napoli,
in. i844).
Linck, Johann Wilhelm (1760-1805),
" De raga torpedine," 1788, 298
Lincy, Le Roux de, and Tisserand, L. M.,
34
Lmd, James (d. 1794), 33 1
Linden, Joannes Antonides van der,
" De Scriptio Medicis," 26, 508, 513,
517. 53i
Line of no magnetic variation. See
Columbus, Christopher, 65
Linguet, Simon Henri Nicholas (1736-
1794), " Memoire . . . moycn d'etab-
lir des signaux par la lumiere," 1782,
265
Lining, Dr. John, 196, 320 (" Mem. de
Paris," 1755).
Linnaeus — Linn6 — Carl von (1707-1778),
" Flora Xeylanica " (on the tourma-
line), 1747; (K. Schwed. Akad. Abh ,
XXIV. 291; VI. 93; VIII. 61; Acta
Holminensio, XXIV. 292, 1762), 13,
J53, 19-2, 288, 297, 385, 450, 451,
.456
Linnean Society of New England,
Transactions, 298
Linnstrom, H., " Schwedisches Biichcr-
Lexikon," 1830-1865.
Lion, Moise, " Electricite statique, His-
toire et recherches nouvelles " : Paris,
1868.
Lipenius, Martinus, " Navigatio Salo-
monis Ophiritica illustrata," 1660, 33,
73.87
Lippincott, Joshua Ballinger (1816-
1886), " General Biographical Dic-
tionary," 470
Lisbon Academy, " Memorias da Acad.
Real das Sciencas da Lisboa," 12 Vols.
Lisieux College, 254
Lister, Dr. Martin (1638-1712), "Col-
lection Academique," 204, 288, 402,
548
Li-tchi-tchin, celebrated Chinese natur-
alist, 77
Literary and Philosophical Society, Man-
chester. See Manchester.
Literary Digest, 57
Literary Gazette, 412
Littre and Sainte Beuve, 476
Littre, M. E. (at Ampere, A. M., A.D.
1820), 476
" Living Authors " (at Gregory, George,
A.D. 1796), 324
Livio Sanuto (fl. sixteenth century
A.D.), " Geografia . . . della bussola
e dell' Aguglia . . .," 1588, 65, 69,
H4,.ii5
Livy. See Titus Livius (Phil. Trans.,
XLVIIL, Pt. i, p. 211).
Lloyd, Humphrey (b. 1800), 28, 138;
" A treatise on magnetism," : Lon-
don, 1874; " Remarks on the theory
of the compound magnetic needle";
" Account of the Induction Inclino-
meter . . ." (Trans. Royal Irish
Acad., XVII. 1836; XIX, 1840 and
1841; XXL 1843; XXII. 1849;
XXIV. 1862 ; Proceedings Royal Irish
Acad., 1848, 1850, 1853, 1861, ,1862).
Lloyd, Sabine, and Ross, " Observa-
tions . . . terrestrial magnetic force
in Ireland " (Report of the British
Association for 1835).
Loadstone. See Lodestone. .
Lobe, W., " De vi corporum clectrica,"
i743> 555
Lobb, Harry (at Thillaye-Platel, An-
toine, A D. 1803), 386; " A popular
treatise on curative electricity . . .,"
1867.
Locke, John (1792-1856), works of (at
Kendall, Abram), 522 (Trans. Amer.
Phil. Soc , VI. 1839).
Locrian, The, 8
Loder, M. Juste Chretien de (1753-1832),
(at Pearson, George, A.D. 1797), 326,
333
Lodestone's lifting power, 134, 159
Lodestone — Loadstone — first discovered
at Magnesia in Lydia, 146, See
Magnet, Magnes. Its use in antiquity
for directive purposes. See Ferguson,
also Barrow, Sir John, " Voyage en
Chine," 1805.
Lodestone, nmgnet, armed, 86, 100
Lodestones, different descriptions of, 13 ;
virtue of (Earl of Abercorn), 554
Lodge, Sir Oliver, " Pioneers of Science,"
462. See Rumford Medal.
Lofft, Capel (Phil. Mag., LI. 109, 203,
1818), 314
Logan (Phil. Trans., 1735), 195
Lohier fils, " Globules lumineux," 1746,
555
Lohmeir, P., " De fulmine," 1676 (Pogg.,
I. 1491)-
Lo-Luz — Lo-Looz — Robert de, " Re-
cherches . . . pour prouver le mag-
netisme universel," 1788.
Lombardi, Antonio (b. 1768), " Storia
della letteratura Italiana . . .,"6 Vols.
(Mem. Soc. Ital., Vol. XX.), 330
Lombardo-Veneto (Venetian Lombardy
Imperial Royal Institution). See
Istituto, Lombardy, Fusinieri, Giuli.
INDEX
629
Lombardus, Petrus — Peter Lombard —
Bishop of Lyons (fl. twelfth century
A.D.), " Sententiarum, Libri IIII.," 41.
See Joannes ab Incarnatione.
Lombard y — Lombardo- Veneto, " Gior-
nale dell' I.R. Istituto Lombardo di
scienze, lettere ed arti, e Biblioteca
Italiana," 25 Vols.: Milano, 1841-1856,
is the suite of the " Biblioteca Itali-
ana," which ran from 1816 to 1840.
Memorie— also Atti — dell' I R. Istituto
Lombardo di scienze, lettere ed arti,
1843-1848.
Lomond — Lomont — Claude Jean Bap-
tiste (1749-1830), 285
Lomonosow — - Remonozow — Michael
Wassilj ewitsch (1711-1765), 204
Lomonosow — Remonozow and Gri-
schow, A. N. (1726-1760), " Orationes
de meteoris electricis explicationes
• • M ' 1755-
London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag. and
Journal of Science. Sec Philosophical
Magazine.
London Chemical Society, 394
London College of Surgeons, 178, 304
London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phil.
Mag. and Journ. of Sc. See Philoso-
phical Magazine.
London Electrical Society, 468
London Encyclopedia, 22 Vols. 1839.
London Geological Society, 359, 371
London, Guy's Hospital, 443
London Institution, 371, 372, 458
London Mechanics' Register. See New
London.
London Mining Journal, 498
London, Royal Astronomical Society,
433. 462
London, Royal Society. See Royal
Society, London.
London. See Journal of the Society of
Arts, Nicholson's " Journal of Nat.
Phil " " Phil. Magazine . . .,"
"Electrical Society," " Royal Society,"
" Royal Institution," " Pharmaceuti-
cal Journal."
London University, 498
Long's expedition to the Rocky Moun-
tains, 259
Longfellow, Henry W., "Golden Legend,"
" Evangeline," 24, 260
Longinus, Caesar, " Trinium magicum
. . .," 1630, 553
Lonicerus, Janus — Lonicer, Joannes,
26, 5531 " Compendium de meteoris
ex Anstotelo, Plinio et Poiitano,"
1548; "In Dioscoridae Anazarbei de re
mcdica . . ."
Lonmyer, C. See Loumeyer, C.
Loomis, Elias, Observations on magnetic
dij>— intensity — " The aurora bore-
alis " (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., New
Series, VII. 1841, VIII. 1843, IX.
1846; Phil. Mag. for Nov. 1847),
140
Lopez de Gomara, Francisco, 211
Lor, M. de, 195, 200, 320, 416 (De Lor
and Dalibard's experiments, Ronalds'
Catalogue, p. 123).
Lorenzini, Stephani (at Shaw, George,
A.D. 1791), 298
Lorgna, Antonio Maria (1736-1796), 253
(Opus. Scelti, IV. 235, 1781) ; " Lettera
(al Toaldo) sur Parafulmini."
Lorimer, Dr. John (1732-1795), " Essay
on magnetism," 1795, 30, 243, 281
(Phil. Trans., 1775).
Loritus, Henricus de Claris — Gareanus,
535- 536
Lorraine, Duke of, 160
Lottin, Victor Charles (1795-1858), 139;
" Sur les aurores bore-ales " (Ann.
Maritim, LIX. 1839).
Louis, Antoine (1723-1792), " Observa-
tions sur 1'electricite . . .," 1747, 186
Louis IX, King of France, 56; Louis XI,
538; Louis XIII, 107; Louis XIV,
130; Louis XV. 229
Louise de Savoy, 502
Loumeyer, C. (at Montanus, Arias Bene-
clictus), 528
Lous, Christian Karl (1724-1804),
" Tcntamina experimentorum . . ." :
Copenhagen, 1773
Louvre, Catalogue of manuscripts, 14
Lovejoy, B. G. (at Bacon, Sir Francis,
A.D. 1620), 102
Lovering, Prof. Joseph, 498
Lovett — Lovet — Richard ( 1 692- 1780),
" Subtil — Subtile — Medium Proved,"
133, 212-213, 229, 269
Lowenorn (at Aurora Borealis), 139;
" Uber den magnet. . .," 1802
Lower (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 385
Lowig, C. von, " Repertorium fur
organische chemie " : Zurich.
Lowndcs, F., " Observations on medical
electricity. . .," 1787, 385
Lowndes, William Thomas, " Biblio-
grapher's Manual of English Litera-
ture," 4 Vols. 1834, 547, 548
Lowthorp, John. See Royal Society.
Loxodromes, 509
Lozeran du Fech, Louis Antoine (d.
1755)> " Observation d'un phenomene
celeste," 1730 (" Memoire de Trevoux "
for 1730, 1732).
Luc, Jean Andre de — Deluc (1727-1817),
176, 249, 364, 388, 405, 417, 418, 419,
420, 428, 433, 434, 438, 440, 447;
" Traite elementaire sur le fluide
electrico-galvanique," 2 Vols. 1804
(Phil. Mag., XL1V. 248, XLV. 97,
329, L. 392). One of his dry piles
rings bells for over forty years, 405
Lucanus (A.D. 39-65), Marcus Annaeus,
" Pharsalia," 140
Lucchesini, Signore Marchese (at Walsh,
John, A.D. 1773), 240
Lucretius, Titus Cams (99-56 B.C.),
" De rerum natura " (The nature of
things), 7, 14, 19, 21, 33, 73, 524, 544
630
INDEX
Luderus, G., " De mcthodis . . , declin.
. . . magnctis . . .," 1718, 554
Ludicke — Ludecke — August Friedrich
(1748-1822) (Gilbert Annalen, IX.
1801 and 1802; L. 1815, LXVUI.
1821).
Ludolff — Leudolff — Christian Friedrich
(1707-1763), 170, 200, 320 (Mem.
Acad. Roy. Berlin, 1744), 320
Ludwig, Christian Friedrich, " Scrip tores
. . . mmores . . .," : Lipsirc, 1791—
1795. 304, 3^7, 33*
Ludwig, Christian Gottlieb. See Leipzig.
Ludwig, Christian Theophile (1709-
1773).
Lughi (at Pearson, George, A.D. 1797),
326
Lullin, Amed.T — Amadcus (1695-1756),
" Dissertatio physica de electricitate
. . ," 1776, 226, 271
Lully — Lull--Raymundius Lulhus (c.
A.D. 1254-1315), 31-33, 505
Luloffs, Johannes (1711 -i 768) (at Dal ton,
John, A.D. 1793), 308; " De aurora
boreali . . ,"1731.
" Lumi6rc Electrique." See " La
Lumiere Electrique."
Lunar diurnal magnetic variation, 267
Lunar volcanoes, 462
Lund and Muschmann, 446
Lundborg, J. M., " De electricitate
atmospheric," 1791
Lusitanus, Amatus, Joan Rodcrigo
Amato (1511-1568), 27, 525, 528
Lusson, F., " Les ongines de 1'elcctri-
cite " : La Rochellc, 1882.
Luther and Grotius, 519
Luther, Martin (1483-1546), 508
Lyly, John (c. 1554-1606), " Euphucs,"
16
Lyncunum. See Lapis, 8, 13, 15, 17,
176. See also Watson, Win., 1759
(Phil. Trans., LI. 1759) and Napione,
C. A. Q., 1795.
Lynschoten, Jan Huygan van (1563-
1611), 525
Lyon, Rev. John (at Adams, George,
A.D. 1785), 28l
Lyons — Lyon (Lugduni), Academy of
Sciences; Comptes Rcndus, Historic,
Memoires, etc., 337; Histoire de
1'Acad. Royale des Sciences . . . de
Lyon, parT. B. Durnas, 1839.
Lyons — Lyon — College of , 163
Lyons —Lyon — Congres scientifique. See
Petetin, J. H. D.
Lyons — Lyon — Societe d'Etudes Scien-
tifiques, Bulletin, etc. : Lyon, 1874,
etc.
Lyons, T. A., Electro-magnetic pheno-
mena, 54, 56
M
MACADIE, Alexander (at Electricity of
the Atmosphere), 319
Macaire, J . F. (at Alexander Tilloch) , 392
Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1800-
1859), " Essays," 99, 102, 132
MacCrmdle, author of " Ancient India,"
as described by Ktesias, 10
MacCulloch, " Traites . . . boussole " :
Paris, 1853, 6 1
Macdonald, Lieut. -Col. John (1759-
1831), method of telegraphing, 400, 442
MacGowan, George, 262
Macgregor, J. (" Journal of the Society of
Arts," May 20, 1859), 291
Machado, Barb., "Bibliotheca Lusitana,"
5*6, 531
Machiavelli, Nicolo (1469-1527), 114
Machines, electrical. See Electrical
Machines.
Machometes Aractensis. See Albateg-
nius, 527
MacKendnck, Dr. John Gray (at
Kirwan, Richard), 263
MacKenzie, William. See " ImrJ. Diet.
of Univ. Biography."
MacMahon, Rev. John H., " Meta-
physics of Aristotle," 310
MacMillan, Walter G., " Treatise on
electro-metallurgy," 24
Macquer, Pierre Joseph (at Fourcroy,
A. F. de), 354
Macrmus, M. Opelius (A.D. 164-218), 12
Macvey, Napier (1776-1847), 296
Madeira Arrais — - Madeyra Arraez
(Duarte). See Arrais.
Madison, Rev. James (1749-1812), 327,
328
Madler — Maedler — Johann Hcinrich von,
Geschichte der Mimmelskundc," 513
Madrid, Gazette de, 318
Marfei, Francisco Scipionc de (1675-
I755), 3^1, 505. 554
Magalotti— Magolotti —Lorenzo (1637-
1712), Saggi Accad. del Cimento,
1666-1761.
" Magaz. Sc. de Gottingen," 10
Magazin der neuesten . . . reisebe-
schreibungen.
" Magazin encyclopedique . . .," par
Millm de Grandmaison, Aubin Louis.
See Rafn, C. G.
Magazin fur das neueste aus der physik.
See Lichtenberg and Voigt.
Magazin fiir naturvidenskaberne. See
Christiana.
Magazin fur . . . naturkunden, von
Voigt, J. H., 12 vols., Jena and
Weimar, 380
Magazine of American History, 115
Magellan — Magalhaeus — Magalhaes — -
Ferdinand, commanded in 1520 the
first expedition around the world, 67,
288. [Magellan — Magalhaeus — Joao
Hyazinthe, F.R.S., was a very
prominent astronomical writer.]
Magendie, Francois, 325, 385
Maggiotto, F., upon a new electrical
machine, 254
Magi : loadstone so called in their
honour, 13
INDEX
631
Magliabechiana Library at Florence,
57
Magliozzi, M., " Notizia . . . bussola "
61
Magne-crystallic action : Poisson, 1811,
411 ; Faraday, at 1821, 495; Tyndall,
at Poisson, 1811, 411, and also in Phil.,
Mag. for 1851, 1856 and 1870.
Magnesian stone, 13
Magnet — loadstone — armed, 86, too
Magnet — magnes — the loadstone. [See
Chambers' Cyclopaedia, Vol. III".], 12-
13, M5~i46
Magnet and helix, experimental dis-
tinction between, 486
Magnet, applications for medical relief
26
Magnet, artificial. See Hamilton, 159;
Knight, 180; Antheaulme, Uu Hamel,
Le Maire, 190; Michell, John, 191;
Camon, 206; /Epinus, 217; Gregory,
3^3
Magnet, elliptical. See Tremery, J. L ,
3*4
Magnet, Ethiopian, said to repel iron.
See Maiolus, " Dies Caniculares . . .,"
1597. p. 781.
Magnet, filar suspension, first mentioned
by Lconardus Camillns, " Speculum
Lapidum," 1610, p. 129
Magnet, first English work on the,
Norman Robert, " The newe attrac-
tive," 1592.
Magnet, its four virtues or operations,
according to Sir Francis Bacon, 100
Magnet, its threefold power, attractive,
directive and inductive. See Oberst,
Joseph, " Conjcctursc . . ." : Augs-
burg, 1760.
Magnet, mathematical theory of the (at
Hansteen, C., A.D. 1819), 444
Magnet, molecular, first suggested by
Kirwan, R., 263. See Hale, Matthew,
Magnetismus magnus . . ." : Lon-
don, 1695.
Magnet, native, its different names, etc.
See B c. 1022, 600-580, 337-330, 321,
285-247, 60-56; also A.D. 121, 265,
295-334» 4°°> 1111-1117, 1490-1541.
Magnet, natural and artificial. ' See
Gregory, G., 322
Magnet, powdered. See Ingen-housz,
256, and Marcel (at Swinden), 273
Magnet, writers on the subject. See
Zahn, Johann — Joannes (1641-1707);
Schott, Gaspar (1608-1666) in his
" Magia universali . . ." : Bamberg,
1677; Boyle, Robert (1627-1691),
" Some Considerations . . .," 1664,
p. 15; Ruard, Andala (1665-1727),
in his " Kxercitationes . . .,'' 1709;
Pfundt, Ehrenfried in his " Disputatio
Physica de magnete," 1673 ; Bertrand,
Elie (1712-1790), " Dictionnaire Uni-
versel ": Avignon, 1763, p. 14.
Magnetic and electric forces, analogy
between, 383
Magnetic Atlas or Variation Charts:
Bianco, Andrea, 1436, 62; Halley,
Edmund, 1683, 137; Churchman,
John (mention made of Halley,
Lambert, Mountaine and Dodson,
Wilke) 1794, 315; Barlow, Peter,
1820, 458
Magnetic Attractions and repulsions,
156
Magnetic Cars, Carriages. See Chariots.
Magnetic Curves, 156
Magnetic Declination, causes of the, 164
Magnetic Declination, first announced in
print by Falero, Francisco, in 1535,
67-68
Magnetic Declination, history of, by
Carli, Gian Rinaldo (1720-1785),
" Di^sertazione . . ." : Venice, 1747.
Magnetic Dip, earliest known observa-
tions in U.S A , 258-259
Magnetic Expedition, 333 (Humboldt),
445 (Hansteen).
Magnetic Fluids, two, theory of : Wilcke,
J . C. (mentions Coulomb, 276, and Pois-
son, 410), 1757, 215, 276; Brugmans,
Anton, in 1778, 215; Prevost, Pierre
(1751-1839), " De 1'originc . . ." :
Geneve, 1788; Tremery, J. L., in
1797-.
Magnetic Force, law of the decrement of,
334
Magnetic Force, laws of, by Dr. Brooke
Taylor, 156
Magnetic Forces, causes and mechanism
of, 164
Magnetic Induction by electric currents,
discovered by Arago, 478
Magnetic Influence, earliest known
application of, 2637 B.C.
Magnetic Intensity and dip or inclination,
Gay-Lussac, 1804, 389
Magnetic Islands and mountains, 71
Magnetic Measurement, absolute, by
Poisson, 411
Magnetic Plants, 259-261
Magnetic Poles: Halley, 1683, 137;
Euler, Albert, 1766, 214; Brewster,
1820, 465; Royal vSociety of London,
" Miscellenea Curiosa " • T ™*™
1726.
London,
Magnetic Properties of metals developed
by percussion, 482
Magnetic Rotatory Polarization. See
Cadozza, G., likewise Arago at p. 478
Magnetic Sand : Butterfield in 1698 and
Desagulicrs and Musschenbroek in
1733, 174, 175
Magnetic Society. See Paris.
Magnetic Stations, 267, 334
Magnetic Stones, 512
Magnetic Storms, so named by Hum-
boldt, 334
Magnetic Suspension of statues, tombs,
etc., 18, 73, 123, 222
Magnetical compass of new design by
De la Hire (Phil. Trans., 1687, p. 344),
145
632
INDEX
Magneticks (Phil. Trans, abridged,
Vol. X. Pt. I. Chap. iv. pp. 1-20, for
1756).
" Magnetischen vereins . . .," Resultate
. . . von Gauss . . . : Gottingen,
1836-1841.
Magnetism and Electricity, analogy
between, 163, 272
Magnetism, Animal: Mesmer, 235-237;
Puys6gur, 236, 425
Magnetism, Animal, and its curative
powers, detailed by Kluge (Karl
Alexander Ferdinand) in " Proeve
eencrvoorstelling . . . ": Amsterdam,
1812.
Magnetism, Animal, and magnetism,
mineral, division established by
Kircher, Athan, in his " Magneticum
Natunc . . ." : Amsterdam, 1667.
Magnetism, Animal, history of. See
Mojon.
Magnetism, Animal. See Report of
Franklin, B. : Philadelphia, 1837
(2nd cd.) ; also Pctrus, P. B., " Etude
. . ." : Pise, 1852, p. 237.
Magnetism, History of, by Wilcke, J. C.,
" Tal om Magnctem . . ." : Stock-
holm, 1764, also by Murhard, F. W. A.,
and likewise by Churchman, John, in
" Magnetic Atlas . . ." : London,
1794-
Magnetism imparted to iron bar without
a magnet, 300
Magnetism imparted to non-ferruginous
substances, 163
Magnetism, influence of heat upon, 458
Magnetism, its effect on plants, 257
Magnetism — Magnetisme — this noun
first employed by Barlow, Wm., in his
" Magneticall Advertisements . . ." :
London, 1616.
Magnetism, Mathematical, theory of,
Hansteen, Chr. (1784-1873), " Unter-
suchungen . . .," 1819, Chap, v.,
444-446
Magnetism, Mechanical, production of,
by Boyle, R,, in his " Works . . .,"
1699-1700 (Vol. II. p. 323), 131, 132
Magnetism of salts of the magnetic
metals (Phil. Mag., Ser. IV. Vol. XXX.
pp. 366-370, 1865).
Magnetism, Rotatory, Arago (1820),
478; Cadozza, Harris, 469; Barlow,
458. Consult " Table Analytique de,
Annales de Ch. et de Phys.," Indesx
pp. 257-258. See Electro-magnetic
Rotations.
Magnetism, theories of. See Theories.
Magnetism, universal prevalence of, in
all bodies (Arago), 479
" Magnetist," published at Frankfort,
556
Magneto-electric induction, discovered
by Faraday, 484-487
Magnetometer of Bidone, Georgio (1781-
1889), "Description . . .": Turin,
1807; also of Scoresby, 1821, and of
Lloyd, II., " Proc. Royal Irish
Academy."
Magnus, L. See Gomperz.
Magnus, Professor G. (at Gmelin, L.) 450
Magrini, L. (at Oersted, H. C.), 455
Magrinus. See Arnaldus de Villa Nova.
Mahaffy, John P., 122, 511
Mahomet, 73, 91, 123, 222, 527, 541, 542.
For Mahomets' tomb, etc. (magnetic
suspension of) see Sir Thomas Browne,
" Pscudodoxia Epidemica . . .,"
1646; Van Etten, Henry, "Mathe-
matical Recreations . . .," 1674;
Weston, Wynant van, " Mathe-
matische . . .," 1662-1663; Guyot,
E. G. (1706-1786), " Nouvelles Recre-
ations . . .," published in 1769-1770.
Mahon, Lord, third Earl of Stanhope
(1753-1816), 184, 254, 255, 275, 310
Mailla — Maillac — Joseph Anne Marie de
Moyriac de (1679-1748), 1-2 '
Maimbourg, Louis (1610-1686), 144
Maimbray — DC Maimbray— of Edin-
burgh, 179, 282
Maimonides— Moses Ben Maimon (at
Cordova c. A.D. 1132), 40
Maindron, Ernest (at Mesmer, F. A.),
237; (at Volta, A.), 248
Maiolus — Maiolo — Majolus — Simon
(1520-1597), Bishop of Volturara,
" Collogmas "; " Dies Canicularcs
• • .," 19. 33, if>o
Mair, John, credited with the discovery
of the secular variation of the
declination, 1635, 117
Mairan, Jean Jacques d'Ortous de
(1678-1711), " Traitede physique . . .,"
I73I> I39< M°. 141, I42» 3°9
Maisiat, Michel (1770-1822), "...
changemcnts faits a la boussolc . . .":
Paris, 1818. Contains a brief history
of the mariner's compass.
Maissas — Meissas — Alexandra Andre de
(b. 1800), 352
Majocchi, Giovanni Alessandro (d. 1854),
" Annali di Fisica, Chimica, etc." :
Milano, 28 Vols. 420
Majus (i.e. May), Heinrich, " Disp. de
tonitru " ; " Disp. de fulmine " (Pogg.,
II. 21, 1673), 199
Makium, constructs a novel magnetic
chariot, 22
Malapterurus — at one time called Mala-
pterus-electricus, 192, 374
Malcolm, Sir John (at Zoroaster), 542
Malfanti, G., " Le meteore . . .," 1586,
553
Mallemans de Mcssanges, C. (1653-
1723), " Nouveau systeme de
1'aimant " : Paris, 1680.
Mallet, Charles Auguste (b. 1807),
" Manuel de philosophic," 1835.
Mallet, Charles Fran£ois (1766-1853)
(Annales des Fonts et Chauss6cs).
Mallet, C16ment. See Clement Mallet.
Mallet du Pan, Jacques (1749-1800),
" Mercure historique," 265
INDEX
633
Mallet-Favre, Jacques Andre (1740-
1790), Swibs astronomer, " De acus
magneticae . . ."; "Observations
astronomiques . . .,"249
Mallet, Friedrich (1728-1797), " Descrip-
tion mathematique du globe," 232
Maloet. See Le Dru, Maloet, Cosnier,
Darcet . . ., 229, 385
Malte-Brun, Victor Adolphe, " Geo-
graphie Universelle," 1816, 93
Malus, Etienne Louis (1775-1812), 480-
481
Malzet. See Jacquet de Malzet.
Manardus, Joannes, " Epistolarum medi-
cinalium . . .," 1549, 27
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, Trans, and Memoirs, 10, 16,
• 24, 134, 165
Mandeville, Sir John (born c. 1300), 67,
72. See Biogr. Univ. de Michaud,
Vol. X^CVI. p. 32; Diet, of Nat.
Biogr., Vol. XXXVI. pp. 23-29, and
the works of H. Cordicr therein named.
Manetto — Manetho — Manathou, on the
magnet stone, 14. At pp. 51-54 of
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Hceren's
" Manual of Ancient History," Oxford,
1833, it is said that Manetto was a
celebrated high priest at Heliopolis
who flourished under the reign of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 260 B.C.
He wrote the SEgyptica, and his
authenticity is now completely estab-
lished. Consult George Stanley Faber.
Horce Mosaics, I. 251 ; George Raw-
hnson's " Bampton Lectures," p. 56;
William Osburn, " Monumental His-
tory of Egypt," II. 606-608; J. P.
Cory, " Of the writings of Manetto,
translated from the Greek."
Manget, Jean Jacques, " Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Medicorum," 528
Mangin, 1'Abbe (d. 1772), " Histoire
Generate . . . dc I'electricite . . ." :
Paris, 3 Vols. 1752, 555
Manheim — Mannheim — Academy of
Sciences, Theodoro Palatina, Historia,
Memoria et Commentationes, 29, 285,
289
Manheim — Mannheim — Electoral Me-
teorol. Society, Transactions, 285,
320
Mann, Theodore Augustin (1735-1809),
" Sur les marees aeriennes . . .,"
1792, 289, 320
Mannevilette, Jean Baptistc N. D.
Apres de (1707-1780), " Le nouveau
quartier " (Hadley's quadrant), 1739
Mansill, Richard (at Faraday) , 499
Mansion, Paul, " Note . . . astronomic
ancienne," 533
Manual of Chemistry. See Brando,
W. T,
Manual of Classical Biography. See
Moss, J. W.
Manual of Electro-metallurgy. See
Napier, James; Shaw, George.
Manual of Magnetism. See Davis,
Daniel.
Manuel de 1'elcctricite. See Delaunay,
Veau.
Manuel du libraire et de 1'amateur de
livres par Jacques C. Brunet,. Paris,
71
Maplet, John (d. 1592), " A Greene Forest
or a Naturall Historic," 16
Marais, Paul, " Bibliotheque Mazarine,"
XI
Maraldi, James Philip (at Cassini), 268
Marana, G. P., " L'espion . . .," 1684;
" Letters writ . . .," 1734, 554. 555
Marat, Jean Paul (1744-1793), 269, 385
(at Thillaye-Platcl).
Marbodcus Gallus, surnamcd Pelliciarius
(1035-1125), 17, 26, 74, 82, 513
Marcel, Arnold, 149, 206, 273, 292
Marcellus Empincus (fl. end fourth
century), " DC medicamentis . . .,"
24, 26
Marcct, Mrs., " Conversations on chemis-
try," 322, 323, 497
Marciana Library at Venice, in
Marcilms Ficinus. See Ficino.
Marco Polo. See Polo, Marco.
Marcorelle and Darguier (at Dalton, J.),
308
Mardonius, Persian general (d. 479 B.C.),
fire signals, 4
Marechaux, Peter Ludwig (b. 1764), 388,
394, 420
Margarita Philosophica of Father Grego-
rius Reisch, 34-35
Margueritte (at Pcpys, W. H., Sr.), 372
Manani Parthenii Electricorum, 227
Marianini, Stefano Giovanni (1790-1866),
325, 330, 355, 385
Mancourt, Pierre dc. See Peregrmus.
Mane Davy (at Thillaye-Platcl), 3#6
Mane, J. E. Maximilien, " Hist, dcs Sc.
Math£matiques et Physiques," 12
Vols. 1883-1888, 147, 152, 412, 506
Marin, Th. (at De Romas), 204
Mariners' compass, history of the. See
Maissiat, Michel (1770-1822), " Me-
moire . . .," 1818, viii, 59-61, 141;
Kcou-tsoungchy, A.D. 1111-1117, 29;
Guyot de Provins, A.D. 1190-1210, 30;
Bianco, Andrea, A.D. 1436, 62-63;
Voltaire, F. M. A. de, A.D. 1327-1377,
58, 104
Marinette, or compass, 56
Mariniere, or loadstone, 30
Markham, C. R., translator of Acosta's
" Natural . . . history of the Indies,"
21
Marni, " Sulla formazione ..." (at
Alexander Tilloch), 392
Marrherr, P. A. (at Thillaye-Platel), 1765,
385
Marrigues a Montfort I'Amaury (at
Thillaye-Platel), 1773, 385
Marsh, J. (at Ampere), 476, 477
Marshall, Charles. See Morrison, Charles,
208-209
634
INDEX
Marsigli, Luigi Fcrnandino, Conte (1658-
1730), 419
Martianus, Minncus Felix Capella (fl.
early fifth century).
Martin, Adam Georg (b. 1812), " Reper-
torium der Galvanoplastik und Gal-
vanostegie," 2 Vols. 1856.
Martin, A. R. (Vctensk. Akad. Abh. 1758
and 1761).
Martin, Benjamin (1704-1782), " Biblio-
theca Tcchnologica," 1737, "Essay
on Electricity . . .," 1746; " Bio-
graphia Philosophica," 1764; " Philo-
sophia Britannica," 1747, 95, 131,
170, 252, 315
Martin cle Brettes, " Apparcils chrono-
electriques . . .," 1858.
Martin-Haug, I., " Essays . . ,," 1862
(at Zoroaster), 542
Martin, Henri, " Bibliothdque de
1' Arsenal," ix
Martin, Henry (at Oersted), 455
Martin, Louis Henri, Baron (1810-1883),
Sur . . . Heron d'Alexandne,"
520
Martin, " Metcorologie . . ." (at Aurora
Borealis), 139
Martin, Thomas Henri (1813-1884), 8,
10, 15, 1 8, 72, 520; " De 1'aimant, de
ses nonis divers," 1861, " Du succin.
de ses noms divers," 1860; " La
foudre, relcctricite . . .," i860;
" Observations . . . electriques . . .,"
1865; " Les attractions . . . mag-
netiques . . .," 1865
Martineau, James (at Priestley, Joseph),
228
Marty n and Chambers, " The Phil. Hist.
and Mem. of the Royal Academy at
Paris," : London, 1742, 145
Marty n, John — also Earncs and Martyn.
Sec Royal Society.
Marum, Martin van (1750-1837), 231,
247, 257, 277-280, 337, 384, 448, 455,
483
Marzari, G., e Toaldo, G., 253, 254
Masars — Mazars — cle Cazeles. See Ca-
zeles, 229
Mascagni, P. (at Brugnatelli), 363
Mascuelli, G. (at Bolton, J. F.), 245
Mason, Col. David, 223, 234, 235
Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles (b.
1846), " Dawn of Civilization," 14,
,, 2gg
" Massachusetts Gazette," 223
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
xi
Masse, J. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.), 330
Massuet, Pierre, " Essais . . .," 1751,
175
Mater ia subtilis. See Subtle.
Maternus, G. C. Cilano de, 1743 (at
Dalton, John), 308
Pvlather, Encrease — Increase (1639-1723),
135
Matteini— Matheini— Luigi (at Sarpi,
Pietro), 112
Matteucci, Carlo (1811-1868), 135, 241,
284, 298, 330, 355, 374, 385, 409, 426,
441, 469, 493; "... Giornale de
Fisica . . .," 1853; " Traite des phe-
nomenes . . .," 1844; "Sur 1'elec-
tricite animale . . .," 1834; " Ri-
cherche Elettro . . .," 1846; " Re-
cherches phybiques . . .," 1837;
" Manuale di telcg. clett . . .," 1850;
Memoires, in Annalcs de Chimic. . . .
Vols 27, 28, 34. See Cates' " Dic-
tionary of General Biography," 3rd
ed. 1880, p. 848.
Matteucci, P. (at Dalton, J.), " De aurora
boreali. . . ." : Bononioe, 1747, 308
Matthaeus Silvaticus. See Silvaticus, 529
Matthieu, C. (at Galvani, L.), 285
Matthieu dc Mcssinc, the notary of
Lentino, 15-16
Matthiolus, Petrus Andreas (1500-1577),
27, 526; "Commentaries dj) Diosco-
ndes," 1598; " P. A. M. . . . opera
. . . de materia medica," 1596.
Maty, Dr. Matthew, Secretary of the
English Royal Society (1718-1776),
170, 272
Maty, Paul Henry, son of Dr. Matthew
Maty, editor of the Philosophical
Transactions (1745-1787), 547. See
" Diet, of Nat. Biogr.," Vol. XXXVII.
1894, pp. 78-79.
Matzcnauer, E. (at Dalton, J.), 308
Maudonnet, Pierre, " Siger cle Bra-
bant . . .," 37, 505
Mauduyt, Antoine Rene (1731-1815),
229, 263, 269, 270, 302, 385
Maufras, M. D. de, translator of F. de
Navarette's " Recherches . . .," 531
Maunder, Samuel, " Biographical
Treasury," "Dictionary of Univ,
Biog.," 1838, 148
Maunoir, Professor (at Schwentcr, D.), 81
Maupied, F. L. M., " Histoire des
Sciences," 37, 103, 404
Maupm, Georges (at Leurechon, J.), 109
Maurice, 1810 (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Maurius, " Sphera volgare . . .," 1537, 553
Mauro, Fiorentmo (1494-1556), " Sphera
volgare . . ." : Venice, 1537.
Maurolycus — Maurolico — Franciscus,
Abbas Messanensis (1494-1575), 72,
115, 527; " D. F. A. ... Opuscula
mathematica . . .," 1575
Maver, William, Jr., " Wireless tele-
graphy," 19
Maxwell, James Clerk (1831-1879), " The
electrical researches of the Hon. Henry
Cavendish," on title page, xiii, 184,
239» 252. See Rumford Medal.
Maxwell, William, " Medicina magne-
tica . . .," 1679, 135, 245, 301
May, Gustav, " Die Weltliteratur der
Electricitaet und des Magnetismus von
1860-1883 . . ." : Wien, 1884. [The
English edition, " A bibliography of
electricity and magnetism, 1860 1883,"
was published in London, also in 1884.]
INDEX
635
Maycock, J. D. (at Luc, J. A. tie; also at
Donovan, Michael), 406, 419
Mayer, A. F. J. C., " Spicilegium . . ." :
Bonnae, 1843, 298
Mayer, Alfred Marshall (1836-1906), 92,
140, 310, 324, 472, 473, 487, 495
Mayer, And., " Dissert, sistens . . .,"
1777.
Mayer, B. E., " Hist, of Mod. Philos.,"
1900, 94
Mayer, G. F. (Poligrafo di Verona, ri, 97,
1836).
Mayer, Johan Tobias, j unior (1752-1830),
220, 416
Mayer, Johan Tobias, senior (1723-
1762), 220, 252
Mayer, Johann (1754-1807), " Abhand-
lungen . . .," 1793, 249, 285
Mayer, Joseph (1752-1814), Abh.
Bohm. Gcsellsch. d. Wiss., 1785).
Mayer— Meyer— F. C., " De luce boreali
. . .." 1726, 308
Mayo, Herbert (at Faraday, M.), 487
Mazeas, L'Abbe Jean Mathurin (1716-
1801), eminent mathematician, brother
of Guillaume Mazeas (1742-1776) the
well-known chanoine of Vannes,
F.R.S., 200, 201, 320
Mazzuchelh, Fredengo, " Raccolta
d'Opuscoh," 501
Mazzuchclli, Giovanni Maria, Conte de
(1707-1765), 64, 71 ; " Gli Scrittori
d'ltalia . . ." : Brescia, 1753-1763.
Meade, William, " On the origin and
progress of galvanism " : Dublin,
1805, 285
Mechanical Dictionary. See Knight
" Mechanics' Journal." See Practical
Mechanics' Journal.
" Mechanics' Magazine " (at Nicholson,
Wm.), 337
Medecinc eclairee par Ics sciences
physiques, 303
Medhurst, George — first germ of pneu-
matic telegraphy, 408
Medical Facts, 229
Medical Library and Historical Journal,
M7
Medicina magnetica. See Maxwell, Wm.
Medicin Gelehrten-Lexikon, 529
Medicinisch-chirurgische Zeitung. See
Ackermann, J. F.
Medicinisches-Schrifsteller Lexicon. See
Callisen.
Medina, Pedro da — Piedro de (born
c. 1493), denies variation of compass
in " Arte del Navegar," 63, 64, 68.
Meersch, P. C. van der, 539
Megascope, invented by J. A. C. Charles,
288-289
Megerlin, Peter (d. 1686) (at Bernoulli
family), 147
Mehu, M. C. See Sestier, Felix.
Mehun, Giovanni di, 61
Meidinger, J. Ferdinand (1726-1777),
258
Meissas. See Maissas.
Meissner, G., and Meyerstein, J., " Ubcr
ein neues galvanometer . . .," 1859.
Mela — Pomponius (fl. in first century),
" De situ orbis," 506, 553
Melchior, Adam (at Cordus, Valerius) , 508
Mellarde of Turin, 1749, 385
Melloni, Macedonio (1798-1854), " Mag-
netismo delle Rocce," 1853, 1854,
1857-
Melseu, M. (at Diwish, P.), 209
Mdmoires de mathematique et physique,
183, 204, 274, 277, 320, 426
Memoires de Turin, 140
Memoires des savants etrangers, 204, 320
Memoires des sciences mathematiques
de France, 412
Memoires des societes savantes ct lit-
teraires de la Republique Franchise,
285, 328, 349, 350, 352, 355, 389
Memoires rccr6atifs. See Robertson.
" Memoirs for the ingenious . . .," 145
" Men of the Time " (at Faraday, M.),
498
Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, 321
Mcndoza, Juan Gonzales de, " History
of the Kingdom of China " (1540-
1617), 77
Mcndoza y Rios, Jose de, " Tratado de
Navegacion," 120
Menelaus — Mileus — Milieus (fl. end first
century A.D.), 527, 541
Menippus (at Browne, Sir Thomas), 123
Menken, F. O. (at Fracastorio, H.), 515
Mcnon, L'Abbe (at Maimbray, M.j, 179
Mcnon, M., " Influence de 1'electricite sur
la vegetation," 257
Mentzel, M. Chn , " De lapide Bono-
niensi . . .," 1673, 554
Mercator, Gerard Kremcr — Kaufmann,
Mercator's Projection, xvii, 80, 510,
518, 559-564 (Nouvelle Biographic
Generate, Vol. XXXV. p. n).
Merckleim, George Abraham, " Lin-
denius Renovatus," 508, 538
" Mcrcurc de France," 243, 259, 265,
556. See Decade.
Mercurial phosphorus (Hauksbec), 150
Mergey, Antoine Eugene, " Etude sur
les travaux de De Romas," 204, 337
Merivale, Charles, " History of the
Romans," 8
Merry, W. W., and Riddell, Jas., trans-
lators of Homer's " Odyssey," 6
Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648), 109, 120,
122, 130, 527
Merula Gaudentius (fl. early sixteenth
century), 108, 299, 527-528 (Societa
Storica Lombarda), " Biblioteca His-
torica Italica "; " Memorabilium . . .,"
1556.
Merula, Paulus, " Cosmographiae Gcner-
alis . . .," 1605, 72, 515
Merveilleux (Le) dans I'antiquit6. See
Chassang, M. A.
Merz, Heinrich (at Fraunhofer, J. von),
433
Meschino, II. See Gucrino.
636
INDEX
Mesmer, Friedrich Anton (1733-1815),
64. 233, 235-237
" Messager des Sciences ct des Arts ;
Gand, 1823, 274
Messanges. See Mallemans.
Messines, Matthieu de, 15
Metals and minerals, electricity of. See
Electricity of metals and minerals.
Metals, electrically revivified by Bec-
caria, 207
Meteoric stones (at Fourcroy, Antoine),
3I3» 354- See a^so Salvertc.
Meteorites, Meteorolites, Meteors. See
Aerolites; also, Phipson, 286, 313, 314,
3I5. 376> 38°
" Meteorographie . . ." by P. N. Chang-
cux, 1776, 556
Meteors. See Stanhusius, Mich. ; aho
Trew, Abdias.
Metcyard, Miss, " Life of Wedgwood,"
430
Metherie, J. C. de la. See La MStherie.
Meton — Meto — celebrated Athenian
mathematician (11. 432 B.C.), 544
Metrodorus (at School of Athens), 544.
Greek philosopher of Chios (rl. begin-
ning fourth century A.D.), was pupil
of Democritus. Another Greek
philosopher of the same name was
brother of Timocratcs and flourished
A.D. 230-277. Another Metrodorus,
Greek philosopher and traveller, living
first century B.C., was a native of
Scepsis and the author of many
important works.
Metzger, Johann Jacob (1783-1853),
Electrical plate machine, 256
Meusel, Johann Georg, 233
Meyer, " Chymische Versuchc . . . ; sull'
elcttricita animale . . ." (Sue i 127),
1792.
Meyer, Com., "... virtu della calamita
. . ." : Roma, 1696.
Meyer, Ernst van (at Lavoisier, A. L.),
262
Meyer, F. C., de luce boreali, 140
Meyer, H. von, of Frankfort (Archiv.
f. d. Ges. Natural, XIV. p. 342), 288
Meyer, Herman Joseph (1796-1856),
Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon : Leip-
zig und Wien, 30, 152, 262, 335, 389,
392, 559
Meyer, Johann Friedrich (1705-1765),
" Chymische Versuche . . . elektri-
schen materie . . .," 1764, 555
Meyer, Johann Karl Friedrich (1733-
1811), " Versuche mit dcr von Pallas
. . .," 1776, 1777 and 1780, 346
Meyer, Moritz (Deutsche Klinik, 1857,
No. 9), 386
Meyer, W. H. Theodor, " Bestim-
mungen . . ." 1857, and " Beobach-
tungen . . .," 1858.
Meyerstein, J. See Meissner and Meyer-
stein.
Meygenberg, Conrad van, " Book of
Nature," 34
Mezzini (at Aldini, G.), 305, and (at
Reinhold, J. C. L.), 327
Mical, L'Abbe N. (1780-1844), 171.
See "Nouv. Biog. G6n.," XXXV. 312.
Micali, Joseph (1780-1844), " L'ltalie
avant la domination des Remains," 8
Micanzio, Fra Fulgcntio, no, 113
Michael de Mpntaigne (1533-1592)
(" Nouv. Biog. Gen.," XXXVI. 55),
299-30o
Michaehs, Jean David P. (1717-1791),
5, 9, 10, 326, 332
Michaud freres, " Biographic Univcr-
selle Anciennc et Moderne " : Pans
et Leipzig, 1811-1853, 2, 12, 25, 45,
58, 68, 71, 93, 95, 106, 122, 140, 146,
148, 163, 164, 170, 1 86, 189, 203, 208,
220, 232, 233, 235, 236, 243, 258, 259,
263, 265, 277, 280, 292, 301, 303, 306,
370, 400, 406, 455, 456, 464, 518, 527
Michaud, Joseph Francois, " Kistory of
the Crusades," 31
Michell —Michel — John (1724-1793), Ar-
tificial magnets, 191, 206, 217
Michelotti, V , " Precis etc nouvelles
experiences galvamques," 1809, 295
Middeldorpf, A., 1854 (at Jadelot,
J. F. N.), 330
Middleton, Capt. Christopher ((L 1770),
267
Miers, Prof. H. A. (at Chladni, E. F. F.),
3i5
Migne, Jacques Paul (1800-1875),
" Patrologiae curs us completus," 1854
Milano — Milan Effemeridi Chim.
Mediche, 363
Miles, Rev. Henry of Tooting, 172
" Militaire Spectateur Hollandais," 397
Miller and Darnell (Phil. Trans, for
1844, Part L).
Miller (at Philostratus, Flavius), 533
Miller, Benigne Emmanuel Clement
(Revue de Biographic Analytique,
par E. C. Miller et G. A. Aubenas,
1804).
Miller, George, D.D. (1764-1848),
" History Philosophically Illustrated
from the Fall of the Roman Empire
to the French Revolution, 1832 "
(Dublin Academy, VII. 139); "Ele-
ments of Natural Philosophy," 1799,
23. 32, 33' 42, 55. 5°' 57. 6l. 66> 9&,
102, 116, 130, 134, 248, 262, 284,
441
Miller, Gerh. And., " Schreibcn . . . d.
elektricitat . . .," 1746.
Miller, Hugh, " Essays . . . scientific " :
Edinburgh, 1862.
Miller, Samuel, D.D., " Retrospect
3 Vols. 1805, jo
Miller, William Allen, " Chemistry . . .,'
1871, 433, 467, 470
Milliet—De Chales— -Dechales Claudius
Fra^ois (1621-1678), " L'Art de
naviguer " : Paris, 1677; " Cursus,
seu mundus mathematicus . . .,"
1690, 1674, no, 146, 273
IJNJJJi.A
637
Millin de Grandmaison, Aubin Louis
(1759-1818), " Magazin Encyclo-
pedique," 1795; " Annalcs Encyclo-
pediques," 1795* 384> 45 1
Milly, Nicolas Chnstiern, Comtc dc
Thy (1728-1784), 235, 264
Milman, Henry Hart, D.D. (1791-
1868), " History of Latin Chris-
tianity," 36, 42, 144, 505, 523. See
Gibbon.
Milner, Thomas (1719-1797), "Exp. and
Obs. in electricity," 1783, 367, 556
Mimosa pudica and mimosa sensitiva (at
Dutrochet, Schmuck and at Ingen-
housz), 257, 464
Mines are fired by electricity in 1749, 189.
It has already been noted (at A.D. 1745,
176) that Watson exploded gunpowder
(Phil. Trans, abridged, X. 288), and
reference should be made to Frank-
lin's letter to Collinson, July 27, 1750,
as well*as to Priestley's History (1775
edition, p. 78) and to Schilling's
report of the explosion of mines by
galvanic currents, as mentioned here-
in, A.D. 1812, 421
Mining Journal. See London Mining
Journal.
Mmkeller, M., 249
Minotto (at Zamboni, Giuseppe), 420
Miot (at Chappe, Claude), 301.
Mirmont, De la Ville de, 18
" Mirror of Nature " of Vincent de
Beauvais, 34
Mirus, C. E. (at Dal ton, John), 308
" Miscellanea . . . Taurmiensa," 224
Mitschcrhch, Eilard— Eilhert— M. (All-
gem. Deutsche Biographic, XXII.
15-22), 471
Mizauld, Antoine (at Schott, Caspar),
126
Mochctti, Francisco (d. 1839), 424
Mccurs, de Keg. Athcn., 5
Moigno, Abbe Francois Napoleon Marie
(1804-1884), Aumonier du Lycee
Louis Le Grand, " Traite de tele-
graphic electrique "; " Les Mondes ";
" Le Cosmos, Revue encyclopedique
hebdomadaire " : Paris, 1852-1870,
98, 242, 248, 365, 440, 556
Moillet, Mrs. Amelia, " Sketch of the
life of James Keir," 297
Mojon, Benedetto, junior, " Sur 1'appli-
cation . . .," 1845, 386
Mojon, Benedetto, senior (1784-1849),
" Histoire academique du magne-
tisme animal," 1841.
Mojon, Benoit, " Reflections . . ."
(Journ. du Galvan., XL p. 168).
Mojon, Giuseppe — Joseph (at Komag-
nosi, G. D. G. G.), 366
Molenier, Jacob, " Essai sur le me-
canisme de I'electricit6," 229
Molinier, Victor, " Notice . . . boussole
au Xllle siecle," 61
Molitor, N. K. (at Ingen-housz, Johan),
258
Moll — Gerhard — Gerrit, of Utrecht
(1785-1838), " Sur des experiences
electro-magnetiques " (Brewster's
Journal of Science, III. 1830). Con-
sult " Journal de Chimie et d 'Histoire
Naturelle," Vol. 94, pp. 377-388;
Moll and Van Beck (Journal de
Physique, XCII. 1821); Moll, Van
Rees and Van den Bos (Gilb. Ann.
LXXII. 1822), 272, 273, 473
Moller, D. W. (at Solinus, Caius Julius),
54°
Moller, P. L., 440, 450
Mollet, Joseph (1758-1829), " Cours
elementaire de physique experimen-
tale," 2 Vols. 1822 (Acad. de Lyon,
Mai, 1823), 226, 367
Molyneux, Emery (at Hues — Hood —
Robert), 522, 562, 563
Mombrct, Eugdnc Coquebert (at Chlaclni,
E. F. F-), 3H
Monardus, Nicolas, 27, 516
" Monathche correspondenz . . . von
Zach " : Gotha, 1800-1813, 462
Moncel. See Du Moncel.
Moncomy, Balthazar de, 126
Mond, Dr. Robert L , xii
Monge, Gaspard, Comte de Peluse (1746-
1818), 247, 294, 328, 375, 407, 417,
477. See Jal's Dictionary, 878-879.
Mongiardim and Lando, " Sul Galvan-
ismo . . ." : Gcnova, 1803, 330
Moniteur. See Le Moniteur.
" Moniteur Scientifique." See Ques-
neville, Gustave Augustin.
Monro, Alexander (1733-1817), " Ex-
periments . . .," 1793, 1794, 306,
327
Monroe, Paul, " A Cyclopedia of Educa-
tion " : New York, 1913.
Mons, Jean Baptiste van (1765-1842),
" Journal dc Chimie " (complement
aux Annales de Chimie), Bruxelles,
1802, 231, 248, 285, 306, 326, 337, 341,
350. 353, 362, 363, 367, 381, 383, 384.
388, 400, 452
Montagnana, Bartholomeo (born c.
A.D. 1400), 528
Montagu, Basil (at Bacon, Sir Francis),
102
Montaigne, Michael de. See Michel de
Montaigne.
Montamis, Arias Benedictus (1527—
1598), 528
Montanus, Joannes Bapti.sta (1488-
1551), " Metaphrasis summaria . . .,"
1551, 26, 525, 5-28
Montb61iard, Guenaud de (at Morveau,
L. B. Guyton de), 233
" Monthly Magazine," publication com-
menced in London during 1796, 43,
229, 381
Monti and Gironi (at Brugnatelli, L. V.),
363
Montpellier, Academy of Sciences, His-
toire de la Societ6 Royale, Memoires,
Recueils, etc., 276
638
INDEX
Montpellier, Annales de la Societe de
Medecine (Ecole dc Medccine), 328,
5°7
Montpellier, Catalogues methodiques
des livres scientifiques, 1855-1856.
Montpellier, Faculte de, 506
Montravel, Tardy de (at Amoretti, Carlo),
401
Montucla, Jean Etienne (1725-1799),
" HistoiredesMathematiques," 79, 81,
122, 123, 171, 220, 401, 505, 506, 510,
520, 521, 527, 531
Moon, Robert. See Fresnel.
Moore, Bishop of Norwich (at Rohault,
Jacques), 129
Moore, Sir John (1761-1809), 397
Morales, G. de, 1605, 553
Morant, Philip (at Gilbert, William), 92
Morcau, on the electrical organs of
nshes, 300
Moreri, Louis (1643-1680), " Le Grand
Dictionnaire Histonque," 1740, 163,
5i3
Morgagni, Giovanni Battista (1682-
1771), 147, 148
Morgan, George Cadogan (1754-1798),
282
Morgan, J., 1815 (at Thillayc-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Morhof, Daniel George (1639-1691),
" Polyhistor . . . et rerum commen-
tarii," 1688, 55
Monchini, Domenico Pini (1773-1836),
423-424
Morieni, Romani, " De re metallica " :
Parisiis, 1559, 502
Morin, Jean Baptiste (1583-1656), 183,
187
Monngo — Moringuo — Gerardus (at
Augustine, Aurelius, Saint), 25
Morlet (at Hansteen, Chnstoph), 446
Morley, Henry (at Agrippa, H. C.), 502;
(at Cardanus, H.), 507
Morozzo — Morotius — Carlo Luigi, Comte
de (1744-1804), 295
Morrell, Thomas, " Elements of the
History of Phil, and Sc.," 108, 268
Morris, George S., translator of Ueber-
weg's " Hist, of Phil.," 26, 32, 33, 37,
38, 39, 40, 41, 102
Morris, William, 6
Morrison, Charles (fl. 1753), 208-209,
241 (Diet. Nat. Biogr., 1909, Vol.
XIII. p. 1004).
Morse, Prof. Samuel Finley Breese.
See Prime, Santuel Irenaeus, 197
Mortenson, " Dissertatio de electricitate
. . .," 1740, 1742, 555
Mortimer, Cromwell (d. 1752), 154, 155,
547. See Royal Society.
Morveau, Baron Louis Bernard Guyton
de (1737-1816), 233, 236, 247, 333,
354, 372, 392. See Paris, Annales de
Chimie.
Moscati, Pietro (at Ingen-housz, Johan),
257
Moser, L., and Riess, R. T., 423
Moser, Ludwig, " Cber d. n. magneti-
schcn Entdeckungen," 1834, 423;
" Repertonum der physik." See Dove,
Hemrich Wilhelm.
Moses (at the Etruscans), 9
Moss, Joseph William, " Manual of
Classical Biography," n, 18
Motte, Benjamin. See Royal Society.
Mottelay, Paul F., xiv, 92
Moulton, Chas. Wells, " Library of
Literary Criticism," 62, 102, 124, 132,
134, 199, 216, 228
Moulton, John Fletcher (b. 1844). See
Spottiswoode, William.
Mountaine, W., and Dodson, J., 165,
267, 315, 555
Mountaine, William, " Epitome of the
Art of Navigation," 1744, 165, 166.
He was associated with James Dodson,
in the publication of " An account
of the methods used to describe lines
on Dr. Halley's chart," 174!).
Mouzin, P. (at Bolten, J. F.), 246
Moyes, Henry, " Heads of a course of
lectures on the philosophy of chemis-
try," 1780, 270, 342, 347
Muirhcad, James Patrick, translator
of Arago's " Eloge of James Watt,"
126, 190, 228, 313
Muirhead, Professor Lockhardt, 462
Muller, G. F. (at Gmelin Family), 450
Mullcr, Johan n Heinnch Jacob, " Lehr-
buch der Kosmichen Physik," 1856,
1865 and 1872, 140, 288; Diamagnet-
ism (Pogg. Ann., Vol. 83 for 1851).
Muller, Johannes, German scientist
and astronomer, known as Regiomon-
tanus (1436-1476), 67. See Joannes
de Monte Rcgio.
Muller — Mueller — Gerhard Andreas
(1718-1762), 450
Muller-Pouillct, " Lehrbuch der physik
und meteorologie," 2 Vols. 1868-1869.
Mulloch, F. G. A., " Democriti Abderitae
. . ./' 1843, 511
Multiplicator : Nobih and Antinovi :
in 1822. See Oersted in 1825-1826.
Multiplier, electro-magnetic of Schweig-
ger (at A.D. 1811), 413-414
Multiplier of Colladon, and of Henry, at
pp. 112, 242, of Ronalds' Catalogue.
Multiplier of electricity of Cavallo, 244
Mumenthaler, John Jacob (1729-1813),
at Ingcn-housz, 249, 257
Muncke, Georg Wilhelm (1772-1847),
" Handbuch der naturlehre," 2 Vols.
1829-1830, 308, 422. See his numerous
articles on magnetism, etc., in Gilb.
Ann., Pogg. Ann. and Schweig.
Journ.
Mundt, electrical machine of silken strips,
449
Mung-khi-py-than, 23, 29
Munich — Munchen — Academic. See
Bavarian Academy.
Munich — Munchen — Royal Society, 381
Munichs, M. (at Gallitzin, D. A.), 243
INDEX
639
Munk, Salomon, " Melanges de philo-
sophic Juive et arabe," 39
Munk, William, " The roll of the Col-
lege . . ./' 9i, 97> I05. 359
Munro, Alexander, 306, 332, 419
Murat, A. M., " Antiq. Itahana," 36
Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, " Antiqui-
tates Italiae Medii Acvi ," 539
Murhard, Fr. W. A., " Versuch einer
historisch-chronologischeii biblio-
graphic des magnetismus " : Kassel,
1797-
Muriates produced by galvanic decom-
position of water, 392
Murray, Dr. John (d. 1820), 428
Murray, J. (Phil. Mag, LIV. 39), 314,
424
Murray, Lord George (1761-1803), 316,
3^9, 437
Murray, John (1756-1851) (at Oersted,
H. C.), 455, and at 419, 428-429
Musaeum^Regahs Societatis. See Grew,
Nehcmiah.
Musaeum Septahanum. See Terzagus.
Muschmann — Musschman — M., Prof, of
Chemistry at Christiana University,
442, 446
Mus6e de Chatitilly, Manuscript of
" La Cite rle Dieu," xix
Musec Tyler, Haarlem, Archives.
Museum d'histoire naturcllc, Memoires,
240, 288, 298, 300, 374
Musgrave William (1655-1721), Royal
Society Transactions, 547
Muspratt, James Sheridan, " Chemistry,"
134
Musschcnbroek — Musschenbroek — Pe-
trus van (1692-1761), Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Leyden, " Essai de Physique,"
" Recueil d'experiences," in, 138,
156, 173, 174, 175, 176, 191, 204, 270,
299, 32C-
Mydorge, Claude (1585-1647), 109
Mylius, J. Ch. (1710-1757), 320
Myrcpsus. See Nicolaus.
N
N^GGERATH and Steininger (at Chladni,
E. F. F., A.D. 1794). 3*5
Nairn e, Edward (1726-1806), " Experi-
ments ... to show the advantage
of elevated pointed conductors "
(Phil. Trans., 1778, p. 823), 237, 238,
243, 252, 264, 265. See also Phil.
Trans., 1772, p. 496; 1774, p. 79;
1780, p. 334; 1783, P- 223.
Namias, Giacinto (b. 1810) (" Giornale
Veneto di scienze mediche," V. 3,
1860), " Delia elettricita applicata
alia medicina," 1851.
Namur, Jean Pie (b. 1804), " Biblio-
graphic Acadcmique Beige . . .,"
1838, 256
Nancy, Memoires de, 277
Nancy, Societe Roy ale, 512
Napier, James (1810-1884), " A manual
of electro-metallurgy/' 339, 359; " On
Electrical Endosmoses " (Cheni. Soc.
Mem. and Proceed., III. 28).
Napier, Macvey, " Memoir of Sir John
Leslie," 296
Naples, " Atti, Memorie, Rendiconto,
della Reale Acadcmia della scienze
• ," 495
Naples, the first academy of sciences,
established in 1560, 75
Naples. See Palmieri, Luigi.
Napoleon Bonaparte, 247, 248, 338, 339,
361
Naram-Sin (at 2637 B.C.), 2
Narducci, Enrico (1832-1893), 50
Narricn, John, " Historical account
of astronomy," 521
National Academy of Sciences. See
Washington.
" Natura (La)," publication commenced
by Rodolfo Capparrera in Florence
during 1877, as " L'Elettncita."
" Natura? Novitates," publication com-
menced in Berlin during 1879.
" Nature " of Parmcnides, 532
" Nature," publication commenced in
London during 1869, 31, 63, 77, 93,
99, 107, 128, 140, 440
" Naturwissenschafthche abhandhmgen
am Dorpat," 1823, 368
Nauchc, Jacques Louis (1776-1843),
" Journal du Galvanisme," 280, 305,
3^o, 330, 337, 303, 453
Naude, Gabriel (1600-1653), " Apologie
. . .," 107, 502, 538. See account of
his many curious books at p. 232,
Vol. I. See 111. of " Notes and
Queries."
Naumann, Karl Friedrich (b. 1797),
" Krystallographie," 1825, 1830, 1841,
1850, 1852, 1854, 1856 (Pogg. Ann.,
TIL 1825, XXXV. 1835).
Nautical Magazine (or Journal), London,
1832, etc., 61, 468
Nautonnier — N autoniez — Guillaurne de,
Sicur de Castelfranco, " Mecometne
de 1'eymant . . .," 1602-1604, 63
Navagero, A., " Orationes . . . carmin
. . . nonulla . . .," 1555, 552
Navarrete, D. Martin Fernandez de
(1765-1844), " Discurso historico . . .,"
" Rccherches . . . sciences nautiques,"
60, 509, 531
Neander, Johann August Wilhelm,
25
Nebel, Daniel Wilhelm (1735-1805),
" De magnete artificial! " : Utrecht,
1756 ; " De electricitatis neu medico,"
1758.
Nebel, W. B. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 385
Neckcr de Saussure, Louis Albert (b.
1786) (Bibl. Univ., Feb. 1830).
Neckham, Alexander (1157-1217), Abbot
of St. Mary's, 31 ; " De Utensilibus " ;
" De natura rerum."
640
INDEX
Needham, John Tuberville. See Mem.
de Brux., IV. 1783; "Diet, of Nat.
Biogr.," 1894, Vol. XL. p. 157.
Neef, Christian Ernst (1782-1849)
(Fogg. Annal., XXXVI. 1835; XLVI.
1439; L. 1840), " Nachschrift . . . iibcr
elektromagnetismus," 1821, 423
Negro, Salvatoredal (1768-1839), " Dell'
elettricismo idro-metallico " : Padova,
1802; Ann. dclle scicnze del Regno
Lombardo-Veneto, II. 109; III.
1833; IV. 1834; v- ^5; Mem. Soc.
Ital.. XXI. 323, 1837-
Nelis, Corneille Fraiifois de, of Malines
(1736-1798), 288, 434, 435
Nelli, Giovanni Battista Clemente,
" Vita de Galileo," 116, 117
Neophron, Athenian poet who flourished
fifth century B.C., 543
Neoplatomsm, Plotinus the father of,
534
Netherlands, Royal Institute of, 272
Neubauer, Adolf (1832-1907), 35
" Neudrucke . . ." of Dr. G. Hcllmann,
53i
" Neue Freie Pressc " of Vienna,
421
"Neues Allgemeines Journal der Chemie."
See Gchlen, A. F. von, at Scherer,
A. N.
" Neues Conversations-Lexicon " : Koln
and Bonn.
" Neues Journal fur chemie und physik."
See Gehlen, A. F. von at Scherer,
A. N.
" Neuesten entdeckungen in der Chemie,"
t Crell, L. F. R, 254
" Neuestes Conversations-Lexicon " :
Wien.
Neumann, Carl, " Theoric der Elec-
tricitats . . .," 1863, 1864.
Neumann, Franz Ernst (at Hare,
Robert, A.D. 1819), 449 (Crell's Journ.,
XXVI. 1843).
Neumann, K. A., " Uber meteoroli-
then . . .," 1813 (Gilb. Ann., XLII.
1812; XLIII. 1813).
Neumayer, G., " Bericht . . . mcteor-
steines . . .," 1869.
Neve, T., " . . . concerning an aurora
austrahs . . ." (Phil. Trans., XLI.
843).
New Annual Register, 323
" New Cyclopaedia or Universal Diction-
ary of Arts and Sciences," 45 Vols.
See Rees, Abraham.
New England Magazine, 499
New General Biographical Dictionary,
Rose, H. James, 2, 20, 24, 40, 43, 45,
68, 95, 107, 122, 156, 163, 202, 296,
533
" New London Mechanics' Register and
Magazine of Science and the Useful
Arts," publication commenced in
London during 1824.
Newton, John, "AstronomiaBritannica,"
1657-
" Newton's Journal of Arts and Sciences,"
publication commenced in London
by W. Newton during 1820.
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), 58, 92,
95. !^9, 132-134, 140, 145, 146, 150,
155, !59, 168, 181, 183, 225, 229, 238,
253, 315. 34°. 461, 466. 472> 473. 484,
496
New York Columbian, 418
Neyreneuf, Fran$ois Vincent, 426
Niamias, G. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Nicander of Colophon (fl. second century
B.C.), 97, 529
Nicephorus, Callistus Xanthopoulos (fl.
c. A.D. 1330), 142; " Historia
Eccles. ..."
Niceron, Jean Pierre (1685-1738),
" Memoires pour servir & Thistoire
des homines illustres," 97, 211, 507,
514, 527, 539
Nicetas — Hicetas— of Syracuse (fl. fourth
century B.C.), 519, 530
Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, 422
Nicholas of Lynne (Carmelite astronomer,
at Lully, Raymond).
Nicholl, J. F., " Life of Sebastian Cabot,"
69
Nichols, Edward L., xii
Nichols, Philip (at Kendal, Abram), 523
Nichols, Professor, " Cyclopaedia of the
physical sciences," 461
Nicholson and Carlisle, 270, 337, 369,
419, 435
Nicholson, William (1753-1815), editor
of the ' ' Journal of Natural Philosophy,"
" British Cyclopedia," etc.
Nicholson's " Journal of Natural
Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts,"
commenced in 1802, 36 Vols., 165,
208, 228, 231, 241, 245, 248, 249, 270,
278, 280, 281, 296, 298, 302, 304, 322,
325, 330, 335, 336. 337' 338, 339, 34L
342, 347, 349, 359, 362, 363, 367, 369,
37°. 383, 386, 387, 388, 393, 394, 398,
405, 406, 407, 428, 431, 443, 449
Nickles, Frai^ois Joseph Jerome (b.
1820) (Comptes Rend us, annee 1851),
" Rccherches sur Faimantation,"
1855-
Nicodemo, Francisco, " Bibliotheca
Napolitana," 1699, 516
Nicolas, Lieut. Nicolas Harris (at Pasley,
C. W., A.D. 1808), 398
Nicolas, Pierre Fran£ois (1743-1816), .
"... 61ectricit6 comme remede . . .,"
1782, 385
Nicolas, Sir Harris (at A.D. 1327-1377),
59
Nicolaus Myrepsus (fl. thirteenth cen-
tury A.D.), 27, 529
Niebuhr, Karsten — Carstens (1733-
1815), celebrated German traveller,
." Voyage en Egypte " ; " Ansicht der
Chemischen Naturgesetze," 61, 453.
See " Journal des Savants " for Feb.
1818.
INDEX
641
Nicrembergius, Eusebius (at Zahn, F. J.,
A.D. 1696), 146
Nierop, Dirck van, " Nederduytsche
Astronoinia . . ." : Amsterdam, 1658.
Nino, Pedro Alonzo (1468-1505), 60
Nipher, Fran£ois Eugene, " The Volt,
the Ohm and the Ampere " : practical
electrical units (Journ. Ass. Engin.
Soc., Vol. VII. pp. 83, 89 : New York,
1888).
Nivelet, Fran90is, " Electricite medi-
calc . . .." 1860-1863, 386
Noad, Henry Mmchin (1815-1877),
" Lectures on electricity . . .," 1839,
1844; " A manual of electricity . . .,"
i355, i«57. 77> I22, M0. J45, *5°,
176, 181, 196, 205, 206, 207, 225, 227,
228, 231, 239, 250, 252, 271, 274, 287,
291, 292, 297, 308, 318, 325, 330, 334,
335, 337, 339, 34°. 347. 355, 35^,
373, 378, 379, 380, 391, 407, 409, 418,
4^3, 437. 440, 447, 448, 455, 457,
4j°, 459, 4f>°, 4^5. 467, 469, 47°,
47 i. 475, 476. 48l> 483, 489, 493
Nobih and Antinovi, " Sopra la forza
elettrornotrice del magnetismo," 1831,
1832 (Ann. del Reg Lornb. Veneto,
J I. 96, 832 ; Phil Mag. for June 1832).
Nobih, Leopoldo (1784-1835), 285, 413,
472» 473, 475, 477, 479 (I3ibl. Umv ,
XXV. 1824; Ital Soc Mem, XX. p.
173, Pogg. Annal, XXXIII. 1834).
Noectus, C. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Noel, Bonaventura d'Argonne. Sec
\rigncul-Marville.
Noggerath, Jacob (b. 1788), 314 (Phil.
Mag. or Annals, 1 1. 46, 1827 ; Schweigg.
Journ., Ill p. 224, 1828).
Noggerath, J , and Bischof, C. G. C.
(Schweigg. Journ., XL1II. 825, 1825).
Noggerath, J., and Keuss, G. C. H.
(Phil. Mag., VIII. 174, 1830).
Nollet, Jean Antoine (1700-1770) (Mem.
de Pans, 1745, Hist., p. 4, Mem., p.
107; also 1746, Hist., p. i, Mem.,
p. i, and 1747, Hist , p. I, Mem , p.
102; Phil. Trans., XLV. 187; XLVf.
368), 168, 174, 179, 180, 181-183,
185, 187, 188, 189, 193, 199, 201, 220,
224, 249, 257, 282, 320, 332, 554
Nomak. See Romisch.
Nonius, Petrus. -See Nunez.
Nooth, John Merwin, M.D., 278
Nordenskjold, Nils Adolf Erik (1832-
1901), " Periplus," 1897, 63, 139
" Nordisches Archiv. fiir d. Nat. v.
Arzeneiw.," 257
" Nordlischen Kiittcr fiir die chemic . . ."
See Scherer, A. N.
Norman, Robert (fl. 1590), " The newe
attractive, or account of the first
invention of the dipping needle,"
xiv, 70, 75-77, 97, 112, 115, 250, 266
" North British Review," 466
Norumbega, the lost city of New England,
H5
TT
Norwood, Richard (1589-1675), "The
Seaman's Practice . . .," 1719.
" Notes and Queries," 75
Nouvcau Larousse, Claude Aug£, i, 25,
131, 262
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale depuis
les temps les plus recules jusqu'a
nos jours," edited by Dr. Hoefer,
2, 5, 10, 16, 21, 24, 25, 31, 32, 38, 39,
41- 44- 45, 54, 5$, 64, 68, 71, 79, 80,
81, 90, 93, 95, 97, 104, 106, 108, 109,
117, 122*, 130, 137, 141, 145, 163,
164, 166, 170, 179, 1 86, 187, 190, 192,
196, 202, 205, 20,7, 233, 253, 255, 259,
262, 263, 265, 281, 282, 288, 289, 294,
296, 298, 301, 312, 347, 350, 359, 361,
3<>7> 3«3, 386, 401, 434, 455, 462, 464,
483, 498, 501, 502, 504, 505, 506, 507,
508, 509, 510, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516,
517, 5l8> 5*9, 52°, 521, 525, 526, 527,
528, 529, 530, 53L 53^. 533, 534, 53^,
537' 538- 539, 54°
Nouvelhste, Le, 298
Novara. See Domimcub Maria Ferra-
riensis
Novelli. See Paola Antonia (at Aquinas),
5°5
Novellucci, his electric plate machine,
256, 482 (Antologia di Firenze,
August 1824, p. 159).
Novum Organum — Novum Organon — of
Francis Bacon; Novum Organum,
London, 1620, 1650, 1802; Lug. B.,
1645, 1650; Oxford, 1878, 1889;
Novum Organon, Lips., 1840;
Clarend., 1813, Nuovo Organo,
Bassano, 1788 ; Neues Organon,
Berlin, 1793, xiv, 90, 92, 99, 103
Noya-Cararfa, Giovanni, Duke of (1715—
1768), " Rccucil de Mc"m. jEpinus "
(Phil. Trans., LI. Pt. I, p. 396, 1759),
17, 193, 218
Nu na Pompilius, the second King of
R)tne, 9
Nunoberg, M. (at Ingen-housz, A.D.
177-)), 257 (Scelta d'Opus., XVII.
Nunez— Nonius— Petrus (1492-1577),
530
Nouva Collezione d'Opuscoli scienti-
fici . . . : Bologna, 257
Nouva SceKa d'Opuscoli, Intercssanti
sulle scienze, 2 Vols. : Milano, 1804-
1807. See Amoretti, Carlo.
Nuovi annali della scienze naturali :
Bologna.
Nuovi Lincei. See Rome, Accad.
Ponteficia.
Nuovo Cimento, " Giornale di fisica,
chimica . . .," edited by Mattencci
and others, at Pisa and Torino.
Niirnberg, " Neues Journal fiir chcmie
und physik," von Schweigger, J. S.
Ch. von Vols% 1—30, 1811—1820 (30
Vols.), Vols. 31-42, 1821-1824 (12
Vols.) ; " Jahrbuch der chemie und
physik . . .," Vols. 43-54, 1825-1828
642
INDEX
Niirnberg (cont.)
(IT. Vols.), Vols. 55-60, 1829-1830
(6 Vols.), Vols. 61-69, 1831-1833
(9 Vols.) ; " Journal fur praktischc
chemic," von Erdmann, Otto Linn6,
Vols. 1-108, 1834-1869 (108 Vols.),
Vols. 1-14, 1870-1876 (14 Vols.).
Nycrup, Rasmus, " Univ. Annalen," 158
Nyren, Magnus (at Swedenborg, Em.,
A.D. 1734), 165
Nysten, Pierre Hubert (1771-1818),
" Nouvellcs experiences galvaniques,"
305
" Nyt Bibliothck fer Physik . . ." :
Kjobenhavn, 453, 455
" Nyt Magazin fer naturvidenskabcrne : "
Christiana, 29, 446
O
OBERST, J., " Conjectural . . . magnctis
naturam . . .," 1760, 555
Obcrt, Klindworth and Minkeler (at
Ingen-housz, J., A.D. 1779), 257, 249
Observations sur la physique. See
Rozier, Frat^ois, 258-259 ; Scudder,
" Catalogue," 1879, p. no.
Oderigo, Nicolo, xx
Odier, Louis (1748-1817), 8r, 82, 240
" Odyssey " of Homer, 5, 6
Oersted, Hans Christian (1770-1851), vii,
64, 81, 222, 345, 365, 366, 367, 376,
380, 381, 383, 384, 412, 413, 414, 421,
451-455. 456, 465, 472, 473, 474. 475.
476, 478, 482, 484 (Phil. Mag., XXIII.
129; LVI. 394; LIX. 462; Phil. Mag.
or Annals, VIII, 230; GehlenlV. Jour./
III. 1804; VIII. 1808; Voigt'sMag,
III. 412; Schweigg. Jour., XX. 1817;
XXIX. 1820; XXX1L and XXXlil.
1821; XXVIII. 1821-1822; LIII.
1828; Ann. Ch. et Phys., XXII. 1823;
Oversigt over det Kongl. danske
Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand-
linger, 1822-1823, J823-i824, ^825-
1826, and almost every year up to
1840 inclusively).
Offord, J., Jr. (at 321 B.C.), ix
Offusius, Joannes Franciscus, " DC
divina astrorum facilitate," 1570, n
Ohm, Georg Simon (1787- 1854). See
Nipher, Francis Eugene, " Die galva-
nische Kelte mathen.atisch bear-
beitet," 1827; " Grundziige der phy-
sik . . .," 1854, 384, 460
Ohm, Martin, brother of Georg Simon,
" Spirit of mathematical analysis . . .,"
1843.
Ohm's Law, xiv, 384. Consult Crystal,
George (" Electrician," Vol. XXV. p.
309, 1890); Hopkinson, John (1849-
1898), Lectures at Inst. Civil. Eng.,
London, Vol. I. pp. 81-106, 1844;
Kohlrausch, R. H. A., also Tyndall,
John (Phil. Mag., Ser. IV. Vol. III.
pp. 321-330, 1852); Raymond, Jules,
" Recherches . . . loi d'Ohm," 1870;
Webb, F. C. (Phil. Mag., Ser. IV. Vol.
XXXV. pp. 325-333. 1868).
Oken, Lorenz, 403-404
Olaus, Magnus, " Historia de Gentibus
Septentrionalibus," 1555, 71, 527
Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus
(1758-1840), on the Zodiacal Light,
etc., 141, 345, 462
Oldenberg, Henry, Secretary of the
Royal Society (1615 ?-i6y7), 142, 547
Olfers, J. F. M., "Die gattung tor-
pedo . . .," 1831 (at Shaw, George,
A.D. I79l), 298
Oliva, Joannes, Map of the World,
A.D. 1613, 63
Oliva, Salvatorc, Atlas showing both
Americas, A.D. 1620, 63
Oliver, A., of Salem, Mass., Theories of
lightning, thunderstorms and water-
spouts (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., O.S.
II. 74, 101).
Olmstead — Olmsted — Denison v* (1791-
1859), 141, 457, 4^ft, 461; "Oil the
zodiacal light"; "Introduction to
natural history."
Omar Khayyam — Kheyydm (d. 1123), 38
Omont, Henri, xi
Ongania (at A.D. 1436), 63
Oriimus and Legros, " Traite d'electricite
medicale," 386
" Onomasticon Literarium." See Sax — •
Sachs.
" Operator, The," publication com-
menced in New York during the year
1874 ; afterwards became " The Oper-
ator and the Electrical World."
Oppermanno — Oppermanus — Septimus
Andreas, 325, 326, 385.
Oppianus (fl. second century A.D.),
" Haheutica," n
Opuscoli Act. Erudit. : Lips., 130
Opuscoli nlosofici . . ., 2 Vols. : Milano,
1827.
Opuscoli matcmatici e nsici . . . :
Milano, 257, 271, 295, 298
Opuscoli bcelti sulle scienze e sulle arti,
22 Vols. : Milano and Bologna ; Nuova
collezionc d'opuscoli scientifici ... 5
Vols.: Bologna, 1817-1824; Fr. Car-
dinali, Fr. Ovioli, and others, 175, 208,
241, 243, 248, 253, 254, 257, 258, 263,
270, 271, 272, 280, 281, 284, 295, 299,
306, 335, 347, 401. 'See Amoretti and
" Scelta di opuscoli interessanti ..."
Orb of Coition, 100
Orb of Virtue — Orbis Virtutis, 86, 100
Organe dlectrique artificiel. See Volta.
Oribasius Sardianus (born c. A.D. 325),
26, 531
Onganus recte Tost David, " Annorum
Posterorium, XXX.," 1609.
Origen, also called Adamantus (c. A.D.
185-254). 38
Orioli, F. See Opuscoli Scelti . . ., 258
Orleans, " Soci6t6 Royale des sciences
. . .," Annales.
Ormoy, Abbe d', 282
INDEX
643
Orosius (fl. fifth century A.D.), Histora-
rium.
Orphei Argonautica of A. C. Eschenbach,
Orpheus, Vedic Ribhu, " Argonau-
tica," " Lythica," " Bacchia," etc.,
edited by the very distinguished Greek
scholar, Andrea Christian Eschenbach
of Nuremberg (1663-1705), 519, 530-
531
Orsini, Count de Rosenberg, 10
Ortell — Oertel — Abraham (1527-1 598) ,
63
Osann, Gottfried Wilhelm (b. 1797), ten
articles in PoggendorfFs Annalen on
Electricity, Meteoric Iron, Phosphores-
cence, etc., from Vol. VIII. 1826 to
Vol. CVI. 1859; Grundzuge der lehre
von dem magnetismus und der elek-
tricitat, 1847.
Osbun, Prof., of Salem, Mass., 234
Osmose. * See Endosmosis and Exos-
mosis.
Osorius — Osorio — de Fonseca, Jeronimo
(b. 1506), " Histoire du Portugal,"
Geneve, 1581, 68
Ostertag, Johann Philipp (1734-1801),
"... die Kentnisse der Alten von
der Elertricitat " (Neue Abhandl. der
Baierischen Akad., IV. 113, 1785);
" Antujtiarische Abhandl. uber Gewit-
terelektricitat," 1810.
Ostroy, van, 559
Ostwald, Fnedrich Wilhelm (b. 1853),
" Lchrbuch der Allgemeine Chemie "
and " Zeitschrift fur Physikalische
Chemie," 1887; established with
Jacobus Hcndrikus Van't Iloff;
" Elektrochemie," 1896; " Ostwald 's
Klassiker der exaktcn Wissenschaf-
ten " : Leipzig, 284, 391, 455
Otte, E. C. See Humbolt, Alex, von
" Cosmos."
Otto's letter to Benjamin Franklin, 67
Oudry, " Applications en grand de la
galvanoplastie et de 1'electro-metal-
lurgie," 1868. _
" ~ double
55*
Oughtred, W., " Descnp. . . .
horiz. . . . dyal . . .," 1674, _
" Oversigt over det Kongl. danska
Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand-
liger . . ." : Kjobenhavn, 453, 454
Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso (43 B.C.-
A.D. 18), " Fastorum, libri xii";
" Metam. . . . Numa . . . Jupiter
Elicius," A.D. 17, 10, 462
Oviedo, Luis de, " Methodo de la colec-
cion . . . medicinas simples," 1622,
27
Oviedus, Gonzales. See Gonzalus Ovie-
dus.
Ovioli, F. See Opuscoli Scelti, 257
Owen, Dr. Richard (1804-1892), 404
Owen, John — Oweni, loan (1560-1622),
523
Oxford University, Library, etc., 40, 99,
M5. IS*, 4°5» 497' 513. 530
Ozanam, Antoinc Frederic (1813-1853),
5°4
Ozanam, Jacques (1640-1717), " Recrea-
tions niathematiques," 4 Vols. 1721,
1724, etc , 401
PACCHIANI, Francesco Giuseppe (1771—
l835), 392, 393, 419, 483 (Nuova Scelta
d'Opuscoli, I. 277, 1804; Phil. Mag.,
XXIV. 176, 1806; Ann. Chim. di
Brugnatclli, XXII. pp. 125, 135, 144,
1805).
Pacifico, Salomone Irenco (A.D. 776—846),
60
Pacini, Filippo (1812-1883), 299, " Sopra
1'organo elettrico del Siluro elettrico
del Nilo . . .," 1846.
Pacinotti, Antonio (b. 1841), " Descn-
zione di una machinetta elettro-
magnetica . . .," 1864. This is the
author's ring-armature with closed coils
(Catal. of Wheeler Gift, No. 1601).
Pacinotti, L. (a/Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Padova — Padua — Accademia, Saggi, Me-
monc, etc., 140, 253, 303, 304, 528
Padova— Padua — Annali della scienze
naturali, 363
Padova — Padua — " Giornale Astro-Me-
teoroligico," 254
Padova — Padua — Observatory, 254
Padova — Padua — University, 253, 455,
460, 499, 502, 506, 515, 528
Padova — Padua — University, history of,
by Boulay, 505
Paeologue. See Paleologue.
Pagani, O. M. (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 385, on medical
electricity.
Page, Charles Graf ton (1812-1868), on
new electrical instruments, induction,
etc., etc. (Silliman's Journal, XXVI -
XLIX.; Bibl. Univ., X. 398), 234,
283
Page, Charles G., and Rittenhouse, D.
(Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., O.S. II. pp.
i?3, 175, 1786).
Page, John, of Williamsburg (at Ritten-
house, David, A.D. 1786), 282
Paisley, Lord, " Experiments on his
loadstone," 161. See Hamilton, James
(Phil. Trans. XXXVI. 245, 1729-
I73o).
Pajot-Laforest (at Aldini, Giovanni, A.D.
1793), 305
Palagi, A,, " Nuove sperienzc sull' elet-
tricita telluro-atmosf erica " (Rendi-
conto dell* Accad. delle scienze dell'
1st. d' Bologna, 1858, p. 72).
Paleologue, Georges Maurice, " I/ Art
Chinois," 2, 3 (Acta Acad. Petropol.,
I. 1778; Phil. Trans, for 1776, 1778).
Palladius, Bishop of Helenopolis (A.D.
368-430), says that lodestone attracts
the nails of ships . . .
644
INDEX
Pallas, Peter Simon (1741-1811), 314,
45 1
Palm, G. A., " Dcr magnet in alter-
thum," 1867, 15
Palma (Siciliano) Richerche medico-elet-
trichc (mentioned by Bertholon, 1749).
Palmer, W. (at Pasley, C. W., A.D. 1808),
397
Palmieri, Luigi (b. 1807), 337, 416, 420;
Annali del Rcalc Osservatorio meteor-
ologico . . . Napoli, 1859 (Kcncli-
conto dell' Accad. di Napoli, IV. 1845 ;
Giornale l.K. Istit. Lomb., N.S. 4, II.
346).
Palmien, Luigi, and Linari-Santi, P., 337
Palmstedt, Carl (at Shaw, George, A.D.
1791), 299
Pameyer, George (at A.D. 1250), 34
Pancirollus, Guido (1523-1599), 22, 81,
123
Pander, Christian Heinrich, " Bcitrage
zur naturk," 368
Pandulph, " History of Naples," 211
Panoriiutano : name given to Anthony
of Bologna.
Pantarbe, 10, 533
Paoli, Adrian (at 600-580 B.C.), 10
Paolo, Rev. Maestro. See Sarpi.
Paolo. See Paulus /Egmoe.
Paolo, the Venetian. See Marco Polo —
Paulum Venetum.
Papadapoli, Nicolaus Comnenus, 528
Para, " Cours eomplet . . .," 1772, 556
Paracelsus (1493-1541), 26, 64-65, 104,
301, 513, 529. See Joannes Isaacus,
Hollandits.
Paramagnetism, 494, 495
Pans, Academic Royale des Sciences de
L'lnstitut cle France; Comptes Ren-
dus hebdomadaires, X. and passim ;
La Connaissancc des temps ; Histoire
et Memoires de T Academic, Table des
articles . . . dcpuis 1666 jusqu'cn
1 770 par Rozier, Fraii9ois (1734-1793) ;
Recueil des pieces.
Paris, Annales de Chimie, par Guyton
de Morveau, Lavoisier, etc., 1789-
1815.
Paris, Annales de Chimie et de Physique,
par Gay-Lussac. From January ist,
1914, the work was divided into two
distinct monthly sections : " Annales
de Chimie " and " Annales de Phy-
sique."
Paris, Astronomical Society, 481
Paris, Bureau des Longitudes, 481
Paris, Ecole-Faculte de Medecine, 273,
274, 284, 384, 385, 538
Paris, Faculte des Sciences, 373, 374
Paris, John Ayrton (1785-1856), " Life
of Sir Humphry Davy/' 340, 341,
347
Paris, Magnetic Society, 425
Paris, Me"moires de, 207, 253, 268, 271,
279, 302, 320, 460
Paris Observatoirc, 157, 268, 301, 477,
481, 482
Paris, Palais des Tuileries, telegraph
erected upon, 329
Paris, " Paris et ses historiens," 34
Paris Societies in addition to those
elsewhere mentioned. See Academic
des Sciences, 1666-1790; Galvani
Society ; Institut Nationale ; Journal ;
SocicHe d'Encouragement ; Societ6
de Medecine; Societe Medicalc
cumulation ; Societe Philomatique ;
Societe Philotechmque.
Paris University, 16, 530
Parke, translator of J. G. dc Mcndoza's
" History of the Kingdom of China,"
Parma University, 365
Parmcnides of Elea (fl. fifth century
B.C.) founder of the Eleatic Greek
School of Philosophy, 511, 532, 543
Parrot, Gcorg Fricdnch (1767-1852),
195. 308, 367, 368; " llandbuch der
Physik," 195, 420. See Voltaic pile,
chemical theory of (Voigt's Mag.,
IV. 1802; Gilb Annal., XII. XXL
LV. LX. LXL; Ann. de Chim. ct
Phys., XLVL).
Parry (aftciwards Sir), W. E., his
magnetical observations, 139, 457
Parhhall, Dr. llomce Field, xd
Parthcy, Gustav Friedrich Constantin,
520.
Partington, C. F, (at A.D. 1770), 232
Partmgton, M. (at Molenier, Jacob, A.b.
1768), 229
Pascahs, P. A., M6moirc stir r61ectricit6
medicale, 1819, 385
Pasley, Sir Charles 'William (1780-1861),
Telegraph, 397-398, 399, 44-. 439
(Phil. Mag., XXIX. XXXV.).
Pasqual, A. R , " Descr. . . . aguja
nautica," 1789, 556
Pastoret, Claude Emmanuel J. P. de, 542
Pasumot, Era., " Observations sur les
effets de la foudre," 1774, 556
Paterson, William, Lieut. -Gov. of New
South Wales (1755-1810), "On a
new electrical fish, the Tetrodon
electricus " (Phil. Mag. for 1786), 297
Patterson, Prof. Robert (1743-1824)
(Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., O.S. 11.
251, III. 321).
Patterson, R. M., on electricity from
steam (Silliman's Jour., XL 1841).
Pauli, Adrian, 8
Paulian, Aime Henri (1722-1801), 183,
205, 555
Paulsohm, P. (at Thillaye-PIatcl,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 385
Paulum Venetum. See Polo, Marco, at
A.D. 1271.
Paulus /Egenita — jEginata — Paul of
4^gina, Greek physician (fl. seventh
century A.D.), 20, 519
Paulus Jovius, " Historiarum sui
temporis . . .," 1552, 58, 506, 507
Paulus Venetus. See Sarpi, Pietro,
herein, at A.D. 1632.
INDEX
645
Pauly, August Friedrich von, " Real-
Encyclop. der class. Altcrthums . . .,"
25
Pauthier, Jean Pierre Guillaume,
" Chine Ancienne," 2, 3
Pavia, Ri vista di Fisica, Mat. c Sc.
Nat u rali, 57
Pavia University, 246, 284, 361, 424
Payss6, M., Experience relative au
galvanisme, 285, 306
Pazienti, A., " Dell' azionc . . . dell'
elettrico e del magnetismo . . .,"
1846 (Giornale Vencto di Scienza
Medicale, V. Ser. II. 1855).
Peabody, Col. Francis (at A.D. 1771),
^34
Peacock, Dr. George (at Young, Thomas,
A.D. 1807), 396
Pearson, George (1751-1828), 324, 375
(Phil. Mag., XV. 274, 1803).
Pearson Karl, " Grammar of Science,"
102
Pearson, Richard. See Royal Society.
Peart, Edward (1756-1824), " On
electric atmospheres," 1793, 312, 556
Peckham, John (John of London), 42,
45
Peclet, Jean Claude Eugene (1793-
J857), " Essai historique sur Felectri-
cite " (Ann. Chim. et Phys. an 1841,
3° Seric).
Pedacius, Greek botanist, 1 1
Pedemontani, Alexander, " De se-
cretis . . .," 1560, 553
Peel, W., on the production of muriates
(Phil. Mag., XXIII. 257), 392, 419
Peirce, Prof. C. Saundcrs, xx
Pell, John, " Gellibrand's discourse on
the variation of the magnetic needle,"
119
Pellechet, Marie, " Catalogue general
des incunablcs," 26, 37, 500, 504
Pelletan, Charles (at Volta, Alessandro,
A.D. 1775), 247; also (at Humboldt,
Alex, von., A.D. 1799), 333, and (at
Fourcroy, Ant. Fr. cle. A.D. 1801),
354
Pelletan, Philippe Jean (at Volta, A.D.
1775), 247
Pelliciarius. See Marbodeus Gallus.
Peltier, Jean Charles Athanase (1785-
1845), discoverer of the Peltier
effect. See Le Roux, F, P. (Proc.
Birmingham Philos. Soc., Vol. V.
5P- 53-56, 1886; Edinb. New Philos.
ourn., Vol. XXXV11. pp. 298-304
and Vol. XXXVIII. pp. 97-101,
1844-1845; Ann. Ch. et Phys., 1834,
1836, 1839). The well-known Peltier
electroscope was anticipated by Milner,
Thomas (1719-1797), in his " Experi-
ments . . .," 1783, 204, 367, 381,
416
Peltierin (" Annales de Chimie," LXV.
P- 330). 321
Penada, Jacopo (at Dalton, John, A.D.
J793). 308
Pennsylvania University, 278, 319, 373,
435, 446
Penny Cyclopaedia, edited by Charles
Knight, 4, u, 12, 19, 127, 264, 302,
317, 322, 438, 441
Penrose, F., " Treatise on electricity,"
1752; " Essay on magnetism," 1753,
555
People's Cyclopaxlia, 240
Pepper, J. H., " Cyclopaedic Science,"
" Voltiac electricity," 223, 256, 304,
305, 336, 339
Pcpys, Samuel, " Diary," 127
Pepys, William Haseldme, Jr., 373
Pepys, William Haseldine, Sr. (1775-
1856), 289, 338, 37I~373, 378- 393,
4°3
Percival, Thomas (1740-1804), " Medical
and experimental essays," 386
Perego, Antonio (6. 1787), " Relatione
sul fulmine caduto in Iseo " (Com-
ment. Atenco Brescia, 1834, f°r
aerolites, and 1842, p. 77, for a new
electroscope) ; " Atti delle Adunanze
dell' Imp. Realc Istituto Veneto di
scierize, lettere ed arti," 1846.
Peregrinus— -Peregrini, Petrus de Mari-
court (fl. thirteenth century, A.D.),
" De Magnete . . ." : Augsburgi,
1558, vii, xi, xiv, xix, xx, 33, 42, 44,
45-54, 57. 72> 73, 7<>. 83, 87, 88, no,
112, 115, 526, 544
Pcrewoschtschikow — Perevoschtchikoff
— Demetrius (b. 1760) (Bulletino della
Soc. Imp. del Naturalisti di Mosca,
1829).
Periandcr of Corinth (fl. c. 625 B.C.), 7
Pericles (at Anaxagoras), 503
Period of the five (Chinese) Emperors, i
Perkins, Benjamin Douglas Elisha (1741-
1799), Perkinism, 327; " The influence
of metallic tractors on the human
body," 1798, 1799.
Perkins, John, " Conjectures concerning
winds and waterspouts," 1786 (Trans.
Amer. Phil. Soc., II. 335).
Peron, Francois (1775-1810), "Voyage
de decouvertes . . .," 1807.
Peron F., and Frcycinet L., " Voyages
. . .," 1816, 442
Perpetual motion engine, 50, 52, 53,
86, 120
Perry, John (at Faraday, Michael, A.D.
1821), 492
Person, Charles Cleophas (b. 1801), 330;
"Theorie du Galvanisme . . .," 1831 ;
Medical Galvanism (Journal des
Connaissances me"dico-chirurgicales,
J853; Journal de Physiol. Exper.,
1830, X. 216).
Peschel, C. F., " Elements of Physics,"
3 Vols. 1845.
Peschel, Oscar Ferdinand (at Bianco,
Andrea, A.D. 1436), 64
Peter the Lombard. See Monroe
" Cyclopaedia," Vol. IV. p. 660, and
its very numerous references, 41
646
INDEX
Peters, C. A. F. See " Zcitschrift fiir
populate. "
Petersburg. See Saint Petersburg.
Petersdorff, F. C. von (at Chladni,
E. F. F., A.D. 1794). 3*4.
Peterscn, Frederick Christian (1786-
1856), 333
Peterson, William (1755-1810), Lieut. -
Gov. of New South Wales, 297
Petetin, Jacques Henri Desire (1744-
1808), 229, 351, 385; " Nouveau
mecanisme de 1'electncite," 1802;
'' Theorie du galvanisme . . .," 1803;
Societe de sante dc Lyon, Actes,
etc
Petit, Fedcric (/>. 1810), on meteors, etc
(Toulouse Academy Reports, 3rd
and 4th Series, for 1844, 1846, 1848,
1849, 1855), 315
Petit, P., "A letter , . . where ... a
globous magnet called terrella and the
variation of the variation is examined ''
(Phil. Trans. 1667, p. 502).
Petit- Radel, Philippe (1749-1815), 305
Petrequin (at Pearson, George., A.D
1797), 325
Petn de Bergamo, 505
Petri de Vineis. See Des Vignes, Pierre.
Petn, H. (at Cuban us), 510
Petrina, F. A., " Entdeckungen im
Clalvano-Voltaismus," 249, 258
(Baumgartner, Andreas Zeitsehnft
f. Phys., V. 1837).
Petrini, Pietro (1785-1822) — Petrim, P.,
and Cioni, M., 337, 392
Petropol. See St. Petersburg.
Petrus Aponus — Apponensis — Apianus.
See Abano, 501
Petrus Lombardus. See Peter the
Lombard.
Petrus Nonius. See Nunez, Pedro, 530
Petrus Plancius — Plancius Peter, 94,
533
Peurbach, Georg von (1423—1461), Novae
theoriap planetarum, 512
Pezzani, Andr6 (at Lactantius, L. C. F.),
525
Pezzi, Cesare G. (at Galvani, Luigi, A.D.
1786), 283-284
Pfarl, Christian Heinrich, of Kiel (1773—
1852) — Pfaff, C. H., and Michaelis,
G. A., 195, 270, 278, 285, 327, 331,
33^, 333, 335, 353, 3«5. 393, 4*9,
493 (Gren's Journal, VIII.; Ann. der
Chcmie, XXXIV. 307; Soc. Philom.,
II. 181, 1796; Gilb. Ann., Vols.
VII. and LXXIV. ; Phil. Mag.,
XXVII. 338; Schweigger's Journal,
Vols. I.-LXIV.; Gehlen's Jour. f.
Chem. v. Phys. for 1806 and 1808).
Pfaff, Johann Wilhelm Andreas (1774-
J835) — Pfaff, J. W. A., and Schweigger
J. S. C., 415
Pfalzbayr Beitriige for 1782, 285, 330
Pfluger, E. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386 (Monatsberichte d.
Berlin Akad., 1858).
Phae.acians, the, 6 (dwellers on the mythi-
cal island of Scheria).
Phsdo— Phocdo — Phaedrus. See Plato.
Pharmaceutical Journal, London, 308
Pharos, Temple of, 18
Phenix of Alexandria (at School of
Athens), 544
" Phil. Graec. vet, relig.," 511
Philadelphia, College of, 222
Philadelphia. See American Museum,
American Philosophical Society,
Academy of Natural Sciences, Journal
of the Franklin Institute.
Philip, Dr. Wilson (at Bostock, John,
A D. 1818), 325, 443
Philip II, King of Spain, 77, 527
Philipeaux (at Thillayc-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 386
Philips, R., " Electrical formation of
crystallized sulphuret " (Phil. Mag.
or Annals, VII. 226, 1830). ,
Phillips, John, 249, 257
Phillips, Laurence Barnett, " Diet, of
Biogr. Ref.," 1871, 300
Phillips, Sir Richard (1778-1851), one
of the editors of the " Philosophical
Magazine," 285, 428, 464, 466, 497
Philo, Juda?us (6. 20-10 B.C.) " Libellus
de Opificio Mundi," 20
Philolaus, the Pythagorian (ft. c. 374
«.c.), 532, 537
Philosophia Britannica. See Martin,
Benjamin.
Philosophia Magnetica, 1629, of Nicolaus
Cabaeus was the second Latin book
published on electricity; Gilbert's
De Magnete, 1600, being the first.
Philosophia Moysaica. See Fludd,
Robert, 554
Philosophia Naturalis, 1654. See
Regius, Henricus (Le Roy).
Philosophia Pollingana . . . 1730. See
Amort, Eusebius.
Philosophical and Mathematical Diction-
ary, See Hutton.
Philosophical : " History and Memoirs
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris " : London, 1742. See Academic
Royale des Sciences, Paris.
Philosophical Magazine — Philosophical
Magazine and Journal . . . ; Philoso-
phical Magazine or Annals of Chem-
istry . . . ; London and Edinburgh
Phil Mag. and Journal of Science;
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Phil.
Mag. and Journ. of Sc., edited by
Brewster, Kane Phillips, Taylor.Tilloch
and others : under name of Tilloch's
Ph. Mag., etc.
Philosophical Magazine, etc., xvii, 43,
61, 81, 133, 140, 143, 148, 165, 178,
195, 201, 212, 214, 2l8, 221, 225, 229,
23O, 231, 246, 248, 249, 252, 256, 258,
263, 270, 277, 279, 28l, 285, 288, 289,
291, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 305, 306,
308, 311, 314, 315, 326, 329, 330, 335,
337; 338/ 347, 34®, 349, 354, 359, 362,
INDEX
647
Philosophical Magazine, etc. (cont.)
363, 367, 371, 373, 374, 375, 37<>, 377,
380, 381, 382, 383, 388, 389, 390, 391,
392, 393, 394, 397, 39«, 399, 4°°, 4°3,
405, 406, 411, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418,
4J9, 423, 424, 426, 427> 428, 429, 431,
432, 433, 434, 435, 43^ 44°, 442, 444,
446, 448, 449, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455,
456, 457, 458, 46°, 464, 466, 467, 468,
469, 471, 476, 477, 479, 481, 483, 486,
487, 488, 492, 494, 495, 496, 498, 499,
549-55°
Philosophical Society, Cambridge,
England.
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society. See Royal Society,
London .
Philostratus, Flavins (born c. 180 170
*<-'•). 8, 533
Phipson, T. L , on Phosphorescence,
Meteors, Aerolites, etc., 1858, 1862,
1867.
Phlogiston — Phlogistic theory from
Boyle to Lavoisier, 261, 262, 362
Phaedo of Aristotle, 537
Phoenicians, the, along the Syrian coast,
5, 7, 53^ <* Phoenician star.
Phoenicians. See Court dc Gebelm,
Antoine (1725-1784), " Monde primitif
. . .," 1781; also Huet, Pierre
Daniel (1630-1725), " History . . .,"
1717.
Phonograph, suggested at (A.D. 1745),
171 ; also at (A.D. 1620-1655), 103,
and at (A.D. 1641), 119
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople
(c. 820-891), 7, 541
Photometers of Lambert, Leslie, and
Count Rumforcl, 225
Photometry (Photometria), 225
" Physikal . . . Worterbuch . . .,"
edited by Gehler, J. S. T., 248
Physical Society of London, Proceedings,
etc., publication commenced in
London during 1876.
Physikalische-Bibliothek. See Erxleben.
" Physiologische Darstellung der Leben-
skrafte," 284
Pianciani, Giambattista (6. 1784) (Bibl.
Ital., XCIX. 97, 1835) (at Shaw,
George, A.D. 1791), 298
Picard, Jean (1620-1682), first observed
electric light in vacuo, 132, 146, 268
(Anc. Mem. Paris, II. X.; Bibl. Ital.,
XCIX. 42).
Picchioni, L. (Bibl. Ital., XCVI. 404,
1839).
Piccinelli, G. (at Thillaye-Platel, Antoine,
A.D. 1803), 385 (Opusc. Scelti, VIII.
310, Milano, 1785).
Piccolomini, Alessandro, archivesco di
Patrasso, " De la sphera del mondo
. . .," i54°-
Pickel, Georg (1751-1838), animal
electricity, etc., 249, 257, 385
Pickering, Charles (at Schouten, G. C.,
A,D. 1616), 98
Pictet, Marc Auguste (1752-1825), " On
atmospheric electricity," 199, 327, 309,
331, 407
Pictorio, Georg (at A.D. 430), 26
Piderit, J. R. A., " Dissertatio . . .,"
1745, 555
Piezo electricity : electricity developed
by pressure, as in some crystals.
Pigafetta, Francisco Antonio (1491-
I534), " Trattato di navigazione . . .,"
67, 68
Pignotti, Lorenzo (1739-1812), 299, 392
Pigram, W. (at Bolten, J. F., A.D. 1775),
246
Pilatre de Rozier, Jean Francois (1756-
1785), " Sur la cause de la foudre " and
" Sur ties experiences elcctriques " :
Paris, 1780-1781, 288, 554 (Journ. de
Physique, XVI. and XVII.).
Pilkmgton, James, Bishop of Durham
(1520-1576), 232
Pinaud, A., Electro-dynamics, etc. (Re-
ports of the Toulouse Academy for
1843, 1844, 1846).
Pincio, Leon, " Bibhotcca . . .,"516
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, 320
Pine, T., " On the connection between
electricity and vegetation " (Annals of
Electricity, IV. 421), 257
Pineda, Juan dc, Spanish Jesuit (c. 1557-
1637). 5
Pinkerton, John (at A.D. 1809), 402
Pinson, P. C., " Essai . . . applications
de 1'electricite a la medecine," 1857,
386
" Pioneers of Science." See Lodge, Sir
Oliver.
Pisa University, 392
Piso, Lucius Calpurnius, " Die Lorazi-
sclien . . ." von A. Michaclis, 1877, 10
Pittacus (c. 652-569 B.C.), 7
Pivati, Johannes Francisco (1689-1764),
185, 186, 263; "Delia elettricita
medica . . .," 1747.
Pivia and Matteucci, 384
Pixii, Hypolite, Jr., Magneto-elect.
apparatus (Ann. de Chimie for July
1832).
Pizarro, 475
Placidus, Heinrich (Schweigger's Journal,
XV.), 420
Plana, Giovanni Antonio Amadeo (b.
1781), Memoirs on the theory of
magnetism, on the distribution of
electricity, etc. (Mem. de Turin, Ser.
II. Vol. III. 1844, 1845, 1864).
Plancius, Peter (1552-1622), 94, 532-533,
560
Plant electricity, researches on, 259-261
Planta, Martin de (1727-1772), 229, 256
(In Allg. deutsche Biblioth. XXIV.
Anh. Abth., p. 549, 1760).
Plat, Sir Hugh (1552-1611), " Jewel
House of Art and Nature," 1653, 74,
124
Plata, F. M., " Dissertatio de electrici-
tate," 1749, 555
648
INDEX
Plate of air electrically charged, 313
Platea, Francis Piazza (d. at Bologna,
A.D. 1460) (at A.D 45O), 27
Plateau, M. J. (at 285-247 B.C.), 18
Plato, Athenian philosopher (c. 427-347
B.C.)— Platonists — " Ion "; " Tim-
aeus "; " Phaedrus "; " Phaedo,"
etc. See Monroe " Cyclopaedia . . ,"
Vol. IV. pp. 722-725; 7, 8, 13, 15, 20,
43, 27°. 51.5- 525, 533, 534, 53», 544
Plattes, Gabriel, 124, 125
Plautus, Titus Maccius (c. 254-184 B.C.).
The greatest comic poet of ancient
Rome. The " Bacchides," etc., the
editio pnnceps of his works appeared
at Venice in 1472.
Playfair, John (1748-1819), 99, 122, 156,
295, 296, 311; "Outlines of natural
philosophy," 2 Vols. 1812-1816;
" Magnetising power of violet rays "
(Phil. Mag, LIII. 155, 1817).
Playfair, Lyon Lord (1818-1898), 122,
423. See Vapereau, G., " Diction-
naire . . .," p. 1260.
Pliny — Plinius Caecilms Secundus
(Cains) AD 23 79), "... Naturalis
Historian . . .," ist edition : Venetns,
1469; "Naturae Ilistoriarum " :
Venice, 1497; " Hist. Mundi . . ."
(History of the World, English trans-
lation by Philemon Holland, London,
1634). See Graesse, V. 337, "New
Int. Cycl ," XVIII. 733, title page, xix,
7, 8, 9, 10, IT, 13, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 26,
^9, 43, 67, 72/74, 97, 123, 124, 270,
503, 506 510, 540
Plon, Nonrrit et Compagnie, xii
Plot, Robert (1640-1696), Catalogue of
electrical bodies (Phil Trans., XX.
384, 1698), 547
Plotimis of Alexandria (fl AD 205-270),
534
Pluanski, " These sur Duns Scott," 41
Plucker, Julius (b. 1801), 412, 495. On
chamagnetism, etc. (Crell's Journal,
XXXV. 1847; Phil. Mag. for June
1849; Phil. Trans. 1858; Scientific
Memoirs, Vol. V Pi. XIX. p. 253;
Pogg. Annal, LXXII.-CX.); "On
the magnetic relation ... of the
optic axis of crystals . . ."
Plumptre, Edward Hayes (1821-1891),
refers to the system of posts organised
by Persian kings; "The divina
commedia," 4, 41, 43, 44, 60
Pluquet, Fran9ois Andre Adricn, 513
Plurality of worlds, roundness of earth,
etc., 525
Plus and minus theory of electricity :
Watson, 175; Wilson, 184; and
Franklin, 196
Plutarch (c. A.D. 46-120), 4, n, 14, 20,
74, 124, 140, 524, 525; "Life of
Quintus Sertonus," " Placit. Philos.,"
" Quaestiones Platonicae," "Quaestiones
Conviviales " (Phil. Trans., Watson,
XLVIII. Part, I.).
Plymouth Institution, Transactions of
the, 470
Poey, A., " Meteorologie . . .," 1861;
" Bibliographic cyclonique . . .,"
1866 (Comptes Rendus, XL1II. 1856,
XLIV. 1857; Annuaire de la Soc.
Meteorol. de France, VIII. 75, 1860,
IX. 42, 1861).
Poggendorff, Johann Christian (1796-
1 877) , ' ' Biographisch - Literarisches
Ilandworterbuch . . . " : Leipzig,
1863; " Annalen der physik und
chemie " (begun in 1824) ; " Gcschichte
der physik " : Leipzig, 1879, 8, 31, 66,
71, 75, 82, 90, 107, 140, 175, 199, 209,
214, 242, 254, 256, 258, 259, 263, 267,
271, 275, 280, 284, 292, 298, 302, 303,
306, 323, 324, 325, 326, 335, 350, 353,
359, 36°, 3^4, 3&7. 37°, 37°, 383, 385.
387, 39i, 395, 4°^ 4°8. 4M, 4^, 4^,
423, 428, 432, 434, 441. 443, 444, 446,
419, 450, 451, 454, 460, 464, 407, 468,
47'. 473, 47^, 4«i, 487, 48«, 489, 49°,
491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 498
Poggioh, M. P, " Nouvcllc application
de I'electiicite par frottcment sans
commotion" (Memoire hi a 1'lnstitut,
Oct. 31, 1853), 257, 386
Pohl, Georg Friedrich (1788-1849), on
clectrornagnetism, etc. (Gilb Ann.,
LXIX LXXI. LXX1V. LXXV.;
Kastner's Archives, VI. 1825, IX. 1826,
XI 1827, XIII, and XIV. 1828), 478
" Points versus knobs," famous con-
troversy commenced in 1772 by Ben-
jamin Wilson (1708-1778), author of
" A treatise on electricity . . ." .
London, 1750, and of " Observations
on lightning . . ." : London, 1773.
See also Pnngle, Sir Joseph, 250-252
Poisson, Simeon Dems (1781-1840),
141, 215, 313, 375, 378, 409-412, 469,
479, 495 (Societe Philomatique, n,
p. 180, 1803, also for 1824, p. 49, for
1825, p. 82, and for 1826, p. 19; Mem.
de I'lnstitut, 1811; Mem. Acad Roy.
des Sciences, V. pp. 247, 488, VI. p.
44i).
Poisson, S. D., Gay-Lussac, and others,
" Instruction sur les paratonnerres
. . .," 1824.
Pokorny of Prague, " Kronika Prace,"
209
Polarization, chromatic, by reflection,
also coloured, 480
Polarization, rotatory. See Magnetic
rotatory polarization. See Cadozza,
Giovanni.
Polcastro, G. B., " Notizia spprc . . .
Pacchiani . . ." : Padova, 1805, 392
Poleni, Marquis Giovanni de (1683-
1761), 139, 253, 308; " Sopra 1'aurora
boreale ..."
Poles, magnetic, two — Bond at A.D. 1646.
Poles of a loadstone. See Petrus
Peregrinus at A.D. 1269, 46, 47, 48, 49,
54 ; also Gilbert at A.D. 1600, 83, 86
INDEX
649
Poll, Giuseppe Sarevio (1746-1825), 199,
308; " Elementi de Fisica," 5 Vols.
1802, 1824 (Opus. Scelti, II. 382).
Polidori, Luigi Eustachio (b. 1830)
(Ann. di Chim. di Brugnatelli, V. 30,
1.794)-
Poligrafo, H., " Giornale di scienze . . ." :
Verona.
Poliniere, Pierre (1671-1734), 148, 163;
" Experiences de physique . . .,"
I7°9, 1734. !74J
Pollak (at Zamboni, G., A.D. 1812), 420
Polo, Marco— Paulum Venetum— is said
to have brought the compass from
China into Italy, A.D. 1271-1295.
See, for complete bibliographies, the
references at p. 55 herein, also the
work published in 1818 by P. Zurla on
Marco Polo and other celebrated
navigators, and likewise Charton
Edouard, 55, 67, 527
Polybius1' Greek statesman and historian
(c. 205-120 B.C.), 19, 434
Polyglott Bible of Arias Montanus,
5-z8
Polytechnic Central Journal, 422. The
publication called " Polytechnic Jour-
nal " was begun in 1839-1840.
Polytechnic School of Paris. See Ecole
Poly technique.
Polytcchnisches Centralblatt, 414
Polytechm.sches Journal von Dingier,
J. F. : Stuttgart and Tubingen, Vols.
1-50, 1820-1833, 50 Vols.; Vols. 51-
100, 1834-1846, 50 Vols.; Vols. 100—
150, 1846-1858, 50 Vols.; Vols.
151-200, 1859-1871, 50 Vols.; Vols.
2OT— 211, 1871-1874, ii Vols.; Vols.
212-222, 1874-1876, II Vols.; Vol.
329, August i, 1914.
Pomparium Mel am. (at Barbarus, H.),
506
Poncelet, Polycarpe (fl second half of
eighteenth century), 226
Ponlano, Giovanni Giovano (1426-1 503},
" Liber de metcoris . . ." : Stras-
burg, 45
Pontin, Magnus Martin de (1781-1858),
340, 343, 369, 419
Pontin, M. M. de, and Berzelius, J. J. F.
von, 370
Poole, R. L. (at Duns Scotus), 41
Pope, Alexander, translator of the
" Odyssey " of Homer, 6, 7
Popham, Rear-Admiral Sir Home Riggs
(1762-1820), 317, 400, 437, 439
" Popular Science Monthly : " New York,
92, 117, 315, 508
Porna and Arnaud, Medical electricity,
I787. 385
Porphyry — Porphyri'us — Greek his-
torian (A.D. 233-304), whose most
distinguished pupil was lamblichus,
author of " Life of Pythagoras," 534
Porret, Robert (1783-1868), Voltaic
Endosmose, etc. (Ann. of Phil., VIII.
1816), 440-441
Porta, Joannes Baptista — Giambattista
della Porta (1538-1615), " Magiae
Naturalis," 1588; " Magia Naturalis
. . .," 1558 (" Natural Magick . . .,"
1658), 13, 19, 72-75, 87, no, ii2, 124
Portolan, the oldest dated is that of
Pietro Visconti, dated 1311, 63
Positivism, founder of, 534
Possidius, Saint, Bishop of Calama (at
A.D. 426), 25
Posts, the first institution of, ascribed
to Diodorus Siculus (" Notes and
Queries," Oct. 31, 1863, p. 356).
Potamian, Brother, 92
Potocki, Count Jcroslas, 407
Potter, Richard (b. 1799) (Majocchr's
Annali di Fisica . . ., 1843).
Potthast, August. See " Bibliothcca
Historic a ..."
Pouillet, Claude Servais Mathias (1790-
1868), " Elements de physique ex-
perimcntale et de meteorologie . . .,"
1829, 195, 258, 312, 319, 373. 38(), 4l6.
417, 426, 434, 461. See Dezebry,
" Dictionnaire . .," p. 2306, also
Muller-Pouillet (Ann. de Chim. et de
Phys., IV. 1837, x* I845. XXIX
1849, XXXI. 28, Comptes Rcndus,
IV 513, 785, XIX. 1384, LX1V.
1867).
Poujoulat, Jean Joseph Francois, " His-
toire de Saint Augustin," 1845, 25
Power, Henry, " Experimental philo-
sophy . . .," 1664, 554
Pownall, " On the ether suggested by
Sir Isaac Newton . . ." (Phil. Mag.,
XVIII. 155).
Poynt Attractive — poynt respective — of
Robert Norman, 76
Pncpositas, name sometimes given to
Nicolaus Myrepsus, 529
Pra^torius (Richter), Joh., " De co-
metis . . ." : Norimberg, 1579.
" Practical Mechanic," Glasgow, 26, 233,
454. 498
" Practical Mechanics' Journal," publi-
cation commenced at Glasgow by
W. and J. H. Johnson during 1848.
Prague— Prag — Academy, Memoirs, 387 ;
" Prague News," 209
Pravaz (at Pearson, George, A.D. 1797),
3-25
Prcchtl, Johann Joseph (1778-1854),
407, 424 (Gehlen's Journal, VIII.
1809; Schweigg. Journ., IV. 1812,
XXXVI. 1822).
Preller, Ludwig (1809-1861), 512
Prcmoli, Carlo P., " Nova electricitatis
theoria . . .," 1755, 555
Premontres, Order of, at Celle, 145
Prescott, George Bartlett (1831-1894),
277, 290; " History, theory and
practice of the electric telegraph,"
" The speaking telephone."
Prescott, William Hickling, " Account
of the Emperor Charles V's life," 36,
114
650
INDEX
Presles, Raoul dc, " La cite do Dieu,"
xix
Prevost, Jean Louis, on animal elec-
tricity, 1823, 1843.
Prevost, Pierre (1751-1839), " De
1'originc des forces magnetiques " :
Geneve, 1788, 242, 315, 325, 481
Price, Dr. James (1752—1783) (at Thil-
laye-Platel, Antoine, A.D. 1803), 282,
385
Prichett, Professor C. W., 142
Priestley, Joseph (1733-1804), 17, 29,
90, 131, 132, 150, 155, 162, 163, 164,
166, 168, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 183,
187, 189, 195, 197, 198, 204, 205, 206,
212, 213, 224, 227-228, 238, 240, 241,
256, 258, 262, 264, 322, 415, 418.
See Krunitz-Kirtz, Johann Georg
(1728-1796).
Pneto, A. (at Dalton, John, A.D. 1793),
308
Prieur-Duvernois, Claude Antoine (1763-
1832), 280
Prime, Samuel Iremeus (1812-1885),
307, 407, 421, 422, 436, 455, 474, 481 ;
" Life of S. F. B. Morse."
Prince, Rev. John (1643-1723) (at A.D.
1771), 234; "Worthies of Devon/'
107
Princeton College, 246, 421
" Principes de Physiologic," 284
Principles of Physics. See Silliman,
Benjamin.
Pringle, Sir John, Bart. (1707-1782), 232,
240, 243, 250-252, 456, 457. See
Copley Medal.
Priscian — Theodoras Priscianus — Greek
physician (ft. fourth century A.D.),
" Rcrum medicarum," 7
Pntzcl, G. A., " Thesaurus literature
Botanicafi," 153, 170, 501, 506, 508,
516, 525, 529, 532, 540
Proclus — Procullus — head of the later
Neoplatonists (AD. 410-485), 2, 117,
533. 537- See Taylor, Thomas.
Procopius, De bcllo Vandal, lib. II.
Cap. II. Stars on spears, 24
Proctor, Richard Anthony (1837-1888),
" Old and new astronomy," 93, 138,
433
Prokorny of Prague, " Kronika Prace,"
209
Prutenic (Prussian) Astronomic Tables,
512-513
Pryce, William, " Mineralogia Cornu-
biensis . . .," 401
Psellus, M. C., " De lapidum virt. . . .,"
1745. 555
Ptolemaeus, Claudius, the great geogra-
pher (ft. middle second century A.D.),
40, 62, 72, 117, 124, 507, 508, 512, 513,
527. 533. 534-536, 539. 544- See
Joannes Stobnicensis.
Ptolemaeus II, Philadelphus (3,08-247
B.C.), son of Ptolemy Soter (367-283
B.C.), one of Alexander the Great's
generals, 18, 67, 74, 94, 114
Ptolemy Soter, 18. See Ptolemaeus II.
Puccinotti, F. (at Thillaye-Platel, An-
toine, A.D. 1803), 385
Pulkowa (Russia) Observatory, 165
Pulvermacher, Isaac Louis (at Thillaye-
Platel, Antoine, A.D. 1803), 386;
Medical electricity, 1859.
Purchas, Samuel (1575-1626), author of
" Purchas, his pilgrimage . . .," 1625,
523
Pusckm, Comte de, 285
Puteanus, Bernardus, of Bruges, 562
Puteanus, Guilielmus — Dupuis (fl. six-
teenth century A.D.), 536
Putnam, George Haven, " Books and
their makers during the middle ages,"
25 f
Puysegur, Armand Marie Jacques de
Chaslonet, Marquis de (1752-1825),
" Magnetismc Animal," 236, 237, 425.
Sec Dczcbry, " Dictionnairef . . .," p.
2348.
Pyro-electricity: Davy (1800), 346;
Haiiy (1787), 286; Brewster (1820),
465
Pyrometus. See Josiah Wedgwood's
tapered gauge.
" Pyrotechnic," by Biringuccio, 553
Pyrrho, Greek philosopher (360-270
H.C.), 543
Pythagoras (569-470 B.C.) — Pythagonan
— Pythagorician, 503, 511, 524, 530,
532, 533. 536-537. 542, 544
Pythagorean school or sect, complete
exposition of, 537, 544
Q
QUARITCH, Bernard, 561-564
Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature
and the Arts, formerly the Journal of
Science and the Arts, edited by
Brande, W. T., at the Royal Institu-
tion, London, 308, 359, 367, 373, 440,
484, 497
Quarterly Review, 348, 359, 396
Quatrefages de Brcan, Jean Louis
Armand de (b. i8ioj, 375
Queens' College, Cambridge, 191
Quellmalz, Samuel Theodor (1696-1758),
167, 264, 385, 554; Dissertatio de
magneto (Pogg., ll. 548, 1722; Com-
merc. Litt. Norimb., V. and VI.) .
Querard, Joseph Marie (1797-1865).
See " La France Litteraire," also
" Bibliotheque Voltairienne," 59, 186,
192
Quesneville, Dr. Gustave Augustin.
v See " Le Moniteur Scientifique," also
" Revue Scientifique et industrielle,"
30 Vols. 1840-9 to date, 18, 143, 247,
258, 259, 262, 280, 392
Quet, Jean Antoine (b. 1810), " Des
divers phenomenes electriques," 1853
(Comptes Rendus, XXXIV. 805,
XXXV. 279, XXXVI, 1853)-
INDEX
651
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques
(1796-1874), 81, 314, 341; " Annales
de 1'Observatoire de Bruxelles " ;
" Histoire des sciences math£m. et
physiques chez les Beiges " (M£m. de
1'Acad. de Bruxelles, 1830, 1831,
1839, 1840; Phil. Mag., Ser. IV.
Vol. I. April 1851, p. 329, on atmo-
spheric electricity).
Quetelet, L. A. J , and Zantedeschi,
Francesco, " Sur les courants Elec-
triques telluro-atmospheriques . . ."
(Bulletins de 1'Acad. Royale de
Belgique, 2e serie, XV. No. 5).
Quc"tif, Jacques, and Echard, J., " Scrip -
tores Ordinis Pra?dicatorum . . .,"37
Quincke, Georg Hermann, " Sammlung
. . . elektrische Strome," 1856-1861,
441
Quinet de Certines, " The"orie de 1'ai-
man* . . .," 1809.
Quinet, J., " Expose . . . aiguille ainian-
tee . . .," 1826.
Quinquet, " Observations sur les para-
tonnerres."
Quintine, L'Abbe de la, " Dissertation
sur le magnetisme des corps," 1732.
Quintus Sertorius, 3
R
RABIQUEAU, Charles A., " Le spectacle
du feu elementaire," 204, 555
Racagni, Giuseppe Maria (1741-1822),
412
Raccolta di documenti . . . della R. C.
Columb, 66
Raccolta d'opuscoli scientific! ... by
Calogera, Angelo : Vcnezia, 1728-
I757. 51 Vols. The Nuova Raccolta
. . . 1754-1787 consists of 42 Vols.
See Calogera, 140, 308
Raccolta Ferrarese di Opuscoli Scien-
tific! . . . di Autori Ital. . . ., 298
Raccolta Pratica di scienze, 248
Rackstrow, B., " Miscellaneous Ob-
servations . . .," 1748, 555
Rafn, C.G., Nyt bibliothekforphysik . . .:
Kjobenhavn; " Magazin Encyclo-
pddique," 257, 306, 330
Ragozin, Z. A., History of Chaldea, 2
Raia torpedo, 135, 240, 298-299, 374
Raleigh, Sir Walter, xiv
Rambosson, J., Histoire des Meteores,
1868-1869. See Meteorites, etc.
Ramis of Munich (at Gay-Lussac,
J. L.), 388, 389
Rammelsberg, C. (at Haiiy, Le Pere
R. J.), 288
Ramsden, Jesse (1735-1800), 229, 256,
280
Ramus, Joachim Frederick (1686-1769)
(at Dalton, John), 308
Ramusio — Rannusio — Giovanni Battista
(1485-1557), ". . . Navigationi et
viaggi . . ." : Venezia, 1554-1556,
folio, 60, 66, 515
Randolph, P. B., author of " Pre-
Adamite Man," 12
Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886), 94, 102
Rankine, William John Macquorn (1820-
1872), 347, 39^
Ranzi — Renzi — Salvatore de, 299, 507
Rao, Cesare, " I. Meteori," 1582, 553
Raphael, " School of Athens," 542-544
Rapiii, Nicholas (1540-1608), 16
Rashdall, Hastings, " Universities
Europe . . .," 539
Ratte, E. II. de (at Dalton, John), 308
Rattray, Sylvester, 1662, 554
Rauch, C. V., 1851 (at f hillaye-Platel,
A.), 386
Raulet, Mr. (at Dalibard, T. F.), 200
Rawley, Dr. (at Sir Francis Bacon), 101
Rawlinson, George, " History of Hero-
dotus," 19, 542"
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord
(at Faraday, M.), 493. See Copley
Medal, also Royal Medal.
Raymond, Rossiter W. (at Amoretti,
Carlo), 401
Read, John L, Condenser of electricity,
289, 290, 312-313, 320, 360, 375
Reael, Laurens, " Observatien . . (am)
aen de magneetsteen . . .,"131,554
" Reale Istituto Lombardo di scienze c
lettere," Atti, Rendiconti, Giornale,
Memorie : Milano, 141
Reaumur, Rene Antoine Forchault de
(1683-1757), 160, 173, 181, 240, 257,
270, 298, 299
Recamier, M. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.), 330
Records of general science, 159
Recueildetrait6ssurrelectricite, 1748,555
Recueil d'exp6riences sur 1'aimant, 1686,
554
Recueil Periodique de la Societe de
Medecine de Paris. See Sedillot,
Jean ; also Paris, Societe dc Medecine.
Recueil Periodique de Litt. Med.
Etrangere. See Crichton, A.
Redi, Francesco (1626-1697), " Esperi-
enze interno a diverse cose naturali
. . . " : Firenze, 1671, 135, 230, 270
Rees, Abraham (1743-1825), " New
Cyclopaedia or Universal Dictionary
of Arts and Sciences," 45 Vols. 1819,
92, 193, 392, 394
Rees, W. van. See Moll.
Reibelt, Johannes Joseph Adam, " De
physicis . . . magnetis mysteriis . . .,"
1731. 555
Reich, Ferdinand (b. 1799), 416
Reichenbach, George von (1772-1826),
432. See Encycl. Britan., XXIII.
49; Brockhaus, XIII. 719.
Reichenbach, Karl Ludwig Friedrich
Baron von (1788-1869), 12, 140, 401;
Physico - Physiological Researches,
1851 (translations by John Ashburner
and Dr. Wm. Gregory) ; " Odische
Begebenheiten. . . .," 1862; " Odische
Lohe . . .," 1867; "Odische Er-
wiederungen . . .," 1886,
652
INDEX
Reichcnberger, J. N. (at Swinden, J. H.
van), 274
Reichenstein, F. J. Muller von (1740-
1825) (at Haiiy, Le Pere Rene Just),
288
Rcichsanzciger, German publication, 325,
3^6, 383
Re^gio, Nicolas dc (at Myrepsius,
Nicolaus), 529
Reg. Societa Economica di Firenze, 330
Regiomontanus. See Muller, John, 67
" Register of the Arts and Sciences,"
publication commenced in London
during 1824.
Regius, Hcnncus — Le Roy (1598-1679),
" Philosophia Naturahs " : Amster-
dam, 1654.
Regnault, Le Pere Noel (1683 -1762), 161
Reid, David Bos well (1805-1863), and
Bain, Alex. (1818-1877), Elements of
chemistry and electricity.
Reid, James D., " The telegraph in
America," 226, 337, 418, 430, 440
Reid, Thomas. See Royal Society.
Reil, J. C., Archives, " Uber thierische
clcktricitat " (Gren's Journal, VI.
1792), 285, 327, 393, 557
Reinhold, Johann Christoph Leopold
(1769-1809), " Geschichte des gal-
vanismus," 326, 364, 393
Rcinholdus, Erasmus. See Erasmus
Reinzer, Frank, " Meteorologia . .
Augsburg, 1709
Reisch, Father Gregorius, " Margarita
Philosophical' 35, 553
Reiser's plate machine, 256
Reiss, Wilhelm (in Poggendorff's An-
nalen), 258
Reitlinger, E. (at Lichtenberg, G. C.),
250; " Ilcber . . . elcktricitat auf
Springbrunnen " (v\us den Sitzungs-
berichten Wien, 1859 and 1860).
" Reliquary, The," 67, 130
Remak, R., 1856, 1860, 1^865 (at Jadelot,
J.F. N), 330
Remmelinus, Joannes L. V., 553
Remusat, Charles Fran£ois Marie, Comte
de (1797-1875), " Histoire de la
Philosophic" (Bacon, etc.), 125, 128,
134. See Dezebry, " Dictionnaire
g6n6ral . . .," pp. 2404-5.
Remusat, Jean Pierre Abel (1788-1832).
See Dezebry, " Dictionnairc g6n6ral
. . .," p. 2404.
Renan, Joseph Ernest, " L'Averroes et
L'Averroj'sme," 39
Renatus, Cartesius. See Descartes.
Renaudot, Eusebe (1646-1720), " An-
cicnnes relations . . . Chine," 60
Rennefort, Souchu de, " L'aiman mys-
tique," 1689, 554
Rennie, George Banks (at A.D. 1752),
203
Renwick, James (1790-1863), 282
Renzi, Antonio, " La divina commedia,"
1882. Dante is at A.D. 1265-1321,
43-44
Repertoire et sources historiques. . . .
See Chevalier, W. J.
Repertorium der experimental physik.
See Fcchner, Gustav Theodor.
Repertorium der galvanoplastik und
galvanostegie. See Martin, Adam
Georg.
Repertorium der physik. See Exner,
Prof Franz.
Repertorium der physik, 8 Vols. : Berlin,
1837-1849. See Dove, Heinrich
Wilhelm von, and Moser, Ludwig F.
These 8 Vols. are a continuation of
Fechner's Repertorium mentioned
above.
Repertorium fur chcmie . . . : Hannover
und Leipzig. See Ellwert, J. K. P.
von.
Repertorium fur organische chemie.
See Lowig, C von.
Repertorium fur physikalische ttechnik
. . . experimental physik. . . . See
Carl, Dr. P.
Repertory ot the Arts and Manufactures,
424, 434. It became " The Repertory
of Patent Inventions " during 1794.
Restelli, A., 1846 (at Thillaye-Platcl,
Antoine), 386
Resti-Ferrari, G. See Zamboni, G., 420
Return stroke, or lateral shock of an
electrical discharge, 184, 255
Reuss, Jeremias David (i 750-1837),
" Repertorium commentationum . . ." ;
" DC re clcctnca " . Berlin and
Gottmgen, 245, 263, 308, 328, 330,
386» 557
Reusser — Reiser — of Geneva (Voigt's
Magazin, VII. 57, IX. 183), 226, 315-
316
Reveroni— St. Cyr, Jacques Antoine,
Baron de (1767-1829), 292
Revillas, D , 1738 (at Dalton, John), 308
Revue Britannique. See Sedillot, L. P.
E. A.
Revue des Deux-Mondes, 476, 483
Revue Encyclopediquc . . . : Pans,
1819.
Revue Generale des Sciences, 140, 248
" Revue Internationale de I'Electricite
et de se's applications," publication
commenced by A. Montpellier in Paris
during 1885; afterwards incorporated
with " L'Electricien."
Revue Scientifique. See Quesneville.
Rcyger, G., 1756 (at Dalton, John), 308
Rcymond du Bois. See Du-Bois, Rey-
mond.
Reynaud, J. J., " De la telegraphic . . .
resume historique . . . " : Marseille,
1851.
Reynolds, J. R., 1872 (at Thillaye-
Platel, Antoine), 386
Rezia and Brugnatelli (at Brugnatelli,
L- V.), 363
Rhaeticus — Rheticus — Rhaetius — sur-
name of George Joachim (1514-1576),
508
INDEX
653
Rhazes — Rasis — Muhammad Ibn Zaka-
riya (born c. middle ninth century A.D.
in Rai, Persia), " De Simplicis, ad
Almansorem," 26, 516, 529, 537, 538
" Rheinische Beitragen zur Gclchrsam-
keit " for 1781, 285
Riadore, J. F., 1845 (at Thillayc-Platel,
Antoine), 386
Riccioli, Giovanni Battista (1508-1671),
" Almagcstum Novum," 1651, 54,
55. °7, 93. i^7
Richard, Rudolph (at Swindcn, J. II.
van), 273
Richard II, King of England (1367-
1400), 58
Richer, Jean, French philosopher who
died in 1696, 129
Richer, T. (at Shaw, George), Observa-
tions on electrical fishes, 230, 299
Richerand, Balthasar Anthelm, Baron
(1779-1840), 284
Richmann, George William (1711-1753),
Professor in St. Petersburg, killed
by atmospheric electricity, 204, 320
Richter, Georg Fnednch (1691-1742),
270, 3<>5
Richter, J. --Heidelberg, 1882 -(at
School of Athens) , 544
Richter, Lamballe and Erdmon, }86
Rico-y-Smobas, M , 1853 (at Dalton.
John), 308
Ruldell, James. See Merry, \V. W , 6
Ridley, Marke (1560-1624), 79, 80, 97,
I4l
Ridlon, Gideon Tibbetts, " Ancient
Ryedales," 97
Ridolfi, Marquis Cosimo di, 256, 423, 477,
482
Rieckc, " Rudolf Clausius " : Gottingcn,
1889 (at Grot thus, Baron von), 392
Riess, Peter Thcophil (b. 1805), 420, 423;
" Die lehre von der Reibunge-Klek-
tricitat," 2 Vols. 1853, 1858, 1867.
Riess, P. T., and Faraday, M., 498
Riess, P. T., and Moser, L., 423; " On
the magnetising power of the solar
rays," 1830 (Phil. Mag or Annals,
VIII. 155).
Riess, P. T., and Rose, G., " fiber d.
Pyro-Elektricitiit d. minerale ..."
(Abhandl. d. Berlin Acad., 1843).
Riffault, Anatole, et Chompre, N. M.,
390, 391, 394
Riffault des Metres, Jean Rene Denis
(1752-1826), 394, 429. He also ex-
perimented with Chompre.
Rinklake (Mimosa Pudua], 257
Rinmann, S. (at Ilaiiy, Le Pere Rene
Just), 288
Ristoro d'Arezzo. See d'Arezzo.
Ritchie, William (1790-1837), 225, 476
Rittenhouse, David (1732-1796), 282-
283
Ritter, Dr. Heinrich (1791-1869),
" Histoire de la philosophic ancienne "
(History of ancient philosophy;
Geschichte der philosophic), 41, 352,
353. 503. 504, 5io, 512, 532, 533, 537,
542; Ritter and Preller, 512
Ritter, Johann Wilhelm (1776-1810),
257, 327, 335, 349, 3*0-384, 393, 419,
464; Ritter and Amorette, 1804.
Rive. See La Rive.
Rivi6re — • Rivoirc — Antoine, " Traite
.- • -," 253
Rivista di Fisica, Mat. e Sc. Nat. Pavia,
57
Ri vista, G Ital., 58
Rivista Scicntifico-Industriale. See
Vimercati, G.
Rivius, Johannes, " Vitae D. Aur.
Augustini," 1646, 25
Robert on the electrophorus, 249
Robert, M., makes ascension with Prof.
Charles, 288
Roberti cle Valle Rotho, 1495, 553
Roberts and Donaldson (at Lactantius,
L C. F.), 525
Roberts- Austen, Prof. Sir William
Chandler (1843-1902), 372
Robertson, Abraham (1751-1826), 251
Robertson, Dr. William, Principal of
the University of Edinburgh (1721-
1793). " History of the reign of Charles
V," " Historical Disquisition . . ." :
Basle, 1792, 36, 61, 114
Robertson, Eticnne Gaspard Robert
(1763-1837), " Memoires Recreatifs
" Scientiliques," " Acide Galvamque,"
248, 249, 275, 284, 342, 350-351, 419
Robertson, John M., " Philosophical
Works of Francis Bacon," 102
Robertson, Rev. Alexander, " Fra Paolo
Sarpi . . .,"113
Robertus de Fluctibus. See Fludd.
Robertus, J., " Curatioms Magneticae
• • .," 245
Robespierre, Francois Maximilien Joseph
Isidore de (1758-1794), 268-269
Robillard, M. See Argcntelle.
Robin, Charles (at Shaw, George), 298,
300; and (at Pepys, W. H., Sr.), 375
Robins, B. (at Watson, Wm ), 175; and
(at Romagnosi, G D. G.), 367
Robinson, Thomas Romney (1792-1882)
(Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., XXII. 1-24,
291-311, 499-524).
Robiquet, Henri Edme (1822-1860),
"... theorie de Franklin sur la
nature du fluide electrique . . .," 1854.
Robison, John (1739-1805), 88, 89,
146, 156, 180, 225, 268, 307, 308-311,
327, 466, 498
Robson, W., translator of the " His-
toriae Hierosolirnitanae . . .,"31
Roch, M. (at Ampere, A. M.), 476
Roche, Ed. A. (at Coulomb, C. A. de), 276
Rochegude, Mr. de, 16
Rodwell, George Farrer, " A Dictionary
of Science," 1871.
Rcemer, Olaus (1644-1710), 157
Roeth, Eduard (at Pythagoras^, 537
Roger, D. J. N. Lud, " Specimen Physio-
logicum," 241
654
INDEX
Rogers, Wm. 13., 369, 413, 453, 473
Roget, Peter Mark (1779-1869), 383, 467,
473, 475, 476
Rogge, H. C., " Bi
Bibliotheca Grotiana,"
Rohault, Jacques (16-20-1675), 113, 122,
125, 129, 1 60. See Jal's " Diction-
aire," p. 1075.
Rohde's "Systeme complet de signaux,"
400
Rohrbacher, Francois Rene, " Eccle-
siastical History," 34
Roiffe, Jacques C. F. de la Perriere de
(d. 1776), 212
Rollin, Charles, " Ancient History "
(1661-1741), 19, 504. 537» 542
Romagnosi, Gian Domenico (1761-1835),
365-367. For Romagnosi's experi-
ment, see Ronalds' Catalogue, pp. 436-
437. Consult, likewise, the follow-
ing :—
Aldini, Giovanni (1762-1834),
" Essai theorique . . ." : Pans,
1804.
Ayrton, Wm. Ed. (1847-1908),
" Electricity as a motive power ":
Sheffield, 1879.
Cantu, Cesare (1807-1895), " Noti-
zia di G. Romagnosi " : Prato,
1840; Milano, 1835.
Davy, Sir H. (1778-1829), " On the
magnetic phenomenon . . ."
(Philos. Mag., Ser. I. Vol. LV1II.
pp. 43-50), London, 1820.
Govi, Gilberto (1826-1889), "Ro-
magnosi . . ." : Torino, 1869.
Izarn, Joseph (1766-1834), " Manuel
du Galvanisme " : Paris, 1805.
Siemens, Sir Chas. Wm. (1822-1883),
" On the progress of the electric
telegraph " (Journ. Soc. of Arts,
Vol. VI. pp. 348-358), London,
1858.
Tommasi, Donate (b. 1848), " His-
toire des sciences . . ." (" Cos-
mos-les-Mondes," Ser. IV. Vol. V.
pp. 326-328), Paris, 1882.
Zantedeschi, Feo (1797-1873),
" L'elettromagnes'tismo . . ." :
Trent, 1859; " Trattato . . ." :
Venice, 1845.
Romas, de, Kite experiments, 203-204,
320
Romershausen, E., Marburg, 1851 and
i853. 257
Romich and Fajdiga, also Romich and
Nomak, 492
Rommereul, General (at Alexandre,
Jean), 36*
Ronalds, Sir Francis (1788-1873),
" Catalogue of books and papers re-
lating to electricity . . ." : London,
1880, xiv, 5, 121, 140, 148, 179, 183,
199, 202, 208, 223, 229, 248, 253, 269,
290, 337, 366, 388, 389, 406, 423, 424,
438-440, 483, 550
Ronayne, Thomas, 201, 238, 270, 320
Rondelet, Guillaume (1507-1566), 270
Rose, Rev. Hugh James (1795-1838),
English divine, who projected the
" New General Bibliographical Dic-
tionary," carried on by his brother,
Henry John Rose (1800-1873), 95,
531
Rose of the winds — wind roses — roses
des vents— compass card, 59, 63, 509
Rosel (at Humboldt, F. H. Alex, von),
332
Rosenberg, A. G., 1745, 555
Rosenberger, Ferdinand (at Guericke,
Otto von), 126
Rosenmuller, Ernst Friedrich Carl, 528
Rosenthal, J., 1862 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 386
Rosicrucians, 65
Rosier. See Rozier.
Rosny, Leon de, " Les peuples orien-
taux . . .,"5
Ross, David (at Cassini, J. J. D.) 267
Ross, Sir James Clark (1800-1862)
(Ronalds' Catalogue, p. 440), 458
Ross, Sir John (1777-1856). See
Ronalds' Catalogue, p. 441, also pp.
457 and 458 herein.
Rossel, Admiral de, magnetic observa-
tions, 250
Rossetti, Francisco (1833-1895). See
Bibliografia Italiana.
Rossi, Francesco (d. 1841), " Exp6ri-
ences galvamques ..." See Giulio.
Rossi-Rubeis, B. M. de, 505
Rossignol, Jean Pierre (b. A.D. 1804),
" Les metaux dans 1'antiquite . . .,"
1863.
Rossler, T. F., 1776, 556
Rost, J. L. (at Dalton, John), 308
Rotatory Polarization. See Cadozza,
Giovanni, also Arago, D. F. J. See
Magnetism, rotatory.
Rotterdam, " Bataafsch genootschap
. . ." : Verhandelmgcn, 292 (Batavian
society of experimental philosophy;
Mem. de la socicte de physique
experimentale) .
Rouelle, G. F. (at Milly, N. C. de), 235
Rouget's observations on the gymnotus
electricus, 230
Roul (at Zamboni, G.), 420
Rouland and Detienne (at Volta, Ales-
sandro), 249
Rouland, N., " Electricite appliquee aux
vegetaux," 257, 449
Roundness of the earth and antipodes
ridiculed, 523-525
Rouppe (at Galvani, Aloysio), 285
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (at Alexandre,
Jean), 360
Roussel (at Galvani, Aloysio), 284
Roux, Augustin, " Experiences Nou-
velles," 255
Roux, F. I., " Conservation des plaques
. . .," 1866, 347
Roveredo, Gazetta di, 367
Rowles, S. (at Heraclides), 519
INDEX
655
Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, the
philosophical history and memoirs
of .... Vols. I.-V. See Paris, Acade-
mic Roy ale.
Royal Astronomical Society of Great
Britain, London, 471, 481
Royal Institution of Great Britain,
Proceedings, etc., 277, 307, 322, 338,
339, 340, 34i> 342, 344, 369, 37°, 371.
372» 373, 395, 396, 425, 433, 4^7, 474,
478, 482, 484, 488, 489^ 496, 497, 498,
499. See " Journal of Science and the
Arts," also " Journal of the Roy.
lust.," likewise the " Quarterly Journal
of Science, Literature, and the Arts."
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, Pro-
ceedings, etc., 263, 521
Royal Medal, awarded to Michael Fara-
day, 498. The very first award of the
Royal Medal was made to John Dalton
in 1826. Its other recipients embrace
Sir Hi/mphry Davy, 1827; Sir David
Brewster, 1830; Michael Faraday,
1835, and 1846; Lord Rayleigh, 1882.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceed-
ings, etc., 140, 142, 466
Royal Society of Literature, Transac-
tions, etc., 14
Royal Society of London : —
Abstracts of the papers printed, 140,
158, 243, 249, 277, 347, 348, 372,
387, 436, 437. 458, 4<*>» 471. 477,
481, 482 (continued as " Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society of
London ").
Catalogue of Scientific Papers com-
piled and published by the, 158,
220, 233, 255, 257, 258, 263, 277,
298, 314, 3*5, 335, 347, 348, 353,
355, 359, 3&4. 3^8, 370, 373, 375,
37^, 379, 3«4> 385, 386, 387, 388,
389, 391, 394, 395, 401, 402, 403,
408, 412, 414, 415, 416, 426, 428,
441, 446, 449, 450, 454, 456, 460,
462, 464, 466, 470, 471, 476, 477,
481, 483, 496, 499
Histories of the : by Birch, Thomas,
132, 175, 183, 195, 272; by Sprat,
Thomas, 132; by Thomson,
Thomas, 90, 105, 132, 150, 152,
I55> !56, 162, 167, 189, 190, 196,
214, 2l8, 221, 222, 227, 239, 248,
251, 256, 263, 268, 284, 288, 347,
355, 456; by Weld, Charles
Richard, 66, 75, 103, 114, 132,
J55» 16?> J68, 187, 191, 196, 239,
252, 446, 456, 462
Proceedings of the : a continuation
of the " Abstracts," 548
The Abridged Philosophical Trans-
actions of the : by Baddam, Ben-
jamin, 8, 92, 95, 119, 138, 141,
145, 149, 150, 153, 155, 157, 160,
162, 175, 549 ; by Hames and
Martyn, 138, 149, 155, 156, 157,
160, 175, 246, 549; by Kames,
John (d. 1744), 549 (see Eames
and Martyn, Diet, of Nat. Biogr.,
XVI. 313) ; by Gray, John (1800-
1875), 549 (see Read and Cray);
by Hutton, Charles (1737-1823),
15, 27, 95, 97. JI9. 130/131. 138,
141, 143, 145, 149, 150. 153, 155.
I5^>> X57» *6o, J62, J66, 167, 173,
175, 176, 178, 181, 183, 185, 188,
191, 199, 200, 201, 205, 207, 219,
221, 223, 226, 229, 232, 237, 238,
240, 241, 243, 245, 249, 252, 256,
265, 291, 297, 298, 299, 313, 322,
336, 502, 549; by Jones, Henry
Bence (1814-1873), 141, 150, 156,
498, 549 ; by Lowthorp, John, 1 19,
138, 143, 145, 160, 549; by Mar-
tyn, John (1699-1768), 154, 155,
157, 162, 166, 167, 173, 175, 176,
177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 189,
267, 549 (see Eames and Martyn) ;
byMotte, Benjamin (d, 1738), 549
(Diet. Nat. Biogr., XXXIX. 194) ;
by Pearson, Richard (1765-1826),
549; by Reid, Thomas (1710-
1796) (Reid and Gray), 138, 155,
I56, I57, 160, *75> 246, 549; by
Shaw, George (1751-1813), 298,
374. 549
The Unabridged Philosophical
Transactions of the, viii, ix, xvn,
8, 15, 17, 27, 29, 92, 96, 118, 127,
130, 131, 134, 135, 138, 139, 140,
141, 142, 143, 145, 149, 150, 152,
153, 154, 155, 156, 157. 158. I6°.
162, 165, 166, 167, 172, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185,
186, 188, 189, 191, 195, 196, 199,
200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207,
2O9, 212, 213, 2l8, 219, 221, 222,
223, 225, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232,
235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243,
245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 255,
256, 257, 258, 265, 267, 271, 273,
278, 284, 289, 290, 291, 296, 297,
298, 3°8, 313, 3M. 3*5, 32°, 322,
325, 326, 336, 337, 339, 340, 344,
347. 348, 357. 359, 3^7. 371. 372,
373, 387, 393, 396, 399, 4°2, 4°3,
405, 417, 418, 426, 431, 433, 436,
437, 440, 446, 449, 458, 460, 465,
466, 467, 469, 470, 471, 476, 477,
478, 479, 481, 482, 484, 485, 486,
487, 488, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494.
495, 497. 499, 547~549, 554, 555.
557
Rozier — Rosier — Abbe Fra^ois (1734-
1793), 10, 140, 193, 198, 208, 248, 249,
253, 257, 263, 266, 271, 277, 280, 281,
299, 300, 302; "Tableau du travail
annucl de toutes les Academies de
1'Europe . . ." Vol. I. Paris, 1772.
Continued as " Observations sur la
physique," Vols. II. to XLIIL, and as
"Journal de Physique," Vols. XLIV.
to date. " Nouvelle Table . . . de-
puis 1666 iusqu'en 1770." See Paris,
Academic Koyale des Sciences.
656
INDEX
Rozier, Pilatre de. See Pilatre de
Rozier (at Charles, J. A. C.), 288
Rudolf, Alexander J. (at Hallcy, Ed-
mund), 138
Rudolf, II, Emperor of Germany, 95
Rudolfi, Karl Asmund (1771-1832),
192
Ruelhus, Joannes (1479-1537), 8, 27,
124, 538; " De natura stirpium . . .,"
*536; " De medicinali materia . . .,"
1543, a fuller description of which is :
' ' Dioscorides . . . de medicinali . . .
loanne Rueliio Sucssionessi inter-
prete . . ."
Rueus, Franciscus — Francois de la
Rue (1520-1585), 538; " De gemmis
aliquot . . .," 1547.
Rumnus — Rufinus — Tyrannus, " Pros-
per d'Aquitaine," 19
Ruhmkorff, Heinrich Daniel (1803-
1877), " Appareil d'induction elec-
tnque," 1850-1851 (Du Moncel, Th.,
" Notice sur 1'apparcil . . ." : Paris,
X855); Verdu and Ruhmkorff in
Comptos Rendus, XXXVI. 649-652.
Ruland, Martin, " A lexicon of alchemy
or alchemical dictionary " : London,
1892, 17
Rumford, Count. See Thompson, Sir
Benjamin.
Rumford Medal, 344, 481, 498. The
very first award of the Rumford
Medal was made to Count Rumford in
1800. He had already received the
Copley Medal in 1 792 . Amongst other
prominent recipients of the Rumford
Medal may be mentioned : Sir David
Brewster, 1818 (besides the Copley
Medal, 1815, and the Royal Medal,
1830); James Clerk Maxwell, 1860;
John Tyndall, 1864; Sir John Leslie,
1884; and Sir Oliver Lodge, 1898.
Runeberg, E. F., 1757 (a* Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Rupert, Prince Robert of Bavaria (1619-
1682), 127
Russell, J. Rutherfurd, 65, 105, 132
Rutherford, Dr. (at Fowler, Richard),
307
Rutty, William (1687-1730), edited the
Phil. Trans. Nos. 309-406.
Ruysch, Johan — Reisch — Reysch, " Map
of the world " : Rome, 1508, 524
Rysselberghe, F. van, Simultaneous
transmission of telegraphic and tele-
phonic messages on one line. This
method was fully described by Charles
Mourlon in his " Systcme . . ." :
Brussels, 1884 and 1887.
Ryther, Augustus, 563
S
SAAVEDKA, Antonimo Suarez, " Tratado
de telegrafia " : Barcelona, 1880, 318;
" Rivista," 313, 318
Sabatier — Sabathier — Raphael Bienvenu
(1732-1811), 247, 333, 354. See Deze-
bry, Ch., " Dictionnaire. . .," p. 2497.
vSabme, Robert (1837-1884), " History
and Progress of the electric telegraph,"
1869, 208, 223, 284, 286, 316, 366;
" On the electrical properties of sele-
nium " (Phil. Mag., Scr. V. Vol. V.
pp. 401-415, 1878).
Sabine, Sir Edward, P.R.S. (1788- 1883),
82, 115, 194, 220, 267, 377, 3S5, 457-
See Humboldt, Cosmos; also Cates'
Dictionary, p. 1539.
Sacchetti, F. (at Aetius, Amidenus), 27
Sacharoff of the St. Petersburg Academy
of Sciences, 388
Sachs, Michael (1808-1864), 36: " En-
cycl. Brit.," 1911, XX11I. 973.
Sacro Bosco— -Sacrobusto — Joannes de —
John of Holywood (thirteenth cen-
tury), 530-531. See Joannes Gloza-
riensis. *
Sage, B. G. (1740-1824), Rccherches . . .
galvanisme," 285
Sagredus — Sagredo — lohannes Francis-
cus (b. 1616), 79, 115, 116
Saigi (at Faraday, Michael), 494
Saignette, M , " Sur I'ulcctricitd de la
lorpille," 240
Saillant et Nyon, " Memoires conccrnant
1'histoire . . ." : Paris, 1788, i, 2, 3,
21, 28, 259
Saint Allais, de, " Art de verifier les
dates des faits historiques " : Paris,
1819, 2. " TArt de verifier les elates "
is also by Clement (Fran9ois), 1770,
1783, 1818, 1819, 1820.
Saint Amand, Walkiers de, Electrical
machine, 280, 448. See Amand.
Saint Augustine, " De Civitate Dei,"
xx, 20, 26, 41, 73, 74, 79
Saint Cyr. See Reveroni.
Saint Elmo (St. Erasmus), Bishop of
Formiae, 23-24, 125, 161. St. Elmo's
fire.
Saint Fond, Fan j as de (at Saussure,
H. B. de), 271
Saint Hilaire. See Geoff roy, Saint
Hilairc.
Saint Honorat dc Lerius, La vie de, 16
Saintiot, Mr. de (at Aldini, Giovanni), 306
Saint Julien's electrical machine, 257
Saint Leger de Soissons, Mr. 1'Abbe de,
126
Saint Louis (and his consort Marguerite
de Provence), 33, 54
Saint Paul's Cathedral, 210, 231, 232
Saint Petersburg, Imperial Academy
of Science. Transactions, Comment.,
Actcs, Memoires, etc., 140, 141, 204,
206, 214, 217, 218, 229, 232, 242, 249,
273, 274, 309, 314, 368, 388, 402, 421,
450
Saint Sauveur, Charles Poyen (at Mesmer,
F. A.), 237
Saint Vincent, Bory de, " Annales Gene-
rales," 255
INDEX
657
Sainte Beuve, Charles Augustin (1804-
1869), Portraits Litt6raires. See De-
zebry, Ch. (" Dictionnairc . . .," p.
2511), 108, 476
Sainte Marthe, Scevole de, " Elogia Gal-
lorum Doctrina illustrium," 1737, 513,
537
Salem Gazette, concerning new Electric
Light Station in 1889, 233-234, 235
Salerno, School of (at Silvaticus, M. M.),
539
Salimbene, a Minorite, " Chronicles of
Parma," 16
Salmanazar (at Albertus Magnus), 35
Salmasius, Ludovicus, " Commentary
upon Solinus," 22, 513
Salmonscn, J., " Konversations-Leksi-
kon," 121
Salva, Don Francisco (1747-1808), 317
Salverte, Anne Joseph Eusebe Bacon
mere (1771-1839), "Philosophy of
Magij," " Des sciences occultes," i, 9,
10, 19, 56, 401, 542. See Phil. Mag.,
XV., 354 tor meteoric stones.
Salviana (at Wilkinson, C. H ), 270
Salviatus — Salviati — Leonardo (at Ha-
milton, James), 159
Salzburg Med. Chir. Zeitung, 249, 451
Sanctis, Dr. B. de (Phil Mag., LX. 199,
1822; and LXI. 70, 123).
Sandys, J. E., " Classical Scholarship,"
34. 39
San Martino, Gian Battista (1739-1800)
(at Amorctti, Carlo), 401 ; " Memo-
na . . .," 1785, 257
Sans Abbe (at Molcnier, Jacob), 229
(at Thillayc-Platcl), 385
Sanson, Nicolas (at Naud6, Gabriel),
108
Santa Cruz, Alonzo de, magnetic charts,
70
Santanelli, F. (at Chappe, Claude), 301,
and at p. 554
Santarem, M. F. Barros de (1790-1856),
" Essai sur 1'histoire de la cosmogra-
phie et de la cartographic pendant le
moyen-age," 1436, 62
Santes de Ardonyis. See Ardoniis.
Santi Linan. See Linari, Santi.
Sanuto, Livio. See Livio Sanuto.
Sargon of Agade, remotest authentic date
yet arrived at in history, 2
Sarlandiere, Jean Baptista (at Pearson,
George), 325, and (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Sarpi, Pietro — Pietro Soave, Polano —
better known by his Servitan monastic
appellation, Fra Paolo — Paulus Vene-
tus (1552-1623), xiv, 75, 78, 90, 1 10-
114, 116; " Istoria del Concilio Tri-
dentino," 1619, 1620, 1632; History of
the Council of Trent, 1676; Histoire
du Concile de Trente, 1736.
Sarrabat, Nicholas (at Desaguliers, J. T.),
167
" Saturday Review," London, 155, 227,
424
UU
Saunders, Admiral (at Robison, John),
309
Saussure, Horace Benedict de (1740-
1799). 253, 257, 270-271, 273, 288,
295, 3-zo, 416, 417, 426, 462
Saussure, Nicholas Theodore de (1767—
1845), the son of Horace de Saussure.
Sauvages de la Croix, Fran9ois Boissier
Deshais (1706-1776), 229, 263, 332, 385
Savants etrangers, Memoires, 204, 288,
380
Savart. See Savary.
Savary — Savart — Felix (1791-1841), 379,
380, 472, 482. See Dezebry, Ch., Dic-
tionnaire, p. 2545.
Saverien, Alexandre (1722-1805), " His-
toire des physiciens " (Desaguliers,
Boyle, etc., being Vol. VI. of his " His-
toire des philosophies . . ."), Paris,
1768.
Savery, Servington, " Magnetical ob-
servations and experiments," 1729-
1730 (Phil. Trans , XXXVI. 295), 160
Savi, Paolo (1798-1871), " Etudes anato-
miqucs sur la torpille " (Matteucci,
Carlo v., 1844), 298
Savioli, G., " Dissertatio in causam
physicam aurora; borealis," 1789, 308
Sawyer's electro-chemical telegraph, 338
Sax — Sachs — M., " Onomasticon Litera-
rium," 97
Saxo — Gratnmaticus — " Saxonis Gram.
Historia Danica," 71
Saxthorph, Friedrich (d. 1806), " Elek-
tricitatslare," 2 Vols. 1802-3, 216
Saxton's Atlas (at Mercator), 563
Sbaralea, Joannes Hyacinthus (at Silva-
ticus, M. M.), 539
Scaliger, Joseph Justus (1540-1609),
French scholar, " De emendatione
. - -,"518
Scaliger, Julius Csesar (1484-1558),
Italian scholar, wrote commentaries
on Aristotle and on Theophrastus, etc.,
" De subtilitate ad Cardanum," 1557,
H5. 5i6, 532, 538-539
Scarella, Giambattista (1711-1779), " De
Magnete," 1759, 139
Scarpa, Antonio (1747-1832), 331, 333,
409
Scelta di Opuscoli interesanti tradotti
de varie Hngue, 36 Vols., Milano, 1775-
1777. Continued as Opuscoli scelti
sulle scienze e sulle arti, 7 Vols. 1778-
1784.
Scelta di Opuscoli, Milano. See Amo-
rctti, also Soave.
Scelta di Opuscoli scientifici e literati, 224
Sc. de Ste Marthe. See Sainte Marthe.
Schaifer, Jacob Christian (1718-1790),
" Krafte . . . elektrophors . . .," 237,
249, 257
Schaffer, J. G., 1776 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Schaffner's Manual. See Shaffner.
Scharpff, Franz Anton (at Cardinal de
Cusa), 510
658
INDEX
Schaub, J. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.)f 330;
Gmelin and Schaub, 451 (Archiv. f.
Pharrn. v. A. Med. Ph., 1802).
Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, " Chemical Es-
says . , .," 1786.
Scheible, J. (at Hermes Trismegistus),
519
Schelhorn — Schellhorn — Johann Georg,
202
Schellen, Thomas Joseph Heinrich
(1818-1844), " Die elektromagnetische
telegraphic . . .,"316
Schelling, Fricdrich Wilhelm Joseph von
(1775-1854).
Scherer, Alexander Nicolaus (1771-
1824), 249, 391 ; " Allgememe nord-
lischeannalender chemie . . .,"1819-
1822, which was a continuation of
" Nordlischen blatter fur die chemie
. . .," published at Halle and Saint
Petersburg, 1817—1818; " Allgcmeincs
Journal cler chemie," 10 Vols., 1798-
1803, continued as " Neues allgememes
Journal cler chemie," 1803-1805, by
A. F. von Gehlen, who subsequently
named it " Journal fiir die chemie
und physik . . .,"1806-1810. It was
continued at Niirnberg as " Ncues
Journal fur chemie und physik "
by Johann Salomo Christoph von
Schweigger, 1811-1833, and united,
during 1834, with the " Journal fur
praktische chemie " of Otto Linne
Krdmann, who afterwards published
the well-known " Lehrbuch dcr
chemie." The " Journal fur prak-
tische chemie " was in its goth Vol.
July 1914. See Nurnberg.
chere
Scherer, J. B. A. von, " Uber d. meteor-
steine . . ." : Leipzig, 1809.
Scheuchzer, J. J. (at Dal ton, John),
308
Schiele, Johann Georg, " Bibliotheca
Enucleata . . ." (" Acus magnetica
. . ."), Ulm, 1679.
Schielen, J. G., 1679, 554
Schiller (at Faraday, Michael), 492
Schilling, Godefredus W. Gulielmus,
" Diatribe de morbo in Europa . . .,"
230, 240, 299
Schilling, Johann Jacob (b. 1702), " Ob-
servationcs . . .," 1734-1737.
Schilling, Pawel Lwowitsch, Baron of
Kannstadt (1786-1837), 420-423, 445
Schinz, Salomon (1734-1784), " Speci-
men physicum de electricitate . . .,"
1776, 1777, 556
Schlegel, J. William, 326, 327
Schlichtegroll, Adolph Heinrich Fried-
rich von, 233
Schmid's " Allgemeine Encyklopa^die
. . ." : lena, 1840.
Schmidt (at Zamboni, Giuseppe), 420
Schmidt, George C. (at Van Swinden,
J. H. van), 274
Schmidt, J. F. J., " Das Zodiacallicht,"
1856, 142
Schmidt, N. E. A., " Vom magnete . . .,"
I765. 556
Schmuck, Edmund Joseph (b, 1771) (at
Ingen-housz, Johan), 257; "On the
action of galvanic electricity on the
mimosa pudica. . . ."
Schoell, Maximihen Samson Fre"de"ric
(1766-1833), "Hist, de la litt.
Grecquc," 25
Scholl, Carl, " Hist, de la lit. romaine,"
525 (at Themistius), 541
Scholz, B. (at Jager, K. C. F. van), 364
Schonbein, Christian Friedrich (1799-
1868), 296, 297, 498; Schonbein and
Faraday (Pogg. Ann., Vols. 37 to 109).
School of Athens — Scuola d'Atene — by
Raphael, xvii, 542-544
Schott, P. Gaspar (1608-1666), " Ars
magnetica . . .," etc., etc., 53, 125, 126
Schouten, Guillaumc Cornelissen — Wil-
helm Cornelisz, 97-98
Schrciber (at Chladni, E. F. F.), 314
Schrcibcrs, Karl Franz Anton von
(1775-1852) (at Chladni, E. F. F.),
3^5. 420
Schubert on zodiacal light, 141
Schuberth, E. (at Paracelsus, 1490-1541),
65
Schubler, Gustav (1787-1834), 292, 320,
406, 416, 420
Schultzc, " Zur Kentniss . . . elect. . . .
fibche," 300
Schumacher, Heinrich Christian (1780-
1850), 345, 432, 481
Schuster, Sir Arthur, xii
" Schwed. Akad. Abhandlungen . . .,"
216, 22 1, 257, 288
Schwed. Magazine, 221
Schwed. Musaeum, 216
Schweigger, Johann, Salomo Christoph
(1779-1857), " Journal (also Neues
Journal) fur die chemie und physik,"
1811-1833; "Tiber das elektron der
Altcn . . .," 1848; " Introd. to
mythology through natural history."
See Nurnberg, Scherer, 13, 257, 293,
314, 315, 358, 388, 389, 391, 4°7>
408, 412, 413, 414, 4^5, 4*6, 42°»
424, 447, 451, 452, 455, 472, 475,
476» 4^3
Schweigger -Scidel, Franz W., 414
Schwenkenhardt, M. (at Ingen-housz,
Johan), 257
Schwenter, Daniel. See Sunde.
" Science," publication commenced in
New York during 1880, 67, 75
" Science and literature of the middle
ages." See Lacroix, Paul.
" Science et Arts," 337
" Sciences mathematiqucs en Italic,
Histoire des," by Libri, G. B. I. T.,
4 Vols. 1838-1848.
" Sciences mathematiques et physiques
chez les Beiges, Histoire des," by
Quetelet, L. A. J. : Bruxelles, 1852.
" Scientiarum et artium istitutum
bononiense . , .," Commentarii, 254
INDEX
659
" Scientific American " and " Scientific
American Supplement," published
respectively in New York during
1845 and 1876, to date, 10, 11, 109,
*35» I38, 139, 142, 176, 178, 191,
193, 208, 209, 224, 226, 230, 240, 241,
250, 259, 263, 291, 292, 302, 310,
3i8, 329, 335, 336, 34«. 36i, 370.
389, 414, 420, 421, 422, 424, 433,
434> 436» 44°. 447. 455. 46o> 476> 4«J.
499
" Scientific Gazette," publication com-
menced by C. F. Partington in
London during 1825.
Scientific Memoirs. See Taylor, Richard.
" Scientific Progress," 315
Scientific Researches. See Sturgeon,
William.
" Scienziati Italiani," Atti, Pisa, 1840-
1847.
Scina, Domenico Ragona (1765-1837),
527 f " Esperienzc e scoperte sull'
elettromagnetismo," " Elementi di
fisica generale " (also " fisica parti-
colarlc "), 1809, 1829, 1842, 1843.
Scolopendra electrica, scolopendra
subterranca, 298
Scoresby, William (1789-1857), 276,
482
" Scot's Magazine," 208, 209
Scott, Sir Walter, " Lay of the last
Minstrel," 4
Scotus, Joannes Duns. See Duns Scotus.
Scotus, Michael Joannes (fl. thirteenth
century A.D.), " De sccretio natune,"
" Aristotelis opera . . .,"36
Scrantoni, J. M., 1740 (at Dalton, John),
308
Scribonius Largus Design ationus (fl.
first century A.D.), 20, 230; Biog.
Univ. de Michaud, Vol/ XXVIII.
pp. 589-595.
Scrinci, Dr., in " Prague News," 209
Scudder, Samuel Hubbard, " Catalogue
of scientific serials of all countries " :
Cambridge, Mass., 1879, ix, 547-550
Sebald, H., translator of H. C. Oersted's
" Leben . . .," 455
Sebastien and Cassini (at Picard, Jean),
132
Secchi, R. P. Angelo (1818-1878),
" Builetino Meteorologico . . .," 314
Secondat de Montesquieu, Jean
Baptiste, Baron (1716-1796), " His-
toire de I'electricite"," 1746, 1750, 131,
555; "Observations de physique,"
I750-
Sedillot, Jean (1757-1840), founder of
the Societ^ de Medecine de la Seine,
" Recueil pdriodique de la Societe" de
Medecine de Paris . . .," 248, 284,
295-296, 306
Sedillot, Louis Pierre Eugene Amelia
(1808-1875), 32, 93; " Revue Britan-
nique . . .," " Des savants arabes . . .,"
" Mate"riaux . . . sciences mathe*ma-
tiques ..."
Scebcck, Thomas Johann (1770-1831),
344- 373. 3»o, 387, 395, 4*3, 4*4. 4*5,
454, 478> 494
Segnitz, F. L., " Specimen . . . elect.
ammali," 1790, 556
Seguin, Armand (at Chladni, E. F. F.),
314; also (at Fourcroy, A. F. de),
354
Seiferhcld, G H. (at Hare, Robert), 449
Seller, J, (at Jadelot, J. F. N,), 330
Selenium, discovered by Berzehus, 369-
37°
Selenium, electrical properties of. See
Sabine, Robert.
Sellers — Seller — John (a/Savery, Serving-
ton), 1 60
Seleucus of Babylon (at Nicctas of
Syracuse), 530
Semaphores: B.C. 1084, 341, 232, 200;
also, Hooke 1084, Amontons 1704,
Odier 1773, Dupuis 1778, Chappc
1792, Edgeworth 1794, Murray,
Gamble and Garnet 1795, Pasley
1808, Parrot 1802, Davis 1805,
Gregory 1815, Popham and Bremmer
i8i(>, Connolly 1817.
Semen tini, L. (at Amoretti, Carlo), 401
Senebier, Jean (1742-1809), " Cata-
logue . . . manuscrits . . . Bibliotheque
de Geneve," 1779, 54, 243, 258, 271,
294, 295
Seneca, Lucius Aniucus (c. 4 B c.— A.D.
65), " Quaestiones Naturales," 8, 20,
24. 533
Senft, A. A., 1778 (at Thillayc-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Senguerd, W., " Philosophia natur-
ahs . . .," 1681, 554
Serantoni, J. M., 1740 (at Dalton, John),
308
Serapio, Mauritanus, 17, 26
Serapis, temple of, at Alexandria, 18
Sercy — Bercy — Ugo di, 61
Seres, William — Willyam (at Strypc, A.D.
1754), 210
Serpieri, Alessandro, on the Zodiacal
Light, 141
Serra, F. M. (at Dalton, John), 308
Serrano, D. Nicol M. (at Montanus —
Arias — Bencdictus), 528
Serres, Pierre Marcel, J. de (b. 1783),
493
Sertorius Quintus (d. 72 B.C. ), 4
Servetus, Michael — Servcto, Miguel, 535
Servius, Maurus Honoratus (fourth
century), " Virgil," 13
Servius, Petrus, 1643, 554
Servius Tullius, Roman king, 29
Sestier, Felix, et M6hu, C., " De la
foudre . . .," 2 Vols. 1866, 199, 254
Seven wise men of Greece, 7
Severineus, Christopher, Bishop elect
of Angola, 136
Severtius Jacobus — Jacques Revert,
" De orbis catoptrici . . .," 1598, 115
Severus, Bishop of Milevis (at Augustine,
Saint), 25
660
INDEX
Sewall, Rev. Frank (at Swedcnborg,
Emmanuel), 165
Seylas — Scixas— y Lovera Francisco clc,
71
Seypfcr (at Parrot, George Friedrich), 367
S'Gravesande, Willcm Jakob Storen
van (1088-1742), " Elements de
Physique," 152, 181, 270, 299
Sguario-Squario — Kuseb., " Due dis-
sertazione . . .," 1746, 308, 385, 555
Shaffner — Schaflncr Taliafcrro Preston
(1818-1881), " Telegraph Manual,"
" Shaffner's Telegraph Companion,"
7, 22, 277, 286, 302, 316, 318, 440,
454
Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), 16,
^4. 195. 563, 564
Sharpe, Benjamin, also John Robert
at pp. 424 and 439
Sharplcss, Stephen Paschall, " On some
forms of the galvanic battery "
(Amer. Journ. of Science, Ser. 111.
Vol. 1. pp 247-251, 1871).
Shaw, George. See Royal Society.
Shea, John Gilmary, 115
Shields, Charles W., " The final philo-
sophy," 35, 525
Short, James (at Watson, William), 175
Shmniro-Accadian culture, i
Siderites, 14, 15, 17
Sieeles litteraires. See Essarts.
Siemens, Ernest Werner von (1816-
1892), 370, 408 (Pogg. Ann., 1845 to
1861).
Siemens, Sir Charles William (1822-
1883), 408. See Romagnosi, also
Cates' Dictionary, p. 1541.
Sieur dc Castel Franco See Nautonnier.
Sigaud dc la Fond, Jean Rene (1740-
1810), 174, 235, 280, 385
Sighart, Dr. Joachim (at Albertus
Magnus), 37, 505
Sign of fire, transmission of messages, 10
Signorelli, Pietro Napoh, " SulF inven-
zione della bussola nautica . . .," 58
Silberschlag, J. E. (at Dalton, John), 308
Siljestrom Peter Adam (Vetensk Acad.
Handl. 1814), 139
Silliman, Benjamin (1779-1864), " The
American Journal of Science and the
Arts," " Principles of Physics," 22, 28,
29» 3°. 56, 61, 139, 140, 157, 191,
289, 37T« 389, 423. 44°. 446' 447>
448, 449, 452, 468, 488, 495, 498, 499
Silow (at Faraday, Michael), 492
Silurus electncus, 192, 299, 374
Silvaticus, Matthew (fl. A.D. 1344), 2&>
82, 529, 539
Silvestre, Aug. Francois de (1762-1851),
102, 303, 306
Simmons, John, " An essay on the cause
of lightning," 1775, 556
Simon of Bruges. See vStevinus.
Simon, Paul Louis (1767-1815), " Re-
sultate d. galvanismus " : Berlin,
1801 (at Galvani, Luigi, A.D. 1786),
284, 419
Simpson, Sir J. (at Brewster, Sir David),
466
Singer, George John (1786-1817),
" Elements of electricity . . .," 205,
249, 4°6> 4J9, 428, 429, 430-432, 434,
435, 47°
Sinobas. See Rico-y-Sinobas, 308
Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard de
(1773-1842), 37, 40; "Historical
view of the literature of the South of
Flurope." See Dezebry, Ch., " Diction-
naire . . .," p. 2638.
Sixtus of Sienna (1520-1569), 504
Sjoesten, C. G., (at Martin, Benjamin),
253
vSkand. Lit. Selskabs Skrifter, 453
Skandia, " Svenska litteratur " : Up-
sala, 453
" Skandmaviska naturforskarnes ...'':
Forhandhngar, 1842, 299
Skrimshirc, W., Jr. (at A.D. 1806), 393
Sloane, Sir Hans (1660-1753), " Royal
Society Transactions, 547
Sloane, William M., " Aristotle and the
Arabs," 37
Small, Robert (at Kepler, Johann), 96
Smeaton, John (1724-1792) (Phil.
Trans., XLVI. 513, 1749), 176, 202,
203
Smee, Alfred (1818-1877), " Elements of
electro-metallurgy," 363, 397
Smiles, Samuel, " Lives of the.
Engineers . . .," 203
Smith, Willoughby (1828-1891), 369-
370 ; " Selenium, its electrical
qualities and the effect of light
thereon " : London, 1877.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington
D.C. Bulletin, Reports, etc., etc.,
140, 315, 324, 375, 389, 407, 413, 423,
455. 459. 476> 48l» 499
Smuck — Schmuck — Edmond Joseph
(b 1771), 284, 326, 327, 332, 419
Snell — Snellius — van Roijen — Wille-
brood (1591-1626), " Eratosthenes
Batavus," 1617, 521 t
Snow Harris. See Harris, Sir William
Snow.
Snyder, Carl, " The world machine,"
1907, 511, 512
Soave, Francesco (1743-1806), Scelta
d'opuscoli, 1776, 1804; Nuova scelta
d'opuscoli, 1804, 208, 298, 401
Soc. Gottingen recent. Comment, 220
Soc. Hafniensis. See Copenhagen.
Soc. Upsal, Nova Acta, 221
" Societa Italiana delle scienze;"
Memoire cli matematica y fisica,
Verona e Modena, 248, 249, 253, 254,
258, 294, 295, 298, 303, 306, 330, 413,
420, 423
" Societas regia scientiarum Gottingen-
sis," Commentationes, 8, 451
Society Academique de Laon, Bulletin
de la, 94
Societe Astronomique de France, Bulle-
tin de la, 93
INDEX
661
Societe Chimique d'Arcueil, 236
Society d'Agriculture d'Autun, 285
Societe d'Arcueil, Memoires de Physique,
334. 386, 389
Societe de Geneve, Memoires, etc., 140
Societe de Medecine. See Paris, also
Sedillot, Jean, 270, 284, 302
Societe d'Emulation dc Paris, 258, 284,
285
Societ6 de Sante de Lyon. See Petetin,
Jacques H. D., 229
Societl Galvani de Paris, opened Octo-
ber 24, 1802.
Societe Hollandaise des sciences, Haar-
lem.
Societe Internationale dcs Electriciens,
Bulletin : Pans, 1884 to date.
Societe medicale d'emulation de Paris,
Memoires, 258, 284, 285, 557
Societ^ Philomatheque, Pans, Bulletin
des Sciences, 249, 274, 277, 279, 284,
288, 300, 301, 302, 303, 306, 314,
3i*. 3^4. 3->6, 335, 347. 349, 374,
37^ 3/8, 38°. 3»3. 385, 4". 482,
483
Societe Physique. See Lausanne.
Societes Savantcs et Littcraires, Me-
moires, 285
Societes Savantes. . . . Sec Tessier,
Octave.
Society for the advancement of the Arts,
Geneva, 270
Society for the encouragement of Arts,
London, Transactions. See Society of
Arts.
Society of Arts . . . Transactions, publica-
tion commenced in London during
1783, 291, 305, 365, 367, 389, 397. 398,
399, 406, 407, 413, 437, 441, 442, 443,
458
Society of telegraph engineers, London,
440
Socrates (born c. 471-469), 7, 12, 503,
, 52/*. 543
Soirees htteraires See Coupe, J. M. L.
Sokolow (at Richmann, G. W., A D. 1753),
204
Solander, Daniel Charles (1736-1782),
456
Solinus, Caius Julius (fl. latter part
second century, A.D.), 7, 17, 22, 43,
124, 512, 540; " De situ et memora-
bilibus . . .," 1473; " De memorali-
bus (sic) mundi . . .," 1498; " De
mirabilibus mundi . . .," 1500.
Solly, E. (at Ingen-housz, A.D. 1779),
257
Solomon, King of Israel, 5
Solomon's Temple. See Temple of
Solomon.
Solon (c. 638-558 B.C.), 7
Somer, John, Minorite astronomer (at
Lully, Raymond), 32
Somerset, Edward (1601-1667), 126
Sommering, Samuel Thomas von (1755-
1830), 284, 304, 331, 384, 406-407, 412,
420, 421, 422, 424, 435, 475
Sommering, William (at Sommering,
S. T. von, A.D. 1809), 407
Sommerville— Somerville, Mrs. Mary
Fairfax (1780-1872), " Connection of
the Physical Sciences," " On the
earth . . .," 171, 377, 410, 423, 455,
460, 476, 479, 484
Sonmni de Manoncourt, Charles Nicolas
Sigisbert (1751-1812), who, with
Virey, Julien Joseph, edited the im-
portant supplement to " Buffo n's
Natural History," 6, 30, 33, 37,
55
Sophists (at Philostratus, Flavins), 533
Sophocles, " Electra," 507. See also
Euripides.
Sotacus describes five kinds of native
magnets, 13
Souciet, P. Etienne (1671-1744), "Ob
servations mathematiques ..." (at
2637 B.C.), i
Soulavic. See Giraud-Soulavie.
Spallanzani, Abbe Lazaro (1729-1799),
239, 240, 255, 258, 270, 271, 284, 298,
33^, 355
Sparks, Jarcd, " Library of Am. Biogra-
phy/1 " Works of Bcnj. Franklin," 69,
199, 239, 252
Spath, J. L. (at Dalton, John), 308
Specific inductive capacity, discovered
by Faraday, Michael, 239, 491, 49^,
493
Specific inductive capacity of different
gases (Brit. Assoc. Report for 1880,
pp. 197-201).
" Spectator " for Dec. 6, 1711 (at Strada,
F., A.D. 161 7), 99
Spedding, Ellis and Heath, 99
Speed's Atlas, mentioned at Mercator,
Spencer, Knight, 400
Speng — Spengel — Leonhard, " Alex.
Aphrod Quaestonium naturalium . . .,"
1842; " Incerti . . . Aristotelis . . .,"
1842; " Anaximenis . . . Aristotelis
ad Alexandrum," 1844, 27, 512
Spidberg, J. C. (at Dalton, John), 308
Spider thread filaments: Bennet 1787,
Fontana 1793.
Spiegel, Friedrich (at Zoroaster), 541
Spon, Charles, xi, 362
Spottiswoode, William (1825-1883), De
la Rue, Warren, and Mueller, Hugo,
W. (Proc. Roy. Soc., XXIII. pp. 356-
Spottiswoode, W., and Moulton, John
Fletcher (Phil. Trans., 1879, pp. 165-
229).
Sprat, Thomas, " History of the Royal
Society," 132
Spratt, Lieut. James (1771-1853),
" Homograph . . .," 400
Spreng, Johann, " Hist. R. Herb," 193
Sprengel, Kurt Polycarp Joachim,
" Histoire de la m6decine," 529, 531,
538
Squario. See Sguario.
662
INDEX
Stabili, Francesco degli, the real name of
Cecco cT Ascoh (1257-1327), "Accrba,"
xx, 524, 531
Stadius, eminent astronomer of the six-
teenth century, who succeeded, in the
Paris University, the famous Peter
Ramus— Pierre de la Ramee (1515-
1572), " Tabulue Bergenses," 1560, 510
Stahelin, C. (at Harris, William Snow), 470
Stahl, George Ernest (1660-1734), 261,
262, 362
Stambio, C. (at Jadelot, J. F. N.), 330
Stanhope, Charles, third Earl of. See
Mahon, Lord.
Stanhusius, Mich., " De Mctcoris . . .,"
1572 and 1578.
Stanley, Sir Edward, of Tongue Castle,
121
Stanley, Venetia Anastasia, 121
Stark, Dr James, of Edinburgh, 375
Stark, J. C. (at Galvani, Luigi, A.D. 1780),
284
Stark, John, " Biographia Scotica" :
Edinburgh, 1805, 311
Starke, Mariana (at School of Athens),
542
Statistical Society, London, 471
Staunton, Sir George Thomas (1737-
1801), " The history of the great and
mighty kingdom of China/' "Account
of an Embassy," i, 21
Steavenson, Robert, Dissert, dc elec-
tncitate . . .," 1778, 556
Steele, Robert, " Gleanings from Barthol.
de Glan villa," 16; " Medueval Lore,"
526
Steichen, Michel, " Vie et travaux de
Simon Stevinus," 79
Steiglehuer — Steiglehner — Colestin
(1738-1819), 272, 274
Stemdachner, F. (at Shaw, George), 299
Steinhaueser, Johannes Gottfried (1768-
1825).
Stemheil, Karl August (1801-1870), 422
Stcimnger and Neggerath, 315
Stenibdmeider — Steinschneider — Moritz
(1816—1907), " Intorno alia calamita,"
38, 7^
Stella, F. M. (at Amoretti, Carlo), 401
Stens — Stensen — Niels --Nicolas, 1671,
270
Stephen, Leslie. See " Diet, of National
Biography."
Stephens (at Franklin, Benjamin), 196
Stepling, Jos. (at Dal ton, John), 308
Stevens, B. P., and Brown, xx.
Stevinus, Simon (1548-1628), called
Simon of Bruges, 63, 78, 79, 80, 81,
102, 517. See Wright, Edward.
Stewart, Professor Balfour, " Lessons in
elementary physics ": London, 1872.
Stillingfleet, Edward (1635-1699), 147
Stobacus, Joannes (rl. c. A.D. 500), 24
Stockholm, Royal Academy of Sciences,
187, 232
Stockier de Borja, Franc, de (1759-1829),
530
Stoeckl, Albert, 39
Stceffler, Johann, " Coelestium . . . to-
tius sphericac . . .," 553
Stones, meteoric. See Salverte.
Stow, John (1525-1605), 210, 211
Strabo, Greek historian (66-28 B.C.), 17,
67* 520, 533
Strada, Famiaiius, Italian Jesuit (1572-
1649), " Prolusiones Academical . . .,"
82, 98, 123
Strato of Lampsacus, philosopher who
lived in the reign of Ptolemy Phila-
delphia, 542
Streizig of Verona (at Gay-Lussac, J. L.,
A D. 1804), 389
Stroemer — Stromer — Marten (1707-1 770)
187
Struve, Christian August (1767-1807),
326, 385, 433
Strype, John (1643—1737), 210, 232
Stuart, Thomas (at Ampere, A. M., A.D.
1820), 477
" Student, The, or Oxford and Cam-
bridge Misc.," 98
Stuebler— Stubcr — Eugen, " Life of
Franklin, 199
Stuello, " Bibl Scrip., S. J. " : Rome,
1676, no
Stukeley, Rev. William (1687-1765),
187-189
Sturgeon, William (1783-1850), " Annals
of Electricity," 1836-1843 ; " Lectures
on Electricity": London, 1842;
" Scientific Researches " : Bury, 1850;
" Annals of Philosophical Discovery
. . .," 79, 80, 140, 142, 162, 181,
199, 201, 204, 207, 223, 232, 239, 243,
245, 256, 257, 263, 296, 297, 304, 306,
33°, 337> 339, 347> 359, 37°» 3«4, 3^8,
394, 395, 397- 4°6> 4°7» 4°8» 4T4, 4*5.
420, 428, 432, 433, 440, 441, 454, 455,
460, 464, 468, 472, 476, 481, 482, 483,
491, 498
Sturla, Jarl — Snorri Sturlason, 44
Sturm, Johann Christoph, of the Altdorff
University (1635-1703), 129-130
Slurmy's " Mariner's Magazine,-" 143,
242
Stuvenius (at Columbus, Christopher,
A.D. 1492), 67
Subtle — subtil — subtile — matter (materia
subtihs], subtile medium, 57, 122, 133,
151, 174, 183, 212, 213, 214, 355, 360,
495
Succmum — Succini, 137, also at p.
8.
Sue, Jean Joseph (1760-1830), " Re-
cherches physiologiqucs," 306 (Hoefer,
" Biog. Gen.," 1865, Vol. 44, pp. 620-
621)
Sue, Pierre aine (1739-1816), " Histoire
du Galvanisme," 247, 248, 249, 264,
275, 281, 285, 299, 301, 303, 306, 326,
3^8, 330, 350, 353, 355, 3*59, 361, 363,
376, 378, 3«3, 385
Suhm, Peter Frederik, " In effigien
Torfaei . . ." (at A.D. 1266), 45
INDEX
663
Suidas, author of a prominent Greek
lexicon compiled during the tenth
century, 541
Sulzer, Johanii Georg (1720-1779), 152,
223, 312, 419
Summanus, night source of lightning, 9
Sunde, Janus Hercules de (pseud, of
Sch vventer, Daniel, 1585-1636), 81, 125,
240
Suiidelin, K., 1822 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine, A.D. 1803), 385
Suspension of statues, etc., in mid-air,
18, 123, 222, 527
" Svenska Vctenskaps Akademiens
Handlingar " for 1740, 168
Swammerdam, fan (1637—1682), 202
Swanwick, Anna, translator of yEschylus,
, 4
Swede n borg, Emmanuel (1688-1772),
163-165
Swedish Academy of Sciences, 190
Swickardus (at Browne, Sir Thomas, A.D.
1640*), 124
Swieten, Gerard van, pupil of Boerhaave
(at A.D. 1722), 157
Swiettiki of Denmark (at A.D. 1745),
r74
Swift, William (at Henley, William T.),
^37
Swinden, Jan Hendrik van (1746-1823),
" Tentamina theorias mathematical
. . .," 1772;" Kecueil de memoires sur
1'analogie de relectricite et du magnc-
tisme . . .," 1784; " Analogia elec-
tricitatis et magnetismi," 1780-1781;
" Positiones physical," 1786, 65, 103,
1 06, 121, 131, 135, 140, 170, 199, 218,
224, 229, 230, 233, 237, 240, 254, 263,
271-274, 285, 309, 393
Sylvester, Charles (at A D. 1805, 1806 and
1812), 392, 394, 419
Symcs, R., 1771 (at Thillaye-Platel,
Antoine), 385
Symmer, Robert (d. 1763), 161, 218-220,
221, 224, 409
Symonds, John Addington (at Ficino,
Marsiglio), 515
Symons, G. J, (at Franklin, Benjamin),
199
Szuki — Shiki— or " Historical Memoirs
of Szu-nia-thsian " — Szu-mats'een —
the greatest of all Chinese historical
works, 5
TABLE generale des Bulletins des societes
savantes. See Tessier, Octave.
Tachard, Father Guy (d. 1714), 156
Tacitus, Publius Caius Cornelius (c.
A.D. 54-120), " Germania," " Annals,"
" Agricola," etc., 140, 524. See
" Annals of C. C. Tacitus."
Tafel, Dr. R. L. (at Swedenborg, E.),
163
Tafuri, Giovanni Bernardino, " Scrittori
. . . di Napoli," 1749, 540
Taisnier, Jean — Joannes (Taisnier of
Hainault — Hannonius) ( 1 509-1 562) ,
" De natura magnetis . . .," 1562,
13. 46> 53
Tait, Professor Peter Guthrie. See
Thomson, Sir William.
Talbot, Sir Gilbert, on magnetical
remedies, 126
Talmud, designation of the loadstone,
15
Tamery, Prof. Paul, " Pour Thistoire de
la science Hellene," 8, 504, 511, 532
Tarchon, founder of Etruscan thcurgism,
9
Tarde, J., " Les usages . . . esguille
ayniantt'e," 1621, 553
Ta turn's lectures (at Faraday, Michael),
455, 4<X>
Taylor and Phillips, editors of the Phil.
Mag., 466
Taylor, Brook — Brooke, F.R.S. (1085-
1731), 150, 155, 156, 191, 264
Taylor, Richard (1781-1858), " Scientific
Memoirs," 428, 495
Taylor, Thomas, translator of lambli-
chus, the treatises of Aristotle and the
six books of Proclus, 2, 503, 537
Taylor, W. B., " Memoir of Joseph
Henry," 447, 460; " (i) La longitude
terrestre . . .," 1556; " Rcchcrches
sur Ics proprictcs magnetiques du
fcr," icS62
Tcheou-Koung — Choung (Ki-tan), 3
Tchcyeou — Tchi-yeou — Chinese prince
(at 2637 B.C.), i
Tchi-nan, chariot of the South, 3
Tchin-Thsang-Ki, 77
Tching-Onang, nephew of Tcheou-
Koung, regent of the Chinese Empire,
Tchou-lou plains, i
" Telegrafista (II)," publication com-
menced in Rome during 1881.
Telegrafo elettrico scintillante, 227
Telegraph Polygrammatic, 397
Telegraph-Anthropo of Knight Spencer
employed as early as 1805, 400
Telegraph electro-chemical, the first, 407
Telegraph, Symbolic, also the Terrestrial
Telegraph introduced by Macdonald,
399
Telegraph : on the history of the word
telegraph. See Axon, W. E. A. See
History of the telegraph.
" Telegraphe, La." See Ternant.
" Telegrapher, The," publication com-
menced in New York during 1864,
afterwards called " Journal of the Tele-
" Telegraphic Journal," publication com-
menced in London during 1864, 408
Telegraphic signals, first transmitted
by voltaic electricity, 406
" Telegraphist, The," publication com-
menced in London during 1883 ; " The
Telegraphist and Electrician " first
appeared in London during 1876,
664
INDEX
Telegraphs, electric and galvanic. See
Electric Telegraphs.
Telegraphs, optical. See Semaphores.
Telegraphy, histories of, 301 : written
by I. U. J. Chappe, Paris, 1824, and Le
Mans, 1840; Bois, Victor, 1853-1856;
Bonel, A., Paris, 1857; Mangin, M.,
1752; Reynaud, J. J.f 1851.
Telegraphy, 'oceanic : Brett in 1858; and
Brigge, also in 1858.
Telegraphy, pneumatic, by Medhurst,
408
Telegraphy, wireless, 10, 10
" Telephone, The," " Review of elec-
trical science " : London, 1889.
Telephoning — communicating sound
through a. wire — in 1667, 143
Telesio, Bernardino, " De rcrum
natura . . .," 1570.
Tellograph of Richard Lovell Edgeworth,
316
Tern pieman, in the " Nouvelhste," 175^,
298
Temple of Jerusalem, never struck by
lightning during 1000 years, 9
Temple of Diana at Ephcsus, 18
Temple of Juno had its roof covered
with sword blades, 9
Temple of Pharos, 18
Temple of Solomon, 10
Temple of Serapis at Alexandria, 18
Temples of Hercules, 13
Tentzel — Tcntzelius — Andreas, " Medi-
cina Diastalica," 245
Tentzel, Wilhelm Ernst, " Collection
Academique," 229
Termeyer, Raimondo Maria de, 298, 299
Ternant, A. L., " Le Telegraphic, " 147,
264, 265
Terrella — terrella-wicrogc, little earth,
47, 48, 50, 83, 86, 121. See Petit P.,
also Wren, Sir Chr.
" Terrestrial Magnetism," 59, 138, 140,
199. See also Bauer, L. A.
Terzagus, " Musaeum Septalianum," 159
Teske, J. G. (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Tessier, Henri Alexandre, " Eloges des
hommes illustrcs," 93, 515, 527, 539
Tessier, Octave, " Table gendrale des
bulletins des societes savantes " :
Paris, 1873, 43
Tetens, J. N., " Schreiben . . . mag-
neteuren," 1775, 246
Tetraodon — tetrodon — eleotricus, 298, 374
Teyler, Archives du Musce, 160
Teyler Van der Hulst, Pieter (1702-
1778), " Tweede Genootschap," pub-
lished at Haarlem, 1781, 280
Teylerian electrical machine, 292
Teylerian Society. See Haarlem.
Thalen, J. R., " Recherches . . . mag-
n6tiques du fer ..." (Nova Acta
Reg. Soc. Upsala, III. Serie), 1862.
Thales of Miletus (639-548 B.C.), 7, 15,
515. 532, 534. 542, 543
Thatcher— Thacher— John Boyd, 66,
524
Theamedes of the ancients believed to be
identic.il with the tourmaline, 17
Thebit-ben-Korah — Thebitius (836-901),
540-54*
Thebitius. See Thebit-ben-Korah.
Themistius (c. A.D. 315-390), " Oratio,"
" Euphrates," 10, 541
Th6nard, Louis Jacques, Baron (1777-
i857). 249, 338. 340, 347. 352, 354.
376, 3?o, 388, 389, 419, 480
Theodoric the Great (c. A.D. 454-526),
18
Theodorus, Emperor, 144 (entered at
Louis Maimbourg).
Thcodosius the Great (fl. 379-395), 24,
54i
Theophrastus (372-286 B c.), 7, 13, 21,
27°. 53°. 539, 543- See Scaliger, J. C.,
also Hill, Sir John.
Theory, undulatory — Young, Dr.
Thomas, 395
Thermo-dynamics, second law of, 346,
392. The first law or principle of
thcrmo-dynamics was enunciated by
the Erench physicist Carnot (Nicolas
Leonard Sardi, 1796-1832).
Thermo-electric inversion, discovered by
Prof. James Cummings.
Thermo-electric needle of Becquercl,
463
Thermo-electric tension of minerals
(Phil. Mag , Ser IV. Vol. XXX. pp.
337-339, 1865).
Thermo-electricity: Dessaignes, 415;
Seebeck, 415, Brewster, 465. See
Cummings, James, and consult Table
Analytique des Annalcs de Ch. et de
Phys., Inch'x, pp. 364-370.
Thermo-clectrometer of Harris, 469
Thevenot, Melchisedech (1620-1692),
Recueil de Voyages," 47, 53
Thibaud VI, Comte dc Champagne, 33
Thicknesse, Ra. (at Williamson, C. H.)
270
Thillaye, Jean Baptiste Jacques (1752-
1822), 385
Thillaye-Platel, Antoine (1782-1806),
274, 384-385, 430
Thilly, Frank, 504, 505. See Weber,
Alfred.
Tholuck, Friedrich August Gottren
(1799-1877), 38
Thoman, Fedor (at Arago, D. F. J.),
480
Thomas Aquinas, Saint, Doctor Angelicus
(1225-1274), 16, 35, 36, 37, 39, 57,
I7I» 5°5> 5°6- See Joannes de Rupe-
scissa.
Thomas, John, " Univ. Pron. Diet.,"
146, 148
Thomas, Joseph (Diet, of Nat. Biogr.),
163, 286, 370
Thompson, A. T., translator of Salverte's
" Philosophy of Magic," i
Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford
(1753-1814), 225, 346, 370-371- See
Copley Medal, also Rumford Medal.
INDEX
665
Thompson, Silvanus P. (1851-1916),
Introduction, xi, xiii-xv, xvii, xix,
45, 46, 54, 63, 92, 113, 189, 342, 498.
See Aerolites.
Thorns, William T. (at Strype, A.D.
1754), 210
Thomson, Allen (1809-1884), 425
Thomson, Elihu, xi, 184
Thomson, Thomas (1773-1852), " An
outline of the sciences of heat and
electricity," ist ed. 1830; " Annals
of Philosophy " : London, 1813-1826;
"Outline of the Sciences . . .";
" Annals of Philosophy " ; " History
of the Royal Society " : London,
1812; " History of Chemistry," etc.;
90, 105, 132, 150, 152, 155, 156, 162,
167, 189, 190, 196, 199, 214, 218, 221,
222, 227, 233, 239, 248, 249, 251, 256,
262, 263, 268, 277, 284, 286, 313, 247,
3^3. 364. 37°. 4°3. 4°8. 4I2> 4M. 423»
427.^35, 44°. 44*. 443, 446. 449. 45^,
455.^58,461,468,478.470
Thomson, Sir William, first Baron Kelvin
of Largs (1824-1907), dedication, x,
xi, 87, 141, 218, 239, 321, 346, 371,
392, 411, 412, 413, 455/470, 492, 493,
499. See Le Roux, F. P., Electro-
dynamic qualities of metals (Phd.
Trans. Roy Soc. for 1879, pp. 55-85).
Thor, son of Odin, personifies electricity,
13
Thorc and Croissant (at Hare, Robert),
449
Thorp, R. W. D. (at Thillaye-Platel),
385
Thorpe, T. E , " Essays in historical
chemistry," 132, 189, 228, 239, 262,
347' 499
Thou, Francois Augustc de (at Fracas-
tono, H.), 515
Thouin, Andre (compass plant), 259
Thoung-Kian-Kang-Mou, 2, 5
Thouret, Michel Augustin (1749-1810),
" Rapport sur les aimants . . . Le
Noble," 1783; " Lettre sur le mag-
netisme animal," 1784-1785, 245, 273
Thouret, T. Augustc (at Mesmer, E. A.),
237
Thouri, de (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Thouron, V. C , 505
Thouvcnel, Pierre (i 747-1815), " Memoire
physique . . .," 1781, 384, 401
Thrasyllus, the grammarian, 511
Thumstein, apparatus for transmitting
sound through wires (at A.D. 968), 28
Thunder and lightning attracted and
directed by the ancients, 9, 294
Tiato (at Toaldo, G.), 253
Tiberghien, Guillaume, " Essai thcorique
et historique sur la generation des
connaissances humaines," 42, 102,
122, 504, 505.5H. 519
Tiberius, 20, 513
" Tidsskrift for naturvidenskaberne ;
af Orsted . . ." : Kjobenhavn, 1822-
1828, 455
Tillard— Tilland— Captain (islands of
eruption), 417
Tillemont, Louis Sebastien Lenain de
(1637-1698), " Histoire des Em-
pereurs," " Memoires Hist. Eccles.,"
25. 525, 541
'fillet, " Sur Fincendie," 1760, 555
Tilloch, Alexander (1759-1825), one of
the editors of the " Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science,"
252, 381, 392, 396, 429, 434. 452, 467.
474. 478
Timaeus (c. 352-256 B.C.), Greek his-
torian, 8
Timaeus. See Plato.
" Times," London, 134, 248
Timochares (c. 367-283 B.C.) (at Ptolemy
— Ptolemaeus II, 1 8
Tinan, Barbier de (at Toaldo, G.), 253
Tingry, P. F. (Journal de Physique, Vol.
XLV1I ), 557
Tipaldo, Emilio A de, " Biografia dcgli
Italiani illustri, nella scienze . . .'" :
Venezia, 1834, 253, 300, 303
Tiphys Batavus, 521
Tiraboschi, Girolamo (i73I~I794)>
" Biblioteca Modenesc," " Stona della
litteratura Itahana," 55, 113, 510,
514, 529, 540
Tisserand, L. M., " Paris et ses histor-
^ iens," 34
Tissot, " Historic de la philosophic," 532
Titelmanni, Franc, " Naturahs Philos.
Compendium," 1571, 553
Titius- — Tietz — Johann Daniel (1729—
I796), " DC clectrici experimcnti . . .,"
1771 ; " Gemeinutzige . . .," " Ta-
bleau du travail actuel de toutes
les Academies dc FEurope . . .," 158
Titus Livius (b. A.D. 59), Great Roman
historian, generally called Livy, 10,
24, 78
Toaldo, Giuseppe (1719-1798), 140, 253,
254, 271, 295
Todd, John T. (experiments on the
torpedo), 436
Tolloy, Crimotel de (at Jadelot, J. F. N.),
33°
Tomlinson, Charles, " Cyclopaedia of
useful arts and manufactures," 317,
322, 337, 339, 437. 455, 47°
Tommasi — Tomasi — Donato, of Paris
(b. i848),"Traitedespileselectriques,"
365, 376. See Romagnosi, G. D.
Tonkin, John, of Penzance, 339
Topaz, a talisman, 8
Torfaeus, Thormodr (Phormodur Tor-
fesen) (1636-1719), 44
Torpedo, torpille. See also"raia torpedo,"
also Savi, P., n, 20, 136, 149, 229, 230,
239, 240, 241, 258, 270, 319, 334, 345,
346, 374, 409, 436, 493, 527
Torsion balance, invented by Coulomb,
275
Tortolini, Barnaba, " Annali di scienze
. . .," 8 Vols. ; " Annali di matema-
tica . . .," 1856-1861.
666
INDEX
Toscanelli, Paul del Pozzo (1397-1482),
34; Nouv. Biog. Gen. (Hcefer), Vol.
45. PP- 557-558.
Touchc, Daillant de la, 164
Toulouse, Academy Reports, M6moires,
etc., 229, 288, 556
Tourdes, J. (at Aldini, G.), 306
Tourmaline, 8, 13, 17, 152, 153, 184, 193,
218, 286, 287-288, 364, 451, 465
Tourtelle, Etienne, " Histoire philoso-
phique de la medecine," 65, 170
Toutain (at Thillayc-Platel), 386
Townsend, W. J., " The great schoolmen
of the Middle Ages,11 37, 41, 505
Tozzetti, Targioni, " Atti e Memorie
inedite dell' Accademia del Cimeu-
to . . .," 3 Vols. ; also, " Notizie . . .,"
3 Vols. 1780, 556
Trail — Trail), Thomas Stewart (1781-
1862), 339, 465, 477
Tralles, Johann Georg (1763-1822)
(" Allgcmeine Deutsche Biographic,"
1894, Vol. 38, pp. 494-495), 292-293,
, 33i
Transactions Elcc. Soc. Mannheim, 29.
See " Academia electoral is scienti-
arum," which is also called " Academia
Theodoro Palatina."
Transmitting intelligence by wire ; in
early days said to have been done by
one of the Cleopatras, 12. Sec also
Kung-foo-Whing (at A.D. 968), 28
Tredwey, Robert (Phil. Trans., XIX.
711), 1698, 554
Trembley, A., on light caused by quick-
silver shaken in glass tube, 175, 177,
555
Trcmery, Jean Louis (1773-1851), 288,
324; "Observations sur les aimants
elliptiques," 1797.
Trendelenberg, Friedrich Adolf (1802-
*&72). 544
Trent, History of the Council of, 90, no,
528
Tressan, Louis Elizabeth de la Vergne de
(1705-1783), 189, 385, 417
Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold (1776-
1837). 255, 257, 327, 557
Treviso Athenaeum, " Memorie scien-
tifiche . . .," 1817-1847, 253
Treviso Giornale, " Giornale sulle
scicnze . . .," 1821-1830.
TreVoux, Memoires de, 551
Trew, Abdias, " De meteoris . . ." :
Argent, 1654.
Trichiurus electricus — trichiurus Indicus,
297, 298
Triennald, S. von, 308
Tries' claim to Van Marum's machine,
280
Trieste, School of Arts and Navigation,
407
Trinity College, at Cambridge, England,
4, 212, 319
Tripier, A. (at Thillaye-Platel), 386
Trismegistus. See Hermes.
Tristan, Comte J. de, 401
Trithemius, Johannes (1462-1516),
author of " Steganographia . . .,"
1606; " Annalium Hirsaugiensium
. . .," 1690; " De scriptoribus eccle-
siasticis," 37, 504, 554
Trommsdorff, Johann Barthelomaiis
(1770-1837), 285, 352-353, 419
Troostwijk, Adriaan Pacts van (1752-
1837), and Deiman, Jean Rodolph,
280, 291-292, 385
Trouve (at Zamboni, Giuseppe), 420
Tsching-Vang, second emperor of the
Tchcou dynasty, 3
Tubingen. See Gmelin family.
Tubingen, " Morgenblatt," 351
Tiibingcn University, 284, 303, 433, 450,
45i
Tufts, James II. See Windelband's
" History of Philosophy."
Tulk, Dr. Alfred, 404
Tullus Hostilius (672-640 B.C.), third
legendary King of Rome, 9 *
Turnbull, Laurence (1821-1900)* " Elec-
tro-magnetic Telegraph, with an
historical account of its progress " :
Philad., 1853, IT, 317, 318, 368, 384,
407, 422, 436, 440/455, 476
Turner, Robert, " Electricology ; or a
discourse upon electricity . . .,"1746,
554
Turner, William, " History of Philoso-
phy," 504
Turin — Torino — Academic Royale des
Sciences or University, 30, 140, 209,
294, 295, 296, 302, 306, 367
Turin — Torino — Bibl. de, 284
Turin— Torino — College of Fine Arts,
294
Turin — Torino — Memorie della Soc. Agr.,
257, 295
Turin — Torino — Normal College, 294
Turin — Torino — Nuova Encyclopedia
Italiana. See Bocardo.
Turin — Torino — Observatory, Annals of,
295
Turin — Torino. See Giornale Scien-
tifico d'una Soc. Fil.
Twast (at A.D. 1812), 419
Two-fluid theory : Hare, 1823; Ingen-
housz, 1778; Symner and Dufay,
409—410
Tycho Brahe" (1546-1601), 92, 94, 95, 102,
508, 530, 533. See Jocher, C. G.,
" Allgemeines Gel. Lex.," pp. 1325-
1327.
Tyndall, John (1820-1893),- "Heat as
a mode of motion," vii, xiii, 14, 131,
132, 142, 166, 170, 173, 177, 231,
255, 282, 314, 344, 346, 380, 383, 396,
411, 433, 487, 489, 492, 495, 497, 498,
499. See " Lives of the Electricians,"
by William T. Jeans, 1887; " Lessons
in Electricity." Also Rumford Medal.
Typhon, bone of (Typhoeus, in Greek
Legend), 14
INDEX
667
U
UBERTI, Bonifacio — Fazio degli (d. 1368),
" II Dittamondo . . . ridotto," 44
Ucberweg, Dr. Friedrich (1826-1871),
History of Philosophy, translated by
George S. Morris, 26, 32, 33, 37, 38,
39, 40, 41, 102, 122, 504, 505, 507, 510,
511, 512, 518, 519, 532, 534. 537
Ughelli, Fernandino, " Italia Sacra," 516
Ugo di Bercy (Sercy) (fl. thirteenth
century A.D.), 56, 61. See Nouvelle
Biographic G6nerale, of Ho?fer, V. 783.
Ugollet at Venice, publisher of Ausonius'
" Mosella," 18
Uhland, W. H. (at Faraday), 498
Ulloa, Don Antonio de, Spanish mathe-
matician (1716-1795). Makes the
earliest recorded reference to the
Aurora Australis, 141, 165-166
Ulstadius, Philippus (ft*, sixteenth cen-
tury A.D.), " Coelum philosophorum " :
Paris, ,1544, 553
Undulatory theory of light, interferences
in the, Dr. Young, 1807, 395
Unger, Johann Friedrich von (1716-
1781), " Abhandlung von dcr natur
der Electricitat " : Braunschweig,
1745 (Hamb. Magaz., VIII. 1751).
" United Service Journal," 397
United States Japan Expedition (Zodia-
cal Light), 142
Universal Encyclopaedia, 38
Universal Lexicon, Leipzig, 48
University de Padone. See Boulay, H de.
Universities of Europe in the Middle
Ages. See Rashdall, Hastings.
Unzer, T. C., 245
Upsala Academy (University), 141, 163,
168, 221, 387
Upsala Botanical Gardens, 259; Com-
pass plant, 259
Upsala Royal Society, 232
Urbanitzky, Alfred von, " Electricity in
the service of man . . .," edited by
Richard Wormell, and revised by R.
Mullineux Walmsley, London, 1886;
" Lcs lampes clectriques . . ." : Paris,
1885 (Bibliotheque des Actualites
Industrielles, No. IV.), 162, 219
Ure, Andrew (1778-1857), " Dictionary
of Arts," " Dictionary of Chemistry,"
354, 370, 417-418, 440, 446, 455
Ursa Major : star referred to by William
Gilbert in connection with Marsilius
Ficinus, Cardanus, Lucas Gauricus
and Gaudentius Merula, who believe
it to influence magnetic variation, 108
Usigho, C., 1844 (at Jadelot, J. F. N.), 330
Ussher, Henry (1743-1790) (at Jonn
Dalton), 308
V
Van : all additional names with this
prefix appear under the names.
VACCA, Andrea (1772-1826), 299
Vacca, Leopold (1732-1812), 299
Vacua, in. Propagation of light in
vacua, 132, 182, 202, 294. See Picard,
Jean (Anc. Memoires, Paris, Vols. II.
and X.) ; Return of electric light in
vacua (Grummert, G. H.), 172; Attri-
tion of bodies in vacuo (Phil. Trans.,
XXIV. 2165); Electric light in
vacuo (Dantzig, Memoirs, I. 417).
Vail, Alfred (1807-1859), " History of
the American Electro-magnetic Tele-
graph . . .," 286, 316, 436
Vairano, Josephus, " Diatnba de elec-
tricitate," 1777, 556
Valenciennes (at Arago), 481
Valens, Flavins, Roman Emperor, 144
(A.D. 328-378). See Moreri, L ,
" Grand Diet.," Vol. VIII. pt. 3,
p. 13; Hoofer, " Nouv. Biog. Gen.,"
Vol. XLV. pp. 855-856
Valentinelli, Giuseppe, Royal Librarian
of the Marciana, Venice, 1 1 1
Valentmus, Bazihus (fifteenth century)
— Basil Valentine, " Conclusiones . . .
magncct . . ." : Rottm., 1632.
Valere, Andre, Biblio. Belgica, 538
Vallemont, Pierre Lc Lorrain de (1649—
1721), "La physique occulte, en
traite cle la baguette divinatoire,"
1693; " Description de 1'aimant . . .,"
1692, no, 144, 401
Vallensis, Roberti, " Di vcritatc . . .,"
1593 and 1612, 502
Vallerms, H. (at f hillaye-Platel), 386
Vallesius — Valles de Corarrubias — Fran-
cisco, 538
Valh, Eusebio (1755-1816), 249, 270,
285, 302-303, 327, 393, 419
Vallot, Joseph, " Report on difference
between chalcedony and tourmaline,"
288
Vanderlot's work on the Surinam Eel, 230
Van Etten, Henry, is pseud, of Jean
Leurechon (1591-1670), q.v., " Mathe-
matical Recreations," " Recreations
Mathematiques," 109, 126, 127, 148,
401
Van Swinden. See Swinden.
Van't Hoff, Professor Jakobus Hen-
drikus (6. 1852, d. 1915). He estab-
lished, with F. W. Ostwald, the
" Lehrbuch der Allegem. Chemie "
and " Zeitschrift fiir physikalische
chemic " ; " Dix ann6es dans 1'histoire
d'une th^orie . . .," 1865. See Ost-
wald.
Vapereau, G., " Dictionnaire Universel
des Contemporains " : Paris, 1893.
Vargas, Bernardo Perez de, " De re
metallica," 502
Variation and dip of the magnetic
needle, observations on the. See
Gilpin, George.
Variation charts : Barlow, 1820 ; Church-
man, at 1790-1804; Halley, 1701;
Bianco, 1436.
Variation denied by Medina, Pedro de,
63-64
668
INDEX
Variation of the compass, first shown by
Burrowes — Borough — in 1592, 77
Variation of the declination : —
Annual — Cassini at 1782—1791, 117,
266; Cause of errors investi-
gated, Flinders, 1801, 348; Dip
or inclination, Hartmann, 1544,
70; Norman, 1576, 75—76; Pere-
grinus (1269), 76
Diurnal and horary — - Beaufoy
(1813), 427; Graham, 1722, 117,
156; Swindcn, 1784, 273; Cas-
sini IV. 1784, 157, 273
Intensity — " The third and most
important element of terrestrial
magnetism," Borda, 1776, 249
Seculay — Gellibrand, 1635, i:7- $ce
John Mair and John Pell, 1635.
Variation of the variation : Gellibrand,
1635, 117-118; Wright, Edw., 80;
Petit, P. (Phil. Trans, 1667, p. 502).
Varlcy introduced the use of compressed
air for message transmission, 408
Varnhagen, Francisco, Adollo de (at
Pedro Nunez), 531
Varthcma. See Vertomannus.
Vasco da Gania. See Gatna.
Vasco, on Galvanism, 327
Vasquez y Morales, D. Jos , " Ensayo
sobre la electricidad . . .," 1747, 555
Vassalli-Eandi, Antonio Maria (1761-
1825) See Bibliotheque Italienne ;
also Mem Accad. Torino, Vols. 6, 10,
12, 14, 22, 24, 26, 27, 30; Phil. Mag,
XV. 319; Journal de Physique,
1799, 1800; Bibhotcca Oltremontana,
1787 and 1788, 9, 207, 224, 257, 259,
270, 274, 285, 294-296, 298, 305, 300,
331- 3°3. 401. 4*9, 5*4
Vauquehn, Louis Nicholas (1763-1829),
247. 333, 344. 349, 352, 354, 355, 389,
419
Veau de Launay. See Delaunay.
Veau morel, Caullet cle, 265, 280
Veen, Otto van (Aquinas, St. Thomas),
5«5
Venanson, Flamminius — Flamnius, " De
I'lnvention de la boussole nautiquc,"
1808, 5, 17, 30, 31, 43, 54, 56, 57
Venetian Athenaeum— Ateneo di Venezia.
Venetian Imperial Royal Institution,
Atti . . . (also Mcmorie) dell' l.R.
Istituto Veneto cli science. . . .
Venetus, Paulus. See Sarpi.
Venturi, Giarnbattista of Modena (1746-
1822), 331, 333
Vcratti, Giuseppe of Bologna (1707-
1793), 186, 204, 213, 264, 384
Vergil — Virgil, " Deinventoribusrerum."
Vergil — Virgil (70-19 B.C.), Publius V.
Maro, " Georgics," " Eclogues,"
" TEneid," etc., title page.
Vergilius — Virgilius — Bishop of Salzburg
from 744 to the time of his death
during the year 784, 523
Verhand. van het Genootsch te Rotter-
dam, 280, 292
Vernier (at Coulomb, C. A. de), 276
Verona Lyceum, 420
" Verona Poligrafo," " Poligrafo, Gior-
nale di scienze . . .," 420
Verrall, A. W., translator of the Aga-
memnon of ^Eschylus, 4
Versorium, introduced by Wm. Gilbert,83
Vertommanus — Varthema — Ludovico di
(b. 1480, d. early sixteenth century),
69-70
Vespucci, Amerigo (1452-1512), Italian
navigator, in whose honour the new
world was named America, Vespuccius
Americus, 536, 537
Vetensk Akad. Nyr. Handl., 216, 257,
288, 299, 370
Vicenza, Giornalc Enciclopedico, Vi-
cenza 1779-1784, 253
Vicq d'Azyr, Felix (1748-1794). S6cr.
Perpetuel Soc. Royale de Medecine,
3% 303
" Vidensk. Salsk. Skrift. Ny Samml.,"
557. See Copenhagen Acac&my.
Viclet, F. F. (at Thillayc-Platel), 386
Viegeron, P. D., " Me" moire sur la force
des pointes," 252
Vienna Academy — " Kais Akad. der
Wissenschaften," 250. See aiso p. 408.
Vienna Polytechnic Institute, 407, 408
" Vicrteljehrschrift des Astronomischen
Gcsellschaft," Leipzig, 1879, 165
Vieta, Francis (1540-1603), 90, 102, 109
Vigenere, Blaise dc (1523-1596), 78
Vignaud, Henri, on Toscanelh and on
Columbus, 34, 66
Vigneul — Marville — -pseud. Noel Bona-
vcntura d'Argonne — " Melanges d'his-
toire et cle Litterature," 1699—1701, 97
Vilctte, M. F., Paper clectrophorus, 249
Vilgerderson, Floke (at Erode, the Wise),
28
Villeneuve, Arnaud de. See Arnaldus
de Villa Nova.
Villeneuve, (). de (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Vimercati, Guido, Rivista Scientifico-
Industriale.
Vincent and Boncompagni in " Bulletino
di Bibliogr.," Vol. IV., 520
Vincent de Beauvais (c. 1190-1264), xix,
1 6, 1 8, 33-35, 39, 40, 59
Vineis, P. de, 15
Vircy, Jules Joseph (1775-1847), " Dic-
tionnaire des sciences m6dicales," 425
Virgil. See Vergil.
Virginia University, 467
Virgula Divina or divining rod, at
Amoretti, 401
Visconti — Visconte — Pietro, author of
the oldest known portolan, 1311, 63
Vitalis, H., " De magnetica vulnerum
curatione," 1668, 554
Vitruvius, G. — Marcus Vitruvius Pollio —
believed to have flourished in the time
of Julius Caesar, 505, 510
Vitry, Jacobus de, Cardinal Bishop of
Ptolemais (d. betw. 1240 and 1244),
30> 56, 59
INDEX
669
Vivenzio, Le Chevalier G. (at Thillaye-
Platel), " Teoria e practica della elle-
tricita medica," 1784, 274, 385
Vogel, Johann Ludwig Andreas (1771-
1840), " Die wunder des magnetis-
mus " : Erfurt, 1818.
Vogt, Joannis, author of " Catalogus
Historico-Criticus," 1793, xix
Voigt, Johann Heinrich (1751-1823),
" Magazin fur das Neueste aus der
Physik," " Versuche . . . magnetis-
mus," lena, 1793; "Mag. fur Natur-
kunde . . ." See Lichtenberg, 314,
316, 318, 327, 368, 380, 383, 452
Volhard, Jacob, in " Le Momteur Scien-
tifique," 262
Volland— Voland— -Mile, (at Ledru Co-
inus), 224
Volpicelli, Paolo (1804-1879), " Intorno
. . . magnete," " Sul cognito feno-
meno . . .," 71, 353, 47°
Volt. . * . See Nipher, Francis Eugene.
Volta, Alessandro (1745-1827). See
" Raccolta Voltania " : Como, 1899,
217, 224, 245, 246-249, 261, 274, 276,
277, 278, 279, 284, 285, 288, 293, 295,
304, 320, 327, 331, 332, 337, 338, 339,
349, 35°, 35i. 36i, 368, 389, 395, 4l6»
419, 424, 426, 443, 447, 461, 462, 470,
483, 487, 490, 491. At p. 15, Vol. II.
of Catalogue of the Wheeler Gift is
mention of Volta's well-known letter
to Sir Joseph Banks, wherein he
announces his discovery of the Voltaic
pile, called by him Organe ilectvique
art i ft del.
Voltaic electricity, first suggestion as to
its chemical origin, 329
Voltaic pile, chemical theory of : Parrot,
George Friedrich (1802, 1831, 1838),
367-368
Voltaic pile, preparation of ammoniacal
amalgam, 388
Voltaire, F. M. Aronet de (1694-1778),
" Essai sur les nioeurs . . .,"56, 58-
59, 61
Von Vang, first emperor of the Tchcou
dynasty, 3
Vorsselmann de Heer, Pietcr Otto Cocn-
raad (1809-1841) (Algcm. Konst-en-
Letterb., 1836-1838, also Pogg. Ann.,
1839, 1841).
Vossius, G., " De Scientiis Mathem . . .,"
5J3
Vossius, Isaac, Canon of Windsor, " De
Motu Morium . . .," 1663.
Vuccher, Jean Jacques, " De Secretis
. . .," 1596, 26, 553
W
WADDING, Luc (1588-1657), " Annales
Ord. Min . . .," " J. Duns Scoti
Opera " in 12 Volumes : Lyons, 1639,
39, 41
Wagenaar, Jan, " Histoire de la Hol-
lande," 534
Wagner (at Zamboni), 420
Waite, Arthur Edward, " Lives of Al-
chemystical Philosophers," 32, 64, 65
Waitz, Jacob Seigismund von (1698—
1777). i?°. 4-^
Wa-Kan-san siu-tson-ye, the great Japa-
nese encyclopaedia, describes the com-
pass, 153
Wakeley, Andrew, " The mariners' com-
pass rectified," 555
Walchius (at Wilkins, John, and at
Kratzenstein, C. G.), 119, 172
Wales, William (1734-1798), English
mathematician, 242, 457
Wralimer, father of Theodoric and King
of the Goths, 29
Walker, Adam (1730-1821), 359-360
Walker and Mitchel (Astronomical Jour-
nal, Cambridge, Mass., 1848).
Walker, Charles Vincent (1811-1882),
" Electrotype Manipulation," " Man-
ual of Electricity, Magnetism and
Meteorology," 379, 384, 495; Walker,
C. V., and Lardner, Dionysius.
Walker, E. (Phil. Mag., XLI. XLII.
XLTIL, London, 1813-1814).
Walker, Edward, " Terrestrial and Cos-
mica! Magnetism " : Cambridge, 1866,
77, 107, 168, 268, 335
Walker, Ezekiel (at Bennet, Rev. Abra-
ham, and at Murray, John), 291, 429
Walker, Ralph, " Treatise on Magnet-
ism " and " Treatise on the magnet " :
London, 1794 and 1798, 54, 77, 119,
137, 157, 191, 232, 249,' 250, 546,
555
Walker, Richard (1679-1764), Royal
Society Transactions, 547
Walker, S. C., " Researches . . . me-
teors " (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1843).
Walker, William, Captain, " The mag-
netism of ships " : London, 1853, 69,
292, 348
Walker, William, senior (" Mem. of Dist.
Men of Science " : London, 1862), 440
Walker, William, junior, and Hunt,
Robert, " Memoirs of distinguished
men . . ." : London, 1864.
Walkiers — Walckiers — de Saint- Amand.
See Amand.
Wall, Dr. William, 152, 193
Waller, A. D. (Plant electricity), 260
Waller, Richard, translator of Essays of
the Accademio del Cimento, London,
1684, 143
Wallerius, G. (at Ingen-housz), 257
Wallis, John (1616-1703), 138, 141
Walmsley, R. Mullineux. See Urbanit-
zky.
Walsh, John (1725-1795), 149, 230, 239-
240, 241, 258, 270, 290, 298, 319
Waltenhofen, A. K. Elder von (Sitz. d.
K. Akad. d. Wiss., Wien, 1863, 1869,
1870),.
Walter and Girardi (Mem. Soc. Ital.,
III. 553), 298
Walter, Louis H., xi
670
INDEX
Walton and Cotton, " Complete Angler,"
1847, 37, 65, 109, 507
Waltzemiiller, Martinus Hylacomylus —
Waldseemuller — " Cosmographioc In-
troductio," 535-536
Ward, Henry (at Pasley, C. W.), 398
Ward, John, " Lives of the Gresham
Professors," 143
Ward, Samuel (1617-1689), " Magnetis
reductorium . . .," " Wonders of the
loadstone," 1637 and 1639-1640, 554
Ward, Thomas (1640-1704), 172
Ware (at Thillaye-Platel), 386
Wargentin, Pierre Guillaume (1717-
1783), 139, 157, 168, 190, 308
Waring, Edward John, " Bibliotheca
Therapeutica," 27
Warltire, John, 227, 228
Wart m arm, Louis Ehe Fran9Ois (1817-
1886), author of many scientific works.
The most notable ones on induction
appeared at Geneva 1844, 1845,
1846-1850; " Mcmoire sur les 6toiles
filantes " : Bruxelles, 1839, 207, 257
Washington (D. C.) National Academy
of Sciences, Memoir of, 321. See
Smithsonian Institution.
Water decomposition, methods of and
treatises on, 337
Watkins, Fcis. (at Zamboni, G., and at
Faraday, M.), 420, 484
Watson, Sir William (1717-1787), 17,
159, 168, 175-177, 178, 186, 189, 196,
197, 198, 221, 227, 231, 251, 320, 385
Watt, Alexander (1823-1892), " Electro-
Metallurgy . . .," 1860; " Bibliotheca
Britannica," 4 Vols. 1824, 97, 238, 240
Watt, Gregory (1777-1804), 339
Watt, James (1736-1819), 126, 190, 208,
228, 297, 308, 339, 520
Watt, Robert, " Bibliotheca Britannica "
(1774-1819), 131, 134. 17°' 255, 54°
Watts, Henry (1815-1884), " Dictionary
of Chemistry," " Dictionary of Aits
. . .," 417, 449
Weale, John, " Rudimentary series,"
366, 471
Weaver, William D., xi
Webb, Jonathan, of Salem, Mass., 234
Weber, Alfred, " History of Philosophy, "
translated by Frank Thilly, 26, 41,
122, 504, 505
Weber, Joseph (at Galvani, Aloysio), 285
Weber, Wilhelm Eduard (1804-1891), 3,
263, 314. 42-2, 445, 489. See Gauss,
Karl Friedrich (1777-1855).
Webster (a* Reinhold, J. C. L.), 327
Webster, Dr. J. W., Professor at Harvard
College, 417
Webster, John (at Murray, John), 429
Webster, Rev. W., translator of " His-
toire de 1'Arianisme," 144
Wedgwood, Aaron, 429. He gives a
brief notice of a writing telegraph in
his " Book of Remembrance . . ." :
London, 1814.
Wedgwood, Ralph, 429-430, 439
Wedgwood, Thomas, 429
Weidler, Christian Gottlieb (at Erasmus,
R-). 5i3
Weidler, Johann Friedrich (1692-1755),
122, 130, 308, 505
Weigel, Chr. Ehrenfried, " Grundriss
• • ••" 1777. 556
Weigsenborn of Weimar (at Franklin,
B.), 195
Weiss, Charles Samuel (1780-1856), 431,
432
Weiss, E., Electrometer, 431
Weisse, John A., " Origin . . . Engl.
language and literature," 1879, 42
Weld, Charles Richard, " History of the
Royal Society," 66, 75, 103, 114, 132,
155, 167, 168, 181, 191, 196, 239, 252,
446, 456, 462, 471
Wells, Charles William (1757-1817) (Phil.
Trans., 1795, p. 246), " Observatione
. . . Galvani's experiments " : Lon-
don, 1795, 284, 322-323, 327,^19
Wells, D. A., " Annual of Scientific Dis-
covery . . ." : Boston, U.S.A., 1850
Wenckebach — Wenkebach — Edouard
(1813-1874), " De Magneto-elektrische
. . ./' 1838.
Wenckebach — Wenkebach — Wilhelm
(1803-1847), " Sur Petrus Adsigerius,"
48* 53. 54
Wennstrorn, John, 358
Wens, Act. Hill, 253
Werner, C., " Die Scholastik . . ." :
Vienna, 1881, 41
Wernsdorf, Johann Christian, 19
Wesley, John (1703-1791), 212, 213, 216
Westcott's magnetic guard tor needle
pointers, 443 (at Pasley, C. W.), 398
Westen, Wynant van, 554
" Westminster Review/' London, 458
Weston — Wheldon, " Catalogue," 124,
230
Westphal, T. J., " Nikolaus Kopcrni-
kus," 508
Wetzel, Dr., of Upsal, 212
Wcyer, Sylvain van de, " Lettres sur les
Anglais . . .," 1854, 79, 81
Wheatstone, Sir Charles (1802-1875),
422, 430, 440; Coke, W. F., and
Wheatstone, Sir Chas.
Wheeler, Schuyler Skaats, Latimer Clark
Library Catalogue, xiv
Wheldon 's Catalogue, 230
Wheler, Granville, 154, 155
Whewell, William (1794-1866), "His-
tory of the Inductive Sciences , . .,"
" Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
. . .," " Physical Astronomy," " His-
tory of Scientific Ideas," " Astronomy
and Physics," 30, 32, 42, 43, 59, 75,
89, 91, 94, 95, 96, 102, 103, 1 1 6, 117,
119, 120, 122, 131, 134, 138, 142, 147,
156, 157, 159, 171, 214, 220, 239, 370,
378, 39i, 396, 404, 412. 4M, 433, 445,
446, 451, 453, 460, 464, 467, 469, 471,
476» 479, 499, 48r» 484» 485, 493, 495,
499, 5°S, 522
INDEX
C71
Whiston, William (1667-1752), 77, 150,
156, 191. See " Diet, of Nat. Biogr.,"
Vol. LXI. 1900, pp. 10-14.
White, A. Hastings, xi
White, Andrew D., author, 114
White, John, " A rich cabinet ... of
inventions," 135
White, M., associated with Stephen Grey,
161
Whitehouse's pamphlet on the Atlantic
Telegraph, 496
Wiard, Secretary of Mine. Du Deffand>29i
Wiedeburg, Johann Ernst Basilius (1733—
1789), " Beobachtungen und Muth-
massungen . . .": lena, 1771, 140, 308
Wicdcmann, G. M. (Pogg. Annal.
Volumes for 1848-1862).
Wiedemann, Gustav. Hcinrich (1826—
1899), " Die lehre von galvanismus
. . .,"1861-1863; " Die lehre von cler
eleklricitat," 1882-1885, 441, 498
Wiedemann, Rudolf Franz (Ann. Physik
undthemie, Vol. 89, pp. 497-531).
Wieglib, Johann Christian (1732—1801),
editor of " Handbuch der Allgem.
Chemie," " Die natuerliche . . ." :
Berlin, 1779, 262
Wien. See Vienna.
Wilcke — Wlik — Johann Carl (1732-
1796), 187, 205, 214-216, 217, 288,
3*5, 386, 410, 444
Wilde, Franz Samuel, " Exp6rienccs sur
I'electricit6 des cascades," 293
Wilkes, C., " Theory of Zodiacal Light,"
142
Wilkins, John, the fourteenth Bishop of
Chester and first Secretary of the
Royal Society (1614-1672), " Mercury,
or the secret and swift messenger,"
119, 171, 437
Wilkins, Simon (at Browne, Sir Thomas),
124
Wilkinson, Charles Henry (fl. 1800),
" Elements of Galvanism in theory and
practice," 2 Vols. : London, 1804;
" Essay on the Lcyden Phial . . ." :
London, 1798, 140, 224, 228, 231, 237,
240, 249, 269-270, 279, 280, 281, 284,
289, 306, 307, 312, 323, 325, 326, 327,
33i, 333, 337. 339, 347, 353, 355, 3^1,
3°5, 379, 3^5, 402, 419, 483
Wilkinson, George, of Sunderland, 229,385
William IV, King of England, 466
William, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassell, 93
Williams, Professor Samuel, magnetic
observations first made in U.S., 259
Williamson, H., 230, 299
Willigen, V. T. M., van der, 160
Wilson, Benjamin (1708-1788), " Trea-
tise on electricity," 1750, 1752; " New
experiments and observations . . .,"
1777, 155, 176, 178, 1 80, 183-185, 202,
203, 209, 221, 231, 251, 252, 255, 320,
419. See Hoadley, Dr. Benjamin, and
Wilson, Benjamin, " Observations on
a series of experiments . . ." : Lon-
don, 1 756. See Copley Medal.
Wilson, George, 239, 374, 406
Wilson, James, F.R.S.E., 192, 297, 374
Wilson, Philip — Phillip, 325, 437
Wilson, W. (Phil. Mag., XXII. 260), 337
Winckler, Johann Heinrich (1703—1770),
162, 174, 176, 186, 198, 205, 321, 555
Windelband, Dr., " Hist, of Phil, trans-
lated by Jas. H. Tufts," 37, 40, 41, 102,
122, 505, 510
Wind-roses. See Rose of the winds.
Wingfield, John, " New method in-
creasing . . . capacity . . . electric
jars," 231. See Cuthbertson, John.
Wmship, George P., " The Cabot
Bibliography," 69
Winsor, Justin, " Narrative and Critical
History . . .," " Bibliography of
Ptolemy's Geography" (1831-1897),
" Description of John G. Kohl's
Collection of Early Maps," 62-63, 64,
66, 67, 115, 523, 524, 536
Winter, George K. (at Ingen-housz, J. J-),
256
Win thorp, John (at Newton, Sir Isaac),
*34
Wireless Telegraphy, 10, 19
Wischoff, C., " De Wonderwcrkcn Godts
. . . .," 1729, 555
Witson — Witsen — Nicholaes of Amster-
dam, 149
Wittry, Abbe d'Everlange de, 259
Wittry de Abdt. (1764-1840), " On pre-
paration of mosaic gold for electric
machines," 431
Wohler — Woehler — Friednch ( 1 800-
1882), " Grundrisb der Chemie," 1833,
340, 370. See Wohler, F., and
Partsch, P. M., " Analyse des Meteoreis
. . ." : Wien, 1852;. Wohler, F., and
Berzelius, J. J. F. von, " Jahrsbericht
. . .," 1822 to 1851; Catcs, L. R.,
" Diet, of General Biography," p.
1552.
Wolf, C., " Histoire de Tobservatoire
depuis as fondation . . .,"267
Wolf, C., and Bina, A., " Physica
experimcntalis . . ." : Venetiis
I753-I756, 555
Wolf, Christian (1679-1716) (Act. Erudit.
1716), 420
Wolf, M. (at Horrebow, Peter), " Hist.
Ordbog.," 158
Wolf, R., " Geschichte der Astronomic
. . .," " t)ber der Ozongchalt . . ."
Wolf art, Dr. Carl Christian, of Berlin, 236
Wolfart, J. F., " Des Guiot von Provins":
Halle, 1 86 1, 30
Wolfe, Samuel, of the Society of Dantzig,
174
Wolfius (at Hauksbec, F., and at Hausen,
C. A.), 150, 169
Wolfram, Erdmann (1760-1828), 449
(Ferussac, Bulletin), 1824.
Wollaston, William Hyde (1766-1828),
221, 255, 280, 347, 356-359, 364, 3°5,
394, 403, 419, 433, 456, 478, 484, 488,
490, 496
672
INDEX
Wood, Anthony a, " Athcnae Oxoni-
enses," 80, 81, 91, 92
Wood, John, 158, 175
Wood, Professor (at Bennct, Rev. A.),
291
Woodbury, Hon. Levi, 368
Woods, S. (Phil Mag., XXI. 289),
249
Woodward (at Howldy, Thomas), 428
Woodward, Bernard Bolingbroke. See
Gates, W. L. R.
Woolinch, Royal Military Academy,
434- 457' 497
Worcester, Marquis of, 434
Wordsworth, Christopher, " Ecclesias-
tical Bibliography," 513
" World Apple," Behaim's celebrated
globe, 67
Worrnell, Richard, 162, 219
Wornsdorff, " Poetne Latinae Minores,"
19
Worslcy, Philip Stanhope, translator of
Homer's " Odyssey/' 6
Wotton (at Boyle, Robert), 130,
131
Woulfe, M. (Phil. Trans., 1771),
431
Wren, Sir Christopher (1632-1723),
contrives a terrella.
Wright, Edward, " The haven-finding
art," being a translation of the
" Portuum Investigandum ratio " of
Stevin, Simon, 76, 80, 521, 522, 525,
533, 559-564
Wright, Gabriel (at Nairne, Edward),
265
Wright, Thomas (1810-1877), "Chron-
icles and Memoirs . . . middle ages,"
1863, 31, 91
Writers, navigators and others alluded
to in Giberts' De Magnete, XVII. 501-
54-
Wullner (at Faraday, M.), 492
Wundt, Wilhelm, " Philosophische
Studien " : Leipzig, 1886.
Wunshendorff, E., " Traite de tele-
graphic sous- marine," 407
Wiistenfeld — Wuestenfeld — Heinrich
Ferdinand, " Geschichte der Ara-
bischen Aertze . . ." : Gottingen,
1840, 38, 39, 519
XENOCRATES of Chalcedon (396-314
B.C.), Greek philosopher, 543
Xenophanes of Colophon, contemporary
of Anixamander and of Pythagoras
(sixth century B.C.), 532
Xenophon, Athenian historian (c. 434-
355 B.C.), 12, 43, 196. See Moreri,
Louis, " Grand Dictionnaire his-
torique," Vol. XVIII. p. 74
Xerxes I (c. 519-465 B.C.), 4
Ximenes, Leonardo (1716-1786), " Osser-
vazione dell' Aurora boreale . . .,"
1752-1753.
YATES and Hansteen (Vol. II. Wheweltts
Hist, of Ind. Sc.)f 446
Yatman, Matthew, " Familiar analysis
. . . electricity and galvanism . . ." :
London, 1810, "Letter ... on
Davy's Galvanic girdle " : London,
i8n, 347
" Year Book of Facts in Science and
the Arts," discoveries in electricity,
etc., commenced in London during
1838.
Yclin, Chevalier Julius Konrad von
(1771-1826), 327, 473, 477
Yonmans, Dr. Edward Livingston,
author of " Chemical Atlas," 1856,
37°
Young, Arthur (1741-1820), " Travels
in France . . .," " Voyage Agrono-
mique en France," 285, 286
Young, C. A., in American Journal of
Science, 140
Young, Dr. Matthew (1750-1800),
" Analysis of the principles ot natural
philosophy," 387, 405, 467
Young, Sir Thomas (1773-1829), " A
course of lectures on natural philo-
sophy and the mechanical arts " :
London, 1807; " Catalogue," 34, 54,
92, 140, 155, 206, 221, 225, 238, 239,
245, 249, 250, 256, 258, 259, 268, 271,
276, 277, 284, 290, 298, 308, 309, 310,
311, 313, 330, 340, 346, 359, 364, 369,
386, 388, 395-396, 431, 462> 468
Yue-tchang-che, Chinese writer, 3
Yule, Colonel Sir Henry (reviewer of
Marco Polo's Travels), 55
ZACCAIRE — Zachaire — Zacharias — Denis
(1510-1556), 553
Zaccaria, F. A., " Annah letterari . . .,"
" vStona della Elettricita . . . " :
Modena, 1762-1764.
Zach, Franz Xavier, Baron von, " Zach.
Mon. Corr. . . .," " Allg. . . . Geo-
graphische Ephemeriden," 462
Zachary, Bishop of Rome (d. A.D. 752),
523
Zahn, F. Joannes (1641-1707), 8, 145-
146. His " Specula . . .," 3 Vols.
1696, gives a list of writers on the
magnet.
Zakarlya-Ibn-Muhammad Al-KazwinI,
on Aerolites (Nuova scelta d'Opuscoli,
9to, 11, 333).
Zainboni, Giuseppe (1776-1846), 249,
257, 3°4, 388, 420, 447; Resti-
Ferrari, G., " Elettroscopio ... del
Zamboni " ; Girolamo Ferrari's review
of the five volumes of the " Corso ele-
mentare di fisica," published by R.
Gerbi : Pisa, 1823-1825.
Zamboni, G., and Fusinieri, A., " Sulla
teoria . . ." : Padova, 1834, 420
INDEX
678
Zanon, Bartolomeo, " Intorno un punto
»...": Belluno, 1840, 257
Zanotii, Francesco Maria (1692-1777),
306, 308. See Larcher.
Zantedeschi* Francesco (1797-1873), 183,
257* 298, 423, 426, 449. See Roma-
gnosi, G. D,» also Giornale fisico-
chimico; Annali di fisica: Padova,
1840-1850.
•Zedler, Johann Heinrich (of Erasmus,
R.)f 512 (1706-1760);. "Grosses . . .
universal lexicon ..."
" Zeitschrift des Deutsch-Oesterreichi-
schen Telegraphen-Vereins," com-
menced in Berlin during 1854 and was
continued in 1872 as "Annalen der
Telegraphic . . /'
Zeitschrift fur ^Egyptische Sprache und
Alterthumskunde, 14
Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Elektrici-
tatslehre, edited by Carl, Ph., and
Uppehborn, F., Jr.
Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und
naturw. . . . von Hoffmann : Leipzig,
1870-1876.
Zeitschrift fiir physik und mathematik,
edited by Ettinghausen, A. von, and
Baumgartner, Andreas, 10 Vols. pub-
lished at Wien, 1806-1832, 432, 476
Zeitschrift fiir physikalische chemie.
See Ostwald, F. W.
Zeitschrift ftir populare mittheibungen
. . ., von Peters, C. A. F. : Altona,
1858-1869, 446
Zeller, Dr. Edward (1814-1908), " His-
tory of Greek Philosophy," " Philo-
sophic der Griechen," 510, 511
Zend-Avesta (religious book of the
Parsees), 541, 542
Zendrini, B. (at John Dalton), 308
Zenger, M. W. (Sc. Am, Suppl., p.
10915)* 139
Zeno of Citium, founder of the Stoics,
flourished in Cyprus during third
century B.C., and is said to have lived
92 years, 543
Zeno of Elea, the adopted son of Parme-
nides, born about 500 B.C., 543
Zeno, Pietro Caterino, " Giornale de
Letterati, d' Italia," 1710, 506
Zetsche, Karl- Eduard (1830-1894),
" Geschichte der Elektrischen Tele-
graphic," 316, 384, 421, 439
Zetzell, P., " Anmerkung von der
lahmheit," 1755, 264, 386
Ziemssen, H. (a^Thillaye-Platel), 386
Zimmermann, Wilhelm Ludwig (1780-
1825) (Gilb, Annalen, Vol. 28, p. 483).
Zodiacal Light, 141-142, 380
Zohron and Aphron, 33, 35
Zollner, J. K. Friedrich, " Theory of
Comets" (Auszug. in Pog Ann., CIX.
1860), 140
Zoroaster — Zarath Justra — Zerdusht (G.
589-513 B.C.), 520, 542, 544. See
Moreri, Louis, " Grand Dictionnaire
Historique," Vol. VIII. p. 115.
Zosimus, Greek historian, who lived
under Theodosius II (401-450), is the
first to call attention to the electrolytic
separation of metals, 24. See Moreri,
Louis, " Grand Dictionnaire His-
torique," Vol. VIII. p. 116.
Zuccala, G. (at Volta, Alessandro), 248
Zucchi, Nicolo — Zucchius Nicolaus —
" Nova de machini philosophia,"
1649, 146, 554
Zuchold, E. A., " Bibliotheca Historico-
Naturalis . 4 ." : Gottingen.
Zurich, " Repertorium fur organische
chemie." See L6wig, C. von.
Zwinger, F. (at Thillaye-Platel), 385
Zwinger, Theodor, " Scrutinum Mag-
netis " (1658-1724), 554
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